WSU GENTheory 1PageperSlide 160114 PDF

GENERATOR PROTECTION
THEORY & APPLICATION
160114
Presenter Contact Info
Wayne Hartmann
VP, Protection and Smart Grid Solutions
Beckwith Electric Company
[email protected]
904-238-3844
www.beckwithelectric.com
Wayne Hartmann is VP, Protection and Smart Grid Solutions for

Beckwith Electric. He provides Customer and Industry linkage to
n as contributing expertise for
Beckwith Electrics solutions, as well
application engineering, training and product development.
Before joining Beckwith Electric, Wayne performed in application, sales and marketing management
capacities with PowerSecure, General Electric, Siemens Power T&D and Alstom T&D. During the
course of Wayne's participation in the industry, his focus has been on the application of protection and
control systems for electrical generation, transmission, distribution, and distributed energy resources.
Wayne is very active in IEEE as a Senior Member serving as a Main Committee Member of the IEEE
Power System Relaying Committee for 25 years. His IEEE tenure includes having chaired the Rotating
Machinery Protection Subcommittee (07-10), contributing to numerous standards, guides,
transactions, reports and tutorials, and teaching at the T&D Conference and various local PES and
IAS chapters. He has authored and presented numerous technical papers and contributed to McGraw- 2
Hill's Standard Handbook of Power Plant Engineering, 2nd Ed.
Generator Protection
Objectives
Review of generator construction and operation
Review grounding and connections
Discuss IEEE standards for generator protection
Explore generator elements
Internal faults (in the generator zone)
Abnormal operating conditions
Generator zone
Out of zone (system)
External faults
Discuss generator and power system interaction
3
Objectives
Tripping considerations and sequential
tripping
Discussion of tactics to improve security and
dependability
Generator protection upgrade considerations
Advanced attributes for security, reliability and
maintenance use
Review Setting, Commissioning and Event
Investigation Tools
Q&A
4
Generator Construction:
Simple Bock Diagram
Prime Mover
(Mechanical Input)
ia
Three-Phase
ib
G Electrical
ic
Output
DC Field Source 5
Islanded (Prime Power) vs. Interconnected

Prime Mover Prime Mover
(Mechanical Input) (Mechanical Input)
Ia Ia OTHER
Ib Ib
G LOADS G GENERATORS
Ic Ic
& LOADS
DC Field Source DC Field Source
Islanded Interconnected
Field Field
Regulates voltage Controls VARs/PF
Prime Mover Prime Mover
Regulates frequency Controls real power 6
Applying Mechanical Input

3
4
2
1
1. Reciprocating Engines
2. Hydroelectric
3. Gas Turbines (GTs, CGTs)
7
4. Steam Turbines (STs)
Applying Field
DC Generator Commutator Exciter
DC is induced in the rotor

AC is induced in the stator 8
Applying Field
Alternator Rectifier Exciter and
Stationary Exciter/Stationary Rectifier
AC
EXCITER

Applying Field
Alternator Rectifier Exciter and Rectifiers
(Brushless Exciter)
AC
EXCITER

Applying Field
Static Exciter
DC is induced in the rotor 11
AC is induced in the stator

Rotor Styles
Cylindrical (Round) Salient
Cylindrical rotor seen in Recips, GTs and STs

Salient pole rotor seen in Hydros
More poles to obtain nominal frequency at low RPM
Eq: f= [RPM/60] * [P/2] = [RPM * P] / 120 12
Cylindrical Rotor & Stator
13
14
15
16
Salient Pole Rotor & Stator
17
Salient Pole Rotor & Stator
18
Winding Styles and Connections
Wye Wye
1 Circuit 2 Circuit
3 Phase 3 Phase
6 Bushings 6 Bushings
19
Winding Styles and Connections
Double Winding Delta

1 Circuit 1 Circuit
3 Phase 3 Phase
12 Bushings 3 Bushings 20
Generator Behavior During Short Circuits
21
Generator Short-Circuit Current Decay
22
Effect of DC Offsets
Three-Phase Fault
Current
Current
Current
23
Grounding Techniques
Why Ground?
Improved safety by allowing detection of faulted
equipment
Stop transient overvoltages
Notorious in ungrounded systems
Ability to detect a ground fault before a multiphase
to ground fault evolves
If impedance is introduced, limit ground fault
current and associated damage faults
Provide ground source for other system protection
(other zones supplied from generator)
24
System
Types of Generator Grounding
Low Impedance
Good ground source
The lower the R, the better the
ground source
The lower the R, the more
damage to the generator on
internal ground fault
R
Grounding Can get expensive as resistor
Resistor
voltage rating goes up
Generator will be damaged on
internal ground fault
Ground fault current typically 200-
25
400 A

System
High Impedance
GSU Creates unit connection
Transformer
System ground source obtained from
GSU
Uses principle of reflected impedance
Eq: RNGR = RR / [Vpri/Vsec]2
RNGR RNGR = Neutral Grounding Resistor
Resistance
RR = Reflected Resistance
RR R
Ground fault current typically <=10A
Neutral
Grounding
Transformer
26

System
Compensated
GSU Creates unit connection
Transformer Most expensive
Tuned reactor, plus GSU and Grounding
Transformers
System ground source obtained from GSU
Uses reflected impedance from grounding
ZNGI transformer, same as high impedance
grounded system does
ZR Generator damage mitigated from ground
fault
Reactor tuned against generator capacitance
Neutral to ground to limit ground fault current to very
Grounding
Transformer low value (can be less than 1A)
27

Hybrid Impedance Grounding
Has advantages of Low-Z and High-Z
ground
Normal Operation
Low-Z grounded machine provides ground
source for other zones under normal
conditions
51G acts as back up protection for uncleared
system ground faults
51G is too slow to protect generator for
internal fault
Hybrid Ground
Ground Fault in Machine
Converts from low-Z
Detected by the 87GD element to high-Z for
The Low-Z ground path is opened
internal by a fault
generator
vacuum switch
Only High-Z ground path is then available
The High-Z ground path limits fault current to 28
approximately 10A (stops generator damage)
Hybrid Ground
Converts from low-Z
to high-Z for
internal generator fault
29
Types of Generator Ground Fault Damage
Following pictures show stator damage

after an internal ground fault
This generator was high impedance
grounded, with the fault current less than
10A
Some iron burning occurred, but the
damage was repairable
With low impedance grounded machines
the damage is severe
30
Stator Ground Fault Damage
31
32
33

This image cannot currently be display ed.
34
Types of Generator Connections

Bus or Direct Connected (typically Low Z)
- Directly connected to bus

- Likely in industrial, commercial, and isolated
systems
- Simple, inexpensive
35

BUS
Multiple Direct or Bus Connected
(No/Low Z/High Z)
- Directly connected to bus
- Likely in industrial, commercial,
and isolated systems
- Simple
- May have problems with Same type of grounding used on 1 or mutiple generators
circulating current
Use of single grounded
machine can help
- Adds complexity to discriminate
ground fault source
36
Bus (Direct) Connected
37

Unit Connected (High Z)
- Generator has dedicated unit transformer
- Generator has dedicated ground transformer
- Likely in large industrial and utility systems
- 100% stator ground fault protection available

BUS
38

Multiple Bus (High Z), 1 or Multiple Generators
- Connected through one unit xfmr
- Likely in large industrial and utility systems
- No circulating current issue
- Adds complexity to discriminate ground fault source
Special CTs needed for sensitivity, and directional ground
overcurrent elements
39
Unit Connected
40
Generator Protection Overview

Generators experience shorts and abnormal
electrical conditions
Proper protection can mitigate damage to the
machine
Proper protection can enhance generation
security
Generator Protection:
Shorts circuits in the generator
Uncleared faults on the system
Abnormal electrical conditions may be caused by the
generator or the system
41
Short Circuits
In Generator
Phase Faults
Ground Faults
On System
Phase Faults
Ground Faults
42
Stator System
Ground Ground
Exciter
"Wild"
Power System
Stator System
Phase Phase
Internal and External Short Circuits 43


Abnormal Operating Conditions
Abnormal Frequency
Abnormal Voltage
Overexcitation
Field Loss
Loss of Synchronism
Inadvertent Energizing
Breaker Failure
Loss of Prime Mover
Blown VT Fuses
Open Circuits / Conductors
44

Open
Overexcitation
Circuits Loss of Field
Loss of Field
Overexcitation Abnormal
Frequency
Exciter
"Wild"
Power System
Inadvertent
Abnormal Energizing,
Overexcitation
Frequency Pole Flashover
Loss of
Synchronism
Reverse Power Breaker Failure
Abnormal Operating Conditions 45

ANSI/IEEE Standards
Latest developments reflected in:
- Std. 242: Buff Book
- C37.102: IEEE Guide for Generator Protection
- C37.101: IEEE Guide for AC Generator Ground

Protection
- C37.106: IEEE Guide for Abnormal Frequency

Protection for Power Generating Plants
These are created/maintained by the IEEE

PES PSRC & IAS 46
Small Machine Protection IEEE Buff Book
Small up to 1 MW to 600V, 500 kVA if >600V

47
Direct (Bus) Connected
Medium up to 12.5 MW
Direct (Bus) Connected
48
Large up to 50 MW
Direct (Bus) Connected 49
Unit Connected,
High Z Grounded
50
Protection Considerations
Initiate actions only for the intended purpose and for
the equipment and/or zone designed to protect
Standardization of criteria for application, set points
derivations, and coordination
Practices in place to achieve efficient system
operation
Historical experience
Previous experience and anticipation of the types of
trouble likely to be encountered within the system for
which the protection is expected to perform
accurately
Costs: initial capital, operating over life cycle, and
maintenance
51
Protection Considerations
Design of various protection schemes widely differs
Generator and Transmission Engineering may be
decoupled
Hidden failures
Relay settings and coordination
Protection performance for conditions that the relay
settings criteria have not been developed
Multiple contingencies
Stressed system conditions as a result of operating the
system close to the limit
Energy and market strategies
Reactive support and load transport issues
52
Stator Ground Fault-High Z Grounded Machines

95% stator ground fault provided by 59G
Tuned to the fundamental frequency
Must work properly from 10 to 80 Hz to provide
protection during startup
Additional coverage near neutral (last 5%)

provided by:
27TN: 3rd harmonic undervoltage
59D: Ratio of 3rd harmonic at terminal and neutral
ends of winding
Full 100% stator coverage by 64S

Use of sub-harmonic injection
May be used when generator is off-line
Immune to changes in loading (MW, MVAR) 53
Stator Ground Fault (59G)
High impedance ground limits ground

fault current to about 10A
Limits damage on internal ground fault
Conventional neutral overvoltage relay

provides 90-95% stator coverage
Last 5-10% near neutral not covered
Undetected grounds in this region

bypass grounding transformer, solidly
grounding the machine!
59G
54
59G Element
1.0
Voltage at Neutral
pu
(60 Hz)
0.5
pu
0
0% 50% 100%
N Fault Position T
Neutral grounding transformer (NGT)

ratio selected that provides 120 to 240V
59 for ground fault at machine terminals
G
Max L-G volts =13.8kV / 1.73 = 7995V
Max NGT volts sec. = 7995V / 120V = 66.39 VTR
55
59G System Ground Fault Issue
GSU provides capacitive coupling for system ground faults into

generator zone
Use two levels of 59G with short and long time delays for
selectivity
Cannot detect ground faults at/near the neutral (very important)
56
Multiple 59G Element Application

59G-1, set in this
Time (cycles)
example to 5%,
may sense
capacitance
coupled out-of-
zone ground fault
Long time delay
59G-2, set in this example to 15%, is set above

capacitance coupled out-of-zone ground fault
Short time delay
57
Use of Symmetrical Component Quantities

to Supervise 59G Tripping Speed
Both V2 and I2 implementation have been applied

A ground fault in the generator zone produces primarily zero sequence
voltage
A fault in the VT secondary or system (GSU coupled ) generates
negative sequence quantities in addition to zero sequence voltage
58
59G Element
59G Generator Neutral Overvoltage: Three setpoints
1st level set sensitive to cover down to 5% of stator

Long delay to coordinate with close-in system ground faults
capacitively coupled across GSU
2nd level set higher than the capacitively coupled voltage so

coordination from system ground faults is not necessary
Allows higher speed tripping
Only need to coordinate with PT fuses
3rd level may be set to initiate waveform capture

and not trip, set as intermittent arcing fault protection
59
59G/27TN Timing Logic
Interval and Delay Timers used together to detect

intermittent pickups of arcing ground fault
60
Intermittent Arcing Ground Fault Turned Multiphase
61
59G Element
62
Why Do We Care About Faults Near Neutral?
A fault at or near the neutral shunts the high resistance that saves
the stator from large currents with an internal ground fault
A generator operating with an undetected ground fault near the
neutral is a accident waiting to happen
We can use 3rd Harmonic or Injection Techniques for complete

(100%) coverage
63
Third-Harmonic Rotor Flux

Develops in stator due to imperfections in winding and system connections
Unpredictable amount requiring field observation at various operating
conditions
Also dependent on pitch of the windings, which a method to define the way
stator windings placed in the stator slots
Rotor MMF 64
Generator
Pitch
Pole spans 60 over 90 = 2/3 pitch
65
Stator Winding Diagram Illustrating Pitch In Winding Construction

Using Third Harmonic in Generators

I3h A, B, C
Generator winding and terminal

capacitances (C) provide path for
the third-harmonic stator current
via grounding resistor
This can be applied in protection
R schemes for enhanced ground
3I3h fault protection coverage
66
Generator Capacitance and 3rd Harmonics
3rd harmonics are produced by some

generators
Amount typically small
Lumped capacitance on each stator end is CS/2.
CT is added at terminal end due to surge caps and
isophase bus
Effect is 3rd harmonic null point is shifted toward 67
terminal end and not balanced

3rd Harmonic in Generators
3rd harmonic may be

present in terminal and
neutral ends
Useful for ground fault

detection near neutral
If 3rd harmonic goes
away, conclude a ground
fault near neutral
3rd harmonic varies with

loading 68
3rd Harmonic Voltages and Ratio Voltage
69
27TN 3rd Harmonic Neutral Undervoltage

Provides 0-15% stator winding coverage (typ.)
Tuned to 3rd harmonic frequency
Provides two levels of setpoints
Supervisions for increased security under various loading
conditions: Any or All May be Applied Simultaneously
Phase Overvoltage Supervision Undervoltage/No Voltage Block

Underpower Block Varies with load
Forward & Reverse May vary with power flow direction
Under VAr Block; Lead & Lag May vary with level
Power Factor Block; Lead & Lag May vary with lead and lag
Definable Power Band Block May be gaps in output
Loading/operating variables may be Sync Condenser, VAr Sink, 70
Pumped Storage, CT Starting, Power Output Reduction

3rd Harmonic in Generators:

Typical 3rd Harmonic Values
3rd harmonic values tend to increase with power and VAr loading 71
Fault near neutral causes 3rd harmonic voltage at neutral to go to zero volts
Example 3rd Harmonic Plot: Effects of MW and MVAR Loading
72
27TN Settings and Supervision
73
100% Stator Ground Fault (59G/27TN)

0-15% Coverage
59G
59 27 59
G TN 27TN OR TRIP
59
AND
Power Supervisions Satisfied
Power Supervisions Satisfied
74
Third-Harmonic Undervoltage Ground-Fault Protection Scheme
100% Stator Ground Fault (59G/27TN)

+10 1.0
3rd Harmonic Vfund profile in
Voltage profile in winding
winding
0 0.5
59N pickup
27TN pickup
-10 0
59G
27TN
75
Overlap of Third Harmonic (27TN) with 59G Relay

3rd Harmonic Voltage Decrease During an Over

Speed Condition in a 45MW Hydro Generator
Typical value of 3rd harmonic (V3rd) is around 1.7V, 27TN
set to pick up at 1.1V.
A line breaker tripped isolating plant, and they experienced
a 27TN operation.
Oscillograph shows the V3rd decreased from 1.7V to 1.0V
as the frequency went from 60 Hz to 66Hz, (only 110%
over speed).
This is well below the 180-200% over speed condition that
is often cited as possible with hydros upon full load
rejection.
What happens to 59G? 76
3rd Harmonic in Hydro Generators
Phase V
V3rd
Phase I
77
59D 3rd Harmonic Ratio Voltage

Examines 3rd harmonic at line
and neutral ends of generator
Provides 0-15% and 85-100%
stator winding coverage (typ.)
Does not have a security issue
with loading, as can a 27TN
- May be less reliable than 27TN
(not enough difference to trip)
Blind spot at mid-winding

protected by 59G
Needs wye PTs; cannot use delta
PTs
78

0-15% Coverage 85-100% Coverage
59 VN 3V0
59D
G
Employs comparison of 3rd harmonic voltages at terminal and

neutral ends
These voltages are fairly close to each other
One goes very low if a ground fault occurs at either end of the
winding 79
80
Stator Ground Faults: 59N, 27TN, 59D
81
Subharmonic Injection: 64S

Natural Capacitance
20Hz injected into

grounding transformer
secondary circuit
Rise in real component
of injected current
suggests resistive
ground fault
Ignores capacitive Coupling Filter
Voltage
Injector
current due to isophase

bus and surge caps 20Hz
V
Uses it for self-diagnostic

and system integrity
I
Notes:
Subharmonic injection frequency = 20 Hz
Measurements
Coupling filter tuned for subharmonic frequency
Measurement inputs tuned to respond to subharmonic
frequency 82
Functions on-line and off-line

Power and frequency independent
83
64S: Stator Ground Faults Subharmonic Injection
Injects subharmonic frequency into generator

neutral
Does not rely on third harmonic signature of
generator
Provides full coverage protection
Provides on and offline protection, prevents

serious damage upon application of excitation
Frequency independent 84
64S Subharmonic Injection
85

Security Assessment
Real Component:
Used to detect and declare stator ground faults
through entire stator winding (and isophase and GSU/UAT
windings), except at the neutral or faults with very low
(near zero) resistance.
Total Component:
A fault at the neutral or with very low resistance results
in very little/no voltage (VN) to measure, therefore
current cannot be segregated into reactive and real
components, so total current is used as it does not require
voltage reference.
In addition, presence of total current provides diagnostic
check that system is functional and continuity exists in
ground primary and secondary circuits.
86

Security Assessment
A typical stator resistance (not reactance) to ground is
>100k ohm, and a resistive fault in the stator is
typically declared in the order of <=5k ohm.
The two areas of security concern are when the

generator is being operated at frequencies of
20 Hz and 6.67 Hz.
All other operating frequencies
are of no concern due to the 20 Hz filter and
tuning of the element response for 20 Hz values
For our analysis, we use data from a generator in the

southeastern USA outfitted with a 64S, 20 Hz
subharmonic injection system.
87

Security Assessment
Case 1: Generator Operating at 20 Hz
If the generator is operating as a

generator at 20 Hz without an external
source (e.g., drive, LCI,
back-to-back hydro start), there is no
concern as the 20 Hz at the terminals is
at or very close to balanced; therefore,
20 Hz zero-sequence current will not flow
through the neutral circuit.
If the generator is being operated as a

motor with an external source
(e.g., drive, LCI, back-to-back hydro
start), the phase voltages are balanced
or very close to balanced.
88
Subharmonic Injection: 64S Observations:

Security Assessment
Real = 118k
Total = 23k
89
Calculate CT primary currents: Subharmonic Injection: 64S

Security Assessment
IN pri (total) = 14.1 A * 10-3 * CTR 3rd harmonic voltage measured at relay = 0.75 V
IN pri (total) = 14.1 A * 10-3 * 80 V pri = V sec * NGT ratio
IN pri (total)= 1.128A V pri = 0.75 V * 83.33
V pri =62.5 V
IN pri (real) = 2.8 A * 10-3 * CTR
IN pri (real) = 2.8 A * 10-3 * 80 Assuming a zero sequence unbalance of 0.1% of
IN pri (real) =0.224 A nominal at 60 Hz:
V pri unbalance = % unbalance / 100 * V L-L rated / 3
V pri unbalance = (0.1% / 100) * (20,000 V / 1.73)
Currents and voltages at V pri unbalance = 11.5V
grounding transformer primary:
V sec unbalance = V pri unbalance / NGT ratio
V sec unbalance = 11.5 V / 83.33
IN pri (total) =1.128 A / NGT ratio
V sec unbalance = 0.14 V
IN pri (total) =1.128 A / 83.33
IN pri (total) =0.013536 A Assuming V/Hz is kept constant in LCI or back-to-
back generator start. The voltage at 20 Hz frequency
IN pri (real) = 0.0224 A / NGT ratio is
IN pri (real) = 0.0224 A / 83.33 20 Hz voltage during the start.
IN pri (real) = 0.002688 A
Assuming 1pu V/Hz 120/60 = 2 = 1pu
VN pri = V sec * NGT ratio Frequency divisor: 60 Hz / 20 Hz = 3.
VN pri = V sec * NGT ratio
Voltage divisor is 3.
VN pri = 25 V
V sec unbalance (20 Hz) = V sec unbalance (60 Hz) / 3 90
V sec unbalance (20 Hz) = 0.14 V / 3 = 0.0466 V

20 Hz current flowing through NGR: Security Assessment
NGR I 20 Hz = V sec unbalance (20 Hz) * NGR
NGR I 20 Hz = 0.0466 / 0.2 = 0.223 A
Settings:
Relay measured 20 Hz current:
I 20Hz Relay = NGR I 20 Hz * CTR
Real = 55k
I 20Hz Relay = 0.223 A / 80
Total = 16k
I 20Hz Relay = 0.0029 A = 2.9 mA
Using pickup values are 20 mA total and 6 mA real, element remains secure.
Note the margins:

Total current calculated: 2.9 mA Total current calculated: 2.9 mA
Total current setting: 20 mA Real current setting: 6.0 mA
Margin: 17.1 mA Margin: 3.1 mA
91

Case 2: 6.67 Hz voltage at the generator terminals, Security Assessment
assume 3 rdharmonic (20 Hz) created in the neutral
In this case, we are assuming the generator under study is being started with a
drive, LCI or back-to-back hydro start. The generator is acting like a motor and
the unbalance is originating from the source.
Using typical values from a generator operating under full load,

3rd harmonic can be expected to be approximately 5X no load value.
3rd V 60 Hz NGT pri = 5 * (no load 3rd harmonic) * NGT ratio
3rd V 60 Hz NGT pri = 5 * 0.75 V * 83.33
3rd V 60 Hz NGT pri = 312.498 V
The frequency during the start is reduced to 6.67 Hz (3 * 6.67 Hz= 20 Hz).
Assuming the V/Hz is kept as constant, the 3rd harmonic voltage is reduced.
3rd V 20 Hz NGT pri = 6.67 Hz / 60 Hz * 312.498 V
(without reduction in capacitance) 92
3rd V 20 Hz NGT pri = 34.74 V (without reduction in capacitance)
Security Assessment
Since the frequency is 20 Hz and not 180 Hz, there is a further reduction
in 3rd harmonic current due to the capacitance at 1/9th of 60 Hz value.
(180/20=9)
The model is complex and the relationship is not straightforward,
so we assume a reduction of 1/5th instead of 1/9th
3rd V 20 Hz NGT pri = 34.74 V / 5 = 6.9 V
Voltage at NGT secondary:

NGT V sec = 3rd V 20 Hz NGT pri / NGT ratio
NGT V sec = 6.9 V / 83.33 = 0.0828 V
Current through NGR:

NGR I 20 Hz = NGT V sec / NGR
NGR I 20 Hz = 0.0828 / 0.2 = 0.414 A
Relay measured 20 Hz current:

I 20Hz Relay = NGR I 20 Hz * CTR
I 20Hz Relay = 0.414 A / 80
I 20Hz Relay = 0.005175 A = 5.175 mA
93

Security Assessment
Note the margins:
Total current calculated: 5.175 mA Total current calculated: 5.175 mA
Total current setting: 20 mA Real current setting: 6.0 mA
Margin: 14.825 mA Margin: 0.825 mAin
Higher Margin for Real : 7.0mA = 47.2k; 8.0mA = 41.3k
94
Stator Ground Faults: High Z Element Coverage
95
Stator Ground Fault: Low Z Grounded Machines

System
51N element typically

applied
Coordinate with system
ground fault protection for
security and selectivity
Results in long clearing time
for internal machine ground 51
1
51
1
N N
fault
Selectivity issues with bused
R R
machines
96
51N: Neutral Overcurrent
97
Directional Neutral Overcurrent: 67N

Low-Z Grounded Generator
67N element provides selectivity on multiple bused
machine applications
Requires only phase CTs, or terminal side zero-sequence
CT
67N directionalized to trip for zero-sequence (ground)
current toward a generator
67N is set faster than 51N
May be short definite time delay
Ground current should not flow into a generator under normal
operating conditions
May be applied on ungrounded machines for ground fault
protection if bus or other generators are a ground source
98

System Low-Z Grounded Generator
Employ 67N to selectively clear

3Y 3Y
67
N
67
N
machine ground fault for multi-
generator bus connected
arrangements
Use with 51N on grounded
51
N
51
N
machine(s) for internal fault
and system back up
Ground switches on all
R R machines can all be closed
99

Ground fault on system is detected

by grounded generators 51N
element
Coordinated with system relays,
they should trip before 51N
67N sees fault current in the reverse
direction and does not trip
100

System Low-Z Grounded Generator
Ground fault in machine is
detected by 67N & 51N
67 67 67N picks up in faulted machine
N N
51N picks up in faulted and

unfaulted machines
51 51 67N trips fast in faulted machine
N N
51N resets on faulted and

unfaulted machines
R R
101

Internal Fault
Trip
O N
O N X
Block Trip
Internal faults create angles of 3I0 or IN current flow into generator from
system that are approximately 150 degrees from 3V0
This is from reactive power being drawn in from system as well as real 102
power
67N: Directional Neutral Overcurrent
103
Directional Neutral Overcurrent: 87G

87GD element provides selectivity on multiple bused
machine applications
Requires phase CTs, or terminal side zero-sequence
CT, and a ground CT
87GD uses currents with directionalization for security
and selectivity
87GD is set faster than 51N
May use short definite time delay
Ground current should not flow into a generator from
terminal end under normal operating conditions
Ground current should not flow unchallenged into
machine
104
Trip Characteristic 87GD

Internal Fault
-3Io x I
G cos (0) = -3IoIG
105 105

External Fault
-3Io x I
G cos (0) = -3IoIG
106 106

Open Breaker, Internal Fault
IG > setting
107 107
Improved Ground Fault Sensitivity (87GD)
Direction calculation used with currents over 140mA on both sets of

CTs (3I0 and IG)
Directional element used to improve security for heavy external phase

to phase faults that cause saturation
When current >140mA, element uses current setting and directional

signal
When current <= 140mA, element uses current setting only

Saturation will not occur at such low current levels
Directional signal not required for security
Allows element to function for internal faults without phase output current
(open breaker, internal fault source by generator only)
108 108

Employed 87GD to
selectively clear machine
ground fault for multi-
generator bus connected
arrangements
Use with 51N on grounded
machine(s) for internal fault
and system back up
Ground switches on all
machines can all be closed
109

3Y System 3Y
Ground fault in
machine is detected by
87 87
GD GD 87GD & 51N
51N picks up in
unfaulted machine
51
N 1
51
N 1 87GD trips fast in
faulted machine
R R 51N resets on
unfaulted machine
110
51N
67N
Stator Ground Faults:
87GD Low Z Element Coverage
In Low-Z schemes, you cannot
100%
provide 100% stator ground fault
protection
Protection down to last 5%-10% near
50% neutral using 51N
Protection down to last 5% using 67N
or 87GD
Seletivity and high speed possible
0%
with 67N or 87GD with in zone fault
Single generator, with system supplying ground current,
or multiple generators as ground current sources
Single generator, with system supplying ground current,

or multiple generators as ground current sources 111
Brushed and Brushless Excitation

Grounding Power
Brush Commutation STATOR
Brushes
A
DC B
C
ROTOR
STATOR
EXCITER AVR
Brushless
SET
Brushed
112
Field/Rotor Ground Fault
Traditional field/rotor circuit ground fault

protection schemes employ DC voltage
detection
Schemes based on DC principles are subject to
security issues during field forcing, other
sudden shifts in field current and system
transients
113
DC-Based 64F
114
Field/Rotor Ground Fault (64F)

To mitigate the security issues of traditional
DC-based rotor ground fault protection
schemes, AC injection based protection
may be used
AC injection-based protection ignores the
effects of sudden DC current changes in the
field/rotor circuits and attendant DC scheme
security issues
115
Advanced AC Injection Method

Exciter Field
Breaker
+ Square Wave
Generator
Exciter
Signal
Measurement
& Processing
Protective Coupling
Relay Network
116
Advanced AC Injection Method: Advantages
Scheme is secure against the effects of DC transients in

the field/rotor circuit
DC systems are prone to false alarms and false trips, so they
sometimes are ignored or rendered inoperative, placing the
generator at risk
The AC system offers greater security so this important
protection is not ignored or rendered inoperative
Scheme can detect a rise in impedance which is

characteristic of grounding brush lift-off
In brushless systems, the measurement brush may be
periodically connected for short time intervals
The brush lift-off function must be blocked during the time
interval the measurement brush is disconnected 117
GeneratorProtection
Rotor Ground Fault Measurement

Plan a shutdown to determine why impedance is lowering, versus an
eventual unplanned trip!
When resistive fault develops, Vf goes down
PROTECTION
RELAY
(M-3425A) VR
VOUT
PROCESSOR Vf
Measurement Point Time
FIELD GROUND M-3921

DETECTION VOUT COUPLING NETWORK +
C R GEN.
SQUAREWAVE
GENERATOR
37 ROTOR
R
-
C R
35 Shaft
Rf Cf
SIGNAL , Ground Brush
MEASUREMENT Vf
CIRCUIT
36 118
Machine
Frame
Ground
64F: Field/Rotor Ground Faults
119
ALARM
TRIP
120
64B: Brush Lift Off

Commutation brush lift-off will lead to:
- Arcing
- Tripping on loss-of-field
Grounding brush lift-off can lead to:
- Stray currents that cause bearing pitting
Commutation
Brush
Grounding
Brush
121
64B: Brush Lift Off

As brushes lift-off, the sawtooth waves return
signal slope gets less rounded, which is detected
as a rise in voltage
Commutation
Brush
Grounding
Brush
122
Brush Lift-Off Measurement

When brush lifts off, Brush Lift-Off
Voltage
Vf goes up Vf Signal
VALARM
VNORMAL
PROTECTION Measurement Point Time

RELAY
VNORMAL = Normal Voltage for
(M-3425A) Healthy Brush Contact
VALARM = Alarm Voltage when Brush
PROCESSOR Resistance Increases due
to poor contact
FIELD GROUND M-3921

DETECTION VOUT COUPLING NETWORK +
C R GEN.
SQUAREWAVE
GENERATOR
37 ROTOR
R -
C R
35 Shaft
Rf Cf
SIGNAL , Ground Brush
MEASUREMENT Vf
CIRCUIT
36
Machine
123
Frame
Ground
124
64B: Brush Lift Off
ALARM
125
Field/Rotor Ground Faults
64F/B Relay 1 Relay 2

(M-3425) (M-3425)
- It is possible to apply two
systems and have 3 3
redundancy Switch
Field Assembly
System
Relay Panel
- The switch system is initiated 3
by manual means or by Exciter System

Coupling M-3921
monitoring relay self Unit
diagnostic contacts Rotor
Brush (Typ.)
+ R -
Exciter System
126
Stator Phase Faults

87G Phase Differential (primary for in-zone faults)
What goes into zone must come out
Challenges to Differential
CT replication issues: Remenant flux causing saturation
DC offset desensitization for energizing transformers and large load
pick up
Must work properly from 10 Hz to 80Hz so it operates correctly at off-
nominal frequencies from internal faults during startup
May require multiple elements for CGT static start
Tactics:
Use variable percentage slope
Operate over wide frequency range
Uses IRMS/IFUND to adaptively desensitize element when challenged
by DC offset for security
DC offset can occur from black starting and close-in faults 127
Through Current: Perfect Replication
4 pu
2 Node Bus
10
ID = I1 + I2
87 8
(0,0) (4,-4) TRIP
+4 6
4
RESTRAIN
0
2
A B
-4 0 2 4 6 8 10
A B IR = |I1| + |I2|
128
Through Current: Imperfect Replication
4 pu
2 Node Bus 10 ID = I1 + I2
87 8
B (2, -2)
+4 (1, -3) 6
C TRIP
4
0 RESTRAIN
2 C
A B
-4 0 2 4 6 8 10
IR = |I1| + |I2|
A (0,0)
129
Internal Fault: Perfect Replication

2 pu 2 pu
10 ID = I1 + I2
2 Node Bus
87 8
(0, 0) (2, 2)
TRIP
+2 6
4 B
RESTRAIN
0
2
A
2 0 2 4 6 8 10
IR = |I1| + |I2|
A B
130
Internal Fault: Imperfect Replication
2 pu 2 pu
10 ID = I1 + I2
2 Node Bus
87 8
TRIP
(0, 0) (2, 0.5)
+2 6
4
RESTRAIN
0 B
2
A
-2 0 2 4 6 8 10
IR = |I1| + |I2|
A B
131
87 Characteristic
40%
10%
0.6A
0.3A
CTC = CT Correction Ratio = Line CTR/Neutral CTR 132
Used when Line and Neutral CTs have different ratios

133
CT Remanence and Performance
Magnetization left behind in CT iron after an external

magnetic field is removed
Caused by current interruption with DC offset
CT saturation is increased by other factors working alone
or in combination:
High system X/R ratio which increases time constant
of the CT saturation period
CT secondary circuit burden which causes high CT
secondary voltage
High primary fault or through-fault current which
causes high secondary CT voltage
133
CT Saturation [1]
Fig. 2: 400:5, C400, R=0.5, Offset = 0.5, 2000A 134

CT Saturation [2]
Fig. 3: 400:5, C400, R=0.5, Offset = 0.5, 4000A 135

CT Saturation [3]
Fig. 4: 400:5, C400, R=0.5, Offset = 0.5, 8000A 136

CT Saturation [4]
Fig. 5: 400:5, C400, R=0.5, Offset = 0.75, 8000A 137

CT Saturation [5]
CT Saturation [5]
Fig. 6: 400:5, C400, R=0.75, Offset = 0.75, 8000A 138

87 Characteristic
IRSM/IFUND> Pickup
40%
10%
0.6A
0.3A
CTC = CT Correction Ratio = Line CTR/Neutral CTR 139
Used when Line and Neutral CTs have different ratios

87 Setting Screen
140
Stator Phase Faults Other Elements

21 Phase Distance (in-zone back up)
- Use Z1 with reach set 80% of impedance of GSU
- Provide high speed back up to 87G
50/50N/51N Phase and Ground Overcurrent (back up)

- Should operate from 8 Hz to 80 Hz
- Provides protection for generator from phase and ground faults during
startup and shutdown
- Provides backup for 87 function and extends the frequency range down to
8 Hz.
51V Voltage Restrained/Controlled Overcurrent (back up)

- Accommodate current decrement
- Provide back up to 87G
- May be applied in parallel with the 21 to initiate waveform capture and not
trip
141
Turn-to-Turn Fault Protection

Most low-speed hydroelectric generators in North America are
constructed with two or more parallel circuits per phase.
Under normal conditions, the currents in the two parallel

circuits are equal.
When a turn fault occurs, the difference in the voltages that

develop in the two circuits causes a current to circulate.
Stator differential protection does not detect turn-to-turn faults
Current can be 6 to 7 times nominal and can damage stator
Use turn-to-turn protection schemes to detect and avoid

damage
142
Split Phase Using Separate CTs
Separate CTs may have slightly different replication characteristics,

therefore my require desensitizing setting 143
Split Phase Using Core Balance CTs

I1
I2
1
2
Relay
Operating
Coil
Balance CTs allow greater sensitivity

144
46: Negative Sequence Current
Typically caused by open circuits in system
-Downed conductors
-Stuck poles switches and breakers
Unbalanced phase currents create negative sequence

current in generator stator and induces a double
frequency current in the rotor
Induced current (120 Hz) into rotor causes surface heating

of the rotor
145
Rotor End Winding Construction
146
Currents Flow in the Rotor Surface

Negative Sequence Current:

Constant Withstand Generator Limits
Salient Pole
- With connected amortisseur 10%
- With non-connected amortisseur 5%
Cylindrical
- Indirectly 10%
- Directly cooled - to 960 MVA 8%
961 to 1200 MVA 6%
1200 to 1500 MVA 5%
147
Negative Sequence Current: Constant

Withstand Generator Limits
Nameplate
- Negative Sequence Current
(I2) Constant Withstand
Rating
- K Factor
148
Generator
Ratings
Typical
K Values
Salient Pole
Generators
40
Cylindrical
Generators
30
149
46: Negative Sequence

Electromechanical Relays
Sensitivity restricted and cannot detect I2 levels

less than 60% of generator rating
Fault backup provided
Generally insensitive to load unbalances or

open conductors
150
46: Negative Sequence Digital Relay
Protects generator down to its continuous negative

sequence current (I2) rating vs. electromechanical relays
that dont detect levels less than 60%
Fault backup provided
Can detect load unbalances
Can detect open conductor conditions
151
Overexcitation (24)
Measured
High Volts/Hertz ratio
Normal = 120V/60Hz = 1pu
Voltage up, and/or frequency low, make event
Issues
Overfluxing of metal causes localized heating
Heat destroys insulation
Affects generators and transformers
152
Overexcitation (24)
Causes of V/HZ Problems

Generator voltage regulator problems
- Operating error during off-line manual regulator operation
- Control failure
- VT fuse loss in voltage regulator (AVR) sensing voltage
System problems
- Unit load rejection: full load, partial rejection
- Power system islanding during major disturbances
- Ferranti effect
- Reactor out
- Capacitors in
- Runaway LTCs 153
Overexcitation (24)
Protects machine against excessive V/Hz (overfluxing)

Legacy Protection
Typically stair-step two definite time setpoints
Two definite time elements
- One may be used to alarm
- One may be used for high set fast trip
Either overprotects or underprotects

Instantaneous Reset
154
Legacy Approach
Dual-Level, Definite-Time V/Hz Protection
Attempts to approximate curves with stairsteps

155
Overexcitation (24)
Modern Protection
Definite time elements
Curve modify
Alarm
Inverse curves
Select curve type for best coordination to
manufacturers recommendations
Employ settable reset timer
Provides thermal memory for repeat events
156
Overexcitation (24)
157
Example plot using definite time and inverse curve
Overexcitation (24)
Modern Protection
V/Hz measurement operational range: 2-80 Hz
- Necessary to avoid damage to steam turbine generators
during rotor pre-warming at startup
- Necessary to avoid damage to converter-start gas turbine
generators at startup
- In both instances, the generator frequency during startup and
shut down can be as low as 2 Hz
NOTE: An Overvoltage (59) function, designed to work properly
up to 120 Hz, is important for Hydro Generators where the
generators can experience high speed (high frequency) during
full load rejection.
Since the V/Hz during this condition is low, the 24 function will
not operate, and the 59 function will provide proper protection
from overvoltage. 158
40: Loss of Field

Can adversely effect the generator and the system!!
Generator effects
Synchronous generator becomes induction
Slip induced eddy currents heat rotor
surface
High reactive current drawn by generator
overloads stator
Power system effects

Loss of reactive support
Creates a reactive drain
Can trigger system/area voltage collapse 159
TYPICAL
GENERATOR
VAR
OUT CAPABILITY
Normal
WATT
CURVE
VAR Loss
IN of
Field
Generator capability curve viewed on the P-Q plane. 160
This info must be converted to the R-X plane.

Increased Power Out
P-Q Plane
TRANSFORMATION FROM
MW-MVAR TO R-X PLOT
Increased Power Out
TYPICAL GENERATOR
CAPABILITY CURVE
Excitation Limiters and
Steady State Stability 161
R-X Plane
Generator Capability Curve

Limiting factors are rotor Reactive Power Rotor
Into System
and stator thermal limits Winding
Limited MW
+ G System
Underexcited limiting factor MVAR MVAR
is stator end iron heat Overexcited Stator

Winding
Limited
Excitation control setting + MW
Real Power
control is coordinated with 0
Into System
steady-state stability limit
MEL
(SSSL)
Underexcited
Minimum excitation limiter MW

MVAR SSSL G System
(MEL) prevents exciter Reactive Power
Stator End MVAR
Iron Limited
from reducing the field Into Generator
below SSSL
162
Loss of Field
+X
GE and Westinghouse Methods
R +R
Diameter = 1.0 pu
Xd
Offset =
2
Machine Xd
Capability 2
SSSL
MEL
Diameter = Xd
Two Zone Offset Mho Impedance w/Directional Unit

GE Westinghouse
163
CEH KLF
Loss of Field
Two Zone Offset Mho
Xd
2
164
Loss of Field
Impedance w/Direction Unit
Xd
2
165
40: Multiple Mho Implementations

Better Fit Reactive Capability Curves
Xd
2
Two Zone Offset Mho Impedance w/Directional Unit 166
Better ability to match capability curves after conversion from P-Q to R-X plane
40: Loss of Field

Positive sequence quantities used to maintain security and
accuracy over a wide frequency range.
Must work properly from 50 to 70 Hz (60 Hz systems)
Required to operate correctly (and not misoperate) with wide
frequency variations possible during power swing
conditions.
May employ best of both methods to optimize coordination.
- Provide maximum coordination between machine limits,
limiters and protection
- Offset mho for Z1. Fast time for true Loss of Field event.
- Impedance with directional unit and slower time for Z2. Better
match of machine capability curve. Also able to ride through
stable swing.
- May employ voltage supervision for accelerated tripping of Z2
(slower zone) in cases of voltage collapse where machine is
part of the problem, importing VArs. 167
Loss of Field Event
Generator Lost Field, then went Out-of-Step!!!

40: Multiple Loss-of-Field Mho Implementations
to Better Fit Reactive Capability Curves
40: Multiple Loss-of-Field Mho Implementations

to Better Fit Reactive Capability Curves
35.0
5.0
Phase Distance (21)

Phase distance backup protection may be prone to tripping on
stable swings and load encroachment
- Employ three zones
Z1 can be set to reach 80% of impedance of GSU for 87G
back-up.
Z2 can be set to reach 120% of GSU for station bus backup,
or to overreach remote bus for system fault back up
protection. Load encroachment blinder provides security
against high loads with long reach settings.
Z3 may be used in conjunction with Z2 to form out-of-step
blocking logic for security on power swings or to overreach
remote bus for system fault back up protection. Load
encroachment blinder provides security against high loads
with long reach settings.
- Use minimum current supervision provides security against loss
of potential (machine off line)
171
Fault Load
(for Z1, Z2, Z3)
Impendance Blinder
21: Distance
Element +X
With Load L
Z3
Encroachment Blinder
fro Z1, Z2, Z3 T Z2
Z1
-R +R
-X or
Z1, Z2 and Z3 used to trip
Z1 set to 80% of GSU, Z2 set to 120% of GSU
Z3 set to overreach remote bus
172
Stable Power Swing and Load Encroachment Blinding

3-Zone 21 Function
40.0
0.0
80.0
173
21: Distance
Element
With:
Power Swing
Blocking
Load
Encroachment
Blocking for Z1
and Z2
Power Swing or
Load Encroachment
174
3-Zone 21 Function with
OSB/Load Encroachment
60.0
0.0
80.0
40
25.0
175
21 Settings
176
Generator Out-of-Step Protection (78)

Types of Instability
Steady State: Steady Voltage and Impedance (Load Flow)
Transient: Fault, where voltage and impedance change rapidly
Dynamic: Oscillations from AVR damping (usually low f)
Occurs with unbalance of load and generation
Short circuits that are severe and close
Loss of lines leaving power plant (raises impedance of loadflow path)
Large losses or gains of load after system break up
Generator accelerates or decelerates, changing the voltage angle
between itself and the system
Designed to cover the situation where electrical center of power
system disturbance passes through the GSU or the generator itself
More common with modern EHV systems where system impedance
has decreased compared to generator and GSU impedance 177

When a generator goes out-of-step (synchronism) with
the power system, high levels of transient shaft torque
are developed.
If the pole slip frequency approaches natural shaft

resonant frequency, torque produced can break the shaft
High stator core end iron flux can overheat and short the
generator stator core
GSU subjected to high transient currents and
mechanical stresses
178
Stability
Eg Es
Pmax
Eg Es Pe
X

sin g s
X
Es - System Voltage
Eg - Generator Voltage
s - System Voltage Phase Angle
g - Generator Voltage Phase Angle
Pe - Electrical Power
Egg
Ess
For maximum power transfer:
Voltage of GEN and SYSTEM should be nominal Faults lower voltage
179
Impedance of lines should be low lines out raise impedance
Out of Step:
Generator and System Issue
Eg Es
Pe
X

sin g s 180
Single Blinder Scheme

X
A B
System
One pair of blinders

Trans (vertical lines)
R
Supervisory offset mho
Gen
Mho
Element
Blinders limit reach to
Xd
swings near the generator
A B
Element Element
Pickup Pickup
C
Blinder
Elements 181
Graphical Method: 78
X
A B
System
XS
GSU
XT
P
R
M
Swing Locus
Gen Mho
Xd Element
A B
Element Element
2X D + XT + XS Pickup Pickup
Blinder
Elements
Graphical Method: 78
X
A B
System
XS Stable Swing
Unstable
Swing
GSU
XT
Gen Mho
Xd Element
A B
Element Element
2X D + XT + XS Pickup Pickup
Blinder
Elements
Out-of-Step (Loss of Synchronism) Event
Dependability Concerns
Positive sequence quantities used to maintain security

and accuracy over a wide frequency range.
Required to operate correctly (and not misoperate)

with wide frequency variations possible during power
swing conditions
Must work properly from 50 to 70 Hz (60 Hz systems).
185

187
Off-Nominal Frequency Impacts

Underfrequency may occur from system overloading
Loss of generation
Loss of tie lines importing power
Underfrequency is an issue for the generator 81-U
Ventilation is decreased
Flux density (V/Hz) increases
Underfrequency limit is typically dictated by the generator and turbine
Generator: V/Hz and loading
Turbine: Vibration Issues
Overfrequency may occur from load rejection

Overfrequency is typically not an issue with the generator
Ventilation is improved
81-O
Flux density (V/Hz) decreases
Overfrequency limit is typically dictated by the turbine (vibration) 188
System Frequency Overview

Frequency (Hz)
For overfrequency events, the generator prime mover power is reduced to bring
generation equal to load
For underfrequency events, load shedding is implemented to bring load equal to
generation
It is imperative that underfrequency tripping for a generator be coordinated 189
with system underfrequency load shedding
Abnormal Operating Conditions

81 Four Step Frequency
- Any step may be applied over- or underfrequency
- High accuracy 1/100th Hz (0.01 Hz)
- Coordination with System Load Shedding
81A Underfrequency Accumulator

- Time Accumulation in Six Underfrequency Bands
- Limits Total Damage over Life of Machine
Typically used to Alarm
81R Rate of Change of Frequency

- Allows tripping on rapid frequency swing
190
Steam Turbine Underfrequency Operating Limitations
60 Continuous
Frequency (Hz)
59
Restricted
58
57
Prohibited
0.001 0.01 0.10 1.0 10.0 100.0

Time (Minutes) 191
Typical, from C37.106

81U Underfrequency
192
Turbine Over/Underfrequency
62
Prohibited
Restricted Time Operation
61 Operating Frequency Limits
60 Continuous Operation
Frequency (Hz)
59
Restricted Time
Operating Frequency Limits
58
57
Prohibited
Operation
56
0.005 0.05 0.50 5.0 50.0
0.001 0.01 0.10 1.0 10.0 100.0
Time (Minutes)
Typical, from C37.106 193


Turbine blades are designed and tuned to operate at rated
frequencies
Operating at frequencies different than rated can result in
blade resonance and fatigue damage
In 60 Hz machines, the typical operating frequency range:

18 to 25 inch blades = 58.5 to 61.5 Hz
25 to 44 inch blades = 59.5 and 60.5 Hz
Accumulated operation, for the life of the machine, not
more than:
10 minutes for frequencies between 56 and 58.5 Hz
60 minutes for frequencies between 58.5 and 59.5 Hz
195
Causes of Inadvertent Energizing
Operating errors
Breaker head
flashovers
Control circuit
malfunctions
Combination
of above
196
Inadvertent Energizing:
Protection Response
Typically, normal generator relaying is not
adequate to detect inadvertent energizing
Too slow or not sensitive enough
Distance
Negative sequence
Reverse power
Some types are complicated and may have
reliability issues
Ex., Distance relays in switchyard disabled for testing
and inadvertent energizing event takes place
197
When inadvertently energized from 3-phase source, the machine acts
like an induction motor
Rotor heats rapidly (very high I2 in the rotor)
Current drawn
Strong system: 3-4x rated
Weak system: 1-2x rated
From Auxiliary System: 0.1-0.2x rated
When inadvertently energized from 1-phase source (pole flashover),

the machine does not accelerate
No rotating flux is developed
Rotor heats rapidly (very high I2 in the rotor)
Protection system must be able to detect and clear both 3-phase and 198
1-phase inadvertent energizing events

Inadvertent Energizing Scheme

Undervoltage (27) supervises low-set, instant overcurrent (50)
recommended 27 setting is 50% or lower of normal voltage
Pickup timer ensures generator is dead for fixed
time to ride through three-phase system faults
Dropout timer ensures that overcurrent element
gets a chance to trip just after synchronizing
199
Inadvertent Oscillograph
Energizing
200
Breaker Failure Timeline
Margin Time
Protective
Relay Time Breaker Interrupt Fault Cleared
Time
BFI Backup Breaker Time

Interrupt Time
BF
62 -1 BF Timer Time Trip
Command
Fault Occurs
Breaker Pole Flashover & Stuck Pole
203
Generator Breaker Failure and Pole Flashover Scheme:

Simplified Conceptual View
52/a Breaker is closed by
current detection or position
OR
50
BF
Breaker
OR T
AND Failure
Protective 0 Trip
Elements TDOE
1= Protection BFI
Breaker Failure
52/b
AND
50
1= Flashover
N detected
Pole Flashover
204
Generator Breaker Failure and Pole Flashover
Phase Initiate Enable is made from software selection and enables breaker failure protection
Output Initiates (Trip Output Contacts) or External Contact Signal Initiates are used to start the breaker failure element
205
Neutral Initiate Enable is made from software selection and enables pole flashover protection
52b contact used to supervise the pole flashover protection
Fuse Loss
Fuse loss (loss of voltage potential) can cause
voltage sensitive elements to misoperate
- 51V, 21, 78, 32, 67, 67N, 40
Typically performed using two sets of VTs and

a voltage balance relay
Some small hydro installations may only have

one set of VTs
Use Symmetrical Component and 3-Phase

Voltage/Current methods to provide fuse loss
detection on a single VT set
206
Fuse Loss
One VT
Two VTs
207
Fuse Loss (LOP) Detection:

Symmetrical Components & 3-Phase Voltage/Current Monitoring
Use to block voltage dependent elements from misoperating

and to alarm
- Stops nuisance tripping and attendant full load rejection on LOP
1 and 2 phase LOP detection by symmetrical component
comparison
- Presence of Negative Sequence Voltage and Negative
Sequence Current indicates a Fault
- Presence of Negative Sequence Voltage and absence of
Negative Sequence Current indicates a Fuse Loss
3 phase LOP detected by voltage and current monitoring
- Low 3-Phase Voltages and High 3-Phase Currents indicates a
Fault
- Low 3-Phase Voltages and Low 3-Phase Current indicates a
Fuse Loss 208
Anti-Motoring: 32
Used to protect generator from motoring during loss of prime
mover power
Motoring:
Wastes power from the system
May cause heating in steam turbines as ventilation is greatly reduced
Steam and dewatered hydro can motor with very little power; <=1%
rated
CGT and Recip typically use 10-25% of rated power to motor
Generators are often taken off the system by backing off the
power until importing slightly so not to trip with power export and
go into overspeed (turbine issue)
This is known as sequential tripping
Two 32 elements may be applied:
Sequential trip (self reset, no lockout)
Abnormal trip (lockout)
Need great sensitivity, down to .002pu
Usually applied as 32R, may be applied as 32F-U
209
Directional Power (32F/R)
210
Generator Tripping and Shutdown

Generators may be shutdown for
unplanned and planned reasons
Shutdowns may be whole or partial
Shutdowns may lock out (86- LOR) or be
self resetting (94)
Unplanned
Faults
Abnormal operating conditions
Scheduled
Planned shutdown
211
Generator Tripping
F
T
G
T = Turbine Trip
F = Field Trip
G = Generator Breaker Trip
212
Tripping Philosophy & Sequential Tripping
Unit separation
Used when machine is to be isolated from
system, but machine is left operating so it can be
synced back to the system after separating event
is cleared (system issue)
Only generator breaker(s) are tripped
F
T
G
213
Generator Trip
Used when machine is isolated and overexcitation
trip occurs
Exciter breaker is tripped (LOR) with generator
breakers already opened
F
T
G
214
Simultaneous Trip (Complete Shutdown)

Used when internal (in-zone) protection asserts
Generator and exciter breakers are tripped (LOR)
Prime mover shutdown initiated (LOR)
Auxiliary transfer (if used) is initiated
F
T
G
215
Sequential Trip
Used for taking machine off-line (unfaulted)
Generator and exciter breakers are tripped (94)
Prime mover shutdown initiated (94)
Auxiliary transfer (if used) is initiated
F
T
G
216
Sequential Tripping
Sequential Tripping
Back down turbine and excitation

Backing down excitation to allows easier
better measurement of power
Initiate Sequential Trip

Use 32 element that trips G, F and T, but
does not do this through a LOR
When a small amount of reverse power is
detected, trip G, F and T
218
Directional Power (32F/R)
219
Trip Logic
LOR
In-Zone Issues
System Issues
LOR
In-Zone Issues
Normal Shutdown
Alarms
220
Typical Protection Functions for a Large or Important Generator
221
Mitigating Reliability Concerns
Integrating many protection functions into one package

raises reliability concerns
Address these concerns by

1. Providing two MGPRs, each with a portion or all of
the protection functions (redundancy for some or all)
2. Providing backup for critical components,
particularly the power supply
3. Using MGPR self-checking ability
222
Aug 2003, NE Blackout: Generator Trips
531 Generators at 261 Power Plants tripped!!!

IEEE PSRC Survey
Conducted in early 90s, exposed
many areas of protection lacking
Reluctance to upgrade:
Lack of expertise
To recognize problems
To engineer the work
The thought that Generators dont
fault
Operating procedures can prevent
protection issues
223
Why Upgrade?
Existing generator and transformer protection may:
Require frequent and expensive maintenance
Cause coordination issues with plant control (excitation, turbine
control)
Trip on through-faults (external faults), stable power swings, load
encroachment and energizing
Not follow NERC PRC Standards (PRC = protection and control)
Exhibit insensitivity to certain abnormal operating conditions and
fault types
Not be self-diagnostic
Lack comprehensive monitoring and communications capabilities
Not provide valuable event information that can lead to rapid
restoration
Part of NERC Report comments on the August 03 Blackout
Not be in compliance with latest ANSI/IEEE Standards!
Asset Reliability, Insurance, Liability Issues
C37-102: Guide for the Protection of Synchronous Generators 224
Protection Upgrade Opportunities

Improved sensitivity
Loss of Field
100% stator ground fault
Reverse power
Negative sequence
Overexcitation
Improved Security
Directionally supervised ground differential
protection
Distance Element Enhancements
Load encroachment blinding
Power swing blocking (for stable swings)
225
Protection Upgrade Opportunities
New protections
Inadvertent energizing
VT fuse loss (integrated)
Special applications
Generator breaker failure
Pole flashover (prior to syncing)
226
Interface and Analysis Software:
Desirable Attributes
NERC State of Reliability 2013
30% of Relay Misoperations are due to human interface
error
Programming too complex
Commissioning difficult
Period Testing difficult
227
Interface and Analysis Software:

Desirable Attributes
PC Software package for setpoint interrogation and

modification, metering, monitoring, and downloading
oscillography records
Oscillography Analysis Software package graphically

displays to facilitate analysis, and print captured waveforms
Be menu-driven, graphical, simple to use
Autodocumentation to eliminates transcription errors
228
Example:
Relay
Configuration
229
Example:
Element
Selection
230
Example:
Element
Setting
231
IPScom
Example:
I/O Assignment
Example:
I/O
Assignment
232
Example:
Settings
Summary
233
Programmable
Logic
234
Programmable
Logic
235
Graphic Metering and Monitoring

Metering of all measured inputs
- Measured and calculated quantities
Instrumentation grade
Commissioning and Analysis Tools

- Advanced metering
- Event logs
- Vector meters
- R-X Graphics
- Oscillograph recording
236
Advanced Metering
237
Event Log (512) Events
238
Pick up, drop out, trip Event Log (512) Events

Event #, Date, Time
Impedance,
Sync Info
Voltages
Currents
239
I/O Status
Event Log Trigger
Elements
trigger on
trip, drop out,
pick up
I/O triggers
on pick up,
drop out
240
Phasor Display (Vectors)
All Voltages and Currents Proper 241

Phasor Display (Vectors)
242
Phase A Current Rolled

R-X Graphics: Loss of Field (40)
243
Provides the ability to check settings and view testing

Oscillography
Determine if relay and circuit breaker operated
properly
- Identify relay, control or breaker problem
- Generators do experience faults / abnormal
conditions
In the machine or the system?
Speed generators return to service
- Identify type of testing needed
- Provide data to generator manufacturer
Gives plant engineer data to force unit off-line for
inspection
Uncovers unexpected problems
- Synchronizing, shutdown
Comtrade Format Oscillographs (*.cfg)

Record Length: 416 cycles, up to 16 records 244
Long Records Let You See the Issue 416 cycles

Voltage collapse on Ph-Ph Fault
Ph-Gnd Fault
Ph-Ph Fault
3-Ph Fault
Gen feeding fault into low side of GSU, no low side breaker
Example of Ph-Gnd fault evolving into 3-Ph Fault
Insulation breakdown due to high voltage
245
21P backup element tripped
Summary
Generators require special protection for faults
and abnormal operations
These protections are for in-zone and out-of zone
events
Modern element design matter for security and
dependability
Complexity can be made simple with the correct
user tools
246
References
1. IEEE Guide for Generator Ground Protection, ANSI/IEEE C37.101-2006.
2. IEEE Guide for AC Generator Protection, ANSI/IEEE C37.102-2006.
3. IEEE Tutorial on the Protection of Synchronous Generators, Second Edition,
2010; Special Publication of the IEEE Power System Relaying Committee.
4. IEEE Recommended Practice for Grounding of Industrial and Commercial
Power Systems, IEEE Std. 142-1991.
5. Protection Considerations for Combustion Gas Turbine Static Starting; Working
Group J-2 of the Rotating Machinery Subcommittee, Power System Relay
Committee.
6. Protective Relaying for Power Generation Systems; Donald Reimert, CRC Press
2006; ISBN#0-8247-0700-1.
7. Practical Improvement to Stator Ground Fault Protection Using Negative
Sequence Current; Russell Patterson, Ahmed Eltom; IEEE Transactions Paper
presented at the Power and Energy Society General Meeting (PES), 2013 IEEE.
8. Behavior Analysis of the Stator Ground Fault (64G) Protection Scheme; Ramn
Sandoval, Fernando Morales, Eduardo Reyes, Sergio Melndez and Jorge Flix,
presented to the Rotating Machinery Subcommittee of the IEEE Power System
Relaying Committee, January 2013.
9. Advanced Generator Ground Fault Protections; Wayne Hartmann, presented at
the Western Protective Relay Conference, October 2015.

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GENERATOR PROTECTION

THEORY & APPLICATION

Wayne Hartmann is VP, Protection and Smart Grid Solutions for

Islanded (Prime Power) vs. Interconnected

DC Field Source DC Field Source

Applying Mechanical Input

DC is induced in the rotor

DC is induced in the rotor

DC is induced in the rotor

DC is induced in the rotor 11

AC is induced in the stator

Cylindrical (Round) Salient

Cylindrical rotor seen in Recips, GTs and STs

Cylindrical Rotor & Stator

Cylindrical Rotor & Stator

Cylindrical Rotor & Stator

Cylindrical Rotor & Stator

Salient Pole Rotor & Stator

Salient Pole Rotor & Stator

Winding Styles and Connections

Winding Styles and Connections

Double Winding Delta

Generator Behavior During Short Circuits

Generator Short-Circuit Current Decay

Types of Generator Grounding

Types of Generator Grounding

Types of Generator Grounding

Types of Generator Grounding

Types of Generator Ground Fault Damage

Following pictures show stator damage

Stator Ground Fault Damage

Stator Ground Fault Damage

Stator Ground Fault Damage

Stator Ground Fault Damage

Types of Generator Connections

- Directly connected to bus

Types of Generator Connections

Bus (Direct) Connected

Types of Generator Connections

- Generator has dedicated unit transformer

- Generator has dedicated ground transformer

- Likely in large industrial and utility systems

- 100% stator ground fault protection available

Types of Generator Connections

Generator Protection Overview

Generator Protection Overview

Generator Protection Overview

Internal and External Short Circuits 43

Generator Protection Overview

Generator Protection Overview

Abnormal Operating Conditions 45

- Std. 242: Buff Book

- C37.102: IEEE Guide for Generator Protection

- C37.101: IEEE Guide for AC Generator Ground

- C37.106: IEEE Guide for Abnormal Frequency

These are created/maintained by the IEEE

Small Machine Protection IEEE Buff Book

Small up to 1 MW to 600V, 500 kVA if >600V

Small Machine Protection IEEE Buff Book