MYCOLOGY AND VIROLOGY

Arthropod-borne Viruses and Zoonotic

Viruses 2. Lower vertebrate-arthropod cycle with tangential
infection of humans
At least three different transmission patterns have been Examples: Jungle Yellow Fever, St. Louis Encephalitis
recognized among the arthropod-borne viruses: The infected human is a dead end host
1. Human-arthropod cycle This is a more common transmission mechanism
2. Lower vertebrate-arthropod cycle with tangential infection
of humans
3. Arthropod-arthropod cycle with occasional infection of
humans and lower vertebrates

1. Human-arthropod cycle
Examples: Urban Yellow Fever, Dengue
3. Arthropod-arthropod cycle with occasional infection of
humans and lower vertebrates
Examples: Colorado Tick Fever, LaCrosse Encephalitis
In this cycle, the virus may be transmitted from adult
arthropod to its offspring through the egg:
Transovarian passage
The cycle may continue with or without intervention of a
viremic vertebrate host

Arthropod

Human
Lower Vertebrate
Arthropod <

In arthropod vectors of the virus:

Viruses produce little or no ill effect
Viruses remain active in the arthropod throughout the

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arthropod's natural life Dystroglycan

Arthropods act as permanent hosts and reservoirs
In vertebrates:
Invasion of most viruses evokes a violent reaction, usually
of short duration
Either the host succumbs or it lives
Arthropod-borne Viruses and Zoonotic Viruses:
Have different physical and chemical properties
Classified under several virus families
I. Arthropod-borne Viruses:
Also known as Arboviruses
Transmitted by insects
II. Zoonotic Viruses:
Mostly transmitted by rodents

Families of Arthropod-borne Viruses and Zoonotic Viruses:

A. Family Arenaviridae Arenaviruses are divided into:
B. Family Bunyaviridae A1. Old World Viruses
C. Family Filoviridae A2. New World Viruses:
D. Family Flaviviridae Group A
E. Family Reoviridae Group B
F. Family Togaviridae Group
G. Family Rhabdoviridae A1. Old World Viruses
H. Family Bornaviridae
A1a. Lassa Fever
A1b. Lymphocytic Choriomeningitis
Classification and Properties of some Arthropod-Borne and
Zoonotic Viruses
A1. Lassa Fever
A. Family Arenaviridae
Arenaviruses as Rodent-Borne Viruses Mortality rate of 15%
Arenaviruses are enveloped, viruses with Disease involves many organ systems
capsids of complex xymmetry Gradual onset of symptoms:
Arenaviruses have double-segmented, negative Fever, vomiting, mouth ulcers, severe muscle
sense, or ambisense ssRNA genome aches, hemorrhagic skin rash, pneumonia, heart and
kidney damage
Cellular receptor for Arenaviruses is -

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Serious complications include permanent deafness Immune response is mediated by T-lymphocytes

Natural vector is Mus musculus
Principal rodent reservoir is Mastomys natalensis Diagnosed by ELISA, Immunohistochemistry, RT-
Diagnosis by ELISA, Immunohistochemistry, and PCR, viral culture on Vero cells
RT-PCR
Treated with Ribavirin
No vaccine available A2. New World Arena Viruses
South American Hemorrhagic Fevers:
Manifest with fever and bleeding
A1b. Lymphocytic Choriomeningitis A2a. Junin Hemorrhagic Fever Virus:
LCM was discovered in 1933 and is widespread in Argentine Hemorrhagic Fever
Europe and the Americas Reservoir: Calomys musculinus
Human infections may be subclinical or manifest A2b. Machupo Hemorrhagic Fever Virus
with acute aseptic meningitis or mild systemic Bolivian Hemorrhagic Fever
influenza-like illness Reservoir: Calomys callosus
Encephalomyelitis and fatalities are rare A2c. Guanarito Virus
Taxonomic Important Arbovirus Virus properties A2d. Sabia Virus
Classification and Rodent-Borne
Virus Members
Arenaviridae B. Family Bunyaviridae
Genus New World: Spherical, 50-300nm Cause encephalitides, hemorrhagic fevers, and pulmonary
Arenavirus Guanarito, Junin, in diameter (mean, 110- syndromes
Machupo, Sabia, and 130nm). Bunyaviruses are:
Whitewater Arroyo Genome: double- B1. Arthropod-borne Bunyaviruses
viruses. segmented RNA, 10- B2. Rodent-borne Bunyaviruses
Old World: Lassa 14kb in overall size. Bunyaviruses are enveloped, helical viruses
and lymphocytic Virion contains a Bunyaviruses have triple-segmented, negative sense, or
choriomeningitis. transcriptase. ambisense ssRNA genome
Rodent-borne Four major Family Bunyaviridae is the largest family of RNA viruses
polypeptides. with over 350 members
Enveloped.
Replication:
cytoplasm
Assembly:
incorporate ribosomes
and bud from plasma MYCOLOGY AND VIROLOGY | A.M.B.M.P
membrane
 MYCOLOGY AND VIROLOGY

Cellular receptors for Bunyaviruses include proteins,

Taxonomic Important Abovirus Virus Properties
Classification and Rodent-Borne
Virus Members
Bunyaviridae
Genus Anopheles A and B, Spherical, 80-
Orthobunyavirus Bunyamwera, 120nm in diameter.
California encephalitis, Genome: triple-
Guama, La Crosse, segmented, negative
Oropouche, and sense or ambisense,
Turlock viruses.
single stranded RNA,
Arthropod-borne
Genus (mosquitoes) 11-19kb in total size.
Nairovirus Virion contains a
Crimean-Congo transcriptase.
lipids, and glycans hemorrhagic fever, Four major
B1. Arthropod-borne Bunyaviruses Nairobi sheep disease, polypeptides.
Infection: and Sakhalin viruses. Enveloped.
Genus Arthropod borne (ticks) Replication:
Mostly caused by Genus Phlebovirus:
Phlebovirus cytoplasm
B1a. Sandfly Fever Rift Valley fever,
Transmitted by Phlebotomus papatsii Assembly:
sandfly (Phlebotomus) budding into the golgi
Signs and symptoms mimic malaria fever, and Uukuniemi
B1b. Rift Valley Fever virues. Arthropod-borne
Transmitted by Aedes mosquitoes (mosquitoes, sandflies,
Permanent loss of vision may occur as ticks)
complication of infection
B2. Rodent-borne Bunyaviruses Infections:
B2a. Hemorrhagic Fever with Renal syndrome C. Family Filoviridae
Hantaan Virus (Korean Hemorrhagic Fever) Cause African Hemorrhagic Fevers
Dobrava Virus, Seoul Virus Filoviruses are Zoonotic Viruses
Transmitted by Apodemus agrarius Filoviruses are enveloped, helical viruses
B2b. Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome Filoviruses have non-segmented, (-) ssRNA genome
Sin Nombre Virus
Transmitted by Peromyscus maniculatus Filovirus envelope glycoproteins interact with multiple
molecules on cellular membranes of macrophages,

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dendritic cells, fibroblasts, and endothelial cells to promote C2. Genus Ebolavirus (Ebola viruses): Zaire and Sudan
viral penetration. subtypes
The incubation period for Ebola virus is 2-21 days
Filoviruses are very virulent with the highest mortality Zaire and Sudan subtypes were the 1st Ebola viruses
rates of 25%-90% among all viral hemorrhagic fevers discovered in 1976 when two severe epidemics of
hemorrhagic fever occurred in Sudan and Zaire (now the
African Hemorrhagic Fevers Democratic Republic of the Congo).
C1. Genus Marburgvirus (Marburg viruses) Hospital staff became infected through close and
C2. Genus Ebolavirus (Ebolaviruses): prolonged contact with patients, their blood, or their
Zaire subtype excreta.
Sudan subtype Zaire subtype caused the 2014 West African Ebola
Reston subtype outbreak.
Ivory Coast subtype Zaire and Sudan subtypes are highly virulent with death
occuring in 7-8 days after onset of symptoms.
Marburg and Ebola virus infections usually end in death C2. Genus Ebolavirus (Ebola viruses): Reston subtypes
In 1989, infections caused by a Filovirus closely related to
Marburg and Ebola viruses cause similar acute diseases Ebola virus were detected in Cynomolgus monkeys (Macaca
characterized by: fascicularis) imported to the United States from the Philippines:
Fever, headache, sore throat, and muscle pain followed The infection spread to a few persons who came in
abdominal pain, vomiting, diarrhea, and rash, with both contact with the infected monkeys, but no one
internal and external bleeding, often leading to shock and became sick.
death In 2008, a high mortality rate among pigs in the
C1. Genus Marburgvirus (Marburg Viruses): Philippines led to the discovery of Ebola Reston virus in animals
The incubation period for Marburg is 3-9 days other than primates:
Marburg virus disease was 1st recognized in 1967 among Individuals who had contact with sick pigs
laboratory workers exposed to tissues of African Green developed antibodies, but remained healthy.
monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops) imported into Germany Reston subtypes possess low pathogenicity for
and Yugoslavia. humans.
Transmission from patients to medical personell led to Reston subtype can infect humans without causing
high mortality rates disease.
Recorded cases of the diseases are rare, but outbreaks have
been documented in: Filovirus infections appear to be
Kenya, South Africa, Democratic Republic of the immunosuppressive.
Congo, and Angola Fatal cases often show impaired humoral immune

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responses. Flaviviruses causing diseases in humans are members of

Tests for Filoviruses are conducted under maximum Genus Flavivirus
biologic containment conditions.
Marburg and Ebola viruses probably have bats or Replication of Flaviviruses:
rodents are reservoir hosts and were transmitted to Flaviviruses and Togaviruses replicate similarly
humans only accidentally. Replication of Flaviviruses and Togaviruses
Filovirus infections are highly communicable involve the cytoplasm.
between humans by direct contact with blood or
body fluids.
Treatment, Prevention, and Control of Filoviruses:
Isolation remains as the most effective means of 1. Virion attaches cell receptor
controlling Ebola disease outbreaks. 2. Virion penetrates cell through cell-mediated
Extreme care must be observed when handling specimens. endocytosis
There are no specific antiviral therapies available. 3. Virion fuses with endosome
Treatment is supportive. 4. Uncoating releases (+) ssRNA into cytoplasm
Candidate vaccines are still under development. 5. (+) ssRNA is translated to viral proteins
6. (+) ssRNA is transcribed to (-) ssRNA as template
D. Family Flaviviridae to produce more (+) ssRNA
Flaviviruses are Arthropod-borne viruses 7. (+) ssRNAs are assembled with viral proteins
inside ER and transported in vesicles to Golgi
Flaviviruses are enveloped viruses with complex capsid
Apparatus
symmetry
8. Viruses gain envelopes form Golgi Apparatus and
Flaviviruses have non-segmented, (+) ssRNA genome
Flaviviruses were formally known as Group B Arboviruses
under Family Togaviridae but were seperated because of
the differences in viral genome.

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are transported from Golgi through secretory No human vaccines are available
vesicle D3. Japanese B Encephalitis
9. Virions exit cell through exocytosis The leading cause of viral encephalitis in Asia with about
Human disease caused by Flaviviruses: 50,000 cases annually transmitted by mosquitoes.
D1. St. Louis Encephalitis Mortality can exceed 30%
D2. West Nile Fever Neurologic and psychiatric sequelae are common in
D3. Japanese B Encephalitis survivors
D4. Yellow Fever Vaccine can protect travelers
D5. Dengue D4. Yellow Fever
D6. Zika An acute, febrile, mosquito-borne illness that occurs in the
tropics and subtropics of Africa and South America:
D1. St. Louis Encephalitis Caused by Yellow Fever Virus, the prototype
St. Louis Encephalitis virus is the most important cause of member of Family Flaviviridae
human epidemic encephalitis in North America
Average of 130 cases annually Severe cases are characterized by liver and renal
Less than 1% of St. Louis Encephalitis Virus infections are dysfunction and hemorrhage with high mortality
clinically apparent. No antiviral therapy
St. Louis Encephalitis Virus is transmitted to human by Vaccination is the most effective preventive
various mosquitoes. measure
D2. West Nile Fever D5. Dengue
Caused by a member of the Japanese B Encephalitis Most common Arboviral illness in humans
antigenic complex of Flavivirus: Transmitted by mosquitoes of Genus Aedes (Aedes
probably originated from the Middle East and is aegypti, Aedes albopictus) which are widely
transmitted by mosquitoes distributed in subtropical and tropical areas of the
appeared unexpectedly in New York City in 1999 world
resulting to a few human deaths and extensive Endemic in more than 100 countries
deaths in domestic and exotic birds. Dengue virus has four serotypes:
Currently the leading cause of Arboviral DENV-1
Encephalitis in the United States DENV-2
An epidemic in 2002 in the United States was the largest DENV-3
arbovirus meningoencephalitis epidemic documented in the DENV-4
Western Hemisphere: Severe forms usually affect children:
Fatal in older patients Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever
Most human infections are asymptomatic

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Dengue Shock Syndrome

Clinical Dengue disease begins about 4-7 days after an
infective mosquito bite:
Breakbone fever:
Sudden onset of fever followed by myalgia and
deep bone pain
Fever may last from 2-7 days
Saddle Form Fever:
Temperature may subside on about te 3rd day
and rise again about 5-8 after onset
Dengue viruses display high degree of tropism for:
Monocytes
Bone marrow precursor cells
Active viral replication and cellular destruction in the bone
marrow are believed to cause:
Bone pain
Leukopenia
Lymphopenia
Thrombocytopenia
Severe Dengue Syndromes: Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever &
Dengue Shock Syndrome
Occur in persons who have previously been
infected by one dengue serotype. Most of these
persons are usually children with:
Passively acquired maternal antibody
Pre-existing non-neutralizing dengue
antibody from a previous infection with a
different dengue serotype.
Initial symptoms are like normal dengue, but
worsens.
Secondary infection with Dengue Type 2 after a
Type 1 infection is at risk for severe disease.

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