p ro fesso r birnbaum was formerly on the staff of the University of London.

Yiddish: A Survey and a Grammar is a general introduction to Yiddish and ex-

amines the origin, history and grammar of the language. It traces the development
of Yiddish from its beginnings to the present, and explores its composition,
phonological history, linguistic aspects, and the dialects that constitute it. The
grammar provides a picture of the language as an integrated whole, along with
specimens of Yiddish in transcription.
The book embodies the results of more than sixty years of research and pioneer-
ing scholarship on the part of one of the world's leading scholars in Yiddish studies.
It has been prepared with not only scholars in mind but also intelligent lay readers
and university students who are beginning the study of Yiddish.

*an outstanding new accomplishment in Yiddish linguistics in a great many

respects ... a magnificent contribution to Yiddish studies ... No serious approach
to the teaching of the study of Yiddish can afford not to consult Professor Bimbaums
book. Chaim Ginninger, formerly of Columbia University
*It is a summary of the life's work of an outstanding and original scholar in the
field of Yiddish studies. There is no doubt that Professor Bimbaums book will
serve as a very good introduction to Yiddish and to its cultural background. No
book in English of this range and authority on Yiddish is available.
Chone Shmeruk, Hebrew University of Jerusalem
 SOLOMON A. BIRNBAUM

Yiddish
A Survey and a Grammar

MANCHESTER UNIVERSITY PRESS

MANCHESTER
 Published in Great Britain by
Manchester University Press
Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PL

University of Toronto Press 1979

ISBN o 7190 0769 0

Printed in Canada
 To the memory of my father
NATH AN BJRNBAUM
the first western champion of Yiddish,
and of my mother
ROSA BIRNBA UM
his devoted wife
 Preface

In 1912, when I started to work on Yiddish, a language which I had acquired a

few years earlier, modem research on it was only in its beginnings. There were
the writings of such scholars as Moritz Griinwald, L. Sain6an, L. Wiener, A.
Landau, and J. Gerzon, and the publications - of a non-linguistic nature - of
M. Steinschneider, M. Griinbaum, F. Rosenberg, M. Gtidemann, L. I^andau,
M. Ginsburg/P. Marek, I. Bernstein, F. Falk and M. J. Pines, but not a great deal
more. During the sixty-five or so years that followed, Yiddish studies spread slowly
but steadily, gradually gaining momentum, as a glance at the Bibliography of this
book will show. Much of the work that has been done and that is being done now
is of high, and often extremely high, quality. Some scholars have devoted their
entire lives to the study of Yiddish, among them Ch. Ginninger, A. Harkavy,
J.A. Joffe, J. Leftwich, J.J. Maitlis, Y. Mark, S. Niger, N. Prilutzki, M. Schaechter,
M. Weinreich and U. Weinreich.
The aim of this book is to provide a general introduction to the Yiddish language.
It examines the origin, history and grammar of the language, tracing its develop-
ment from its beginnings to the present, and exploring such aspects as its compo-
sition, phonological history, linguistic elements and the dialects that constitute it.
The grammar attempts to provide a picture of the language as an integrated whole.
Specimens of Yiddish in transcription down through the centuries are also
included, as is an extensive bibliography. The manuscript has been prepared with
students of Yiddish as well as scholars in mind.
Many readers of this book probably have no intention of learning the language
but rather of using the survey as a source of information about Yiddish. It is hoped
that Parts t-1u will serve this purpose adequately. In these chapters the Yiddish
has not been printed in its own (Hebrew) alphabet. For these readers a transcrip-
tion, i.e., a phonemic rendering, is desirable and in fact to be preferred from a
 viii Preface

Unguists point of view as well, because the spelling of Yiddish, as of most

languages, is phonetically far less accurate than a phonemic rendering.
Chapters 1 to 6 of Part II are based on two sets of public lectures that I gave
at the University of London, the first a series of Special University Lectures in
Comparative Philology in 1934, and the second a series in the School of Slavonic
and East European Studies at the same University in 1938. The section, The
Age of the Yiddish Language, was published in the Transactions of the Philological
Society in 1938. It was to have been published in book form and was already set
in type when the printing firm fell victim to bombardment during the London
Blitz. Since then the galley proofs have lain in my desk, and being immersed in
other work, I did nothing about having them published. Substantial changes and
additions have been made for inclusion in this book.
This book has been published with the help of a grant from the Canadian
Federation for the Humanities, using funds provided by the Social Sciences and
Humanities Research Council of Canada, and with the assistance of the Publications
Fund of University of Toronto Press.
I have much pleasure in expressing my appreciation to these bodies. My special
thanks are due to Dr R.M. Schoeffcl of the University of Toronto Press for the
great care he has expended on this publication.
Finally - and above all - I wish to express my heartfelt thanks to my wife,
Irene, for the devoted help she has given me, as always, in the making of this book.

S.A.B.
 Contents

PREFACE vii
T HE T R A N S C R IP T I O N A L PH A B E T x iii
A BBREVIA TIO NS XV

Part One: Introduction

1 JEWISH LANGUAGES 3
A I CLASSIFICATION 3 b / languages of jew s and

Mixed languages' J E W I S H LANGUAGES 9

CreoJized languages' 4 Race 9
Valuation 4 1The national spirit ' 10
' Corruptedlanguages' 5 Conservatism 10
'Jargons' 6 Loyalty 11
Dialects 6 Migration 12
Judaeo-pluslanguages 7 Ghetto 12
, Languages' 8 The group-forming factor 13
Religion and script 13
Secularized Jewish language 14
Jewish linguistics 14

2 THE CULTURAL STRUCTURE OF

EAST ASHKENAZIC JEWRY 16
The East Ashkenatim 16 Cultural structure 18
Social structure 17 Territorial concentration 18
 x Contents

Cultural community 19 The East Askkenaxit dress 23

Cultural autonomy 19 Secularization 2 4
Religion 19 Nationalism 24
Literature 23 Ckassidtsm 26

Part Two: A Brief S u rv e y of the Yiddish Language

1 THE EXTERNAL HISTORY OF YIDDISH 33

T HE E N L I G H T E N M E N T 34 WORLD 38
Western Europe 3 4 The poUtual aspect 3 8
Eastern Europe 36 The learned world 3 9
T R A D IT IO N A L IS M 3 8 STATISTICS 40
Y ID D I S H AND T H E OU TSIDE T H E FUTURE 4 2

2 THE AGE OF YIDDISH 44

T HE PR A C T IC A L C R IT E R IO N 44 A Literary West Yiddish 46
T HE P S Y C H O L O G IC A L C R I T E R IO N 45 B Spoken East Yiddish 51
T HE L I N G U I S T I C C R IT E R IO N 4 6 THE S O C IO L O G IC A L C R I T E R I O N 57

3 THE ELEMENTS OF YIDDISH AND THEIR

PHONOLOGICAL HISTORY 58
T HE S E M I T I C E L E M E N T 58 Synthesis o f tht German elements 76
Vocabulary 58 T HE SL A V O N IC E L E M E N T 7 6
The Hebrew element 5Q Czech
The Ashkenazit accent system 65 Polish 77
THE A R A M ir ELEMENT 66 Byelo-Russian 78
T H E RO M A N CE E L E M E N T 6 6 Ukrainian 7 8
T H E G E R M A N IC E L E M E N T 6 7 Russian 8
Comparison with Middle High International spords 78
German 67 OT H E R E LE M E N T S 9
The Central German element ( m h g ) 71 NEW H I G H GERMAN 7Q
The Upper German element 7 4

4 SYNTHESIS 82
M O R P H O L O G Y 82 WORD F O R M A T IO N 84
SE M A N T ICS 83 AFFIXES 8 4
 xi Contents

5 S P O N T A N E O U S D E V E L O P M E N T 86
P H O N O L O G Y 86 S H I F T I N S Y N T A C T IC A L
S E M A N T IC S 86 C O N N E C T I O N 91
ISO LA TIO N 86 T H E ABSOLUTE I N F I N I T I V E 9 2
AN A L O G Y 8 8 WORD ORDER 9 2
R IS E O F NE W WORDS 9 0

6 T H E D IA L E C T S 94
West Yiddish 9 4 D IA LE C T S T A T I S T IC S 99
Historical Map o f the Yiddish STANDARD P R O N U N C I A T I O N tOO
Dialects 95 STANDARD LANGUAGE IOI
Central Yiddish 9 6 D IA LE C T TABLE OF T HE
East Yiddish 96 VOWELS IOI

A P P E N D IX I :
O L D Y ID D IS H O R M ID D L E H IG H G E R M A N ? 106
T HE L I N G U I S T I C PRO BLE M 106 FOR OLD Y ID D IS H 109
T H E P R O B L E M OF T H E M H G STANDARD S P E L L I N G
T R A N S C R I P T I O N 107 AND T H E T R A N S C R I P T I O N
THE TRANSCRIPTION ALPHABET ALPHABET III

A P P E N D IX 2 :
D O U B L E U , D O U B L E W AW A N D D O U B L E Y O D H 112
Y ID D I S H 113 ZA R PH A T IC 118
HEBREW AND ARAMIC IN IT A L K IA N I IQ
ASHKENAZIC SOURCES I M D i l D Y t i 120
HEBREW AND ARAMIC IN CATALAN IC (20
Z A R P H A T IC SOURCES 11$ PA RSIC 121
HEBREW AND ARAMIC IN BAVL1C 121
IT A L K IA N SOURCES 116 T E M A N IC 122
HEBREW AND ARAMIC I N T HE T A L M U D IC SOURCE 122
O R IE N T A L SOURCES I I 7 THE QUMRAN SCROLLS 123

A P P E N D IX %
T H E S O U R C E S O F T H E N E W E A S T Y ID D IS H V O W E L S 127

A P P E N D IX 4 :
T O P O N Y M 1C A L L I S T 135
 xii Contents

Part Three: Specimens o f Yiddish over Eight Centuries

W EST Y ID D I S H I46 EAST Y I D D I S H 169

CENTRAL Y I D D I S H 166

Part Four: An outline of Yiddish grammar

Table of Contents appears on p. 1g3

Part Five: Bibliography

Table of Contents appears on p. 310

Index to the Bibliography 380

G E N E R A L IN D E X 389
 The Transcription Alphabet

T h e fig u re s in d icate th e n u m b e rs in th e alp h a b e tic list o n pages 2 0 1 -2 0 9 an<^

2 1 4 - 2 1 5 w here th e p ro n u n c ia tio n is given.

a 8 h 18 00/ 34
d 9 i 4 ou 35
aa 10 i 41 p 68
aa(i) 11 i 43 T 74
oi 45 ii 43 s 60
oi 46 j *3 { 75
b 12 ii 27 t 39
c V k 50 u 6
40 1 53 u 24
d 15 li 54 uu 7
dz 16 m 55 uu 28
dz 17 n 57 V !3
e 63 ni 59 X 38
i 62 0 4 y 25
a 65 oi 31 z 36
f 69 oi 33 z 37
g >4 00 5
 Abbreviations

At Aramic LH Liturgical Hebrew

Ashk Ashkenazic MHG Middle High German
BR Byelo-Russian NA North American
CG Central German NEY New East Yiddish
CY Central Yiddish NHG New High German
CE Christian Era NLG New Low German
Cz Czech OE Old English
EY East Yiddish OHG Old High German
EYN East Yiddish, Northern OWY Old West Yiddish
EYS East Yiddish, Southern OY Old Yiddish
EYSE East Yiddish, Southeastern P Polish
EYSW East Yiddish, Southwestern R Russian
Eng English Sem Semitic
Fr French SI Slavonic/Slavic
Ger German Sp Spanish
Gk Greek Uk Ukrainian
H Hebrew UG Upper German
HG High German WY West Yiddish
Lat Latin Y Yiddish
LG Low German Zar Zarphadc
 PART ONE

INTRODUCTION
 1

Jewish Languages

A I C L A S S IF IC A T IO N

It is a well-known fact that there are at present and have been in the past, a number
of linguistic structures which are to be met with only among Jews. Owing to the
complexity of things Jewish, the most varied views have been expressed about
everything connected with these structures and they have not been understood to
be what they are. Their very classification and the names with which they have
been labelled bear testimony to this fact. They have been termed mixed languages,
Creolized or corrupted languages, jargons, dialects, Judaeo- followed
by the name of some language, etc. Let us examine these appellations.

1Mixed languages'
Can the term mixed rightly be applied here? The epithet mixed is employed
by linguists as well as by laymen in describing certain languages to indicate that
the vocabulary is derived from two or more major sources. If, however, it came to
a detailed discussion, there would be no agreement as to what would be the precisc
borderline between pure and *mixed. How, for instance, should a language be
classified when its two main elements are present in the ratio of 4 to 1? The diffi-
culties increase when, in addition, criteria taken from the spheres of phonology,
morphology and syntax are applied. German, Polish and Japanese, for example,
would not be included by some in the category of *mixed, while others might
perhaps even exclude English, Turkish, Persian and Nahuatl. But if the criteria
chosen were very strict, then how many of the worlds languages would qualify
for the title of pure at all ?
As to the linguistic structures that have sprung up in the course of the long

! See p. 3ao, No. 34.

 4 Introduction

history of the Jewish people, these vary in the degree of their mixedness. Some are
decidedly less mixed than English or Persian. If a popular criterion were to be
applied, then the borderline between pure and mixed would cut across these
Jewish linguistic structures. In other words, since mixedness is not a main charac-
teristic common to all of them, the term mixed languages would not be a suitable
general designation.

Creolized languages'
Then we have the expression Creolized. It is difficult to see why the designation
for languages developed on the basis of Spanish, Portuguese, French, Dutch or
English by Blacks of Latin America and elsewhere should appear to be suitable
for the linguistic structures of the Jews. We might quite as readily call the Romance
languages Creolized Latin. For the process is not essentially different when Gauls,
Iberians, Dacians, Slavs, etc., adopt and transform Latin, or when Blacks do that
to Spanish, Portuguese etc.

Valuation
To those who believe their mother tongue to be pure, the term mixed in connec-
tion with a language would frequently convey something opprobrious. And the
note of imagined superiority may presumably be traced back to the Negro origin
of Creole.
With the element of valuation that is here present, an extra-linguistic criterion
has been introduced. Generally speaking, the reaction of many people to a form of
speech similar and yet clearly different from their own, is inclined to be negative.
If that other happens to be merely another dialect of their own language, we often
find them poking fun at it. If, however, it is a cognate language, then it sometimes
inspires unpleasant feelings, especially when the speakers of it belong to a group
numerically inferior to their own. This negative attitude - which may still be, on
the whole, confined to the language - becomes tinged with a certain hostility and
contempt when the linguistic structure in question belongs to a locally near but
otherwise very different group, and the more so, when additional reasons for
antagonism are not wanting and when that other group happens to be a weak
minority. Such an attitude is based on very deep-rooted facts of group psychology.
That even scholars do not always escape its influence is borne out by the way they
often take sides when the question of choosing between two foreign languages
arises. Many of them subconsciously prefer the language of the bigger and there-
fore more powerful people. As a rule that language is, naturally, the one with the
better developed literary style and the one which has longer enjoyed the attention
of philologists. When, therefore, a scholar classifies Ukrainian, Afrikaans or Yiddish
as belonging not to the higher but to the lower category of languages - referring
 5 Jewish Languages

to them as dialects, etc. - then his valuation is not objective, he has allowed power
to be the deciding factor in his classification.
A negative attitude, such as this one, may arise also from another cause. A
layman who hears or reads a language similar to and yet clearly different from his
own, feels disturbed by forms that do not tally with what he considers the norm.
In the scholar these feelings may then crystallize into that *schoolmaster* attitude
which is strong in us all, and which will tolerate only the known, the clearly defined,
the rule, while abhorring the unknown, the undefined, the seemingly chaotic.

Corrupted languages'
The attitude of valuation that is latent in the term mixed, and is more clearly
present in Creolized, comes frankly into the open when the linguistic structures
of the Jews are described as corrupted forms of other languages. The word
corrupted conveys the idea that something has been changed from a sound state
to a decayed one, the thing having now become unfit, or, at all events, much less
suitable for use than it was before. Can such a description be applicable to the
linguistic structures of the Jews? Is it true that Yiddish or Didy6/Diidezmu
fulfil their function less successfully than, say, German and Spanish do ?
Let us first of all state one point clearly: it is not with literary values that we
are concerned here. Whether we choose to assign a higher rank to German and
Spanish literatures than to those of Yiddish and Diidy6 is irrelevant. It is a fact
that Yiddish or Diidyo fulfil the function of languages - means of communication
and expression - quite as well as German and Spanish do. Since that is the case
and since their development from German to Yiddish, or from Spanish to Diidy6,
has not robbed them of their suitability for doing so, they cannot rightly be called
corrupted languages.
We might go further and ask whether there is such a thing as a corrupted*
language at all. Let us imagine a case where the language of a certain group is
adopted by another group. Each individual acquires it in an imperfect form. He
might, if we chose, be said to be speaking a more or less corrupted form of that
language. But it would then denote language of an individual, which is an entirely
different matter again. Now, the corrupted speech of individual newcomers does
not affect the original language of the group from whom it was adopted (unless
the old group has been submerged by the new one and has taken over its language).
The individual language spoken by each newcomer w gradually improve and
his children will, in the ordinary way, speak the pure language of the majority.
If, however, the newcomers are not absorbed singly but maintain their collective
life, then the version they speak, even though it be at variance with the original
language of adoption, fulfils the functions of a group language - it has its own
norms, it is not unfit for use, not is it less suitable as a vehicle of expression and
 6 Introduction

communication than the language it is descended* from, i.e., it is not a corrupted

form of it. It is an independent language of its own. In short, there are no corrup-
ted languages. Hence, the linguistic structures formed by the Jews cannot be
described as such.
The word corrupted has the connotation ugly. In the case of a language
it would mean that deviation from the accepted standard has rendered the resulting
language ugly. But such a term would be inadmissible in this context, since
beauty is something subjective, and, to the speaker of the corrupted language,
his form of speech would appear the more aesthetically satisfying.

1Jargons'
The remarks in the preceding section apply also to the expression *jargon, which
is sometimes applied in a simibr sense. But what about jargon in its specific
meaning: special lingo of a class, profession and the like? The members of a
particular class, trade or other group speak the same language as the members of
all the other classes, trades and so forth, of their people but they use a number of
words and idioms connected with their particular sphere of activity. If the term
jargon is applied to these Jewish linguistic structures, then the implication is
that their speakers are using the language of those about them, with the mere
addition of a number of words and idioms connected with their particular activities
as Jews. But this is obviously not the case here. Jargon is therefore not a suitable
designation.

Dialccts
The various appellations we have been discussing are, more or less, tinged with a
bck of sympathy for the speakers. When these Jewish linguistic structures are
called dialects then there is rather less criticism in that term - although, among
laymen, the idea that dialect is something inferior is, no doubt, still prevalent
enough and has by no means disappeared even among philologists.
The term dialect, as distinct from either language or standard language,
means the speech of a certain region, closely connected with the speech of adjoining
regions, and less closely so with the speech of more distant regions. The difference
may be sufficiently great to make conversation between dialect speakers of widely
separated regions impossible, e.g., between a cockney and a countryman from
Lancashire, or between dialect speakers from Munich and Hamburg. And yet
the former are both regarded as speakers of English and the latter two of German.
But why are Dutchmen and Germans considered to be speaking different
languages, when Dutch and Low German (Hamburg is in Low German territory)
are, from a purely linguistic point of view, very closely related ? No linguistic
 7 Jewish Languages

borderline separates them, the political frontier cutting through certain dialects
which they have in common.
It would thus appear that the linguistic affinity which a number of regions have
with each other does not, of itself, constitute the unity of the language. What does
is the fact that a certain group of dialects owns an interdialectal means of written,
and - in various degrees - of oral communication. The existence of a standard
language symbolizes the unity of the language. Its origin, however, is not linguistic.
It has not primarily sprung from the requirements of communication, although
this element has played a role in its development. It is the political and/or cultural
unity of the speakers of a particular group of dialects that provides the basis for a
common Uterary or standard language.
In the light of the foregoing, let us consider whether the linguistic structures
of the Jews can be described as dialects. Take Yiddish and Didy6, for example.
Is Yiddish, the vehicle of expression employed by the Ashkenazim, a dialect of
German in the same way as Bavarian or Alemannic ? Is Dfidy6, the language
employed by the Sephardim, a dialect of Spanish in the same way as Andalusian
or Aragonese ?
The people of Bavaria and Andalusia are said to speak dialects of German and
Spanish because they belong to the cultural groups caUed German and Spanish,
whose unity found expression in the literary and standard languages. But did
pre-Emancipation Jews in Germany constitute part of the cultural life of the
Germans ? Certainly not. Did the Ashkenazim of Eastern Europe, at any time
within the last nine centuries, form part and parcel of the cultural life of the
Germans ? Obviously not. Did medieval Jewry in Spain form an integral part of
the cultural life of the Spaniards ? Did the Sephardim in the countries round the
Mediterranean ? Obviously not. As to the Sephardim, there was no longer even a
connection with the territory of Spain (whereas the East European Ashkenazim
were never completely cut off from contact of some sort or other with their kin in
Germany).
If a certain group does not form an integral part of a certain people, then their
speech, even though it be *genetically related, cannot be called a dialect of that
peoples language. Hence Yiddish, D2idy6, Parsic and Maaravic cannot be called
dialects of German, Spanish, Persian and Maghrebinian Arabic.

*Judaea- plus ...

Another, much favoured, type of designation is that which qualifies the name of a
base language by the introductory word Judaeo: Judaeo-German, Judaeo-
Persian, Judaeo-Spanish and the like. This qualification is used in the following
two main senses: The name Judaeo-Spanish, for instance, might be intended to
give a rough picture of an historical process, i.e., to describe a language which has
 8 Introduction

been developed from Spanish by Jews. On the other hand, the implication might
be that, although containing certain Jewish elements, the linguistic structure in
question is essentially a part of the Spanish language. The first of these explana-
tions is open to the objection that it is out of keeping with linguistic usage and that
it would otherwise be only consistent to speak of French as Gallo-Latin, or of
Franco-German, Anglo-German or Norman-Anglo-Saxon instead of English.
Where, however, Judaeo-Spanish simply means the Jewish section of the Spanish
language, we must ask once more: If the group speaking Judaeo-Spanish is not
a section of the Spanish people, sharing their culture with the Spaniards, then how
can their language constitute a part of the Spanish tongue ?
This type of designation has been, and is, as a rule, used by scholars. In one
case, however, a growing awareness of the true state of the matter has at last resulted
in the almost complete abandonment of its use: The appellation *Judaeo-German
has nearly everywhere been replaced by the name Yiddish.

Languages*
We have passed in review a number of designations for the linguistic structures
that have sprung up among the Jews, and have found them wanting. Will the last
of these, that of languages, be more appropriate ? The definition of a language
we have arrived at is: the oral and written means of communication and expression
of a clearly defined cultural group. Since each group of Jews that has a linguistic
structure of its own is such a cultural entity, its speech can only be described as a
*language.
Therefore when philologists interested in German, Spanish or Persian regard
the dialects of the Jews or the *Judaeo- plus ... languages as useful sources of
information about earlier stages of German, Spanish or Persian, then, of course,
that is ail to the good. But they mostly fail to realize that the Jews themselves,
no less than their languages, are not merely peripheral points around the German,
Spanish or Persian centre but that they are centres in their own right.
There are other reasons too, why we are justified in using the term languages.
Although the designation language cannot be based solely upon linguistic cri-
teria: on phonetics, grammar and vocabulary (and if anybody set about trying to
rearrange the languages of the world on the basis of these facts only, it would result
in a very drastic revision of the existing pattern of classification), it is none the less
clear that when two forms of group speech are essentially unlike each other, they
can safely be called independent languages. The extent of their dissimilarity
indicates that the history of their speakers is very different, that they belong to
separate cultural groups. Upon the application of such a practical criterion, based
on purely linguistic differences, a number of the linguistic structures of the Jews
would inevitably qualify to be called languages. Take Yiddish, for example. There
 9 Jewish Languages

are not many words whose phonetical form is identical in Yiddish and German;
there are sweeping differences in their inflectional and syntactical systems and in
their word order; only small parts of the vocabularies of Yiddish and German are
identical, since even the 50 to 60 per cent of the Yiddish vocabulary which is
shaped from German material contains many new formations; and there is very
great divergence of development on the semantic side even in the material which
the layman might regard as identical.
It would not be extravagant to consider the question as to whether the term
*Jewish language might not be appropriate even if the language of a Jewish group
and its non-Jewish parallel were to differ only in the alphabet employed. For
difference of script is an unmistakeable sign that the writers of the languages live
in separate cultural realms and the very difference is itself instrumental in creating
what amounts to an insurmountable practical barrier between the written languages
of the two groups. How many non-Jews, even of those scholars interested in one
or the other of the Jewish languages, have overcome the barrier of the alphabet ?
And how many pre-Assimilation Jews living in Germany were able to read German,
or, how many of the Jews settled in the Near East or in North Africa were able to
read Arabic, or Persian in Persia, notwithstanding the fact that they were every-
where perfectly able to converse with the non-Jews around them ? The same point
applies, of course, to the relation between non-Jewish languages. The dissimilarity
between Greco-Turkish and Arabo-Turkish was clearly very great, but even
just another variety of the same script can ofTer real difficulties. It seems, for
example, to be generally agreed that Gothic script presents a great obstacle to
the foreigner even though he may know German very well. And when the script
appears in its handwritten form, the obstacle easily becomes insurmountable.

B / L A N G U A G E S O F JE W S AND J E W I S H LANGUAGES

The existence of all these Jewish languages is a striking phenomenon. What does
it signify ?
New languages are, of course, perpetually coming into existence throughout
history. Why that happens is sometimes obvious, as in the case of English, but
at other times the reason is far from self-evident. What are the causes that have
been at work behind the creativeness of the Jews in this field? We have been
offered quite a choice of explanations: race, national spirit, conservatism, loyalty,
migration, the ghetto, religion. Let us examine these in turn.

Race
If we were to assume that every race has its individual manner of apperception
and reaction, then we might expect this fact to find linguistic expression. Since
 io Introduction

the Jews, like most or all other human groups, are a compound of various races,
we should first have to ascertain what the particular manner of apperception and
reaction of each particular race is. This would not be a simple matter. Next,
we should have to establish how it would express itself in language. And following
on this would be the task of extricating the various threads, intermingled and
combined, which, in each language, correspond to the *racial constituents of the
group in question.
To do that is not feasible.

The national spirit*

According to another explanation, the ,national spirit of the Jews has to find an
outlet in their languages of adoption, with the result that it reshapes the linguistic
material in accordance with its own need and nature.
But what is meant by national spirit? Is it, by any chance, just another name
for the psychic characteristics of *race? Or is it something more tangible: the
sum total of the influences and results of this peoples history ? However that might
be, the national spirit is not, in itself, an adequate explanation, even though it
might be a step in the right direction.

Conservatism
It has often been noted that the Jewish languages contain phonological and mor-
phological features, words and constructions which belonged to an earlier stage
of non-Jewish languages but that have disappeared from these, either from the
standard languages or from the dialects, or from both. Diidy6, for example, has
the phonemes /5/ and /dz/ of Old Spanish, while modern Spanish has /x/ for both:
Di, deldr - Sp. dejar /dexar/, Di. dzugar - Sp. jugar /xugar/. Yiddish has a word
hait which has disappeared from German and English (where it survives only as a
suffix: Kindheit, childhood, maidenhead). Forms like Yiddish Itdyny Jewess,
fuudym thread correspond to the MHG jiidmne, vadem, where NHG has Judin,
Faden. The construction visn zaan to be informed in Yiddish corresponds to a
general m h g construction consisting of the present participle plus the substantive
verb, e.g., wi^ende sm, which has vanished in NHG.
The presence of such archaisms was, and perhaps still is, regarded by some as
the distinguishing mark of the Jewish languages, these archaic features being
then attributed to Jewish conservatism - and that would explain the existence of
those Jewish languages themselves. Although Jewish conservatism is an acknow-
ledged fact, it has nothing to do with archaisms. Any pair of cognate languages
will furnish numerous examples of the same kind. English has preserved the old
jtj where (High) German has /ts/, e.g., to - zu\ English has the verb to sell which
 11 Jewish Languages

has vanished from German, though it was still alive in m h g : sellen. It would not
be reasonable to make the well known conservatism of the English people respon-
sible for this fact. German, on the other hand, has preserved the vowel /e/ which
English has changed into /i/, e.g., sehn [ze:n] - see [si:]. It is only when seen from
a distorted angle that 1archaic* features assume disproportionate weight in the
Jewish languages and are overlooked in their non-Jewish parallel languages. As
seen from the perspective of Yiddish, German has preserved much more that is
old than vice versa. For instance, there are no Yiddish cognates for many words,
even essential ones: immer, niemand, uberall, langsam, beschutzen, empfangen\
standard German and half of the dialects continue to employ the preterite, which
has disappeared from Yiddish. When, in speaking of archaic' features in Jewish
languages, such expressions as 1preservation of ancient treasures have been used,
it would have been only consistent to do the same in comparing English and
German, pointing out, for instance, that German has faithfully preserved a treasure
such as Stuck piece, from m h g stuck, while Anglo-Saxon stycce was lost to English.
It would not be easy to determine who are the better guardians of ancient treasures,
the French or the Spanish, since the former kept alive the Latin femina (Fr
femme) and the latter elected to preserve the Latin mulier (Sp mujer)!1
In fact, no special reasons need be sought for developments like these. Phonemes,
words, forms, constructions come into being, develop and disappear within a
language - mostly without relation to what is going on elsewhere. A form which
is common to two languages today, will start developing along its own lines in
either one tomorrow. It is therefore a matter of course that Yiddish, Diidy6 and
other Jewish languages should contain some forms which have died out in German,
Spanish and other non-Jewish languages.

L o y a lty
Another reason advanced for the existence of these languages has been the loyalty
of the Jew towards his former homelands language. He is said faithfully to have
taken it with him and clung to it in his new country. Is it reasonable, however, to
assume that the mentality of the medieval deportees, refugees and emigrants from
Germany and Spain would have been similar to that of present-day language
nationalists or of Jewish assimilationists ?
It does not seem necessary to assume particular conservatism or loyalty on the
pan of the Jews in preserving the language they had adopted. It is entirely natural
to adhere to ones language. On the contrary, since the change-over to another
language is a difficult process, it is not undertaken unless from strong pressure of
circumstances. In their new homes the Ashkenazim and Sephardim found various
1 Sp ktm kr < L it femim* is disqualified because it doc* not mean woman but , female animal.
 12 Introduction

linguistic communities living side by side and did not meet with pressure of lan-
guage nationalism, as we know it today. These facts, together with the fact that
the Jews were generally living in compact groups and leading a concentrated
Jewish life, explain why they did not abandon their languages in favour of the
local *language of the country.

Migration
Geographical separation is frequently given as the reason responsible for the re-
moulding of the languages that the Jews adopted. This factor, which plays so
important a role in linguistic history in general, doubtless explains much: the
Jews who had left a certain territory, kept up, developed and discarded in their
languages other elements than did the Gentiles who had stayed behind; the
languages of the countries where the Jews settled exerted their influence, while
that of their former homeland had ceased. But the geographical factor, i.e., emi-
gration, is not present in the development of every Jewish language; it is not the
general underlying cause for the creation of these tongues. The following are
instances where, in spite of the absence of geographical separation, a Jewish
language nevertheless grew up: West Yiddish, which existed about a thousand
years in German-speaking territory; Italkian, which remained almost wholly on
Italian soil; the Maaravic of North West Africa which differs in vocabulary,
morphology and phonology from the Arabic of the Islamic neighbours of the
Jews.

Ghetto
This difference between the speech of the Jews and that of the Christians in whose
midst they lived seemed so abnormal to the people of the post-Emancipation
period that some striking reason had to be sought to account for it. This, they
imagined, they found in the fact that the Jews were *compulsorily secluded from
the national community, so that, confined to the ghetto, their speech lost contact
with the general development. This is equivalent to the geographical explanation.
But the ghettos were by no means cut off from the Gentile quarters. They were,
on the whole, a measure to segregate the Jews into quarters of their own but not to
lock them into a prison; Jews had to buy, trade and work outside the ghettos, too.
There would still have been as much or more intercourse with the Gentiles of the
same town in that period than there is often today between speakers of different
dialects in the same country. Hence the geographical explanation does not hold
in the case of the ghetto. While being a contributory factor it cannot have been
the reason for the separate linguistic development of the Jews. Moreover, there
were Jewish languages in existence previous to the ghetto and where there was no
ghetto.
 !3 Jewish languages

Tht group-formmgfactor
None of the foregoing explanations adequately explains why and how the Jewish
languages came into existence. The geographical explanation is relevant to some
extent when applied to some of the Jewish languages, although it does not provide
the whole explanation for them. The cause that we are seeking must be common
to all of the Jewish languages. Could we not expect to find it expressed by the
presence in all of them of certain common features? There are such features. All
Jewish languages contain elements of Hebrew and Aramic origin and are written
in Hebrew characters. Where do these Hebrew and Aramic elements come from ?
And why are these languages written in Hebrew characters ?
These elements belong to an uninterrupted development in speech and writing.
They represent the present linguistic stage of a continuous process, previous
stages of which had crystallized into the language of the Bible, that of the Mishna,
the Gemara, the Prayers, etc. In other words, they are connected with the sphere
of religion.*
Language is an expression of group life. These elements are linguistic evidence
that the groups employing them have their basis in religion. In other words:
The group-forming factor among the Jews has been religion. That this is true of
the past is beyond doubt, even if, in certain cases, it is controversial today. If the
Jewish religion creates Jewish groups, and if group life creates language, then the
Jewish languages have been the creations of religion.

Religion and script

The religious basis of the Jewish languages is confirmed by their script. Though
it might sound strange to many of us in this secularized world, it is none the less
a fact that the script in which a language is written is, broadly speaking, decided
by the religion of its speakers. Maltese, which is materially an Arabic language,
is written in Roman characters because the Maltese are a Christian people belong-
ing to the Western Church; the same applies to the Croats, and they therefore use
the same letters for Croatian, while Serbian, which to all practical purposes is
identical with Croatian, is written in the Cyrillic characters employed by the
Eastern Churches. Urdu is written in Arabic characters, those of the Koran,
since it is an Islamic language; High Hindi,' which is a Hinduized adaptation of
Urdu, employs the Devanagari script, a Hindu inheritance. A long list of further
examples could be provided. Cases where the religious factor has not been at
least the historical cause for the use of a script seem to be rare, even if among

a That docs not imply that such word! are exclusively *religous term*.' On the contrary, only a
small minority of them can be thus icy led. Moreover, these dements are not confined to the
vocabulary but are to be found also in mast of the other linguistic spheres.
 14 Introduction

them we must number so important an exception as the adoption of the alphabet

in antiquity by practically the whole of the Old World, apart from the Far East.
When, in 1928, Roman characters were substituted in Turkey for Arabic ones on
the order of Kemal Atatiirk, this was part of his Westernizing and secularizing
policy. He did not realize - nor would he, of course, have cared if he had done so -
that even this secularized West, together with its civilization, was not only built
on Christian foundations but has continued to be essentially Christian.

SecularizedJewish language
It may be asked: Is there not a powerful argument against acceptance of the thesis
that religion has been the source of Jewish linguistic creation ? Does not the very
existence of Jewish languages in the present disprove the argument ? Considerable
sections of Jewry, more or less completely secularized, have continued to maintain
their Jewish language. We ourselves have witnessed the rise of movements defi-
nitely outside the sphere of religion, which base national life largely upon language.
But this does not invalidate o u t argument. For even though its creator may no
longer exist, the group docs not therefore inevitably have to disappear or lose its
language. The change in the groups nature will, however, find linguistic expression.
Thus the language of the secularized Jews is not the same as that of their fathers
or of their unsecularized brothers. If, for example, we compare the Yiddish or
Diidezmu/Diidy6 of modern Jews with that of the traditionalists, it strikes us
at once that the proportion of Hebrew and Aramaic elements has become much
smaller, that it is often very small indeed, having been replaced by modern German
elements in Yiddish, or by French ones in Dfidy6. This is a linguistic indication
of the fact that the 1secularized sections have in reality become independent
groups and that one ought not, logically, speak of a new development having
started in Yiddish, for example, but that it would be more correct to say that
Yiddish had begun to split up into two divergent languages.

Jewish linguistics
The subject which we have treated in rough outline above is of fundamental
importance for the vast field of Jewish linguistics and philology which is largely
still virgin soil. Certain Jewish languages have been made the subject of research,
and Yiddish here takes the first place, but what has been achieved is only a begin-
ning in relation to what still needs to be undertaken. A very great deal less has been
done for Dfidy6/D2idezmu and yet that little is much compared with the amount
of research expended on the other - mostly small - Jewish languages. Id so far as
its post-Biblical history is concerned, Hebrew itself is no exception. But even if
the study of aU these Languages were much farther advanced, we should still be
dealing only with the linguistics and philologies of various Jewish Languages but
 !5 Jewish Languages

not yet with Jewish linguistics and philology, whose task would be the co-ordination
of them.
Such an undertaking obviously presents great difficulties. The history of the
Jewish languages stretches through more than thirty centuries, and their far flung
territories girdle half the globe: Palestine with Ancient Hebrew and Ancient West
Aramic; Mesopotamia with Ancient East Aramic; Persia with Parsic; Central
Asia with Bukharic; the Caucasus with Tatic of the Iranian family, and, presum-
ably, Armenic of Indo-European, and Gurjic (in Georgia) of a Caucasian stock;
Egypt, Byzantium and Greece with Yevanic; Italy with Italkian; Northern France
with Zarphatic (extinct); the Iberian Peninsula with Catalanic, Portugesic (both
extinct) and D4idy6, until 1492, and since then in the Mediterranean countries,
with colonies overseas; Provence with Shuadit (extinct); Western Asia with
Arvic, Temanic and New East Aramic; Eastern North Africa with Arvic; North
West Africa with Maaravic and Berberic; Eastern Europe and countries extending
round all the Seven Seas, with Yiddish, with remnants in Germany until World
War 11; the Crimea with Crimchak of the Turkic family; India with small Jewish
languages of the Indo-Aryan and Dravidian families; Eastern Europe and the
Near East, with the Karaite languages of Hellenic, Semitic and Turkic stock,
and finally, Samaritan. The field is indeed extensive.
 The Cultural Structure of
East Ashkenazic Jewry

The earliest Jewish settlers in Eastern Europe were Byzantine Jews. During the
first thousand years of the Christian era, they came from the Balkans and the Black
Sea regions, that is, from East Rome and the Khazar Empire (which stretched from
Kiev to the Caspian Sea and Armenia). They were followed by Jewish immigrants
from the West of Europe, and were absorbed by these newcomers.
We shall deal here only with those arrivals who settled in the north-western
area of Eastern Europe. They had started coming from the tenth century onwards,
arriving in successive waves that for several centuries rolled eastward from the
Rhine - what is now Central Germany, Bavaria and Austria - to the lands of the
Bohemian and Polish crowns, and from there on to the adjacent countries. These
Jews are called Ashkenazim.
To differentiate them from the people they left behind in their former homes,
the West Ashkenazim, they can be called the East Ashkenazim. They are sometimes
called East European, or Eastern Jews, but we shall not use either of these terms
because the first does not take into account the existence of a number of other
(less important and smaller) Jewish groups in Eastern Europe, and the second is
open to the objection that *Eastern also has the special meaning of *Oriental,
and the Oriental Jews are, of course, a different subject.

The East Ashkenazim

By the tenth century the territorial distribution of the East Ashkenazim can be
indicated by the following borderlines: in the west by the eastern frontiers of
Germany, Moravia and Austria as they were in 1938, in the south by the Danube,
in the north by the Finnish Gulf, in the east, before the Russian revolution, by
the eastern frontiers of the Ukraine and White Russia.
In other words, they lived side by side with Poles, Slovaks, Magyars, Rumanians,
 17 Cultural Structure of East Ashkenazic Jewiy

Ukrainians, Byelo-Russians, Estonians, Lithuanians and Letts, or to use political

frontiers, they inhabited Poland, Galicia, Volhymia, Podolia, the Ukraine, Vallachia,
Moldavia, Rumania and eastern Hungary. The Jews of Slovakia and western
Hungary, together with those of Moravia and Bohemia, formed a transition group
to the West Ashkenazim.
The East Ashkenazic is the largest of all the Jewish groups. In about the year
1700, the whole Ashkenazic group formed approximately half of world Jewry,
and before World War 11 the East Ashkenazim alone constituted three quarters
of that population, roughly twelve miUion people. The slaughter of a very great
part (about five million) of this community during that war created a new situation
but it did not, of course, result in their extinction. Parts of the Polish, Hungarian
and Rumanian Jewries and the majority of Soviet Jewry escaped annihilation,
and there was and is East Ashkenazic life outside Eastern Europe too.

Social structure
Let us first examine the social structure which formed the basis of East Ashkenazic
life. It will be helpful to compare its conditions with those that existed among the
Jewries of Western Europe.
Here there was practically one class only, the middle class, with little diflferen-
tiation into higher and lower strata. Among the East Ashkenazim, however, the
position was more like that of other peoples, having all the elements of a normal
social stratification. There was a large working class, both of the artisan and indus-
trial type, various groups belonging to the middle class, as well as a fanner class.
The latter consisted partly of old established farmers and partly of new ones who
grew to prominence in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries - the result of
spontaneous economic development on the one hand and organized enterprise on
the other. There were farmers in many places, from Bessarabia to Lithuania and
from the Crimea to the Carpathians, where (in Ruthenia) Khassidic farmers tilled
the soil in their traditional Jewish garb. Here, as pre-War statistics reveal, 2$ per
cent of the Jewish population were engaged in agriculture. That was about twenty
times higher than the percentage among the German Jews of that time (the early
thinies). Other penincnt figures are: 18 per cent among the Jews of Galicia, and
10 per cent in White Russia. It might be of interest to compare the general, non-
Jewish, figure for Great Britain, which was 7 percent, for Canada 28 per cent, and
for the United States of America 2$ per cent.
A corresponding picture is presented by the other end of the sociological stat-
istics. While $0 per cent of the German Jews were active in commerce and finance,
Soviet Jewry counted only 19 per cent, the Jews of Ruthenia 25 per cent, and those
of Galicia 30 per cent in these areas of endeavour.
 18 Introduction

Cultural structure
Let us imagine ourselves in a city of Eastern Europe before World War 11- Cracow,
for example. We wander through an attractive modern city, the centre of which
has preserved much of its medieval beauty. Suddenly our senses tell us that we
have entered some other world. The people who meet our eyes are in a garb com-
pletely different from what we had been seeing only a moment ago. The expressions
on their faces are worlds apart from the expressions of the others. Our ears hear a
language so unlike what we had heard in those other streets, that we could tell
at once that it is a different one, even if we did not know either of them. From
innumerable windows and doors unusual sounds reach us. They come, we learn,
from congregations at prayer - those windows and doors belong to places of wor-
ship, ranging from small rooms in residential buildings to large institutes of study
and houses of prayer - where, in an uninterrupted succession, divine services
follow each other from early dawn until almost noon, and then again in the after-
noon, evening and night.
Even if we had not known before what part of the town we were now in, we
would have realized at once that we had entered the Jewish quarter by the fact that
all the men, including youths, had beards.

Territorial concentration
The existence of a purely Jewish quarter was a fact of great significance in Eastern
Europe. In the countries of the West it was different: a Jewish district here was
one with a certain percentage, mostly a fairly small one, of Jewish inhabitants, and
where there was a real Jewish quarter it had more often than not been created by
East Ashkenazic immigrants.
In many regions of Eastern Europe the towns had been for all the centuries of
their existence predominantly Jewish enclaves in a Gentile countryside. Even where
the Jews were only a minority, it was generally a large one. Where the Jews com-
prised somewhat more than a fifth of the population, as in our example, Cracow,
the percentage might be regarded as rather low. In Warsaw, for instance, with its
third of a million Jewish inhabitants, the figure was one third; in many medium-
sized centres they constituted up to 90 per cent, in somewhat smaller towns the
percentages often approached 100.
It may not be out of place here to say a few words about the explanation that has
sometimes been given for this territorial concentration. We are told that the Jews
were forced into ghettos. However, the real explanation is, of course, that it is
natural for migrating ethnic groups to settle in districts of their own, whether urban
or rural, and such settlements are to be found all over the world and are not
confined to Jews. There was no ghetto in New York, for instance, to assemble its
millions of Jews.
 !9 Cultural Structure of East Ashkenazic Jewry

Cultural community
A visit to a Jewish town, or to the Jewish quarter of a town in Eastern Europe
made it clear to a Westerner that the Jews here formed a separate cultural entity.
The Jews of Western and Central Europe, however, did not. There were no
such distinct outlines - the borderlines between them and their Gentile surround-
ings were more than blurred. They had the same educational background as their
respective neighbours, the same general outlook and practically identical customs.
Apart from certain traces in the speech of some, the language they spoke was the
same as that of the Gentiles around them. They took an active and creative part
in their literature and a passive one by reading it. The little which was written
there for Jews as such cannot be called a Jewish literature. It follows from all this
that they were split up into as many groups as were the civilizations in whose
territories they lived.

Cultural autonomy
With the East Ashkenazic Jew's it was otherwise. The cultural borderlines between
them and their Gentile neighbours were not blurred. In other words, they were
unmistakably a people apart - a distinctive ethnic or national group.
They had their own religion, their own language, their own literature, their
own customs and costumes. Thus, in the cultural sphere, they lived an autonomous
life. It was not merely a slightly coloured variant of somebody else*s life: nor was
it ruled by laws that had grown from another peoples soul, or measured with a
standard derived from another peoples nature.
Not only did they form a distinctive cultural group in each country where
they lived, but all these groups together constituted a unity. There were, of course,
regional differences, but they by no means coincided with the political frontiers.
The differentiation resulting from political frontiers dividing them was slight or
nil.

Religion
Let us now examine some of the aspects that made up the internal life of East
Ashkenazic Jewry. We shall start with religion.
In the West of Europe, extensive Jewish strata had only an extremely loose
connection with religion, or none at all. This resulted from assimilation to their
surroundings. Modem Western civilization, especially in the big towns, and it
was mainly these which the Jews inhabited, is not very favourable to religion. The
Judaism of those who had somewhat more connection with religion, even the
traditional Judaism of the Orthodox, was coloured by Gentile influence. In the
East of Europe, however, Judaism still existed in an undiluted form.
Nothing was, perhaps, more characteristic than the existence of religious folk
 20 Introduction

songs (religious lyrical poetry) and the role of these in everyday life. Here are a
few examples, the first being one from a group centring round the Deity:

Forest, oh Forest, how big you are.

Bride, oh Bride, how far you are
When the forest will be taken away
Wc shall come together one day.

Exile, oh Exile, how long you are

God, oh God, how far you are
When the exile will be taken away
We shall come together one day.1

The next specimen is characteristic of a group whose subject is the Jewish

people in its relation to God:

1 was once a shepherd and

I took my flock to the pasture land.
But soon I fell asleep.
And when I woke I had no sheep.
Then on my fiddle I sadly played,
My sheep are stolen lost or strayed.
And I began to weep.

As I walked along the way,

I met a man with a load of hay.
I thought I saw the heads of my sheep,
But there were none though 1 rummaged deep.
Then on my fiddle I sadly played,
My sheep are stolen lost or strayed,
And I began to weep.

So I wandered on until
I found myself upon a hill;
And on the hill I saw a heap -
I thought they were the bones of my sheep,
But they were stones. Then I sadly played,
My sheep are stolen lost or strayed,
And I began to weep.1
1 Translated by Joseph Lefrwich. Front bis anthology Tht Goldtn PtKock (London 1939).
 21 Cultural Structure of East Ashkenazic Jewry

During a short stay in Galicia in 1930 I heard a variant of this song which
makes its religious meaning quite clear. Here is the last verse:

So he did wander further,

To a hill of straw came he,
And his sheep he there did see.
And he began to cry:
*Oh sheep, my little sheep!
And now my sheep are here again,
And now my sheep are here again,
Are here, are here again.
He took his fiddle and began to play:
Falee, falee, falah, falay,
And now I can go home to you,
To you, to you, my Master,
Because my sheep are here again,
Because my sheep are here again,
Are here, are here again -
Kyvakuuras roiy edroi
Maavir coinoi taxas sivtoi.3

The name of the author of the next specimen is known: it was written by
Esther Shtub, a girl of twelve, in a German concentration camp, during the
building of hutments.

One, two, three,

When will we be free ?
Barefoot, tattered, lone and hungry,
Where is Dad and where is Mummy P
God! It breaks the heart in me.

One, two, three,

Each day eternity.
Dragging planks and bricks and stones,
Oh! the weight of dead mens bones.
God! It breaks the heart in me.

2 The two last lines, in Hebrew, are from a very solemn prayer in which God is compared with a
shepherd: Like as a shepherd counts his flock, / As the sheep pass beneath his staff.
3 Translated by Irene Birabaum.
 22 Introduction

One, two, three.

Lord, I cry to Thee.
Mass graves, corpses crowded high,
Children without mothers lie.
It breaks the heart in me.
One, two, three,
We turn our eyes to Thee.
Fulfil Thy word: Yisruuel3* Khaay,
Israel1 lives and will not die.
God! We wait for Thee.3
Finally, a little song:
And can we scale heavn
And demand to know:
*Must it be so, my God,
Does it have to be so ?
It must be so,
It has to be so,
It cannot on earth
Be other than so.3b
These verses possess something characteristic of the East Ashkenazic religious
atmosphere. What, we might ask, are the theoretical essentials from which they
emanate ? Perhaps they may be described somewhat as follows. The Universe is
the work of a Conscious Will. All natural and moral existence have their origin in
an all-powerful Creator. Hence joyous surrender to his law must be the basis of
human thought and action. Man is essentially a spiritual and moral being and
must give precedence to the spiritual over the material, and to the ethical over the
aesthetic.
He must go further, he must completely spiritualize the material sphere, and
saturate it with religious substance, from the highest to the most trifling of daily
acts, so that there can be no separation between sacred and profane. There must
be an absolute infusion of everything with religious content and meaning. Thus,
Judaism is a way of living for the totality of life, and this fact is never allowed to
be absent from consciousness, through the use of rites and symbols, whose purpose
it is to lift man out of the material onto the spiritual plane.
}a I.e., the Jewish people (this poem was published in 1945). See the original on p. 1S9.
3b See the original on p. 174.
 23 Cultural Structure of East Ashkenazic Jewry

All action must be based on the observance of Gods will, and this will has
found expression in the written teaching, the Bible, and the oral tradition handed
down in the Talmud.
This and the superstructure built upon this basis may, to one outside the tradi-
tion, have a somewhat bewildering, legal appearance. But within it there is room
for a whole range of religious experience and cultural self-expression. Life here is
by no means static or rigid. There is change and development within the confines
of these laws and regulations, although the foundation and framework remain
unaltered. This is weU exemplified in the movement of Chassidism.

Literature
The central position of religion in the life of the East Ashkenazim is naturally
reflected in their literature, which consists mainly of religious books. It must,
however, be borne in mind that for Judaism there is no sharp division between
the sacred and profane. Thus elements which in other literatures might be classified
under various headings are here included under that of religion.
A very great part of the writings is devoted to the theoretical elucidation of the
Talmud and to discussions about the concrete application of its results to problems
old and new. Many of those works gained importance not merely for their con-
temporaries but have become national possessions and have been in constant use
for centuries.
There is no pure fiction in the Hebrew branch of this literature, but the fic-
tional clement is not entirely lacking. We find it breaking through and enlivening
all sorts of books. There is a greater amount of it in the Yiddish branch, which is
of a more general character because its circle of readers is wider.
The Hebrew section has been not only the literature of the East Ashkenazim
but, to all intents and purposes, the Jewish literature ever since the sixteenth
century, when that community emerged as the cultural centre of world Jewry.

The East Ashkenazic dress

Dress plays a significant role in the religious life of the East Ashkenazic Jews.
Those outside the East Ashkenazic tradition will view the distinctive Jewish
garb as a folk costume or ,national dress. By its wearers, however, it is consid-
ered to be a religious duty. While in the non-Chassidic traditional strata distinctive
religious dress had gradually been losing ground, the Chassidim defended it
vigorously and did not give it up. The explanation that it is just the old Polish
costume, is not any truer than is the description of Yiddish as just an old German
dialect.
It is no accident that when a (non-Jewish) artist wants to paint a Jew, he, as a
 24 Introduction

rule, chooses an old-world type in his flowing garments. Is it not because he is

attracted by the harmony between the psychic and physical aspect of his mode! ?
Perhaps the following episode will illustrate this point. Some fifty years ago,
in Russia, an aged Armenian university professor confided to a modern Jewish
writer that he was a Shambat, a crypto-Jew, a descendant of the Ten Tribes.
This is how he put it: I experienced two pogroms in Kiev. I'll tell you the truth.
When a person like you [he meant a modem, secularized Jew] was beaten up, it
touched me, it hurt me. But when I saw a man with a beard being beaten up, a
man with pious, frightened, sad eyes, then I felt like shouting: Dont touch him!
He is my flesh and blood! Beat me instead! Oh, the eyes of pious Jews! And what
becomes of that quiet grace of theirs when they get secularized ?

Secularization
The East Ashkenazim did not remain unaffected by the ever increasing seculari-
zation of Europe. First the secularizing influence of the Gentile world and their
final initiative, in the form of Emancipation, breached the walls of Western Jewry
and created a Jewish Enlightenment movement. Very soon this spread to Eastern
Europe. But while, in the West, it had by the middle of the nineteenth century
succeeded in practically breaking up the Jewish community there - that is, in
destroying the Jewish national body - its effect in the east was very restricted.
This was due to the greater power of resistance resulting from a deeper and wider
development of group life, assisted by greater absolute and proportionate numbers.
The process worked so slowly there that it was not until well into the twentieth
century that the secularized section of the East Ashkenazim ceased to be merely a
minute fraction of the whole.
The number of East Ashkenazim in Europe alone, before World War 11, was
about equal to the population of a medium-sized country like Holland or Belgium.
The largeness of this figure resulted in the secularized section being of considerable
numerical size, even when it still constituted only a very small percentage of the
community as a whole. This was one of the reasons why outsiders sometimes car-
ried away the erroneous impression that a traditional East Ashkenazic Jewry no
longer existed, or that, if it did, it had become so small as to have lost all impor-
tance. Such a view was, in addition, strengthened by the remoteness of this group
and its reserve, which contrasted strongly with the activeness of the secularized
section and its contact and involvement with the Gentile world.

Nationalism
We have mentioned that the process of secularization had a very different effect
on the East Ashkenazim than on their kinsmen in the West, where it had atomized
 25 Cultural Structure of East Ashkenazic Jewry

the national community of the Jews. The individuals were absorbed, even if imper-
fectly, into the national communities of their homelands. But in the East such
absorption of an individual into the cultural body of a surrounding majority was
the exception. The intensity of the autonomous cultural life of the Jews here, the
mass character of their social structure and the nature of nineteenth-century
ideas - all these directed the change into a different channel. The new goal was
also assimilation to the Gentile world, but in a different way.
It was not, as in the West, the problem of the relationship between the individual
Jew and his Gentile environment that had to be solved. The problem here was the
relationship of that particular part of the Jewish nation to the Gentile nation of
its surroundings, as part of the relationship of the Jewish nation to the nations of
the world.
The Jewish position was recognized to be what it actually was: unusual,
abnormal. There was nothing new in that: the traditional conception had been
that, too. But there was this difference: it was now no longer recognized as being
part of God's world plan. The secularized mind refused to accept this. If by force
of historical circumstances the position of the Jews had become what it was, then
human effort must be directed towards transforming it. If the Jewish people had
ceased to be like the others, then it must revert to normality. The secularized
section became conscious secularizers. It was up to them to bring about a change.
They regarded themselves as the vanguard of the new Jewish people, a nation
in the making. Already in the early stages of this metamorphosis, the seeds of
subsequent differentiation were present, and in the late decades of the nineteenth
century we witness the rise of most of the movements which loom so large in the
twentieth.
One of the results of this metamorphosis was the birth of a new literature. It
did not grow organically out of the traditional literature and did not finally supplant
it. Traditional literature remained alive. To be precise, we ought to speak of two
East Ashkenazic literatures, each in turn subdivided by a linguistic borderline.
Any other drawing of the frontiers e.g., on the basis of language - would in this
case be artificial.
The secularized literature was bom in the throes of a fierce struggle against
traditional Judaism. Europeanization was its goal and European literature became
its model. At first artistic achievement was slender but with the maturing of the
ideological process a high standard of literary excellence was reached. Among the
authors of the secularized literature in Hebrew and Yiddish - young as it was -
there were a large number of outstanding personalities.
In the Hebrew branch some of the basic values of Judaism were at first retained,
in theory, and some attempt at synthesis was made. But later, complete Westerni-
zation became the conscious and subconscious goal. At this stage the actual distance
 26 Introduction

from tradition had become so great that the conflict with it lost its urgency, and
we even meet with a theoretical appreciation of old values, but without a desire
to incorporate them.
The earlier tendency towards aggression had not been quite outgrown, however.
There were still occasional attacks on Judaism, in the form of neo-paganism -
passionate homage being paid to Hellas - combined with a violent hatred of Juda-
ism. The modern nationalist movements are the ideological soil on which most of
modem Hebrew literature grew up. The ideological basis of the secularized litera-
ture in Yiddish was somewhat less uniform, because the Socialist idea played as
big a role here as did nationalism. Many authors wrote in both languages, and so
we have, in the person of Mendale Moicher Sfuurem, at one and the same time
the creator of modern Yiddish style and the father of its modem Hebrew
counterpart.

Chassidism
Chassidism, a pan of the mystical current that has never ceased to flow throughout
Jewish history, is a religious movement that arose in the second quarter of the
eighteenth century among East Ashkenazic Jewry, and was destined to win over
the majority of the people. It brought about far reaching change, yet remained
faithful to the principles and practices of traditional Judaism. When its founder,
Israel Baal-Shem (1698-1760), said I have come into the world to show a new
path he did not mean a road away from traditional Judaism but one leading to
new heights of religious experience within its confines.
Here are a few shon passages from a large corpus of his sayings as reponed
by his disciples.*

*The whole o f the T orah and the whole o f the Universe contain nothing b u t th e light o f
th e Infinite, which is latent in them . All such sentences as T h ere is nought beside H im .
T h e whole earth is filled by H is glory, Heaven and earth are filled by M e, are to
be understood literally: there is no place, no event, no word and no thought in which the
essence o f the D eity is no t im m anent and concentrated. Hence he who contem plates
all the things which are stretched forth before his gaze, with th e eye o f understanding,
and regards, not merely their extension and outw ardness b u t penetrates to their inw ard-
ness and life, will see only the Divine Power which anim ates them , giving them existence,
and which, at all tim es and seasons, preserves them in life.3

4 He spoke, of courae, in Yiddish. His words were transmined verbally in that language, but wben
some of the hearers, or hearers at second hand, recorded them in writing, it was done, as a
matter of course, in Hebrew.
 27 Cultural Structure o f East Ashkenazic Jewry

Another passage:

If a man suddenly looks into the face of a beauteous woman, or if he beholds some other
fair or lovely thing, let him forthwith consider the well-spring of that beauty. Indeed,
it is none other than the Divine Power which flows throughout the world ... Beauty issues
from the heights: Wherefore should I then desire only a small part of it? Far better is it
to strive after the whole, the source of all individual beauty.3

Or again:

Let not a man imagine he is better than his fellow because he serves God with utter
devotion. For everyone serves Him to the extent of the knowledge and understanding
given him by his Maker. Even the worm performs its service within the limits of the
strength that has been given it by God.*3

Here is an allegory:

A mighty king built a great palace with many chambers, one within the other. Many
walls were around it, each surrounded by the other. Only one gate was open, and facing it
were many doors. He who entered saw beautiful pictures as well as costly vessels in plenty.
The king dwelt in the innermost chamber, far removed from him who entered. When the
building of the palace had been completed, the princes of the realm and the great men of
the land were asked to visit the king. But upon arrival at the palace gate, they found it
barred and the doors locked. They now asked each other in surprise: 4How shall we get
in ? All they perceived was wall upon waU. They stood thus a long time, when, at last,
the king's son came and spoke to them: *Do you not know that the entire palace is un-
real ?No walls are here, no gate, no door. The space here is empty - it stretches unconfined
in all directions. My father, the king, is standing before you.9

From a letter:8

On New Year 5507my soul made an ascent... I saw wonderful visions, the like of which
I had not seen since I attained to knowledge. What I saw and learnt during the ascent it
would be impossible to report and describe, even if we spoke face to face. When I returned
to the Lower Paradise, I saw many souls of the living and of the dead, some of them known
to me, others unknown - their number was infinite - hastening from all directions in order
to ascend from world to world by way of the Pillar which is known to those versed in

5 Written in Hebrew.
6 I.e., autumn 1746.
 28 Introduction

occult wisdom. T h e ir joy was very great - the tongue would grow faint in describing, and
the ear in hearing, it. M any o f the wicked repented and th eir sins were forgiven; for it
was a tim e o f abundant grace.3

Another passage from this letter:

A nd in the vision I saw Sam ael7 soar upw ards w ith incom parable glee to bring accusations.
A nd he wrought doom and destructions for many, who were to die a terrible death.
H orror seized m e and I staked my life and besought my teacher and master* to accompany
me, as the ascent into th e U pper W orlds is very perilous. F or since I became what I am ,
I had never before attained to such a height. S tep by step I ascended until I entered the
Palace o f the M essiah .... A nd there I saw exceedingly great joy. B ut I did not know the
reason for that joy. I believed it had been caused, G od forbid, by my death in this world.
But they told m e th at I had not yet died - nay m ore, th a t they take delight in my unifica-
tions8 - here on earth - th a t have their source in their holy exposition o f G ods word.
But to this day the reason for their joy rem ains unknown to me. I asked th e M essiah:
W hen wilt thou come, my lord ? T o which he replied: W hen thy doctrine shall have
spread and become manifest, and what I have taught thee, and thou hast learnt, will be
poured forth abroad, and when (all) men shall have the power to effect the sam e unifica-
tions and ascents as thyself - then shall all the W orld o f Evil vanish, and the tim e o f grace
and salvation be at hand. And I was amazed and sorely troubled at th e length o f tim e that
m ust pass before this would be possible.3

Here is a passage from one of the Tales of Nachmen of Braslev (1772-1810),

a grandson of Israel Baal-Shetn. He was himself a Chassidic master, and told
these talcs to his disciples, one of whom wrote them down and published them,
after Nachmen's death, in Hebrew and Yiddish. It is not easy to classify the Tales.
,Allegories' is perhaps a suitable name. They are a quaint combination of fantastic,
Cabbalistic and even fairy-tale elements welded together to form creations of
considerable originality.

T h ere is a hill and on th at hill is a stone. From th at stone runs a spring. A nd each
thing has a heart. And th e world as a whole has a heart. A nd th e heart o f the world is a
complete form with a face and w ith hands and feet. Only th e nail on th e toe o f th e heart
o f the world is more heart than any other heart. A nd the hill with the spring is at one end

7 In the original: t.m ., i.e., atra mcsuabha the Unclean Principle.'

8 The prophet Elijah.
9 I.e., the Linking up of the parts of the Divine names which are scattered and concealed within
the words of the Prayers. This linking up causes the apparent separation between God and
the World to disappear.
 29 Cultural Structure of East Ashkenazic Jewry

o f the w orld, and the heart o f the world is at th e oth er end o f the world. A nd th e heart is
op p o site th e spring. A nd it longs and yearns always to reach th e spring. A nd th e longing
a n d yearning o f the heart for th e spring is wild. A nd it is always crying out because it
w an ts to reach the spring.
A nd th e spring craves for th e heart.
And the heart has two afflictions. O ne because th e sun pursues it and scorches it
because it yearns for the spring and longs to reach it, and th e other because o f its yearning
a n d longing.
But when the heart m ust rest a little, a big bird comes flying there and spreads out its
w ings, and hides th e sun from it. T h en the heart rests a little. Yet even then it looks across
to the spring, and it yearns for the spring. A nd as it stands facing th e hill it secs the top o f
the hill where the spring is. B ut as soon as it tries to move tow ards the hill it no longer
sees th e top, and it can no longer see th e spring. A nd it m ight, G od forbid, die o f longing.
A nd if the heart died, G od forbid, o f longing, the whole world would be annihilated,
because the heart is the life o f every living thing. A nd how can th e world exist w ithout the
h eart?
A nd the spring has no tim e, for it has no day and no tim e in th e world at all, for it is
above the tim e o f the world. A nd the tim e o f th e spring is only when th e heart gives it a
day as a gift. A nd when the day is about to end, they begin to bid each other farewell,
th e heart and the spring, and they tell each other parables and sing songs to each other,
w ith great love and great longing.
And the tru e man o f grace has charge over it all. And as the day draws to its end the
tru e man o f grace and good deeds comes and gives th e heart a day, and the heart gives
th e day to the spring, and so the spring again has a day.
And when the day comes it also comes with parables and w ith songs in which all the
wisdoms are. A nd there are differences between the days, for there are Sundays and
M ondays and so on, new moons and festivals. And each day comes with its own songs,
according to the day.1

The ascetic element in religion which played an important part at the time when
Chassidism came into being, now receded far into the background. Israel Baal-
Shem said: Self-mortification is unnecessary ... All worship must spring from
joy ... If a prayer be uttered in great joy, it is doubtless more precious and pleasing
to God than a prayer uttered with tears and lamentations... Weeping is exceedingly
bad since man should serve his Maker in joy. But when weeping has its source in
joy, then, and then only, is it very good.3
The emphasis on joy led to greater fervour and spontaneity in worship and thus
to more singing and dancing. Serene joy is the keynote - the dance does not over-
step the line of coherence, there are no ecstatic shrieks or anything akin to the magic
dance of primitive peoples.
 30 Introduction

The intrinsically religious nature of the Chassidic dance will become clear
from an episode in a Nazi extermination camp which 1 heard related by a survivor
who witnessed the event. A large number of Jewish youths were assembled outside
the gas chamber within view of the ovens where they were to be cremated. They did
not give way to terror and despair but broke into a religious folk song and dance.
Their last act was an expression of faith.
Perhaps the following song by Levi Isaac Barditchever, a famous Chassidic
master of the eighteenth century, will convey some idea of the atmosphere from
which such acts as these are born.
Almighty God, Lord of the Universe,
Almighty God, Lord of the Universe
Almighty God, I shall sing you a You-song,
You - You - You, You - You -
Where can I find you ?
And where can I not find you ?
Y ou - Y ou - Y ou - . Y ou - Y ou -

For wherever I go - You!

And wherever I stand - You!
Always You, only You, again You, forever You -
You - You - You, You - You!

If things are good - You!

Alas, bad-You 1
You - You - You - You - You - You!
You - You - You - You - You - You!

East - You! West - You!

North - You! South - You!
You - You - You
You - You - You
You - You - You!

Heaven, You! Earth, You!

Above, You I Below, You!
You - You - You, You - You - You.

You - You - You, You - You - You, You - You - You!

Wherever I turn, wherever I move,
You - You!1
 PART TWO

A BRIEF SURVEY OF THE YIDDISH LANGUAGE

 1
The External History of Yiddish

We know very little about the earliest period of Jewish history in Europe. The first
communities were situated, of course, in the Mediterranean area. From here the
Jews moved northwards within the Roman Empire. They had long before ceased
speaking Aramic. The immigrants who crossed the Adria westwards into Italy
and beyond soon exchanged their Yevanic (Judaeo-Greek) language for Latin,
and later developed Jewish offshoots of the neo-Latin languages. The regions
which today form northern France were called by the Jews Tsarfat (a town men-
tioned in the Bible, English Zarephat), hence my name Zarphatic for the language1
of the Jewish community in northern France and for their type of Hebrew script.8
From here some migrated eastward to those parts of the German speech territory
which are now its west-central and southern regions. For various reasons this
movement was not continuous. Sometimes emigration resulted mainly from
general economic causes, and took place side by side with German migrations,
sometimes it was caused by persecution, massacres or expulsions, especially in
the centuries between the Crusades and the Black Death. In the tenth century waves
of Jewish emigrants reached the Elbe, in the eleventh the eastern frontiers were
crossed and so Jewish settlements arose in Slavonic speaking regions, partly
within the political frontiers of the Empire, as in Bohemia and Moravia, partly
outside them, as in Silesia (which only later became incorporated), or, as in Poland,
which did not come under western rule until modern times, and then only partly.
From Poland Yiddish spread to the north and to the east, i.e., to Lithuania,
Byelo-Russia and the Ukraine, and thence again northwards to the Baltic countries
and southwards to the Rumanian regions. In Germany itself progress northwards
seems to have been rather late; the sea coast (Hamburg) was not reached until

1 Sec p. 15.
2 See the work ltd an p. 360, No. 756, voL 1: 395-300, voL u , No*. 318-34.
 34 A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language

the early seventeenth century. At about the same time the North Sea was also
reached in the Netherlands and, at the end of the century, in Denmark. In the
west, Alsace marked the border line of Yiddish. In the fifteenth and sixteenth
centuries Yiddish proceeded southward, crossing the Alps, and was spoken in
northern Italy.
The main trend of Yiddish was, however, towards the east. From here, in the
seventeenth century, there was a movement back to the west caused by the Cossack
massacres, but it seems to have been very slight. On the other hand, the migration
which set in during the latter part of the nineteenth century was on a large scale.
The pogroms of 1881 started a new era in the geography of Yiddish. A big wave
began to roll westward. It left groups of various sizes in the West European
countries, but its main impact was on the United States and, to a lesser degree,
on other lands beyond the sea. The tide was checked by World War , only to
start afresh upon its conclusion in spite of restrictions on both emigration and
immigration. The result was remarkable. In 1880 East European Yiddish had hardly
any outposts at all, whereas before World War ii the outposts themselves comprised
about a third of all those who spoke the language.

THE EN LIG HTEN M ENT

Western Europe
In all the many centuries of its life prior to the Enlightenment, the existence of
Yiddish had been an accepted fact that did not call for enquiry. Like the other
languages of Europe, its literary use was restricted. Hebrew functioned as the real
literary medium and as the general means of written communication, its role
being similar to that played by Latin in relation to the European vernaculars.
However, among the Jews this state of affairs continued for a much longer time,
until fairly recently. When a change did begin to take place in the eighteenth
century, it came as a result of the Enlightenment. For those involved in the Jewish
Enlightenment movement, Yiddish then ceased to be an accepted fact and was
seen as a problem.
In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries scholars in Germany had accepted
Yiddish as a perfectly natural phenomenon, something belonging to Jewish life,
but those of the Jews who were caught up in the European Enlightenment desued
to get rid of the so-caUed *peculiarity of the Jews and of all that lay at the root of
their specifically Jewish life. Theoretically this was not difficult, since, on the basis
of the new ideas, life could be divided into two distinctly separate spheres: the
religious and the secular. And so they aimed at confining Jewish peculiarity*
to the religious sphere.
Formally, the conception that Jewish otherness rests upon religion was not
 35 The External History of Yiddish

even inconsistent with the views of the preceding periods, when the essential
difference between Jew and Gentile lay in religion, in so far as the consciousness
of both was concerned. But the likeness was only superficial. Both the notion and
reality had now changed. Religion no longer took an essential place in the lives
and philosophy of the Enlightenment Jews. Thus they were not able to recognize
that there was a connection between Judaism and Yiddish, and that there was a
reason why the Jews, as adherents of a particular religion, should speak a language
of their own, although they clearly were not a nation like the others (and only a
nation was supposed to have a language). Moreover, Yiddish as the language of
an ethnic group would have involved the idea that the state could contain more than
one people or nation. Do we not see, even today, after many decades of discussion,
that the idea of nationality and state as ex-centric circles is incomprehensible
to many, and that people were and are persecuted for wanting to form a nation,
a *state within a state ? It is not surprising that the Jews in Germany did not see
these things more clearly two centuries ago. Wherever they turned they were
confronted with the idea and ideal of the national state, the one-people nation,
the one-nation state - they were coerced into conformity. They could not have
thought of themselves as a national unity. It would have been in contradiction
to the ,spirit of the age, as expressed in the famous formula coined by Count
de Germont-Tonnerre when he asked in the French National Assembly that the
scope of the Declaration of the Rights of Man should be extended to the Jews. He
asked that nothing should be granted to the Jews as a people, but everything to
the Jews as individuals. So the Jews of Germany turned into Germans of the
Jewish persuasion - to employ the corresponding English expression of a some-
what later period - and Yiddish became an unpleasant fact and a stumbling block.
They began to be ashamed of what they regarded as bad German and to despise
it. Such feelings naturally culminated in the endeavour to be rid of it.
This, as a part of the general complex of assimilation, seemed an easy matter.
By the middle of the nineteenth century Yiddish had almost ceased to exist in
Germany. There was a constant stream of Jews passing from the provinces to the
big towns and cities, and here very many of them, or else their children, abandoned
the Jewish way of life. It is true that in the little towns and villages whence they
had come the traditional life of the Jewish religion lived on and with it the Yiddish
language, particularly in the Hessian and Franconian areas. A similar development
took place only a very little later in the neighbouring countries: Bohemia and
Moravia,3 the Netherlands and Alsace. However, some traces of Yiddish did sur-
vive in the orthodox communities of even the large cities. But at the present day
the last remnants of the Yiddish of these regions are becoming extinct with the
3 In these two countries, during the 1930s, there were several thousand people who knew Yiddish
and probably several hundred who still spoke it.
 36 A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language

lives of the people who managed to escape the final solution of the Jewish problem
by the National Socialists, and who were scattered all over the globe.

Eastern Europe
In Eastern Europe Yiddish met with a different fate. The ideas of the Enlighten-
ment reached the Jews here too, but for a long time they fell on stony ground,
spreading at a very slow rate. There were various reasons for this. Quantity played
a large though not decisive role. There were millions who spoke the language and
they lived together in compact masses. Many of the towns had Jewish majorities,
often approaching too per cent. A period of high spiritual florescence had occurred
in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries and its effect was still great. Indeed,
in the main part of the territory, a new religious mass movement, Chassidism,
came into being at the very time when the Jewish Enlightenment began to spread
both in the West and the East. Chassidism proved to be a strong barrier against
secularization and its ensuing result, loss of Jewish identity. Until well into the
twentieth century the movement towards secularization was, in the East, still
restricted to small circles. For instance, in Poland in the 1930s the proportion
of traditional Jews to secularized Jews was something like 4:1. Thus the big block
of traditional Jewry was the natural centre of the Yiddish language. In Russia,
which included Poland, when the 1897 census was taken, 98-99 per cent of the
Ashkenazic Jews declared their mother tongue to be Yiddish.
This tiny loss of speech territory marked, however, the beginning of the process
that had wrought such havoc in the West, i.e., secularization, which went hand
in hand with loss of native language. But history does not repeat itself in exactly
the same way. In Eastern Europe events followed a different course. As might be
expected, some of those who had become secularized adopted the Russian or
Polish languages, but a very considerable portion did not jettison their mother
tongue.
We use the word secularization as a general term to classify and explain some
elements which assumed very different shapes but which go back to the same root.
What happened here was that people estranged from religion took over the preva-
lent ideas of the secularized non-Jewish world. In the nineteenth century the
national idea was prevalent, and it took hold of the minds of the secularized
Jews, too. Hence, a modern secularized type of Jewish nationalism grew up, which
replaced the old conception of the Jews as a peculiar people. In modern national-
ism language is apt to play an essential role; it often means almost everything.
Hence, language became a very important factor in modem Jewish nationalism
too. With characteristic complexity, linguistic nationalism among European Jews
during the last seven decades has been based not simply on one language but on
one of two: either Hebrew or Yiddish.
 37 The External History of Yiddish

The attitude of hostility towards Yiddish that had been initiated by the advo-
cates of assimilation during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries was, in turn,
taken up by the champions of modern Hebrew nationalism during the last part of
the nineteenth century and afterwards.
Many of the contentions and criticisms that had been levelled against the great
European languages before they received recognition and acceptance among their
own peoples were now flung against Yiddish by its antagonists from both camps,
assimilationists and Hebrew nationalists. Let us enumerate some of them.
Yiddish was referred to contemptuously as jargon, as a patchwork of various
languages. Critics said that it is not a language at all, since it has no grammar; it
is only corrupt German; it is merely a dialect of German; it is not the language of
education and scholarship; it is incapable of expressing the high flight of thought;
it sounds ugly; it is doomed to extinction; it is a symbol of national slavery; it
is basically un-Jewish; it is not a language because there is not one nation on earth
speaking Yiddish.
In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries nobody would have thought that
there was a theoretical defence against such opinions and accusations but, all the
same, an instinctive, natural, resistance was offered to some extent by the rcli-
gious Jews. The reformers, in their war against Yiddish, had to make use of Yiddish
to prove that it was no language. Gradually their tendentious writings on behalf
of modernism developed into literature. Its medium, the Yiddish language, then,
naturally, demanded its right to cultivation and esteem. At the end of the nine-
teenth century this claim was based, as we saw, upon the modern nationalist idea.
The movement which arose from that at the beginning of the twentieth century
was called Yiddishism.
In Vienna in 1904 lectures combined with literary functions were held at which
the true nature of Yiddish and its significance for the Jewish people were explained
to Western Jewry (see p. 319, No. 4). In the following year a society for the promo-
tion of Yiddish language and literature was formed among Yiddish-speaking
students (hailing from Bucovina and Galicia) at Vienna University. It bore the
significant name Iidiiy Kultrnr. About the same time a society for the cultivation
of Yiddish literature was founded in New York. The climax to these and to other
beginnings was, eventually, the convening of a Conference on Behalf of Yiddish,
which took place in 1908 in C2ernovit2 (Bucovina). Here it was proclaimed to be
a national language of the Jewish people. The Czemovitz Conference is sometimes
said to have declared Yiddish to be the national language of the Jewish people,
but the small number of those who asked for that wording were defeated.
The Yiddishist movement built up an extensive educational network and has
done much to further the recognition of the political rights of the language and its
standing in the world of learning. Perhaps its greatest achievement has been the
 38 A Brief Survey o f the Yiddish Language

creation of the Itdiier Visniaftlexer Institut (present English name: Yho Institute
for Jewish Research), which was founded in 1925 in Europe and since 1940 has
its seat in New York.

TRADITIONALISM

In the traditional section of East European Jewry - where the role of Yiddish had
always been accepted without reflection, theory and ism - the need for a special
linguistic movement was not so obvious. But by the 1920s and 1930s this need
was recognized and an increasing amount of work was being done in these quarters
too on behalf of Yiddish. Its importance was emphasized as a safeguard against
loss of spiritual identity and as a symbol of specifically Jewish life upon the basis
of Judaism. Therein it differed from Yiddishism, a consciously secular movement.
We have dealt so far with the position of Yiddish within the Jewish people.
We shall now turn to its position in relation to the outside world, limiting our atten-
tion to recent times.

Y I D D I S H AND T H E O U T S ID E W ORLD

The political aspect

In Austria before World War 1 no document written in the Yiddish language or
in Hebrew script had any legal validity - a law to that effect had been passed during
the Enlightenment period. On the other hand, in Galicia (then part of Austria)
with its large Jewish population, there was no interference with the use of Yiddish
as the medium of instruction in Jewish education, from the lowest to the highest
level, even though attendance at the state schools was theoretically compulsory.
(However, the Jews had to bear the full cost of their own schools, besides having
to contribute to the upkeep of the state schools by meeting the general taxes.)
In Russia, Yiddish had long been recognized factually. For instance, the oath
prescribed for those conscripted into the army was delivered by Jews in Yiddish
from 1838 onward. A text similar to this, transcribed in Russian characters, was
incorporated in the law of the Russian Empire. In 1897 the first census ever taken
in that country registered the number of those speaking Yiddish. The publication
of books and periodicals in Yiddish and Hebrew, the functioning of Yiddish
theatres as well as of the traditional *religious school system with Yiddish as the
language of instruction, were not forbidden. In the year 1911 the Duma passed a
resolution permitting the founding of elementary schools in which the language
of instruction was other than Russian, and Yiddish was among those languages
 39 The External History of Yiddish

listed. It is significant that, in Russian, Yiddish is called the Yevrlyski language,

i.e., the Jewish language, while Hebrew is called Old Jewish: Drfvnoyevriyski
(etymologically, Yevrlyski is Hebrew of course).
In 1904 one of the immigration requirements of South Africa was that every
immigrant had to be able to read a European language, and mention was made of
Yiddish as belonging to that category. The same regulation regarding the use of
Yiddish in the educational test for immigrants was later adopted in the United
States. In Jewish districts the signs and notices on and in public buildings were
given in Yiddish too; this was the case also in England.
World War 1 wrought great changes in the official position of Yiddish. On the
basis of the minority rights established by the Peace Conference, it won recognition
in the states of Eastern Europe. However, the situation deteriorated and, before
long, treaties, pledges and laws became scraps of paper.
During the early periods of the Soviet regime the political and cultural rights
of Yiddish were officially established, culminating in Yiddish sectors of the state
academies in the Soviet republics that had a big Jewish population. However,
Stalin put an end to that. He closed all Jewish schools and cultural institutions,
including theatres, and had all the leading Yiddish authors executed. The thaw*
which followed his death brought very little relief. At present there is one monthly
journal for a population of millions, and an occasional trickle of Yiddish literary
reprints - intended mainly for export.
In Poland, Yiddish is practically extinct, there being hardly any Jews left. In
Rumania the situation is slightly better; there is even a Yiddish state theatre.

The learned world

The earliest interest shown by non-Jews in Yiddish was not for the sake of philology.
It was shown by German scholars primarily concerned with Bible study and/or
having missionary aims. From the sixteenth century onward there was a continuous
slow trickle of publications in connection with Yiddish. Modern German philolo-
gists turned to it from about the middle of the nineteenth century onwards. The
first *linguistic defence of the language came in 1876 (see p. 319, No. 1). Interest
widened in the twentieth century, this being probably due to the work in this field
by Jewish scholars and to the doctoral theses now making an appearance. In
1922 Hamburg University was the first academic institution to include Yiddish
within its framework.4 In the early 1930s an institute for research in Yiddish,

4 Here there were two non-Jewish professor! who were interested in Yiddish, Carl Bocchling
aod Heinrich Mejrer-Benfcy. The former surprised me one day with the news that upon his
initiative the University had appointed me to lecture on Yiddish.
 40 A Brief Survey o f the Yiddish Language

and in Ashkenazic studies generally, was planned and an appeal for its impleraen-
tation was signed by sixty leading non-Jewish scholars from Germany, Austria
and Switzerland. Some of the Germans actually gave their written support after
Hitler came to power.8 That event put a stop to all these beginnings, of course,
but soon after the end of World War II a remarkable interest in Yiddish was shown
by growing circles of non-Jewish laymen and scholars, who were, and are, being
served by books and articles on the subject for the general educated reader as well
as by a steady stream of publications intended for linguists and philologists. At
present there are a number of very competent young scholars in German, American
and other universities doing excellent work.
In London University in 1934, in their series Special Lectures in Comparative
Philology, I was invited to give a cycle of lectures on Yiddish. Not long before
World War II, the School of Slavonic and East European Studies of the same
university instituted an honorary lectureship (assistant professorship) in East
European Jewish Studies (i.e., essentially Yiddish), while in the United Sates
and other countries since that War, a growing number of universities have intro-
duced courses in Yiddish language and literature.6

ST A T IS T IC S

It is always difficult to compute the number of speakers of any language, and with
Yiddish the difficulties are even greater. There is, for instance, some shifting on
the borderlines of most languages. But the territory of Yiddish, to express it
paradoxically, consists of borderlines, and so for this reason as well as for others,
any statistics on the subject are quite unreliable.
Until recently the number of Yiddish speakers given in books, encyclopaedias
and elsewhere used to be based on very unreliable estimates, perhaps influenced
by a biased tendency (of Jewish sources) to minimize that number. Before World
War I, a figure of 4 million used to be mentioned, when 10 million would have
been much nearer the mark. Even in the 1930s the number of Yiddish speakers
was estimated by some at 8 million, about 50 per cent short of the actual fact. In
the following table, which I compiled and published in 1931,7 the total was esti-
mated at roughly 12 million. My estimates were based on the Jewish population
statistics of that time.

5 See p. 358, No. 71a.

6 Twenty five in the U-S-A-, 4 in Canada, 1 each in Australia,Finland tnd France,!departm entin
Israel; courses at 3a HiUel centres at u s. a. universities (figures for 1977).
7 Bait Itm k jv , 8: No. 7!/7a, p. 37, Lodz. The able, having been partly brought up to date in
1939 differs from the original one b j an added 190,000.
 4! The External History o f Yiddish

N U M BER OF Y ID D IS H SPEA K ERS

Heme Territory

Poland 2,970,000
Soviet Union 2,870,000
Rumania 760,000
Hungary 270,000
Czechoslovakia 250,000
Lithuania 165,000
L am a 85,000 7 .375.000

Rea t f Eartpt

Great Britain 120,000

Austria 75,000
France 70,000
Other countries 60,000 325.000

European Total 7 .695 .

UAA. 3,500,000
T in n li 1 1 0 ,0 0 0
Argentina *35 . 3.905.000

Asia 205,000
Africa and Australia 70,000

Total 11,875,000

It is interesting to compare this total with the contemporaneous figures for the
speakers of the following languages:

Czech 7 million
Greek 6 million
 42 A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language

Or with the figures for the speakers of

Rumanian 12$ million

Dutch 12 million
Croat and Serbian ioj million

At the end of World War 11 the number of Yiddish-speakers was much smaller
than it had been in the 1930s. This was due, of course, to the National-Socialist
genocide during the War, because, of the 6 million Jewish victims, about 5 million
spoke Yiddish. The figure for Yiddish at the end of the War was therefore about
seven million.
No statistics can be given for the present day. As a result of Stalins policies
and their aftermath, there are now presumably fewer Yiddish speakers in the Soviet
Union. Elsewhere among the survivors of the Holocaust, linguistic assimilation is
taking its toll. However, it would seem to be unrealistic to put the total lower
than, say, at 5 or 6 million.

T H E FUTURE

Apart from Yiddish, there seems to be no example of a language, spoken by many

millions, whose survival potential has been so often discussed in the course of its
history. Among other inherent defects attributed to Yiddish, it has repeatedly
been declared by its adversaries to be moribund. At the beginning of the Emanci-
pation period the death of Yiddish was proclaimed to be imminent. And this
prediction was repeated at various times, even in the twentieth ccntury (before
World War 11) when there were more Yiddish speakers than there had ever been
Jews at any time in the whole of the world.
Of course, it does not require particular shrewdness to see that the future of
Yiddish is now, after the Holocaust, by no means assured. However, prophesying
is always risky, even on the basis of undeniable facts. In the 1930s I wrote: *And
even if we were to imagine that henceforward Yiddish would be constantly on
the decline, it might be well for us to ask: What does that actually amount to in
practice ? How many generations will have to pass before there are no Yiddish-
speaking descendants of the twelve million people whose language it is today ? A
couple of centuries would seem to be a very conservative estimate. Is such a period
not long enough to justify cultivation and care ? And, after all, a problem of this
nature cannot be worked out arithmetically - there are too many unknown vari-
ables involved. And there certainly were, notably Hitler! But my error, based on
the expectations of normal experience, does not affect the over-all argument.
 43 The External History of Yiddish

Even if Yiddish were destined to survive fewonly a short period, it would still be
worth cultivating during the remainder of its life.
We need not investigate here the present sociological situation of Yiddish in
all the countries where it is spoken today. The loss of speakers is too clear to be
overlooked. On the other hand, the language is still very much alive. It is cultivated
assiduously by many, and in the Americas some of the grandchildren of immi-
grants, in search of their heritage, are turning back to Yiddish. In addition, there
is still a religious core among whom there has not been a break in the generations
and whose mother tongue is Yiddish.
 2
The Age of Yiddish

Having discarded the idea of the simple filiation of languages, may we still ask the
age of a language ? There would seem to be no longer any room for that question
since, at any given time, each of a group of related languages is the present form of
the mother language. All that remains for us to do, it seems, is to discover and
describe the stages of transition. But in attempting that we very soon arrive at a
point where, for practical reasons, we require chronological borderlines between
the related languages. Apart from that, it is natural for the mind to seek fixed
points in the stream of transitions: there must be a time in the development
when some undoubted unit of today - French, Dutch, Czech - had its beginnings.
In what follows, we shall aim at finding such a point in the case of the Yiddish
language by the application of practical, linguistic, psychological and sociological
criteria.

T H E P RA CTICA L C R I T E R I O N

Was there a time when the speech form of the Jews in the German language terri-
tory would no longer have been easily intelligible to their Christian neighbours, and
if so, when was it ?
In 1699, Johann Christoph Wagenseil, a famous Christian Hebraist, published
a short textbook on the language of the Jews1 in which the following statement
is made:
Mit keiner Sprach sind die Juden jemals / so / wie man zu reden pflegt / llsterlich / ais
mit unserer Teutschen umbgangen / denn sie haben solchcr cincn gantz frembden Thon
und Laut gegeben / die guten teutschen Worter gestSmmelt / geradbrecht / verkehret /
neue uns unbekandte erdacht / wie auch / unzlhlich viel Hebreische WSrtcr und Red-
1 See p. 343, No. 43a .
 4S The Age of Yiddish

Arten in das Teutsche gcmischet / daB solchcr Gestalt / wer sie Tcutsch reden hi ret f nit
anderst glaubt / *Is / sic reden pur lauter Hebreisch / indcm fast kein einiges Wort
verstlndlich fflrkommet (fol. B recto). Es ist richtig / und braucht keines Beweises / daB
niemand mit denen von der Beschneidung sich in ein GesprSch von deT Religion ein-
lassen lu?nne / er sey dann ihrcs Dialect! kilndig / dann des reincn Hoch-Teutschcn sind
sie ungewohnt / und verstehen nit was gesagt wird. (Fol. F verso)3

From these remarks we can infer that Yiddish had come into being at some indefi-
nite time before the end of the seventeenth century.
It is obvious that the practical criterion, even if we had more material, would
always be a rather rough-and-ready one. The application of it seems natural to
speakers of dissimilar languages, but in the case of many related languages their
speakers can make themselves mutually understood without much difficulty,
although they are conscious of employing different languages. Here consciousness
is the deciding factor.

THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CRITERION

Long before Wagenseil, there existed in Germany a number of Christian Hebraists

who took an interest in the language of the Jews. There were two reasons for this.
In their study of the Bible these humanists came to be interested in the Jewish
interpretation, and hence, in the Jewish version. Thus they had to acquire a
knowledge of the language of the Jews. The second reason was that they hoped to
gain more Jewish converts if they approached them in their own language. And,
in order to help others like themselves, some wrote little works on the subject
(see p. 353, Nos. 594 ff.). This fact alone shows how great they considered the
linguistic difference to be. The language they describe has the same characteristics
as modem Yiddish (apart from the absence there of the Slavonic element, of course).
It is therefore clear that at this time, in the sixteenth century, Germans were
conscious of the difference, although they did not employ a special name for Yiddish.
The first time we meet with the designation Yiddish, which means Jewish, in
the mouths of Yiddish speakers, is in the year 1597: at the end of a Jewish edition

a There it no language which the Jews have treated as shockingly (to use this vulgarism) as our
German, for they have given it a completely foreign intonation and sound, have cripplcd the
good German words, mangled them, turned them topsy turvy, thought up new ones that we
do not know, and have mixed into German innumerable Hebrew words and idioms to such a
point that anyone hearing them speak German thinks they are just speaking pure Hebrew
because there is hardly a single word you can understand (Fol. B, recto). It is self-evident that
nobody who docs not know their dialect could engage in a conversation about religion with the
people of the circumcision, because they are unfamiliar with pure High German and do not
understand what you say to them ' (F0L P, verso).
 46 A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language

of Sigenot we have the remark: ous gynumyn fun galxys tm ouf lidii far taut, i.e.,
taken from Christian [language and script] and translated into Jewish.* The earliest
example we have of a hearer of Yiddish using the name Jewish goes back to the
year 1451. A citizen of Zerbst is described thus: he ... is also en jode geschapen
unde spricket ok also. ('He looks like a Jew and speaks like one too.)3* In 1478 we
are told: Desselben jars da kom ein predigermunch [Petrus Nigri] her gen
Nurmberg, der kund gut ebereisch, judisch, reden und der Juden pucher lesen.3
(In the same year a preaching monk came here to Nuremberg who was able to
speak Hebrew, Jew ish, and to read the books of the Jews.)
The linguistic situation which is reflected in the descriptions by the above-
mentioned scholars, as well as in the existence of the name Jewish must have taken
a considerable time to develop. Hence the beginnings of Y are to be sought not
later, and probably earlier, than in the fifteenth century.

THE L IN G U IST IC CRITERION

A Literary West Yiddish

As regards the literary language, the application of the practical criterion is
particularly relevant. Y books were completely unintelligible for Gentiles because
they were written in a different script (and vice versa, of course). Scholars today
who know both alphabets, or who can easily acquire a knowledge of the H letters,
very often do not realize what an important barrier this difference of alphabet
normally constitutes.
In employing the philological criterion towards establishing the age of Y, we
are fortunate in having a very suitable example at our disposal. It is an epic based
on the biblical Book of Samuel and on post-biblical subject matter concerning
it. It is usually called the Samuel Book. Composed, it seems, in the fifteenth cen-
tury it is preserved in sixteenth (and seventeenth) century manuscripts and printed
books. Paulus Aemilius (a former Jew), professor at the University of Ingolstadt,
made a transcription* of the Augsburg edition (1544)* which was published in
1562. Here are the first five stanzas in my transcription, with the rendering of
Aemilius, line by line.
m Gustav Hertel, Urkundenbuk der Stadt Ma^delrurg,ii, No. 608, p. 633; 1894. (As (his book was
going to press. Professor W. R61I very kindly drew my attention to this passage.)
3 Die Ckrtmiken itr deutuktn S u ite vom 14. Us ins 16. JekrkanJert, vol. x, 1873, quoted from M.
Stern und S. Salfeld: Die isrtehtisehe Beveiktnmg der ittuuken Siddie, ill, Nurnberg im
MilieUlter, p. 301, note 5, 1896. It seems unlikely that the chronicler wrote Jewish as an
explanation of Hebrew, i.e., ebcreisch = judisch, especially as he speaks o f ' reden ; he knew,
of course, like everybody else, at the time, that the Jews were not speaking Hebrew. He was
presumably thinking of the Semitic element in the speech o f the Jews.
4 See the facsimiles on pp. 47 f., and see p. 349, No. 536 and 536a and p. 351, No. 57a
 47 The Age of Yiddish

Urheberrechtlich geschutzte Abbildung

Tide page of the Samuel Epic (Augsburg, 1544)

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 49 The Age of Yiddish

1 vir mit gancym hircyn zJ w tin hoot g y k ir t

Welcher von gantzem hertxen S e in siH v n d m it h a t khert
1 cu unzerym Hibyn hiryn v i o ft b in d e m frt
Zu unser lieben Herren D er a lle m i t em eert
3 ziin gynood 10[/] (ziin) zixerhaait BOX m i gylaag
Sein gnad vnnd grosse g&te N och n it em ider lag
4 er hilfyt zeinyn knixtyn is ze i n a xt oder tag
Er hilffet seinen knechten E s s ty rn c h t oder tag

5 ziin lob kan niimant indyn vfd er fr o u nox m an

Sein lob kan niemandt enden W eder fr a w , noth der m an
6 doorum zol man sviigyn v in m an i t n it fo lin d y n kan
Darumb so soil man sehmeigen W eil m ans n it wenden khan
7 er hoot itns gyholfyn o ft ous u nzer nqqt
Er hat vns ojft geholffen A u fi aUer vnser n g ft
8 urift] hoot urufor gibyn u nzer zu n d an [/ J (u nzer) m istoot
Vnd hat vns auch vergeben Vriser g ro fi m issethat

9 mir hoon in oft dercumyt ten{/] vider in gytoon

Datm Gott wir offt ercttmet V rm d w ider jh n gethon
10 zxj<j hoot er uns aain viilyn u n ztry n fe in d y n gyloon
So hat er vns ain weilen V nsem fein d e n gelan
11 1'in mir in vider an ruufiyn 10)[/] laa istyn z iin gybot
Warns wirjhn dann anrijflen V nnd h ielten sein gebott
12 xjqtj hoot er uns gyholfyn d e rlfflzt ous u nzer nqqt
So hat er vns geholffen E rlo fit aus a lter not

13 der fon vil ix hiigyn is v ir tu zin g yn f i t

Daruon so will ich sckveigen E s w er zu sehreiben v il
14 fon dem buux Smuuyl tx oux za gyn v il
Doth von dem buck Samuel ith each j e t z t singen w ill
15 vi Got (iisboorex) durx zeine guute grqqs v-under hoot gytoon
Wie Gott durch seine gite C ro fi arnnder h a t gethon
16 der vil uns in dem goolys in ka a in yn n i f t y n loon
Der well uns auch jetzunden I n kainen nSten lan

17 tit din zilbyn ciityn doo lisro o y l za s

In den selbigen zeiten D a Isra el schon sa fi
18 in dem landy Kna-an kaain k u n ik un ter lisro o y l vas
Im weitten landt Canaan K a in K in ig under jh n was
19 is vas aain kyqhyn goodyl d ir vas E li g yn an t
Attain ein hoher Priester D er w ard H eli genandt
20 unter al lisrooyl vas ir aain rix te r in dem la n t
Vber al Israel W ar er R ichter im Lands.
 50 A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language

In this specimen the changes made by Aemilius fall into the following
categories:

(a) H e replaced h words by O ones

(i) having the sam e meaning: kqqhyn goodyl - hoher Priester (19)
(ii) having a different meaning b a t connected in subject m atter with the original:
goolys - jetzunden (16), lisrooyl -jhn (18)
(b) H e replaced h forms by g form s: lisrooyl - Israel.
(c) H e replaced certain words o f G origin by G w ords which are often only loosely con-
nected in meaning with the original, or have no connection at all: vir - velcher, mit -
von (1), vi oftet in - der alle melt (2), ziin-grosse, zixerhaait-gite (3), zund-groj! (8),
mir - wir (9, 11), folindyn - tpenden (6), vider - dann, laaistyn - kielten (11), unzer -
alter (12), zingyn - sehreiben (13), zagyn - singen (14), zilbyn - selbigen (17), es vas -
attain (19), unter - vber (20);
(d) elem ents o f 0 origin by different G elem ents: hoot - hat (1, 8, 12, 15), gykirt - khert
(1), der nirt - erneert (2), gynood - gnad (3), doorum - Darurnb, man es - mans (6),
vor gebyn - vergeben, mistoot - missethat (8), hoon der cumyt - erzumet (9), gytoon -
gelan (10), vin - Warm (11), der loost - Erliflt (12), loon - tan (16), doo - Da (17),
unter - under (18), vas - ward (19), unter - vber, al - als, vas - war, aain rixter -
Ruhter, in dem - im ( 30).
(e) H e very frequently added w ords: zin - sin vnd mut (1), man - der man (5), zot - so
soil (6), uns - uns auch (8, 16), vil - so wilt (13),fon - Dock von, oux - euch jetz (14),
zas - schon saJJ (17), in dem - im nxitten (18).
(f) H e som etimes did not know a word o r form , or misunderstood it: gylaag - emider
kg (3)

These changes consist mainly of elimination and substitution: he had to elimi-

nate the H and Y elements as well as the archaic G element, and to replace these by
the G of his day. Where words were added they seem nearly always to fall into the
category of substitution for an archaic g element, in order to modernize the rhythm
which had by then become too archaic for the German reader. The Samuel Book
was written in a literary language which Aemilius obviously did not regard as
appropriate for his Christian readers because it had long gone out of fashion,
but which was still in use among the Jews, although their everyday speech was,
no doubt, less archaic than that. There is hardly a line which does not provide
one or more such examples. Aemilius was not merely transcribing a G text written
in H characters: it was not simply a question of alphabet. What he was actually
doing was to translate a work from the one language into the other.
That Y had by then become a language in its own right is shown by the following
points. It possessed words and forms which were obsolescent or obsolete in G.
 5! The Age of Yiddish

There were semantic changes, e.g., zix fedem to be early as against the m hg
sich fur dem to make haste; gyneenyn is transitive as against the intransitive MHG
genahenett. There were new words, created from G stems on a H pattern: kiinigyn
'to rule/ corresponding to the H root mlk with the noun melek king and the verb
malak to be king.5 There was a Semitic clement and a Romancc element, neither
of them identical with such h and Romance words as existed in G. The elements
of G and Semitic origin had combined and new formations had resulted: mysiirys
tuun, xasmyn, pogffy vynggffy zain, mqqxyl zain (see p. 153, No. 9). It is clear
that all this must have taken a considerable time to develop. As our material from
the fifteenth century already presents the same picture of the language as that from
the sixteenth, our terminus a quo cannot be later than the fourteenth.

B Spoken East Yiddish

To this point we have been discussing only West Yiddish, the Central European
branch. We now turn to East Yiddish, the East European branch of the language,
in its present fo rm , New East Yiddish ( ney ).
There are some important developments which modem Yiddish has in common
with NHG - dialects or standard: loss of preterite; lengthening of short vowels
in open stressed syllables (leading in Yiddish very often to diphthongization);
diphthongization of MHG /, u, iu: monophthongization of MHG it, uo, tie. But we
cannot, on the basis of these, fix the origin of Yiddish in the n h g period - i.e.,
after 1350, or even 1500 - because these developments began far back in m h g
times: the fourteenth, thirteenth, twelfth and eleventh centuries respectively.
But as we do not know when they started in Y, their common presence in Y and
n h g does not reveal whether the Jewish development was separated from that of
German in MHG or n h g times.
However, th e following instances point to th e MHG origin of Y.
n e y preserves the distinction between m h g ou and u (although with different
phonemes) while in n h g they have merged as au:
MHG Y NHG
toube toiby taube *deaf1 (plural)
tibe toub Taube dove

The same holds for mhg ei and 1:

tpeize vau Weizen w heat
mti vaas Bfiss w hite

S This kiimfjn is evidently not the same as gekimget, which is listed for MHG but has a factitive
meming: (was) made king. (The mhg word occurs once, while the V one is a common word
up to the present day.)
 52 A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language

In n h g there is the sound /f/ in words like Wolflem, Ofm> where it is derived
from Germanic /f/, but the same sound /f/ is to be found in words like scklafm,
Loffel, where it is derived from Germanic /p/. In ney the old difference is main-
tained when the Germanic /f/ stands between vowels and liquids, e.g., v ih l
*Wolfie (name), ohm ,stove - corresponding to MHG wolves, oven (cf. Gothic
gen. mulfis, OE oftn) - while there is the same /f/ as in n h g schlaftn, Lofftl in their
ney equivalents ilufii, left - corresponding to Germanic /p/: Gothic sltpan, lg
Uptl.
In the HG dialects from which ney sprang, we generally meet with only the
unvoiced lenes / b, d, g, s / in NHG times. NEY has voiced lenes. This fact is incom-
patible with the conditions in u g , where even in the earliest sources no more voiced
lenes occur, but ir might be connected with CG of the m h g period which, according
to many scholars, still had the voiced sounds. Thus the situation in Yiddish con-
firms their opinion.
It is clear that many forms are more closely connected with m h g than with
n h g , e.g.:

MHG NEY NHG

ndkent/nihe mtuynljmnmt naht n e a r

h'ilfmtlilefant hilfand Elefint 'E lephant
tiuluk G erm an tacU m eaning, deutsck G erm an
translation
guome/g&ume (cf. E ng gum) im y * Gaumen palate
egttUhse lizard* igdii dragon EuUchse lizard
sust/ms/sunst so Jmzist *in vain umsonst in vain;
free o f charge
smebtl MM Schwefel *sulphur
mttrmel mbml-stein Msrmor m arble
vodem/vorden fodern fordem dem and
bir bdr Bine p e a r
vregenlvrigen friign fragen to ask a
question'
bodem ground (cf. Eng boidym *attic Boden *ground;
bottom) a ttic
buesem bjjzym Busen bosom*
vadem (cf. Eng fathom) fuudym Faden *thread
jamer turner Jammer *lam ent

(the u o f turner is shortened from aw, the normal correspondence o f mho 4).
 53 The Age of Yiddish

B and g - in contrast with G - have never become fricatives, e.g.,

M HO NEY NHG
taillag tug [taxjtak]
bUbcn blaabn bleiste (dial.)

There is no accretion of a final dental in, e.g.,

obej oips Obit ,fruit*

The past participle of laa(i]yn to lend corresponds to a MHG form:

getigenfgeUhen gyKgn getiehen

NUsenjrtUssen is a stro n g v e rb in Y a n d m h g b u t has b eco m e a w eak o n e in

NHG:

genom gynosn gemest

Lexical agreement between Y and MHG as against NHG occurs, eg*,

ditch diiex Obersckenkel ,thigh*

itUchjiettick itUx jegUck every
gemach ,rest/Ruhe (lozn) gymax Gemach , room*
,to leave alone

There a re every -d ay w ords in n h g , in h e rite d fro m m h g , w hich have n o p arallels

in Y, an d have n o t been rep laced h e re b y Sem o r SI on es, e.g ., Zimmer ( < mhg
timber), y c o n tin u es th e o ld er stube > itjjb. This m ay p o in t to a pre-NHG
b eg in n in g o f Y.
Agreement in gender between Y and mhg as against NHG, e.g.,

der housckricke der kaiierik die Heuschrecke , grasshopper'

der soejsoekt der zok die Socke *sock

In MHG, as against NHG, the strong inflection is sometimes used for the attribu-
tive adjective after the definite article. In this respect y differs even more from
n h g , only the strong inflection being used in the sing. nom. masc. as well as in
the dat. and poss. fern., and in the plural:
 54 A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language

\ MHG der hShe/HSher b01tm

Y der koi(e)xer boim >th e tall tre e
NHG der hohe Baum J
mho der juttgenjjunger !wester
Y der ijngtr Mster >to
to the younger siste
sist r
NHG der jungen Schwester )J
MHG der jungen/junger {wester
*Y der ijnger Miters >the young sisters
NHG der jungen Schwestcr J}
'm hg din - den - der grSfen - grSpu - grSger hiiuer
Y di groisy hoaxer the / to the / of the big houses
NHG die - den - der groflen Hauser - Hdusern 1

One of the two m hg forms of strong inflection survives (in the neuter only)
in Y but not in NHG. A s against MHG, it is used for the dat. and poss. too.

Nom. MHGein sthctnez/sckem kint'

Ya tain kind
ein srhones Kind
NHG
Acc. mhg ein sehanejluhirn kinr
Y a Iain kind
NHG ein u hones Kind
Dat. MHG einem sehcenem kinde '
Y a tain kind
NHG einem schonen Kind(e) .
Gcn./Pass. mhg ernes sehames kindes
Y a lain kinds
nhg fines sthonen Kindes J

The uninflected form of the adjective grois big, great* is used also with masc.
and fern, abstract nouns, without an article: mit grois derxei(e)ryc *with great
respect, Yours faithfully; mit grois hasmuudy with great diligence, industry.
These indications that Y originated in the m h g period will now be foUowed up
by an attempt to arrive at a more precise date. Valuable relevant material exists
in the dialectal division of n e y . The southern branch and the northern branch
are divided, among other ways, by the important oijei border line, e.g., oibjeib
if. It is evident that oib was the original form from which eib was derived by way
of oib (one dialect still has this /0/) since the speakers of the Northern dialect
were descendants of emigrants from the territory of the Southern dialect. When
they left Poland for White Russia and Lithuania, they must still have said oib.
 55 The Age of Yiddish

ney /oi/ is developed from m h g /6 /, e.g., kretn < kr&ne crown,* and from
m hg /0/, e.g., in our example, oib < ob. This development was possible because
such short vowels had already been lengthened in m h g since the thirteenth cen-
tury. From this it follows that the emigrants, who took with them a still later form,
oib < ob < ob, could not have emigrated earlier than the thirteenth century. This
then is our terminus a quo for the branching out of the Northern dialect. The
terminus ad quern is to be found in another vowel shift, that of Y /i, i:/ < MHG
/u, uo/. This /i, i:/ is present today in the whole Southern dialect, whereas the
Northern has /u/, e.g., /zin - zun/ sun, /zi:n - zun/ son. We have reason to
think that the /i, i: / or perhaps its predecessor, /ii, ii:/ had come from Germany.
It must have spread northward until it reached the frontier between Poland and
Byelo-Russia-Lithuania. Here it stopped. (See p. 327, No. 159.)
When could that have happened? Probably not after 1569, when the two
countries were completely united and there was no barrier to free movement. Nor
is it likely that it stopped during the preceding period, that beginning with 1385,
when the two countries were united under one crown. Only before this date is
it probable that the frontier would have formed an efficient obstacle to the spread
of the new phoneme. It would be reasonable to assume that the new forms had
already been established some time before the barrier disappeared, say, not less
than a generation. This would take us back to about the middle of the fourteenth
century, and make a connection possible with the big wave of emigration from
Germany immediately after 1348, the year of the Black Death and the great
persecutions consequent on it. We have fourteenth century literary documents
in w y which show that the change from /u, u :/ to /ii, i i :/ had taken place by then.
The middle of the fourteenth century therefore seems to be the latest date at which
the southern and northern dialects could have started diverging. Perhaps we might
place this divergence roughly in the first half of the century. The development of
y /oi/ < m h g /0,0:/ would then have to be fixed at some time previous to that,
since it falls into the period before the northern dialect was severed from the rest
of the language. This brings us, very roughly, to the year 1300 as the time when
phonological evidence shows the separation of Yiddish and German to have
already been a fact.
Morphology provides another chronological clue. Y has, although in a restricted
use, a marker for the possessive which corresponds to the original genitive:
amikls *grandchilds. This form has disappeared from the g dialects and from
normal conversational speech. The process by which it was lost seems to have been
at work even in the thirteenth century, and by the fifteenth the loss was an accom-
plished fact. The survival of this marker in Y shows that Y did not participate in
that process. It would thus follow that Yiddish and German had already diverged
before this period, or at latest, by the beginning of it. That would bring us very
 56 A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language

roughly to the year 1300 as the latest date for fixing the beginnings of Y - the date
we arrived at from the evidence of the dialectal development.
There are some words which have final /t/ in n h g but not in Y, as, e.g.,
Papst - poips. This dental accretion was present in later m h g : b&bes > bdbest.
The Y form, being derived from the earlier m h g word, leads us back to the central
period of MHG, to the thirteenth century, as the dividing line between Y and G.
A slightly earlier date is indicated by a phonological feature of the SI element in
Y. There are Y words which have /r/ instead of jij (spelled rz) in the corresponding
Polish forms, e.g., Y Raiiy - p Rzeszow, i.e., [iejuf], (name of a town). This means
that such words were incorporated into the language of the Jews at a time when the
original P still had a wholly or practically unpalatalized /r/. In the earliest P
manuscripts extant we find the /r/ already on the way to its modern pronunciation.
As these manuscripts date from the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, the words
in question must have been acquired by the Jews somewhat earlier. The immigra-
tion into Poland by Jews from Germany began at the end of the eleventh century.
The incorporation of those words would therefore have taken place between the
eleventh and thirteenth, say the twelfth century.
A still earlier date is suggested by the following evidence. As against the G
l>air /x/ - /5/, e.g., in Tochier - Tochter, Y has uniformly [x]; toxier - tixter. It
would be difficult to explain this by reference to the High Alemannic and South
Bavarian dialects which show the same characteristic, because nothing else in NEY
points to these regions. Thus it seems possible that the uniform Yiddish /x/
might be derived from the original uniform G /*/. It has been assumed that already
in m h g the twofold pronunciation prevailed. The uniform state in Yiddish would
then go back to pre-MHG times, to the o h g period, which ends, conventionally,
in the middle of the eleventh century.
The field is still practically unexplored, and these problems are very complex. I
can therefore offer the preceding inferences and suggestions only as a modest attempt
at finding a date. But it seems, on reflection, hardly a coincidence that there should
be so many pointers to the period from the eleventh to the fourteenth centuries.
As regards the Semitic and Romance elements, which have been constituents
of the Y language up to this day, they were already present before the fourteenth
century. We are, however, able to follow them even further back than our earliest
sources, without difficulty. The Romance element was inherited from the Zarphatic
language the Jews had brought with them when they migrated from northern France
to the G-speaking lands in the east. Zar contained a Sem element and this, together
with some Zar became, from the very first, part and parcel of the new language.
Thus the presence of these two elements at once made their speech distinct from
the German of the Christians. Here the philological criterion touches another,
which we might call the sociological.
 57 The Age of Yiddish

THE SOCIOLOGICAL CRITERION

Language belongs to group life. Hence, when the Jews settled in Germany, with
an intensive group life of their own, and adopted the G tongue, inside their society
it was at once Jewish, and Y had come into being. This is not a paradox nor is it a
theoretical construction. We have only to open our eyes, or, rather, our ears, and
we shall be aware of analogous facts around us, wherever we have an opportunity
of observing a group of immigrants in a new environment. The language they
acquire would constitute the first phase of a new language if, under favourable
conditions, it were to have an independent development of its own. Thus, it was
during the period of immigration that the new language came into being, in the
case of Y as well as of Eng. To ascertain the age of Y we must therefore go to
history and enquire when the Jews began to settle in German-speaking regions.
Unfortunately, there is no precise answer to this question. It is from the ninth
century onward that we have definite information about their presence there and
so, on the basis of the sociological criterion, we may regard the ninth century as
the date when the Yiddish language originated.
 3

The Elements of Yiddish

and Their Phonological History

The immediate predecessor of Y was Zarphatic, which the Jews had brought
from Northern France. From this the new language which was born in Germany
inherited an element1 of Semitic origin. Zar, of course, did not disappear without
a trace. Thus it may be said that Y at its birth consisted of three elements: Semitic,
Romance and Germanic.

THE SEM ITIC ELEMENT

The Semitic element is to be met with in every sphere of the language, except in
its phonetics.

Vocabulary
We may safely assume that certain ideas were never expressed other than by words
of Sem origin. We are not, or course, in a position to speak with certainty about
every individual word but are probably right in assuming that from the very
beginning words like the following formed part of the Y dictionary: iabys *Sabbath,'
cduky charity, alms, saifer book. Hence, such words are not to be regarded
as H loan words introduced into the G spoken by Jews, they are not a later admixture.
We might even express it the other way round: In the Y vocabulary the Sem
stratum was the primary one, and the Germanic stratum was added to it. Words
like those just mentioned were inherited by word of mouth and not through the
medium of literature. In exactly the same way as the English word eye was inherited
orally from an earlier Germanic source, so the y word iabys is an oral inheritance
from a pre-Yiddish stage.
Words like Sabbath, charity, book belong to a certain category: they are essen-
tially connected with the sphere of religion. It may perhaps be asked: Why should
1 See footnote on p. 82.
 59 The Elements of Yiddish

book belong to that sphere ? The answer is simple: The medieval Jew, to an even
greater degree than the medieval Gentile, had hardly any but religious books:
the Bible, the Talmud, the liturgy, his legal literature, his poetry - all these, like
his life, embedded in Talmudic tradition, centred on religion. It is a common-
place that in those times the sphere of religious life was much more extended than
it is in todays secularized world. Hence, the Sem element in Y consists not only
of so-called religious terms but also of a great many words which have apparently
no connection with religion. Take, for example, ordinary words like puunym
face,* aicy advice.* We need not assume that all Sem words in Y were orally
inherited. Quite a number would have been acquired at school, as in the language
of any civilized society.

The Hebrew element

The words of h origin come from various sources. The Bible accounts for not more
than a small number, and these words belong also to the h of the Mishna and
medieval literature. Take, for example, lyvttuny moon. It literally means *the
white one, and in biblical H the term is a poetical expression only, as distinct from
the common yareah. The latter disappeared in later H, and the expression which
had formerly been confined to poetical language now became the every-day term.
In y only lyvuuny is used. It is, therefore, only indirectly biblical. The bulk of
the Y words of H origin are of Talmudic derivation. Examples are: iker *principal
thing, nifter *deceased person, sxjs ( < zxjs) merit (ethical-religious term).
Finally, a considerable number of words have their source in medieval times:
hulaavys *fervour.
Y contains inflections of H origin, both nominal plural endings being in use,
e.g., soifer *scribe, iysod ,basis have the plurals sofrym, iysoidys. This is an impor-
tant point which the mere fact that these words are of Hebrew origin does not
suffice to explain. Contrast, for example, the words of Latin and Greek origin,
or the artificial formations from Latin and Greek stems, in our modern languages.
Apart from some few exceptions, their original plural endings were replaced by
the endings of the modern languages in question, e.g., hospitals, not hospitalia,
telegrams, not telegrammata.
In Y the singular and plural forms of a noun are generally identical with those
in H as in the above two examples. However, sometimes the endings are switched,
e.g., mykor *source* (metaphorical) - plur. mykotrym as against h mykoirys
(mjqdrot), i.e., what we have here is not a word and its plural form taken over as
a unit, mykor - mykoirys, but a word plus a morpheme mykor + ym. This analysis
finds confirmation in the fact that there are words of non-Sem origin with H plural
forms and vice versa.
 60 A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language

How did the first Ashkenazic3 Jews pronounce h and Ar? It might appear
surprising but we can discover quite a lot from the phonology of present-day
Y. This phonology is identical for all the elements of the language. As we know
a great deal about the history of 0, we can relate this knowledge to the G element of
Y, and draw conclusions from the present stage of its phonology about earlier
stages and hence about earlier stages of its Sem element.
We might perhaps ask whether, at first, the phonology of the Sem element
of r differed from that of Ashkenazic H and Ar outside Y. However, as the phono-
logy of both groups is identical today, there being only two inessential points of
difference, we may conclude that this indentity reflects the original state of affairs.
The two exceptions are: (a) In the liturgical recitation of the Bible and of the
prayers, the vowels of the unstressed syllables retain their full value, whereas in
y they are levelled down to /a / ; (b ) Whereas in stressed closed syllable the original
value of a vowel is retained: H sod - Y sod secret, the liturgical pronunciation
employs here the Y form of the open syllable: Y sod - l h soui. The diphthong of
the plural, Y soidys - LH soidois, was presumably felt to be the *correct H form
and so was transferred to the singular.
In what follows we shall compare the phonemes of the Sem element of Y with
those given in the Sem grammars.

H ireq is
(1) short /if in do sed syllable:

din dbt (religious) law

(a) long Ii/ in open syllable:

diinym dinfm (religious) laws

Sere is
(1) short open /e / in closed syllable:

git proselyte gfr stranger; proselyte

() /ai/ in open syllable:

gairym proselytes* gerim strangers; proselytes

It is obvious that /e/ is the original form and that the development followed was
/e > e > ei > ai/. The non-Ashk pronunciation groups have /e/ as well.

2 Since the Middle Ages (he biblical name Ashkenaz has been the traditional name for Germany.
Aahkraarim ire the Jew* of Germany and their descendant* elsewhere
 61 The Elements of Yiddish

Seghol is
(1) short open /e/ in closed syllable:
hitpyd kfspei 'fu n eral eulogy

(2) /ai/ in open syllable:

mailex mflfji *lung
(3) /ei/ in open syllabic:

biigyd bfietf garment

T h is g ro u p (3) consists o f w o rd s w hose vow el, fo r som e reaso n as y et u n k n o w n ,

rem ain ed s h o rt fo r a lo n g er p e rio d th a t th e vowel in g ro u p 2, a n d th e refo re d id
n o t tak e p a rt in th e d ip h th o n g iz a tio n process.
T h e fact th a t seghol 2 an d sere 2 are n o t d iffere n tiate d in d icates th a t in th e e a r-
liest stage o f Y th ey w ere id en tical to o .

Pattafe is
(1) short /a/ in closed syllable:
malty malki *queen; (female name)
(2) long /a/ before aleph, ayin and consonant i:
maaxl ma&k&l *food
maaly *a virtue ma'ild *ascent; superiority
Uzaaiym likaiitm *your health I cheers I
(3) short /a/ in open syllable before feet:

naxyt nahaf *joy

(4) long /u/ - but mostly shortened - before het in open syllable:
Nuxym/Nuuxym nahtim *Nahum
Hateph pattah is
(1) mute after (Ashi) stress:
maxtty *group; troop making *camp
(2) mute before the (Ashk) stress:
xtHdym *Khassidim* hasijbn *pious ones
(3) short /a/ in (Ashk) stress syllabic:

xstyny *wedding*
 62 A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language

(4) short /a/ before the (Ashk) stress:

xatuuym hif&im sins*
(5) long /u/ in (Ashk) stress syllable:
xttulym hiUhn dream

Qame? is
(1) short /a/ in closed monosyllable:
klol rule; community* kllii general rule, principle
(2) short /a/, in the participles of piel and hitpael of verbs med. r:
mykaryv zaan mtqdrty to bring near
befriend, treat with
special attention
(3) short /a/ in the verbs which are derived from the form of the qal in the perfect
(ydrai, ydrtid, yarastd, etc.), with elision of the vowel in the second syllable, thus
closing the first syllable: ex iariy 1 inherit.
(4) long /a/, in the participles pi"el and hitpa"el of the verbs med. aleph or ayin:
myidyS zaan zex miya'ti *to give up hope
myvder zaan mlta'fr to clear away
(5) long /u/ in open syllable:
kluulym kllalim ,rules
(6) short /u/ - shortened from No. 5 - before /g, k, x, v, f/:
mugn Duvyd mdgen dau4d *Star of David
kuf kip (letter) kaph
bruxy bfrdjri benediction, blessing
cufn fdpSn north
(7) short open /0/, when the next vowel is a so-called shewa mobile, i.e., when its
syllable was originally open but is closed in Ashk:
borxj barZfa (the first word - bless ye - of the call
to community prayer)

As regards the quality of the vowel, in Nos. 1-4 it is /a/, as taught in our H
grammars and is thus not in conformity with the Tiberian vocalization. Nos.
5-6 differ from both systems. No. 7 agrees with the Tiberian vocalization.
 63 The Elements of Yiddish

Is the Tiberian /0/ the original form from which the Ashlc/Y forms developed -
the /a/ one the one hand, and the /u, o/ on the other ? Or does the /a/ (which we
also find in most of the other Jewish pronunciation groups) represent the source
from which the Y /0/ and /u/ sprang ?
The phonological history of the non-Semitic elements of Yiddish provides
the answer, as may be seen from the following examples.
In the same way as the short /a/ in the closed syllables hart hard and cap
*he-goat have their source in m h g and SI. short /a/ in closed syllable in hart and
cap, so Y k/aJ, mykaryv zaan, myvder zaan, ex iariy must go back to earliest
Ashkenazic Hebrew k(3)lal, makarev, rmvder, yaral. Analogously, just as Yfuuter,
ituui, buby and suud reflect m h g vater, stat and SI. baba, sad, so must Y kluulym
and cufn stem from k{3)Ialtm, cafon.
Thus it is clear that the earliest Ashk/Y qame? was an /a/. Hence the general
opinion that the Ashk pronunciation as /o/ (later /u/) comes from Palestine is
erroneous.

Qamcs ha(uph is short open /0/:

xoxmy (tokmd *wisdom'

H olem is
(1) short o p e n / 0 / in closed syllabic:

os ol letter of alphabet

(2 ) short open /0/ when the next vowel is a so-called shewa mobile, i.e., when its syllabic
is historically open, b u t is d o sed in Ashk:

rmilym moiilbn rulers

From holem 1 and 2 we can see that its original Ashk pronunciation was /0/ (in
wY preserved even in open syllable, as o:). This is a parallel case to qame 1 and 3.

(3) /o i/ in open syllable:

moiti moiil ru le r

(4) /o i/ in syllable which was originally open b u t has been d o se d :

oiays tySjPf *letters of th e alphabet

oicrys ,Cforot *treasures
from oistjys, oicerys.
 64 A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language

Shureq and qibbu$ are:

(t) short/i/in closed syllable:

mjm mum blemish*
(3) short fij before a consonant with dagesh, i.e., a long consonant in ancient H, function-
ing as the dosing consonant of one syllable and the beginning of the next one; in
Y the consonant is short and begins the next syllable; thus the preceding syllable is
opened. This, however, did not have the effect of lengthening its vowel:
tjky wkki booth for the Sukkoth festival
(3) long Ii/ in originally open syllable:
tkjjfy tlqSpi period
Shewa is
(1) mute, as in the Tiberian vocalization,3 (contrary to what our Kgrammars teach about
shewa mobile):

(3) /3/ between certain consonants. There is, however, no historical connection with the
shewa mobile of the H grammar:
mysjny strange, queer msurmf *changed, different
ruxumy nhamd consolation
(3) /ai/ (rare)
iaivy Imd *shewa

We saw that sere, seghol, qames and holem were originally short. Hireq and
shureq/qibbus provide additional proof of vowel shortness in early Ashk H and
At. Both must still have been short in open syllables even at a very late time.
Otherwise they would have participated in the development of m h g 1 and u, and
would today be /aa/ and /ou/, respectively: daan instead of din, tkoufy instead
of tkjjfy (< tkufy). The same holds good for /a/ and /0/. /A/, in closed syllable,
did not take part in the lengthening and change of articulation undergone by the
G element of Y: MHG tal valley > tal > til > tol > Y tuul but HY klal; MHG
lob praise and gr% are Y loib and grois but H os ('<>/) letter of alphabet is y os
(not ois ). Hence the absence of long vowels in closed syllables in the Sem clement

3 There seems to be no reason for assuming that the scholars who created the Tiberian system
would have used the same sign for two different phonetic facts, i.e., zero vowel is well as foe
[]. They obviously used the phonetics of their Ar mother tongue, where the zero vowel exists
up to this day. (The Samaritans have it frequently.)
 65 The Elements of Yiddish

goes back to the early stages of Y, and must therefore have been inherited from
the Zar language.

The Ashkenazic accent system

Nearly all of these phonetic developments could only have taken place if todays
Ashk stress accent was already in force at a very early period. As this system
differs entirely from the ancient H and Ar one, the question arises as to when the
accent shift took place. Could it be an Oriental inheritance from a later period of
antiquity ? Could it have originated in Zar times ? Or was it an Ashk innovation ?
As to the first question: since the accent system of the Ashkenazim is not shared
by any of the Oriental Jewries, it is clearly not of Oriental origin. On the matter
of a Zar derivation for the accent shift, the accent system of the French language
does not favour such an explanation. An East European language as the source
of the Ashk system can be ruled out because the West Ashk system is identical
with that of the East Ashk. Hence the accent shift must have taken place in West
Ashk, and at a very early time.
The original H stress on the ultimate has been preserved in only a few exceptions,
otherwise it has been shifted to the penultimate, and in a number of cases, to the
ante-pen ultimate.
The fact that many words of the Sem element are disyllables and thus have
the same stress arrangement as the disyllables of G origin, is no doubt the reason
why the accent shift was often explained as an adaptation to the G system, where
the first syllable takes the stress: masdl *example becoming m&ial > muuil, on
the G pattern, its stress being now identical with that, e.g., of muuzlyn measles.
However, this explanation is open to a very serious objection. If we assume,
for arguments sake, that the stress here is really of G origin, we would expect this
system to have been extended to Sem words of three and more syllables, leading
to forms like *muuiylym examples - instead of the actual myiuulym. But dactylic
plurals are exceptional, and require investigation: buxerym *youths, unmarried
males,' adraby *on the contrary, roxniys *spirituality etc. Some words of this
type have lost the middle vowel and are now disyllables: toisvys (certain medieval
Talmud commentaries) < *toisyvys ... < tos&fos < tos&fos - while, in a parallel
formation from the same root, the middle vowel is preserved and thus carries
the stress: hois'ufys *additions ... < hos&fos < hosafos. The normal form of a
trisyllable is an amphibrach. In other words, the stress is on the penultimate.
From this it follows that the place of the stress in disyllablcs is to be analyzed in
the same way: the essential point is not that it is on the first syllable of a word but
that it is on the penultimate. The position of the stress in Ashk H and Ar is still
governed by a rhythmic principle, just as it was before, except that the rhythm
has changed: Instead of the ancient anapaest or iambus, Ashk has an amphibrach
 66 A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language

or a trochee. The principle underlying the German accent, however, is not rhyth-
mical but semantic: it is not fixed to the first but to the stem syllable {singe,
gesungen, Gesang). It could not, therefore, have been transferred to Sem words,
there being no stems in Sem languages. Here there are roots from which words
are formed. A root docs not exist as a pronounceable unit, it is a theoretical kernel
of meanings and ideas. It consists of consonants only (three, in the vast majority
of cases). A root materializes into words by the addition of vowels and affixes, e.g.,
from the root smr we have verbs, participles and nouns: /Jmir, Smor, iomer,
iamur, samiru, nismdr, famdrti, simartika, jihnfrfka, mismdr etc. The Ashk stress
may even be located before the root, e.g., midber desert* from the root dbr. This
actually happens very often.
It seems hardly possible to explain the transition from one rhythmic accent to
another rhythmic accent via a non-rhythmic one. Unless such an explanation can
be shown to be correct, or even possible, the G system cannot be regarded as the
source of the Ashk one. This accent shift must therefore be considered as an inde-
pendent, internal Ashk development. How and when it took place has yet to be
discovered.

THE ARAMIC ELEMENT

The word *Semitic is used in this book as a convenient term for covering the
Hebrew as well as the Aramic element. We cannot, however, group these two
efcments together indiscriminately and say: ,the Ar element does not come to Y
direct but by way of Hebrew; it was incorporated into H from Mishnaic times
onward, i.e., roughly from the beginning of the Christian era; it is therefore not
correct, or, at least, not necessary to speak of the Ar origin of such Y words as
dafky ( < davky) just, exactly, laxljjtn absolutely,gymuury Talmud, xavrjjsy
company, the term H being more correct, or, at any rate, adequate.
Such a line of argument would not take into account the fact that this element
came to Y not only from the H of the so-called rabbinic literature - into which it
had been incorporated - but also quite direct from the Talmud itself, with which
the Jews were even more familiar than the Englishman was proverbially said to
have been with his Bible. Only a smaU number of Ar words come from other
sources, e.g., from the Cabbala. The discussions in the previous chapter apply to
the Ar element, too.

THE ROMANCE ELEMENT

As we have no texts from the earliest period of literary or spoken Y, we do not

know the extent of the Romance dement of that time. Today it is only small.
 67 The Elements of Yiddish

The words are clearly of Zar origin. Some examples: laiynyn to read from older
laiyn from Zar leier (already very early the stem incorporated the /n/ and became
lain ~ laiyn), c'uulnt, (a certain dish kept warm on the Sabbath until dinner; cf.
French regional forms: salat galette cuite au four,splat, cholante, tsildd, ckalande),
Bendyt (male name) < Benedeit, Baily (female name) < Bela, antipoizn to
betroth (in the language of the traditional Bible translation taught in the elemen-
tary schools) < espouser; words restricted to w y : 00m to say the liturgical
prayers; some WY ones survived in certain localities: praiyn to invite < preier,
pileI girl < puleI < pulcelie, poost meal < past. Bitten to bless; to say grace
after a meal* is a living word in both W and EY; it must be derived from a Zar
form bendicer, which did not participate in the development from Latin bene-
dicere to French benk but was a straight continuation of the Latin form. This
indicates that a Jewish Latin (Latinic) existed. (Another indication to the same
effect is the name Ladino, by which the Sephardim call the language of their
Bible translation. Incidentally, their verb ladinar is exactly parallel to the Y
taain, both meaning to translate.)
The Romance element, although insignificant in the linguistic set-up of Y, is
of great historical interest because it shows that the Jewish immigration into
Germany came from a western, not from a southern, let alone south-eastern,
direction. PalaeogTaphical research yields the same result: the Ashk type of the
H script is at first identical with the Zar type.4

THE GERMANIC ELEMENT

For the Germanic element, as for the Romance one, there is only one source,
i.e., the German language. The term G language signifies a very complex entity:
a number of written and literary standards and many dialects, all of them at
different periods and stages of development.
One point is evident without any research: y cannot have originated from
standard NHG. For that language is much younger than Y. A large number of Jews
had left Germany many centuries before n h g , a creation of Protestantism, had
become a standard medium of conversation. Phonological tests, too, confirm the
fact that their tongue cannot have its source in *Luthers German. It is therefore
necessary to go back much farther - to MHG times.

Comparison with Middle High German

(a) In Y, the short vowels o f MHG in stressed, closed syllables:

4 See m j work Tht fftfrcw Scripts, 01. 1, coL 300, and compare No*. 318 and 319 of vol. a with
No*. 34a and 343.
 68 A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language

(1) have not been changed:

MHO Y NHG
hant (d) hant (t) Hand , hand*
mifgen miitn messen to measure*
(ith)gibe & gebe *give
gequoilen swollen gykvoln been gequoilen swollen
delighted

(2) have been lengthened:

narre madman* ndr fool Narr ,fool*
ir iier ihr ,her*
horn hoorn Horn horn

(3) have changed their articulation:

(Uende fir from ilnt *lonely; elertd ,miserable;
home; unhappy friendless* pitiful
quelle kval Quelle source, spring*
kerse kari Kirtche *cherry*
harm 'sharp, acrid harb difficult* hah harsh etc.
ticker tixer ticker sure, safe*
kirf hiri Hirsch ,hart
vol m vol! *full
tohter tixter Tocher ,daughters*
svnne Sonne *sun
durch dor{e)x durch ,through*
gunnen farginyn gomten *not to grudge*
kuche hex Kiche *kitchen*
gurtel gartl Cirtel *girdle

(4) have been lengthened and have then undergone change of articulation:
act ituut Stadt *town
taixl(*) tablet, tw l board. TaftI tablet,
painting, tablet, board,
table* book cover* table*

(5) have been lengthened and then diphthongized:

pfSrt(d) ffierd Pferd *hone*
killer Uiler Keller cellar*
kof hoif Hof court*
 69 The Elements of Yiddish

(6) have changed their articulation, then been lengthened and finally diphthongized
stirne ittitm Stim *forehead
morhejmore maier Mohre *carrot
61(e) ail 01 *oil
(b) The long vowels o f MHG have in Y:
(1) been diphthongized:
sptme {pettier Spine *splinters
ewu ailnk evig *eternal
6re oier Okr *ear
hUh hoi(e)x koch *high
his houz Halts *house
(2) changed their articulation and have then been diphthongized:
bibttjpSbet poipt Papa pope*
hahe hai(e)x Hohe *height
(3) been diphthongized, and then monophthongized to a long vowel:
liloth Lutlex Leilath sheet
tiutuh G erm an taai m eaning dcutsch *G erm an
futuer haazer Hauser *houses

(4) been shortened:

salde *bliss, Zildy (female name) cf. selig blessed, happy
happiness

(5) changed their articulation and have then been shortened:

mdge scales vug weight, scales Wage scales

(c) The following correspond to the m hg diphthongs:

(1) new diphthongs, probably after monophthongization of the original ones:
loup (b) Imb laub deaf
hou hat Heu *hay
meizt vaic Weizen *wheat

(2) long vowels, after monophthongization:

vUegen J&yn fliegen *to fly
vucf fjjs Fuss *foot
brutier briider Bruder *brothers
 70 A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language

(3) short vowels, after monophthongization:

iettith illex (jeglifh) each
(4) short vowels, after monophthongization and change of articulation:
titht lixt Licht light
urgent bgyt irgend(...) ,somewhere
siufzen tifcn stufzen to sigh
bluot bljl Blut blood
muoi mjz muss must
kleiner kliner kleiner smaller

Changes in consonants:
(d) Initial MHG /b/ is split up into two series, /b/ and /p/:
\
base *bad, useless baiz bad, angry bote bad, wicked,
angry
buter pjter Butter butter

(e) The same holds good for initial m hg d, with the series /d/ and /t/:
dine/tune ddr *meagre durr
dry; lean' ,dry; lean
dunkelllvnktl ljnkl dunkel dark

(f) Change of articulation:

fiths fjks Fuekt *fox

(g) MHG /pf/ is /f/ at the beginning, but /p/ in medial or final position:
p/ert (d) fUerd Pferd horse
lop/ top Topf pot
lopflln tipi Topflein little pot

(h) After /1/ or /n/, before /s /, jzj or / 5/, a dental has developed:
kunst knowledge, kjnc trick, stunt Kwut ,art
skilfulness
hats huldz Hah neck
minsche mM Menseh , human being
(i) m h g /s s/ is / 5/ in Y:

messe/meislmessine mii Messing ,brass (OE

mottling)
 1 The Elements of Yiddish

(j) In the past participles of the m hg verbs uhrien and spimen the hiatus is
avoided by the development of a g:
gesckrim/geukriuwcn/ gyirign geukrien [h is] sh o u ted
gesekrmen
gesptuwenjgetpumenl gjifign gap** '[has] sp a t
gespim

As to the relation between Y and MHG on the one hand and Y and NHG on the
other, see also pp. 51-54.
The term m hg designates a literary language. However, this is far from uniform,
there being dialectal variations. Up to a point, it was probably also the spoken
language of the royal and ducal courts and the upper class. Y cannot, of course,
have originated here. The Jews as a mainly urban group would have spoken the
regional languages in which the pure local dialect was somewhat attenuated,
because these languages were based on a wider area. We wiU now try to establish
which dialect(s) constitute the source(s) of y.
There arc two main groups of G dialects, High German and Low German.
Y has no connection with the latter, as may be seen from the following examples:

nhq / mhq Y NLQ

ZaJtn cutm Tahn to o th
itk ex 1k 1
teU tail deil p a rt
Pferd fiierd Perd horse
Stkiff &f Scheep sh ip
St ad! [Stat] sluut Stadt [stat] town*
dein daan < dain dbt th y
derIdie ierjdi de the*
mUkjmir mex/mir mi, mik *me/to m e
gekert gyUiert hurt *heard*
Himmel kind Heben heaven

Since Jews settled only very late in the northern regions, the absence of a LG
element in Y is not surprising.
HG divides into two main branches, Upper and Central German. We shall now
compare Y with each of them.

The Central German element (mhg)

The following Central German features appear in Yiddish.
 72 A Brief Survey of die Yiddish Language

(a) Monophthongs correspond to the diphthongs /110/, /lie/, / ie/:

uo y co
ibw Kuh cow
f * grim grim green*
knie kmi Kme knee

(b) m h g jouj is Y joij. This might be explained by the CG /0 / which corresponded

to [oul, joining the old /0 / and lengthened /0 / and participating in the development
to /oiI : As MHG rose rose and kole coal became Y roiz and koilso MHG CG kgm
( = bourn) became Y botm.
(c) The Y faij which corresponds to MHG // might have an analogous explana-
tion: The cx; /r/ ( = mhg m) might have joined the development of old jej and
lengthened jej to y /ai/. As m h g site *snow* and kebet1 to lift became Y Snai and
haibn, so m h g CG stfn ( = stein) stone became Y it am.
In other words, the four sets of vowels and diphthongs in c (oujau, o/p, eje,
eijei) have been reduced to two (ai and ai): Under einem bourne in Rome sten sie u f
einem steine-Unter einem Baum(e) in Rom stehen sie auf einem Stein - Jnter a boim
in Roim itaiyn zai o f a itain.
(d) The prefixes be and ge have preserved a vowel:

beuhtpfe baiifymi creature

gesagt gy**gt said*

Exceptions must be explained individually:

gekceren Miern *torelate to ;ought ;should ;to be probable

geringe small gring easy

(e) To the foregoing may perhaps be added that the MHG short vowels were
lengthened in CG earlier than in UG and the changes of articulation and the devel-
opment of diphthongs were thus made possible:
uo Y CO
mule m il mule ,m ill
van find,e)m v im *to rid e
vedere /Oder vedere feather
tor toier tor door

(f) Similarly the shortening of vowels may perhaps be traced to CG:

Ujen lezn lajen to let*

kriht gybraxt braht *brought*
 73 The Elements of Yiddish

(g) Umlaut in words like the following is a Central German feature.

knukt brik brieke . bridge*
drucltcn drikn driuken to press
stuck ilik stick piece
xerutk cjrik XMUCk back*
Umgnenjlouken laikynyn lougnenfleuken to deny
gelouben glaibn gelouben to believe

(h) The same holds good for the vowel of the verb bring:
bringen brengyn brengen *to bring*

(i) Initial Germanic /p/ is represented by /(f :

pfurtt(i) fjnt fund; pund pound

(j) Germanic /pp/ undergoes no shift:

apfel ipl appel apple
kopf kop kepp *head

(k) Medial /5/ before /t/ has not become /|/ in cg , y having the same feature,
might have inherited it from here.
tarsi [tarft] luu(e)rst mil tarsi d arest
direst *must not*

(1) The final /1/ of the 3rd pers. plur. of the present indie, was lost very early
in CG, which might thus be the source of the Y form.
lobent loibn lobtn to praise

(m) The assimilation /mb > mm/ is possibly of CG origin:

krump (b) crooked, krjm ,crooked, not krumm crooked, slanting*
slanting* right, wrong, lame*

(n) The loss o f /b/ in

gekabet gyluu gehat had*

is a CG feature.
(o) CG origin is indicated for:

turn torjm turm tower

kugel koul kilt globe, bullet
 74 A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language

(p) Some examples from the vocabulary:

prtiglyn breglen to fry

fiiln Julen,fuekn to feel
hofn hoffen to hope*
irgyt iergaif) som ewhere
itaiger tu n e; steiger play in
high
m anner and strong notes
farzjj(e)xn versuchen, versuochen to get a taste o F
[finyPfiery {Junf^rtt [five] persons ( [five] o f them *)

The Upper German element

The following features point to a UG source:
(a) In certain words there is no mutation:

UG Y CG
sumen/soumen zoumyn zex soumen/soumen *to tarry*
koufen koifn koufen to buy
bueken to bend, b jk n z e x ' to bow butken to bend,
bow* bow
stupfen itjpn stupfen to push

(b) Y continues (in a new form) the MHG /u/, i.e., there was no lowering of /u/
to/o/:

trueken trjkn trocken dry

geschwumtnen gyhjmyn geschmommen swum
suime zfti soime sun
sun zjjn ton son

(c) The final /e/ of nouns has been lost:

sack zax saehe thing

(d) The diphthongs /ou/ and /ai > aa/ may perhaps be explained by the fact
that the m hg /u/, /1/ and /iu/ w ere very early diphthongized in Bavarian:
zit > [zeit] (ail > caat zit time*
mis > [mous] mouz ms *mouse
liut > [lout] bit > laat people liut *(a) people
(a) people
 75 The Elements of Yiddish

(e) The fact that /o, oc, u, iu/ were unrounded very early in Bavarian, might
indicate that this feature came from there into y :
dorfer > [derfer] dir/er dorfer villages
schome > [fin] ien > sain sckcene beautiful
vroude > [freid] fraid vroude joy*
/ / > fity f funf five
tnous > [mats] rrtaiz > maaz mous mice
(f) Vowels are lengthened before /r/:
ban - birt buu{e)rd bars beard
(g) In medial position jhj has merged with the /x/ of the final position:
hick, hiker, kScher hoi(e)x, koi(e]xer hSch, kSher high*
(h) Preservation of final m, instead of change to /n/:
btsem(e) biizym bezen broom
(i) Development of /d/ between /n/ and / 1/:
kuendlin *little kiindl'little kuenlin little hcn/cock*
hen/cock hen*
0 Initial /t/ instead of /d/ in a number of words:
diutenjHuten ttutn diuten to point*
(k) In probably the greater part of the Y speech area the 2nd person pi. of the
personal and possessive pronouns has been replaced by the old dual forms:
if ic ir you (ye)*
im ink iuckjiuwick you* (acc.)
enc ink iu you (dat.)
inker inker iuwer your

(1) Verbs of movement form the past with the auxiliary to be:
sie sind zai zJnyn sie haben they sat/were
gesi1;en gyxisn gese;;en sitting*
geligen gyMign gtlegen lay/were lying
gestanden gyilanyn gestanden stood/were
standing
gesmmmen gyhjmyn geswommat swam/were
swimming*
 76 A Brief Survey of die Yiddish Language

Synthetis o f the German elements

The above comparisons show clearly that there is a twofold source for the a
element in EY. From this it would follow that there were two main groups among
the Jews who emigrated to Poland, the one coming from central and the other from
southern Gcrmay, and that in their new country a welding together of their dialects
took place, the dialects in question being the Thuringian-Upper Saxonian one
of CG and the Bavarian one of the UG group.
But even among the Jews who did not emigrate to eastern Europe, a similar
development can be traced. The economic life which the Jews were compelled to
lead was very different from that of those around them. They had no choice but
to engage in occupations far removed from the soil, and hence they constituted, of
necessity, a much more fluctuating element than did the non-Jews. A normal feature
in Jewish life was therefore frequency of migration, which, in addition to economic
causes, was by no means rarely due to expulsion. As a result, individuals and even
communities speaking a different dialect were brought into close contact with each
other. In this way a synthesis of elements originating from various G dialects took
place. Thus the G element in w y became a synthesis distinctly different from any G
dialect.* This docs not mean that the Jewish speech of a given region was abso-
lutely divorced from its Christian surroundings, but it formed a distinct unity
with the Jewish speech of other regions in Germany - it was a Jewish synthesis.
This is a reconstruction, of course. But that it is on the whole correct seems
very probable, since the main historical facts are more or less known to us. We have
even outside testimony to the existence of this Jewish kouU, although from a late
period: the remark by an Alsatian scholar of the sixteenth century: ,You must
know that nearly all of them pronounce the vowels in the Nuremberg or Fran-
conian way, especially the a which is almost like an 0 (See p. 353, No. 596.)
If such a development was strong enough to shape a Jewish tongue in the midst of
the G speech territory, it must have been still more powerful in eastern Europe, where
there w as no,or only very little, influence from G -speaking communities. And it was in
proportion to its growth that the momentum of independent development increased.

THE SLAVONIC ELEMENT

It was here, in eastern Europe, that a new constituent of Y was added to the
language: this was the Slavonic element.
5 In O, the Silesian dialect offer! an interesting parallel. It came into being in tbe second half of
the thirteenth century by the synthesis of dialects belonging to the same main groups as those
from which the Y synthesis originated, viz. the CO and tbe UG dialects. The phonological result
of the Silesian synthesis is, however, totally different from that of Y. Cf., for instance, alkene -
alain, Schnie - inai, geinichen - gykroxn, 1u -anoi, gmB - grois, Oogt - oig, Beeme - burner,
bar - mir ipL), h ien d u - h tien t, schund - toin.
 77 The Elements of Yiddish

Cxeek
In the eastward movement of the Jews, the first station to be reached geographi-
cally within the boundary of the Empire was Bohemia and Moravia. Czech was
therefore the first language to influence Y. There are very few words of Cz origin
at present in ey , but among them there is that well known expression of regret,
sympathy, pity and self-pity: nebex alas, poor him/her/them/you/you people/
me/us. Its derivation from Cz is proved by the /x/ (< /h/) and the unpalatalized
/n/: Cz nebohy as against P nicbogi. The Y word is an interjection, the SI one an
adjective. It is one of the very few ey words that spread to WY and is still alive
to this day in the language of West Ashk Jewry.
The earliness of the borrowings from Cz is clear from a case like praidyk the
forequarters of an animal carcass, in which the old sound /r/ survives, while
later Cz has changed it into [ii]: pfedek [przedek],

Polish
The second SI stratum in Y is the Polish. Like the Cz element, it is common to the
whole of EY. This is only natural since Poland was the starting point for further
migration north, east and southward. (Words which were adopted after the emi-
grants had already left show a later stage of p phonology and are not to be found
in the other regions.) That the P element was incorporated into Y at a very early
date is clear from the rj relation between the two languages (see p. $6): Y
prikry - P firzykry [pjtkr]. unpleasant, grby - grzywa [gfiva] mane. (That
grivy is derived from p is proved by the lg/. Cz, Byelo-Russian and Ukrainian
have /h/, Russian, which has /g/, cannot be the source (see p. 78).
The age of early loan words is betrayed not only by the absence of later P
sound changes but also by the presence of datable Y ones. Y slrjny string of a
musical instrument corresponds to p struna. As the Y shift /u/ > /if or /ii/ is
not later than the middle of the fourteenth century (see p. 55), such words must
have been acquired before that time.8
In other examples both the Y and the p sounds have been shifted from their
common origin: y txoier a polecat* - p tchdrz [txufl. These forms prove that the
word was acquired at a time when p 6, i.e., [o:], and oy [ o :] had not yet been
developed into /u/ and /oi/, respectively, so that [txo:r] joined the Y words with
[o:]. Since the development [o:] > [oi] took place not later than about 1300 (see
p. 55), this date must be regarded as the latest one for the introduction of such
words.

6 When word! which tre evidently of Urer date show thil change, the exploration might be
that *n i-dialca w u adopted by a group in whoce ipeech the original /u/ had tunrived, ta d who
now turned every /0/ into fif.
 8 A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language

Byelo-Russian
An early source from the SI group is the Byelo-Russian language. But it does not
belong to the common basis of ey ; its influence is restricted to the northern
dialect. However, there are exceptions, e.g., zaver rust* seems to be used every-
where.7

Ukrainian
Ukrainian is a later source and has influenced only that part of the Y language
which is on the Ukrainian speech territory.

Russian
Until the last few decades there were no Jewish settlements on the Russian speech
territory apart from small groups of specially privileged immigrants. Thus no
normal communication between the two linguistic groups could take place and so
no x element in y was to be expected. However, R had for some centuries been
the language of the authorities in the occupied non-Russian countries, so that
words and terms from the vocabulary of these authorities infiltrated into V.
Nevertheless, in general literary y (apart from Soviet writing) there is no Relement.

International words
In the Western languages, words on the Greek-Latin pattern are not, of course, quite
identical: university, univrrsitc, university, unhersidad, universitat (Catalan), uni-
versidade (Portuguese), Universitat, unhersiteit (Dutch), universitet (Scandinavian),
1mivbsitet (Russian), uniwersytet (p), etc. Which is the source of the international
words in Y? Forms like te^oriy ,theory, komiflet committee, asimil[aciy assimi-
lation were clearly not adopted from G or a Romance language but from a SI
one: tchrija, komit'kt, osimWatja. Whether that was p or Rcannot, in most cases,
be decided on linguistic grounds.
The reason for this uncertainty is the close similarity among the SI languages.
This often makes it impossible to decide which of them was the source of a Y
word. For example, Y kohnyn might be derived from the komm9 of Cz, p or b r.
Here other criteria must therefore be applied. On the other hand, it is dear to
which of the SI languages a word like Y brig bank, beach belongs. The p form
is brzeg [bieg], in Cz it is bfeh [brfeh], in BR b{erek, in Uk berih, in R b'ereg.
The y form must therefore be derived from p, from an earlier stage, [breg].

7 By tbe my, it cannot be derived from the Byelo-Rtraian noun which ii rla, bat appears to be
formed from the v verb; tavern which represents the Byelo-Rutsian rltviei.
8 It has the same meaning and origin as Eng tkimtuy < Ft ckemitUt < Late Latin ttmnt4 <
Lat r a n u < Gk ktmtnos.
 79 The Elements of Yiddish

OTHER ELEMENTS

The Semitic element and the Romance and Germanic ones have been the funda-
mental constituents of EY, not only throughout its history but also over the whole of
its linguistic territory. The SI element, on the other hand, belongs only to its eastern
branch. There arc other languages whose influence is restricted to ey and then only
to certain regions. In the north, Lithuanian and Lettish left their mark on the Y
of their respective regions only; in the south the influence of Rumanian, Hun-
garian and Slovak is similarly restricted.
Only H, Ar, Zar, G, Cz and P elements form the basis of literary Y. All the other
languages mentioned do not. This holds good for the influence of English on
literary Y in Great Britain and North America. It is felt, however, in the press.
Words adopted from English generally denote things, actions and relationships
which, while remaining essentially the same as they had been *back home, now
appeared as part of a specifically different world. But why should words like
letter* (liter) or to try (traiyn) be adopted even though britv and prjjvn continue
to be used ? It would be interesting to discover when the old word and when the
new one is used. Sometimes the borrowing is of a semantic nature. When a jour-
nalist in America writes admmistraciy he means the *Administration, i.e., the
executive body of the government of the United States.

NEW H IGH GERMAN

There was a language that was very remote geographically but that none the less
exerted a strong influence on the language of modern y literature. This was G,
i.e., New High German. We did not discuss the matter in the section The Gcr-
manic element because its role in the history of y has been of a n essentially
different nature. Its logical place is here, where it belongs chronologically.
How did this influence come about ? The pioneers of the Jewish Enlightenment
in eastern Europe looked upon the German Jewish Enlightenment as their spiritual
home. They adopted its attitude towards Y, and to them it seemed quite natural
to want to replace jargon by G. The protagonists of the new movement, generally
used Hebrew for literary purposes. In this they followed traditional practice.
The masses of the people did not, however, know it well enough for that. Hence,
in propagating their ideas in the fight against the old ways of life, the Enlighteners
were compelled to use the despised gibberish itself. Right from the beginning
in their work of educating the people, of civilizing them, as they called it, they
turned their attention to the language. As they could not abolish it to order, they
tried at least to Germanize it as much as possible. They did this to the vocabulary,
phraseology, grammar, style, and even to the spelling. I say even because this
 80 A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language

is particularly striking, since the alphabets o f Y and G differ completely and it

would appear to be impossible for the one to influence the other. One example
will suffice: the introduction of ayin, in imitation of the G e in unstressed syllables,
e.g., gezugt, koimen instead of the traditional gizugt, koimin.
The process of Germanization went farthest in the north among the writers
of Vilna and resulted, of course, in horribly distorted Y. In the south, the instinct
for good language was stronger, and here some of the protagonists of the Enlight-
enment themselves wrote in pure and popular Y. All in all, only a small circle in
Eastern Europe was reached by modern ideas and writings and so the written
and spoken language of the vast majority remained unaffected. But that circle was
gradually extending and their written language was of the Germanized type.
The next step was not, however, the adoption of G but a conscious revolt against
the whole trend, due to the awakening of nationalism. Coming in the train of
secularization, this movement was actually basing itself upon Y as the guardian
of Jewish peoplehood. Being essentially secular, it did not aim at returning to the
old Y nor at continuing in its footsteps but along newer paths. The main achieve-
ment of the linguistic revolt - it had begun late in the nineteenth century and gained
great momentum in the course of the twentieth - was the removal of Germanisms,
mainly from accidence. In all the other linguistic spheres (except phonetics, which
had not been affected) what resulted from it was merely an exchange of new
Germanisms for old, rather than the emergence of an un-Germanized Y. Not
surprisingly this linguistic nationalism failed to undo what had been done, for it
was, after all, just a more advanced stage of the Enlightenment.
A few examples will suffice. There had not formerly been a word in Y for the
modem idea of development. No attempt was made to create such a word, not
even in the shape of a translation from another language. A word was simply
adopted. There is nothing unusual in that, of course. The source from which it
was taken was G, and thus modern Y had the word entviklung. The parts of this
word have their Y equivalents: ant, viklyn and jng, but there was no word ant-
viklyn, either in an abstract or concrete sense, from which to construct a noun
by means of the suffix jng. Later the prefix ant was substituted for the G ent:
antvikljng, but up to this day, no attempt has been made to Yiddicizc the word
completely, in which case it would have to be antvikyljng. In this particular example
the reason for the adoption of a loan word was that it introduced a new idea. In
other instances a new shade of thought was responsible.
But very often there is no obvious explanation. For example, the Yiddish word
for ,danger is s(a)kutmy, in modern Y there is also from the German Gefahr.
There are a very great number of words of both categories. Sometimes words
achieved currency because poets and poetasters borrowed from G to increase their
supply of rhymes. As there are, for instance, very few rhymes with y fact ,light
 81 The Elements of Yiddish

in th e northern dialect, they sim ply appropriated th e G Geskht (pronouncing the

G [5] as Y [x]) w hen they needed a rhym e word.
No less than vocabulary, phraseology too, was affected. German idioms were
translated literally, part of the new idiom often consisting of a German word,
e.g., dimjm als bavaaz to serve as a proof, from G als Bemeis dienen: dimyn
cannot have the meaning *to function, als is G, bavaazn means to produce,
exhibit, show but not beweisen to prove.'
Finally an example from syntax: a fjn Rjsii ibergyzicty bambkjng. Such a con-
sanction is impossible in genuine Y, just as it is in English: a from Russian trans-
lated note. In Y the article cannot be separated from its noun except by attributive
adjectives. The correct position is: a bambkjng (g word) iber gyzict (g word) fjn
RjsiJ, exactly as in English: *a note translated from Russian. The construction
was borrowed from G: eine aus dem Russischen iibersetzte Bemerkung.
There was only one domain where this type of language had not gained ascen-
dancy, and that was in the traditional religious literature: biblical and other
translations, edifying and Chassidic writings, etc. Here the old type of Y from
before the advent of the Enlightenment continued to be used, although the spelling
was much influenced by the secularized type. The press of the religious majority
of East Ashk Jewry, however, succumbed to the secularized language. It was
only among the adherents of the above-mentioned (p. 38) traditionalist linguistic
movement between the two World Wars that the incongruity between religious
traditionalism on the one hand, and a secularized language on the other, was
recognized. They aimed at shaping a language built upon the foundation of tradi-
tional Y and adapted to present needs, without, however, identifying those needs
with the ideas and ideals of the secularized world. The result, as far as the N H G
element is concerned, amounted to its complete rejection, although success in
the practical execution of this aim varied from writer to writer.
 4

Synthesis

The elements1 described above did not remain separate entities but reacted with
each other: synthesis took place.

MORPHOLOGY

There is umlaut in plurals, diminutives, comparatives and superlatives, not only

in the Germanic element but also in the others:
fuunym (h ) ptinyma (pi.) *face*
suud (SI) siider (pi.) orchard
ruuv (h ) rfivl (dim.) rab b i
drong (SI) drJngI (dim.) stick, cudgel
xuusyv (h ) xeiiyvtr (comp.) ' respected; im p o rtan t
xeiiyvtier (superl.)
The plural endings of H origin, lym/ and jysj, are used also with the other
elements:
dokter (o) doktoirym *physician; Dr
ndr (a) narvunym stupid person
(the uun is a suffix for nouns and adjectives and is also o f Semitic origin).
The ending /s/ys/ serves for nouns of SI origin, no SI plural endings having
been incorporated in Y:
rak (SI) rakys *crayfish
kliamky (SI) kliemkys door handle
1 The words element and reactiontaken from chemistry, seem to provide a suitable metaphor
for the linguistic processes in question. Thus element is preferable to the term 'component,'
which was introduced some time *go is a substitute. However, 'components suggests things
placed side by side without interaction.
 83 Synthesis

This development is clearly due to analogy. The singular ending /y/ is very
frequent in words of both Sem and SI origin, and so the plural of the latter was
formed by analogy with the H plural:
toivy loivyt good turn, favour*
resulted in
kUamky khamkyt door handle
This happened in the Germanic element too:
yjmy ngjmys ,aunt'
In these forms /s/ seems to be the marker of the plural (while, historically, it was
lysf) and that might explain forms like:
miser misers *knife
itikn itikns stick

On the other hand, there are also formations like:

loiyk loiykys foal
itikn itikynys *stick

SEMANTICS

Expressions like uun zugn or up giibn have a purely Germanic body. While they
correspond to G ansagen and abgeben, they have a different meaning. In G they
signify ,to announce and to deliver, respectively, but in y to command, warn
and to give back. It would be futile to seek these meanings in m h g or to try
and discover the psychological road leading from *announce to ,charge etc.,
and from ,deliver to give back. The Y constructions are simply built on the
pattern of the p nakazac ,to command and oidac to give back; uun + zugn
on + say and up + geibn off + give. Although these two adverbs and others
arc G in origin and are linked with verbs of G origin, they very often have the SI
meaning, side by side with the G one.
The Y word for donkey is aizi> the H one is hatnor [xamoir]. The latter word
is also Y: xamer, but it does not mean the animal; it is reserved for the human
species as a term of abuse. This does not strike us as remarkable, for we got used
to being called *donkey in our childhood. But in the Arab orient, the donkey is
an important animal and its name is not synonymous with stupidity. In the Bible
the Messiah himself is pictured as riding on one. The reason for the fall in the
prestige of the donkey in y seems clear: it is a case of synthesis, an oriental form
wedded to an occidental meaning.
 84 A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language

WORD FORMATION

The Indo-European system of word composition is transferred also to Sem

material, e.g., dam-somy mortal enemy, literally blood enemy. In H this would
mean blood of an enemy (which is not an idiom) because in that language the
determining word follows the determined one: Dam somy (dam ibtu) in H would
be a so-called construct, i.e., a genitival construction, not a composition.
On the other hand, in Y the Sem method is occasionally used, a Sem word
being linked with a non-Sem one, e.g., kol kamtiglexkaitn *all (of the) possibilities
(Sem and Germanic), bal-takty tax farmer (Sem and SI).

AFFIXES

Sem affixes are combined with

(1) Semitic words:
g04(i)y goo(i) + h feminine ending A > y y ,Christian woman
;00(1)0' goo(0 + Ar feminine termination td > r ty
(Also with double suffix: goo{i)yty.)
(2) Germanic words:
paa(i)erty pouer + umlaut + Ar feminine ending td > Y // *peasant woman
Germanic affixes are combined with
(1) Sem words:
(a) jmhtvyd jm + kuvyd un + honour ,dishonour
xavertmtrn xaver + ty (see above) + itw < MHO dr + (1 > MHO in
, female friend
broigyzerhait broigyz angry + erhait *being in a state (< brtngyzer hail)
, in a cross mood
derhargynyn der mho prefix er < ur + harg + ynyn ,to sly
(b) Conjugation:
patent (and pers. sg.). patert (3rd pers. sg.), patemdik (contemporal),
gypatert (ptc.) to get rid 0 P
(2) SI words:
(a) ftrblondzyn *to lose one* way
(b) Conjugation:
ratyvya (and pers. sg.), ratyvyt (3rd pers. sg.), ratyvyndik (contemporal),
gyratyvyt (ptc.) *to rescue
 85 Synthesis

SI affixes are used with

(1) Sem words:
mekmyiky melamyd + feminine ending ky (< SI ka): wife of teacher
tvjisk tvjjiy (h but not y) + suffix ok (pejorative): hypocrite
(2) Germanic words:
klovzmk kloitz *house of study and prayer + rdk suffix denoting a man who has some
individual or social characteristics: *a man who spends all his time in a
klouz'
 Spontaneous Development

PHONOLOGY

Examples from phonology have been given in other connections - in Sections

2 and 3; see also Section 6.
Dissimilation occurs, e.g., in iamyi ,community beadle which has become
iamys; the o y iffttyit, the inflected form of iffn beautiful has changed to iamym.
Similarly, one of two r s in adjacent syllables is expelled by the other: m hg
martem ,to torture against Y matem zex to exert oneself, toil.'
We have assimilation in, e.g., kimpyi ,confinement < kinpet < mhg hint-
belle; xezbm account from xctbm < xeibn < hesbon; vaampcrt currant from
m hg winbere.

SEMANTICS

Modni in SI means fashionable; it goes back to G Mode or French mode fashion.

But modny in Y has developed the idea of the *striking, unusual, strange, odd -
evidently because such are the feelings of an ordinary conservative mind at the
sight of a fashionable novelty. In the H of the Mishnah the noun batlyn (battan)
means a person who is not engaged in work. In the popular view this was appar-
ently only possible if he was an unworldly, unpractical person, for it is in this
sense that the word is used in Y.

ISOLATION

Here are some examples of new forms or constructions arising through the process
of isolation.
The ending s in y is a sign of the plural or of the possessive. But, in the expression
 87 Spontaneous Development

01 am vdgs, there is no visible connection between the s and those endings. We

may, however, assume that viigs was originally a genitive: a m vfigs meaning ,at
the same time.' When the determinative power of the genitive was lost, a preposi-
tion had to be added: m ams viigs. In the consciousness of the speaker, the /s/
here could have no relation to the possessive. The /5/ of ams was dropped, pre-
sumably, through dissimilation, on account of the /5/ that follows straight after
in the word viigs. The same explanation seems to hold good for the /s/ in iliit-viigs
sledge way.' The formula used for wishing somebody good luck on the way is:
(H)ol(s) mir a gjtn ilHt-viigs! '1 wish you good luck on the way - in spite of the
surviving genitival /5/, iliit~viigs is an accusative today, as shown by the form of
the adjective (gjtn)}
The adverbial suffix erhait was originally a genitive, e.g., gyzjnterhait in
health cgyzjnter (adjective, sing., gen., fem.) of a healthy + hait state,
condition.*
Another example that is derived from an original genitive: The G irfikr (3rd
pers. plur.) has been replaced by zaier in Y. However, the G genitive trjikrer
survives in the word iiery. naan iiery (a group of) nine persons (ikrer neun,'
nine of them*). But it is no longer understood as a genitive, as is clear from the
fact that it may also be used for the first person: mir zinyngyv&n finyf titry we
were five of us.*
There is a conjugation where a H participle is linked with the auxiliary to
be: er it mexabyd he honours. This has the appearance of being a predicate
plus an auxiliary verb, literally he is an honouring person. But that this is not
so is clear for the following reasons. Mexabyd is not a Y adjective - it has none of
the adjectival characteristics, it cannot function as an attribute, it has no inflection
and no comparative or superlative; the construction can take an object, i.e., it
functions as a verb:3 er iz ym mtxabyd *he honours him; in the past tense its
auxiliary is not *to be: ,he was an honouring person,* er *izym gyvim mexabyd,
but to have,* the usual auxiliary for the inflection of the past tense: er (h)otym
mexabyd gyvitn. This construction is clearly not a loose syntactical group but an
entity, a periphrastic verb. This holds good even in cases where the Hebrew
element contains an object or adverbial phrase, or two participles, e.g., er vet ys
oiker min haloiryi zaan *he will uproot it.* We may therefore regard such combi-
nations, of which there are a great many, as a special conjugation.
Its origin seems to be connected with a construction we know from MHG
where there was a way of stressing the continuous nature of an action by combining
the auxiliary verb to be with the present participle, e.g., alle die mich sehende
1 Cf. the preservation of the genitive in O: Effing seines Wefts.
a It occurs without an auxiliary verb only in cllipticxl uie, wherein it docs not diflier from any
other verb.
 83 A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language
smt all who are seeing me. We might assume that a H participle had sometimes
been used and that when that construction was disappearing from g and the G
element of y, the combination with the H element became isolated so that a new
conjugation came into being. One relic of this construction has survived in the
G element of Y: the way special emphasis can be put on the word vim to know*:
by combining it with the substantive verb, e.g., Zai darfn vim zaan az ..J *they
must take note that ...I', zaa(i) vim az ...! take note that ...I (singular), zaat(s)
vim az ...! (plural). However, this use survived only in the infinitive and the im-
perative, as in the examples. The apparent infinitive vim is what remains of the
original m hg participle m^ende.

ANALOGY

The verb baatn to change* has the participle gybitn. In m hg the verb biuten was
weak: gebiutet. Thus baatn has left the weak conjugation and become linked
with the group raatn - gyritn to ride (on horseback), btaadn - gyinitn to cut
etc.; the weak g verb 1vurgen -geviirgt *to choke (trans.) is strong in y : vargn -
gyvorgn, like itarbn -gyst orbn.
Some of the strong verbs have changed their gradation class: m hg me^en -
gemifttn, Utn - gyloin, m hg leschen - geloschen: but Y mistn ~ gymostn to measure.
The first and third pers. pi. of the substantive verb were mirj zai *zam fzbt
*we - they are. This monosyllable was an exception among all the di- and poly-
syllabic verbs where the ending for these persons was /yn/. By analogy with them
it acquired the /yn/ for rhythmical reasons, i.e., the old form was felt to be too
lightweight in comparison with all the other verbs and so zainyn - zbiyn arose.3
In the infinitive, however, the old form, which was identical with the two finite
forms, survived unchanged (zaan).
The infinitive zaany however, underwent a different fate, when it was required
as an absolute infinitive. The regular form of this construction was infinitive plus
finite, e.g., iraabn iraabt zi as to writing, she writes ... Thus in the case of our
verb the form would have to be zaan iz zi as to being, she is ... But zaan did not
fit into the usual rhythm. By analogy with iraabn iraabt zi, the required infinitive
had to consist of the form of the first/third person singular, iz, plus the normal
ending, syllabic /n/. Thus the pseudo-infinitives binynjizn arose which do not exist
outside this construction: bmyn bin izn iz zi.
Similarly, the stem vowel of the infinitive vim to know differs from the stem
vowel of the present tense, er vaist. On the analogy of iraabn iraabt er the pseudo-
infinitive vaim arose which occurs only in this construction: vaim vaist er.

3 Cf. the Bawiw form smitn.

 89 Spontaneous Development

Some nouns which belong to the weak declension in m hg have becomfc strong
in Y:

k&lze - kotzen hoc - kdc c a t

hacke - hot ken hak - hik axe*

On the other hand, we have the opposite too:

j i r - j&r iun(e)r - iuu(e)nt y e a r

tsl - teler tuul - tuuln valley

Within the strong declension there are many changes from one class to another:

bodem/Boden - bedenujBiden ground bcidym - baidymtr attic

ruottjRute - ruotejkuten rjt - riter rod

The source of zaidy *grandfather is the SI didjdziad. We should therefore

expect the Y form to end in a consonant too, *zaid. It seems likely that this was
the original form but that the influence of the very frequent words taty father,
mamy mother, buby grandmother, belonging to the same category of associations
as zaidy, occasioned the addition of the final vowel.
The same, no doubt, holds true for the word mjjmy aunt: the final vowel is
not that of the MHG form, muome, as is proved by the WY form, which is muum.
The same explanation would apply also to the female names with a final vowel
as in m hg, e.g., Hindy. It corresponds to m hg hmde *a hind* but again the final
vowel is not that of the mhg word which exists in y and has the form kind, but
Hindy is an adaptation to the frequent female names of Sem and SI origin which
end in /y/: Xany *Hannah/Anna/Anne, Zlaty Gold. This is proved by, e.g.,
the Germanic parallel to Zlaty, it is Goldy. However, the MHG/0HG form is a
monosyllabic, gold, and none of the other Germanic languages have a final vowel
in this word.
Analogy appears also to be the general ca use for gender change in Y. For example,
the words imy *change and maiky beverage, masculine in H, have become femi-
nine in y, because here their ending is identical with that of a very great number
of feminines, of both Semitic and Slavonic origin, e.g., micvy religious command-
ment, xvaliy wave. Sabys, originally feminine, is masculine in Y, presumably
by analogy with the other days of the week - der Muuntyg Monday, (because
of der tug ,the day). Words ending in ys < H esjet, e.g., maxloikys quarrel,
have changed from feminine to neuter in Y, obviously by analogy with words
ending in < Hebrew js[u!, like, e.g., dusguulys exik. Since these words, too,
 90 A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language

are feminine in H, one might think of explaining the change to neuter by reference
to the Y suffix kait ,-hood, -head,* which has the same meaning as the H jtjut and
gives the words the neuter gender: dusgadlys like dtugroiskait (both:) greatness.
But the problem would then arise why words with the suffix kait are neuter. For
kait is abstracted from ik + hait (m hg ic + keit) and keit as well as kait *state,
condition* are feminine: die keit, di kait.

RISE OF NEW WORDS

Yiddish contains a considerable number of so-called h words which did not exist
in H but were constructed out of h material on analogy with the H element. For
example, bal-tohy *benefactor, baabt a man who wants to have/get/do some-
thing), balumys the wish to have/get/do (something),* iaxsn man of distinguished
descent, iaxsuunys , distinguished descent. Most of these were introduced into H
from Y, since the two languages, although clearly separate in the writers con-
sciousness, cannot be kept apart precisely. (In the H dictionaries the origin of such
words is discreetly - and misleadingly - hidden by the phrase in the language of
the people.)
There is an interesting group of words, Semitic in origin, built in a semi-
Semitic way by a sort of reduplication, e.g., bizy-bizioinys a very great disgrace,
byzilyzol very cheaply, xjly-xaluuiys *great repulsiveness, dilydal (Talmudic:
dalle dallut) very poor.* They appear to be formed on the pattern of Sem con-
sanctions like iir kaiitrm Song of Songs, qodie qojailm holy of Hohes. This
is still more evident in sod soidys *great secret, dor doirys (Biblical: dSr dorm)
many generations, a very long time.
Another class of words are those developed from compounds. The H ySm
'day,* together with the attribute fob good, had already attained the meaning of
a simplex -yom fob ,festival. In y, the /m/ was assimilated to the following /t/,
and the vowel of the second word, under the influence of the stress on the first,
became so much weakened that it lost the stress it had had as an attribute in H;
with that it lost its separate meaning - it became the unstressed second syllable of
disyllabic noun: the two words of H had become, also phonetically, a simplex.
The good day was now able to receive the attribute good, in the greeting gjt iontyv
or agjtn iontyv *(I wish you) a happy festival, or it could be combined with forma-
tive elements, e.g., iontyvdik *festive. It remains a simplex in the plural too:
iontohym, while H has iumym tohym (yamim tofrim), each of the two words then
having the plural ending. That the second syllable in Y is now stressed and has a
full vowel, is no departure from the general pattern, e.g., xaver - xavairym,
xuulym - xaloimys (see p. 229, No. 43). Another example of this kind is amuuryc
an ignoramus, plur.: amracym, abstract: amracys *ignorance,* both of which
 9 ! Spontaneous Development

do not exist in H - in fact they would be impossible there, as am-huuryc (cam

hdare{) is not a simplex but a genitival construction.
Iontyv and amuuryc show by their spelling that each of them originally consisted
of two words. But in a V word like boiml '(olive) oil the compound nature of the
original is no longer apparent. While in the now obsolete G word, Boumol, the
second word was preserved, in Y the strong stress on the first word weakened the
vowel of the second word to / 9 / and finally caused it to disappear, the /1/ taking
over the syllabic function. Thus the original compound boim tree + ait oil
became a simplex, boiml, which had the meaning of the original compound.

SHIFT IN SYNTACTICAL CONNECTION

Y iiryv before is a preposition. In H iiryv [c{r(t) is a noun, evening. The expla-

nation for this change is clear. In Y, the word occurred in the common expressions
iiryv iabys , Sabbath eve, Friday, iiryv iontyv eve of the festival, the day before
the festival etc. From here it was isolated and used with other nouns too, in the
sense of before, e.g., iiryv dym groisn ibtr-keirynii' before the great upheaval.
What is the etymology of tomer if, perhaps, lest? It obviously had its origin
in the world of learning. The Talmud is studied audibly - the text is read and
partly translated, explained and discussed, even if the student is going through it
alone. When he anticipates an objection to the argument or considers the possi-
bility of a different explanation, he will introduce these with the formula vyim
tomer (wi'Jim tomar) and he then adds its Y translation, jn oib dj vist zugn ,and if
you were to say, or he omits the jn oib and if and places the finite verb at the head
of the sentence vyim tomer vestj zugn ,you might say. This phrase became stereo-
typed, but the vyim was dropped and tomer lost its original meaning and function.
It became part of a Y sentence and turned into a Yconjunction, meaning if, maybe,
perhaps, lest: tomer vestj zugn ,if you were to say, without a break after tomer.*
Vuurn for ( = because), through a slightly different form, vuurym, is ety-
mologically identifiable with m h g 1varumbe why, The development in the meaning
may have been like this. In answer to a question, a lively speaker tends to repeat

4 This development seems to be old, to judge by the 0 of tomer. It preserved the short quantity
which the holem must have had in early Y (see p. 64) in contrast with the general lengthening
and diphthongization in open stressed syllable: {qmer > ifpmer > toimer guard, guardian.'
It belongs phonetically to the group V z/'dht-mhg turner summer, V kvater the man who
carries the baby to the tircumtisor' - m h o grvattre godfather, v tfner - m vsjhur that one.*
Thus, whereas v his preserved the earlier, Hebrew pronunciation of that word, its liturgical
pronunciation his the v diphthongized form: toimar. Tomer is now so detached from its source
that people no longer realize its origin. Hence it is not written in Sent orthography but in the
spelling system employed for the Indo-European elements of Y.
 92 A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language

the why before replying, e.g., Question: Vuurjm hobn zai zex myiaiyv gyvem?
Why did they change their mind ? Answer: Vuurjm? Zai (h)obn gyzitn az s iz
nox caat. Why ? They saw that there was still time. The constant use in this way
of vuurjm - which developed into vuurym and finally vuum - made it assume the
role of a link between a principal and a dependent sentence; it was felt to be the
introduction to the subordinate one, i.e., it had become a conjunction. (Cf., e.g.,
Italian perchi.) The meaning why disappeared altogether and far vuus, a loan
translation from p, became the new word for why.
The y conjunction saadn unless is similarly derived from the m hg sentence
c%sf dime*

THE ABSOLUTE INFINITIVE

Fuu(e)m fuu(e)rt er azoi a gancn tug As to riding, he rides like this the whole day :
This construction - infinitive plus finite form of the same verb, which is the predi-
cate of a sentence - serves to emphasize the meaning of the verb. This might be a
case of spontaneous development. Or is it an inheritance from a G dialect ? Could
it be due to H influence ? Biblical H has the identical construction with a similar
meaning, e.g., mabk thnltik (2 Sam 24:21) you will certainly be king, literally
(to) be king, you will be king, However, there is a difficulty: the absolute infini-
tive does not seem to be a feature of post-Biblical H - which is the source of the H
element in Y.

WORD ORDER

Another case of uncertainty as to origin is the word order in sentences. It is identi-

cal in principal and dependent sentences: Mcndl bait dus broil Mendel bakes /
is baking the bread, zai vaisn az M fnil bakt dus broit They know that Mendel
bakes j is baking the bread. But this was not always so. In Old Yiddish the verb
of the subordinate sentence had its place at the end: das er mir s mqqxyl zai6 that
he should forgive me (n ey : az er zol mir ys moixl zaan). Logically, the auxiliary
is placed after the participle or infinitive: di mhr Zfflikmangysamxyt haat7 (NEY:

5 Unteis itself developed on similar lines from on lent 1in 1 less case (than).
6 As in German - in standard Language as well as dialect: Da 1ckaa, ma-r-a i n Wign aussasdegi
1Look how he is pulling out the carriage. This is not an innovation on the part of German but
a case where the original Germanic construction has been preserved; it occurs in Old English
too: pttt he pint Uod-eraft Uornaie that he learnt that song-craft.
7 German: Er k it gtigt, H it tr tarn i Sthua tcka no uhitktn Bird He said that he would yet send
him the boots; Old English: pat kte t>ine Gidttmaundbltans scoUen ,that they should devour
the man of God.
 93 Spontaneous Development

vtu mkr Ziilig (k)ot (zai) smii(e)xy gygiibn) whom Rabbi Zelikman has ordained.*
When the predicate was a compound structure, the object was originally placed
in between the parts: Ir mixt voylmaairt inter gykent kooubyn (n ey : hr (k)otgykeiert
kinyn moan ivcier) you might have known my father-in-law. Later the word order
underwent a change: x (h)ob dir gybrengt dus doziky biiexl I have brought you this
book.
 The Dialects

In the vast stretches of central and eastern Europe, frontiers came and went.
They created more intensive communication and intercourse within each political
or administrative unit, while restricting it with those outside these boundaries.
Within such a major or minor region a certain uniformity of speech developed:
a dialect came into being. If border-Iines remain stable for some time, such dialects
become firmly established and survive a subsequent change of frontier. (Cf. the
dialects in England, where there have been no frontiers for hundreds of years.)
On the other hand, border-Iines do not, of course, check traffic and communica-
tion altogether. Dialectal influences cross frontiers, and so does migration.
The table at the end of this section shows the basis upon which the border-Iines
of the dialects have been established. The historical map should provide a suffi-
ciently clear picture of the Y spcech territory. It goes without saying that all the
bordcr-lines described below arc very approximate indeed and those on the map
even more so.
In the greater part of this territory, Y is no longer spoken as a result of emigra-
tion, war, annihilation and assimilation. Poland, for centuries the numerical and
cultural centre of East European, as well as of world Jewry is now a blank on the
Jewish map.
Considering the far flung territory of y, the number of dialects is small. There
are three (they are only slightly subdivided): WY, CY and EY. There are no extreme
cases where mutual intelligibility becomes impossible (such as exist in some
languages, e.g., Italian and g). Their geographical distribution has now become
largely a matter of history.
West Yiddish
When people speak of Y today, they generally mean East Yiddish, and mostly
do not even know of the existence of West Yiddish. But historically w y is an impor-
tant part of the linguistic realm of y and comprises its oldest regions.
 95 The Dialects

Historical Map of the Yiddish Dialects

w y was the language of the Jews living on the h g (i.e., the u g and cg) speech
territory, with offshoots in North Germany, the Netherlands and Lombardy.
The western border-line ran - very roughly - along that separating Germania
and Romania, i.e., the southern frontier of the Netherlands, the western one of
the Rhineland, Alsace and Switzerland, turning east into Lombardy, and then
North via Venice to the southern frontier of Austria, then along it to the western
frontier of Bohemia, proceeding along that to the eastern frontier of Germany,
and finally along this to the Baltic. Accordingly, WY was spoken in the following
countries or other historical units: Germany, Austria, Lombardy, the Netherlands.
Some of the words and forms characteristic of w y are:

Badikn *to examine the innards o f a slaughtered animal, bavn *to drink, dormyn to
sleep, ety father, fraly grandmother, frimytii , a certain dish, hafit pot, harly
grandfather, houlykros the name-giving ceremony for girls,1 knoblix *garlic, man *a
certain wedding custom, mil *more,' mimy mother, minix usable with meat dishes as

1 See page 339, No, 363 n. 1.

 96 A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language

well as with dairy products, nydumyjnydiniy dowry, 00m to say the prayers of tbe
liturgy, Qumcm to count the days between Passover and the Feast of Weeks,' pikl
*servant girl, planxynyn to weep, praiyn to invite,* ram/zoon/imant1cream, rozainyn
raisins,* sargynys shrouds, sivloonys certain presents exchanged by bride and bride-
groom during their engagement, liier *white Sabbath loaf, titn *to blow the rams
horn, tfilyjffily prayer book, tipn pot, vtin to wash.
w y shares certain words and forms with CG. See below.
The main differences between the w y vowel system and that o f the other tw o
dialects are shown in the Dialect Table of Vowels under Nos. 14-18, 25-29, 32,
34 35 3&-40. 5. 52 (PP 101 ff)
Central Yiddish
To the east of the Austrian and Bohemian part of the borderline described above,
was the territory of CY. Its area comprised Bohemia, Moravia, Slovakia, Burgen-
land and western Hungary.
Some of the words and forms characteristic of CY are:
Cvftbn *raisins, cvoortxjcvuurex cottage cheese, diidy grandfather, daigycn to
talk about ones worries, Ulycn to smeU of oil, liberer grave digger, napycn to doze,
mem mother, tit father, belropyct *dejected, tukycn to taste of tallow, xoxmycn to
talk too cleverly.
Some of the characteristic words and forms common to CY and w y are:
Barxysjbtrxys festive bread, bik baker, gfign against, griivn *the bits of goose skin
remaining after the fat has been rendered, krein horseradish, mem mother, nydan
*dowry, niks *nothing, o ly f 'aleph, planxynyn to weep, porin *to remove certain
veins etc. from the meat of slaughtered animals, ioglyt a certain Sabbath dish, trendl
*teetotum (a combination of a die and a top).
On the other hand, CY shares some characteristic words and forms with ey
too. See p. 98 f.

East Yiddish
To the east of w y and CY is the area of ey.
The most characteristic difference between the phonologies of the first two
and ey is in the treatment of m hg /ei/, (ij and /ou/ and the corresponding Sem
phonemes; see the Table, Nos. 18, 51-53,62. Here is a short mnemonic sentence:
MHG er meinet mbten bourn
w y and c y [er ma:nt main ba:m]
EY [er mtitit main bom].
 97 The Dialects

This relationship may be presented thus:

EY W i CY

The wy and cy integration of m h g /ei/ and /o u / was an inheritance from G.

[ ei > ai > a:i > a: ] [ au > au > a:u > a: ]

[wit > vais > va:is > va:s] [byitm > baum > ba:1tm > ba:m]
(I) know ,tree

In e y the reflexes of m h g /ei/ and /ou/ have not been merged but have been
kept separate as /ai/ and /oi/: [vais, boim] - except in the Northern dialect where
both are [$i], a development which took place within Y itself: the Southern [jm|
became, in the north, [ai] and, finally, was unrounded, [$i], and joined the [$i] <
m h g /ei/:

weij > [v fit]

[boum > boim > bttm > bfim\

EY is divided into two groups, a southern (eys) and a northern (eyn). The main
differences in their phonologies appear in the Table of Dialect Vowels on pp. 101 ff.
On the basis of Nos. 25-32, 34, 35, I introduced the names U-dialect and O-
dialect, for the Southern and Northern, respectively.1 However, since Nos. 1-5
or 14-18, 33,42,43, 45-53 and 62 would present equally good claims, a geographi-
cal nomenclature seems to be preferable.
The eastern border-line of ey ran, very roughly, from Riga to Rostov; the
southern border was defined by the Danube. Thus ey was - and to some extent,
stfl is - spoken in the following countries or historical regions: (ai) Poland,
Galicia, eastern Slovakia, Carpatho-Ruthenia, (a2) Volhynia, Podolia, Bukovina,
Moldavia, Transylvania, Bessarabia, Vallachia (today these form the Ukraine

a On p. 15 of my Gramma till der jiddischen Spnchc (Vienna, Preface 1915, printed 1918). I
coined these terms because tht designations *Potiih and Lithuanian,1which were then in use,
did not fit in with the facts of political geography. Moreover, I wished to *void *the concept of
[poltticai] territory in 1 description of nationaJ(i.e., ethnic] matters. Such 1 concept is even less
suitable in a Jewish context than elsewhere. My attitude was in line with a pre-1914 movement
in Austria, which aimed at rebuilding Austria-Hungary as a structure of national-culnini
[Lc., ethnic] units. This state would then 00 longer consist of [the historical] countries but of
peoples ('nations * ethnic, cultural units), and one of these peoples would have been the
Jewish people.
 98 A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language

and Rumania), (b) Byelo-Russia, Lithuania, Latvia, Zamogitia, Courland and

Livonia.
The border-line between (a) and (b) is that between the southern and northern
groups. It began approximately between Mtawa and fcomza and ran southeast-
wards via Brest-Litovsk and Kiev to Poltava and the Black Sea, i.e., from the
Vitebsk gubemiya to the Yekaterinoslav gubemiya.
The southern dialect is subdivided into a western part (eysw), comprising
the area (ai), and an eastern part (eyse), comprising the area (a2). The border-line
separating them ran via Siedlce, Brody, Tamopol and Horodenka to Kolomyja;
it then crossed the Carpathians in the general direction of Szeged, becoming the
southeastern border of Y. From here the line turned, crossed the Beskides, and, in
roughly the area of Auschwitz (Pol. Oswi^cim, Yd. Oipycim), it joined the former
German-Polish frontier.
The main differences between the phonologies of the two subdialects are shown
in Nos. 20-23, 44 45 475 2 f *he Table. The main features characterizing the
Northern dialect and differentiating it from the Southern one appear in Nos.
1-5, 14-18, 25-35, 42, 43, 45-53 and 62. One region is marked by an important
phonological feature distinguishing it from the rest of the Northern dialect. Its
phonology is at a stage which links it with the Southern dialect, although there
was no geographical contact between the two: It has preserved the morphemic
function of vowel quantity which has been lost elsewhere in the north. E.g.,
[zu:n] is son but [zun] is sun, like [ziin] and [zin] in the Southern dialect.
The area in question is that of Courland and Zamogitia.3
Some words and forms characteristic of EY are:

A ly f' aleph,3 cvoncik twenty, (uulnt a certain Sabbath dish, draidi teetotum (a
combination of a die and a top), haivn yeast, jndz we, kaign/ingn ,against, nadn
dowTy, nisi not, xrain horseradish; in a d d itio n : all the w ords of SI origin.

Some words and forms characteristic of EY as well as CY are:

Badkynyn to examine the innards of a slaughtered animal,* eibeiy onion,* davynyn

3 It his been proposed that the Yspeech territory be divided into south-north hands according to
the reflexes of original Vei/ and /e/-diph1hongs, whereby the Northern dialect and the eastern
pan of the Southern dialect would form an /ei/-territory. However, as all the other phonemes
of eysc tally with those of eysw, it would not be reasonable to separate the two. But quite
apart from that, the alleged identity of the /ei/ in the two dialects is illusory. It exists only in
the inaccurate phonetic notation of the sounds in question - as e + i in Roman letters and as
ayin + yodh in h letters. The phonetic reality is wholly different. In the Southern pronun-
ciation tbe first vowel of the dipthong is a very open [e]; in the Northern, a closed [e]. The
[ei]of the south is thus much closer to the [ai] of the west than to the[ci] of tbe north. In short,
there is no such thing as a north-south band of [ei].
 99 The Dialects

COUNTTtY S O tm aS N DIALECT NOKTHOIN DIALECT

Ptitod:
Vojerudthips: Wanaw, Bulyftok, N0w0gr6dtk,
Lodz, Kieloe, Lublin, Poleaie, Vilm
VoihjmU, Cracow,
Lemberg, St1ni1Uw6,
T trnopd 2,475,000 495
S*vitt Uaitn:
Tbe UkniiK (except Polesie)

fu a a M
.
1 605.000
760,000
Polesie, Central Rustii,
Byeio-Ruiii* 1,365,000

Hmgtry 270,000
Cuckailtnmki* 250,000
LithiMmm 165,000
Lanim 85.000
.
5 360.000 2,010,000

to pray the prayers o f the liturgy,* (c you, i.e., ye,* Me you (dat. acc.), inker your,*
knobl garlic, kox kitchen, main/mein more, paryvy usable with meat dishes as well
as with dairy products, sfii(e)ry cailnjchln to count the days between Passover and the
Feast of Weeks, sider prayer book, taxrii(e)xym shrouds,* top pot,* troibern/treibem
to remove certain veins etc. from the meat of slaughtered animals,* um- un-, vain to
wash.*

Both our lexical and phonological examples show that CY shares characteristics
with WY on the one hand, and with EY on the other. It might be called a transition
dialect, which it is geographically, too. The fact that its reflexes of m hg /u , uo/
are [y, y :] - which is an intermediate stage between w y [u, u:] and ey [i, i:] -
would mean that cy preserved an earlier stage whereas ey unrounded the [y, y:].

DIALECT STATISTICS

It is impossible today to compute the number of people speaking one or another

of the Y dialects, nor did such statistics exist at any time before World War 11.
However, in the twenties and thirties it was possible to make a fairly reliable
estimate on the basis of official population statistics, and on the basis of what was
known of the dialect frontiers. The above table shows the result.
To these figures must be added those of the emigrants living throughout the
world (including the sccond generation). Their total was about 4,505,000 (see
pp. 40-42). There is no evidence that emigration from any one dialect area was
 too A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language

disproportionately great and it is therefore reasonable to assume that the number

of those emigrating from the southern and northern subdivision of EY was in
about the same ratio as on the home territory, i.e., 73:27. That gives us for pre-
War y outside the home territory the figures 3,289,000 and 1,214,000, respectively.
The grand total of speakers of the Southern dialect was, accordingly, about
8,649,000 and about 3,226,000 for the Northern.

STANDARD PRONUNCIATION

There is no standard pronunciation in Yiddish. However, the members and friends

of the Yivo Institute for Jewish Research, New York, have strong views on the
subject. They are convinced that y should not differ in this respect from the great
Western languages, and so they are working to introduce a standard one. In their
publications they speak as if it were already in existence, but that is wishful
thinking - acceptance of their system being restricted to their circle. The original
proponents of this standard were speakers of the Northern dialect and so,
without further ado and without discussing the matter or giving any reasons,
they decided that their own pronunciation was the standard. However, the man
in the street knows nothing about it. If he happens to be a Southerner he does not
exchange his rich phonemic system for the meagre one of the Northern dialect.
He does not even know that this is supposed to be the standard. And if he is a
Northerner, he goes on speaking as before, without realizing that he would need
to change only one of his vowels in order to qualify as a speaker of the standard.
It is ironic that the partisans of the standard - all convinced democrats - should
ask the majority of Yiddish-speakers to switch over from their own pronunciation
to that of a minority, comprising only a quarter of all Yiddish speakers.
The exception referred to above is the treatment of the Northern /$i/ when it
corresponds to Southern /oi/. For example, instead of Northern bfim tree, the
standard is to have boim. However, the Northern dialect already has an /oi/,
corresponding to Southern /ou/, e.g., hoiz house. Thus we have here an artificial
merger of two different forms - Northern eijoi: (bfim[hoiz), Southern oijou (botmj
houz) and MHG ou/u (bourn/hus).
In NHG a single form, /au/, corresponds to the two MHG ones: Baum, Ham.
This is a merger, exactly parallel to the one proposed for Standard Yiddish,
except that in a it was not artificial. No doubt the proponents of the merger for
their standard had no intention of imitating the G, but they certainly noticed
the parallelism and, in spite of that, were not deterred from deciding on the change.
That too, is ironic. The adherents of nationalist Yiddishism have, from the
beginning (the early twentieth century) up to this day, sought to eliminate
the influence of G, i.e., n h g , which had so strongly invaded the written Y of the
 101 The Dialects

Enlightenment - and here we find them actually introducing a feature which,

in effect, brings Standard Yiddish* closer to n h g .
Apart from this, there is a practical disadvantage. This merger creates new
homonyms in addition to the existing old ones - and this is not desirable. For
example, koil has to serve for koul globe, bullet and koil *coal, toib for toub
*dove and toib deaf, hoizn for houzn to dwell and koizn *trousers, pants,
zoii for zoul column (in building) and zoil sole (of foot), arois for arous *out
and a roiz (pron. rots) a rose etc.
Finally, a basic consideration: Is the need for a standard pronunciation really
of major importance ? It does not appear so to me. There are languages without
one and yet they do very weU. Did the Greeks have one at the time when their
greatest poets and philosophers flourished ? On the contrary, they used diverse
dialects to fulfill diverse literary functions. As far as Y is concerned, I have never
noticed that there were any difficulties of communication between Southerners
and Northerners. However, if a standard pronunciation is regarded as necessary,
then it ought surely to be the speech of the three-quarter majority.4

STANDARD LANGUAGE

As regards the language itself, literary Y is practically uniform, and this applies
to the pre-modem as well as the modem period. The language of the former is,
of course, WY, but it was used also in eastern Europe where the spoken language
had meanwhile undergone major changes. The modem literary language is based
on this East European form. Its grammar is that of the Southern dialect and is
thus linked with the pre-modern literary language, which, in this respect, differs
only little from the Southern dialect of ey. The very first authors who may be said
to stand on the threshold of modern literature were Southerners and wrote good
folk-based y (whereas their northern colleagues created a misshapen, Germanized
lingo, the after-effects of which influenced the modern literary language and are
continuing to do so). The authors who initiated modem literary y proper were
speakers of the Southern dialect: Mendaly, Peretz and Shuulem Alaichem.

DIALECT TABLE OF THE VOWELS

Where two or more examples are provided, they apply to subdivisions of the dialect
in question.
4 Students who may have recently learnt their v with the new standard pronunciation will be
in no way surprued to encounter in this book a different standard, because they will either
have heard it in their homes, or will be aware that it is used by most Yiddish speakers.
5 He was born in the north but moved in his youth to the south and adopted its language (see p.
3*8, No. 704, coL *).
 102 A Grief Survey of the Yiddish Language

The Sem words in the first column are given in the form they probably had in
early Ashk - as I have deduced from the phonological history of Y . This form is
followed, in brackets, by that used in Sem philology. The examples are given in
phonetic spelling. This table is not exhaustive.

MHG
Sem ey

SI WY CY s N

(I) vrum fnun frym frim frum pious

w guf (gup) guf gyf gif guf body
(3) ship slip slup post, pole
(4) kuo ku: ky: ki: ku cow
(5) rvua (tabirt) tvu:a tvy:a tvi:a rvua crop, grain*
(6) durch dar9 dar(a)x dar(a)x durx through
derax
(7) xurban xarbm xorbm xarbm xurbm destruction
xerbm
(8) szcz6r -- -- W ar JtJur rat
JtJer
(9 ) 0? OUS aus ous OLS out
(10) vrost frost frost frost frost frost
)* (dom darn dam do:rn darn thorn
(12) kol (qdl) kol kol kol kol* voice
(3 ) btoto bloto biota mud
( 4 ) tobcn 10:bin laybm loibm leibm to praise
loubn
laubm
(! 5 ) Sote ($0J$) Jo : Jsyta Joito Jeita fool
Jouta
Jauta
(16) kolad ko:latJ koylatj koilotj keilatj plaited white
loaf for
Sabbath, and
festivals
( 17) gro:s grays grois greis big; great
grous
graus
(18) bourn ba:m ba:m boim beim tree
 103 The Dialects

MHG
San EY
SI WY CY s N

09) hant (d) hant (d) hand (d) hant (t) hant (t) hand
(20) man man m o:n man man , m an'
mo: mon
m u:n
m u:
(3 1 ) iam (yam) iam iam iam iam sea
ism
(22) davka (dawqa) dafka dafka d afka dafka just, exactly,
d afka actually,
only
)3( feta lata iata patch
lata
(*4) lampc lamp lamp bm p lamp
(*5) sagen za:gn zo:gn zugn zagn to say
zo:gn zu :gn
(26) baxur (baljilr) ba:xar bo:xar buxar baxar a youth
bo:xar bu:xar
) (stat Jto: t Jto:t Jtu:t Jtat town
( 3 $) kahal (qahll) La: I 10:1 k u :l kol community,
ko :l ku:l congregation
(*9) dalat Ja:bt Jo:lat tju:lnt tjalnt ,a certain
Jo :!at Ju:lat Sabbath dish
Ju:bt
(30) baba baba bab buba baba grandmother
baba
(30 Saa (Sal) I: Jo: Ju: J hour
Ji: !:
Jo:
(3*) kaier (kaier) koujar 10:Jar ku:Jar kajar , kosher*
kotjar ku:Jar
(33) maala (miU ) m aib maib ma:b maib good quality
(34) In oun 0:n u:n an without
aim u :n
0:n
u :n
 104 A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language

MHG
Sem ________ EY
SI WY cy s N

(35) slifen Jlouftn Jloyfin Jlufm Jlsftn *to sleep

/10:ftn J10:fin
Jlu:fm Jlu:fm
(36) enwec vek avek avek avek away
(37) sleht Jlest Jlaxt Jlext Jlext *bad
(3) g?ste gEjt gest gcst gESt guests'
(39) nahte nest next next next nights
(40) kopfe kepf kp kep kep heads
kep
(4 0 get (get) g et g* g et get bill of
divorce
(4a) mel me:l me:l meil mel flour
mi:l mi:l
(43) kzse ke:s ke:s keis(z) kez chcese
ki.s ki:s ki:s(z)
(44) drsejen dre:n drc:n drabn drebn to turn
dri:n dri:n dreisn
(45) heben heibm heibm haibm heibm to lift, heave
heibm
(46) xesed (hesed) xe:s9t (d) xe:sat (d) xeisat (d) xesed kindness,
favour
(47) etsa (*$) e:tss eitsa aitss eitsa advice
eits9 eitsa
(48) schcme Jein Jein Jain Jein beautiful
Jain Je:n
(49) melex (m ^k) meilax meilsx mailsx meilax king
me:13x
(50) snfi Jnei Jnei Jnai Jnei snow
Jne: Jnei
(5 0 (ich) meine mun mun main mein to mean;
mein think
(5a) glduben/glouben gla:bm gla:bm glaibn gleibm to believe
gleibm
(53) dn zain zain zaan zain his
(54) wint (d) vint vint vint (t) vint (t) *wind
 105 The Dialects

MHG
Sem EY
SI WY CY s N

(55) jikor (Jildflr) Jikar Jikar Jikar Jikar drunk

(56) tirxa (tirhl) tirxa tarxa terxa tirxa trouble,
effort'
(57) liet (d) li:t li:t(d) li:t(d) Ud song
(58) madina (madini) madi:na madiina madi:na madina *region, land
(59) funnen ginan ginan farginan farginan not to grudge
(60) m ul mi:l m i:l mi:l mil mill
(61) sune zi:n zi:n zin sons
(62) liute lait lait la:t lait people
 Appendix 1

Old Yiddish or Middle High German

THE LI NGUI STI C PROBLEM

Nobody would deny that there existed in Germany 1 specifically Jewish form of
the spoken and written language. Whether it be classified as a language in its own
right, a dialect, the lingo of a social class, corrupt German, or a jargon, the fact
of its separateness remains. It was the means of communication among the whole
of German Jewry, the linguistic self-expression of a community with a culture
that was independent of the German, Christian culture: its vocabulary contained
elements not present in German - an extensive one of H and Ar ancestry and a
small one of Romance and SI derivation - while its main element, that of G origin,
was to a certain extent a synthesis of diverse dialectal material, some of which was
no longer alive in G itself; and last, but not least, it was written in the Hebrew
script. In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, at the period when
it began to decline, its condition was obviously not the same as it had been in
earlier times. There must have been a development leading up to that stage, and
that development must have had a beginning. In looking back through the cen-
turies to discover when that began, we are never able to say, on linguistic grounds:
'Here is the precise starting point of the new, specifically Jewish form of G.
This holds good right back to the time when French Jews began to settle in the
German-speaking regions of the Rhineland and to adopt the language of their
new surroundings, and so that period - the ninth century - must be regarded as
the birth date of the new language.
Bearing this in mind, let us consider the language of the Cambridge manuscript,
Taylor-Schechter 10 K22. Its seven poems, which were intended for a Jewish
and not a Christian public, were copied out in 1382 (finished on November 9).
By that time the Jewish vernacular had undergone about five hundred years of
development. It would therefore hardly be correct to describe the language of
the poems as simply m h g . How then is it to be designated ?
 107 Appendix 1: Old Yiddish or Middle High German ?

We shall find some help towards answering this question if we turn to Eastern
Europe. During the Middle Ages German Jews settled there in considerable
numbers; the language they brought with them underwent development and, in
the course of centuries, grew into the entity now generally known as Yiddish. In
spite of the great changes that took place in it, the East European Y of present-day
speakers is the direct continuation of the Jewish vernacular their forefathers had
spoken and written in Germany: both are thus branches of the same language.
Now, if the eastern branch is called y, it is only logical for the western one to be
termed Y too. Hence the language in which our manuscript was written is Y, or
more precisely West Yiddish, Old West Yiddish.
Or let us consider the matter from a different viewpoint. The main purpose of
language is communication. This holds good for written even more than for spoken
language. The Jews in medieval Germany set down their vernacular in the H
alphabet, which made it inaccessible to practically all Christians in the same way
as the written language of the Christians, with its Roman characters,1 was practi-
cally inaccessible to the Jews.2 The written language of the Jews thus served as a
means of communication among themselves only - it was a Jewish language.
The fact that we have to recognize its existence as such will, in turn, affect our
classification of the spoken language. Since it is the counterpart of the written
form, characterized as Y, the same designation must be applied to the spoken
form. That does not, however, imply that this medieval wy was anything like as
far removed from m h g as modem ey is from n h g . On the contrary, there was a
large measure of overlapping, and it is that circumstance, of course, which makes
oy works of such great interest to German philologists. But overlapping is one
thing and identity is another.3 In addition, the extent of such overlapping should
also be taken into account. The language of non-literary texts is often highly
Judaized, unlike, for instance, that of our manuscript. This fits into what we know
of the relationship between any spoken and written language.

THE PROBLEM OP TRANSCRI PTI ON

Let us n o w consi der t he quest i on o f h o w oy t ext s s houl d be t r anscri bed.

For most MHG scholars it might seem a matter o f course that the standardized

1 The ability to write at all, but especially in Latin, was more or less a prerogative of tbe clerics.
That language and in script are therefore called, in the Jewish sources, glhm = galxjj
(approximately,' monkish).
a Isolated Jews acquired a knowledge of the Christian script, and some learned Christians got to
keow the Hebrew alphabet - but this is of no relevance to tbe subject under discussion.
3 This delimitation is not based on a higher degree of abstraction than any generally acceptcd
border-line between related languages: languages as synchronic systems are abstractions.
 108 A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language

spelling employed in philological works should be used for the purpose. However,
on reflection it will be seen that this is not necessarily the best way. An extraneous
pattern is imposed thereby on the material, and this prevents the scholar from
uncovering new information which the m h g sources cannot reveal.4 Is there a
better way?
We shall first of all examine the relation between the OY and m h g systems of
spelling. Are they identical, i.e., is the OY system just the transference of the m h g

Transliteration into
MHG Hebrew characters OY spelling

wahs
in r
breit
vrouwe
ich
hase ?
hazze
katze .
missetat ? ,
j&r T
msere _9
retten
erschrocken _
(bruoder (
(griiezen (

4 Examples from our manuscript: The mhg lenis t it spelt with zym, e.g., zrnmN = zoomjn
(mho sin e), ,12s *Jzy (mho he). It seems out of the question to take zayin as the rendering
of an unvoiced s: it was voiced in H just as it was in Zar, the spelling system from which it was
inherited. The same holds good for b,g, 4, v. The v is especially striking, as it is spelt (for purely
graphic reasons) in two ways, and both symbols indicate voiced sounds: b (also in Zar) and v
(in Zar occasionally w ). That v should be simply a transliteration of the MHG 11 /v/ seems
hardly possible. As the scribe differentiates carefully between s = /5/ and s = /1/, it is clear that
as late as the last quarter of the fourteenth century the transition from /si, sm, sn, sp, st, sw/
to /il, 5m, in, ip, St, twf had not yet taken place in his dialect. How much mho phonology will
gain from the study of OY cannot, as yet, be estimated. There is a very large amount of Jewish
material awaiting investigation and publication.
 109 Appendix 1: Old Yiddish or Middle High German ?

system to H characters ? Let us transliterate some MHG examples into the H alpha-
bet8 and see whether Y words are produced.
As the Table indicates, the transliterations and the actual OY spellings are
utterly different. The oy spelling system cannot, therefore, have had its source
in that of m h g ,8 and the Jewish texts are not simply moulds into which we have
but to pour Roman letters in order to turn out m h g texts.7 This applies also to
manuscripts which are assumed to have been copied from a G exemplar.
If we want to create a transription system for OY texts, we must not base it on
the m h g or o y spelling systems but on the phonemes of o y , as far as we can dis-
cover them in the o y spellings and as far as we can make use of our knowledge of
MHG phonology.8 This will not by any means result in anything like the MHG
speftng. Moreover, even where it would be possible to employ the m h g signs,
this should be avoided:* the reader needs to be constantly reminded not to over-
look two essentia) facts - firstly that the text in front of him has not been printed
from a m h g manuscript, and secondly, that the phonetic values of the letters in
m h g manuscripts, and printed editions of these, are not to be taken for granted.

THE TRANSCRI PTI ON ALPHABET FOR OLD YI DDI SH

This table shows the spelling system employed in the Cambridge manuscript.
It represents the 0Y spelling, which remained practically unchanged for centuries.
Two significant features are to be met with here for the first time: the diacritic
on (Sand S, to indicate /pf/ and //. Could the reason for its absence in later manu-
scripts be that the device was invented by this particular scribe ? Or did the ticks
disappear because people were able to read the words correctly without the dia-
critics ? In the case of /jty there is also the fact that /pf/ was needed only in texts
with an UG background.
5 The h signs of our ws are rendered thus: *, b, g, d, h, ,z, h, t, y, k, K., 1, m, M, n, N, i, *,
P. P, *, S, q, r, s/l, t.
6 The source of the o r system is the Zar system, which, in its turn, goes b*ck, vis Latinic
(Judseo-Lann*) to that of H and Ar.
1( is difficult to understand why, even today, when scholars discuss the spelling systems of
the Cambridge Manuscript or of the Rashi glosses, it is with the tacit assumption that the scribe
of the Cambridge Manuscript, and Rashi himself, were the creators of these two systems.
7 A modern parallel: the problem which confronted East European Jews when they immigrated
to England and the United States - how to write English words in their Yletters or newspapers.
They naturally based their spelling of these words on the system of Y, not of English.
8 Although a vast amount of research has been done on mhg there are still things one does not
know - an additional source of doubt and uncertainties to anyone attempting satisfactory
transcriptions from oy. Sometimes, on the other hand, the Y spelling a w help to resolve doubts
and uncertain ties about questions in mho. See footnote 4.
9 In my transcription of 1932 (see p. 343 No. 431) there were some unnecessary mhg signs.
 110 A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language

Transcription Original Transliteration MHG symho

_ K >
a a
aa a
ei
ai yy
b b b
c s $ Z, IZ
6 3 1 t sch
d d d
6 (
,4
c
# V *, ()

? y ?, ( *)

y
K > e
e
e e
f f
g ) g g
h h h
h h h
i , i
y
i
ii y
i ie
y
k q c, k, ck, q
1 1 1
m . m, M m
n n, N n
0 v 0
oo v a
90 V 0
ou w ou
0 V 0
W V ce
5u w ou
P D P P
Pf 0 P Pf
r r r
s s s,?
s i sch
t t
 i n Appendix 1: Old Yiddish or Middle High German ?

Transcription Original Transliteration MHG symbol (standard)

u V u
uu V u
u , V, W uo
ii V ii
uii , v , vy iu
A
u vy tie
V , v, b v /u ,f
w w w
X k ,K ch, h
2 z s

THE MHG STANDARD SPELLI NG AND THE TRANSCRI PTI ON ALPHABET

a - a i - ii pf (ph) - f>
a - aa ; 00 ic - i q -k
ii - e iu - uii r - r
x ti-
i -i s -z ;s
b -b k -k sch -s
c -k 1 -1 t -1
ch - x m-m tsch - d
d -d n -n u - u ;f , v
e - e 0 - 0 u - uu
c ? 0 W ii - ii
e - e 6 - 0 uo - u
oe W lie - ii
f -f ou - ou V - V

g ~g ou - OU w - w
h - h; h;x p -p z - c
i - i ? s
 Appendix 2

Double U, Double Waw and Double Yodh

The spelling system of Yiddish has a few digraphs, one of which consists of two
waws. This symbol corresponds exactly to the 1double u, i.e., the a of the ortho-
graphy in the Germanic languages. The spelling , for instance, is identical
with that of G and Eng will (originally: will). It is therefore not surprising that
this s>has been regarded as the pattern upon which the Y digraph was formed.
A date has even been given for the time when the adoption is thought to have
taken place - the sixteenth century.1
But why so late a date ? In G uu, uv, vu and w (where u and v arc only slightly
different forms of one and the same letter) were already being employed before
the tenth century - why should the Jews have waited six centuries or so before
adopting the device ?
As a matter of fact, the double u is far older than that. Latin scribes had been
employing it to render the in Germanic and Celtic names. The earliest example
o f this kind known to us dates from the year 102 ce .
In what follows we shall try and investigate the history of the double waw.
We shall first of all check the date for the alleged beginning of that spelling in Y. In
order to get reliable results we shall collect a fairly large number of examples
from pre-sixteenth century sources. With the exception of two of the sources, the
examples come from manuscripts (from photostats in my collection).
1 M. Weinreich, ProUkl ftr a* tsnhMlltm Iiditn ous-Uig(in: iIdiSbi viSN K A m cxzx iNSTrrvr,
O tt ainkaulexer-Itdiitr eus-l*ig, Viliu, 1930, pp. is (, No. aa.):
, A spiciiiitr grtfiier amjm darfg jitfk wiiem ftr dym klang w. Praktii hobn mir dus gyiafn
nox in 16tn iuur-JijnJerl dorx im jnrn di coat mam. Win myn hot gynjmyn ous laign dym m-klang
dtrxcvai mam,izdusgy{itn Ui sufykjatcrn twflusfjn der *iroptUser sraabjng, wjj myn hotgynjmyn
w ftraixb 1 attorns w. Di tax merl khar, win myn dermant tex, az d) mfi-diferncmjng aptit1a
wckakfa jn a ksnumantiin u {tout der kaantiktr fraak/ng a jn t) iz m di lataamiy msiys tax p a r
a ijngy tax. Our der haantiker ngtiier w u anif zaan namyn double u a fjlkjmy anaUgiy
tjjn d u r mmyn m i n w , " ' See contim1*tion on p. 399, footnote 1.
 113 Appendix 2: Double U, Double Waw and Double Yodh

In assembling our material we very soon discover that there is another letter
which is doubled, and that this is, significantly, the other semi-vowel. We shall
.therefore include examples of double yodh as well

YIDDISH

,Munich: Bayerisches Hauptstaatsarchiv: Abt. r: Gemeiners Nachlass( 1478

() , , ,( ,) , , , , Nr. k 12(: ,

(: Joseph/Yoslin b. Moses [?c. 1423]~149? in his( 1463-1475

() , , , , , ,( .) ,,
, , , ,

& 0 and [ b[ 0 [c. 1390-1460 (Israel/Isserlin b. Pethahiah in his [a

(:
( ) [ ]a : , , : : : : ] b [ .
: ; : . : , , , ,;
:; : : : : ,.
() [ ]a :; : ,; ,).
]b[ . :; :! :; : :
; : , ,; ,; :; :
; :; [ :] ; :; :
, , , ( ).

First half of fifteenth century (Shondlin, the wife of the preceding; letter quoted
( ]see above[. in
() ^' , , , , , ( .) , , , , ,
, ..

Jacob b. Judah Weil in his Responsa( 5/ 45>-?? 13(:

() : : : , [ ;]val : : : , ,
. ; : ; , , ,! : .
:( .) : . :; : , , ,
[); : : : , , , , ,; :
; :.

1396/7 (Cologne: Archiv der S udt Koln: Heb. 4):

() , , , , , , , , , ,,
, , , , , , , , , .)
, , , ,.
 114 A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language

1382 (Cambridge: University Library: MS, t,-S. 10 K30):

. , , , , , , ,()
, , , , , ,]ba[ ,()

Frankfurt deeds. The Nos. are those of Urkundenbuch by Krakauer( 1386-1344(:

,) 116( ,)322( () .)83( ,)84( .)94( ()
.)85( ,)86(

1338, 1337 (Vienna: Haus-, Hof- und Staatsarchiv: 1338.11. 5 and 1337. XII. 9):
.()

l 329 (Vienna: Archiv der Stadt Wien: Urk. 198):

,() <)

1307 (London: British Library: Department of Oriental Printed Books and

mss: ms. Add.
26970, f. igir): ) ,)

HEBREW AND ARAMIC IN ASHKENAZIC SOURCES

In the Hebrew tide of the above document of 1396/7 the noun occurs-a
Semitic word written with two waws. Was a Y spelling transferred here to H ? To
answer this question we will extend our investigation regarding the double waw
to Semitic material. Yiddish being the language of the Ashkenazim we shall first
of all look at some Hebrew material copied by Ashkenazic scribes.

C. 1390-1460 (Israel/lsserlin b. Pethahiah in his [ a] and [b ]

:(
; : : [b] . , : ; :[ a] ((
.

13??-145/5 (Jacb b. Judah Weil, Responsum No. 147):

, , : ; : () . :() ! ;
.

1396 (Hamburg: Staats- und Universitatsbibliothek: Hs. Levy. 116):

. , ,()

1377 (Oxford: Bodleian Library: ms. Opp. 333, f. sr, f. 58V):

, ,()
 115 Appendix 2: Double U, Double Waw and Double Yodh

1343 (London: British Library: Department of Oriental Printed Books and

MSS: MS. 18828, f. 86r): -F))

1342 (Oxford: Bodleian Library: ms. Or. 146, f. 35r): ))

1338 (Vienna: Archiv der Stadt Wien: Urk. 198): . , ,))

1337 (Spires: Archiv der Stadt Speyer: No. 257): . , ,))

1329 (Vienna: Haus-, Hof- und Staatsarchiv: Urk. 117): . ,)

1327 (Oxford: Bodleian Library: ms. Opp. 758, f. 304r): ))

1307 (London: British Library: Ms. Add. 26970, f. 19ir): . ,))

1305 (Cologne: Archiv der Stadt Koln: Nr. 269): .))

1272 (Jerusalem: Jewish National and University Library: Osarot 40 781):

. , , , () .))

1272 (Cologne: Archiv der Stadt Koln: Nr. 109): . ,))

1237 (Paris: Bibliothque Nationale: MS. H6b. No. 1408, f. 51r):

. , () .))

1233 (Munich: Bayerischc Staatsbibliothek: MS. 5, f. 8v): .))

1218 (Cambridge: University Library: ms . Add. 667.1, f. 24): . , ))

We see that Ashkenazic Hebrew and Aramic too, had the double waw and
double yodh. Are these spellings to be found in the Hebrew of the non-Ashkenazic
Jewries as well ? Let us take a look at a few of these groups, beginning with the H
of the Zarphatim, the immediate ancestors of the Ashkenazim.

HEBREW AND ARAMI C I N ZARPHATI C SOURCES

1397 (Cambridge: University Library: m s . Add. 490):

. . , , () .()

14th cent. (Vatican: Ebr. 322, f. 186v(: . ,) 3 (

 116 A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language

1317 (Hamburg: Staats- und Universitatsbibliothek: Heb. 17, f. 152V):

. , , ) )

1286 (London: British Library: Cott. Ch. Aug. it. f. 1071): ) )

1280 (Ibid: MS. Lansd. 667): . , ))

1268 (Ibid: Add. Ch. 16174): , ) )

!267 (Ibid.: Hari. Ch. 43. a. 68): . , ) )

1250 (Paris: Bibliothequc Nationale: MS. Heb. 164, fols. 41-42 and 2 Chron.
4, 21): . , , , , ,))

1239 (Cambridge: St. Johns CoUege: MS. A. 3: Jonah): ))

1233 (London: British Library: Harl. Ch. 43. A. 60. b ): .))

1221 (London: British Library: Harl. Ch. 43. A. 62. b ): . () .))

c. 1208 (Oxford: Bodleian Library: MS. Opp. 50, f. 54V): . ,))

13th cent. (London: British Library: Cott. Ch. xxvi. 29): . ,))

13th cent. (Ibid.: Harl. Ch. 43. a . 63. b ): ,) )

1182 (Ibid.: Add. Ch. 1251): .))

12th cent. (Paris: Bibliotheque Nationale: ms. Heb. 635, f. 16r):

. , )

HEBREW AND ARAMI C I N I TALKI AN SOURCES

From the western neighbours of the Ashkenazim we shall turn now to their south-
era ones, the Italkim.

1289 (Cambridge: University Library: ms. Add. 173, f. 298r): ))

1288 ([Berlin: Staatsbibliothek:] Or. 2" 583, f. 340v341 r):

. ( ) . , ) )
 117 Appendix 2: Double U, Double Waw and Double Yodh

1272 (London: British Library: Department of Oriental Printed Books and

mss: ms.14763): . , , ,))

126$ (Paris: Bibliothique Nationale: MS. Heb. 599, f, 42r):

. , , , ,()

ioth/nth cent. (London: British Library: Department of Oriental Printed

Books and mss: ms. Add. 27169, f. 183V): () . , ,))

4th/5th cent. (Venosa: Catacomb [rej 6:206]): WOOT B , 1) )

From these examples it is clear that the Italkians, too, had the double waw
and double yodh, and that takes us even seven or eight centuries farther back -
into antiquity.

HEBREW AND ARAMI C I N ORI ENTAL SOURCES

Finally an Oriental group, that of Syria and Palestine.

1488 (Paris: Biblioth&que Nationale: ms. Heb. 343, f. 239r): .))

1482 (Ibid.: !074, f. 1or): . , () .))

*375 (Oxford: Bodleian Library: ms. Hunt 166, f. 108r): .))

1019 (Vienna: Osterreichische Nationalbibliothek: Papyrus-Sammlung: H. 83):

, , , , , , () .()

1013-1019 (Cambridge: University Library: MS. T.-S. 13. J. 1. 2):

. , ,))

ion (Ibid.: 13. j. 33. 5): ,))

1oth/11th cent. (Oxford: Bodleian Library: ms. Heb. e. 43, f. 59r):

,( , , , , , () . , ,)
.

c. 9th cent. (Ibid.: Heb. b. 4, f. 18r): . () .))

c. 9th cent. (Ibid.: Heb. b. 4, f. 19V): . () .)

 118 A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language

c. 9th cent. (Cambridge: University Library: MS. T. -S. b . 8, f. 3r): Wt W ()

c. 9th cent. (Ibid.: t .-s . e . 1.107): ) )

8th/9th cent. (New York: Jewish Theological Seminary of America: ms . 605 [ ena
2587[(: , ,()

c. 8th cent. (Oxford: Bodleian Library: MS. Heb. d. 49, f. 47O:

. , , , , () . ,()

Here again we have the double waw and double yodh, examples of which are
to be found going back almost to antiquity.
Having met with these spellings not onl y i n Y but also in the H of a number of
Jewries, we might go on to ask whether the doubling occurs in any more of the
Jewish languages as well. Let us look at a few of these.

ZARPHATI C

We shall start with the immediate predecessor of Yiddish, i.e., Zar.

14th cent. (Strasbourg: UniversW: Biblioth&que: ms , 3950 [heb. 24], Nos. 11,
12,14,15,17 (: , . ,() ?

After 1291 (London: British Library: Department of Oriental Printed Books

and ms s : ms . Add. 19664, fols. 9sr, 99): ( ,)
, , ?, , , ,5 , , , ,

1286 (Ibid.: Cott. Ch. Aug. n, 107r): ))

1280 (Ibid.: Lansd. Ch. 667): ) )

1250 (Paris: Bibliotheque Nationale: ms . Heb. 164, fols. 41v~42r):

( )

13th cent., middle (New York: Jewish Theological Seminary of America: Machior
Vitry, f. 160v): , , , , , , , ,6 ))

C. 1240 (Paris: Bibliotheque Nationale: ms . 302, f. 107r): .1 ,6 ))

1233 (London: British Library: Harl. Ch. 43. A. 60. b ): ))

 119 Appendix 2: Double U, Double Waw 2nd Double Yodh

1221 (Ibid.: 43. a . 62. b) : .))

c 1208 (Cf, Schlessinger, Altfranzosischc Wortcr etc.):

. () . , , , , , , ) )

C. 1208 (Oxford: Bodleian Library: MS. Opp. 50, f. 54V) : .))

1206 (Paris: Archives Nationalcs: AE II 8r): ) )

13th cent. (London: British Library: Cott. Ch. xxvj. 29): ))

13th cent. (Ibid.: Cott. Nero. c. 111. a): .() . . ) )

13th cent. (Ibid.: Cott. Nero. c. 111. b): ,))

c. 1150-1226 (Samson b. Abraham of Sens, on Mishna Kelim):

. . , () .()

I TALKI AN

We shall now turn to Italy and examine the spelling of the Italkian language.

1617 (Venice: Book of Proverbs; fols. 37v38r): . () . ,3 ))

1595 (London: British Library: ms. Add. 27050, fols. 94-95O:

, ,1 () . , , 1 , .()
. ^, ^, , ,>to*p

Mantua; prayer book( 1561(:

. ?. () . ?. , , ,()

1538 (Bologna; prayer book Psalms; fols. nv-13r and 2r):

, ?,1 , . , , ? , ,() ?
. , () .5 ,?

15thcent. (Ibid.: m s. O r . 74(: , ()*.()^

London: British Library: m s . Or. 2443, fols. 37v ( 1383 4 0 r (:

. , , , ^, () ?. ,() ?
 120 A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language

d2idy6

Diidy6/Dide2mu>the language of the Sephardim:1

1891 (Vienna: Bible translation; p. 7): . . , . ,))

1882 (Salonica; Meant Loez, Ruth 1): .05 , , ,( C)

1867 (Salonica; Leqtf hazZohar, f. j i t ) :

. , , , , , , . ,()

! 80s (Leoer(: . , , , , , , , ,()

Leghorn; Book of Job ( 1783( : < _, , , ? ,0 () ?

*Salonica; Ketubat hatTora( 753(:

, , , , , , , , , ,()
.

Venice; Haggadah, f ( 1609. 1(: . ?, () .()

16th cent. (Oxford: Bodleian Library: MS. Heb. c . 13(:

. , ,()

1588 (Venice: Hdeq Selomo, fob. 71-72):

. , , ,()

1547 (Constantinople; Polyglot Bible; f. 102v):

. , ? ,1 , , ,1 8$ , ,()

CATALANI C

Catalanic (Cambridge: University Library: MS. T .-s. k . 24. 28): I have, unfortu-
nately only a fragment of four pages (photostat) with little text.

c. 12th cent. , ^ ?,))

1 It cannot be repeated too often that Sephardim is the correct name for the descendants of the
Jews of the Iberian Peninsula only and that it is absurd to use this word as a general designation
for ail non-Ashk. Jews. (Yemenite Sephardim I)
 Appendix 2: Double U, Double Waw and Double Yodh 121

PARSI C

:Parsic, the language of the Persian Jews

letter( 1941(: , . , , ,()

letter( 1937(: . () . , , ,()

ktter ( 1937(: . , , ,) 3 ( . ,()

c. 1924 (letter(: . ,()

New York: Jewish Theological Seminary of America: e n a 72 , f. lo jr ( 1743(:

., ,)() )

1666 (London: British Library: m s . Add. 7701 , f. 130V): . ,))

1546 (Constantinople; Polyglot Bible, beginning): .))

c 1339 (Leningrad: Publichnaya Biblioteka: 11 Firkovich 75):

. , () . , , , , ,()

London: British Library: MS. Or. 5446, f. iogv( 1319(: . () .*()

BAVLIC

:)Bavlic, (Mesopotamia

letter( 1943(: . , ,1( ) (

letter( 1943( : . , , , ,()

! letter( 943(: . , ( ) . , , ,( )

letter( 1940( : . , () , , , , , ,()

Baghdad; prayer book( 1905(: . , () ^ .()

 122 A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language

1844 (Leghorn: Haggadah): .r*rtn (( . ))

!780{Jerusalem: S.D. Sassoon: m s . 229F): . , )( . ,) )

TEM AN1C

Our last examples come from Temanic, the language of the Yemenite Jews.

1942 (letter): . (). , . ,))

1451 (Oxford: Bodleian Library: Hunt 129):

1372 (Ibid.: m s. Opp. Add. 40 154, f. 2!4r): . ,))

1222 ([Berlin: Staatsbibliothek] Preussischer Kulturbcsitz: MS. Or. Qu. 568, Ch.
10, beginning): ))

From the foregoing it is abundantly clear that at the time when the Jews were
only starting to settle in Germany, the double waw and double yodh were already
in existence. So the theory that the German w was the source of the Y double
waw is patently wrong.
That the earliest dates for the appearance of doubling in the above lists differ
from group to group is, of course, only to be expected: that these examples happen
to be preserved is accidental, and the fact that they were available to me is also
partly accidental. As far as the Ashkenazim are concerned, we cannot have any
material from the fourth/fifth or even the eighth century because this group was
not yet in existence.

T HE T A L MU D I C SOURCE

In the Babylonian Talmud, in Pes. fol. 64r, we come upon the following passage:

Rashi explains:

 123 Appendix 2: Double U, Double Waw and Double Yodh

In his argument on a point of law, R. Simeon b. Yohai mentions the double

yodh in a matter of fact way, which shows that his audience was familiar with
that spelling and used it themselves. It must therefore have originated at least a
generation or two before it was mentioned by Simeon in about the middle of the
second century BCE.
How did this orthographic device come into being? Perhaps it developed
somewhat like this. A long (geminated) /1/ with consonantal function, i.e.,
Uj}, is preceded by an /i/ in vocalic function, and followed by vocalic /i/ or /e/,
e.g., /qijjem/. In scriptio plena both these vowels are expressed by yodh: qjjm.
People got used to the picture of the word with its two yodhs - these seemed to
form an integral part of it. The result was that by analogy they transferred this
spelling also to cases where the vowels were neither /i/ nor /e/ but /u/, /0/ or /a/ and
where, consequently, there would not be a yodh for plene spelling. Thus [qajjam]
was written exactly like [qijjem], i.e., qjjm.
Although there does not appear to be a textual reference to double waw in
the Talmud, we may presume that this spelling was also in existence at the time of
R. Simeon, since it is, in our later material, always a parallel feature to double
yodh. It would have developed in an analogous way to the double yodh: ,
originally the scriptio plena for ( i.e., for ), gave rise to etc.,
where no scriptio plena was needed.
THE QUMRA n SCROLLS

The foregoing part of this chapter is based on a Y article of mine, published in

1931.1 Nearly two decades later the manuscripts from the desert caves next to the
Dead Sea were discovered, making it possible to examine material three centuries
earlier than the time of R. Simeon. I did this in an article published in 1953,3
and I have used it as the basis of what follows here.
The five main manuscripts and their palaeographical dates are: (A) The War
Scroll: third quarter of the first century ce; (B) the Hymns Scroll: second quarter
of the first century ce; (C) the Habakkuk Scroll: middle of the first century
BCE; (D) the Yahad Scroll: last quarter of the second century BCE; () the complete
Isaiah Scroll: middle of the second century bce.3
Here are the examples from the Qumran Scrolls:
. ( ! 4: xn) , ) : ! ( ,)8: 1( .a
.(2: i x) , , ,(vm : 2 ) , , .B

t See p. 33. N
% St* p. 330, No. a!0.
3 Set my The Hehrtm Stripts, vol. !, cob. 130-143,150-159, roL a, Not. 81,8a, 84-87.
 124 A. Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language

.) 14:1x( ^ v: 5 ( .C
,)7:111( .)23:1( ) w w ((1 s:v )p w ) 12:11 )15:111( ,)x1: 4 ( .D
13:1v(. ( ,)8:11( ,)22:111(
,: ,: (,):) (: (,): (.): (,): (.E
,): (,): (,): ) (: (,): ::! :; :
,) !0 (,): (,) ::: (
,): (p ,): (.): (,): <,)(
,): (,): (,): (,):(
):! : (,):(

It is clear from these examples that the double waw here does not signify /w/
but is to be read as two phonemes, w + vowel, or vowel + w, in other words,
it is case of scriptio plena, the use of which is characteristic of these documents.
With Tiberian vowel signs the above words would be . , ,.
As a matter of fact, this spelling with two waws, one for /w/, the other for /0/,
occurs - exceptionally - in the Bible, too: in 2 Kings, 7:9; Prov. 5:22; 2 Sam.
18:5; Neh. 9: 13, 14: , , ,
In making the list of examples with double waw, two instances have been
omitted: and ( Hab. x: 10, 11). In the Bible this word is
spelt so that the two waws in appear to be a case where doubling is used
to express the non-syilabic function of /w/: iaw. This interpretation is not invali-
dated by the spelling present in another scroll (Hymns a xn) but is, in fact,
supported by it, being also the Biblical form whose pronunciation - iaw - we
know. Thus it would seem that the date of the Habakkuk Scroll could be regarded
as the terminus a quo for double waw = /w/ in non-syllabic function.
But we still have to apply a final check. Could we not read the double waw
of iww like aU the double waws in the other examples in this document, i.e., as
two phonemes ?
We would have a choice between and ( with /3/, /a/ or /e/ after the
/$/) on the one hand, and and , on the other. The former two are out of
the question, as we know from the Hymns Scroll and the Bible that this word
must be a monosyllable. Sow and iuw, however, are possible and make the reading
iaw, with double waw as the symbol for /w/ in non-syllabic function, very doubtful.
The form sowjsuw does not create much of a problem. The Qumran Scrolls
contain quite a number of words whose vowel is expressed by waw, where, in the
Bible, they have various other vowels, e.g., in the complete Isaiah Scroll:,
41> - , - , - , - , - , - .
(34:4. 34:8 .7=54 .45:23 .3<:45 5 3^: 3. 4:4 )etc. Clearly these are not just
scribal errors and so the spelling of our word could very well denote low or sum.
There is a fact that militates against double waw <= /w/ in non-syllabic func-
 125 Appendix 2: Double U, Double Waw and Double Yodh

tion. If j w/ is preceded or followed by /i/, /e/ or /a/ (i.e., not /0/ or /u/) then only
single waw is written: E.g., in the Yahad Scroll: .)8:111( ,)6:11( ,)3:1( ?
.) 9:1v( Thus we have no conclusive evidence that at the Qumran period
.the double waw = /w/ in non-syllabic function already existed
:Turning now to the double yodh, we find that there are two kinds
+ The two yodhs represent two phonemes: (a) jij in non-syllabic function )1(
:Ii/ or /e/ in syllabic function; (b) both yodhs are non-syllabic

xiv :7 (.( ,)xi :3 ( ,)viii : 9( ,)4 :! ( ,)xiv : 5( .A

.) 9 : ( ,) v iii : 2 6 ( ! ) v : 6 , 2 ! ,+ 1 ,6 ! 11( ,) v - n : 11: 2 2 ( .B
.) 17:11(
.) 1:111( .)x: 8 ( ,)x :8 ( .C
III :7 (.( .)7 : 0 ) 3 0 D
,): (,) : (,) : ( 1 ,): (,): (.E
,): (,): (,): <,): (,) :) (:(
;: (,):; :; : :! !; 1:; :) (:(
,): (,): (:): (,): (,):
,):! : (! ,): (,): (,):; :(
,) (,):) (: (,): (,):(
.): (,): (,): (,): (-.) :(
.): ,: (,):(

) The double yodh fairly frequently denotes /i/ in non-syllabic function, at )2

the beginning as well as at the end of a syllable:

.) 15:111( .D .)2:11( .c .(vm : ( .B .)111: ( .a

:; :; :; !; : ::! : (,): (,): ( .E
.): ( ,): (,): (.):

Thus, we have reached here, three centuries before Simeons time, the earliest
use so far known of the doubling device, and have found that the psychological
explanation for its origin given in my article two decades before the discovery of
the Qumran Scrolls has been confirmed.
To apply it to our material: In the word , for instance, what we have
is just scriptio plena - the second yodh being an , a vowel letter, as
it were. But when people were used to seeing and writing two yodhs in so frequent
a form as this (as well as in others with med. yodh) they unconsciously transferred
the double yodh to forms of such words where the conditions do not apply, i.e.,
where the second vowel is not /i/ or jtf. Thus spellings such as arise. The
double yodh has become a digraph. Finally, the digraph cuts loose altogether and
is transferred to words that never had a second /i/, e.g., or .
 126 A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language

Returning to Y, we may now say that when, e.g., the words haim and
haant are spelt today with double yodh, then it is done because about
twenty two centuries ago the doubling device had developed. When, a thousand
years later, it became necessary for the Jews to render their new language in the
H alphabet, it was not a matter of having to transcribe written German1 - they
were unacquainted with the Latin alphabet,9 - they went by ear. The G /ei/
(joined later by [ei] < [5]) presented no difficulties. That diphthong, or a very
similar one, was known to them from Zarphatic, their mother tongue, as well as
from h and Ar. In all three its grapheme was double yodh (the preceding vowel
sign for patah was only very rarely written).
Finally, to return to our starting point: the theory that the double waw in the
spelling system of Y had its source in the G w. It is erroneous. The double waw
entered the spelling system of Y at the very time the language was bom. It was
employed in y just as it had been in Zar , Aramic or in H.

1 Cf. p. 108f, and p. 317, No. 158.

2 galxyi the clerical script and/or language, i.e., Latin, front *one who shaves
*
Christian priest/monk,' (Both are quasi-Hebrew words originating in the Semitic clement of
Yiddish and from there adopted alio into Ashkenazic Hebrew.)
 12 Introduction

linguistic communities living side by side and did not meet with pressure of Ian-
guage nationalism, as we know it today. These facts, together with the fact that
the Jews were generally living in compact groups and leading a concentrated
Jewish life, explain why they did not abandon their languages in favour of the
local *language of the country.

Migration
Geographical separation is frequently given as the reason responsible for the re-
moulding of the languages that the Jews adopted. This factor, which plays so
important a role in linguistic history in general, doubtless explains much: the
Jews who had left a certain territory, kept up, developed and discarded in their
languages other elements than did the Gentiles who had stayed behind; the
languages of the countries where the Jews settled exerted their influence, while
that of their former homeland had ceased. But the geographical factor, i.e., emi-
gration, is not present in the development of every Jewish language; it is not the
general underlying cause for the creation of these tongues. The following are
instances where, in spite of the absence of geographical separation, a Jewish
language nevertheless grew up: West Yiddish, which existed about a thousand
years in German-speaking territory; Italkian, which remained almost wholly on
Italian soil; the Maaravic of North West Africa which differs in vocabulary,
morphology and phonology from the Arabic of the Islamic neighbours of the
Jews.

Ghetto
This difference between the speech of the Jews and that of the Christians in whose
midst they lived seemed so abnormal to the people of the post-Emancipation
period that some striking reason had to be sought to account for it. This, they
imagined, they found in the fact that the Jews were *compulsorily secluded from
the national community, so that, confined to the ghetto, their speech lost contact
with the general development. This is equivalent to the geographical explanation.
But the ghettos were by no means cut off from the Gentile quarters. They were,
on the whole, a measure to segregate the Jews into quarters of their own but not to
lock them into a prison; Jews had to buy, trade and work outside the ghettos, too.
There would still have been as much or more intercourse with the Gentiles of the
same town in that period than there is often today between speakers of different
dialects in the same country. Hence the geographical explanation does not hold
in the case of the ghetto. While being a contributory factor it cannot have been
the reason for the separate linguistic development of the Jews. Moreover, there
were Jewish languages in existence previous to the ghetto and where there was no
ghetto.
 12 Introduction

linguistic communities living side by side and did not meet with pressure of Ian-
guage nationalism, as we know it today. These facts, together with the fact that
the Jews were generally living in compact groups and leading a concentrated
Jewish life, explain why they did not abandon their languages in favour of the
local *language of the country.

Migration
Geographical separation is frequently given as the reason responsible for the re-
moulding of the languages that the Jews adopted. This factor, which plays so
important a role in linguistic history in general, doubtless explains much: the
Jews who had left a certain territory, kept up, developed and discarded in their
languages other elements than did the Gentiles who had stayed behind; the
languages of the countries where the Jews settled exerted their influence, while
that of their former homeland had ceased. But the geographical factor, i.e., emi-
gration, is not present in the development of every Jewish language; it is not the
general underlying cause for the creation of these tongues. The following are
instances where, in spite of the absence of geographical separation, a Jewish
language nevertheless grew up: West Yiddish, which existed about a thousand
years in German-speaking territory; Italkian, which remained almost wholly on
Italian soil; the Maaravic of North West Africa which differs in vocabulary,
morphology and phonology from the Arabic of the Islamic neighbours of the
Jews.

Ghetto
This difference between the speech of the Jews and that of the Christians in whose
midst they lived seemed so abnormal to the people of the post-Emancipation
period that some striking reason had to be sought to account for it. This, they
imagined, they found in the fact that the Jews were *compulsorily secluded from
the national community, so that, confined to the ghetto, their speech lost contact
with the general development. This is equivalent to the geographical explanation.
But the ghettos were by no means cut off from the Gentile quarters. They were,
on the whole, a measure to segregate the Jews into quarters of their own but not to
lock them into a prison; Jews had to buy, trade and work outside the ghettos, too.
There would still have been as much or more intercourse with the Gentiles of the
same town in that period than there is often today between speakers of different
dialects in the same country. Hence the geographical explanation does not hold
in the case of the ghetto. While being a contributory factor it cannot have been
the reason for the separate linguistic development of the Jews. Moreover, there
were Jewish languages in existence previous to the ghetto and where there was no
ghetto.
 12 Introduction

linguistic communities living side by side and did not meet with pressure of Ian-
guage nationalism, as we know it today. These facts, together with the fact that
the Jews were generally living in compact groups and leading a concentrated
Jewish life, explain why they did not abandon their languages in favour of the
local *language of the country.

Migration
Geographical separation is frequently given as the reason responsible for the re-
moulding of the languages that the Jews adopted. This factor, which plays so
important a role in linguistic history in general, doubtless explains much: the
Jews who had left a certain territory, kept up, developed and discarded in their
languages other elements than did the Gentiles who had stayed behind; the
languages of the countries where the Jews settled exerted their influence, while
that of their former homeland had ceased. But the geographical factor, i.e., emi-
gration, is not present in the development of every Jewish language; it is not the
general underlying cause for the creation of these tongues. The following are
instances where, in spite of the absence of geographical separation, a Jewish
language nevertheless grew up: West Yiddish, which existed about a thousand
years in German-speaking territory; Italkian, which remained almost wholly on
Italian soil; the Maaravic of North West Africa which differs in vocabulary,
morphology and phonology from the Arabic of the Islamic neighbours of the
Jews.

Ghetto
This difference between the speech of the Jews and that of the Christians in whose
midst they lived seemed so abnormal to the people of the post-Emancipation
period that some striking reason had to be sought to account for it. This, they
imagined, they found in the fact that the Jews were *compulsorily secluded from
the national community, so that, confined to the ghetto, their speech lost contact
with the general development. This is equivalent to the geographical explanation.
But the ghettos were by no means cut off from the Gentile quarters. They were,
on the whole, a measure to segregate the Jews into quarters of their own but not to
lock them into a prison; Jews had to buy, trade and work outside the ghettos, too.
There would still have been as much or more intercourse with the Gentiles of the
same town in that period than there is often today between speakers of different
dialects in the same country. Hence the geographical explanation does not hold
in the case of the ghetto. While being a contributory factor it cannot have been
the reason for the separate linguistic development of the Jews. Moreover, there
were Jewish languages in existence previous to the ghetto and where there was no
ghetto.
 !3 Jewish languages

Tht group-formingfactor
None of the foregoing explanations adequately explains why and how the Jewish
languages came into existence. The geographical explanation is relevant to some
extent when applied to some of the Jewish languages, although it does not provide
the whole explanation for them. The cause that we are seeking must be common
to all of the Jewish languages. Could we not expect to find it expressed by the
presence in all of them of certain common features? There are such features. All
Jewish languages contain elements of Hebrew and Aramic origin and are written
in Hebrew characters. Where do these Hebrew and Aramic elements come from ?
And why are these languages written in Hebrew characters ?
These elements belong to an uninterrupted development in speech and writing.
They represent the present linguistic stage of a continuous process, previous
stages of which had crystallized into the language of the Bible, that of the Mishna,
the Gemara, the Prayers, etc. In other words, they are connected with the sphere
of religion.*
Language is an expression of group life. These elements are linguistic evidence
that the groups employing them have their basis in religion. In other words:
The group-forming factor among the Jews has been religion. That this is true of
the past is beyond doubt, even if, in certain cases, it is controversial today. If the
Jewish religion creates Jewish groups, and if group life creates language, then the
Jewish languages have been the creations of religion.

Religion and script

The religious basis of the Jewish languages is confirmed by their script. Though
it might sound strange to many of us in this secularized world, it is none the less
a fact that the script in which a language is written is, broadly speaking, decided
by the religion of its speakers. Maltese, which is materially an Arabic language,
is written in Roman characters because the Maltese are a Christian people belong-
ing to the Western Church; the same applies to the Croats, and they therefore use
the same letters for Croatian, while Serbian, which to all practical purposes is
identical with Croatian, is written in the Cyrillic characters employed by the
Eastern Churches. Urdu is written in Arabic characters, those of the Koran,
since it is an Islamic language; High Hindi,' which is a Hinduized adaptation of
Urdu, employs the Devanagari script, a Hindu inheritance. A long list of further
examples could be provided. Cases where the religious factor has not been at
least the historical cause for the use of a script seem to be rare, even if among

a That docs not imply that such word! are exclusively *religous terms. On the contrary, only
small minority of them can be thus styled. Moreover, these element* are not confined to the
vocabulary but are to be found also in mast of the other linguistic spheres.
 131 Appendix 3: The Sources of the New East Yiddish

(90) Shewa + aleph + qames: (dfdgd) - da'aga > daagy worry.*

(91) Shewa + aleph + qames: Some words have nasalized parallels: [da:gy],
(92) Shewa + ayin + qamcs: (qtfdra) bowl - ka'ara > kaary collection
plate.
(93) m h g a before lo n g r : narre fo o l > ndr b lo ck h ead .
{94) m h g a b efo re r + n a sa l: warm > vdrym w a rm .
(95) m h g e before long r: sperren to close > Spdm to push/press.
(96) m h g e before r : gem to d e s ire > gdm to lon g , y e a rn .
(97) MHG / before r: bire > bdr pear.
(98) MHG /: hmte > haant today.
(99) m h g ii befo re lo n g r: dune > ddr m eag re.
(100) m h g iu:biutenl to take as bo o ty ; t r a d e > baatn to ch an g e, ex ch an g e ; liute
(liiite) > laat p e o p le ; hiuser (hhser) > haazer h o u ses.

vil: [e]

Y s h o r t /6 / c o rresp o n d s to th e follow ing p h o n em es o f th e so u rce la n g u a g e s:

(101) Seghol before two consonants: (he^rS) - xevra > xevry society.
(102) Seghol before long consonant: (hezzeq) - heztk > hizyk damage.
(103) Ha{eph seghol at the beginning of a word: (*imet) - ernes > emys truth.
(104) Sere in closed syllable: (til) mound of ruins tel > til (the same, but
only figuratively).
(105) Hireq before h: (mihya) - mixia > mixiy livelihood.
(106) Hireq before k: nikpe epileptic - nixpe > nixpy epilepsy.
(107) Hireq before r + c o n so n a n t: (biryS) * creatu re - biria > beriy *capable,
efficient p e rso n .
(108) Hireq before dr: (mijfrSI) - midrai > midryl Midrash.
(109) Qames hafuph before r (in ey se): (metordp) - meturaf > myteryf'insnt.'
(no) Qames hafuph or shureq/qibbu? before r (in EYSE): (hgrbdnjhurbdn) -
xurban > xirbn destruction.
(in ) Shureq/qibbus before k + hateph (in e y s e ): (rSkiniyu/) - ruxmus >
rixmiys spirituality.
(112) Qame$ ha(up before h (in EYSE): (mghizdq) - muxzak > mixzyk *presumed.
(113) m h g e before tw o c o n so n a n ts: vlikten > flextn *to p la it.
(114) m h g i before lo n g co n so n a n ts, in clu d in g ck a n d stk: treffen - trifn *to meet;
stecken > itexn *to p ric k .
(115) m h g f before tw o co n so n a n ts: mfnseke > m ini *hum an b ein g .
(116) m h g f before long consonant, including ck and sch : Ifffel > lift spoon,
bfeker > bixer *goblet, wfscke > vei ,linen/
(117) In individual cases:jfner > Urur *that, that one, ridtn > ridn to speak.
 132 A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language

(118) m h g ii before two consonants: nahte > next nights.*

(119) m h g a before long consonant: blatter > bleter leaves.
( 120) MHG 0 before two consonants: a>drtelmja>drtellittle word' > virtl saying,
proverb.
(121) m h g 0 before lo n g c o n so n an t, in c lu d in g ch: abgotter > upgeter idols,*
locher > Uxer h oles.
(122) MHG or before h(ch): karher > hixer higher.
(123) m h g 1before h + consonant: gewikte weight > g yvixt *a weight.
(124) m h g i before ch: sicher > zexer sure.
(125) m h g i before h + consonant: gedikte > gydext dense.
(126) MHG ie before h + consonant: light > lext light; candle.
(127) m h g i before r + consonant: zk k e l > cerkl *(pair of)compasses.
(128) m h g ie before r + consonant: viertel > f i r t l quarter.
(129) m h g ii before h + consonant: ziiktec > well behaved > cixtik clean.*
(130) MHG ii before ch: kitchen > k ix kitchen.
(131) m h g ii before r + consonant: ge&iirze > g yvb c spice.
(132) MHG u before r 4 consonant (in eyse): kurz > hire *short.
(133) SI e: bekiesza > bikyly kind of caftan.
(134) SI I: (brzeg) brig > brig shore, bank.
(135) SI ijy before r (in ey se ): syrop > siryp syrup.
(136) SI u before r (in eyse): burnttr > biryk beetroot.
037) SI u before r (in EYSE): tvr'ma > tinny gaol.

vin: (y; e]

The Y central vowels correspond to the following sounds in the source languages:
(138) Shewa in the pre-penultimate or penultimate, after b (except bl, br, often
bs > ps), g (except gl, gr)t consonantal /, kfq (except 4/, kr), /, m, it, r:
(yiniqi) sucking - ienika > iyniiky Uvelihood, (Umay) - lemai >
lemaa(i) what for, why,* (n/ftamd) - nexama > nexumy consolation.
(139) All Sem vowels in the Yiddish final, unstressed, syllable: (ddroi) - doros >
doirys generations,* (bdruk *blessed*) - barux > Buurex Baruch,*
(iimhf) joy* - simxa > simxy joy; festivity,* (helfq) - xelek > xailyk
part,* etc.
(140) All Sem vowels in two final syllables: (bihurtm ) - baxurim > buxerym
youths.
(141) Patah furtivum: (reak) - reax > raiex smell.
The Y vowel has no counterpart in the Sem source - a svarabhakti vowel has
developed
(142) between hireq and h: (jtih&s) - tixus > itexyt descent.
 133 Appendix 3: The Sources of the New East Yiddish

(143) between hireq and x: (takrikm) - taxrixim > taxriiexym ,burial garments.
(144) between shureq and x; (du^an platform of the priests in the Temple) -
duxan > djjexynyn to perform the Kohen benediction.
(145) between hireq and r: (ge&ii:r) - gcvtr > gviier rich man.
(146) MHG e in unstressed syllable: genomen > gynjmyn taken, getragen >
gytrugn carried, miuler > maaltr mouths.
(147) All m h g vowels and diphthongs in unstressed syllable after the stress:
Uuken > laikynyn to deny.
(148) All m h g vowels and diphthongs in syllable that had originally been the
unstressed word of a compound: mihrouch > vaarex incense.
The Y svarabhakti has no counterpart in the m hg source
(149) e develops between diphthong and r: fiur > faa(1)er fire, erde > iierd
earth.
(150) e develops between diphthong and ch: Touch > roiex ,smoke, buch >
boucx belly.
(151) c develops between r and ch: march > marex marrow.
(152) e develops between / and ch: milch > milex *milk.
(J53) y develops between u: (< m h g a) and consonant if the word is emphasized:
mal > muuyl a time.
(154) SI vowel in final and penultimate syllables: fypata > lopyty shovel,
spade.
ix:[du]
The Ydiphthong /ou/ corresponds to
(155) mhg u: luter > louter' clear.

x: [oi]
The Y diphthong /oi/ corresponds to the following phonemes of the source
languages:
(156) Holem, preceding a syllable with a full vowel: (morfi) - mora > moiry
fear.
(157) Qames, in some cases: (haptara) - ha/tajora > ha/torry haphtara.
(158) MHG 0: stro > Stroi s tra w .
(159) mhg 0, in stem elosed by a single co n so n a n t: kol > koil co al, obe% >
oips fru its .
(160) m hg 4 , in bdbes > poips pope.*
(161) m hg a in gewar > gyvoterjgyvuur aware.
(162) m h g ou: loufen > loifn to ru n .
(163) SI 0: tchdr (> tchdrz [txuf\) > txoier polecat.
 !34 A Grief Survey of the Yiddish Language

xi: fai]

The Y diphthong /ai/ corresponds to the following vowels and diphthongs of the
source languages:
(164) Sere in open syllable: (sidhrt) - Sedim > iaidym demons.
(165) Seghol in open syllable: (pesah) - pesax > paisex Passover.
(166) Shewa in the first syllable of a disyllabic: (piri) - peri > pairy fruit.
(167) MHG i : emc > aibik , e te rn a l.
(168) m h g f in stem closed by one consonant: hfve > haivn yeast.
(169) MHG ce in o p en ste m syllable: turn > naiyn to sew .
(170) m h g <t in stem closed by one c o n so n a n t: urrvlalic > jmflattik filthy.
(171) MHG ce in stem closed by one consonant: stce^elinstrument for pushing >
itaisl mortar.
(172) MHG ei: spreilett > ipraitn ,to spread.
(173) MHG ou: gelouben > glaibn ,to believe.
(174) SI I: plecy > plaicy shoulder.

x u : [ei]

This diphthong corresponds to the following vowels of the source languages.

(175) Seghol in open syllable: (begej) - beged > beigyd garment.
(176) m h g a: atemen > titymyn to breathe.
(177) MHG ce befo re r : gehoeren to be m e e t > keiem to have to .
(178) MHG e before r: meren > meiem to increase.
(179) m h g ( before r: sa>?m > sviiem *to swear an oath.
(180) m hg ( in stem closed by one consonant: mfgen > meign may.
(181) m hg e in stem closed by one consonant: mil > meil meal (flour).
(182) MHG e in some stems closed by two consonants: meste > miistl dry
measure.
(183) MHG a in stem closed by one consonant: sich schamen > iiimyn zex to
be ashamed.
(184) MHG e before r + consonant: pirle > piierl pearl.
(185) MHG i before r: slime > titiern forehead.
(186) m h g ie in ieman > iimyc somebody.
 Appendix 4

Toponymical List

From the following short list it may be seen that the forms of most geographical
names in Yiddish differ considerably from those they have in other languages.
There is a great need for further research in Yiddish toponymies. A very short list
of geographical names based on personal knowledge was given in an appendix to
my Grammatik (pp. 180-81). Since then (1915) a number of lists have been
published (cf. Section 10 of the Bibliography, pp. 340-42) and utilized in the
present list. The accent marks indicate the vowels stressed.
The historical names for the various regions where East European Jewry lived
are, of course, no longer politically valid but they are used here in order to give
a more precise geographical location as well as to connect them with the historical
and other literature in which they constantly recur. In addition, each of these
names evokes the associations that link it with a particular Jewish cultural group.

ABBREVIATIONS

B Bohemia C Galicia P Poland

BL Burgenland Gm Germany R Russia
BR Byelorussia H Hungary Rm Rumania
Bu Bukovina L Lithuania S Slovakia
at Girpatho- La Latvia Sw Switzerland
Ruthenia M Moravia Tr Transylvania
E Estonia Ml Moldavia u Ukraine

Ad'is Adyesa/Odessa (u) 'Aiznitqgt Eisenstadt/Kismarto ( b l )

'Afriky Africa A hi'ad Alsediiai ( l )
Aibynic Eiwanowitz/Ivanowice (m) A h'eriky America
Airopy Europe 'Amiyny Mszana dolna (p)
 136 A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language

,Atniynyv Mszcz'on6w (p) Byiuut B'uJai/B'uczacz (G)

Antm'iiy Ott'ynia (g ) Byz'enc, Bzenc Bz'enec/B'isenz (m)
Apt 'Abtau/Op'at6w (p) Byz'om Bi'ezun (p)
'Apthky Opat'owek (p)
Aziy Asia Candz Sandez/Nowy S^cz (o)
Cfflym Deutsch-Kreuz/N6met
BaU Biecz (g) Keresztur (b l)
Bais-Liixym Bethlehem C/as Safed
Balsk Bielsk (p) Citavi'an Tytuvcnai ( l )
Bard'Uyv Berditchev (u) Cnam Znaim/Znoimo ( m )
Basar'abiy Bessarabia Couzmer Sandomierz (p)
Batnic B'rtnice/Pimitz (m) C'enstexyv Cz^stoch'owa (p)
Bdzyl Basel/Bazal/Basle (Sw) C'emyvic Czemowitz/Cemiwc'i/
Beldz Belc (g) Cerni'ufi (Bu)
Bbid'im B'^dzin (p) Cxob Czchow (g)
BM Bircza (G) Cyb'im Trzebinia (g)
Biri Biriai ( l )
Bjsk Busk (g) Daacland Deutschland/Germany
B'jkynyv Budz'an6w/Bud'aniw (G) Dane Danzig/Gdansk (p)
Bbiny Bl'onie (p) Deinyborg Diinaburg/Dvinsk/
Bluuzyv Blazowa (g ) Daugavpils (La)
Bobyv Bob'owa (g ) D'embic D^b'ica (g)
Boc'an Boto$an (Rm) Dbpyt Dorpat/Tartu (e)
Botherik Bobrka/Bibrka (g) Diitiky D'ietikon/D'istiks (Sw)
Boiirdic Bolzs'owce/Boli'ovci (g) HindU G'yongyos (h )
BoskyvU Boskoviec/Boskowitz (m) Djbny Dubno (p)
Braslyv Braclav (u) Dombryv D^br'owa (g)
Brisly Breslau/Wroclaw (p) Driznic Straznice/Strassnitz (m)
Br'izyvy Brz'oz6w (g) Drildz Itza (p)
Brigi Brzesko (g) Dr'uubic Droh'obyC/Droh'obycz (g)
BriiziSky Brz'ezina/Briesen/Braiza, Dv'uuert Warta (p)
Vraiza (m)
Brin Briinn/Bmo (m) 'Eiryc-Iir'uul Palestine
Brisk Brest/Ber'estia/Brzes<i (b r) kc'i(i?)n Kcynia (p)
Britaniy Britain 'miiny MSeno/Wemschen (b)
Brod Brody (g ) 'straax Osterreich/Austria
Broid Ungarisch-Brod/Uhersky Brod zer'fn Zarasai ( l )
(M)
Biimsl, Biimysl Jungbunzlau/Mladi Frankfort Frankfurt/Frankfort (Gm)
Boleslav (8) Frankraax Frankreich/Franee
 137 Appendix 4: Toponymical List

G'dlmgyjiyy Gailingen/Gailirp (Sw) 'libu Izb'ica (p)

Gaiy Gaya/Kyjov (m)
Galiciy Galicia 'Jlynyi1 Ul'an6w (g)
CVr, Gib G6ra Kalwarja (p) Jngem Ungam/Hungary/
Glandy Galanda/Galanta (s) Magyarorszig
Glmy Glini'any/Hlyniany (g) Jngoer Ungvdr/TJihorod (c r )
Gnizny Gniezno/Gnesen Jsty Uscie Zielone/Ustie Zelene (g)
G'ottam K'ojetein/K'ojetfn (m) Jstrik Ustryki DoliSin/Ustrzyki dolnc
Gomb'i{i?)n G'^bin (p) (g )
Gorzd Gargzdai ( l )
Gostl Kostel/Gosdl (m)
Kadlborg Karlburg/Oroszvir (b l)
Graidik Gr6dck Jagielloiiski/Horodek
Kaid'an K6dainiai ( l )
Jahailonsld (g)
K'amynic Kami'eniec Podolsk/
Griey Gr6jec(p)
Kamianec Podilskii
G'uulil Galilee
Kile Kielcc (p)
K'iliky Kollikon/Koliks (Sw)
Hanivic HanuSovce/Hanusfalva (s) Kilym Kelme ( l )
Hirlic Halicz/HalyC (g) K 'iiynyv Kiiincv/Qiisiniu (Ml)
H'ilyiau Holleschau/HoleJov (m) Kiinigriic Koniggratz/Hradec Krolovi
H'jbnyv Uhn6w/Uhniw (g) ()
Hjmyn Uman (u) Kuyv Kiyev/Kyyiw (u)
Houzy Hausen/Hu:za (Sw) Kilsbirg Kilchberg/Kilxbcrg (Sw)
H'imyny H'umenne/Homonna (s) Kilym'ai Kolom'yia/Kolom'yja/
Kolom'ea (g )
I'agystyv Augusr6w (b r) Kjnck Konskie (p)
Iam hamiilex Dead Sea Kjtny Kutno (p)
Iam Kmiirys See of Galilee Kjtyv Kuty (g)
I'ampyly Yampol (u) Klaazait Kleinseite/Mali Scrana (in
las Iasi (Rm) Prague)
I'indrexyv Andr'ych6w (g) KYimw Klomn'ice (p)
Iergn St. Georgen/Svati Jur/St. Klouznborg Klauscnburg/Quj/
Gyorgy (s) Kolozsvir (Tr)
lerjlul'aaiym Jerusalem Kmarny Kom'amo (g )
I'irysly Jar'oslaw/Yarosl'aw/J'aroslau Knim K'onin (p)
_)>( Kobrim K'obryn (p)
Iisr'uul Israel Koil K o lo (P)
,litiky Otikon/Oatika (Sw) Kop'tfynic Kopycz'ince (g)
livomic Iwonicz (g) Kosyvy Koss6w/Kosiw (g)
Italiy Italy Koiiblsdorf Kobersdorf/Kabold ( b l)
Iuunjro Jan6w (p) Kovl Kowcl (u)
 138 A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language

Kovny Kovno/Kaunas/Kowno ( l ) LM'im L'ublin (p)

Kr'hnynic Kremeni'ec/Krzemeni'ec (u) Lubyky Hl'uboka/Frauenberg (b )
Kr'btic Kryn'ica ( g ) Liimpenborg Lundenburg (m )
Krifc Kriwa/Krzywcza ( g ) Luudmer Vlad'imir Vol'insk/
Kros Krosno ( g ) Wlodzimierz (u)
Kruky Krak6w/Krakau/Cracow ( g ) Luusk Lask (p )
Kntmyn au Mahrisch-Kromau (m ) Lyv'umyn Lebanon
Kruuiy Nagy-Kiroly/Carei (Tr) Lyk'buk Lezajsk ( g )
Kruuinik Krasnik (p)
Kianyv Chrzan<Sw (G)
Maadn Majdan Kolbuszowski ( p )
Kuulii Kalisz (p)
Makyvy Mak6w (p)
Kuuzmark Kazimierz ( g )
Kuuzmtr Kazimierz (p) Manym Mannheim (Gm)
Marex March/M'orava (m )
Kvuul K6wal (p )
Mating Milnik/Melnik (b)
Kyl'iin K'olin (b )
Mixyv Miech6w (p)
M iibyi Medziboz/Mi?dziboz (u)
L'afyborg Laufenburg/Lauf9burg
M izr'tf Mi^dzyrzec (u)
(Sw)
Mikulmyc Mikulince ( g )
Laipy Bohmisch-Leipa (b )
Mmtk Minsk ( b r )
Leec LedeS/Ledetsch ( b )
Mjnkdc Munkics/Mukafevo (at)
L'emberik Lemberg/Lviv/Lw6w (g)
Mizlyp Miroslav/Misslitz (m )
Lhtgly, Lmgly Lengnau/Leglau,
Moigil Mogul'any ( g )
Legnau (Sw)
Molyv Mohilov/Mogilov ( b r , u )
Alt-Lisly Wlocl'awek (p)
Moiidem Modem/Modra/Modor (s)
Lesly Inowradaw/Hohensalza (p)
Moskvy Moskva/Moskau/Moscow
L'evertyv Luba'rtow (p)
Miiglyv Mrzyglod ( p )
Ubavy Libava/Libau/Liepaja (La)
Liby/'ob Lub'aczow/Liubatw ( g )
Lidovi'an Lydavenai ( l ) Naamark Nowy Targ ( g )
Litnck Lisko ( g ) Naaituut, NaaitiitI Nowe Miasto ( g )
Liniic L^cz'yca (p) Naaituut Naumiestis (l)
Lipsk Lipsko ( g ) Nadv'irny Nadvima/Nadw6ma
Lisy Lissa/Leszno (p) Naihalzl Neuhausel/Novd Zamki/
Uty Litva/Lietuva/Litauen/Lithuania Ujvir (s)
L'rvertyv Lub'art6w (p) Nav'arydok Navahr'udak/Nowogr'6dek
Ljbr'uunc Lubr'aniec (p ) (b r)
Lodi L6dz (p) Niigyv Negeb
Loivtc Lowicz (p) Ntster r. Dnestr
London London Nht'ily Ust'yluh/Usc'ilug ( g )
Louck Luck (p) Niklsporg Nikolsburg/Mikulov (m )
 !39 Appendix 4: Toponymical List

Nmck Nisko ( g ) Proskeryv Proskurov (u)

Nuuxyt Nachod (b) Prostic P ro ssn itz/P ro stejo v (m)
Prug Prag/Prague/Praha
Oipyc'iin Oswi$cim/Auschwitz (g) PUti Przedecz (p)
Oitr'o/cy Ostrowiec (p) PSibrom Pfibram
Oustr'aliy Australia Piixyv Puchov/Pucho (s)
OSvn Ofen (= Buda, o f Budapest) (h ) Pyd'aaiyc Podh'aice/Pidhaic'i (g )

Pdbianic Pabian'ice (p) Rat'o'mdz R'aci^z/Reetz (p)

Paiym, Paim Bohmen/Bohemia R'adyvie Radiwc'i/Radajui/Radautz
Pal'ongy Palanga (l) (Bu)
P'ardyvic P'ardubitz/P'ardubice (b) Ramil Rheinach/Riinax (Sw)
Par'iiz Paris Raiiy Rzcsz6w (g )
Pffzyng Bosing/Peszinok (s) Ranibarg Ronsperg (b )
Peiterborg St. Petersburg Ranyc Hraniec/Miihrisch
Pibram Pfibram (b) Weisskirchen (m)
Pile Pil'ica (p) Rasim Rosieny (l)
Pilyn'uuy Polonnoye/Polennoje (u) Raxyv Rachov/Racho (s)
Pihyiik PilviSkiai ( l) Rffdii (1) Ungarisch-Hradisch/
Pintk Pinsk ( b r ) Uherske HradiSti (m)
Pi'uusk Pi'aski (p) Rffdii (2) Mnichovo Hradiiti/
Pjlt'jsk P'ultusk (P ) Miinchengratz (b)
Pljntk Plorisk (p) Riidym Radymno (g)
Plggn Plan (b) Revl Reval/Tallinn ( e )
Poiht Polen/Poland/Polska Riity Rietheim/Rista (Sw)
Poizn Posen/Poznan ( p ) R'imalyv Hrym'aliw/Grzym'alow (g)
Poln Polna (b) Rjbyi'ob Hrubi'esz6w (p)
Pom'uurn Pomorz'any (g) Rjdnik Rudniki ( l )
P'onyvii Panevezis ( l ) Rjsland Russland/Rasiya/Russia
Praam Preussen/Prussia Ropiic Ropcz'yce (g)
Prainiec Przasnysz (p) Rostic Rausnitz (m)
Priery Prcrau/Prerov (m ) Rot'tin Roh'atyn (g)
Prbniil'an Przemysl'any/Peremyslany R om Rome
(G) Riiiky HruSky/Bimbaum (m)
Pr'emtiiy Przemysl/Peremysl (G) Ruudytn Radom (p)
Pren Prienai ( l )
Priip'org Pressburg/Bratislava/Pozsony Sadygby Sadagora, -gura (Bu)
(S) Sal'ant Salantai (l)
Prtiyvy PreSov/Preschau (s) S'atmar Szatmir Nemeti/Sathmar/
Prjl t. Prut Satu Mare (Rm)
 140 A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language

Seda Siad ( l ) T'amypol Tam'opol (g )

ShiyS Szollos (cr) T'artykyv Tart'akow (g )
Sernnic S'enica/Sz'enica (s) Tas r. Theiss/Tisza (h )
S'Mt Scr'et/Sir'et (Bu) Teldz TelSiai (l)
S'iget Sightt/Marmaros Sziget (Rnt) Ttrk'aa(i) Tiirk'ei/Turkey
Sips Szepes/Zips (s) Tikt'im Tyk'ocin (b r)
Skbnyvic Skiemiew'ice (p) Tjny r. Donau/Danube
Skvin Skav'ina (g ) Tljmac TVumacz/T'owmai (g)
Skuul S'okal (G) Totem Toruri (p)
Slab'odky Slabada (l) Trnyiyv Tom'aszdw (p)
Solydom Sobto:m/Solothurn (Sw) TopU'im Topoltany/Topolcsany (s)
S'osnofey Sosnowiec (p) Torky Turka (0)
Stanisly Stanisl'awdw/Stanislawiw (g) Tomy Tumau/Tumov (b)
Strilsk Novi Stril'yska/Nowe Toust Towst/Thiste (g)
Strzel'iska (g) Trtipil Tiraspol (Ml)
Suun r. San Trisk Tur'isk/Turzysk (U)
Suunyk S'anok (G) Triiik TrySkiai ( l )
Tuumy Tam6w (g)
Tvariy, Tvbiy Tiberias
Sac Suczava/Suceava (Bu)
Safouzy Schaffhausen/Sof'u:z3 (Sw)
Savl Savli/Siauliai (1.) Otic Wottitz/V'otice ( b )
Sebryi'im Szczebrz'eszyn (p)
Sidlyc Siedlce (p) Vaasl Weichsel/Wisla/Vistula
Sips Sierpe (p) Vaisk'arx Mahrisch-Weisskirchen/
Sidlyv Szydl'owiec (p) Hraniec (m)
Sn'azigy Schn'eisingen/Sn'aizigs (Sw) Variy Warschau/Warsz'awa/Warsaw
S'oisborg Soh'osberg/S'aStin/S'asvir (s)
StS Stein/Stai (Sw) (P)
Vaxtylic Cht'elnica/Wittenz (s)
Stampn Stampfen/St'upava/Stomfa (s) Verbal'ovy Wierzbol'owo/Virbalis/
Stanyc Uhersky Ostroh WirbaUen (l)
Stfftl Mfateiko/Uj v6roska (s) Verylouz Wurenlos/Viiralo(:)2 (Sw)
Strousberig Strassburg/Srrasburg (Sw) Vim Wien/Vienna
Slukart Stuttgart (Gm) Vilkom'iir Ukmerge (l)
S'uutlsdorf Schattmannsdort/Cseszte VilkovUk VilkaviSkis ( l )
(S) Vilny Wilno/Vilna/Wilna/Vilnius (l)
Viinic Viinica (Bu)
Tarkyv Taurogd (L) Vlom Wi'eluA (p)
Tamy Tymau/Tmava/Nagyszombat V'oidyslyv Wodzislaw (p)
(s) Volin Vol'yn/Volhynia
 141 Appendix 4: Toponymical List

Vrehty Wrzesnia/Wreschen (p) Z'dibit Saybusch/2ywiec (g)

Vuulexaa(i) Wallachei/Valachia Z'aloiic Dzialosz'yce (p)
Zamyt Zcmaiten/Schamaiten/
Xaify Haifa Samogitia
Xarkyv Xarltiw/Xarkov/Kharkov (u) Zidyi'o'm 2idaiw/2yd'acz6w (g)
Xelym Chelm (P) Zikyv Dzikow/DyLiw; Tamobrzcg (g)
Xevryn Hevr'on/Hcbron Zlozk Zal'oice/Zal'iici (g)
Xjst Xust/Huszt/Huste (C) Zuuter Zator (G)
Xoi Ch'odecz (P)
Z'abltyv Z'abolotiw/ZaW'ot6w (g) fcuuryk 2arki (p)
Z'ablytic Zabl'ocie (g) ty l 'iin Zolgaia ( l )
 PART THREE

SPECIMENS OF YIDDISH OVER EIGHT CENTURIES

 Specimens of Yiddish over Eight Centuries

The following short texts aim at providing no more than a very cursory glance at
several periods and regions in the life of the Yiddish language. This material is
not sufficient to illustrate its development. Not only would a whole long book of
texts and discussion of these be needed for that, but research has not yet advanced
to a stage when such a work can be successfully attempted. Many more years,
or even decades, wiU have to pass before then. One of the reasons, of course, is
that the amount of material at our disposal is scanty in relation to the expanse
in space and time taken up by Yiddish. Quantitatively it is, however, not too small
and it is virtually untouched by the philologist and linguist. The collecting of the
texts, the editing of these and the attendant research - all this is still waiting to
be done.
Practically all our texts represent the written language, and only occasionally
do we get a faint glimpse of the spoken language. In order to transcribe, we must,
however, know how the authors pronounced what they wrote. From the spelling
of the early texts it is not possible to get much help in this respect. Within the
limited amount of space avaible it would not be feasible to discuss how and why
I arrived at this or that transcription; a long article or a book would be required
for each specimen. In view of the complete absence of detailed phonological re-
search about the various periods and regions, 1 cannot hope to have achieved
more than the merest, vague approximation to the facts. These specimens cannot
therefore be used as a basis for phonological work. The originals from pre-modem
times contain little or no punctuation, and I have supplied it.
In view of the nature of the material and the purpose of the present section,
it was not possible to employ a uniform system of transcription to cover all the
periods and regions. In specimens Nos. 1-40, i.e., those from West, Central and
 146 Specimens of Yiddish over Eight Centuries

earlier East Yiddish, the transcriptions are adapted to the individual pieces.
Symbols occurring here only are:
dose, short p close, short 99 o-umlaut, close,
long
Cf close, long qq close, long ii u-umlaut, open,
short
5 o-umlaut, open, u-umlaut, close,
short long

Nos. 41-74, i.e., those in New East Yiddish, are given in the system used generally
in this book.

WEST YIDDISH

Ca. thirteenth century. Two episodes from the poem Avroohom txroimu, which
describes the child Abrahams conquest of paganism.1 (From an ultra-violet photo
of the Cambridge University Library m s t .s . 10 K 22)3 Date of copying the MS: 3rd
November 1382.

(a) Abrahams father, an idol manufacturer, sends him to the market to sell a
sackful of idols (Fols. 12r-!3r)
tr va$te zi vil (bene, ir maxte zix hin vur,
ir koorte ziine vir$en cu ziine$ vater tu r,
ir w irf d in zak cumc rukken, er maxte zix cu d in vilden,
ir began di apgote zeere iild e n .

ir $prfax]: vor woo$en apgote, vor woo$en mu$etir ziin,

ir ha bet vil gar cu riten d in arm en rukken miin.
wil m ir dir woorhaftige g{ot] ziine hutfe z^nden
ix wil uuwern gelouben gar vor $wp 1den.

ir ow gete hin cu m arkte, d ir w ik duuxte in cu lank,

d ir la$t wa$ ime cu $weere, dir liip was ime cu krank.
i r kam cu aime wa$$er, brait un[de] $tr?nge
trouw en, gedooxte i r , hi h$bet zix ain grpps ge$pr?nge.

1 See (a) p. 343, No. 433: pp. 46-51; P 344. No. 444: pp. 59-61; (b) p. 343, No. 433: pp. 61 -65;
p. 344, No. 444: pp. 66-68.
a See tbe facsimiles in No. 433: (1) 47, 48, 51; lines 339-381; (b) pp. 60,6a, 63; line* 412-461.
 !47 West Yiddish

ir warf den zak cu dir irden, cr begunde gar Zffre vor cagen,
ir 5p1(ax]: hodretir?, ir gote, ich haan uux l>ir gctragcn,
nu traget mix hin uber, di? habetir umer ??re,
entflt ir? nixt, uuwer latter berait ix ummer mf?re.
truge ix uux hin uber, zo t??tc ix alzc ain gik.
iox hoot da? was?er hin gevurt brukke un[de] $tik
nu traget mix hin uber; des mogetir wol geni$en;
entflt ir? nixt, ix loos uux zilwer vllsen.
wa? ir in cOge?pr{ax], zi ?wigen alzc ain dax?.
ir vor gilbcte vor come alze ain gewunden waxs.
ir warf din zak cu dir irden mit ha$$en un[t] mit grimmcn,
ir sutte zi uus un[de] Us zi hine swimmen.
er spr[ax]: watet hin uber, loot uux nixt ziin goox,
zflxet mir den vurt, vor ix wate uux ale? noox;
komet ir hin uber, 26 ioltir miin doo baiten
entflt ir? nixt, uuwer lifter wil ix beraiten.
zi koorten uuf di dnken, zi vlu$en hin cu tal
ir irai in noox vil luute das e? vil verre erial:
k?fret wider, k??ret ir habet uux vor gi$?en.
ir habet din rixten vurt nixt wol gcmi^en.1
wa? ir in noox gerif, da? was in alze ain wixt,
zi vlusen hin un[t] koorten zix an ziine r?de nixt,
ir korte in 6x din rukken un[t] was ime gar umiire3
ir kam cu ziine? vater? huu? vil l&rc.

(b) Abraham in King Nimrods (Fols. 15V-16v)

doo spr[ax] e? zix Nimrod, dir doo gewaldik was:

,,zage, vil zinnen Mze? kint, wir hoot dir gerooten da?,
da? du dize gote hoo$t vor brant oone Gulden?
di? mO?tu, kint, di zilbe vime dulden.
kx> wooren e? nixt gote, ?pifax] da? kint cu hant,
(z6) maxte zi miin vater mit ziin zilbe? hant.
di gote, dl miin vater maxen kan, dir haan ix luccel axte -
der i?t G[ot], dir miinen vater maxte.

3 ? umm&rt, ? unraiire.
 148 Specimens of Yiddish over Eight Centuries

dir G[ot], der doo geiflf di wiite wirelt al,

baide loup un[de] gra$, birk un[de] tal,
an ziimc gelouben wil ix liben un[t] ytirben.
ix getrouwe ime wol, er l??t mix nixt vor dirben.
doo sprfax] e$ zix Nimrod: den G{ot] du hoost erkant,
mak dix dir gclftzen von unzer aller hint,
da$ du mu$t genezen vor dizeme $tarken viiure.
z6 wil ix diinen gelouben koufen tiiure.
geiQx bant wart da$ vil klaine lundlin,
zi maxten ainen oven hai$ unft] wurfen $ dar in;
e$ lak alze ain knouweliin cu zamene gewunden,
bii blik aine$ ougen. 1d wart es enpunden.
doo gink der hailige Mixoo^fl] vor unzeren liben trixtin $uan
cr spr[ax]: vil liber hcrrc G[ot], nu Ioo$ mix dare gaan.
ix kan in wol erlAzen unfde] di vor burnen.
di dix alter tiglix ercurnen.
doo $pr[ax] dir hailige Gavriil]: vil liber hirre miin,
nu loos mix dare gaan ix wil dun bote ziin
ix kan den den gluienden oven harte wol erkulen,
das dun vruunt4 dir hicce nixt win vulen.
doo jprfax] unzer Uber trixtin: ioo hoot ir mix erkant,
ix wil in erl&zen mit miin zilbe$ hant.
ix wil luunen boten an miine $tat dare z^nden,
zilber wil ix ziine tat vol ?nden.
dime liben, trouwen kinde di gfotes] ??re eriain.
dir oven luuxte inen alze ain karvunkel $tain.
di br;nd[e] un[de] di hiccc begundcn her vure dringen,
di haideniaft mQ$te alle [von] dannen jpringcn.
doo $pr(ax] unzer liber trixtin dime carten kinde c<k:
ix haan dix erlftzet, miin hai$e oltu tfl,
du 401t miines willcn warten un[de] rooaien,
z6 ;terke ix dix unft] m^re diinen zoomen.

4 ms here has the meaningless tvrnt, apparently a slip for vrvn( m triiin l. This would accord with
tbe biblical designation (Is. 41:8) for Abraham u *friend of God,' in the daily morning
liturgy: we - the sons of Abraham, thy loving friend. (Islam has taken over this designation
for Abraham, speaking of him as 'the friend* or *the friend of Allah.)
 !49 West Yiddish

dhne kinde wart gcufihet des zilbcn oven; tur,

i? $tunt u u f vil liize un[t] maxte zix hin vur.
ime luuxtcn ziine ougen alze der lixte morgen $t6me.
da? zax der arm e bilden& re vil gcrne.

2
Thirteenth century. Glosses in the margin of a 1237 MS of miscellaneous contents.
(Paris: Bibliotheque Nationale: MS Heb. 1408.)
(F ol. 131 r :) vonken (zyq w qyn), marel (N sq w n d ry ), iaihcabel o r wortcabel (p y s p y sy n );
(fol. 131V:) b(dlaxyn ( 1lw n fy t); (fol. 132r:) darmgiirtel (q y lq y ), vorbiige (h b q ),
goltsmit (z h b n ); (fol. 1341:) gaizel (p rg l); (fol. 134V:) blahe (m rsw f, bgd gdw l),
kartyn (? ) (mw$ hrym ), kbw el (m zlg), rix e (m algez); (fol. 1351:) erwise!(grysyn),
kute (sygw s), fankuxe (Ibybw t), swpne (km yhym w p !ry w t), darmgiirtel (sy n r); (fol.
136r:) rephiiner (p rg y w t) (fol. 136V:) ftfgraif (q ly d ry s); (fol. 137r:) huuzne'ftelj
(tw b rw t; srygy hlw nw t).

3
1272/3. Inscription in a manuscript: Good wishes from the scribe Simha b.
Judah to the recipient or sponsor of the m s, his uncle, Baruch b. Isaac, have been
worked into the big letters of an initial word. (Jerusalem: Jewish National and
University Library: m s . 40 781 [The Worms Mahazor]), vol. 1, fol. 92r)
guut tak im beiagc $ew$r/$w?r di$ maxzor in
b$$ h!k(kc)n^e5 trage

betage 1: One it tempted to assume that the raphe on the gimel indicates that the
Utter represents a voiced velar fricative, as that would be in conformity with Masoretic
rules, besides fitting in with the phonetics o f Central German (in whose area Worms is
situated). However, it is possible that in the scribe's pronunciation o f Hebrew a daghesh
meant a long consonant (e.g., yammim ,seas) as in the Masoretic system. Since a
patah must befollowed by a daghesh, he would have had to write tagge. But knowing
from his vernacular, the difference between short and long consonants, tagge, he could
not have used a daghesh. So, to avoid the daghesh, he would have employed the only
other possible sign, raphe, without this having anything to do with his pronunciation.
But more important are these two considerations: I f the Ashkenazic pronunciation
o f Hebrew had a voiced fricative g: (t) where has it gone without a trace? (2) It
would have been a Zarphatic heritage and we would then have to assume that it had
come down unchangedfrom the Masoretes, and that does not seem likely since there is
and was no fricative g in French.
The whole question must remain open until research m Zarphatic and early Yiddish
phonology will, perhaps, yield an answer.
 150 Specimens of Yiddish over Eight Centuries

2: Both shewas represent [a], the final aleph is mute. This spelling is an inheritance
from Zarphatic, and, from there, goes back to Roman times. I f we had MSS in Latmic
(Jewish Latin) we would find the Latin final a written as qames followed by a mute
aleph. This spelling would have been inheritedfrom Aramic, where it appeared m prac-
tically every noun} The aleph remained when the Latin a evolved to French c. In
Zarphatic this was written as a shewa, when the vowel signs were used - which was
rare.
An even clearer illustration o f the fact that the Zarphatic spelling system is rooted
in Roman times is provided by the representation o f Zarphatic [tf] as qoph with a tick
on top - 3, e.g., qnt*, i.e., tjanta *sings.' It is obvious that the diacritic was introduced
to give a new value to plain q. Now plain q has the value [4], as in qwrd = korda
'cord,' tkus [tfanta] must go back to [kants] which is, o f course, the Latin canca.
sew$r/sw$r, dis: The letter sinjstn stands for [j], a spelling that survived into the
nineteenth century. It was inheritedfrom Zarphatic.a Since the Ashkenazim pronounce
the sin in Hebrew and Aramic, as well as in the Semitic element in Yiddish, we may
conclude that their ancestors, the Zarphatim, had done likewise.3
se: The se cannot be written by itself because in Hebrew, Aramic - occasionally in
pre-modern traditional spelling - Yiddish, a word consisting of only one consonant and
one vowel has to be attached to the next word. We must therefore write $ew$r/$w?r.
ew$r/?w?r 1: There is no way of deciding whether the shewa was pronounced or
mute. In our sentence both cases occur: doubtless pronounced in betage and doubtless
mute in trage.
$ew?r/sw?r 2: The spelling v for w seems to be due to there being no room for even
such a narrow letter as waw.
sew$r/sw?r 3: The vowel sign under the waw differs clearly from the examples o f
patah in our text, and is distinctly a fere in the facsimile in zm f. Hence the yodh after
it is not orthographically puzzling nor is there a phonetically puzzling a. However,
the MHG form is swer/wer. Does ourform indicate a local pronunciation or the absence
of differentiation between ? and c?
maxzor: I am somewhat doubtful about whether the hateph patah was pronounced
in this position. No trace of it has survived in Yiddish.
b?s hak(ke)n?scs: It seems that in early Yiddish there was no difference between
fere and seghol, since, on the whole, that is the situation in present-day Yiddish. It

1 In Yiddish tbe aleph became a real vowel letter although this it not acknowledged in traditional
printing, where the patah or qamcj precedes the aleph to indicate the vowel.
a Medieval French had no [J], the modem ck was then still [tf], so no Sin was needed in the Zar
phatic spelling system. Hence the letter could be used unambiguously as sin, i.e., [s], there
being no need for the dot on top left.
3 Elsewhere - in Sephardic, Maaravic and Yevanic, for instance - the letter tin is actually pro-
nounccd as [s]. A history of the Sin/sin pronunciation is a desideratum.
 151 West Yiddish

would follow that this is an inheritance from Zarphatic. DztdezmujDudyd presents

the same picture. This whole complex of problems needs extensive investigation.
hak(ke)nse$: It seems possible that the form was hakn^ses.

4
Ca. fourteenth century. From a Bible glossary (here Ps. 5,10-7,5), added in the
margin of a Zarphatic Bible glossary in about the first quarter of the fifteenth
century - according to my palaeographical examination of the script. This is also the
basis for the dates of the following specimens. (Leipzig: Universitiitsbibliothek:
Cod. 1099.)
(5) bruxde - a glitun - maxmi$tondi - er rat - bor4to$e - zi wfder 4pnugut - hofut -
dunt ^ruin - wile - zol umkrainunun? - (6) zolto kf$tungun mix - zai pinugunmix -
bor initun - zint urrokun - mingeb?n - be^rme - lobut - inminemzifcun - ix incubere -
minb?te - corgot - is 1>0 donkult - tundc - (7) mi$grifonge - zank - brokut.

5
Script: About end of fourteenth century. From a Bible glossary to the Hagio-
grapha (here Ps. 5,13-7,5). ([Berlin: Staatsbibliothek:] Preussischer Kulturbesitz:
Orientalische Abteilung: Or. Qu 701, fol. 2r).
(5) az ain tarce - wer zuenuk/zunuk - wilegunk - du ume rinkst - (6) das klf zhnir
wont den ehxt zaiten - ix bfnweriniten - be$irme - ix be$ulfere/be$ulfere - ix max
wiht/wixt/wuxt - werlanderent (or) wer glancert - werahet - (7) misgraifunk - usraist
(or) wercugt - main geltunk - un1ix u$cihe.

6
Script: About end of fourteenth century. From a Bible glossary covering Joshua
to Chronicles (here Ps. 5,10-7,18). (Karlsruhe: Badische Landesbibliothek:
Cod. Reuchlin 9, fol. 242v-243r)
(5, 10) muglix kait - ir gedank in binin in - bruxni$ - az wait az ain ofin grap - mit ?rcr
cungin - zi Smaixilen - (11) max iuldik zi - bun wigin bozin rat - bor $to$ zi - win
zi hon wfder piniget - (12) un1du zolt be^frmen - un zi zolin zix vrouin - (13) az ain
tarce - wiligung - du !!1[m] ringilft in - (6) da zaitin ipil da? do hat xt zaitin (or)
loute - (2) du zolt ftrofin mix - du zolt kf$tien mix - mit dinem corn - (3) bor initen -
hail mix - (4) zi zint dir frokin - main gebain - (5) be^rm*[e] (or) cug ou? - (6) dain
gedoctni? - in dir grubcn - wir wil loben cu dir - (7) ix bin wordin mude - mit mainer
zufcung - mit mainen trihcnen - main ipan b it - ix maxin bu*t - ix wirdinlJor unraint -
(8) zi i$t bor vin$tert - bun corn - zi i$t bor aldet - urnwilen al mainer laidiger - (9)
kfft ab - main wainung - (11) zi zolin wdrdinbor iimit - un1zi zolin wirdin dir iriket -
 152 Specimens of Yiddish over Eight Centuries

in ainer klain itonde - (7 ,1 ) da$ zaitin spilhi? alzo() mi$graifung - um* da$ ir zang - Soul
d ir do wa$ gl?xcn cum ainem moren - der bun fcun biniomin - (3) er moxt to r cukin
(or) cu rai$cn - cu raisin - un1 n?manin bcs^rmct - (4) ix hon bor goldin - minin 1k>r
gilderen - un1ix hon ou; gicogin - lir - (6) un14r 201 graixin - un1ix zoln 1ior tridin -
un1ir zol dun ruin - zi d ir habin - mit corn - un* dir wik - (8) un1ob zamilung der
boiker - zi um1 ringilt dix - un1 um1?rent wilen - cu dim 1himil w?der k?r - (9) ir zol
rixtin (or) strofin - un* az main ginckait - (10) er zol maxin cu g?n - un1 du zolt dun
beraidin - un1 d ir da priilbet di hircin un* di gcdink - (11) min befrmung - gcrixt
virdigin hire - (12) un1 got ir cumet - (13) zin Swert ir iirfet (or) lutert - zinen bogen
i t ipant - (14) zin fail - cu den iigeren - ir dut wirkin - (15) ir irbait unrext - ir drait
valihait - (16) ain grub ir gribet - un' ir gribet zi - un1ir filt in di grubcn - (17) zainen
w?rwil - zain geroubet gut - (18) ix wil lobin - un1 ix wil zingin.

7
1396/7. From Ksav min kol koxys hahakozy vehavridin (Document about all the
pouters of blood-letting and the veins' Cologne: Archiv der Stadt Koln: Heb. 4).
das zint di ver worfen tage an din kain m?nie zol nox Idsen kainer laie an vdhen das er
a(n)d(e)r(s) wil br;ngcn cu ainem gutcn ?nde.... z6 trinktkun spikanardi un'tlun musk/g...
un1ingeber, zalbaic zol kain m?ne esen. Das c?hende caixen 1st der bok, zfl zol man das
houbet diken fcor an vroste un1zolt di houbet oder Idsen, warme spi... mit guten wurcen/
wurcen 1st gut cu escn. Das iilfte caixen 1st der wesercr, 76 zol man zix halten az in dime
bordcren monde aber man zol haise b(a)den un1nit vil trinken.
This MS is carefully vowelled. But whether this was done by the scribe or somebody
else, the phonology here differs from that o f the text.

8
Ca. fourteenth century. Translation of Psalms (here Ps. 6). Script about first quarter
of fifteenth century. ([Berlin: Staatsbibliothek:] Preussischer Kulturbesitz: Or.
Qu, 310, first part.)
(1) uber zigung mit gidon uf den ext zaiten. gizank cu dowid.( )got, nit mit dainim com
du zolt itrofen mix un1nit mit dainem grim com du zolt ki$tigen mix. (3) herbarm mix,
got, wen veriniten bin ix, hail mix, got, wen zi zain erirokcn main gibain. (4) un1main
laip if hersrokcn zir un1du, got, bis wi lang. (5) wider kir, got, bisirm main laip, hilf
mir um wilen dainer gnoden. (6) win nit im tod dainer gidinkenii, in der grubcn wir
lobet dix. (7) ix hon giirbait mit mainem zufcen, ix biunzduber in aler naxt main bit,
mit mainen triheren main ipanbet ix bebuxten. (8) zi werlanteret bun com, main ougen
veraltet in aler mainer belaidigung. (9) kerent ab tun mir, al wurker un rixt, win er hot
gihort itim mainer wainung. (to) hdr, got, main gibit, got min biten er zol nimen. (11)
 !53 West Yiddish

zi zolen wirden ver&mt un1zi zolen herirckcn zir, al main vaind zi zolen wider kiren,
un1zi zolin warden veriimt ougen blike;.
More specimens of Ps. 6 in transcription are to be found in my contribution, Die
jiddische Psalmeniibersctzung in Hans Vollmer's, Die Psalmenverdeutschung,
Potsdam, 1932}

9
First quarter of fifteenth century. Zimlin of Ulm delivers a public apology before
a (Jewish) court. (From the Responsa of Jacob Vail (Weil), No. 147, Venice, 1549,
fol. 60v.)
Hddrt cuu, rabpgsai, ix haan mysiirys gytaan, ix haan gybroxyn di ha$koomys, di di
raboonym haan gymaxt, daa ix uuf gyxa$mut bin, ix haan aax p9g??y vynpg$?y gyv^zyn
an koovyd miipooxy 4il mhr Z^likman, ix haan aax mhr Zftlilunan an zain koovyd
gptft, das ix haan gyproxyn, er zai nit aan raav, aan kind kon vin ir. daa mit haan
ix aax din raboonym ubyl gyrtft, di mhr Z^likman gy$amxyt haat cu raav. ix haan aax
mhr Zfflikman m?$ ubyl gyr^t, un aax kail, ix haan aax den daioonym un aan taal
Cfdym ubyl gyr^t- xootoosi, ooviisi, po$aiti/posaati. ix bit din bpgry iisboorex, das er
mir s mppxyl zai, un di rcboonym, di mhr Zfflikman gysamxyt haat, un aax mhr Z$$likman
un aax kaal un aax di wdym un aax di daioonym, ix bit zi al mexiily.

10
Script: Middle of the fifteenth century. Bible translation, glossarial type; Exodus
19,21-20,18. (London: British Library: Department of Oriental Printed Books
and m ss: Add. ms. 18694, fl. 78)
(31)Un[t]erziit / got / cu Mpgfy: / nider / forvfr / am folk / liixt / zi cubrixyn / cu
got / cu zihyn / un[t] is vin falyn / fon im/ fiil / (22) un[t] aax / di h?ryn / di doo gyniihyn /
cu Got / zi zolyn zix byraaityn / liixt / er virt cubrixyn / an zi / Got / (23) un[t] er ziit /
MpoSy / cu Got / nit is tar / das folk / cu ouf g^n / cu birg / Sinai / vin / du hoost
forvfryt / an unz / cu zagyn: / gymerk / din berg / un[t] du zolst byraaityn in / (24)
un(t] er ziit / cu im / got / gf? / nider / un(t] du zolst ouf g?$n / du / un[t] aaryn / mit
dir / un[t] di hfryn / un[t] das folk / nit / zi zolyn cubrixyn / cu ouf gffn / cu got / liixt /
er virt cubrixyn / an zi / (25) un[t] ir niden / M ppic / cu dem folk / un[t] er ziit / cu
zi I (1) un[t] er rffdyt / got / at di rf?d / di diizyn / cu zagyn / (2) ix pin / Got /
diin Got / das / ix boon ous gycohyn dix / fon lant / Micraiym / fon houz / doo ir
vooryt knixt / (3) nit / is zol ziin / cu dir / got / aain anderer / di viii ix nox pin / (4)
nit / du zolst maxyn / cu dir / bild / un(t] kaainer laai / gliixnij / das / im himyl / fon
99byn / un[t] das / an der irdyn / fon untyn / unft] das / im vaser / fon untyn / cu dir
1 I published the original( in tbe Yidduh ecdon of SJLL, pp. 526-500.
 !54 Specimens of Yiddish over Eight Centuries

irdyn / (5) nit / du zolst niigyn* I a i n j unft] nit / du zolst diynyn zi / vin / ix pin /
Got / dein got / Got / 1st aain rexer / er gydinkyt / zund / dir forderyn / ouf / di kinder /
ouf / das drit gyburyt6 / un[t] ouf das 6erd gyburyt6 / cu miin ftindyn0 / (6) un[t] er
tuyt gynood / cu toazynt4/ cu miin* froundyn / unft] cu diy doo huytyn / miin gybot. /
(7) nit / du zolst 4v$ryn / namyn / Got / diinys Got / cu fali / vin / nit / ir loosyt
Iffdig / Got / das / er iv?ryt / ziin namyn / cu / um a(in) zunst /. (8) zii gydinkyn / ug /
din iabys / cu haailigyn in /. (9) zexs / tig / du zolst irbaaityn / unft] du zolst tuyn
/ al I diin virk / (10) un[t] tag / din zibyndyn / ruyunk / cu Got / diinym Got / nit / du
zolst tuyn / kaainer laai / virk / du / un[t] diin zun / unft] diin toxter / un[t] diin
knixt / unft] diin maaid / un[t] diin fix / unft] diin flynder / das / in diinym tor /. (11)
vin / zfxs / teg / cr hoot bySafyn / Got / din himyl / un[t] di irt / das m?r / un[t] alys /
das / an zi / un[t] ir ruyt / am tag / dim zibyndyn / um das / ir hoot gybinfyt / Got /
tag I din abys / un(t] er hoot gyhaailigyt in / (12) $?r / diin fater / un[t] dfin muyter /
derum / zi virdyn derlingyt / diin tig / ouf / der irdyn / das / Got j diin Got / hoot
gibyn cu dir /. (13) nit / du zolst murdyn / nit / du zolst unkou^yn / nit / du zolst
itilyn / nit J du zolst bycougyn / an diinym gyz?lyn / gycouknii / fali / (14) nit / du
zolst glustyn (gylustyn, glustyn, gyiustyn) / houz / diinys gyz^lyn / nit / du zolst glustyn
(j. above)I viip / diinys gyzflyn / unft] ziin knixt / unft] ziin maait / un[t] ziin oxs / unft]
ziin $zyl / un[t] alys / das / cu diinym gyzflyn / (15) unft] al / das folk / zi zoohyn / di
itim / unft] di print / unft] $tim / dis Sppfer / unft] der birg / raauxyt / unft] is zai
/ das folk / unft] zi forvagyltyn / unft] zi tuyndyn / fon firyn.
The variants in Deut. 5: (a) dix naigyn (b) gyburt (c) haseryn (d) touzyntyn (e) ziin (0 frMintyn.
It is obvious that the extant Bible translations are not originals in the sense that
they represent marks o f individual translators. Copy after copy was made century after
century, based on the traditional rendering, as taught m the elementary schools, with
slow and gradual modifications allowing for changes in the language and, occasionally,
for an individual choice from various traditional translations.

11
Fifteenth century. From the Samuel Epic. Text of the edition Augsburg, 1544.
naain, iprax der kiinig, Iiiber zun miin,
zolt ix mit miinen knixtyn hiint diin gast ziin,
mir wurdyn dir aauf esyn al diin piiz cu hant,
mir hetyn dir diin dur hole gar bald aaus gibrtnt.
in bat zir Avfootym: gft mit mir, vater miin.
Doowid iprax, liibcr zun, es mag dox nit giziin.
doo binit in der kiinig un* wolt nit mit im goon,
doo prax ir: al miin bruuder, zolt ir mit mir loon,
 15S West Yiddish

ziit ix, liiber vater, dux nit mag gihocm.

doo iprax der kunig Doowid: zun, das zii gitoon.
mit im iikt der kunig Doowid al ziin zun gimaain
in din plwn xoocer doo haaimyn bleib ir kaain.
doo zi nun iiir haten g&yn
nox hoot Avioolym di bppshaait nit for gisyn,
dii ziin bruuder Amnyn Toomer hit gitoon
ir iprax cu zeinyn knixtyn: nun gibyt Amnyn ziin lppn
win er ziin Ifct hoot gisyn un1vroolix wirt bun wiin,
zoo ilagyt in cu tQpt, ir zolt vrii manyn ziin.
doo tityn ziini knixt als Avioolym hiis.
aainer iluug in cu toot, aain iwirt er durx in itiis.
doo iprungyn bun dem tii di kinder mit giwalt,
zi rantyn zir bun danyn. ir mouler liifyn bald,
man wurd dem kunig Doowid cu leruioolajim zagyn:
Avioolym het ziin bruuder1 al derilagyn.
der kunig riis ziin klaaid un1hoot ungimax,
er zank cu der irdyn, 1>or ioomer wurd er Swax.
un1al des kunigys knixtyn cu risyn ir k!!aider doo,
zi traauertyn mit dem kunig un1waryn al un vrpp.
A facsimile of the original of these may be seen in my The Hebrew Scripts,
vol. 2, No. 368.

12
1453. Jewish registration note on a legal document in German. (Landcsregierungs-
archiv Innsbruck: Max. xiv 1516 Nr. 52a. - Published in R. Straus, Urkunden und
Aktenstiicke zur Geschichte der Juden in Regensburg, Munich, i960, p, 1, No. 1,
and Obersetzungen der hebrdischen Texte und Umschriften der altjiddischen Texte,
ibid., p. 455, No. 1.)
gerixc hindil/hcnd?!(?) miipyt im $uyl hob.

13
1478. Letter smuggled to a Ratisbon (Regensburg) woman who was in prison on
a charge of having bought, tortured and sold a host (consecrated wafer). (From a
photo of the document in Munich: Bayerisches Hauptstaatsarchiv: Gemeiners

1 Slip or milprint instead of truuder, as is clear from next stanza.

 156 Specimens of Yiddish over Eight Centuries

Nachlass: K. 12/1. Published in R. Straus etc. (see preceding No.] p. 170, No.
502, and p. 456, No. 502.) The oldest Yiddish letter of certain date. Cf. my publi-
cation of the letter Dus eItsty brirvl of lidii in lidii London, No. 2 (1939), pp.
106-109. (The printer omitted the diacritics in the transcription.)
Liyby froundin, du liyby krppn, ix kasvyn di[r] fit, du entvferst] mir nixcit. ob du nit
kasvyn kanst oon di inuiym? ix vir morgyn mit dem iiryn rfdyn, ob ix diin zax k6nt cu
guyt ous maxyn. iik di houb vider herous. haais das lox doohcran fer maxyn. kox raain
pulver in aainym apyl. hoost vol h ioomym. iriib guyt ddu& naai iin.

14
1495. Jewish registration note on a document in German, a confirmation by
Emperor Maximilian of the rights of the Jews. (Published in R. Straus etc. [see
in No. 12], p. 219, No. 655, and p. 456, No. 655.)
ksab byititung mi-melex Maksimiian ioor[um] h[p9dp] im virefhyn hundcrt un vunf
un naunctigyn ioor

15
Sixteenth century. From a Sabbath poem by a certain Benjamin (of Zurich ?).
(Hamburg: Hebr. Hs. 238, fols. 111-112.) It follows on the text of the m s but is
written by a different hand. To judge by the script, it was added soon after
the date of the MS which was 1574. (Cf. my publication Cvai alt-IUiiy liidtr, in
Irmu-BlettTy vol. 13, pp. 172-177; 1938.)
Got der htr hoot gyhaailigyt, gy??rt cvaai malooxym byiofn zinc,*
din iabys for alyn tagyn. dii den iabys goor ??rlix antfangyn,
an1 im ruyt er un[dy] tect nit miir, un(dy] vir den iabys in der ciit bygint,8
for voor ix dux das zagyn,2 di zun ist unler gangyn -
feieryt mit gybit un[dy] vizyt itiet, der malex iprixt: gybinit zeistu, kind,
ir frunt un(dy] Ax ir magyn. nun loos dir nit fer langyn,
Got der gybot din iabys hf^r, ix vil nox hiint bei dir zint,
door zi cu Moory lagyn. vil ziyn, vi diin lixtlix hangyn.
ii, ziks tagyn byiuyf Got himyl ii, ziks etc.
un[dy] ird,3
am zubyndyn ruyt Got der vird.

1 ms.: oon
a MS.: zagy
3 MS.; irdy?
4 ms.: ziin
5 MS.: bygint in der a it
 !57 West Yiddish

am friitag zolstu diin meeser8 gibyn fer gist trourikait un[dy] al das laait,
haaimlix diin armyn frundyn, das gum 11 ou* Got der hty.1a
zoo vert dir gygibyn das ffbigy libyn, ir zolt an13 tuyn ain guytys Idaait,
is biser vider das (?) di houbytT dem haailigyn iabys cu ry n .
zundyn. ii, ziks etc.
huyt dix for dem vider itribyn der uns das zmiirys nuu, . gyzank,
undy for das8 tootlix zundyn, d ir is uns alyn un bykanl.
zpp virstu byhuyt for der h?lyn piin er is fon cirxys ous der itat,
un(dy] for der apy grundy.10 Binioomin is er gynant.
ii, ziks etc. er zang uns das un[dy] nox fil m iir,
am iabys zolyn ziin drii isyn beraait, nun byhuyt uns Got for aler not
az uns die viizyn liiryn. unfdy] fer lii uns ziin mildy hant.
uuf dem tte zolyn vizyn gymaait, zoo bityn vir in18 das es uns vol goot.
zmiirys zagyn zc$ryn. ii. ziks etc.

16
Early sixteenth century. From the epic poem Akffdys licxyk (The Binding of
Isaac'). The stanzas published here are, according to the investigation by W.-O,
Drecssen, later additions. (The poem itself might belong to the second half of the
fifteenth century.) (Paris: Biblioth&que Nationale: ms. Heb. 589, fols. 129v-!30r.
The ms was written in 1579 by Anshel Levi in Lombardy. Edited by W.-O.
Drecssen: Akidass Jizhak. Ein altjiddisckes Gedicht uber die Opferung Isaaks. Mit
Einleitung und Kommentar kritisch herausgegeben. Hamburg, 1971.)
Vii muugyn mir al ciit KQQdy-borxu lggbyn,
das er unz mit der ck??dy hoot toon bygoobyn,
mir muugyn vol ^ryn ziin namyn, der haailig un derhpgbyn,
cu for ous in dem tiifyn goolys, doo mir inyn vuutyn un' tqxjbyn.
un itikyn dinyn biz an den grund
drum muugyn mir vol lppbyn got (iis) mit unzerym mund,
un deran gydinkyn fun itund cu itund,
es zii riix oder arym, !trank oder gyzunt.
6 i.e., m1i*er; cf. Bcrtnek, Sprachatlas, Kartcn 10, i t , 14, 15.
7 MS.: biibyt/htibyt
8 din?
9 din? ir?
10 ap griindy ? ab griindy ? *by grfindy ?
11 ms.: gim
1a h iiry ? Author: hpry? h$$ry?
13 MS.: oon
14 MS.: ntlfl
15 M S.: ir
 158 Specimens of Yiddish over Eight Centuries

mir muugyn vol bcniyn Avroohom un Iicxok, di manyn biider,

gybinit zci das mcser, gybinit zii das viider,
gybinit zii er foor, gybenit zei er ziider,
gybinft zii er in al gyzang un in alyn gliider.
gybinit zii der berg un der doryn,
gybenit zii das aaiyl, das zix hoot for voryn,
gybenit zii ziin hout, ziin flaaii un ziin horyn,
vin mir es bloozyn, z99 tuut Kppdys-bonu ab ziin coryn.
vin mir es bloozyn, z q o muz zix der Sootyn bald for birgyn
un muz bald hin vik fliihyn mit al ziin iirgyn
un darf zix nit loosyn ziihyn den zilbyn morgyn
un for iandyn muz er zix kriixyn unter di birgyn.
voorum der Sootyn vir zix beruumyn g$?&yn got dem hiryn,
vir er vol vilt di ekffdy for itdoryn,
vi er vist gyvis, Avroohom tiit es nit giryn,
das vilt er mit der voorhaait byvieryn.
nun hoot ir gyhodrt, vi er for zuuxt al ziiny for nuftyn.
er kiirt zix cu Soory, di zas bytuftyn.
er viiz ir di ekcedy ppbyn in luftyn -
22p9 ging ir di nyioomy ous mit vaainyn un zufcyn.
aax 4tfft in unzeryn sfoorym,
vin mir maxyn tkiiy, tmuy, ivoorym,
zoo tuunyn zix ouf fill raxmy iyoorym
un cu riisyn al boozy gyzrys un boozy nydoorym.
un nox mffn il$$t in unzerer Tppry,
das diin tag hoot uber unz kaain maxt der i$tcer hory.
das guutys habyn mir alyz fon Avroohom, Iicxok un Soory,
nouert das mir viiryn frum un bysvoory.
un niixnynl viider unz virt konyn ziin sctdig
un Kppdyi-borxu virt unz al ciit ziin gyniidig,
un fun dim goolys zolyn mir virdyn bald l??dig,
un zol unz My&iax zindyn afily biz g?$n Kr^rnQpna un Ven^fdigl

17
1514. From the long polemical poem H am avdil by Elia Levita, the famous Jewish
gram m arian o f the hum anist period {Father o f C hristian H ebrew scholarship)
and translator into Yiddish of Buovo d A ntona. (From a photo o f the O xford MS
 !59 West Yiddish

Can. Or. 12, fols. 205-206.) The poem was published by N. Shtif in vol. 1 of
Cautbift, Minsk, 1926, pp. 150-158. A text with variants is in Cambridge:
University Library: Trinity College MS. F. 12.45
1 hamavdil been kppdy lexol, 46 doo bii vil ixs loosyn bliibyn,
cvisyn mir un hilyl, den nivzyn knol vi vol ixs linger h it an cu rriibyn,
er ist aly biiberei zpp fol obcr mix klikt nit, zolt ix alys iriibyn,
az fill az di koxoovym balaily. arbooym ton vyarbooym laily.

a hilyl, du boost dix mit mir gytr^ct 48 vin du vist, vi diir diin riim an
tin boost dix ouf mix gyzict - ciim yn:
cs virt ziin diin Ifct, aain riim cu maxyn virstu dix iiim yn.
t f ous gtet di laily. vilstu dix riim gctgyn miir an
niim yn ?
4 [is] daz nit aain grppser ioomer,
lyhavdyi b ^ n iom ub??n laily.
daz du bist aain gooi goomcr,
kaain tag oorstu nit biz boorex 50 ix ferhaais dir, e t doo ous g$?t aain
iioomer. 1Qpdy4,
az fer voor nit ouz liibyn di laily. ix vil aain ouf dix maxyn in Ippifyn
hakpodyi,
35 er hoot mit im drii, fiir gooiym,
gymaxt noox dem miikyl fon iikyl
iityl baxuurym, beezy kanfooym,*
hakppdy,
di must er bycalyn, azpp hiiltyn try
vyhogiiso bpp ippmom vylaily.
tnooym
itlixyn for aain sxiir iom un aain sxiir
laily.

18
1518. Gdc (Gotz) of Fiderholtz addresses a complaint about Man/Mindyl his
stepfather, to the Jewish community of Ratisbon (Regensburg). (From a photo
of the document in Munich: Kreisarchiv: Generalregistratur: Fasz. 1260.)
(Published in R. Straus etc. [see No. 12], p. 340, No. 957, and p. 457, No. 957.)
Mincyl iamys,1 ix tuy dux das cu visyn un kol9 hakaal3 cu zagyn den grppsyn gyvalt
un das grpps un rixt, das unz vaaizyn ist vider faryn in Rigynspurk fon unzerym Stif
fater Man, dox red ix fur mix a !aain. das &r&t, doo vir ziin gyzisyn cu Altorf, doo ist
m iin fater ziilig ab gangyn mit tppt, doo ist m iin muyter zilig morgyn goob gyvist z$xs
hunderft] guldyn. doo hoot zi gynumyn den M indy!3 fon Rigynspurk, un hoot im for

* Italian canvegKo ? (N. Shtif). The scribe it teems, first wrote kufoom , but when correcting to
ktnfoeym forgot to delete the a in the seoond syllable.
1 Secretary of tbe community,
a *tbe whole community.
3 Diminutive of Man.
 160 Specimens of Yiddish over Eight Centuries

4proxyn un* gygibyn drit halb hunderft] guldyn riinii, das ander ficrd halb hundert
guldyn riinii uns armyn un dercogyn vaaizyn cu haltyn cum b^styn, un zi gykaauft hoot
das hous, doo der Man inyn zict, fon der gynuain iudii haait, das iyderman cu visyn
is, doo ml er inyn zicyn, doo viii a libt, un noox iirym tp<?t doo zol das houz uns bruydern
haaim gyfalyn. das hous boot zi gykaauft un4 hundert guldyn riinii, di drit halb hundert
guldyn, di hoot er under zix gybrooxt mit foriter ri un* mit buyberii, az din aaincr
gancyn gymaain iudii haait vol cu visyn is. n>f?r, habyn unzer foot under gygibyn
miinym jtiyf filter cvaai hunderft] guldyn, gilt un gilt v^rt, al (adas)s das in im hous
gyhMrt, as miin fater ist gyvist aain riix man, er zol uns haltyn un ciyhyn drii ioar lang,
mit isyn, mit drinkyn, mit klaaidem, mit limyn noox dem iud&yn ordyn. dir es nit
gytoon hoot, das is Hr gyvist, das ix nit me$n bin bii im gyvist vin aain ioor. alzpp hoot
er zix alzpp arm gymaxt, un er zii for dorbyn, un hoot miin army gyivistrix gyhaltyn az
aain foritcr un boozvixt, un kaainerlaai hoot gyhaltfyn], vas er unz hoot cuy gyzagt, das
aaincr gancyn gymaain iudii haait cu visyn is. mccr, kan mir armyn man nit vcrdyn
miin gylihyn gilt, das ix oft hab gyfodert, zilbs, un gyikt hab andert lout an im, er
miincr gyipot hoot, un forlaaikt mir armyn man das miin. m?$r, is aaincr gancyn gymaain
iudii haait cu visyn, doo miin gySvistrix ist bii im gyvist, doo hoot er zix alzw arm gy-
maxt un hoot for 2fct di hppuzyn fon baain um brppt, ouf aaim 4im,7 un hoot aain
gancy gymaain iudiihaait das iir for haltyn, das er uns for dribyn hoot ouz dem houz
hunger hatbyn. alzpo bald az di drii ioor ouz vooryn, doo tiet er zix her foor un fand zix,
das aaincr gancyn iudii haait vol cu visyn var, az guyt az zixefhyn hundert guldyn. das
hoot er gyvunyn mit unzerym gilt alzpQ vol az mit ziinym gelt, nun bin ix icunt am
iun[g)styn gyvizyn cu Rigynspurk un hab an in gySikt den ?Utyn r?by mit namyn r
Mf?ier, un gyfodert hab das miin gylihyn gilt, un hab g10 bygirt mit im cu rixynyn
for guytyn Idutyn, vas mir cuy gybuurt, mir cu miin taail, doo hoot er zix loosyn mirkyn,
er vdl mix um troubyn,11doo viii ix nit hab, un vdl alzpp fon rmirkumyn az fon miinym
bruyder Mppiy, din hoot er uber tppbert1in aainymtrunk, un*booz lout dar cuy gyholfyn
habyn. nox hoot er mix gybrooxt um all miin zilber gyiir biz ouf aain kopf,ls din vil
ix dariin vagyn riterlix, biz ix miincr iidyn aain kum, un tuy im cu visyn, das ix im ab

4 Slip.
5 *#?
6 Slip instead of k ffty n l diphthongization?
7 Slip instead of double yodh ? i.e., mho stUme but with the meaning *Anschein, appearance'?
8 Abbreviation of rabbi.
9 Mefr.
10 Presumably tlip, anticipating tbe g of the next word.
11 Inverse spelling, i.e., waw yodh instead of double yodh (because mutated vowels had already
been unrounded) ? i.e., um trtikyn to m h o umkttrihtn *to torture; to fool !omebody; to sue ?
13 ktliu kn *To numb, stun, end to ileep'?
13 ms koupf.
 161 West Yiddish

zag, miinym itiyf fater, Mindyl cu Rigynspurk, ziinym liib un ziinym guyt, un aainer
gancyn gymaain iudii haait,
un aax aaincr gancyn gymaain stat Rigynspurk, das zi zix nixs dirfyn guyc cu mir foor
zihyn.
volt Got Ton himyl, das di burger un aain gancy gymaain fon Rigynspurk zolt visyn den
gropsyn gyvalt, der mir gySixt, mir armyn man, fon dim Mindyl, miinym Stiyf fater.
es mdxt Got fon himyl der barmyn.
ix Gdc fon Fider hole

19
1519. Signatures on a document in German. Ratisbon (Regensburg) (Munich:
Hauptstaatsarchiv: Juden in Regensburg Urk. Fasz. 38.) Published in R. Straus
etc. (see above No. 12), p. 394, No. 1056, and p. 460, No. 1056.
Buyberl Iud m iin hant gisrift Meriam H 64yl m iin hant gyirift
Ooicr br Iuudy zai m iin hant gyirift Bendit Altorf m iin hant gyirift
Mpgiy Nurbek miin hant gyirift Sogyliin miin hand gyirif
Mp<j^y bon Buld Loutyn Slager mein hant gyirift
Biroy1 Iud bon der V riiitat mcini hant gyirift

In the German manuscript these persons have the following names:

Pueberlein Heller Mergam, des Hoschel Leben hausfrau
Allt Ascher Leb von Rom
Mosche Lorch von Nurnberg Vogelein, des Kaufmans hausfrau
Mosse von Fuld, man nennt
Lauttenschlaher
Symon1 von der Freyenstat

20
1541. The final two stanzas of Bovo iTAntona, Elijah Levitas (see No. 17) trans-
lation of the Italian Buovo dAntona (which is based on Sir Bevis of Hampton).
Isny (Wiirttemberg).
Dox vil ix aix ninyn foor,
vir das buux hoot gymaxt un
gySriibyn:
Eliy Bppxer nint er zix, c voor.
aain ganc ioor hoot er deriber for triibyn

1 On p. 318, No. 893 of 1517 appears Pinman, Jgdt von der Freienstat jetz zu R[cgen$purk]. In
dxu document there is also an AUter Pyman voro Hellein bei Salrpurgkh, in other documents
we find the forms Piman, Byman, Pynman and Pymann.
 162 Specimens of Yiddish over Eight Centuries

un hoot es gymaxt das ztilbig ioor,

das man c ^ lt cvaai hundert un zixcig un ziibyn,
cr hoot es aauz in Nisyn un hppb es an in lier.
Got zol unz gtfbyn ruu for alyn beczyn tiler.

un zol unz derle$zen muz unzeryn piin

On zol unz di gynood g^byn,
das mir al misyn zpoxy zein,
Myiiiax ciit cu der lffbyn.
der zol unz fiiryn kaain Ieruioolaiym hinein,
oder irync in aain dirfyl der nf^byn,
un zol unz das bfes-mikdy vider baauyn.
vexten iehii rppcyn. pomyn, traauyn.

21
1544. Psalm 6, from a prayer book, edited and published by Joseph b. Yakar.
Ichenhausen.
(2) Got, nit mit diinym com zolstu $trofyn mix un nit mit diinym grim com zolstu
kestigyn mix. (3) loutzelig mix, Got, den aain swaxer bin ix, haail mix, Got, win zi ziin
der irolsyn, miini gibaain, (4) un miin z?I iz der irokyn z$r, un du, Got, wi lang wilstu
cu zihyn. (5) wider k?r, Got, bysirm miin z?l, hilf mir um wilyn diiner ginood. (6) win
nit am toot iz diin gydixtynis, in der grubyn w ir kan dix lobyn ? (7) ix bin mud mit
miinym zufcyn, ix byzulper ali naxt m iin bft mit miinyn trihem , miin Span b$t ix max
vouxt. (8) ez iz ver vinstert von com m iin aaug, es iz bor altert um' wilyn at miini laai-
diger. (9) k$rt ob von mir ali di doo wurkyn unrixt, win Got, er hoot gihoort/gihoort
i t i m miinys waainyn. ( 10) er hoot gihoort/gihoort. Got, m iin gibit. Got, m iin gibit er
wirt an nimyn, (11) zi zolyn wirdyn ver iim t un zi zolyn der Srikyn z$r al maini vaind.
(12) zi zolyn wider k$ryn un zi zolyn werdyn verSimt az in aainym aaugyn blik.

22
1677. From Ioslin Vicynhauzyns (Yoslin Witzenhausen) preface to his Bible trans-
lation, Amsterdam. (Last paragraph of the second page of the preface.)
Aax vin aaner mixt vilyn froogyn, im kin dpgs azou fiil iz 9pn aaner hatppky gyleegyn,
dijps Talmy ha-miilex hot lozyn zibyncig zykiinym houlyn fun Ieruiolaaiym, un hii tuut
is aan man alaant, iz dcr tiryc, Talmy ha miilex hot drum fiil gynumyn, er hot vilyn
ztfyn, oub zi aly glaix verdyn iraibyn, aaner az vi der ander. nun, doo iz aan nis gyiiiyn
al-pii ruuex hakoudyi, dpps zi aly glaix for taidt un gyiriibyn hpQbyn. ober vin man vil
freegyn, man hot dox iou in kfily] kfydouiy] Firara gyhat miiy xaxQpmyn gydoulym,
dii dp9 hppbyn maitik gyvf^zyn toury nyviiym u-ksuuvym lyl99$yn Sfardym; un aax hot
mydiinys Holand inas xamiiiys alppfym 379 lypak in dem mppkym Dort oder Doct rext
 163 West Yiddish

gyhat 25 mylumppdym gydoulym, dii dpp hppbyn toury nyviiym u-ksuuvym maitki
gyviizyn; un vii lozt n un is din nun it ein uf aanyn nu n , der es maitik iz, un oon aanyn,
der di hatppky hilft iber lainyn. dpp gib ix din tiryc: ix hppb in aanym siifer gylaiynt,
dpps aaner iraibt in zainer hakdppmy, un friig t aan ka$y: vi kumc es, dpgs icundert kumt
aan gymaaner, Slixter lamdyn un freigt aan grousy kaiy u f poskym hagyounym hakad-
mounym? vii saaiex, hppbyn is zilxy gyounym gydoulym nit gyziiyn oder dpp ppn
gyitousyn ? intvert er un jprixt: is iz aan mppfyl: is giit dpp aan riiz, der kan goor vait
ziiy n; dpp kumt ain gycvirglain, dpps nim t er u f di aksl; dpp kan dos klaany gycvirglain
nox vaiter ziiyn az der grousy riiz. azou aax di gyounym gydoulym hppbyn goor
vait gyziiyn, un der gymaany lamdyn nim t iiry sfoorym in di hant un lirynt dpp inyn
aly di kaiys vpps den gyounym iz kppfy gyviizyn hppt er for zix. mppg d in laixt, dpps
er nox aan v ^ n ig vaiter kan ziiyn un aan kaiy aus findyn.

n
1727. Fiirth. Henely Kirxhaan (Henele Kirchhaan):1 Simxys-ha-N^fys, part II,
preface. (Fotografiier iber-drjkfjn der cirltcr jn ainciker ousgaby ... Mit a kultuur-
ktstoriln araan-fiir by Jacob Shatzky, New York, 1926.)
Mffaxer hob gyzffyn, gyiixt in gymaan grpps fr$$vyl,
un niim yn zix nit cu hircyn dos alys iz h^vyl,
di sfoorym ouf taiti un main x$?lyk riiyn Simxys ha-Nfy$ iz bai fiil um zunst,
d in cu bringyn, dos zolyn flaisig lainyn di muser un diinym iz aan kunst,
vpps hilft nun di sfoorym cu maxyn,
vin nit laiynt, un lirys fomaaiym Stilyn cu ruk viigyn veltlixy zaxyn.
zolxys mit caar hob bytraxt
drum hob ix diizy zmiirys gymaxt.
fiil diinym fun aly toog un iabppsys ve-ippmym tppvym zainyn drinyn gymilt,
un vppl nppx gyzang in gyraim gy&ilt,
aax gyftilt di muziky cu maxn bykant
d o n erfoorung bai aanym muzikant
den rixtyn niigyn.
drum, main liiby lait, lozt aix un aiery kinder den rixtyn vO g liigyn
un lozt aix byniigyn
for liib cu nimyn alys voos Got aix tuut cuu fiigyn.
bysxus z$? zolyn mir zppxy zain bald den gppyl c^fdyk cu kriigyn.
un der vail der iker iz der cuu, doos man in abys haltyn iz gut un frum,
un gyjixt rov xilyl iabys dos gnyn txumyn, di zainyn krum,
drum hob ix gy&ilt di rixty diinym, vii man g fft un vii n u n mist d in txum.

1 There arc many Kirchhains. The one in Hesse might be the source of our authors appellative
name (he lived a century before the Jews had to take surnames).
 164 Specimens of Yiddish over Eight Centuries

*4
1798. Ipuxynyn Lcivi Roufy (= physician): Diskurs gyhaltn cvibt iyhuudym in Sif
fun Itrit (Utrecht) noox Amsterdam, No. 1, p. 1.
a n s l h o l a n d e r kum t in Sif, frppgt: kapitiin, k in ix *an huk-plac kriign?
ilFER zppgt: is Sif iz nox !??dig.
GUMPYL p a n j e r ku m t u n frppgt u x nppx aan h u k -p lic iy .
ilF E R Zppgt: iou.
GUMPYL giit in Sif un zppgt: pp vii guut, dou kin ix guut Sloufn, nox k u n cr dou. - iou,
voor haftig, dou zict nox aan menS in. 09, doo kin ix Sloufn. guut morgn! 09, AnSI, duu
bist es. ix hob nit gyvust, dpps du aax in Itrit bist, ix hob gymaant, du bist iabys in
Amsterdam gyv$$zt, um u f gyruufn cu vim . for axt tpog Sabys zinyn aly di kytiinym uf
gyruufn gyvom, hob ix gynuant, Sabys kumt es oon di dalfppnym.
anJ l : vpps maanstu d in , dpps es bai uns cuu g iit vi bai aix lait, dpps xilyk gymaxt v irt
cviSn kppcn oder gymaaner man ? mir zinyn aly goer egaal, der manyg iz niks biscr als
der gymaaner man, aly goor cu glaix kinyn dox nit u f gyruufn vim .
g u m p l : iou, maar voorum iz din losyf Suu-raan-maxer nit dy ir ity Sabys uf gyruufn
gyvom ?
an S l : du bist aan rixter nar. haftoury virt dox for kaaft. dox ix voul, dpps du aax
aan souny bist fun di naiy kily. ix vil amppl main biixlxy fun dy xinex, vpps ix hob, laiynyn.
g u m p l : hiiram ppl, AnS!,ixzppgdir main hire rixt araus: du bist dir oon mir un oon fiil

andcry lait grab touy. ix bin bai main lc?bn kaan souny fun di naiy kily, nor ix zff nit,
dpps ir lait ipys gybiscrt zait.
An l : vpps mir gybesert zinyn, pp Smaa bynii! din vaastu goor n ik s!...

25
1867-1952. Daniel Braunschweig, Lengnau (Surbtal, Switzerland): From his
reminiscences. (Florence Guggenheim: Surbtaler Jiddisch, Frauenfeld, 1966,
p. 27.) (Nos. 25-29 are given in my spelling system.)
Es sin i?c bald drayndraisig ioor, das mai fraa un ii mitynand xasyny gh?t hpn. Das is
gyv^sy amy m?$ntig, amy cvaity d u m b e r naincii hundert 41s. un vii ii daa e Siiny
daag gyvff. Tags cufoor hot s geregynt un tags nooicir in Strodmy. s hot dii(r)fy mitti
mai sai, so hot di sun gSiny.
cu der xasyny crugg! Mai khaly is fon Endigy un is fon dort ous mit de resly-bpSt
u f Siggedaal, un fun dort ous mit de baan u f Baady. un i, de xppsyn, direggt mit de
rfsly-bpSt u f Baady. u f ym baan-hpf sin mer d?n camy khpmy, un nox fiU andery xasyny-
lait ous der miSbppxy.

26
1886-1961. Emanuel Bollag, Endingen (Surbtal, Switzerland): From his remi-
niscences. (Source as in No. 25, p. 29.)
 165 West Yiddish

Guty morgy mitynand, simmers mppxyl, v?n ii sou frii cu aii khum. ii tub en ajnSlaag,
ppny grousi coorys. Mai fraa lost mer khj ruu, uf iontyf sol ii e naiy ... mus ii e naiy hut
hou. si hot mfdiumy riit, dr khan poser kha staat mei maxy, mit dffin, vu ii hab. s is
hfint e iftny daag, da hab ii gyd?nggt, my khfnt uf Baaden *iy gii, esou e hut ge khaafy.
un da hab is gydfnggt, duu Smuul, h?t$ aax der cait, mit mer c khumy, is h?t gttrn e
xafruusy. My kh^nty io c fuus gft dori yn vald un kfny iou uns dy cait Iou, s prfsiirt iou
nit bis mer uf Baadyn aiy khumy. Vqner gegy di ceiny c ndingy fort giingtyd, vOry mer
gegy di usy drin. un vcgy di ycQpys, vuus khfnt gee cy Baady, mee& poser khgni djgiys
hou, for dii khftny is iou uf. V?mer denoox c miid sin, de v^g nox emol maxy c fuus,
kheny mer io de cuug nfmy im Siggetaal aaby, denooxd vier mer aax reit-caitig vider
dehaam.

27
1881-. David Maier, Mullheim (Baden): From his reminiscences. (Source as in
No. 25, p. 39.)
Un demooxyd bin is als fon Mily uf Baasyl un hab gafangy mis slb4tndig c maxy.
14 bin nox nid emol cvancig ioor alt gyvees. un das hab ii alys misy maxy, um dehaam e
bisly c hilfy, mer sin sivy khinder gyv??s. un am fraidig coovy bin is imer ivcr iavys
vider uf Mily. un bai de gTpQsmuter, di hot e stuubser ghft. Visyner, vas e ituubier
gyveisyn i4? Dpp hpt mer am fraidig cpovy holc-khoply druff gymaxt un das hpt gybr?nt
biis am Savys, 4toisys-cnaxt. un do hen mer als di aarbsy-sup mit dery-flaai hii gybroxt
un hfn si am savys-milaag misy hpply, das is unser iavys-suudy gyv??s. un am JWisys-
cnaxt sin mer ali in di iuul. Daamaals hot s c Mily nox epy hundert-cvancig familiy
iyhuudym ghft.

28
1882-. Arthur Ziwy, Diirmenach (Upper Alsace): From his reminiscences.
(Source as in No. 25 + Jiddische Sprachproben aus Elsass und Baden, p. 41.)
Drmynax i4 haint nox e ganc 4<in dfrfly, voo numy nox e paar lidy vouny, e paar
viinigy familiy. vii ii nox dort gyvees bin, das haast, for sivycig ioor, doo hot D&mynax
nox ivcr e axt hundert jivooncr gh?t, un di helft derfpgn sin lidy gyv$$s. e paar ioor
forh&r hin di lidy sogaar di grousi maioridcet gh?t, un s ii aax foor khumy, das der
pamys aax glais-caitig der miir gyvees i4 fon Dermynax.

2q
1873-1957. Paul Gerschel, Weissenburg/Strasbourg (Lower Alsace): From his
reminiscences. (Source as in No. 25, p. 45.)
Is ferctil so girn ous di alty caity. v?n ii an di fiily 4ny khilys dngg, vii mer als im
Elsas gh?t hin, s hire due mer vii. si sin slamasligervais g grgd parti nimi dou oder sin ganc
 166 Specimens of Yiddish over Eight Centuries

camy gsrumpfl, doudors das di derfer un di gglaanery mouggymlis ali leer vory sin, sin
i?ct vider ous Strousboryg, Kholmcr, Milhousy un M?c grousy khilys vory. in deny fiir
grcisty khilys sin vider rebppnym dou, vu derfor soriy, das unscri cmuuny blaibt, vas
si cu ppvys avouseiny gyv^n ii. s Elsas hpt aly vail fait ganc Carfys mit rebppnym un
xazounym fcrsorjt. ali grj-rabi de I'rgs, bis uf der haidigy daag, hen ous ym Elsas gstamt
un mer derf e gjgfy han uf di mcrigg-verdigy miner ...
R?dy mer nox c bisyl daxlys un ccily nox e paar fo deny guty spris-vertlis uf, vuu mer
ous deny ally, guty caity gyiaait hen. [We give a selection here.]
e lustiger dalys geit iver alys. mj[ ioxtym vi hiiner.
Iou lppnu itiit in hall. mer kh?n dii brouxy for ggri
(der) xiiiixym itiigynt. cu raivy.
noox siggys khumyd esrouxym. trit ym Spptyn uf der kopf.
dajiys for ungylfgty aaicr. s flaas is s b^sty gymiis,
s ganc ioor siggcr un am e m?sly masyl is b?ser vii e
Puurym nistery. setter xoxmy.
dcr alt Aisigg ii aax nox dencerig. d lomp nuf un di d!3iys erundcr.
iiggcr vii Lot. v$n mer maant, s ii lerppy, ii s lytoufy.
diiu soli der macy ganyfy.
im Tamys friiry di $syl.

CE NT RAL Y I D D I S H

3
1619. From a letter written from Prague to Vienna by Miriam, daughter of the
doctor Moysy Moper Kootyn Lucerny (Moses Maor Karan Lucerna) to her
sister-in-law Rc^zel,1 the wife of her brother, the doctor Arn Mpoer Kpotyn
Lucerny (Aaron Maor Katan Lucerna). (Vienna: Osterreichisches Staatsarchiv:
Abt. Haus-, Hof- und Staats-Archiv: Cod. suppl. 1174: Letter No. 1). Cf. Alfred
Landau und Bernhard Wachstein, Jiidische Privatbriefe aus dem Jahre 1619,
Vienna, 1911.)
... Bykiccr, liiby iv$$gerin, vis, dpps mir hoobyn dainy ksppvyfm] mykabyl gyv??2yn.
mir zain zttr der irokyn fun v??gyn di psuury rppy bavfoynoys?enu] h[orabym], az dpp
iz nifter gyvorn ben a x f e n u , boorex daaiyn imys. m f f n zain mir zcer dcr srokyn maxmys
ipyi. ix hob byd$$y gyhat ahiin cu ciiyn mit m[ainy] kind[er]lix, got byhiit Zff. nuun
vail es azpy cuu g?^t, kan es nit zain. vil es Semisboorcx byfolyn, aax hobyn mir
nox *an ksav mykabyl gyvffzyn a[l]i(yd;{] sliicx. aax zain mir zix zcer mycaacr, az du
dix bav[oynoysc?nu| h[orabym] muzt azoy gyn?elyn. ober vpps zol man toon? ix hob
main bruuder goor zMr gykiplt, vi man in hot auf gynumyn, er zol dix hcer ncmyn, hot

1 Rcfzcl is Rosie, little rose, not 'little Theresa.'

 167 Central Yiddish

er Ual uklal nit gyyilt. iz hob imer cuu gyzppgt: vi viltn ppn vaib hauzyn ? ober hie
iz miin dffy goor nit un aax di ganc miipppxy. Got byhiit z$?,zain aax dervider.inaan zilxyn
raai, es ciit avik vir nor kan zain gyzind fariikyn. nuun vi viltu, main hirc-liiby iv$fgerin,
dir in aan zin nimyn, in aan zilxyn v$?zyn hiir cu kumyn. aans: man lozt niimynt ain,
di lait di dpp zain hiir kumyn, Bftly ir toxter un du mit iir zain kumyn, dii hot man nit
vilyn ain lozyn, hobyn muzyn 3 ioomyfm] auf den b^s xaaiym ligyn, dernppx hobyn z?$
goor avik muzyn ciiyn. un dpps andcr, mit aan gyzind un mit kinder auf den v^g Iffgyn.
aax hot man z$$ bygazylft], man hot vilyn goor in leeger fiiryn, iz goor fiil derfun cu
iraibyn. iz goor cuu fiil fun B$?ly gyvfctzyn], az zi hot di toxter in aan zilxyn vffxyn h&r
gy&kt, zi hot sxus ppvys gynosyn, vir nit kan derfun rf^dyn, der kan nit l$?byn. nuun,
main hirc-liiby ive^gerin, ix bit dix goor z6& un ziir un nim dir nit zilxy um glaixy
drppxym fur, vpps nit miiglex iz. vin es nor aan miiglex kaat viir, vilt main bruuder
kaan mynuuxy lozyn, er muzyt dix hiir nimyn, vii i[x] foor mit gancer maxt hob vilyn
hppbyn, er zol dix hiir nimyn, azpy bin ix hie der vider ... ix hob zilber byd??y mit
main ivppger rib Slpymy in Ppylyn cu ciiyn. nit ix alaan, indery la[it] m^n, dii nor
kinyn ob kumyn. ix vaas vpyl, az du dix ziir muzt gyneetyn. vpps zol man toon, Sim-
isboorex zol es amppl biscr maxyn, az vii mir hofyn....

3*
1619. From a letter written by R??zyl (Rezel Landau), Prague, to her daughter
Xany (Channe [Hanna, Anna J) in Vienna. (Source as in No. 30. Letter No. 34.)
... Liibys hire, am io[m] bfcts], & der liiex iz kumyn, zpy iz B^ly toxter kumyn un
Maatly un hob{yn] mir kaan briiv gybraxt, zpy bin ix iir gybliibyn, zpy hobyn mir
gyiv9yry(n] dpps ic lang mit liib al gyzunt zait, zpy hob ix mix aan v??nik bynuugyn
gylozyn. di ganc kily kan zix nit gynuugyn for vundem dpps man di maad icunder hot
hiir gy&kt, iz ir gynaa gynuugyn gangyn, zi viir iiir ins lfeger kumyn, hit zi nit mit zix
gyhat iiry zaxyn, dcr mit hot zi zix, got cu foor, aus gylf^zt. viir ober kaan vunder
gyv?$zyn, azpy aan frfevyl I zi hot gyvis sxus ppvys gynosyn. irft hot man zi hit nit viifyn]
in lozyn, iz cu Liibyny, den dpps kol gftt vii xas vyipplym grpyser aver vier, man hot
di maad drum hiir gyfikt. drum for langt mix, biz ix viir mircyiim vider briiv fun ink
hppbyn. liibys hire, az du raibst dpps dpp fiil frimdy lait bai ink zain, iz kaan vunder,
zainyn hii aax 4iir azpy fiil 12 hiigy. vpps zol man tuiin ? vpps Simisbpprex tuut, iz vpyl
gytppn, gylpybt zai er. zol ix dir &aibyn, vii es unz gcet? Simisbpprex zols iber (r)al
guut maxyn. mir zainyn imppl gynuugyn gyitandyn. man iz aan mppl ain gylofyn, iz
boon aiem vpyl aus gangyn, mir hobyn sxus ppvys gynosyn....

3*
1619. Letter written by Sloymy (Solomon) Auerbach, Prague, to Zanvel Lintz,
his son's father-in-law in Vienna. (Source as in No. 30. Letter No. 12.)
 168 Specimens of Yiddish over Eight Centuries

Ahuufvi] raexutooni lunar Zanvyl. vilt aix giryn bariixys iraibyn, kan nit visyn, oyb
di ksppvyfm] ppn kumyn. dox muz ix iurysaaifym] iraibyn, dermit iir s aax tuiin zolt. un
bit aix, virt aix losyn mainy kinder befoylyn zain. aax kan ix dinkyn, dpps icunder di
mixiy cu Viin aax nit iz vii ys zain zol. virt ir Zftyn, bynii aan ppn itilung hilfyn, dpps
er bai den zainigyn blaibyn kan un x[as] vfyipplym] nit derum kumt. aax fer hof ix, aicr
cuu zppgyn nppx kumyn, doos ir iin vilt myhiny zain ppn hycppys/hoycppys. fer hof, ir
tiiut On tuun virt. fer hof, iz aix caaiys. viryn mercy&m ovrym vy-ippvym zain, vil ix
bariixys Sraibyn. griist zugosxy fun unzeryn vttgyn. volt Gutret byfolyn, dpps zi unz
aax iraibt.
vy-spp ipplym mi-mini mcxutonxo Sloymy Aucrbax.

33
Nineteenth century. Moravia. Proverbs. (From Der Urquell, 1897, pp. 271-272.
Spelling changes are mine.)
1. af e nam iz kaa kaiy cO froogn. 2. af c nam iz kaa p&it cu zppgn. 3. e nar iz irger
vii e mamzer. 4. mit c nam braxt my dy baan.* 5. mit e nam, e pppkyd un e pfCger zol my
nit miipytn. 6. puiirym iz als frai, ober npps puurym vaas my dox, vier e nar iz. 7. ipai
dym nam in pppnym, zppgt cr, ys r^gnt. 8. liiber fun e xppxym e pad vii fun e nam e
tad. 9. af e dora-baam vaksn kaa cvoorex-kriplex. 10. grois moiry voint in G$?vid. 11. kaa
duiivy iz aax e duuvy. 12. az zi haast hindl, toor myn isn aus iir find). 13. e slaxter iabys
maxt e gutn zuntyg. 14. af aa bak kon my iraibn lang vyhuii-raxym un af di andery
tmaniy-apy. 15. Got byvoor unz for aly coorys, zin orxym aax derunter. 16. e Sidex un
e ipplyt gyrpptn ziltn. 17. aly ilampydigy vaiber zin fraityg nppx-mitppg di gristy vartyn-
istns. 18. fun e ioiryi un e ganyv iz ilixt cu kaafn. 19. kaa briery iz aax e gyziiry. 20.
Spoort s der mund, frist s der hund. 21. e xilyf iz e xalyf. 22. kuuzl dex elaan un lax elaan.
23. alt Aizik vart tincerik. 24. e kvintl mazl iz mier vii e cintn xoxmy.

34
Twentieth century. Mattersdorf (new name: Mattersburg), Burgenland. (From
the Jahrbuch fur jiidische Volkskunde, /9 ^ /9 2 5 , pp. 463-472. SpeUing changes
are mine.)
t. Vot er mo hakl-ioiduuxy aus dym sidorl eraus raisn! 2. dy brauxst dox niks fo mo cy
forxtn, ex hob kaany cuzamyn-gyvaksyny aagn-braunyn. 3. koidym kol ruufts miiox
axryn auf! 4. vpps kumsty mitn vom-proixys hiir? 5. hund, hund, hund, du zolst mox
niks baisn, zunst vot dox der taifl ceraisn - iiox kiir Iaikyf, diiu kiirst Efsyv. 6. storl,
my ivistorl, vii g$$t ys doi cuut vin mo vil isn g$?, stilt mo irit cuu I vin mo vil triakn
gff, hoilt mo n vail ven mo vil iloifa fait ys bit ail
7. bal-xpplyra, i$$cer-hory, g$? vik fun miior!
 169 E8* Yiddish

iiex glaab niks an diior,

iiox glaab nor an al-maxtign got,
der miiox byiafn hot.
in Gynffdym t e baam,
dccn vint iiox aly tnainy bpfzy traaiti.
vin iiox haint naxt va ipys ilaxts xpplymy, vir iiox morgn nit drauf fastn.

EAST YIDDISH

35
About 1534. From the preface to Mrkbt hminh Iqwnqwrdasytp, Cracow, a Bible
Concordance by Uuser Andl bin Iosyf (Asher Anshel b. Joseph). (From the copy
in the British Museum.)
oux vist, dppus man fint oft in diizym biixlain a vort, dpps hpt a itfyryi in goor fiil
minxy daaid. doorim hob ix itlixs vort in mcnxer lii diiid far diaidt, ober baii iklixyn
hob ix gyciixnt, in vilxym siifer oder kapityl in pppusyk es hot dppus diaic, (n in iinym
anderym siifer oder kapityl oder pppusyk hot es an ander daaid, am drityn oder am firdyn
ort ober an ander daaid, ober aly v$$gyn itlixs ort gyciixnt vii zix dppus daaid far indert.
al diirex mppuiyl: iad - in briiiifs] iz es daaid, hand; in imi[ni] iz es daaid bortyn
i[4^]10mrym] maxt ifttj^omrym] slak*, in in siifer bamidber iz es daaid itpput. in
der daaid zain derouf zibyncihyn oder axcihyn, in baai iklixym hob ix gyciixnt, vii
es aza daaid iz, vii es 991m iinym anderyn daaid iz, in oux derbaai gyciixynt dppus
zii big ort in kapityl in pppusyk....

36
1579. From a witness's evidence before the (Jewish) court at Koouzmcr. (Printed
in Syatrys Iosyf [Jryt ywsp] by Joseph Mordecai b. Gershon hakKohen; Cracow,
1590, fol. 44V. Koouzmcr Casimir, modern Polish Kazimierz, modern Yiddish
Kuuzmark - near Cracow, now part of ir.)
Idnd[ert] iin ippur bin ix iber iam gycpygyn, dppu bin ix gylumyn kin Rodos, grpys
Rodos, dppu bin ix krank gyvooryn, dppu iz an alter lid gykimyn ci mir (n hot mix gy-
fr$?gt, fin vinyn ix viir. dppu hob ix gyiproxyn: fin Krppuky. dppu hot er gyiproxyn,
er viir oux fin Krppuky, oder baai langy igpuryn: idndert kin ix niimynt nit. dppu
hob ix gyiproxyn: ,,ir mixt vpyl maain iviir gykint hppubyn, er hot gyhiisyn mpyiy
Dls, zaain vaaib heiit Ester. dppu hot er ppun gyhpybyn: ii, der dppu dcr trfnkyn iz,
icik mpyiy Dls ziin, diir iz daain ivppuger gyvffzyn? ix hob im mit maainer hant
bygrppubyn. ix hob in gykint baai zaainym Iffbyn. er iz gyfangyn gyv(ezyn, in aaizyn
gangyn afily dernppux, dppu myn in hot ous gyliizt. ix hob in vpyl gykint.
 1 0 Specimens of Yiddish over Eight Centuries

37
1588. Cracow. Part of a letter from the officials of the community to the absent
community leaders. (Wroclaw/Breslau: Gty Library. Published by Bier Vaanrib
(B. Weinryb): A pikl briiv in lidii, Kruky-Prug in Historiiy iriftn fjn Jldiin visn-
iaftlexn mslitut, vol. 2, p. 66, pL 2. Vilna/Vilnius, 1937.)
... Liibyn rabpysaai, vppus zolyn mir aaix fiil iraaibyn in goour hpyx der manyn. mir
b??tyn aaix lymaan raxmy vexasdy haiim, zolt Got pQun zefhyn In zolt der di din,
byfrat zolt z$$hyn, dpQus pyb es meeglix iz, dppu ir zolt d dan starosty tiihyn kin der Lane
Krpyn in zolt maxyn, daz er iraaibt den irpynym mi-Krppuky, hin den irpynym
mi-Kppuzmer, hin den pod starosty, haainy Lagovnicki, daz er raait ouf dppus rpput
houz. Iaankyl iz aax/oux d der Lane Kroyn, men kon zix ober niit ouf in fer lasyn,
den er iz loy aliixym nit bykav habriiys. Dcrim zixt h.S.i. (Simisboourex) ppun,
dppus ir d anander kimt irgync vii, daz ic derous iicy halt, aax mizt ir hiifyn mit gilt, es
kimt (b.'w.h.) bavpysiiny hppu-rabym-ouf di cdppuky laait, dii myn nit gydooxt hit, daz
es Got der barym, byfrat vaail niimync tppur in di itpput tppur giin, di hpycppuys zaain
b.'w.h. cii fiil, min hpycppuys kabrppunyfm] bar mynyn, hpycppuys iomrym gooiym,
hpycppuys iomrym Iyhiidym lyhavdyl, hpycppuys aniiym, dii zaain b.'w.h. nit d
iraaibyn. Derim zixt Got ppun in hilft mit alyn zaxyn, dii dppu d hiifyn zaain. zixt
iikt d laaityn di ir vist dppus zi fin kppul i. zaain, dppus zi aax hiifyn. ir vist vpyl, dppus ir
hot mit ins kiinym kiin ort gymaxt, nox blaaibyn mir fin hi.i. v$fgyn, In vppugyn zix
in (in) zilxyn faaier in flam in in zilxyn sykppunys. h.i.i. zol ipymer lisrppuyl zaain. vii
nit x.v. xas vyippulym, dppu vist, daz mir aax vilyn vik lpyfyn in vilyn vaaiter nit aaiery
haaizer hiityn, hin in der gas, hin in dym mppukyfm], din es tppur kiin Iyhiidy nit in
dppus mppukym. - dcrim zixt Got is.i.2 ppun in hilft rpputyn. ir vist, zaait al aain vik
gylofyn in di haxrppuzys aly vpyl gyvist, dii men virt tiin. in hot alty mit anander nist gytiin
nort aain vik d loyfyn, in di kily i.e. azpy ai k^ryn cvii gylosyn. piiity, es zaain fiil inter
kppul i.cv. di zix fer intvem zaain niit nic, ober dox it hot gyzfthyn, vii di zax hot gyhat
iin gyitalt. derim zixt al kol pppunyfm], daz ir zixt oder zilbert dm starosty d ciihyn,
oder maxyn iin iom, vii men d anand kiim, in dppus er iriib briiv dm mppukyfm], haainy
lyirpynym mi-Krppuky, hin lyirpynim mi-Kppuzmer, hin d Lagovnicki, by-frat dppu
er ouf dppus rpput houz raait....
1ui&merem ciirom *iisbppurex Smoi. *ratyn?

38
Late sixteenth century. Jacob b. Isaac Ashkenazi: Sefer Ham-maggid (Lublin,
1623 ?): Psalm 6.
(1) D??n mizmer hot gymaxt Dppuvyd, dppus in zol zingyn der mynaciicx, dppus zaain
di Iyviiym, az gydaxt iz pybyn cvii mppul, dppus di lyviiym hiisyn mynacxym. zppugt
der pppusyk alhii, dppus Dppuvyd hot den mizmer gymaxt, dppus in der liivi zol zingyn
mit gydn, mit azpy iin nigyn, der hipi iz d ipiilyn ouf azpy iin harf, dppus dppu hiist
 11 East Yiddish

imiinys, der vaail axt ziityn derppun zaain. d dem zilbigyn vppur der dozig mizmer d
Dppuvyd. er iprppux Dppuvyd: (2) Got, trppuf mix nit mit daainym coryn, in di zolst
mix nit kestigyn, mit daainym grim coryn. (3) dcr barym mix. Got, den ix bin fer inityn
in fer dorbyn mit mopugeryn kpycx, heil mix, den zi zaainyn der rokyn, maain biin,
(4) in maain laaib iz zer der irokyn, in dii, Got, biz kin vi lang virsti dppus di zffhyn in
virst (az nit hiilyn. (5) vider kiir, Got, in cii ous maain laaib, hilf mir im vilyn daain
xt?syd. (6) din es iz nit in tpyt daain gydixyniS, iiner dcr dppu tarbt, kon dix nit
gydinkyn, in oux in der grfib, vir kon dix Ipybyn, vin er niin tpyt iz, derim 102 mix
l^byn, vir ix dix ioo Ipybyn. (7) ix bin mild fin vffgyn maain zifcyn, ix max miiys, az
ein paaibixt in byzilper aly naxt maain bit, oder: ix vii maain bit, in mit maainy tr?$-
heryn max ix faaixt. (8) es iz fer tinkylt maain pyg fin vccgyn coryn, es iz fer iltert, oder:
fer riltt, fin v$$gyn al maain liidiger, dii mix miicer zaain. (9) Duuvyd gprppux vaaiter:
keirt ub fin mir avik ir al dii fnrixt verkyn, ir virt nimer niks kinyn tiin, din Got hot
gyhftrt dppus kol fin maainym viinyn. (10) Got, der hot gyhffrt maain birymlix gyb$$t,
Got, der virt ppun nimyn maain tfily, (11) zii viryn fer 4$?mt viryn, oux der irokyn
viryn, zii viryn zix der irikyn, al maainy faaind, in zii viryn vider amppul fer s??mt
viryn in iin pygyn blik.

39
Late sixteenth century. Jacob b. Isaac Ashkenazi: From his Cinereny (Tsen-
ncrenne): Exodus 3, 1.
der minyg iz gyvfezyn fin aly cadiikym, dppus zii pflftgyn d viidyn ppuf in der
midber, der vartyn zii vilyn zix vaait aain vik maxyn fin den laaityn. din vin men baai
laaityn iz, dppu kimt fiil aviirys der fin; rcxiilys in kiny in Ippuiyn hory imasig gvfl. in
derim itiit gyiribyn axer hamidber, klomer er ging vaait, er volt nit viidyn ouf fremdy
filder. in di xaxppumym zppugyn: fircik ippur iz MpySy gyzisyn in micraaiym, in fircik
ippur in Midiyn, in fircik ippur in der midber. in azpy vppur oux rib Akiivy fircik ippur
handlyn mit s x p y T y , in der nppux vppur er fcrick ippur lernyn, In dcr nppux vppur er
fircik ippur iyiiivy haltyn. in MoySy vppur kimyn baai dem berg Xpyrv, vii men virt di
Tpyry geebyn, dppu hot zix byvizyn di ixiny dorx faaier. in dppus faaier vppur ouf
einym dom bpym, in der dorn vppur nit fer brent, dcr Xizkiiny in der Bexaaiy iraaibyn:
vppurim hot zix Kppudys bond byvizyn dorx faaier? dppus iz derim, dppus Moy$y zol
zix kinyn gyviinyn faaier d zefhyn, in vin er virt kimyn d dem berg Siny, vii men der
nppux virt di Tpyry gffbyn, dppu virt fiil faaier zaain.

40
1614. From a witnesss evidence before the (Jewish) court at Florianow, as abridged
by Joel Serkes (Bach) b. Samuel halLevi Jaffe in his Bayis Khudosh (byt hds),
responsum No. 57. (Frankfort/M., 1697, fol. 37r.)
 172 Specimens of Yiddish over Eight Centuries

Mir 11 balbatym zaain im xaaiyl gyv^zyn, iz irous gyspringyn a lid, Brppuxy bin
ha-kppudy Aryn mi-Tiiyvic, hot gydiint ouf 3 sisym, iz gyiprtngyn dm xaaiyl id
Moskviler 2 vy 3 pyppumym kysiider himilxppumy. di Moskvitcm hobyn goiver gyvfezyn,
iz der lid d rik gySpringyn, azoi hot myn im nppux gyiosyn ous den vald. hob iz gyz/^yn
di Ippudink Stikyn im am rfkyn. iz er nider gyfalyn ouf den zpputyl, hot zix vilyn ppun
haltyn ppun di hoour fin sis am halz, dppu hot er zix gyviklt hiin in hiir, in azpi hot in
dppus sis avik gytrppugyn in v$$g in hob in nit gyzwyn, iz mit den xaaiyl antlofyn. oux
hob iz gyz^tyn dppus er nider gyfalyn iz ouf den sis dppu iz im der roix dm moul arous
gangyn, bin nppuynt baai im gyvffzyn. dcr nppux zaainyn mir dem xaaiyl nppux gylofyn,
dppu hob ix gyzeeyn zaain sis loifyn in iir iz nit derouf gyv?$zyn, naaicrt der zpputyl iz
krfm gyveezyn. dppus sis hob ix voil gykint vyax[er]k[ax] hot der roi haxaaiyl lozyn
poukyn, iz dppus xaaiyl, vppus myftzcr iz gyv^zyn, dhoif kimyn, hot dppus folk mysaper
gyvtezyn byisky hamilxppumy, hobyn kamy pyppumym kamy kozakyn gyzppugt: ,,zaai
got gyklppugt, dppus der ricer, der lyhiidi Brppuxy, iz iaaielix (aain) azoi [a] vik kimyn,
man hot im mit den bardys d hakt in d Stoxyn kily. den iom arim hobyn di kozakyn
gyslppugyn di Moskviter in hobyn gybraxt a 4laI in dppus sis iil Brppuxy hanal, in zaain
hiit hob ix voil gykint, in zaain xiiryv, din hob ix nit voil gykint. azoi hot der sar miiy
vilyn hppubyn di kiilym Si! Brppuxy hanal in der sar asppury iiloi, diir hot s oux vilyn
hppubyn, in hobyn gymiipyt far den kali, azoi hot der sar asppury gyiproxyn: ,,ix bin
bilixer der di, miiaxer dppus man hot inzery hariigym far sarfyt, azoi hob ix den Brppuxy
hanal mit maainer hant ous gycoigyn in hob im far sarfyt, in hot iidys dppu arouf
gybraxt kamy kozakyn, dppus er in hot in a houz araain gyilipt d far brinyn, in hot in far
brim. d66u hot man den ilal iil Brppuxy den sar asppury di gypaskyt. der nppux hob
ix gyhiirt fin a kozak, hiist xvidor, iz gyvooryn der nppux a galex d Kiiyv, hot mysaper
gyvf^zyn lyfii timoi, dppus er iz der baai gyv$ezyn, dppus der kozak sar asppury hanal hot
den lyhiidi far sarfyt, der dppu hot gyhiisyn Brppuxy. oux viis ix voil, dppus kiin lyhiidi
in inzeryn xaaiyl hot gyhiisyn Brppuxy naaiert der lyhiidi hanal kily. vyaxer kamy
iviiys arim, bcxaaiyl iil Niloviki, dppu zinyn gyv$$zyn kozakyn axiirym, hobyn lyfii
timom gyzppugt mi-gviirys Brppuxy hanal

41
About 1800. Passage from the tale Maasy maihaiivy biitiers by the Khasidic
master Naxmyn (Nachman) of Braslyv (Braslav) as written by his disciple, Nathan
b. Naphuli Hertz. (From the Saifer sipjjry maasys, Berdytchev, 1815, fol. 71r.)
Jn s iz faranyn a barg, jn ofn barg itait a itain, jn fjnym itain gait a kval jn itlexy zax
hot a hare, jn di vilt in gancn hot oix a hare, jn dus hare fjn der vilt iz a gancy koimy mit
a puunym jn mit hint jn fiis, liimer der nugl fjnym f jjs fjnym hare fjn der vilt iz hardker
aider an andems hare, jn der barg mitn kval itait in ain ik fjn der vilt, jn dus hare fjn
der vilt $tait inym andem ik fjn der vilt. jn dus hare itait akaign dym kval jn gljst jn
binkt tumyd zaier, az sy zol kjmyn cjm kval. jn dus binkyn jn dus gljstn fjnym hare cjm
 173 E*51 Yiddish

kvai iz guur vild. jn sy iruait tumyd dus hare, az ys 201 kjmyn cjm kval. jn der kval gljst
cjm hare oiex. jn dus hare ot cvii xliiiys ... ainc, vuum di zjn iugt ya zaicr jn brint ys ...
jn dus andery ilafkait ot dus hare, maxmys dym binkyn jn dym gljstn, vus dus hare
binkt jn gljst tumyd jn ys gait nor ous cjm kval jn sy sraait ale, sy zol kjmyn cjm kval...
vuum dus hare it ait tumyd akaign dym kval jn Sraat na gvald ... liimer az dus hare badarf
zcx a bisl up rjjyn, az sy zol zex up sapyn a bisl, azoi kjmt a groiser foigl jn far iprait di
fUgl of iim jn farltilt ym fjn der zjn. dimlt rjjt zex dus hare up a bisl. jn afily dimlt, az
sy rjjt zex up, kjkt ys oix akaign dym kval jn binkt ale cjm kval. liimer az sy binkt ioo
azoi cjm kval, far vuus gait er nit cjm kval ? nor vi bald dus hare vil cjj gain nuuynt cjm
barg, vus oivn iz der kval, azoi zeit er ioin nit arous dym spic, kon er nit ziiyn dym kval.
jn vi bald er kjkt nit ofn kval, gait er ous, vuum guur zaan xaaiys - fjnym hare - iz nor
fjnym kval. jn az er itait akaign barg, ziit er arous dym ipic barg, vus dort iz der kval.
ober taikyf vi bald er vil cjj gain cjm barg, zeit er ioin nit arous dym ipic. ... kon er ioin
nit kjkn ofn kval, kon er xas vyiuulym ous gain, jn az dus hare zol xas vysuulym ous gain,
volt guur di vilt xuuryv gyvoom, vuum dus harz iz ex dus xaaiys fjn itlexer zax, jn vii
kon di vilt a kiiym hubn uun dym hare ?

4*
Nineteenth century (?). A lullaby (folksong).
Der taty iz gyfuurn
ofn iuulym zuxer,
it er bringyn far Laidalyn
a iainym buxer:
mit giily paiys,
jn mit gjty daiys,
mit ivarcy oign,
cj der Toiry vit er toign.

43
Nineteenth century. Folksong.
Jndz homir dox a tatn in him],
vus er tjt kain muul niit kain driml.
vus er vil, tjt er,
jn viimyn er vil, git er.
viier kin ym daiys zugn?
cjker-ziis iz zaan ilugn.
mit simxy, Ildalei, mit simxy
lomir iim diinyn!
jndz homir dox a tatn in himl,
vus tjt kain muul, kain m uul n iit kain driml.
 !74 Specimens of Yiddish over Eight Centuries

44
Nineteenth century. Resignation to God's will. (Folksong.)
Ci kin myn arof gain
in Kunl araan,
jn friign baa got,
ci sy darf azoi zaan?
sy darf zoi zaan,
sy mjz azoi zaan,
sy kin of der vilt
dox guur anderf nit zaan.

45
Nineteenth century. A Love song. (Folksong.)
Tiif in vildaly &ait a baimaly
jn di cvaagalex bliiyn,
jn baa miier, uurym naarderl,
tjt maan hircaly ciiyn.
of n baimaly vakst a cvaagaly,
jn di blitalex cvityn,
jn maan uurym, vax hircaly
ciit cj maan ziiser Ijtyn.
of n cvaagaly tait a faigaly,
jn dus faigaly pi&yt,
jn baa miier, uurym gnaaderl,
maan ivax hircaly tri&Jyt.

46
1844. The first lines of a translation from Hebrew (incorporating short elucidations)
of the tenth section of Bahyas Xohys hahuvys (hwbwt hlbbwt). From the edition
JSzefiw, 1848, vol. 2, fol. 122v.)
Vaal mir hobn oivn inym naantn iir gytelt dus ba&idynii fjn di iniuunym, vii myn
zol zex up &aidn fjn di tanjjgym fjnym oilym, jn jndzer kvuuny iz gyviin, az der mind
zol zaan hare farainikn, jn ous laidikn ys fjn aly zaxn, cjm liibaft fjnym ba&fer iisbuurex,
jn zol gljstn cj zaan viln, drjm hob ex fai&anyn derbaa cj itiln dus ba&idynii fjn di
oifanym fjnym liibsaft fjn Got, kloimer in vus far an oifn myn mjz zex noiyg zaan in di
liib&ft fjn Got iisbuurex. vuurym dus iz der taxlys fjn aly ieruiym jn dersoffjnalymaalys
jn di madraigys fjn di frjmy laat vus diinyn got.
 !75 East Yiddish

47
1848. The beginning of an appeal by one Judah b. Abraham of Lemberg/Lviv,
to the Jewish population of Galicia, published in March, a fortnight after the
beginning of the revolution in Vienna. (From the facsimile in Historiiy iriftn fjn
Iiditn visniaftlexn inslitul, vol. 2, opp. p. 632, Vilna/Vilnius, 1937, where the whole
text is printed. The original is in the Harvard University Library: Leo Wiener
Collection.)
VUS IZ DUS AZOINC GY&IYN IN VIIN JN IN LmBERYG ?
Liby harcydiky briider, hiirts a puur virter, vus zinyn aax cind naitik cj visn.
4c hot Riinystam ioin gyhiin, 12 ys hobn zex farlofn vjnderlexy zaxn in viin jn in
Limbcryg, jn ic hot eSer guur moiry, az ys vit nox ipys ilixts dirfjn arous kjmyii. ibcr
diim 1 ex aax akorat der cailn jn der Idiim, vus ys hot zex gytjjn jn far vus ys hot zex
azoi gytjjn, kydai az ic zolt aan ziiyn, vus far a nisym iimisbuurex ot bavizn jn vus far a
toivys ys zinyn ioin arous gykjmyn, jn vus far a gjts us vit nox arous kjmyn far aly mincn,
s miign zaan Iidn oder Gooiym, vus ys zinyn por duu in aly linder, vus ys kiim cjm
istnuxisn kaizer.
ifntzy of baidy oiern jn hiirts mex ganc gjt cjj.
jndzcr gjter lcaizcr Ferdinand hot arjm zix gyhat itlexy ioiacym, vus zai hobn ym
ilixty aicys gygiibn jn vus zai hobn niSt cjj gylozt, az er zol hiim di bykuuiys fjn ?aan
folk, jn zol niit visn, vus zai badarfn cj diim, az zai zoln kinyn gliklex liibn. dus hot aly gjty
mindn zaier vai gytjjn. iber diim zinyn zex in der lict(n)fer] caat in Viin cj anand gykjmyn
miirery gjty jn kljgy mindn in ainym mit di studintn fjn di hoixy ikolys, vus zai zinyn
zaier gylimt, jn hobn of gyzict a bykuuiy cjm kaizer. in diir bykuuiy zinyn gyitanyn
ous gyrixnt aly gjty jn gyrixty zaxn, vus dus folk bagiirt fjnym kaizer. dii bykuuiy hobn
miliasn mindn jntir gySribn.

48
Mendaly Moixer Sfuurym (Mendele Moicher Sfurim, i.e., Suulym Iaankyv
Abramovid [Shalom Jacob Abramovitch], 1836-1917): From his autobiographical
story Sloimy rib Xaaiyms, 1899. From the edition of his collected works, 1911,
vol. 2, p. 23.)
Lipy Rjjvns iz gyviin a direr, a korc-zixtiker, mit a blaix puunym, a ftiler, a gjter
jn zaier baliibt baa itlexn inym itiitl. zaan xarakter, zaan voinjng, zaan itaiger liibn, 2aan
tjjn jn ale mit anander ot ba&amperlex gyvizn, az in iim iz duu dus pintaly, der brin
fjn a kinctler. er ot gyhat a hant cj inicn, cj muuln, cj iraabn jn cj kricn of kjper jn of
itainer, niit cj maxn zex derous a pamuusy, nor glat azoi, vaal dus iz gyviin zaan bister
fargynign, vaal ys ot ym dercjj ipys gytribn jn ct ot badarft, gymjzt maastera. baa dym
klain-itiitldikn oilym Iidn ot er gyhaisn a biriy cj alcding, a kiner, ipys guur a irik, jn
zai obn baa itlexer gyliignhait zex mit zaan biriyikait banict. M ot ym mexabyd gyviin
 176 Specimens of Yiddish over Eight Centuries

mit Snicn dym uurn koidyi, muuln a mizrex, ilugn mycaivys, lcricn xstmys. maidlex,
kalys, fliign ym matriiex zaan, mit zaan gjtn viin cj maxn for zai mustern, of kaitl-stexlcx,
of hiftn, ous naiyn far zaiery xasanym tviln-ziklei.

49
&uulym Alaixym (Shulem Alaichem. i.e., Suulym Rabinovid [Shalom Rabino-
vitch], 1859-1916): From the story Sprmty, ca. 1900. (From the Warsaw edition,
1909, second printing, vol. 1, p. 234.)
Vaaihii haaiym, trift zex a maasy, iiryv Svjjys iz dus gyviin, kjm ex cj fiium mit a bisl
milcxiks cj ainy fjn maany koinytys, a ijngy almuuny jn a raaxy fjn Iikaterin061av, vus iz
gykjmyn cj fuum mit ir ziindl, Arontik haist er, kain Boiberik ofn zjmer. jn dus faritait
ir dox akin, az dus 4-irste bakentiaft iirs in Boiberik iz gyviin mistumy mit miir. m ot
mir gyrikomyndiirt - zugt zi, di almuuny haist dus - az baa aax iz dus Wsty milcxiks.*4
vi kin dus zaan anderi ? - zug ex cjn iir, cj der almuuny haist dus - nit jmzist - zug ex -
zugt Sknmy hamailex, az a gjter numyn lozt zex hiiem vi a iotfer iber der gancer vilt.
jn oib ir vilt - zug ex - vil ex aax dercailn, vus ys zugt derof der midryi. ilugt zi mex
iber, di almuuny haist dus, jn zugt cj miir, az zi iz an almuuny jn iz in dii zaxn, zugt zi,
niit gyniit, zi vaist mit, mit vus m ist dus. der iker, zugt zi, az di pjter zol zaan frtf jn
der kiiz zol zaan gyimak. - njj gait, rit mit a nykaivyl

5.
Ijjdy Laibis Pdiryc (Judah Laibish Peretz) (1851-1915): From the story Mysiirys
niifyi. C. 1904. (From the edition in his collected works, vol. Folkstmlexy ereailjn-
gyn, p. 195, Warsaw, 1908.)
Mit doirys cjrik ot gy&mt in Cfas a lid a gviir jn a groiser balmazl, vus ot gyhandlt
mit ciirjng jn alerlai avuunym toivys jmarguuliys. jn gyviin iz diir ild an oiicr an imyser,
niit kain of-gybluuzyner vi haantiky caatn.
jn gyhat ot er zaan aigns a palyc, vus ot arous gykjkt mit lixtiky fincter-oign ofn iam
Kiniirys. jn arjm gyringlt ot dym palyc a guurtn a groiser, mit alerlai gljstiky baimer,
mit kol hamiinym pairys jn zingyndiky faigl, jn mit alerlai &nikydiky kraatexceT jn andery
gyviksn hin lynooi vyhin lerfjjy.
jn gyhat ot der guurtn viign braity, ous-gyiity mit goldynym zamd, jn di baimer iber
di viign obn zex in der haix cjzamyn gytrofh mit di kroinyn jn cjzamyn gyfloxtn jn fariuutnt
di viign.

5
Moris Roznfeld (Morris Rosenfeld) (1862-1923): Beginning of the poem In iap.
(From Songs o f the Ghetto. With prose translation, glossary, and introduction by
Leo Wiener. New and enlarged edition, p. 2. Boston, 1900. Text in transcription
according to modem German standard spelling.)
 177 East Yiddish

es roufyn in jap azoi vQd di maiinyn,

az oft-muul fargci cx in ro u i (r i i ?), az ex bin.
ex viier in dym frddexn tjm l farloiem,
maan iiex v ir t dort buutl, ex v tier a maSiin.
ex arbyt, jn arbyt, jn arbyt, uun x& bn,
ys iaft zex, jn aft zex, jn iaft zex uun cuul -
far vuvis ? jn far vtim yn ? ex vais n it, ex friig nit -
vii kjmt a ma&iny cj dinkyn a m uul?

52
Avruum Raizin (Abraham Raizin/Reisen, 1876-1953): Vjhiin? About 1900.
(Prom his volume Vvnt-klangyn, p. 12, Vilna/Vilnius, 1914).
vjhiin vilstj, nyium y, vjhiin ?
di brg zinyn hoix,
di volkndlex blaix,
di tird jn di baim er - vi griinl
vTiiin vilstj, ny& m y, vjhiin ?

o horx, vi di biin
zjmzyt jn fliit,
zi flatert jn ciit
ah iir jn ahiin -
vhiin vilstj, nyfam y, vjhiin?

o kjk dort in maaryv ahiin -

di zjn, zi fargait
kaalexdik, roit
ahiin ale, ahiin -
vhiin vilstj, nyium y, vjhiin ?

S3
Duvyd (David) Pinski (1872-1959): End of the drama Der frbndtr (originally
Der aibiker ltd in the journal Der arhyter, New York, 1906), New York, 1914.
S ti m y n : v u s ftaiyn m ir? lom ir loifh zjjxn.
DER FR&MDER (vi o f gyvaxt): ita itl
OORIYN: vus hostj fuur?
der f r m d e r (farzinkt vider in gydankyn).
d i ij n g y fr o u (dorx tr& ero): hob ex d ir nift gyzugt, az dus iz an jmgliks-kind f
DER FRtMDER (ciiyndik zaany v irter, mit an uun-gystiltn blik in der vaatns): rjjf ym
nist azoi. niit kain jmgliks-kind iz ct, hob ex d ir gyzugt. in dym tug fjn zaan gybiirt iz
der bism igdyi xuuryv gyvoom, ober er iz gyboiern gyvoorn o f cj bouyn jndz a naaiym. ex
 178 Specimens of Yiddish over Eight Centuries

gai ym zjjxn. Got hot dus arof gylaigt of miier. ex zei ys Iduur (viiert mit a muul gyiltert
jn zaan huur jn buurd vtiem vus).
<t i m y n : zeit, vi er z iit ous! z iit, vi er z iit ous!
G0R1YN (treit up mit ir ik ): jn im hobn mir gyrjjfn ligner jn zindikcr!
DER FRtMDER: zindikcr, ioo. ex hob di gr&ty zind farbroxn. ex hob niit gyvolt kimpfn
far der fraaihait fjn maan folk. i6ct trift mex Gots iriklexy itruf. ex vil mjzn di gancy
vilt ous gain, ex zii ys. jn lang, lang vil ex mjzn zjjxn, ex fiil ys. ex gai tjjn, vus ex mjz.
(haibt of zex of dym pidler-kastn.) ex gai tjjn, vus ex mjz. (mit of-gyhoibyne hint gait er
avik nuux rixts.)
d i ij n g y fr o u (fait in ir gancer ling): maan kind! (der oilym lozt zex arup o f di knii.)

54
Simyn Smjjl Frug (Simeon Samuel Frug) (1860-1916): Simxys Tovy (written
between 1896 and 1916).
Frailex jn 614
Zict zex cjm ti$
maxt sjjdys mailex
kviktzex jntrinkt,
Ildelex, zingt,
liibydik, frailex!
uun vug jn uun muus,
a kos nuux a kos,
hot nit kain moiry,
kviktzex jn trinkt,
Udelex, zingt
lykuvyd ha-Toiry!

lyhoiys (pseudonym of Iyhoiys Sloimy Bljmgartn[Jehoash Solomon Bloomgarden],

1872-1927): Zjnyn-jnter-gang. (From the volume Gyzamlty liider, p. 235, New
York, 1907).
Ys fait arjnter of der iird
a idlkait vii fjn irik,
di rtindy, faaierdiky zjn
ftarbt bisiexvaaz avik.
der him! hot ir toitn-bit
nut lixt arjm gyitdt,
jn s hot mit fiamyn zex cjbrint
dus gancy maaryv-fild.
 179 East Yiddish

us iepdyt in di hoiiy gruuz

der vint baklimt jn ivax,
zugt kadyi nuux der groiser zjn
of uvnt-vintn-iprax.

56
Suulym As (Shalom Ash/Asch) (1880-1957): From the volume A M itI. (From
the edition Minsk, 1906, p. 14).
Ainc akin jn far zex akin itait zex a haazl in tuul cviin cvai hoixy birg, vus lozn zex vaat
jn hoix in der vilt araan, baam brig fjn taax (vaaksl)[vaasl]. vinter iz ys. gots vilt iz in
gancn in inai fartrjnkyn. jndz^r haazl, vi an alter balbuus in taxriixym, Stait zex baam
brig, kjkt zex cjj cjm farfroirynym uax, zaan Suxn, jn ys Svaagt, biz der taax vit cj txiiys
hamaisyn of itain. dervaal iz der taax gy&orbn, gyfroiern jn mit a vaasn kitl aan gyhiilt.
rubn flnyn of zaan brait jn ling, itiln zex ofn taaxs rjkn, jn lixem zaan upgytokty diky.
tail muul gait a mind ibim taax, jn dym mindns fits tjkn inym vaasn, tiifn inai.

57
Zalmyn Shnaier (Zalman Shneur) (1889-1959): Liibj (before 1914).
Liiby haist: faint hubn alytnyn
jn liibn nor diiex -
ys loint zex, ys loint zex ale faant hubn
jn liibn nor diiex.
ys loint zex, ys loint zex farlozn dex
jn kjmyn cjrik -
s iz liib jn s iz ziis, cj farvilkt viiern
jn bliiyn cjrik.
jn vuiis iz a itiiern uun finctemiS,
a flaker uun frost?
jn vuus iz maan hasn jn liibn dex ?
a faaier in frost.
an aibiky ruud mit a riitynii:
dj iugst zi - zi kjmt.
ex traab dex jn bin a fartribyner,
jn vain, vin dj kjmst.

58
Hilyl Caitlin Zcitlin) (1871-1942): Passagt from a booklet Vus darf Iisruuyl
tjjn m ictiker coat fjn xivly MyHiex? (p. 7, Warsaw, 1934).
 180 Specimens of Yiddish over Eight Centuries

Vin ex Ljk uun aly jndzcry bisery jn tiifcry mindn, vi zai itaiyn iiider in zaan ituut
ci itiitl, faritikt irgyc in a vinkl, vainyndik jn klugndik ofn gancn gyziliaftlexn liibn
jndzem, vus iz ict farvildyt gyvoom, ii of di maasym tatjjym, vus viicm ict up gytjjn dorx
di partaiyn, ii ofn ftnctem, bitem daiys, vus ist of aly Iidn, vaal ys iz baa jndz ni&uu kain
kluger, niituu kain rixter, jn ys iz niituu viir ys zol a kiap tjjn a finger uun a finger lytoivys
dii biz cj biitleraa ruiniirty Iidiiy masn, xod m ot in fljg azoifl farzorger (vaal byimys
mjz vitgn dii farzorger gyzugt viirn: iS lyvicoi mikucaihj), ii of der gyzairys kylooiyn
fjn hitlerizm; ii of der gyzairys kylooiyn fjnym komunizm, vus vil of an ander oifh a sof jn
an ik mazn cj dcr igzistinc fjn Iidn ak folk; ii of aly jndzcry inyvainiksty baviigilngyn,
vus der viig zaierer iz ofyner nationalism, jn bahaltyny asimilady iz der licter poiyl
ioicy - di up-mikjng fjnym cailym fcloikim jn di upmiking fjn cailym lisruuyl.
vin ez zii ot dii aly gjty mindn vainyndik in di vinkalez, derman ez mez uun dym
vyhaimu boixym piisez huoiyl loutn bild fjnym magyd. ...

Xiiiym Naxmyn (Chaim Nachman) Bialik (1873-1934): From his collected poems
in Yiddish: Poiziy, (Warsaw, 1913).

X bin nit o f aaier rjjf gygangyn,

ez kjm cj aax mit zibn viign.
ez &1 of a u vi tou of zangyn,
jn vii o f trjkn gruuz der ritgn.

jmzist hot ir gerouk, gyliirymt,

jn miix bagiignt mit gyzang:
ez hob far aax toub gyvirymt,
jn ous gypikt hot zex a ilang.

jn ziit, mez riiert nit aaier &ln,

jn aaier hilziker gerjjs
ligt tait cj maany fiis gyfaln,
jn ez cjtriit ym mit dym fjjt.

fjn aaier ous gylote oig

bin ex der licter ivarcer blic,
fjn aaiery fkrfckxnty cain
der licter, comdikztcr kric.

jn rid a - mjzn himlyn ftjmyn,

di iierd baviigt zez nit fjn ort,
di ftainer kouklyn zex jn kjmyn
jn ilingyn doritik G o a a ort.
 181 East Yiddish

60
lisruul fifroilrin (Israel Ycfroikin) (1884-1954): A passage from Traduiy, caixtu
jn stmboht, from his book A xilbn ha-ntifyi (Paris, 1948, p. 172).
Prjjvt zex ober xoi of ain riigy four itibi dus mindlexy liibn uun tradiciy, uun der
ierjiy fjn friierdiky doirys. Dus antkaign itiln tradiciy jn progris (haist doch baa jndz
a progrisist diier vus ,,halt niit fjn ,,altmodiiy zaxn) iz niit miir vi amracys, oder
puuiyt - a niriikah. kain ijm progris, kain ijm vaater gain kin niit gymuult zaan uun
icrjiy. vin ys zol amuul of itain a dor, vus zol byimys viin arup varfn fjn zex dym iox
fjn ierjiy, volt er zex gymjzt jm kiiem cjm ciiitand fjnym firhistoriin hailmin61,
fjn di trogloditn, jn cjrik gain cjm dzungl. iliktrii lixt iz a ierjiy, pjnkt vi banyn, iroplanyn,
vi bykhl aly giiter fjn jndzer civilizaciy. der dor, vus volt 2ex byimys up gyzugt fjn
gaisdker ierjiy, volt gydarft zex iafn a naaiy Sprax, a naaiy visniaft, a naaiy kiinct, mit
ain vort - uun haibn fjn beraiiys. nor di ierjiy, materiiily jn gaistiky, maxt byklal miiglex
dym progris fjn mindexn miin.

61
Zlilik Kalmanovid (Zelig Kalmanovitch) (1881-1944): A passage from Ci iz
miigUx a forutiier ous-laig fair der Iidiier literariier ifrax?
Ys kon guur kain sufyk nit zaan, az in lidii iz faran a klang alyf. x taad ous byfairyi
dym klang, nit dym os. in di airopiiiiy alyf-baizn iz far diim klang kain os nituu. in
fonit iin afyf-baiz virt er bacaixnt dorx an apostrof, , Buurexov hot dym dozikn klang
araan gyitilt in zaan oibn dermuunter tabily, nor in kantiky klamem: dermit iz er ousn
gyviin cj zugn, az der klang iz faran nor in Hcbritis, in lidii ober nit. jn of z. 73, vjj er
bringt a ryiiimy fjn di Itdiiy ilymintar-klangyn, iz der alyf taky nituu. dus iz ober a
groiser tuuys. der doziker klang, der fister ainzac, vii er haist in Daad, igzistiiert baa
Iidn nox ict, jn zai banicn ym baam ridn lidii. der alyf vus virt gyiribn, a itaiger, in di
virter: jn, in, ain, aimer, uurym ... iz laxljjtn nit itjm, naaiert er virt daitlex arous gyrit
farn vokal. er nimt zex derfjn, vus aider mir haibn uun arous ridn dus vort, zaanyn
di itim-binder in gancn farmaxt. in dym momint, vi mir ifynyn zai, raast zex di Ijft
arous dorxn itim-ipalt - derhiiert zex a miin knal oder a knak. iiirit demuux virt arous
gyrit der vokal; dym alyf gjjfy darf myn batraxtn far a !consonant azoi vi b, g, d ..., miier
nit vus er iz ivaxer artikiUiiert. dcr zilber alyf-klang hiiert zex faritiit zex oix far a jn o,
jn oib mir 20In pAscx alyf jn kumyc alyf batraxtn, nor far ikvivalintn fjn di vokal-caixns
a jn u/0, voltn mir fctUtii gymjzt iraabn: ,alt, ,uudlcr j.az.v.

62
Der Nister, pseudonym of Pinxys Kahanovii (Phineas Kahanovitch) (1884-1950).
From his symbolical story In vald. (In his collection Cydaxt, vol. 1, pp. 183-4,
Berlin, 1932).
 182 Specimens of Yiddish over Eight Centuries

Jn a hie hobn mir in vald uun gytribn, jn in vald an uutym-ingynii gymaxt... jn der
rjjex blondiyt a derilugyner arjm, er kon zex kain ort jn kain Suutn-vinld niit gyfinyn.
Hobn mir nuux iinym voLkndl in himl a vintl arous gyiikt, jn der rjjex of der pouk hot
zex dan mit gringy flis of der pouk avik gylozt baa di brign pouk jn arjm jn arjm gylofn.
jn gring gyiugt jn gytrugn hot zex kaalexik jn dus vintl hot iinc volkndl dergraixt, jn nox
volkndlex hot ys dort cjnoif gynjmyn jn in ym haisn tug cj ainym jn a groisn zai gymaxt.
jn a vint-iliiexl iz in vald araan, jn a liftl iz cviin di baimer jn spicn dorx gylofn, jn uun
gyzugt hot ys: ipys hot zex uun gyhoibn ouser vald, jn bald vit dus oix ahiier derlangyn...

63
Duvyd Ainhom (David Ajnhorn/Einhorn) (1886- ): Bytuxn. (From Maany
liider, Vilna/Vilnius, 1912, p. 36; Gyzamlty liider, p. 187, Berlin, 1924).
A M y naxt,
a itiiern fait
fjn himl tiif
jn viiert niit bald,
ex haib maan oig
jn baig maan kop.
maan hiiter vaxt
jn hiit mex up.
maan hiiter vaxt,
maan hiiter vaxt,
jn &kt zaan grjjs
mir dorx der naxt.
der viig iz vaat
jn ex bin miid.
diitily naxt,
zi zingt ir liid.
fartrou daan kop
maan itiln iois,
jn iluf jn iluf,
of morgn hof
daan veig cjm sof
iz vaat jn grois.

64
Smjjl Iaankyv (Samuel Jacob) Imber (1889-1942): From the poem sterky
Statnslawow, 1911; reprinted, in his Gyklibyny dtxtungyn, pp. 79-125, No. Ill,
Vienna, 1921.
 183 E*51 Yiddish

Oi, toxterl, toxter dj maan,

ex kjk in dym guurtn araan -
vi di roizn fjl xain, vi di liliyn rain,
azoi zol maan tixterl zaan
oi, toxterl, toxter dj maan,
ex kjk in dym himl araan -
vi di zjn azoi 4ain, vi dug himl-fild rain,
azoi zol maan tixterl zaan.
oi, toxterl, toxter dj maan,
ex kjk in maan harcn araan -
vi maan harens gyvain, azoi gjt, azoi rain,
zol maan tixterls hircaly zaan.

65
Iosyf Opatosu (Joseph Opatoshu, formerly Iosyf Maier [Joseph Meir] Opatowski,
1886-1954): Beginning of the story A farlaat haabl (about 1915). From vol. 15
of his collected works, yUnajVibuus, p. 141).
A jabys-firii-morgn inym iuur 1840.
cjm ijjl-fiirn iz di zixcn-iuuriky ftidy, dym raaxn Faavii Opatovskis toxter, gyzfen
in mitn dcr saliy in a gyinictn kaly-fotil. zi iz gyviin gyilaiert in ivarcn zaad. fjnym
ftiirn-tiixl, fjn di oiering biz di akslyn, fjn di fingerlex, fjn di brouny, lixtiky oign - vjj
a kiir, hobn anip gyfinklt jn arous gyfinklt diimytlex. iber di imuuly akslyn a din Itali-
iini ial-tjji fjn picn jn ^piclex. ofn kop - a gypast haabl, gyviklt fjn ivarcy, zaadyny
koronkys, bapjet mit roity baa&Iex kriln jn mit a citer-pilky. der gyboigyner haldz
badikt mit iniirkx piirl jn in der rixter hant a korbn-minxy-sider in a zilbemym aanbjnd.
arjm dym ijngyn vaabl, vus iz oin iber a uu fiks jn fartik gyviin, my zol zi fiirn in
ijjl araan, hot zex gytjmlt.
dym oivn-uun obn dus muul niit farnjmyn di raaxy Zdoinsky-volier vaabcr jn vaablex,
afily niit faiiys mjter jn ivister, nor di cvilyf ribyens, vus zinyn mit gykjmyn of der
xasyny fjn xuusns cad jn zinyn farblibn biz iber di iiivy bruxys.

66
1911. From the Warsaw daily Derfraand of July 4.
di baciijngyn fjn di Airopiliiy myljjxys cj di militiir-opcraciys fjn Frankraax in
Maroko zinyn biz der licter caat gyviin nit kluur. ipys hot myn gykjkt of Maroko jn of dus
balybatyvyn fjn Frankraax dorx di finger, myn hot, imys, gyrit, az Daadand iz nit jtark
cjfnidn mit der Francaizi&r Maroko-poUtik, az in der stil hot zi taanys jn tviiys cj Frank-
ran, nor myn hot gyzugt, az Daadand vit zex lozn myfacy zaan fjn Frankraax in an ander
 184 Specimens of Yiddish over Eight Centuries

ort. Daadand hot gyvign. ir vaagn hot zi derkliirt mit diim, vus zi i2 nit miir fjn ilymyn
interysiirt mit Maroko, jn hiitn di baitQsn fjn der Aliyziirys-konferinc darfn aly A1ropiii$y
myljjxys, zi iz guur nit mexjjyv, cj bazorgn di gancy vilt.

67
Duvyd Kiinigsbirg (David K5nigsberg) (1889-1942): From his Sonetn (p. 18,
Lemberg/Lviv, 1913).
A klaindik xuusydl mit iiicx jn zikalex,
a ljstiks, kjmt araan, a liibydiks,
a laxydiks, jn vi der tug a kljgs,
jn graazlt zex di lange likalex.
jn vaas jn fri di kinderiiy bikalex,
a klaindik xuusydl, a xainyvdiks,
ijng vi an iierst arous gyiproct gyviks,
sy Idingt zaan kilcxl vi zilber-glikalex.
fraa fyringt jn tanct ys vi a iiidys kind,
nor vin dj ifhst of far iim a saifer,
di aigalex, vi kiiniglexy Iaifer,
don ijjrys iugn, kjkn azoi tiif
in os, az, vin ys rit, kjmt infer-rjjf
vi s ixo fjn a tiifer brjnys grjnt.

68
From the translation by Eliy Olsvanger (Elijah Olsvanger) of a school textbook
by W. and G. H. Young: Der klainer geometer (Dresden, 1921, p. 147).
Der iiitex fjn a gruud-vinkldilm draa-ik iz di hilft fjnym jiitex fjn a gruud-ik, vus
zaany xainiiy zaatn zaanyn di katctn fjnym draa-ik.

69
A passage from Ainitaim relatwiteits-teoriy by Ijjdy Liicnan (Judah Lehmann).
(Berlin, 1921, p. 25).
Ainitain iz cjj gygangyn cjm dozikn probliim mit der fragy, vus bataat der ousdnik
in ain jn der zilbiker c o a t oder in algymain gyrit, vus bataat dus, az cvai eriainungyn
kjmyn fuur glaax-eaatik " ? jn ot iz er, ofn grind fjn a ral batraxtjngyn... gykjmyn cjm
jmgyhoier vixtikn rizultat, az der bagriffjn ghuuceaatikait jn dermis der bagriffjn coat"
bykiil iz fjn fizikaUin itand-ptinkt oix ipys rilatiivyt. er iz gykjmyn cjm ous-fiir, az of
iiidn fjn a ral kirpers, vus gyfinyn zex bynygaiy cjj zex in cuitand fjn gruud-liniker,
glaax-miisiker baviigung, hirit an ander coat, jn pjnkt azoi vi di bagrifn rjju jn bavii-
 185 East Yiddish

gting zinyn, vi mir hobn oivn ous gyfiirt, far iiidn fjn zai andery, jn a mind, vus gyfint
zex of ain kirpcr, kin niit cvingyn di mincn fjn di ibcriky kcrpcrs, cj anerkinyn, az
uun duitand fjn rjj jn baviigung iz giltik oix far zai, azoi iz oix der bagrif c u t far
iiidn fjn zai an anderer, jn kainer fjn zai kin niit zaan coat cjj iraabn dym cvaira. der
tuuys fjn baobaxtcT, vus it ait of der iird jn bahouptyt, az dus gyzic fjn lixt-faripraitjng
gilt niit fam baobaxter fjn kirpcr, baitait alzo in diim, vus er varft um zaan caat-muus
dym baobaxter fjn andern kirpcr.

70
licxyk Naxmyn Stainbirg (Isaac Nachman Steinberg): From an article Cj a
folkistiier baviig&ng. (In the journal Ofn toil. No. n o / m , pp. 2-3, New York,
>955)
Aza oufgaby ken zaan der ciil fjn a naajer folkistiier baviigung, vus zol gyiafh viiem
dafky fjn di mindn fjn haantikn dor. farstait zex, az dus tuur niit viiem nox a partai,
a *folks-partai, vi amuul. ys mjz zaan a braity folks-baviigung, in vilexer ys kinyn
gyfinyn zaier plac frjmy jn fraai-dinker, Ciiynistn jn Bundistn, Fraai-landistn jn Iidiiistn
oder hibritistn. vuurn zai aly uun ousnam naitikn zex in der ljft fjn ixter Iidiier folkstim-
lexkait, jn ys zinyn faran draai gybiitn fjn liibn, in vilexy azi baliibjngs-procis mjz ous
gyprubiim viiern. dus zinyn di gybiitn fjn kultiiur, fjn moral, fjn ikonomik.

71
Maks Vaanraax (Max Weinreich) (1894-1969): Beginning of the chapter Dus
Smjjl-bjjx in his Bilder fjn der Iidiier literatuurgyiixty, p. 68, Vilna/Vilnius, 1928.
Baa der fori-arbyt fjn jndzery naaiy literatuur-historiker iz ain virk gyblibn itain uun
a zaat; dus iz dus Smjjl-bjjx. Myn dermant ys, myn zugt viign diim a puur virtcr, ober
ir vit in crgyc nit gyfinyn kain braitery uraktcristic fjn der poimy. mir viin duu nit
gain zjjxn, vus ys iz di siby derfjn; nor dus iz zixer, az dus virk iz gyvis nit viiert azi
baciijng. vuurym ii lout zaan farnim, ii lout zaan forym, ii lout zaan xarakter mjz ys
itain in dcr mizrcx-vant fjn jndzcr alter litcratuur.
di iltery forsir fjn jndzer litcrariicr fargangynhait, Iidn jn nit-Iidn, hobn zex gruud
interysiiert mit n Smjjl-bjjx; fjn uunhaib 18tn bizn sof 19m iuur - hjndert hobn ilser
fjfcn gylimty in grisery oder Winery arbytn bariiert di doziky timy.

Avruum Am Robak (Abraham Aaron Roback) (1890-1965): From an artidc Far

vuus holm nit Litvtiy Iidn dym naitrain miin?(Iidi!y iprax, vol. 4, pp. 81f. 1944).
Vi azoi di jmbaliibty zaxn viiem aan gytailt in zuxer jn nykaivy - dym sod far diim
darf myn zjjxn in psixologiy. - duu kin myn of itiln a teoriy in aan-ldang mit der psixo-
analitiier iity. efscr vit zex lozn dorx fiicra di sistan az dus ous-ziin fjn zaxn, zaier
 186 Specimens of Yiddish over Eight Centuries

drousndiker ilndnik, baitimt dym gnnuti&n miin. fficr vit zex lozn dergain cj der
simbolik az dus soliidy jn linglexy bint zex mit n minlexn miin jn dus kaalexdiky jn
xuulyldiky mit n vaablexn miin. of azi oifn voltn mir gyfjnyn a psixologiin iysod fara
gramatiin miin. ys varft zex dox in di oign der toxiker, nit der klangiker xarakter fjn
der sistim baam gramatiin miin. ak vus iz agresiiv, vus iz aktiiv iz luuin zuxer; ak vus
iz pasiiv jn cart, oder dililut iz luuin nykaivy, mir zugn der hjnt viign gancn miin hint,
afily viign a coug, jn di kac viign dym gancn miin kic, afily of a kuuter. Far vuus f vaal
hint hobn byklal di xarakteristikys fjn miner jn kic - fjn frouyn.

73
Laizer Sindler (Elieser Schindler) (1891-1951): From his book Ildii jn xstidii,
pp. 81 and 87, New York, 1950.

A malxysdiky kroin
A malxysdiky kroin iz far jndz daan ot,
xol guulys and gito, xoi giily laty.
fjn brinydikn Snii hiiern mir daan kol...
aincikcr Gotyniu, bist jndzer taty,
jn miier, di aibik gyroidyfty, daan bxor.
trugn mir mit hislaavysdiker fraid
daany lixtiky ljjexys, fjn dor cj dor,
of di vugt-viign fjnym aibikait...

Xorbn Galiciy
Dj amuuliky Iidiy, xsiidiiy mydiiny,
maan gyviizyny haixn fjn di Beskiidn
jn Karpatn;
vj touznt muul touznt Iidn
hobn zex raxmymdik gytjliyt
q der Sxiny,
vi sy tjliyn zex kinder
cjm tatn. -
vin vistj, got, tikn
a naaiym mykoinyn,
vus zol mit kinys bavainyn
di groisy akatdy
fjn daan gyldibyner aidy,
Avruums hailiker zumyn,
jm gykjmyn cj axpem daan numyn
of Galiciys farxuulymty ploinyn?!...
 187 East Yiddish

74
Beginning of an article on biochemistry (Algymamy tnciklopidiy, vol. 5, cols.
363-364, New York, 1944).
Bioximiy - dcir tail fjn algymainer biologiy jn organiser xemiy, vus farnimt zex mit
ous forin di ximiiy jn ftzikalii-xemiiy procisn in leibydiky organizmyn. jmytjm vj s iz
faran liibn, kjmyn ksaider fuur ximiiy procisn: ximiiy farbindjngyn viiem ksaider
qiteiert jn naaiy viiem gybout. liibydiky organizmyn zaanyn laboratoriys, vus
farindem ximiiy itofn of azi oifn, az zai zoln zaan cjj gypast farn gybroux fjnym organizm.
iiider liibydiker jn normal funkcioniimdikcr organizm bout ieny ximiiy farbindjngyn,
vus zaanyn um naitik, kydai of cj haltn di normaly funkcioniirjngyn fjn aly zaany organyn.
vin der oganizm iz nit bykoiex cj riguliim zaany bioximiSy procisn, demit viiert in iim
cjstiiert di ximisy glaax-vug, jn der poiyl-ioicy iz a patoiogiier (krankhafter) cuirand.
mir kenyn di doziky eriiinungyn baobaxtn baa mindn, vus farliim tailvaaz maxmys a
gyviser siby (c. b. an uun-tikjng mit ieidlexy bakteriys) dym kontrol iber dym itof-baat.

75
Zamy Fiider: Azoi hot ys zix uungykoibn. (From the anthology Zamljng fjn kacet-
jn geto-tiidtr, pp. 19, 21, published by the Central Jewish Committee, Bergen-
Belsen concentration camp, 1945/1946).
Azoi hot ys zex uun gyhoibn. zol myn iiisn!! I
Myn hot gyiosn a ltd., Wer schreit denn hier so ?!
gyvorfn in vaser araan, Schnauze halten!
fargvaldikt a maidl, Willst du ruhig sein,
gylozt zi nakyt alain. du Judenschwein ?I
jn dan... maan brjjder...
dan hot myn gyhongyn lozt mex ...
ainym, cvai, draa ... giiex...
aly mjzn kjkn, giiex...
zaan derbaa. oi! lozt mex, mindn,
myn hingt join vaater ? hot raxmuunys
far vuus? raxmuunys ...
x vais niit... raxmuunys...
my hingt... Herr Soldat, haben Sie Erbaraien,
my hingt... das ist mein Bruder.
s iz Buurex, Ach, bleib nur ruhig,
Buurex, maan brjjder. du kommst ja auch noch dran.
ia! maxt niit kain gyrjjder Verzieh dich, du Judensau,
my vit iiisn. Pass auf, dass ich dir nicht eins
zol myn iiisn. noch in die Fresse hau.
 188 Specimens of Yiddish over Eight Centuries

oi, gyvaldt Iidn, dataty Bleiben an dan Ort I ...

maaner iz dox dort. t r u l ... trax!... tn x l...
lozt mex I zjnaly, zug kzdii,
oil lozt mex adorxf dcr taty hingt ioin dort.
vaag, ivaag, maidaly, lisgadl vyiiskadyi imai raby ...
irca niit, es volt niit viin ivijem ...
rid niit kain von - Alles stehen bleiben!...
my vit iiisn, ilugn, Mai her horen
my vit jndz nox iugn und sich ruhig verhalten,
jn plugn, wird euch nichts geschehen.
jn dan d o it hingyn, Blcibt nur stehen...
of maan Ehrenwort, Bleibt nur stehen...
derfar ivaag biser, maan kind, So wird jedem Juden passieren,
zol zaan itil. der nicht die Judengesetze
vus! itil zol zaan! Genau wird durchfuhren.
zol myn iiisn ... Die Judengesette
zol myn hingyn ... werden morgen uberall
miiex oux ... angeschlagen sein,
miiex oux ... dass es jeder lesen Lann.
oi! Iidn, hot raxmuunys, O, dann mochte ich packen das Schwein,
hilft, lozt niit, welches es nicht richtig macht,
oi, lozt niit hingyn der hat das letzte mat gelacht.
maan man. Ihr Judenbande!
dus houz brint... Das Hangen gefallt euch,
s kind ligt in viig... was?
niit gykont ys ratyvyn ... Wie sie da baumebi.
avik mitn roiex... [)as ist schon...
Iidn, hilft, Das mart Spass...
ex hob dox kain koiex. So,
traxl... rrax!... Jetzt konnt ihr ruhig nach hause gehn.
gyvaldl Los ... 10s... nicht stehen bleiben ...
gyvald! Nicht stehen ...
myn hot mex gyiosnl Judenpack!...
Iidn, loifi niit, myn iiist... Kulturloses Volk I ...
myn iiist!... Totschlagen musste man euch!
Stehen bleiben!... Hier herumspazieren,
Stehen bleiben!... Was?...
tra il... trax!... trax!... Das wurde euch gcfallcn. Haut a b l...
Got, vjj bistj?! Bis an den Amur.
imi Itsruul! Merkt euch, hier herrscht nicht Juda,
Stehen bleiben! sondem die deutsche Kultur.
 189 East Yiddish

76
Esther Stub (twelve years of age): Liid fjn bouyn barakn. (From the anthology
Zamlung fjn kac/t- jn geto-liidtr, published by the Central Jewish Committee,
Bergen-Belsen concentration camp, p. 27. Bergen-Belsen, 1945/46).
Ainc, cvai, draai -
vin viin mir zaan fraai ?
hjngerik, buurvys, up gyrisn,
fjn taty-enamy guur niit visn -
Gotl vi tjt dus vaL
ainc, cvai, draai -
der tug vil niit farbaai,
ilipn dgl, briiter, itainer
jn fjn toity minia, bainer.
Gotl vi tjt dus vai.
ainc, cvai, draai -
hiier cjj maan gyirai,
fjn jmbakonty masn-kvuurym,
Idainy kinder fjn xaduurym,
uun mamys baa zai.
ainc, cvai, draai -
glaibn mir gytraai,
vartn mir jn hofn,
vus djj hast jndz fariproxn -
am Iiiruuyl xaait
 PA RT FOUR

AN O U T L IN E O F Y ID D IS H GRAMMAR
 NOTE TO PART FOUR

This grammar is based on part of my German Grammatik (see p. 323, No. So).
However, it includes a number of changes I made when translating that part into
Yiddish several decades ago. (Being preoccupied with palaeographical work I
left that translation in my drawer, where it still lies.) Among these changes was a
chapter on the verbal aspects. For publication in this book, some further changes
and additions have been made.
 Contents

S C R IP T AND SOUNDS

The Script 197 The Soviet Orthography 217

Spelling, Transcription, The Phonology of the Northern
Pronunciation 200 Dialect 218
READING EXERCISE 20Q Stress 219
Phonetical Remarks 211 The Phoneme Inventory o f
READING EXERCISE 213 Yiddish 220
The Vowels in the Semitic THE VOWELS 220
Element 213 THE DIPHTHONGS 220
THE VOWEL SIGNS 214 LENGTH O PPO SITIO N 220
READING EXERCISE 215 THE CONSONANTS 222
W RITIN G EXERCISE 216 INVENTORY OF CLUSTERS 222
INDEX OF TRANSCRIPTION Initial clusters 222
SIGNS 216 Final clusters 22%

M ORPHOLOGY

Noun 224 Class I I I 229

INFLECTION 224 Class 1v 230
DECLENSIONS 224 Class v 231
GENDER 227 Class Vi 231
PLURAL 228 Classy 11 231
Class 1 228 NOUN FORMATION 231
Class II 229 D IM INUTIVE 238
 !94 Contents

MINUTIV E 239 Special cases 263

Adjective 241 Preterite present 263
INFLECTION 2 4 1 breng and vais 263
First Declension 241 Prefixed verts 264
Second or Substantival Declension 242 Advert-linked verts 264
COMPARISON 243 Auxiliary verts 265
Inflection 243 Other tenses 269
FORMATION OF ADJECTIVES 244 Past 269
True adjectives 244 Pluperfect 269
Compounds 244 Future 269
Participles 244 Future past 269
Affixes 245 Other moods 269
Prefixes 245 Imperative 269
Suffixes 245 Optative 270
Pronoun 247 Permissive 270
PERSONAL PRONOUN 247 Prohibitive 270
REFLEXIVE PRONOUN 250 Oblijrative 270
POSSESSIVE PRONOUN 250 Nccessitathe 270
First declension 252 Conditional 270
Second declension 253 Past conditional 271
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN 253 Aspects 2 7 1
ARTICLE 254 Perfective 271
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN 254 Singulative 272
RELATIVE PRONOUN 255 Inchoative 272
IN D E FIN IT E PRONOUN 255 Iterative 272
Numerals 256 Habitual 272
CARDINAL 256 Past habitual 273
ORDINAL 258 Causative 273
FRACTIONS 2SQ Reflexive verts 273
Verb 260 Real reflexive 274
TYPES OF VERBS 260 Psychological reflexive 274
INFLECTION 260 Ethic reflexive 274
FIRST CONJUGATION: WEAK Passive voice 274
VERBS 261 SECOND CONJUGATION: STRONG
Active voice: tense and mood 261 VERBS 275
Present indicative 261 First class: jaj - 1of 276
Verb infinite 262 Second class: Jij - /0(00, u u)/ 276
Infinitive 262 Third class: i, ii - o(uu) 277
Contemporal 262 Fourth class: (i - oi 278
Participle 263 Fifth class: ai - oi 278
 !95 Contents

Sixth class: ii - oi 278 FO URTH C O N JU G A T I O N : Viitr f

Seventh class: i - j 278 invariable 289
Eighth class: a a - i 279 FO RM A T IO N OF VERBS 290
Ninth class: Miscellaneous From nouns 290
gradations 280 From adjectives 290
Tenth class: No gradation 280 From roots 291
Alphabetical list o f strong verbs 281 Onomatopoeic words 291
Alphabetical list o f strong From verbs 291
participles 284 Adverbs 291
T HE P E R I P H R A S T I C VERBS: Prepositions 292
THE T H I R D CO N JU G A T IO N 288 Conjunctions 292
(Bin + invariable) 288

SYNTAX

The Statement Sentence 293 A P P O S I T IO N 299

THE PREDICA TE 293 J U X T A P O S IT IO N 300
T HE OBJECT 294 QU ALIFIERS OF ADJECTIVES AND
Direct object 294 ADVERBS 300
Indirect object 295 WORD ORDER 3 0 0
Direct plus indirect object 295 GOVERNMENT OF P R E P O S IT IO N S
Prepositional object 295 301
THE ATTRIBUTE 295 N E GA TIO N 302
Adjectival attribute 296 The Word Order Predicate-
Pronominal attribute: possessive Subject 302
pronoun as attribute 296 Co-ordination o f Sentences 303
Noun unattended by article 296 The Interrogative Sentence 304
Noun with indefinite article 296 Command and Optative
Demonstrative pronoun as attribute 297 Sentences 304
Indefinite pronoun as attribute 297 Subordination of Sentences 305
Numeral as attribute 298 C O N JU N C T IO N A L CLAUSES 305
Noun as attribute 299 T HE RELATIVE CLAUSE 306
Adverb and adverbial phrase as IN D IR E C T INTERROGATIVE
attribute 299 CLAUSE 306
Co-ordination o f attributes 299
 Script and Sounds

The Script

1 Yiddish, like all Jewish languages, employs the Hebrew alphabet.1 For printing
the so-called Square script3 is used, for handwriting the cursive style.3 However,
the use of the Square script for Yiddish is a comparatively recent development.
Before chat, only mashait4 and cursive had been employed in manuscripts, and
only mashait in printing, and this remained so until well into the first half of the
nineteenth century. In handwriting mashait had disappeared after the invention
of printing, when books were no longer handwritten by professional scribes.
The alphabet consists of 22 characters plus 5 obligatory variants which have
to be used whenever the letter stands in word-final position.5
The script runs from right to left, and this applies to the construction of the
letters too. The chart on pp. 198-99 shows the alphabet in printed and in hand-
written form. The remarks accompanying the chart may be useful to readers who
are used only to the Latin characters, which are shaped from left to right.

1 S e e p . 13 f.
2 T his style, used now for printing Yiddish as well as Hebrew, is noc o f the Ashkenzaic type: see
my The Hebrew Scripts, Part I, columns 270-271.
It is the cursive of the Ashkenazic type, Yiddish being the language o f Ashkenazic Jewry (each
of the various historical Jewries having developed a writing type o f its own). Regarding the
development o f the Ashkenazic cursive, see op. d L , Part I, columns 303-309, and Part II,
No*. 349-365.
4 A book hand (unreasonably called , Rabbinic).
5 T h e rt is one exception: p. 308, No. 68.
 198 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

*4** 34 ai** 21 20 19 16 13 11 2 1 27 26 25 24 aj aa 21 ao

/ , U a v j r
16 runs well below the base line and mostly sweeps far leftwards.
16* docs not extend below the base line; the leftward stroke is short.
18 is a circle or ellipse, written clockwise.
19 is started on top, right.
19 The loop has disappeared.
20 is written clockwise and runs well below the base line.
20 starts at the base line.
21 starts at the base line as a narrow, anti-clockwise loop, continues upwards high
beyond the line ceiling, turning clockwise to run down, forming a narrow loop,
that crosses the main stroke, ends as a separate, clockwise curve in vertical position.
21 The two curves are on the right of the main stroke.
21 The separate curve has become the continuation of the upper curve by turning
anticlockwise (a treble clef in musical notation).
22 The upper curve is generally bigger than the lower one and is above the line ceiling.
23 starts at the line ceiling with a down stroke that, at the base line, turns upwards
and runs high above the line ceiling.
24 The top is a smallish curve. The tail is long.
24 The top curve has disappeared.
24 The letter often has the construction of the Square style.
26 is started anti-clockwise, from the right.
27 The right stroke is written first.

The letters of a word are not supposed to be linked together. However, many writers
do link up certain letters; e.g., n + d, n + h, k + d, k + h, even t + p, n + i, q + r,
1 + r, v + i, i + i, c + v, etc. Still, the visual impression of a page of Yiddish or
Hebrew handwriting is that of unlinked lettering.
 199 Script and Sounds

19 18 17 16 15 14 13 1a 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 3 1

i 0 IJ P ? 3 ' 61) 1, ^
1 The right put is written first.
1* This is a frequent variant - the letter has come apart. It then very easily becomes
indistinguishable from No. 33, p. 304; hence this farm is better avoided.
3 starts in a clockwise direction.
3* Without tbe final rightward turn.
3 The curve hangs down from the (imaginary) base line of the writing.
4 starts clockwise; the upper part is larger; the lower is slightly farther to the right.
7 The curve is below the (imaginary) base line of the writing.
8 The stroke to the right is written first.
9 starts on top, right, and proceeds in clockwise direction.
11 is written clockwise, the bottom stroke sweeps well below the (imaginary) base
line of the writing.
11 The bottom stroke does not sweep below the base line.
13 In a variant, the top is rather large, sweeping upwards above the (imaginary) line
ceiling.
13 starts at the little slanting bottom stroke. From the bottom it proceeds upwards,
to high above the line ceiling, then curves clockwise back to the main stroke.
13 The right-hand part of the loop (i.e., historically the original main stroke of the
letter) has disappeared, leaving only a little top curve which may even bccome
straight. Neither of these two variants is to be recommended.
14 starts on the right. The letter is usually very narrow and differs strongly from
Roman N.
15 starts from the left side of the circle and runs clockwise. On finally reaching the line
ceiling outside the circle, it slants down leftwards, usually to well below the base
line.
 200 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

Spelling, Transcription, Pronunciation

2 There are two spelling systems in Yiddish, one for the Semitic element, the other
for the Indo-European one. The latter grew out of the former,* Already in very
ancient Semitic documents we come across cases where phonetical development
had resulted in a consonant letter standing for a new vowel. This gave rise to the
practice of using these letters, by analogy, also for the same vowels when they were
not of the same origin. This system of scriptio plena was also employed in Hebrew
and in the Aramic languages of the Jews, where it grew and spread in the biblical,
talmudic and *rabbinic* literatures. When Yiddish came onto the scene it in-
herited from Zarphatic the principle of full plene spelling, i.e., without the re-
straint imposed by the scriptio defectiva which was still the dominant system in
Hebrew (and Aramic).1 Although the spelling of the Indo-European element
changed in the course of centuries, it remained fairly consistent until the Enlighten-
ment, when those under its influence started imitating the spelling of German. But
outside their circles these changes advanced very slowly. Among the masses, old
spellings have survived until the present. Today several orthographic systems are
in existence, and the differences between them are by no means negligible.
In this grammar two systems are given side by side: a traditionalist one9 (on
the right hand side of the slant-line/slash/solidus) and a nationalist one3 (on the

1 In Ashkenazic Hebrew, wordsoflndo-European origin hive hitherto always been spelt according
to the Yiddish system - a natural and practical procedure. In recent times, however, this his
been discarded and a strictly H ebrew ' system adopted. Those responsible for the change did
not appreciate that the Yiddish system is a continuation o f the Hebrew one. It is ironical that
at a tim e when the striptu plena is being extended in Hebrew to a higher degree th in ever
before - the object being to fadlitite reading - the fully developed plene spelling of Indo-
European words in Hebrew context is being abolished, with the result that such words are now
difficult or even impossible to read correctly. E.g. qame$ or patah in 0 0 ? Parrallass, paralias:,
, ,
paralass parrallas, paralass, parrilas, piralas prallass, prilass, pralias, prilis, parlasi, parlast,
par lass, parlass, f a n alia ss etc. Unless one happens to know the name - P erks, Perlis, Perels -
the word is an enigma. T he following case belongs to a different category: T he German
diphthong au was rendered waw yodh when the Enlightenment authors wrote German in
Hebrew characters. In presentday Hebrew this has been replaced by aleph waw, with the
obvious intention of avoiding the Yiddish spelling. T he general reader and writer, no doubt,
takes aleph waw as a transliteration o f 11, i.e., aleph = a, waw u. H e is thus misled into
using an un-Hebrew formation (even if the scholars who introduced the aleph waw might have
had in mind a Hebrew construction - a patah preceding the aleph: a'u would then be an
approximation to au, i.e., Ba-um for Baum).
1 It combines traditional elements with a more accurate rendering o f the phonological structure
o f Yiddish. It was adopted, in 1930, by one of the biggest school organizations o f Polands
Jewish population ( m y
3 T h at of the Yivo Institute for Jewish Research.
 201 Script and Sounds

left). However, apart from 2-20 there is a simplification in the rest of this grammar:
Where the difference consists merely in the presence or absence of vowel signs,
or daghesh, we have given the traditionalist spelling as it makes for easier reading;
anyone wishing to ignore the vowel signs can do so.
T he transcription is based on the pronunciation of the great majority - who
comprise three quarters of all Yiddish speakers - if we think of the vowel letters
as representing the Italian or German values. However, we may also consider
the system as neutral, interdialectal (so that, for instance, u means [0] for a
speaker of N orthern Yiddish, see para. 17) and this is obvious in the signs j
and u.

No. Sign Transcription Name Pronunciation

(1) a ly f Weak glottal stop, as between the two es

of Eng. re-entry. It is written only
before or : jm y nation,
jn d z us, / oig eye, iser
prohibition, iz is, indik
turkey, aaz ice, a ivllittle
stove; / rjjik quiet, calm,
/ partans of a [pol-
itical] party, / sraaiik
garish, / zeijng vision.
(2) a ly f At the end of words of the Semitic
element. Resembles e in Eng. behalf':
/ maily well; for all I care.
( 3) / abf This is the only case when a letter is
written for a purely graphic reason: it
serves to separate one from another 1,
when the two letters do not form a
spelling unit: / vjj where,
/ voint resides, /
prjjv try.
(4) 0 / alyfl Like /0/ in (London) Eng. hot: /
kumyc ort place, / vorcl root,
a ly f / ^ / plain, ordinary.1

1 There is no danger of this sign being confused with Nos. (1) or (2), as it occurs only between
consonants, while Nos. (1) and (2) appear only in conjunction with vowels.
 202 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

No. Sign Transcription Name Pronunciation

(5) m 00 alyf] Like /0/ in Eng. horn: /

kumyc alyf hoor-n horn.12
(6) u kumyc a lyf Like /u/ in Eng. put. 5 m l bereaved
person, vug weight (property of
being heavy); scales, 1 / 3
buiy grandmother.*
(7 ) 9 kvmye a lyf Like /u/ in Ger. gut: "> 0 uuser for-
bidden, 1001 without, muus
*measure, Kuuzmark (place
name).*8
(8) 8 a pdsex a lyf Resembles the u in London Eng. cut,
NA 0 in lot: aser forbid, *
zamd sand, cap he-goat.
(9) * * pdsex a lyf Resembles a in Eng. father: grdm
rhyme.
(10) . aa pdsex + Resembles a in Eng. father: 5/
pdsex maamer *saying; essay.
alyf
(11) _ aa(i) pdsex + Resembles a in Eng. father; regionally
alyfijjd followed by short /i/: /
hahaalf) *would that.
(12) 4 / b bait Like b in Eng. bee: 0 / 10 bysod
*secretly, / briiv *letter
(missive), brjk *paved surface.
(! 3) vats Like v in Eng. veil: / lyvuuny
*moon.
(4) 1 giml Like g in Eng. go : gjzmy *exag
geradon, grait ready, guul
*shave.
( 1S) d dalyt Like d in Eng. do: / davky
*just, / diiex *thigh, /
oak.

2 In my ]W 0 *, W ira w , 1930, I suggested a dot above the letter to indicate length

of the vowel: it 09, y aa, ft d.
3 < Kuuzmcr *G uunir.'
4 For handwriting the dot (daghesh) can be dispensed with.
 203 Script and Sounds

No. Sign Transcription Name Pronunciation

(16) dz dalyt Like ds in Eng. hands: jndzer

zaa(i)yn o u r.
(17) dz dalyt Like /j/ in Eng .ja m : dzegexc
zaa(i)yn tar.
sii(y)n
(18) h hai Like /h/ in Eng. hand: / hdnuuy
pleasure/ / hjjs cough, /
herb coat-of-arms.
) 19( N ot pronounced in medial or final posi-
tion in words of the Semitic element:
/ komy koiyn Aaronide
(Cohen), / bruxy, bless-
ing; however, in final position it
reveals the presence of a vowel.
(20) _ d pdsex + Resembles /a/ in Eng. father: A m
hai Aaron.
(21) _ aa pdsex + Resembles /a/ in Eng. father: /
pasex hislaavys enthusiasm, fer-
hai vour.
(22) v vuv Like v in Eng. veil: / vaiuuder
Adar II.
(23) j vuv Like i in Eng. fit: mjmxy (an)
expert, kjper copper,
kjpy heap.
(24) u vuv Like u in Eng. p u t, used in international
words: institut institute.5
(25) y vuv Resembles e in Eng. behalf: / Iiyv
(the Biblical) Job, /
raxmuunys pity, mercy.
(26) vuv N ot pronounced in an unstressed final
syllable ending in /1/ or jnj: / 3
mab-l the Flood, /
nicux-y victory.

$ A popular phonetic device to indicate this special pronunciation of the letter:.

 204 Outline o f Yiddish Grammar

No. Sign Transcription Name Pronunciation

(27) / j j myljpm Resembles in Eng. meet: iYVKlfUlM

vuv ijj(*Yy I*6* row> / #
Puj(& y message, / < rest,
repose.
(28) / u& myljpm Like u in Ger. Hut. Used in *inter-
vuv national words: / natiur*
(29) /* xoilym Like 0 in London Eng. hot: (a) in ck)6ed
vuv syllable: TIO/Tto sod a secret;
(b) before /r/: / mytoryf
deranged, mad, / 1 darnr
through, / borik beet-
root. RegionaUy: e (No. 62): m ytbyf,
etc.
(30) 00 / xoilym Like 0 in Eng. horn: /goo , Gentile.
vuv See also No. 34.
(3 0 / oi xoilym Like oy in Eng. boy : "VXWpXtW iotmer
vm a guard, / haftoiry
haftarah.
(32) v cvai vuvn Like v in Eng. veil: / vuv the
letter , 0$ vuus, vus what,
vicery evening meal.
(33) / > xoilym Like oy in Eng. boy: 0 / 3 toib
vuv + deaf, / 1 ploit fence. When
ijjd the diphthong occurs in foreign words,
we transcribe it as oi to differentiate
it from the usual oi because this has
also the regional pronunciation [ei].
(34) / ooi xoilym Like oy in Eng. boy, but with a long 0:
vuv + / gooi Gentile. (See also No. 30.)
ijjd
(35) ou vuv ijjd The 0 like in London Eng. hot, the u
like in Eng. put: 0 toub pigeon.
(To spell the diphthong [oj] in foreign
words as is a breach of the inter-
dialectal principle in Yiddish spelling.)
(36) z zaa(i\yn Like z in Eng. zoo: pT/]?T zman fixed
time, zjmer summer,
Zlaty (female name).
 205 Script and Sounds

No. Sign Transcription Name Pronunciation

(37) zaa(i)yn Like z in Eng. azure: / aby

sii(y)n frog.
(38) x xes Like ch in Scottish loch\ /
xuxym wise man.
(39) t tes Like t in Eng. toe\ / tuuys
mistake, tjnkl dark,
tester carpenter.
(40) c tes Like ch in Eng. chalk: c'uulnt (a
sii(y)n certain dish), mine human
being, c'ipy pester, worry.
(41) i(i) ijjd Like y in Eng. yes: / iosyf
Joseph, iuu(e)r year, ijng
young, iener that (one),
/ Ungl boy, / M em
ferment, iascerky lizard.
In words starting with there can be
no doubt that the first letter must be
functioning as a consonant, and the
second letter as a vowel. For if this
were to indicate the diphthong ai (No.
46), it would have to be preceded by
, since or as vowel letters cannot
begin a word by themselves. In the
transcription, however, where there is
nothing corresponding to , the tran-
scription ii might be thought to indicate
long i, as in / Her you. To avoid
that, a diaeresis is placed on the first i :
Ungl. (See also No. 46.)
(42) 6 / y ijjd Resembles e in Eng. behalf: / 5
gyfloign flown, /
uuryman poor man, /
lopyty spade.
(43) ** xiiryk + Resembles ee in Eng. see: /??
ijjd meriidy revolt.

6 Besides being used in the traditionalist system, the spelling with is still alive even though it
has not been seen in print for decades.
 206 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

No. Sign Transcription Name Pronunciation

(44) " Is ***Jk Resembles ee in Eng. see: /

ijjd gybrtmt boasted. If it
follows on a word-initial, the ii of
our transcription is replaced by /, to
avoid the sequence hi: Itdii
,Jewish, Yiddish.
(45) /- ai cairy + Resembles (London) Eng. - regionally
ijjd na - i in time: /aimy fear,
terror, / maily , well; for all
I care, / ?saider *order.
(46) ai cvai ijjdn Resembles London Eng. - regionally
na 1 in time: btai snow,
xram horse radish. In foreign
words the diphthong [aj] is spelled 8 :
transcribed al to differentiate from
the normal /ai/, because this has also
the regional pronunciations [ej] and
[ej]: Mai (the month) May. It
is thus [aj] in all pronunciations. (To
spell the diphthong [aj] in foreign
words as is a breach of the inter-
dialectal principle in Yiddish spelling,
since to the majority of Yiddish speak-
ers * means [a:].)
% aa(i) pdsex + Resembles a in Eng. father; regionally
(47)
cvai ijjdn followed by short /i/: /
raioissaa{i)} Gentlemen! (lit. *My
masters!).
(48) aa(i) pdsex Resembles a in Eng. father: draa
cvai ijjdn three, regionally plus !if.
aa pdsex Resembles a in Eng. father: OX?n haant
(49)
cvai ijjdn today.
(50) k kuf Like c in Eng. come: 5/ kaly
bride.
(5 0 X xuf Like ck in Scottish lock: &/ &?sxar
reward, hexer higher,
xitry *Jy.
 207 Script and Sounds

No. Sign Transcription Nam* Pronunciation

(52) x langy xu f Like ch in Scottish loch; used in word-

final position: / Buurex
Baruch, / zox sickness,
/ nibtx poor thing; poor
me etc.
(53) 1 Like / in Eng. huk: / ^luubt
language, Ijft *air,' lapy
paw.
(54) li lamyd ijjd Like I in Eng.failure: liady *any.
(55) 0 m mAn Like m in Eng. mind: / mazl
luck, mist to measure,
malpy monkey, ape.
(56) Q m ilos-mfm Like m in Eng. mind: / ;iam sea,*
/ h im eye-brow,
/ boiym the wrong
way. Used in word-final position.
)57( 1 Like n in Eng. now: / nyiumy
soul, nmmt near, njdny
*boring, tedious. Before g or k, and
after g, k or x it becomes rj like n in
Eng. sing * finger [jigger] finger
[finer]' / binkt [beqkt]
longs, zugndik [zug-rj-dik]
while saying, mikndik
[mek-tj-dik] whilst erasing,
itixndik [Stix-g-dik] while stinging.
(58) I n ilixty1 Like n in Eng. now; used in word-final
ttjjn position: / kamcn miser,
gUtn to stroke, klm
wedge. After g, k ar x it becomes
[[: zugn [zug-y] say, f W
mikn [mik-tj] erase, p W Uixn
[itix-fj] sting.
)59( * Like ni in Eng. Spaniard:
zminiy handful.

7 *anight.'
 208 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

No. Sign Transcription Name Pronunciation

(60) 1 samex Like s in Eng. set : / story

contradiction,* vaist knows,
saly soot.
(61) aa(i)yn Weak glottal stop, as between the two
es of Eng. re-entry. / akin
stubborn man, uver past,*
/ 3 iiryv on the eve of,
/ 1 o f fowl, / 1 oilym
people, public, iker main
thing, principal thing, TVSSjTtTVg aicy
advice.
(62) i A sound between the a of (London)
Eng. mat and the e of met: ipl
apple.
(63) 9 t aa(i)yn Like the e in (London) Eng. miller:
mUhter miller,
vaarex incense, / iorex
*a rustle.
(64) S y aa(i)yn Resembles the e in Eng. behalf: fSO^n
roity (inflected form), V'VSb
pary steam, 6 /1 6 gyflotgn
*flown, / uuryman *poor
man, / lopyty spade.
(65) vpg H sfigl Resembles ay in (London) Eng. day :
aa(i)yn / ^ttig ,days.
(66) / . d pdsex + Resembles a in (London) Eng. father:
aa(i)yn OWjQ9 Q tdm *taste.
(67) 9 /?_ aa pdsex + Resembles a in (London) Eng. father:
pasex 9?/ maaly good quality,
aa{i)yn virtue.
(68) * p pai Like p in Eng. pat : /$ p a try'frm t'
paa(i)erty *peasant woman,
plaicy shoulder, arup
down; used also - as here - in word-
final position, not as in No. 70.
(69) 6 / fa i Like / in Eng. four: 6/6 oifn
manner, fjn of, from, /9 0 8 6
$ 08 &fasoliy *bean.
 209 Script and Sounds

No. Sip 1 Transcription Name Pronunciation

(70) / langjfai 0 0 / s o f'tnd, / hoif ,court-

yard. Used in word-final position.
(71) S c cadyk Like ts in Eng. bits. p S l/p # | cufn
, north, cvang , tongs, V?VgS
cocky ,ornament.
(72) c langy Like ts in Eng. bits: 6 / 6 xaifyc
cadyk ,object, thing, 6 zifc 4sigh,
/ buxeric a strong
and/or unruly youth.
(73) P * k jjf Like c in Eng. come: / koidym
before, karp ,carp, kaiil
basket.
(74) r rail Usually velar, like a weak French r;
there are also rolled varieties; the
ending 9 er sounds like the (London)
English one. / rov majority,
/ roig roe, /
roiinky raisin, mjter mother.
(75) i & (j)n Like sh in Eng. shut: Itjs nonseose,
iam beautiful, &iafy
cupboard.
(76) s sH(y)n Like s in Eng. set: 5 &simxy joy.
(77) B t tuv Like t in Eng. toe: / tahnyd
pupiL
(78) suv Like s in Eng. set: / xasyny
wedding.

R E A D IN G EXERCISE

3
/ , , ,/ ,/ ,/ , ./1 / , , ,/
tjjt tat gjt (k)ot ot tjj aza avjj yjj ha duu djj
, ,/ ,/ ,/ , ,/ ,/ , ,*/ ,/ , ,
401a toit azoi zii zi vii dii di ahH abii git
, ,/ ,/ ./ , , , , , , , , ,1 ,
*wif vioo *too too tait zait vai hai gait ai zaat vaat boat hout
 210 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

, / , ,/ . ,/ ,/ , ,,
loot lout loit lox lax vox tax dox dox daxt
,/ ,/ , , , ,/ , , ,,
kjltai djl gal baai aal vilt glaax bljt bill laaxt
, , , ,/ , , , , , , , ,,
turn! maal moul miil muult muul max zoul zol vaal vil hail hiil
13/ , ,/ , , , , ,/ , , 1 , ,/,
vomt vint vant nait noit nit naa(i) nuul nuux nox lum bom
, , , , P r 3 P/T3 1 ! .
huun daan diin din gain bain biin bin in jn tint zint hjnt hant vamt
/ ,/ ,/ , , , ,/ , ,/ , / , ,,
muun man loin tjjn zaan zjjn zjn vain vaan voin M in hjjn
, , , , ,3 , 3 , , , ,/ ,,
gaist giiit gist gast boast bist jmzist tjnk nam naan main maan
/ , ,/ , , ,/ , , ,/,
nist mist ijst tjjst zaist vaist viist haist hjjst
, , , ,/,/ , ,/ , , , , ,,
ziis vais vaas vus hais hjjs dus pis gos gas bis bos ous
, , ,/ , , , , , , 9 , , , 3 ,,
be mist vit v il hint hit gist bit ist it niis nis njs nas
/ ,/ ,/ ,/ ,/ ,/,
gytjjn gyhat gybiit miil ziist biit
/ , , ,/ , , , 8 ,,
pas nislex hentlex dercailt derziin xvaliy aly gymuult
9/ , , ,/ , ,/ , , 1/,
poips tjpy gyzjnt tapt ziipt zjpt zapt ploit
/0 , 0 ,, ,/,,, ,,/ ,/,
hoft gyfirt f t f aan fj* f j l f x f an fo b Up top
/ ,/ ,/ ,/ , ,* , , , ,6,
ict cep coat cuun cuul cap loif hoif hof loift
, , , ,/ ,/ , , , , , ,,
ziks dankt bakt kin kjkt kum koxt kop tjc vaic hie hoict
, ,/ , ,/ , ,/ , , ,,
far pary druut ort amp roit rjt rosy avik bak
, ,1/ , , , , , , , , ,,
saiy lover mii kjit vait diiel irovf ipm iom iom *ijjl la
 211 Script and Sounds

, , / ,/. ,/ , , , , , ,
xapt zeit deim geil ze't ven velt hext kacky pact
, , , , ,/ , , , , / , / ,
z a if naft Ijft fo u l fits f j n t fuun tep top piips sapy
, , , , , , , , , , , , / , /
lac zee nect zect zict blict cen cain cex cjpt cjm cop tiif
, , _, ,/ , , , / ,/ , ,
akt kaaxt koul koit kjmst kjm kosy kon kait pjc
, , / , , / , 3 , , , / ,
kjk tok hak glok bik mekt vaikt gybe'ks blankt
, , / , / , , , _,/ , ,
maranc vorym v o rf hart rain raax Roim rip rasy
, , / ,/ , 5 , , , ,/ , , , /
suf sok sos safy s a f sal sa nor hdr krai fort
, , , , _,/ ,/ , , , , ,
sell slept slext saan sois soit sik s if siis sit svais
, , , , , , , , , , , , ,
kjs fis tis ves vis vas as sjsky rest nist nast mist sept
.
bliicy

P h o n e tic a l R e m a rk s

4 (a) / Uibt > Uipt lives, zugst > zukst you say, /
laig soin > laiksoin do lay: A voiced consonant, followed by a voiceless one
in the same, or closely following, word, undergoes regressive assimilation and so
becomes unvoiced.
(b) / ,/ my meig > meik, ober ... one may
, / zaan vaab > vaap, dem it... his wife, at that t i me ...; /
, er iz miid > miit, bin ex ... He is tired, so I ...; , di
maaz > maas, er vet ... the mice, he will ....: T he same holds good when a
voiced consonant is followed by a break in speaking, even a short one, and, of
course, at the end of a sentence: laab > laap body, / veig > veik
way, raid > rait words, / prjjv > p r j j f try ; however, /z/ is
then not completely unvoiced: mjz must.
Such unvoicing in (a) and (b) is not indicated in the spelling, since it is the norm:
arous zugn > arousugn to utter.
 212 An Outline o f Yiddish Grammar

(c) nemt z i > nemci she is taking5: Unvoicing through progressive

assimilation is general with [z],
(d) / vet dox > vetox will ..., / redt > ret
speaking, * gib mir > gimir give m e: W ith other consonants this assimi-
lation takes place when they have the same articulation - the assimilation then
becomes total and, since no consonant can be long in Y, the voiced consonant
disappears.
(e) / ous-snaadn > ouinaadn to cut out,
tjjn > a gletjjn to stroke, / zol laaxtn > zolaaxtn may shine,
, / f j n neipl > fjn eip l from the fog : T he same applies, when two
identical consonants meet.

5 / oier ear, zaier their, taa(i)er dear, zouer

sour, / treier tear (from eye), huuer hair, / fiier four:
W hen a long vowel or a diphthong is followed by /r/, an /e/ develops between them
so that a diphthong or triphthong is formed. T he glide is reflected in the spelling
after /ai, oi, ou/, but, generally, not after vowels or /ei/.

6 (a) / hoiex high, koiex force, strength, * haiex height,

/ raiex smell, / ijjex shoe, / rjjex demon, /
diiex thigh, Mysicex Messiah. Similarly, an /e/ develops between a dipth-
thong or long vowel, and following /x/. However, the presence of this glide is
mostly not reflected in the spelling.
(b) hilexn to sound, / dorex through: T he same holds
good for the glide which develops between either /1/ or /r/ and following /x/.
But the glide may disappear when the /x/ is followed by more than one syllable -
hilxndik - or when the word is unstressed - / dorx
deim through that.

7 tep-l little pot, finger-l1(finger) ring, / siik-l-dik

cross-eyed, / peier-l-dik pearl-like: /1/ in word-final position
after a consonant (including /r/), or in a word between two consonants, is syllabic.

8 (a) druut-n wires, / hjjs-n-dik while coughing,

guur-n storey, fuur-n-dik while travelling: /n/ in word-final position
after a consonant (including /r/), or in a word between two consonants, is syllabic.8
(b) /( h)o b -m \we,they)have, xap-m,snat ch, /
(1h)ub-m-dik while having, xap-m-dik while snatching: After labials, /11/
becomes /m/.

8 Hence Yiddish speakers usually write my name as Birenbaum, and many bearers of this name
have this form in their birth certificates, also in its Yiddish translation: Barenboim.
 213 Script and Sounds

(c) / breg-y shores, banks,5 mek-rj er ase/ brex-y break:

After velars, /n/ becomes velarised.
9 ijygy young (inflected): Before /g/, /n/ is velarized but the /g/ is never
swallowed up: ijyger (not ijyer) young (inflected).

R E A D I N G EXERCI SE

10
, / ,/ , / ^ ,/ , /
Mints zukt cjj derveikt grup tiif starpt
, / , / , / , /
in oikjk-y liipeier-l a p rijjf tjjn prjjft
, / , / , / /
losaanyn, lossaanyn mjsapyn prjjfjn a retjjn
, / ,/ , , , , ,/ ,/ 3
fraicex giisci ousug-y ret rait krik zuk veip glaip
, / , / , , / ,
stiifuuter arjmest-n dernuuxapt voltex
/ , 5 / &, , , , / , /
kleier friier mouer trouer slaier kapoier toier
, , , / , / , ,/ ,/ 5 , ,
bilexer miiex tiiexl bjjex blaiex roiex friier guuer
, , , , , , 5 / , / ^ , /
vug-y treyk triyk laygy fuuer-n fiier-n veier-n-dik steier-n
, , , / , , , / , , ,
lef-l draid-l bint-l gart-l hent-l stiiv-l flik-y huk-y plug-y

meser-l

T h e Vowels in th e S e m itic E le m e n t

11 (a) In the Indo-European element of Yiddish, both the consonants and vowels
are expressed (as they are in the orthographies of the languages employing the
Latin and Greek scripts and their descendants) by means of letters, whereas, in
the Semitic element of Yiddish, there are only two characters ( and )that function
as vowel letters;9 see in the above table Nos. 2 (word-finally), 19 (same), 23, 25,
27. 29, 30, 31, 34, 41, 44, 45, 47.10

9 They maintain their consonantal values, too: cf. English y in yes and by.
10 Words starting with or 8 do not (in Semitic) belong to this category.
 214 An Outline o f Yiddish Grammar

Already in the Bible, 1 and are very frequently - though not systematically -
used as matres lectionis. And they are then really nothing else but vowel letters.
There is an increased, but not systematic, use of this orthographic device in the
talmudical and rabbinic literatures. Here we may come upon the scriptio plena
form of any word where this spelling is possible, even if in the Bible that word
occurs in scriptio defectiva only.
(b) psuu(e)ry compromise, iam sea, 01 nes miracle, /
teivy nature: All other vowels are expressed by little signs that are placed under
the preceding consonant letter. However, as in Semitic, they are usually omitted.
In this grammar, in the traditionalist system, they are provided for the stressed
syllable, in certain cases also for the syllable before the stress, although here the
vowel is somewhat weakened. When the syllable before the stress has /y/ or /e/, :
is provided.11 All syllables after the stress have /y/ or /e/, which, however, is not
indicated in our spelling. When the final syllable ends in /1/ or /n/, these take over
the syllabic function and the /y/ disappears.
The discrepancy between phonemes and graphemes in the Semitic element of
Yiddish is thus much greater than in its Indo-European element, or in the ortho-
graphies of the languages using W estern alphabets. O f course, this discrepancy
presents, in general, no difficulties for the reader who knows the language.

THE VOWEL SIGNS

12

No. Sign Transcription Name Pronunciation

(79) T u kumyc Like u in Eng. p u t . / nexumy

solace.
(80) T uu kumyc Like u in G gut: / muusi
example. 12
(81) T 0 kumyc Like 0 in (London) Eng. hot: xoxmy
wisdom.
(82) T 00 kumyc Like 0 in Eng. horn: / nisooiyn
temptation.12

11 In most cases this agrees with the Semitic spelling. There, however, the sign indicates the ab-
sence of a vowel. The generally accepted system according to which certain shewas are pro-
nounced is, of course, in complete contradiction to the Tiberian vocalization - for it is hardly
likely that one and the same sign was provided for two different things (a and zero). (An analo-
gous case is that of qames.)
12 See footnote 2: My suggestions were: ' and
 215 Script and Sounds

No. Sign Transcription Name Pronunciation

(83) - a pdsex Resembles u in London Eng. cut, NA 0

in lot: / krax *big city.
(84) d pdsex Resembles a in Eng. father: /
koikdnym Ahronides.1a
(85) r i Uigl A sound between the a of London Eng.
mat and the e of met: 6 /6
ifler , perhaps.
(86) T it siigl Resembles ay in London Eng. day:
/ biigyd garment.
(87) t y iMvyl Resembles e in Eng. behalf: D/
huu myijny ,strange, unusual.
(88) 1 e iahyj Like the e in London Eng. miller: /&
huu mtxaker author.

READIN G EXERCISE

*3
/ ,/ ,]/ ,&/ ^,/ {2 / 5 ,
mihtxym xuxym bituxn kisugy m ay kuvyd
,/ 0 ^, 6/ 19 ,/ ,/ ,/ , /^
xilukym sufyk tumyd milxumys xixumym fuxn
/ , / ,/ ,/ ,/ , 0 &/96 ,/
xdruuty buut-l gmtd-l cvuuy xdtuuym hifsuky zuk-tj
,/ ,/ 8 ,/ ,/ ,/ ^,/ ,
badx'uunym abn'uuny kuul xuulym guulys puuter
,/ ,/ ,/ ,/ , ,0 8/
myijguuym tuuyi pdmuusy xuusyd miser puunym
/3 ,/ ,/ ,/ ,/ ,/ ^,/^
hikuuiy kvwryv xiduurym zJkuum ruuc-n tuunys luu
,/ ,/ ,/ ;,/ ^,/ ,/
irr korb-m tuusym puuiyt kuuier xidmtiym
,0/ 10 ,/ ,/ ^,/ ,/
iysoidys xoidyi zexromys oisiys apikoirys
 216 An Outline o f Yiddish Grammar

,/ , 5/ 1 ,/ ,/ ,/^ / 1 ,/
0J iro n )/ itoiwy Afot// motrj / mumt
r a t e / ,/ ,/ ;^,/ ,/ ,/
ijw i <for borerym apik'orsym
./ , 5 / 3 , / 3 ./ ,/ 1 ,/ ,
iv aij xavcr mexabyd mexaber tox of
,/ ,/ ,/ ,/ , / ,/.
prat pater iaxrys azys iadx-rj kadii
/&9 ,&/ ?, 6/ 0 6 ,/ ,0 / 9 ,/: ,/ 9
wat( myfamys hargy ixsaniy iam malex
/ ,/ ,/ ,/ ,/ ,/ ,
lyvaa(i)y ixraa(t)ys iaaly kydaa(i) daagy xasyny
,/ ,/? * $ ,/,/ ,/: ,/ ,
M yn taanyg maaryv kaasn ids iaarjkyv tdry
,/ ,/ 7 ,/ ,/ ,/ ,/ ,/
aher iiryv xOsyd til xiib-m x it higdyl
,/ ,/ ?,/ ?,/ ^,/ ,/ ,/
xmt/ paisex aisyk kydai xaider gakym byhaimy
,/ , / ? , 6/ 69 , , ,/ ,/ ,6
1ug-1] tiiyv bmiyn dfily
, , / , ,/ ,/ , ,/
pjly ierjiy sxjs emjny iiurys Oexys xstidym
./ , ,/ , 5 / ,/ ,/ ,/
fy y f fjp y *vjjy jjex mexjjyv bytjjex
F>)*
/

W R ITIN G EXERCISE

14 Copy the Yiddish lines and the transcription on pp. 209-11, 213, 215, and 216
on separate sheets. Later, reconstruct, from your transcription, the Yiddish text.
Finally, check this from the original.

INDEX OP THE TRANSCRIPTION SIGNS

1$ The preceding list is arranged on a strictly alphabetic basis. A phonemic

index follows here.
 217 Script and Sounds

a 8,83. g 14. ooi 34

a 9, 20, 66, h 18. ou 35
84. i 41. P 68.
aa 10, I I , 21, i 41 r 74
47 48, i 43 s 60, 76, 78.
49, 67. ii 43 44 s 75
aa(i) 11, 47,48. j 23 t 39, 77
ai 45 46 jj 27 u 6, 79
ai 46. k 50, 73 u 24
b 12. 1 53 uu 7, 80.
c 71, 72. li 54 uu 28,
<5 40. m 55, 56 V 13, 22, 32.
d 15 n 57, 58 X ' 38, 51, 52.
dz 16. ni 59 y 25, 42, 64.
ii 17 0 4, 29, 81. z 36
e 63, 88. oi 31, 33 z 37
e 62, 85. 01 33 zero 1, 2, 3, 19
0
00
to

ei 65, 86. 00 26. 61.

Ol

f 69, 70.

T h e S oviet O rth o g ra p h y

16 In the Soviet orthography the historical spelling in the Semitic element was
abolished and replaced by that of the Indo-European element:

Soviet Spelling Representing Soviet Spelling Representing

/ /
/ /
/ /
/ T J /
/ T /
/

Even the graphemes were affected. After some time the linguists realized that
their system still contained a traditional feature - one that was not compatible with
their Western model: the Hebrew alphabet contains special forms for five of its
letters when they occur in word-final position. And so, they were abolished.
However, after some time they were re-instated but not everybody agreed. The
position now is that there are some publications with final letters and some without:
 218 An Outline o f Yiddish Grammar

Withoutfinals With finals Representing

* HP *

/

$ $ /





*

It might be worth mentioning that the retention of the Hebrew alphabet by

the Jewish Bolshevists was not really in keeping with their radical ideas. Perhaps
they thought it would be hopeless to impose a sudden switch of alphabets on a
people of millions - most of whom were still traditionally religious. Or did some-
thing of their former socialist nationalism survive and prevent them abandoning
the Hebrew letters ? Although they witnessed the state-enforced abolition of the
Arabic alphabet in the Islamic languages of the Soviet Union, neither the Jewish
linguists, the leaders of the Jewish section of the Party nor the Soviet authorities
seem ever to have attempted to do the same to Yiddish.

The Phonology o f the Northern Dialect

17 The phonology of the northern dialect - in so far as it differs from that given
in our main table (pp. 201-209 and 214-15) - is shown in the following alphabetic
list, according to our transcription. (Eng. means London English.)
i (Nos. 9, 20, 66, 84) Resembles the u in Eng. cut, the 0 in North
American Eng. lot.
aa (Nos. 10, 11, 21, 47, 48, 67) Resembles <in Eng. rime.
aai (Nos. 11, 47,48) Resembles 1 in Eng. rime.
ai (Nos. 45, 46) Resembles ai in Eng. mam.
(Nos. 65, 86) A sound between a in Eng. mat and e in
Eng. jet.
ii (Nos 43 44) Like 1 in Eng. thin.
j (No. 23) Like u in Eng. put.
ii (No. 27) Like 11 in Eng. put.
0 (No. 29b) Like u in Eng. put.
 219 Script and Sounds

(0oi (Nos. 31, 33) Resembles ai in Eng. main.

00 (N06. 5, 30, 82) Like 0 in Eng. hot.
001 (No. 34) Like oy in Eng. boy.
ou (No. 35) Like oy in Eng. boy.
u (Nos. 6, 79) Like 0 in Eng. hot.
uu (Nos. 7, 80) Like 0 in Eng. hot.

Stress

18 ( a) / b aabn write, / gyir'ibn *written,

6 86/ fork'aabndik while writing down,
kr'aatexcer herbs, Cuubit a certain dish, /
n'ibexdik pityful, / r'atyvyndik while rescuing: In
the Indo-European element of Yiddish the stress is on the stem syllable.
(b) p'ouerym peasants: This holds good also when the Indo-Euro-
pean word is combined with a Semitic suffix.
(c) / x'am y to sign, / x'asmynyn sign: Verbs
derived from Semitic roots have the base form pa'ly which, accordingly, throughout
the conjugation retains the stress and thus plays the role of a stem.
19 / horiz'ont horizon, / naaonalizm
cultural ethnicism, dent'ist dentist: In the international words of
Classical or pseudo-Classical origin the suffix bears the stress.
20 (a) / x'uulym dream, / xal'omys dreams, /
[zik'uum memory, remembrance, / zexromys remem-
branees, memoirs, / g'uudl ,great man, / gyd'oilym great
men, / myi'jgy mad, / myijg'uuym madmen: While
in the Yiddish nouns of Indo-European origin the same syllable, the stem, takes
the stress in the singular and plural, the stress changes its place in the Semitic
element of Yiddish. Here - with few exceptions - a word is a disyllabic realization
of a tri-literal root, and so neither of the two syllables can be called a stem. The
stress here has nothing to do with the meaning or the form of the word, as it has
in the Indo-European clement - the stress principle in the words of Semitic origin
is rhythmical: the stress falls on the penultimate.
(b) / x'asyny wedding, / myijg'ds madness: A
limited number of nouns have the stress on the pre-penultimate, others on the
ultimate.
(c) Semitic context: 1 i'uusom - Yiddish context: / i'uusym
orphan; Semitic context: iys'oimym - Yiddish context: /
iys'oimym orphans: The phonology of the Yiddish words of Semitic origin
 220 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

coincides, in the main, with that of Hebrew and Aramaic in Ashkenazic pronun-
ciation,13 apart from the weakening in Yiddish of the vowel in unstressed syllables.

The Phoneme Inventory of Yiddish

21 The signs here are those used for the transcription system employed in this
book, accompanied in brackets by the I.P.A. symbols.

THE VOWELS

THE D IPHTHONGS

a [ej], oi [oj], ooi [0:j], ou [ou], ai [aj], aai [a:j].

LENGTH O PPO SIT IO N

22 Vowel quality is phonemic in Yiddish, as shown in the following examples.

I Up lip ltib[ltip] dear
rip rib riib[riip] beet
itjp push itjjb [itjjp] house
2 // lark, frolic ) 8 (~itiij\-mamy) ,step
(mother)
3 grimt rages gyriimt *praised
brjm mutter ) (brim (mex) boast*
4 bin am 3 biin bee
dinym14 thin diinym (Jewish) laws
dmst thinnest dims( (female)
a
3
a

servant

13 W here they disagree, tbe Yiddish form is given here, o f course.

14 Accusative/dative.
 221 Script and Sounds

zjn sun zjjn son*

hjnt tjjt [hjntjjt] hjjn tjjt [kjjntjjt]
dog does chickcn does
mit with miid\mut] tired*
rjt rod DTI rjjt rests*
bljt blood bliit blossoms
ris tear riiz [riis\ giant
gistj you give giistj you pour
/ gyrim torn 0 )/ (g(e)rtisn to greet

jm zistn14 unavailing; cjm ziistn to the
free (of charge) sweetest (masc.)
njs nut nits sneeze
c j1to cjj to(wards); too
ia! quiet! ) ( iaa (mex) fight shy
na! here you are naa new
knap scarce; barely knaap pinch
sufficient
klap knock klaab [klaap] gather
gram gramme grdm rhyme
man man maan my
pan (Polish) lord; paan anguish
M r.
fan pan 6 faan fine
hant hand haant today
8 za t *sated zaat side
iat *harms iaat piece (of wood)
86 fariat harms 6 fariaat shameless,
lewd
tatn 15 father taatn to point
vaty cotton w ool vaaty far
bail to idle baatl pouch, purse
kac cat kaatc16 chew!
bas bass baas bite
vaser water vaaser17 white
nas wet naas news
15 Accusanvt/ditivc.
16 Plural.
17 Inflected form.
 222 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

14 az when, if, that r K aaz ice

15 kalexdik chalky kaalexdik round
16 0 laxt laughs laaxt shines
17 hart hard hart waits
18 drai turn draa three
zai to sow zaa be!
nai sew naa new
frai (mext zex) to be fraa free
)/( glad

Many of todays vowel-diphthong oppositions go back to a length opposition:

bit bed - biit ( < bft) ask, beg; 1 iomrym guardians - *
ioimer ( < somer) guardian.

THE CONSONANTS

23 There is no dialectal differentiation as far as the consonants are concerned,

with one exception: there is a region where js, t , <, di/ are replaced by the cones-
ponding alveolars. In certain regions there is no /h/.

Labio- Potato-
Bilabial dental A heoltr aheoltr Velar Glottal

Plosives
voiceless P t k
voiced b d g
Fricatives
voiceless f s i X

voiced V z i
Affricate*
voiceless c t m
voiced dz di
Nasals
voiced m n oi ] 01
voiced 1 Ii
R r

THE INVENTORY OF CLUSTERS

24 Initial clusters
tm . sm. zm. sm. xm.
tf.
tv. SV. XV.
 223 Script and Sounds

pn. tn. dn. sn. zn. sn. Im. gn. xn.

pt. st. St. let.
sd.
pL b l fl. vl. tl. dL s i zl. si. Id. gl. xl; cl.
ps. c. ks. xs.
ps. 6. xs.
pr. br. mr. fr. tr. dr. sr. zr. $r. kr. gr. xr; spr. skr.
Final clusters
pst. pt. pts. st. sts.
mst, mt, mts. [sst]. st. sts.
fst. ft, fts. ct, cts.
nk. nst. nt. nts/nc. nd. [ist]. (X. dts.
ts. tst. ks. kst. kt. lets,
Ist. It. Its. lc/lts (16). xs. xst. xt. xts.
rst. ri. rst. rt. rts/rc.
b, g, d, v, z, becoming unvoiced before voiceless consonants, are above included
in p, k, t, f, s.
 Morphology

Noon

IN F L E C T IO N

25 maidls girls, tahnids pupils: This /*/ is one of the two

inflectional endings that indicate a syntactical relation - it shows the relation between
two nouns, i.e., that one of them is in the possessive. It is employed for living
creatures, and only exceptionally for inanimate objects, never for abstract nouns.
26 * fin di itainer of the stones $ pB fin der xoxmy of
the wisdom: For inanimate objects and abstracts a prepositional phrase with p6
fin of, from* is used.
27 (a) Er git zaan xaver dm maitmdl He gives
his friend the little machine: Neither the direct nor the indirect object has an
inflectional ending, apart from the categories given in paras. 28-31.
(b) W19 8 Zi p t ir ihster toxter a iamy
matuuny She gives her eldest daughter a beautiful present: Here the objects
have adjectival attributes and these are inflected to show the syntactical relation
between the nouns and the verbs. Since adjectival attributes are, of course,
exceedingly common, the Yiddish-speakers consciousness of grammatical cases
is kept alive, even though the nouns themselves are uninflected.

D E C L E N SIO N S

28 Er dercatit ys zaan zaidn *He tells it

father*: Here the noun has an inflectional ending to indicate the indirect object.
There are only ten such nouns but as they designate very important human reb-
 225 Morphology

tionships they are a constant reminder of the function of the cases and prevent a
further decline of the system. p*T#3J"De7 pB g Er p t Dvoryn
a briiv fjn Stambarpi He gives Deborah a letter from Shtainbarg: In addition
to those ten nouns, there are two whole categories of nouns, both of which are
also concerned with human relationships.

A
29 (a) Nom. zaidy grandfather
Accus. zaid*
Dat. zatdn
P06s. zaidns
There are two endings for the three inflections; those for the accusative and dative
are identical and the /1/ of the possessive is added to the //.
(b) The ten nouns are: buby grandmother, hare heart,
zaidy grandfather, taty father, lid Jew, laat people, 8&&
mamy *mother, mjjmy aunt, mini human being, 3 riby
teacher; chassidic master. Note that some words with final y drop it before
the endings. There are some slight variations of detail, as may be seen from the
table.

post. dat. ate. nom.

M

zaidy
080
tatns tatn tatn taty
T

T

ribns rib* ribn riby
These three words are regular (apart from the 106s of the final vowel).

(b)

rr rr
IU*s IU IU IU
ltd* IU*


1ninins mini mini mini
minitt minim
 226 An Outline o f Yiddish Grammar

In these two words the ending o f the acc./dat. seems to be disappearing.

(c)

harms harcn hare hare

This word is not inflected in the accusative.

(d)
/ /

bubys bubyn buby buby
buby
/ /

mamys mamyn mamy mamy
mamy
/ /

mjjmys mjjmyn mjjmy mjjmy
mjjmy

In these three words the accusative, sometimes also the dative, remains uninflected,
and the possessive is without the jnj.

30 (a)
T
Buuerexs Buuerexn Buuerexn Buuerex
Baruch
/ / /
Traanys Traanyn Traanyn Traany
(female name)

Personal names have the accusative/dative ending n and the possessive ending 5.

(b)

Pinxysns Pinxysn Pinxysn Pinxys

Svarcns Svarcn Svarcn Svarc
 227 Morphology

Hersns Hersn Hersn Hers

Rabinovicns Rabinovicn Rabinovicn Rabinovic

In names with a final sibilant the possessive ending is ns: Pinxys Phineas,
Hers Hersh, Svarc Schwartz, Rabinovic Rabinovitch.

3!

starkns starkn starkn starker

The same inflection is used for substantivized adjectives.

GENDER

32 der oivn the stove, di / 2 / the ship, dus guulys

the Exile: There are three genders - masculine, feminine, neuter. There is no
obvious reason for apportioning one or other of the genders to inanimate objects
and abstract nouns. The genders they have are purely traditional.
33 der hjnt the dog, di coug the bitch, dus Ungl
the boy, dus vaab the wife: In the case of living creatures the first
two genders correspond to the biological categories male and female. But there
are many cases where the neuter is used for males and females.
34 der sraaber the (male) writer, / der
arbyturner the (male) worker, / der sekrytar the (male)
secretary, der dentist the (male) dentist, der paxdn the
(male) coward, der njdnik the (male) bore: Although in general there
are no morphological markers to indicate gender or sex, there are a number of
suffixes that do that, such as -er, J- -n, pM- -n ik , - -a k , - -ar, 'V2'% --uurer,
for males,1 and ty, ky, nicy, tuurn, ac'ky, -
, - -nty for females: di xaverty the (female) friend,
di sraaberky the (female) writer, di njdnicy the (female) bore,
di xavertuurn the (female) friend, di partacky the
(female) bungler, / di sraabern the (female) writer,
di hdrnty the mistress.

1 As regards - -er, this applies only when the ending indicates a nomen agentis. Otherwise
the word can be feminine (and even designate a female) or neuter, e.g., di pjter
the butter, di mjter the mother, dus leider the leather.
 228 A n Outline o f Yiddish Grammar

35 di moiry the fear, di brai(e)ry the choice, di

iiny the change, disin y the hate, di laty the patch (of cloth):
As a general rule, words ending in y are feminine. There are, however, also mascu-
line nouns: der ta ty the father, der zaidy the grandfather,
der reby the teacher; the chassidic master, der xoily the
patient, der soiny the enemy. dus klainvarg the
small fry = children, 0 dus ciierjng the ornament, jewellery, 0
dus hispaalys the state of being impressed, the strong emotion,
/ dus aalynis the hurry, dus badekns the veiling
of the bride, dus laizexc the money resulting from selling, proceeds,
dus snaaderaa(i) the tailors trade, dus giiexkait
the speed, dus briidersaft brotherhood: Words with the
suffixes - v a r g , -jng , -ys, -//, -s, - - e x c , .- -eraa(i),
- - kait , 5 - -soft are neuter.

36 Naturally, there are regional differences in the gender of certain words and these
occur, to some extent, in the written language too. In the northern dialect the neuter
no longer exists; however, the writers who originate from that region employ the
neuter in their works, since literary Yiddish is based on the southern dialect.

PLURAL

Class 1: Ending s, y s

(a) Ending s
37 xjpy - xjpys wedding canopy, mjjmy - / mjjmys
aunt, buby - / bubys grandmother; zaiger -
zaigers clock, watch, / aidym - / aidyms son-in-
law, stekn - Stekns stick: The plura has the ending s.

(b ) Ending y s
(a)
38 raiex - raiexys smell, sljp - / sljpys pole, post,
/ aidym - / aidymys son-in-law : The plural has
the ending ys.

(bi)
39 Steky - / stekynys stick: In words ending in syllabic
n , // is inserted before it. Its effect is to render the /n/ unsyllabic in the plural
(i.e., the /n/ reverts to its original non-syllabic state).
 229 Morphology

(b2)
40 oieer - oicrys treasure*: In certain cases the e of the original
final syllable disappears.

fl>3)
41 sufyk - 6 /$ sfaikys doubt: In certain cases the vowel of
the former stress syllable disappears altogether so that the word starts with a
duster.

0>4)
42 *rio sod - nrrio soidys secret, / cook - /
evikys nail (metal): The plural is formed by a change in the vowel, plus the
ending ys.

0>5)
43 luisn - Ijsomys language, xuulym- 1 xalohnys dream,
xiibn account, reckoning* - xizboinys-. The plural ending is ys;
the stress is transferred from the first to the second syllable so that a full vowel
or diphthong replaces its /y/, while the former stressed vowel is weakened, changed
or eliminated, except in a closed syllable.

Class II : Ending n, yn

44 kval - kvabi spring = source: The plural ending is syllabic n.

<b)
45 &kam - 8 /# kumyn comb, man - 8 /# manyn hus-
band, cvang - / cvangyn tongs, pincers, nuudl -
/ nuudlyn needle, { w - / luuyn hour,
itroi - itroiyn straw, inai - inaiyn snow: After w, n, ng,
syllabic / or vowel, the ending n is not syllabic and is replaced by WITj* (i.e., the
original form).

Class III: Ending ym

<)
46 xuusn - xisanym bridegroom, ^xoidyi - xdduulym
month, xuxym - wise man, umyd - amjjdym book
page, column, 5 5/ 5 maivn - 5 myvtmym an expert, giber -
gyboirym, xazer - xazakym pig, 'rrqguudl- gydotlym
great man, darin - ^dariuunym preacher*: The stress is transferred
from the first to the second syllable so that the (original) full vowel or diphthong
 230 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

replaces its /y/ or the sylkbicity of its /1/ or /n/, while the stressed vowel or diph-
thong of the first syllable is weakened or changed, except in a closed syllable.

(b)
47 xuusyd - xsiidym *adherent of the Khassidic movement, id-
herent, / tiryc - trjjcym , refutation of an objection: The
former penultimate can even lose its vowel.

(<>
48 prat - pruutym ,detail; T* cad - cduudym ,side (= one
of two groups): Monosyllables belong to this class, too.

(di)
49 1 oirex ~ orxym , guest, 10 soifer - ^sofrym ,scribe;
moiil- moilym , ruler (person): There is no change in the position
of the stress, but the plural has a vowel instead of a diphthong; if there was a
/yl or /c/ in the final syllable of the singular, it disappears; if a syllabic I, it becomes
unsyllabic and so the beginning of the final syllable.

(d2)
50 ioity - 1 ioitym , fool, mtlamyd- melamdym , teacher
(of a Jewish elementary school), ijty f- 6 ijtvym , business partner:
There is no change in the position of the stress and in the vowel of the stressed
syllable; the /y/ of the final syllable of the singular disappears.

(d3)
51 3 buxer - buxerym ,a youth; unmarried male, pouer -
pouerym , peasant: There is no change at all, apart from the ending.

Class iv
52 barg - berg *hill, mountain, BKp kop - kep , head, tug
teig *day, nuuz - ?niiz1nose, 6 foigl- 6 faigl' bird, mouz -
maaz , mouse, njs - nis , nut, pt zjjn - ziin son: The vowel or
diphthong of the stressed syllable undergoes a change (which had its origin in
umlaut) according to this pattern:
a > oi > ai u > ei j > i
o >i ou > aa uu > 6i jj > ii

In the case of /j/ and /i/ the change exists only in the spelling (in the northern
dialect, it is, of course, a real change: [u] > [1]).
 231 Morphology

Class v

(a)
53 8 0 farttx - 6 fartexer apron: Tbe plural ending is - -er.
54 man - miner man, kloc - klicer wooden block,
boim - baimer tree, houz - haazer house, 1 nugl -
nHgl nail (of body), kuun - hOner ,cock, puunym -
pimymer face, 0 8 fjjs - 0?Bfiis foot: The plural is formed by the ending -
-er plus change of vowel.

Class v1
55 der arbl - di arbl sleeve, der ziher -
di ztbur soldier, 6 dus fiierd - di ftierd hone:
Singular and plural are identical in form.

Class VII
56 The plural enging is -ex and occurs only in the diminutive and minudve.

NOUN FORMATION

I
57 der km l the sky, di Herd the earth, der vint
the wind, 0! der iam the sea: Many nouns are basic, i.e., not derived
from other nouns or word classes.

11: De-verbalformations

()
58 di gub the gift, der cjjhig the extra: There are a number
of such old de-verbal nouns, formed by ablaut.
(b)
59 m derbrin the fervour, der kljng the ringing,
der batrif ,the amount, 8 der farlang , the demand: This group,
using the base form of a verb - and occasionally that of its participle - is very
productive.

ill: Nommalization
60 dus iraabn the writing, der hoixer ,the tall one,
der nixtn ,the yesterday: Words from other classes - infinitives, adjec-
tives, adverbs - can be employed as nouns when provided with the article.
 232 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

iv: Composition and construct

(a) Compounds of nouns
61 0 dus kuul-ititbl the community house,
der zaiger-maxer the watch-maker, ICftra*{ der dam-somy the mortal
enemy, di osiyn-caat autumn time, / dcr
kesyny-ganyv the pickpocket: The governing noun is placed first and has the
main stress.
(b) Compounds of different word classes
&- / der cjzamyn-fuuer the congress, convention,
/ klain-gilt small change, - dus fiier-houz
entrance hall,/ iber-kHrynii' upheaval : The first
part is the governing one and has the main stress.
(c) The construct
- &der sxar-limyd the tuition fee, kol ha-
mhglexkaitn all possibilities: The governing noun is placed second and takes the
main stress. This category is normal in the Semitic clement but is extremely rare
as a combination of a Semitic and a non-Semitic word.

v: Affixes
62 Only a small number of the following affixes are not productive. This is men-
doned in such cases.

63 (a) Prefixes
( 1) jm
der jmkuvyd the dishonour, /
dus jmgyrhtynii the bad harvest: The prefix takes the stress. Its meaning is
privadve.

(2) n rx g y
/ dus gyzmd the family, / dus gyvom the
weeping, / di gybiitn blood (i.e., psychological state),
/ dus gyrangl the struggle: The original collective meaning of
the prefix is often still discernible.

(b) Suffixes
(3) ai
der ijngai *the lout, churl. The suffix takes the stress. It has a pejor-
adve meaning.
 233 Morphology

(4) aly
See para. 72

der cvjiai the (male) hypocrite, der litvak the

Lithuanian Jew: The suffix mostly takes the stress. It indicates the character or
geographic origin of a man.
(6)" dr
der renddr the leaseholder, der misionar the
missionary: This masc. suffix takes the stress. It identifies a man through his
occupation.
(7) or
der ridaktor the editor,* der dictator the
dictator, 8 6 derfantazi'or the fantast*: The suffix sometimes takes
the stress. It signifies occupation or function (of a male).
(8) wtm
/ di kimpytuum the lying-in woman,* /
di naituum the sempstress, p / 5J xavertuurn the
(female) friend: The uu takes secondary stress. The double suffix denotes a
(feminine) nomen agentis. (The t in the latter example might be due to the form
xaverty and/or the t in the first two examples.)
(9) uurer
/ der arbytuurer: The uu takes a secondary stress.
The suffix denotes a (masculine) nomen agentis.
(10) varg
dus rouxvarg the fur goods, dm ijngvarg the
youngsters, the youth: The suffix is employed to create collective nouns.
(11)V\ jng
*6 dus fiierjng the conduct, custom: The suffix denotes action or
activity of the verb to whose base form it is appended, or it signifies the result of
such an action or activity.
(12) m ys
1 !dus iakrys the high price level; the scarcity*: This suffix indicates
abstract nouns. It is not productive.
(13) ty
- / ! di bal-bututy the mistress of the house, housewife:
The suffix transforms masculine nouns into fem in in e ones.
 234 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

'VBrVfyvtr
See No. (38).

r 1 # P izaeiy
See No. (42).

(14) DT izm
der socialism, socialism, der darvmizm Darwin-
ism, der fanatizm *fanaticism, kapitalizm
capitalism, der anglicizm Anglicism, der
daatmerim Germanism: The suffix takes the stress. It signifies (a) a system
of facts, ideas, opinions or theories, (b) attachment or adherence to one, (c) a
physical or mental state or condition, (d) a characteristic influence of one language
on another.

(15)/ ynH
zjjnyniu darling son, Dvoiryni& darling Deborah*: When a word
ends in /y/ this is fused with the /y/ of the suffix.

(16) XTXafWynU
vnm ipfvm ir dus iugynU the dash, rush; / dus
baUfynii the creature, / dus gyrhtynii the harvest:
Signifies a condition of continuous action or the result of an action or process.
/ dus mexaaiynii *the pleasure, delight: When a word ends in
/y/ this coalesces with the /y/ of the suffix. dus citemii the tremb-
ling: When the word ends in unstressed er the suffix is uii. 6 / 0
6 dus badirfynii the need : Occasionally the vowel of the stem undergoes
mutation.

(17) yny
/ 1 di Iidyny *the (Jewish) woman: The old full form of No. (25).

(18) ist
/ der tHyfonist the (male) telephonist,
der iingvist the linguist, der socialist the socialist,
der darvmist the Darwinist: The suffix takes the stress. It denotes a male belonging
to a certain category - an adherent of a certain idea or ideology, or somebody
having a particular characteristic, or following a certain occupation etc.

(19) inky
mammky *mother darling: When the word ends in /y/ this coalesces
with the /i/.
 235 Morphology

(20) iy
di teoriy the theory, 0 dus Italiy: Used in abstract nouns
and geographical names but mostly in words derived from Latin past participles
(see No. (42)). The syllable preceding the suffix takes the stress.

(21) icy
di kalUcy *the heifer: Denotes female sex of an animal.

(22) ik
di gram'atik the grammar, dikrit'ik the criticism: The
suffix sometimes takes the stress. Mostly used for fields of learning and research.

)23( /
See paras. 64, 65, 67, 68, 71.

(24) kx
See paras. 70, 71.

(25) T (0
/ di kexnjkexin the (female) cook, / di inaademj
{naaderm the tailoress, dressmaker : The suffix denotes a female, it mostly derives
feminine from masculine nouns.

(26) n (2)
?der paxdn the coward, der gazlyn the robber,
der almyn the widower, ?der baaln the (male) person who wants/is
keen to have/get/do something: The suffix signifies a (male) person with a
certain characteristic or engaged in a particular activity. After syllabic /1/ or /n/
the suffix is /yn/. When the final /1/ of a word is non-syllabic, the suffix is syllabic.
It is not productive.

(27) IYBt uunys

? dus paxduunys the cowardice, 0 dus baluunys the
wanting/the keenness to have/get/do something: The uu takes the stress. This
suffix forms abstract nouns from many of the words with suffix No. (26), but not
from all; there is, e.g., no such word as almuunys widowerhood (nor
widowhood). The suffix is not productive.

(28) 1 nty
di hdmty the mistress (i.e., the female/feminine of master). The
/n/ is syllabic. The suffix is a combination of Nos. (25) and (13). It is not
productive.
 236 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

(29) nuy
di njdnicy the (female) bore*: The suffix signifies a (female) person
having some special individual or social characteristic.
(30) nik
der njdnik the (male) bore*: The suffix signifies a (male) person
having some special individual or social characteristic.
* a
See No. (16).

di xoilanis the sick woman: This feminine suffix is a rare counterpart

to No. (26). The syllable before it takes the stress.
(32) 0
dus badikns the ceremonial veiling of the bride before the wedding,
/ 0$ dus gybruutns the roast meat: The suffix denotes an
action or the result of an action.
yver
See No. (38).
(33) txl
See paras. 66, 69.

(34) P
See paras. 66, 69.

(35) n v **J
di Laizerexy Eliezers wife: The suffix signifies that a certain
woman is the wife of the man to whose name the suffix is appended.
(36) p ext
8 dus fiUxc the filling, stuffing, *8 dus Jurexc the conduct,
behaviour: The suffix denotes the result of an activity or the activity itself.
ely
See para. 72.
trVBymi
See No. (16).

(37)* 5
der buxerec strong young guy. The suffix takes the stress. It signi-
fies strength.
 237 Morphology

(38) er
/ der davyner the praying one : der beker the
baker, der iraaber the writer, author, der sarver the
waiter; der teper the potter, der rouxvarger
the furrier ; der cener the tenner (banknote/bill), der
bencer booklet containing grace after meals and other benedictions;
Londoner Londoner, Vilner of/from Vilna, /
Krukyver Cracovian, Amerikaner American: The suffix denotes a
nomen agentis - an occupation, a maker of things or one dealing with them - and
geographical location or origin. When the word ends in /y/ this coalesces with the
/y/ of the suffix.

(39) er
der pioner pioneer, der milioner the millionaire:
The suffix takes the stress. It is a masculine nomen agentis or indicates a (male)
persons state.

( 40) eraa(i)
dus smjjseraa(i) the talking, the chatter, dus
sjjsteraa(i) the bootmakers trade: The final syllable takes the stress. The suffix
signifies a continuous activity, often by a number of people, or an occupation.

( 41) em
/ di tjkernjtjkerin female attendant at a mikvy: Combination
of Nos. (38) and (25).

(42) ciy
di stanciy the station, / di rydakciy the
editors, editorship, di emigraciy emigration, di
kolonizaciy colonization, di opoziciy opposition: The syllable
before the suffix takes the stress. It has mostly an abstract meaning and is not
productive. Gender: feminine. See No. (20).

(43)P cn
/ di rebycnjrebycin rabbis wife: This - clearly double - suffix
occurs only in this word.

( 44) kait
dus sain kdt the beauty, / 1 1 dus
cjtrugnkaitjcytrugnkait absent-mindedness: The suffix forms abstract nouns. Its
gender is neuter.
 238 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

< 4 5 ) 7 *
di modistky the milliner: The suffix forms feminines from the
suffixes Nos. (3), (6), (7), (18), (38); in No. (5) ak is changed to 0/.
di Goldmanky Mrs. Goldman: The suffix also signifies that a certain woman is
the wife of the man to whose name it is appended.
(46) 68 laft
&0$ dus xaveriaft friendship, comradeship,* 6 $ dus kljgtafi
cleverness*: The suffix creates abstract nouns. Gender: neuter.

(47 ) &
fiteriii dear uncle: The suffix expresses endearment or friendliness.
(48)*
, di tadaikys, cydaikys truly religious (Jewish) woman; saintly
(Jewish) woman: This feminine suffix is not productive.
4
(c) Prefix + suffix
(49) ... / gy ... eraa(i)
/ dus gyitjperaa(i) the pushing* (referring to a number
of people): The affixes denote an activity executed at the same time by a number of
people. The final syllable takes the main stress. Gender: neuter.
(50)T - / ^ . c/ts
^ dus gykexc cooked dish,* / dus gykifi
the writing (i.e., letters); the document, / DJO dus gymoizexc
the marsh: This double affix indicates something collective - various ingredients
in the dish, a number of letters in the document, assembly of land of a certain type.

DIMINUTIVE

64 der vmt the wind* - dus vmtl the breeze,*

der zaiger the clock - the watch: The most frequent form of the
diminutive is derived by suffixing a syllabic /1/. It is used with monosyllables
ending in a consonant other than /1/, and in disyllabics ending in - -er.
65 der zamd the sand* - dus zbndl the grain of sand,*
der rok the jacket* - dus rtkl, di ituut the town*
- dus itiitl, 5 der rum the rabbi* - dus rtivl;
di njs the nut - dus nisi, 01C der fjjs the foot*- 06 dusfiisl,
der hoi/1the yard* - 6 0$ dus haifl, dus houz the house* -
0$ dus haazl: Where appropriate, mutation accompanies the suffix.
 239 Morphology

(b) di toxter the daughter - dus tixterl, 0$

# dus puunym the face - dus ptinyml, der guuertn the
garden - dusgiiertl or dus giiertndl: There are disyllabic
words, where the suffix is accompanied by mutation, but this is rare.
66 di miil the mill - ()dus miilexl, V\p 0$ dus kol the
voice - / ()dus kilexl: When the final consonant of the noun is
unsyllabic /, the suffix - ( ) -(e)x - is inserted between it and the syllabic I suffix,
thus separating the two Ts.
dus miilexn, dus kilexn: The suffix ) ) - -exn instead
of ))- -exl is rare.
67 di pin the pen - dus phtdl, der volkn the
cloud - dus volkndl, der nign the mne -
dus nigndl: When the final consonant of the noun is an /n/ (unsyllabic or syllabic),
a /d/ develops before the /1/.
68 der itikn the stick - dus itiki: Often, however, the
n is dropped and the word treated as a monosyllable.
Plural
69 (a) 0 dus vintl breeze - di vmtlex, ()$
dus miilexl little mill - / ()miilexlex: The plural suffix of the
diminutive is - -lex.
(b) $ dus mUUx little mill - di miilexer: The diminutive
in - -exn has the plural -exer.
70 der nign ,the tune - dus nigndl, di nigjjnym
the tunes - di nigjjnymlex: Yiddish words of Semitic origin do
not form the plural of the diminutive from its singular but from the plural form
of the noun. 0$ dus kind the child - dt kinder the children -
di kinderlex: By analogy, a few non-Semitic nouns also have this
plural formation.
71 di kjj the cow, der inai the snow: When a word ends in a
vowel (or diphthong), no diminutive can be formed because a vowel (or diphthong)
cannot be followed by a syllabic consonant. The word kind child has no
diminutive.

MINUTIVE

72 The minudve denotes an increased or intensified degree of diminutiveness.

In certain cases (see below), however, it functions simply as a diminutive.
 240 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

der briiv the letter - , dus brihaly, brihely

the little letter, der zami 'the sand - , dus
zJmdaly, xJmdely the tiny grain of sand. * der itikn the stick -
, *dus itikaly, itikely the little stick: The minutive is
formed by the suffix 8 , - -aJy, -tly ; the phonological details are, when
applicable, the same as for the diminutive.
(b)
73 nybtmaly, nytumely! darling! (lit: little soul), ,
ndrely!, ndralyl , my dear little chump!: The suffix 8 , aly, tly
expresses various shades of endearment.
(c)
74 0$ dus houz the house - dus haazl the little house -
, dus haazaly, haazely very little house: The suffix indicates
a higher degree of diminution than the diminutive suffix.
(d)
75 $ dus bui the knee - , dus kniialy, kmiely the little
knee, der inot the snow - , inaialy, dus inaiely the
snow-flake - di kafky the duck - , 88 du
kaikaly, kaSkely the little duck, * der foigl the bird - ,
*faigaly, dus faigely the birdie: The minudve suffix is used instead
of the diminutive suffix when the latter would be phonologically impossible. A
vowel, diphthong or syllabic / cannot be followed by syllabic I, the sign of the
diminutive, knH-l, huu4 , kaiky-l, faig-l are not possible, and the non-syllabic
I of *kniil, *btaily *kaikyl would not convey a diminutive sense. Hence the
diminutive suffix is replaced by the minutive suffix, i.e., the minutive form is
made to function in a diminutive sense. Thus, when a word ends in syllabic 4 it is
treated as if it were a diminutive.
76 di miil , the mill* - , dus mOJxaly, miilxtly
the little mill*: The glide in the diminutive between / and x disappears in the
minutive.
77 When a word has more than one syllable and ends in a consonant, no minutive
can be formed.
Plural
78 , dus vmtaly, vmttly the gentle breeze - .
vmtaltx, di vmtelex: The final vowel of the singular suffix is merged
with the vowel of the plural suffix. This is not visible in the spelling but the
difference is dear phonetically: fly - jlexj.
 241 Morphology

Adjective

IN FLECTIO N

There are two declensions.

First declension
79 m gjt good:
Singular

Neuter Feminine Masculine

with with
definite indefinite
article article with either article

9 Nom.
Acc.
Dat.
Poss.

Masculine Feminine Neuter

with with
indefinite definite
with either article article article

Nom. gjter gjty gj gjty

Acc. gjtn gjty gjt gjty
Dat. gjtn gjter g}t gjtn
Poss. gjtn gjttr gjt gjtn

From this paradigm it will be seen that there are four markers to indicate sixteen
grammatical relationships: the endings er, n,y, and zero ending.

Plural
80 gjty: The phiral marker is V- -y for all forms, whether the word is pre-
ceded by the definite article or by none at all.
 242 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

Second or substantival declension

81

Neuter Feminine Masculine

with with
definite indefinite
article article with either article

Nom.
Acc.
Dat.
Poss.

Masculine Feminine Neuter

with with
indefinite definite
with either article article article

Nom. gjter gjty gjts gj*

Acc. gjtn gjty gjts gjts
Dat. gjtn gjter gjts gjt*
Poss. gjtns gjters gjts gjtns

There are six markers for indicating sixteen grammatical relationships: -er, hi,
ns, -y, ~ers, -s.
The plural marker is /-y/ for all forms.
82 sain beautiful - / iamym < *lainyn: When a word ends in
/n/, the case ending /n/ becomes / y m / . naa(i) new - naa(i]ym: The same
applies to the word .
83 vohl cheap - vokyly: Syllabic /1/ becomes /yl/ when the
word is inflected.
84 2 mitn Tuumer toilyv with the resident of Tuume = Polish
Tamow (western Galicia): Geographical adjectives ending in - -er are not
inflected.
85 mitn horbaty maidl with the hunchback girl:
adjectives are not inflected. Most of these are used only predicadvely: 5 PK
iz mexjjyv is obliged.
 243 Morphology

COMPARISON
86 (a) brait broad - braittr broader - braitst *broadest :
The comparative ends in -er, the superlative in 0- -st.
(b) ziis sweet - ziiser - vist: When a word ends in /s/, the
/s/ of the superlative is fused with it.
87 (a) alt old - elter - ihst: Some adjectives, besides having
the suffix (/er, st/), undergo mutation of their stem vowel.
(b) grois big* greser grist
|1 hoi(e)x high hixtr hexst
{ am beautiful siner / Unct
klam little kUner / klenct:
In some of them the mutation is irregular (based on an earlier stage of the language).
(c) $ ,
r
nuuynt, nuunt near nhnter nimtst
, ,
nuujmter, nuunter nuuyntst, nuuntst

T
5 . 51 ,
xuuiyv important xeisjrver, xuuiyver xeiiyvst, xuuiyvst
In some cases both the mutated and unmutated forms occur.
88 gjt good - beser better - best best;
, erger, arger worse, , ergst, argst worst;
, mmct least;
^ bilexer more entitled to:
In a few cases one or two of the degrees are missing or formed from different words.

Inflection
89 i k / ill, sick:

Neuter Feminine Masculine

with with
definite indefinite
article article with either article

6 6 6 8 Nom.
6 6 6 Acc.
8 6 6 6 Dat.
6 6 6# Poss.
 244 Outline o f Yiddish Grammar

Masculine Feminine Neuter

with with
indefinite definite
with either article article article

Nom. slaferer slafery slafer slafery

Acc. slafern slafery slafer slafery
Dat. slafern slaferer slafer slafern
Poss. slafern slaferer slafer slafern

There are four markers for indicating sixteen grammatical relations: -er, -n, -y
and zero ending.
, der epl, vus iz zouerer the more sour apple:
When an adjective ends in er, the comparative is not used attributively,
in order to avoid the inflection (der *zouererer epl). Such an adjective is only used
predicatively. That difficulty does not arise, of course, in the superlative:
der zouerster epl the sourest apple.

F O R M A T I O N OF A D J E C T I V E S

A True adjectives

90 laaxt light; easy, puusyt simple, plain, prost ordinary:

Basic adjectives - i.e., not derived from other adjectives or other word classes -
are nearly always mono- or disyllabic.

B Compounds

91 tjnkl-grm dark-grey : Composition of two true adjectives is

very rare.
92 brait-bainerdik broad-shouldered, kl
steitldik small town provincial, old-fashioned, old time ... :
Here we do not have a compound of two adjectives - + brait +
bainerdik - but a compound consisting of an attributive adjective plus its noun,
the unit taking the adjectival suffix - -dik.

c Participles
93 baglaibt trustworthy: Many participles can function as adjectives,
attributively and/or predicatively.
 245 Morphology

/ gygUxnt being like, resembling': Participles sometimes

become independent of their source - the participle of the verb * glaax
'compare is / gyglaaxt. Both words are used only predicatively.

D Affixes

Prefixes

94
( ! ) -Jm~: jmglikUx unhappy, / jmgygim not
having eaten: This prefix is used with adjectives and participles, it has a
privative meaning. It takes the stress.
(2) ba~: / 8 baredyvdtk talkative: This prefix is not
productive and conveys no special meaning.
(3) JSil-'igy-: / gytraa(i) faithful, / gyhnak tasty:
This prefix is not productive and conveys no meaning. Sometimes its vowel
has disappeared and the g is not recognized as the former prefix: easy.

Suffixes

95
(1) aty: horbaty hunchbacked : The suffix takes the word stress.
It designates a physical, mental or spiritual characteristic.
(2) - -mai: national concerning an ethnic group (not country or
state): The suffix derives adjectives from nouns ending in - -ty.
(3) - -dik: maaryvdik western, faa(i)erdtk fiery,
Uxndik full of holes, kaalexdik round, /
pljcymdik sudden: The suffix is used mainly with nouns but also
with adverbs. It signifies having a certain quality or affinity with something,
or resemblance to it. It is very productive.
/ voxydik work-a-day: After monosyllables the form is
/. -ydik.
/$ trugydik pregnant: The same form is used with the base
of a verb, when it describes a state or condition.
(4) /- -yvaty: / tamyvaty simple (of persons),
/ byhatmyvaty stupid (lit.: cattlelike) , /6 8
fonfyvaty speaking nasally: The suffix receives the stress. It
is used with a noun or the base form of a verb, and describes a state or
condition.
(5) -/- -yvdik: / * ' ^^ bashful, shy, /
xamyvdik ,charming, lovely: It is used with the base form of a
 246 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

verb, occasionally with a noun, and means having the quality indicated by
the verb (or noun).
(6) -tfk-: - tjngufk- young: The suffix is used with adjectives
and conveys a shade of endearment.
(7) *?tnk taa(i)erink- dear, darling: The suffix is used with
adjectives and expresses endearment.
(8) - -ik: iberik superfluous, nixtik yesterdays, ()
milexik milky ..., dairy The suffix is used with nouns and adverbs. It
conveys no special shade of meaning.
(9) - -istii: nacionalistii nationalistic (in the ethnic sense,
not with reference to a country or state): The suffix takes the word stress
on its first syllable. It is used with adjectives ending in 8 / 8 - -mai, and
thus means concerning a certain opinion/idea/ideology/philosophy, or a
group/movement/political party, or representing, advocating these things.
(10) /: fraaberti characteristic of authors, lam
learned, xsiidti*Chassidic, 1 8 Katoilii Catholic, Herii
Irish (language), Itrlendts Irish (country), /
turopeitiEuropean, 6 far-caatil *of/from olden times,
gramatii grammatical, / !cvjiakiS *hypocritical: The
suffix is used with nouns and denotes ' belonging to a group or category -
occupation, class, religion, language, country, region, period in time etc.
(11) - -lex (a): gliklex happy: The suffix is used with abstract nouns,
(b) kaltlex coldish, cool: It is also used with adjectives, giving
them a diminished degree of intensity, (c) Iidiilex specifically/
characteristically Jewish: When the suffix is used with adjectives ending in
- -/, a shade of meaning is added which denotes specifically so, charac-
teristicaUy so.
(12) -- : bUxn ,made of tin sheet: The suffix is used with nouns desig-
nating a material.
(13) - -til: kulturiil cultural: The suffix takes the stress. It is
appended to internationally used abstract nouns.
(14) - -er : / Krukyver ,Cracovian, Svaicer
Swiss, Londoner Londoner, Amerikaner Ameri-
can: The suffix is used with place names.
(15) p P - -ern: ^ hikem wooden: The suffix is used with nouns denoting
a material.
(16) /: vaaberi *womens, female, 3 ribyi *pertaining
Chassidic rebbe: After r or y of an unstressed final syllable, the />/ of -
-ii (No. 10) is dropped.
 247 Morphology

Pronoun

( a) p e r s o n a l p r o n o u n

Third Person Second Person /irrf Person

Neuter Feminine Masculine Singular

// /( *) /( I) H(1) / ) 1( Nom.
09 ) 2( 2) ) 2( ) T W
it she he you (thou) 1

09 ) 1( /( I) (1) ( X) Acc.
2) / )2( ) 2) )
it her him you (thee) me

/ ( *) /(!) (!) (!) Dat

?/ 0 )2( / ) 2( ) 2( )2(
it her him you (thee) me

o rn ( a) Poss.
( b)
( c)
of its of hers of his *of yours of mine

Plural
/(!) / (!) Nom.
...
/) 2( )2(
they you we

/ Acc.
than you us

/ Dat.
them you us
 248 An Outline o f Yiddish Grammar

Third Person Second Person First Person

Neuter Feminine Masculine Singular

/ p0Ss.

/

/

of theirs o f yours of ours1

First Person Second Person Third Person

Singular Masculine Feminine Neuter

Nom. (1) ex/x- (1) dj (1) er/r- (1) zi/z- sy/s-/ys

(2) iiex/iax/ (2) djj (2) eier (2) zii
eix
1 you (thou) he she it

Acc. (1) mex (1) dex (1) ym/n (1) z i ys

(2) miiex/ (2) diiex/dex (2) eim/ (2) zii
mex/meiex 11m
m e you (thee) him her it

Dat. (1) mir (1) dir (1) ym/-n (1) ir (1) ym/n
(2) miier (2) diier (2) eim / (2) iier (2) eim/
11m 11m
me you (thee) him her to it

Poss. (a) maanc daanc zaanc/ iiers zaanc/

eims/iims eims/iims
(b) maant daant zaant iiert zaant
(c) maaner daaner zaaner ii(e)rer zaaner
of mine of yours of his of hers of its
 249 Morphology

First Person Second Person Third Person

SinguJar Masculine Feminine Neuter

Plural
Nom. (1) mir/jndz. . . (1) ir zai
mir
(2) miier/jndz. . . (2) iier
mir
we you (ye)' they*

Acc. jndz aax/nk zai

us you* them*

Oat. jndz aax/enk zai

to us to you to them*

Poss. (a) jndzers aa(i)ers zaiers

(b) jndzert aa(i)en zaiert
enkcrer
(c) jndzerer aa(i)erer zaierer
enkert
of ours* ,of yours* *of theirs*

Those forms that have been placed on lines (2) are used in stressed position.

97 The possessive is expressed by forms of the possessive pronoun, (a) 8

maanc a brjjdem-zjjn a nephew of mine: The possessive receives the
ending s (the ending of the possessive of the noun ?) and is followed by the in-
definite article. In the expressions etc. maanc glaaxn etc. *the likes of
me etc., there is no article.
(b) In etc. fjn maant viign etc. for my sake the /t/ functions as
possessive ending (although historically it is not).
(c) / mir kinyn zaaner n
cannot get rid of him: The verb ?ver puuter to get rid of is usually
constructed with the preposition r fjn of, but when it refers to a personal
pronoun the forms moaner etc. can be used instead. If this should be a case
of a fossilized genitive, its place would be in the present paragraph.
(d) The same holds true for that form in a construction like
 250 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

8 er iz moaner 0 brjjdem-zjjn he is a nephew of mine. However, the

speakers would not regard it as a genitive but as a nominative because they see that
the pronoun is inflected when its noun is a direct or indirect object: / ?
/ xj hot gyzJm maanym a brjjdem-zjjn *she saw a
nephew of mine and 8 / / zi hot
ys gygfibn maanym a brjjdem-zjjn she gave it to a nephew of mine.*
t Ir vit zaan dortnl Will you be there?: When speaking
to a grown-up individual, one uses, as the polite form of address, the second
person plural: Hry aax, aa(i)er.
Some of the forms given here, while being frequent or usual in the spoken
language, are not often met with in print.

REFLEXIVE PRONOUN

9
Singular 1st person - mex - zex myself*
2nd person - dex - zex yourself*
3rd person zex himself* herself itself*
Plural 1st person zex ,ourselves*
2nd person - aax - zex yourselves*
3rd person zex themselves*
In the 1st and 2nd person most speakers do not use the real reflexive pronoun
( zex) but the personal pronoun ( mex, dex, aax).

POSSESSIVE PRONOUN

99

Singular o f person

Third person Second First

Person person
Neuter Feminine Masculine

H r Singular o f
governing
its her h is your (thy) m y noun
 251 Morphology

Third person Second First

Person Person
Neuter Feminine Masculine

1Plural of
governing
its her his your (thy) *
my noun

Plural o f person

Singular of
governing
their your our noun

Plural of
governing
their your our noun

Singular o f person

First Second Third person

person person
Masculine Feminine Neuter

Singular of maan daan zaan ir, iier zaan

governing
noun l my
_l your (thy) his her its

Plural of maany daany zaany iiery zaany

governing
noun my your (thy) his *her its

Plural o f person

Singular of jndzer aa(i)er zaier

governing
noun our your ,their

Plural of jndzcry aa(i)ery zaiery

governing
noun our your their
 2$2 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

The possessive pronoun is generally placed straight before its noun and is
then not inflected. In other positions, it is.

First declension

100 my, of mine

Plural Singular
Neuter Feminine Masculine
Nom.
/ Acc.
/ / Dat.
/ / Poss.

, my, of mine

Singular Plural
Masculine Feminine Neuter

Nom. moaner maany maone maany

Acc. maanym maany maanc maany
Dat. maanym moaner maanym maany
Poss. maanym moaner maanym maany

daan ,your, of yours, *his, of his are inflected in the same way;
, her, of hers

Plural Singular
Neuter Feminine Masculine

Nom.
Acc.
Dat.
Poss.

Jndzer , our, aa(i)er your, and zaier , their arc inflected in

the same way.
 253 Morphology

her, of hers*

Singular Plural
Masculine Feminine Neuter

Nom. ii(e)rer ii{e)rs

Acc. ii(e)m u{e)ry ii(e)rs ai&y
Dat. iHe)m ii(e)rer ii(e)m *K&j
Poss. ii(e)rn ii(e)rer ii(e)m ii(e)ry

This declension is used when the pronoun is separated from the noun by the
indefinite article.

Second declension

The second declension is identical with the first, except for the possessive: masc.
zaiems, fern. zaierers, neut. zaiems.
This declension is used when the pronoun follows the noun.

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN

101 Diier this:

Plural Singular
Neuter Feminine Masculine

* 9 Nom.
0 Acc.

T

T
Dat.

T

Poss.

Singular Plural
Masculine Feminine Neuter

Nom. diier dii duus dii diiy

Acc. diim dii duus dii diiy
Acc. dim diier dim dii diiy
Poss. dim diier diim dii diiy
 254 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

This is the adjectival, attributive declension. The substantival declension differs

only in the possessive: Masc. 0 dims, fem. deters, neut. dams
plur. diiys is rare.
ot diier this, Ot 0 diier this: These two follow the above
pattern.
der doziker this, Uner that, der iiniker that,
der zilber the same, der zelbiker the same,
/ der aigyner the same: These demonstratives are inflected as
adjectives and as nouns.
azoiner ,such a, ()azelexer such a : &U5 azi (stress on the
final syllable), azdn (before a word beginning with a vowel) such a, F9 8
a miin such a, Plural: miiny: These two demonstratives are not inflected.

ARTICLE

102 The definite article is the main sign indicating the gender of the noun. It is
inflected in the singular. There are only four different markers to serve twelve
cases. One of them ( di) also serves for all the cases and genders of the plural.
/ mym in the, 6 6 / fjnym from/of the: When the dative of
the definite article follows a preposition ending in n, the article mostly undergoes
a varying degree of reduction. The d is dropped, as in the above examples.
baam ,at the, cjm to the: After a vowel or diphthong only the final m of
the article remains:|6 ofn[ofm\ - (6 afrt [afm\ - 6 ) on the, btzn till the,
mitn with the, micadn ,on the part of, nuuxn after the, p 8 6
fam before the: After consonants, other than n, the dy of the article is dropped,
and the final m is replaced by syllabic n.
103 The indefinite article is a which is uninflected. Before a vowel it becomes
an. It has no plural form - the absence of a definite article before a plural noun
implies that an indefinite article is to be understood here.
- a lomp - niit kain lomp a lamp - no lamp: The
negation of the indefinite article is niit kain.

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN

104 ? viier , who ?, ? vuus, vus ? , what?

Nom. ? viier? , who?
Acc. ?/ veimyn? , whom?
Dat. ?/ veimyn? ,to whom?
Poss. ?/ veimyns? whose?
?/ viimys?
 255 Morphology

?S vus fa r a? - ? vuser a? - ? sara? what kind of?:

All three forms are used with singular or plural nouns.
? VUS f a r ? - ? vuser what kind of?: Both forms are used
with the plural of the noun.
? ()velexer? which? : It is inflected like the possessive pronoun.

RELATIVE P R O N O U N

105 , der menc., vus the person who: The interrogative vuu
functions also as the relative marker vus. It is not inflected.
der beker, vus er ita it dortn the baker who is standing there,
, der beker, vus ir zeit y m dortn the baker whom
you see there, 5 , der beker vus d j darfst ym
cuuln the baker whom you must pay, , der
beker, vus zaan z jjn iz in Ameriky the baker, whose son is in America : Where
necessary or desirable the syntactical relation is indicated by a personal pronoun.1

INDEFINITE PRONOUN

106 ieider (masc.), ieidy (fem.), a ieider (masc.), a

ieidy (fem.), ietvider (masc.), ietvidy (fem.): These three pro-
nouns - meaning each, every - are used with nouns in the singular and are
inflected as the possessive pronoun in both declensions. ander other is in-
fleeted in the same way but used with singular and plural. itlexer (masc.),
itiexy (fem.), itiexs (neut.) each, every, ()
vel(e)xer (masc.) 5 iz, () vel(e)xy s iz (fem.), ()
vel(e)xs y s iz (neut.) whoever: These two are used with the singular and are
inflected like the possessive pronouns. So too is ainer somebody but it
has a plural in the opposition - ainy - andery and -
di ainy - di andery some - others. ieider ainer each one, every one
is used as a more intense form instead of ieider, but then only as a noun.
ieiderer each one, every one: This and the preceding pronoun seem to
occur only as masculines. / eimyc - / Umyc /
eimycer - / iimycer somebody is used as a noun and follows the
second possessive declension, but without indication of gender.
abii veier whoever, anybody : The pronominal part is inflected like
the interrogative veier ; abii vuus whatever, anything;
abii vus fa r a, abii vuser a whatever kind of.
/ epys something. A special idiomatic usage: /

1 The use of velxer as a relative pronoun is a Germanism.

 256 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

pys fiilt er zex niit gjt He is not feeling well, somehow. This is
a quasi-subject, a vague syntactical device for anticipating the real subject of the
sentence which follows.
/ guw-niit ,nothing.
my (before the verb), / myn (after the verb) ,one = you = they = 1.*
tail ,some people* - miier ,more; mam , more.* The preceding six
pronouns are uninflected.
al ,all, everything: When used substantially the pronoun has the following
forms:

Singular Plural

Nom. ale aly

Acc. ale aly

/ alymyn

Dat. / alym aly

/ alymyn

Poss. / alymyns

/ alymyn and / alymyns are used for human beings

only. alcding - 01 aldmgs - aiding ,all, everything are very
often used instead of ale. The plural, aly, functions adjectivally and sub-
stantivally. / aldys - aldus ,all the; plural , aldy
, all the: The uninflected form - al - is used when the pronoun is followed
by the definite article; the two are joined together, which results in a weakened
vowel of the article.

Numerals
CARDINAL
107
ain
1 ainc
cvai
draa(i)
fiier
/ 8 finyf
1 In counting.
 257 Morphology

6 ziks
7 zibn
8 03 axt
9 naan
10 cn, c & n , c n
11 6 / lyf
!2 / cvflyf
13 draacn
14 ftrcn
15 fjfc n
16 zxcn
17 / zibycn
18 axcn
19 naancn
20 ,/ cvoncik-cvanci
26 ,/ zks-jn-cvoncik
30 draasik
40 ftrcik
50 fjfcik
60 zifaccik
70 / zibycik
80 3 axcik
90 naancik
100 hjndcrt
200 cvai hjndert
1.000 touznt
2.000 cvai touznt
10.000 c6n touznt
20.000 cvoncik touznt
100,000 . hjndert touznt
1,000,000 miliuun
104 ()hjndcrt-(jn-)fiicr
638 ziks-hjndert-axt-jn-draasik
1852 axcn-hjndert-cvai-jn-fjfcik
or
( ) ) ain-)touznt-axt-hjndert-cvai-jn-
fjfcik
2986 - cvai-touznt-naan-hjndert-zeks-jn-
axcik
miliasn (plural) indicates a vast indefinite number.
 258 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

Composite numbers from thirteen onwards are constructed by addition, the higher
preceding the lower, except that the digits precede the tens.

108 (a) ? Am latb *** One lion is visible*; Er

ziit ain coug *He sees one bitch ; 6 Ergit am feierd
a ftikl cjktr He gives one horse a piece of sugar: ain, when functioning
adjectivally, is not inflected according to gender and case.
(b) p $ 0 " Vp $ 0 ' l 6 fjn der ainer naituum of the only seamstress :
But when am has the definite article, acquiring the meaning *the only, it is
inflected.
(c) in ainy cuurys in great trouble: In this idiom has a
plural form.
(d) am, functioning as a noun, is inflected according to the second adjectival
declension. The neuter, amc, is used in counting.
(e) / in ainym together: The dat. masc./neut. is employed
this expression.
(f) ziksn six oclock: The dat. masc./neut. appears with cardinals
when telling the hour of the day.
(g) an ainer a digit, digits, 1 a cener - ceener - cemer
a ten, tens, a hjnderier a hundred, hundreds, a touznter
a thousand, thousands.

ORDINAL

109
1st eierit
2nd cvait
ander
3rd drit
4th - 6 fb d - fert
5h 66 fift
6th
zekst
7th /
zibyt
8th
axt
9th
naant
10th cent - ctbit - cemt
11th DI elyft - elft
12th - cvilyft - eveIft
13th - / draacyt - draacnt
14th &- / fercyt -fercnt
 259 Morphology

15th 6 6 - 66 / 6 6 fifty* -fiftt

16th - / zJxcyt - zixcnt
17th - / zibycyt - zibycnt
18th - 9 / *3 axcyt - axcnt
19th - / naancyt - naancnt
20th ,/ cvoncikst-cvancikst

30th draasikst
32nd cvai-jn-draasikst
1ooth hjndertst
109th hjndert-naant
250th 6 6 cvat-hjndert-flfcikst
1,oooth touzntst
100,000th hjndert-touzntst
1,000,oooth miliuunct
The ordinals are adjectives and inflected accordingly.

FRACTIONS

110 (a) halb: It is inflected adjectivally - a halber bjj(e)x,

* 6 a helft bjjex half of the book: The adjective halb can be re-
placed by the noun 6 a helft. 4 a drill a third, am
drillone third, $ cvai dritl two thirds : The numerator is a cardinal,
the denominator an ordinal plus tl 1 - the final dental of the ordinal being
merged.
(b) dritlex, fertlex: When a denominator is used by itself,
it has a plural formed by - -ex.2 / a drit-xailyk a third: The
word / xailyk part may be used instead of tl. The plural then is
dnt-xalukym.
(c) 1$ andert-kalb(n) i.e. second = twice minus a half; 2$
drit-halbn (i.e., the third minus a half); etc.: Mixed numbers consisting
of a digit and a half are usually constructed by subtraction, though addition is also
employed; with higher figures this is the rule: 23^ &
draa(i)-jn-ftncik-jn-a-halb. No subtraction forms exist for mixed numbers
with other fractions than
(d) cj zibn in sevens: Distributive numbers arc expressed by cj
with a cardinal.
1 Originally the word u ii p u t.
1 As if tbe jl! were the diminutive ending (drit + I).
 260 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

(e) / zalby-mnd ,two (persons) together, /

zalby-drtt , three (persons) together,* etc.: zalby (originally
a pronoun) followed by the stem of an ordinal, denotes a group of persons of
that number.
(f) naan muul , nine times: Multiplication is expressed by muul.
6 topi ,double is an adjectival multiplicative.
(g) m cvaiyn twofold, etc.: An adverbial multiplicative is formed
by in ,in plus inflected cardinal.
(h) cvaterlat , two kinds of, etc.: The suffix -erlai, attached to
a cardinal, denotes ,so and so many kinds of. There is also alerlai and
kolerlai, both meaning ,all sorts of.
(i) eieritns or / raiiis , firstly, cvaitns or /
{amis, or { Hits thirdly,* etc.: Ordinal adverbs are formed from the
ordinal stem plus the termination DI- -ns, or they are expressed by the correspon-
ding word of the Hebrew element.

Verb
111 The verbal system consists of the following categories: tense, mood, aspect,
voice and the verb infinite, represented by the infinitive and two verbal adjectives,
the contemporal and the participle.

TYPES OF VERBS

112 There are two types of verbs: (a) simple verbs, including prefixed ones:
laig ,lay, 6 / 6 kaift'double, derman ,remind (first and second
conjugation); (b) periphrastic verbs: combinations of auxiliaries with certain
uninflected elements: bin moixl ,forgive,* 3 veier myvjlbl
, get confused (third and fourth conjugations).

INFLECTION

113

Plural Singular Person

1 st
2 - nd
3 - - rd
 261 Morphology

Person Singular Plural

1st ex hail mir haibi

2nd dj hoilct ir - ic hailt
3rd er - z i - sy hailt zai haibi

1 heal - I am healing
Where there is inversion, the /d/ of the pronoun, 2nd pers., is fused with the
/t/ of the verb ending: (k)ost dj > (h)ostj *have you and the spelling corresponds
to t hat : .
The verb is inflected by means of the endings /n (syllabic), st, t/ and zero,
/n/ and /t/ each serving for two persons. This holds good for the present tense,
the imperative and for the auxiliaries (here some irregular forms). The other
tenses, moods and aspects are formed by means of auxiliaries.

FIRST CONJUGATI ON: WEAK VERBS

114 ( A) coil count, nai sew, 6 ftii fly; (B) W W pravy carry out,
execute, / taany argue, claim: There are two classes of weak verbs.
The difference lies in the form of the first person singular of the present tense -
the base form. In (A) it ends in a consonant or a vowel, except /y/, in (B) it ends
n h i.

Active voice: tense and mood

Present indicative

115 The conjugation is given in 113.

This form relates to the time of speaking. It is, however, also employed without
reference to time, for general or timeless statements, as well as for the historic
present.

116 (a) itjm be silent - / itjmyn, laiyn read - /

laiynyn, derlang hand to - / derlangyn,
bink long for / benkyn: When the base form ends in /m, n, ng/
or /nk/, the ending /n/ becomes /yn/.
(b) / gyzeign mex take ones leave - / gy
ziigynyn zex, Y*?'laikn deny - / laikynyn, p 3n rSxn calculate,
think - / rteynyn: When the final n phoneme of the base form is
 262 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

realised as [g] it becomes [n] before the ending n and is preceded and followed
by Iy I
(c) vikl roll up, wind5 - / viklyn : When the base form ends
in syllabic /, this becomes unsyllabic and the ending n after it becomes yn .
(d) n rjj rest* - rjjyn, cii pull - c iiy n , bou build -
bouyn, m i sew - naiyn , kaa{i) chew - kaa{i)yn : When the base
form ends in a vowel (or diphthong) the syllabic n of the ending becomes yn .
(e) ex traxt I think - - - er - z i - sy traxt he -
she - it thinks - ir traxt you think: When the base form ends in t,
the termination t is fused with it. In the 2nd pers. sing., dissimilation at distance
may cause the t of the base form to disappear: traxtst > traxst.
( f ) loz let - / dj lost, hjjs cough - d j hjjst,
nec wet - / dj nect, kjs kiss - dj kjst: When the base
form ends in /z, s, c, s/, these consonants are fused with the fsf of the ending
/st/ of the 2nd pers. sing.; however, in the case of /s/, the unassimilated form may
be met with (at least in the spelling): d j kjsst.
(g) d j kvelst > kvelct you are delighted, dj mainst >
mainct you think : When the base form ends in non-syllabic /1/ or /n/, a /t/
develops in front of the jsj in the 2nd pers. sing.

Verb infinite

117 Infinitive : hailn to heal/to be healing: The form of the infinitive is

identical with that of the 1st and 3rd pers. plur. of the present tense.

118 Contemporal: hailndik while healing: After the participle and the
infinitive this is the third nominal form within the scheme of the verb. It signifies
that the subject of the sentence is involved in an action, state or condition which
are contemporaneous with the action etc. of the predicate. It consists of the base
form of the verb plus the suffix -ndik (with syllabic n) or /- -yndik
(see para. 116a-d).1 It thus has the form of an adjective but can function as a verb by
governing an object (or objects): 3 sraabndik zaan vaab a
briiv while writing a letter to his wife.*

1 This form is not a present participle because it cannot be inflected. When the ndik
form occurs in print or writing as an inflected attribute (e.g., pjjm a fuurn-
diker vugn a moving carriage) it is simply a Germanism, adopted by writers during the last
few decades. A single fossilized relic of a participial construction exists: the - -er in the living
adverbial suffix - -erhait was originally the genitive ending of a participle that functioned
as an attribute to the noun hait state, condition (which still exists separately), e.g.,
zicndikerhait < zicndiker hait in the state of sitting.
 263 Morphology

119 Participle: /!gyhailt ,healed: The participle is formed by pre-

fixing / gy to the base form and suffixing /t/. Sat ,harm*- /
gyiat: When the stem ends in t, the suffix /t/ is fused with it.
The participle is passive in meaning.3

Special cases

120 Preterite present'.

Present Participle
darf , requires / 6 8 iydarft,
/ gydorjn
vil3 , wants to / gyvolt
zol ,shall, / gyzolt
should
$ tuttr ,is not $ 1/$ niit
niit allowed gytmert
rto toig is of use / gytoigt

T
nUig , may, is /& y*#p
allowed
mjz , must / gymizt
The third person singular of these verbs has no ending.
To this group may be added:
/M g used to ( + infinitive)
kiier , belongs; ought to4 ) - infinitive) / gykHert

121 Breng and Vais:

Present bring1bring
Infinitive / brbigyn
Contemporal / brtngyndik
Participle / gybrSngt
/ gybaxt

1 There are exceptions. The participle of 0V /1 eat with the prefix jm un- it active:
p vsm u m fp m a * jmgyghn *not having eaten.
3 vil, however, has tbe ending t in tbe expression m sy vilt xac 'one feds like
(doing something), one wants to. Tbe main vowel of tbe contemporal differ* from both that
of tbe present and of the participle: vihuUk while wanting to (but ^
# vilndik niit vilndik willy-nilly. *)
 264 A*1 Outline o f Yiddish Grammar

vais know dervis mex get to know

visn dervisnzex
visndik dervimdik zex
/ g y v jst / dervjstzex

122 Prefixed verbs'. antvain wean, basain lend beauty to, /

gyndr deceive, derzug finish saying, fa rtjm l bewilder,
/ cjxap snatch away (referring to a number of snatchers): The
prefixes ant, S3 ba, / g y , der, fa r , / cj - which never take the
stress - modify the meaning of the verbs to which they are attached. However,
no general translations for each prefix can be attempted because their original
meanings have branched out so widely and have become very diversified. The
dictionary has to be consulted for each word beginning with one of the six prefixes.
antvaint, baiaint, / gyndrt, derzugt,
fartjm lt , / cjxapt: The participle of prefixed verbs
does not take the normal prefix / g y .

123 5 bafeil send word, 5 farliier lose: In certain cases the sim-
plex disappeared from the language long ago - there is no verb fe il (i.e., of
the same etymology as bafeil) and no Hier.

124 Adverb-linked verbs: / cjgain to dissolve (intrans.): The syllable

/ cj is a prefix - it is fixed to the verb and does not take the stress. /
cjj gain to go to, approach : The syllable cjj is an adverb, takes the stress
and has no fixed position - in general its place is after the verb: z i gait
cjj she goes to, approaches. It is therefore illogical to call cjj a separable
prefix (two contradictory terms) - it did not grow together with the verb and is
not a formative syllable but a normal adverb.1 A certain number of basic adverbs
form, with verbs, specific groups. The discussion of such groups belongs not to
grammar - except where it is a case of perfectivisation - but to semantics and lexi-
cography. The adverbs in question are: ador(e)x through, ahaim
home, ahiin there, thither, ahinter backwards, avek away,
ous out, / u f / o f upon, jm (rare) around, jnter
under, aan in, uun on, at, - antkaign - antkeign against,
anider down, up off, afiier forth, out of, - akaign -
akeign opposite, arous1out of, - a r jf - a ro f1up, arjm
around, ariber over, across, araan into, baa, ba at,

1 The joining of the adverb to the following verb was introduced into their writings by the nine-
teenth century protagonists of the Enlightenment in imitation of the German spelling.
 26s Morphology

dor(e)x through, mit with, nuux after, 8 fjnander asunder,

apart, TB fixer fore, cjj to, / cjzamyn together, cjnoif
together, cjrik back. Many of the above translations are only etymological
and would rarely be applicable. Here again, the dictionary has to be consulted.

125 Auxiliary verbs'.

t o have

Person Singular Plural Plural Singular Person

1st ex (h)ob mir (k)obn* 1st

2nd dj (k)ost ir -ic (h)ot p - 2nd

3rd er-zi-s (h)ot zai (A)obn , , , 3rd

*Variant: 8 r im jmU (M)ahmrl{k)omir. This form it used by a very large part of the
peech community, although it does not appear in print: the nominative pur we is replaced
by tbe accusative/dative form raw jndz u$, while tbe M r is affixed to the end of the verb,
assimilating the ending n and generally, tbe k u well, to ita m.

The b of the stem disappears in the 2nd pers. and in the singular of the 3rd pers.

Person Singular Plural Plural Singular Person

1st x-ob 1st

2nd d-ost 2nd

3rd r-ot 3rd

ZrOt z-obn
s-ot

In colloquial speech the full forms are very often replaced by the abbreviated
ones of the above table. Some of the latter also occur in print, particularly the
1st pers. sing, and the 3rd pers. sing. neut.
Infinitive:{ h)ubn to have; contemporal: hubndik while having;
 266 An Outline o f Yiddish Grammar

/ gyh at had. There are two vowels for the non-finite forms and both
differ from that of the finite tense.
The tenses, moods and aspects are formed regularly.
This verb is not only an auxiliary, but also a full verb with the original meaning
to have and hold, possess.

to be

126

Person Singular Plural Plural Singular Person

1st ex bin mir zenyn* / r 3 1st

2nd d j bist ir - ec zent - 2nd

3rd er-zi-s- iz za i zenyn / -- 3rd

,

*Variants: 1st plur. (a) / - mir zaanyn, (b) jndz zemir. 2nd sing.
binst. 2nd plur. zaat. 3rd plur. / zaanyn.

Infinitive: zaan to be; contemporal: zaa(i)yndik while being;

participle: ]W W fpsyP lgyvem (or, disappearing [at least from pri nt]):/
gyveizn) been.
Past : / ex bingyvein. The inflection is regular, with bin and
/ gyviin .

w il l , shall
127

Person Singular Plural Plural Singular Person

1st ex vel mir vein* 1st

2nd d j vest ir - ec vet - 2nd

3rd er-zi-, sy, s-, za i vein , , 3rd

-ys vet

*Variant: jndzvelmir.
 267 Morphology

Person Singular Plural Plural Singular Person

1st x-elj x-l, mii(e)r-n - , , 1st

ex-l

2nd djj-st 2nd

3rd er-t, zii-t, s-tt zat-ln , , - 3rd

These contracted forms are frequent in the colloquial but rare in print.
This auxiliary1 verb is irregular and defective: there are no other forms.

,w ould*

128

Person Singular Plural Plural Singular Person

1st ex volt mir voltn* 1st

2nd dj voltst ir-ec volt - 2nd

3rd e r - z i- sy, s, zai voltn , , - - 3rd

ys volt

*Variant: ma t jndz vtlim r.

Regionally, the I disappears in all forms.

This auxiliary is defective; there are no other forms.

I It is not to be confused with the full verb vii to want to, to be willing, with which it
shatcs die form vibt.
 268 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

*SHOULD, SHALL*

129

Person Singular Plural Plural Singular Person

1st ex zol mir zotn* 1st

2nd dj zolst ir -ic zolt - 2nd

3rd er-zi-sy,s~ , zai zoln . - - 3rd

ys zol ,-

Variant: raw jndz zohmr.

This auxiliary has one other form, the past: 1 ex (h)obgyzalt.

*TO b e c o m e

130

Person Singular Plural Plural Singular Person

1st ex viier mir viiem* 1st

2nd dj veierst ir-ecveiert -

2nd

3rd er-zi-sy , s, zai viiert viiem p ^ n , , - - 3rd

y* T

Variant: jndz viienmr.

Infinitive: p ^ viiem, contemporal: viiemdik; participle: /pKTTl

gyvoom; past : / ex btng yvoom (second conjugation).
 269 Morphology

used to ( + Infinitive)
131

Person Singular Plural Plural Singular Person

1st exfliig mir fltign* 6 1st

2nd djfleigst ir-ec fleigt 8 -

T
2nd

3rd er-zi-sy , zai fUign 6 , - - 3rd

*Variant: 6 1 rnw jndz flhgwar.

This auxiliary is defective; there are no other forms.

Other tenses
132 The Past tense: / ex (h]ob gyhailt I healed/I have
healed/I was healing/I have been healing': The past tense is formed by means of
the auxiliary 3( h)ob and the participle of the verb in question.

133 The pluperfect tense: / e* (h)ob gyhat

gyhailt I had healed/been healing: The pluperfect is formed by means of the
auxiliary 3( h)ob plus the participles of the auxiliary and of the verb in question.
This tense is not much used.

134 Thefuture tense: * ex vil haibi I shall heal/be healing : The future
tense is formed by means of the auxiliary vel plus the infinitive of the verb
in question.

135 The future past tense: / 3$ ex vel hubn gyhailt I

shall have healed/been healing: The future past tense is formed by means of the
future tense of the auxiliary (h)ob plus the participle of the verb in question. This
tense is little used.

Other moods

136 The imperative mood: Second person. Singular: hail'heal, identical with
the base form. Plural: hailt ,heal, which is identical with the form of the
 2 0 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

2nd pers. plur. of the present tense. A very widespread form is hailts,
which has, however, been neglected in print.
Third person. Si ngul ar: ] - - er - zi - sy zol hailn ' he, she it
should heal, let him - her - it heal. Plural: zai zoln hailn they should
heal, let them heal: The 3rd pers. is formed by means of the auxiliary zol.
In addition, the optative can be used for the 3rd pers.

137 The optative mood: There are two forms.

(a) 1st pers. sing. lomex hailn let me heal
3rd pers. si ng. ] loz er hailn let him heal
1st pers. pl ur. lomir hailn let us heal
3rd pers. pl ur. lozn zai hailn let them heal
The optative is formed with the auxiliary loz plus a personal pronoun and the
infinitive of the verb. In the 1st pers., the auxiliary and the pronoun are always
contracted; in the singular the accusative of the pronoun is used, in the plural
the nominative.
(b) ] zol ex hailn let me heal, zolctj hailn may you
heal etc.: The auxiliary verb zol precedes the pronoun, which is followed
by the infinitive of the verb in question.

138 The permissive mood:] ? ex meig hailn I am allowed to heal: The

permissive is formed by means of the auxiliary nUig plus the infinitive of the
verb.

139 The prohibitive mood: ] OTP1 * ex tuur niit hailn'I must not heal.
The prohibitive consists of the auxiliary tuur must plus the negation plus
the infinitive of the verb.

140 The obligative mood: The obligative is formed by means of the auxiliary TO
mjz must plus the infinitive of the verb. ex mjz hailnI must heal.

141 The necessitathe mood: ex darf haibi or ex kiier

hailn I ought to heal. The necessitative consists of the auxiliary darf or
kiier plus the infinitive of the verb.

142 The conditional mood: There are two forms.

(a) ex volt gyhailt 1 would heal: The present condi
is formed with the auxiliary volt plus the participle of the verb.
(b) ex zol hailn (if) I were to heal/were I to heal: This type of
 1 \Morphology

the present conditional is formed with the auxiliary plus the infinitive of the
verb.

143 The past conditional mood: There are two forms:

(a) / volt gyvim
healed: The past conditional may be formed by the use of the auxiliary
volt plus the participle of the auxiliary zaan and that of the verb in question.
(b) / ex zol gyviin hailn (if) I had healed, (if)
have healed : The past conditional is formed by the use of the auxiliary zol
plus the participle of the auxiliary | zaan and the infinitive of the verb in question.

Aspects

144 The category of aspect serves to convey, beyond the basic meaning of the
verb, the specific way in which an action/process etc. takes place. (Although there
are in Yiddish no morphological characteristics constituting this category, there
seems to be a tendency to aspectual thinking, resulting in the following groups.)

The perfective aspect

145
driml doze p r n antdrimlt viiem ,doze ofP
&fa l' fall 8 &83 bafal attack

hiier hear derhiier , perceive, become

aware (by hearing)

boat change (trans.) 3 88 farbaat exchange
raas tear / cjraas , tear up
6 fiier lead 6 fiier ous have ones way
mii mix - - mii o f1open a book (at a
certain place)
ipdr press ipdr jnter prop up
kiier ,turn kiier iber overturn*
tap grope tap uun ,touch
laig lay laig up ,delay*
xap ,grab, seize D ) P xap cjj ,snatch away

The perfective denotes that the action of the verb is completed. This aspect
is formed by linking the verb - which normally denotes a non-completed action -
with an adverb, or by prefixing it.
 2 2 . An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

Tbe singulative aspect

146 ex tjj a lax' I give a laugh*: The singuladve describes a sin

momentary action. This aspect is formed by means of an invariable element and
a verb functioning as an auxiliary verb. The invariable is the base form of the
verb in question, turned into a noun by the indefinite article; the auxiliary is the
verb tjj do or gib give, occasionally xap ,seize. In the case of some
strong verbs it is not the base form that is used but the stem of the participle.
Tjj and 3 g& are not always interchangeable.
- ex tjj mex zex a itil baam own I place my-
self at the stove, * 0 ex tjj ys a itil anider I put it down,
- ex tjj mex a Lug araan in bit I lie down on the
bed: The verb may be reflexive or adverb-linked, or a combination of both.
This construction appears in all tenses and moods, and also combines with the
past habitual and causative aspects; it has the forms of the verb infinite, too.

The inchoative aspect

147 / zai nimyn zex loijn They start runni

choative expresses the beginning of an action/activity/event. It is formed by means
of the verb - nimyn zex lit. to take oneself* - used as an auxiliary
verb - plus the infinitive of the verb in question.

The iterative aspect

148 aai haltn in am iraabn They keep writin

ative describes repetition or non-interruption of the verbal action. This aspect
is formed by the verb halt plus in am, followed by the infinitive
of the verb in question.

The habitual aspect

149 ex tjj iraabn I write: The habitual denotes habit, natu

activity, occupation etc. more emphatically than the simple verb. This aspect is
formed by the verb tjj do - employed here as an auxiliary verb - plus the in-
finitive of the verb in question.1

1 This construction obviously does not correspond to tbe English one with i.
 273 Morphology

The past habitual aspect

150 ex fleig sraabn I used to write - be writing : The past habitual

describes the action as recurring in the past. This aspect is formed by the auxiliary
verb fieig used to plus the infinitive of the verb in question.

The causative aspect

151 er vet dex maxn zugn a lignt He

tell a lie: The subject of the sentence causes somebody or something to perform
an action. The causative consists of the verb max make -p lu s the infinitive
of the verb in question. See final remark above in para. 146.

152 Reflexive verbs

Present
1st pers. sg. - ex laig mex - zex
2nd pers. sg. - d j laigst dex - zex
3rd pers. sg. - - er - z i - sy laigt zex
1st pers. pi. mir laign zex
2nd pers. pi. - - ir - ec laigt aax - zex
3rd pers. pi. za i laign zex
Infinitive 1 zex laign 1
Contemporal laigndik zex
Participle 1 - zex g y laigt1
Past / - ex (h)ob mex - zex g y laigt
Future - ex vel mex - zex laign
Future Past - ex vel mex - zex (h)ubn
/ gylaigt
Imperative - laig dex - zex
Optative (a) lomex zex laign
Optative (b) - zo l ex mex - zex laign
Permissive - ex meig mex - zex laign
Prohibitive - ex tuur mex - zex niit laign
Obligative - ex m jz mex - zex laign
Necessitative (a) - ex d a r f mex - zex laign
Necessitative (b) - ex keier mex - zex laign
Conditional / - ex volt mex - zex gylaigt

1 When this form constitutes an elliptical sentence - where there is no finite verb - the word order
is, as a rule, reversed.
 274 Outline of Yiddish Grammar

Past conditional - ex volt mex - zex gyviin

/ gylaigt
Perfective - ex laig mex - zex amder
Singulative 8 - 1 ex tjj mex - zex a laig
Inchoative - ex nim mex - zex laign zex
Iterative ex halt in ain laign zex
Habitual - ex tjj mex - zex laign
Past Habitual - 6 ex fliig mex - zex laign
Causative ex max ym laign zex

153 The reflexive construction occurs in three semantic categories, and is used in
all tenses, moods and aspects. It has no passive.

The real reflexive verb

154 V ~ T ex laig mex- zex I lie down *( I lay mysel f), -

ex hjk mex - zex I bow* (I bow myself*): The pronoun refers to the agent as
being the direct object of the action denoted by the verb.

The psychological reflexive verb

155 - 6 ex frai mex - zex I am glad: Here too, the prono

in the accusative but this does not represent any action by the agent on himself.

The ethic reflexive verb

156 8 ex lax mir 1 laugh (to myself), ex traxt mir

I think (to myself): The pronoun is in the ethic dative.

157 The passive voice

Present / ex viier gyhailt
Infinitive / gyhailt viiem
Contemporal / gyhailt viiemdik
Participle / gyhailt gyvoom
Past / ex bin gyhailt gyvoom
Pluperfect / ?- / ex bin gyhat - gyviin
/ gyhailt gyvoom
Future pvr\ / ex vil gyhailt viiem
Future past / tx vil zaan gyhaih gyvoom

 275 Morphology

Imperative / viier gyhaih

Optative (a) p r n / lomex gyhaih viiem
Optative (b) pPTi / zol ex gyhailt viiem
Permissive p r n / ex miig gyhailt viiem
Prohibitive p p n / > ex tuur niit gyhailt viiem
Obligative p r n / ex mjz gyhaih viiem
Necessitative (a) p y n / ex darfgyhailt viiem
Necessitative (b) p y n /
Conditional ,
p^jron
Past conditional
p ^ n y ! /
Perfective /
Iterative p v n /
Past Habitual p f n / 6

There is no singulative, inchoative, habitual, causative and reflexive in the

passive voice. It is often avoided in favour of an active construction.

THE SECOND CONJU GATION: STRONG VERBS

158 The strong verbs differ from the weak in three respects: (a) The ending of
the participle is , not t; (b) the stem vowel has gradation; (c) in a number of strong
verbs the auxiliary for the past is not ( h)ob have* but the substantive verb,
bin *to be.*
There are ten classes of strong verbs. Some of those in Classes ill, vi and
vil undergo, in addition, changes in the consonants: /d > t !,zero > jg, n, ng/.
The verbs in Class x are exceptional in that they have no gradation.
Note. Verbs which occur only with a prefix or in combination with an adverb,
are listed alphabetically according to the original simplex (which has disappeared
from the language), e. g. , under . Certain verbs are listed in more than
one class, in accordance with regional variations. In the same way some strong
verbs are used weak regionally and this fact is then mentioned in the list. Verbs
which form the past with , be are indicated by the word bin (where necessary:
iz) in brackets.
However, in the pluperfect either auxiliary is in use, e. g. ,
6$ /6$ ex bin gyhat - gyviin gyilufn11 had slept, I had been
asleep.'
 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar 276

First class: Gradation // - / 0/

*59
barh , brush / gyboritn 1
fardarb ,corrupt &fa r dorbn 6
^ / require / 6 gydorfn
;* , grow )(/ gyvoksn (bm( 3
varg ,choke (trans.( $/ gyvorgn
8 v a rf throw 6 $/ gyvorfn
farb ,colour 3186 $6 / 6 gyforbn1
itarb , die )($/ gyitorbn (bin(
} palt split / gyipohn2

Second class: Gradation jif - /0(00, uu)/

160
)(/ gybuum2 (bin)
, born
bfrit , brush / gyboritn1
brix , break / gybroxn
drii ,thresh / gydroin
// / help 6 /6 gyholfn
heng ,hang / gyhongyn
6 heft ous ,embroider ,6 / gyhoftn, ous

vil , boil (milk) /
gyvok
veier , become )3 (/ gyvoom (bin)
veier uun lose uun gyvuum2
/
verg ,choke (trans.) gyvorgn
/

T treit , tread )() / gytrotn2
(bin, [AJoi)
trink (reflex.) / gytronkyn
,drown (intrans.)
tref'meet; guess 6 /6 gytrofn
tiiert , ferments gyiuuem2
U( ,extinguish / gylofn
mild ,report / gymoldn

1 Mntly weak,
a Regional.
 277 Morphology

melk milk / gymolkn

mest measure / gymostn
jle x t plait / gyfloxtn
kvel feel great joy / gykvoln
kneit knead / gyknotn 2
farrext put right, 5 farroxtn 3
mend
_ _ )(/ gysvoln (hin)
swollen
sveier swear (oath) / gysvuuern2
- sext slaughter / - gysoxtn

stex prick / gystoxn
smelc melt / gysmolcn (iz)
smelt (m )
selt curse / gysoltn
seier cut (by / gysuuern 2
scissors), shear
sprex up exorcise / up gysproxn

srek frighten / gysrokn

Third class: Gradation i, ii - 0 (uu)

161
giis pour (liquid) / gygosn
gilt is valid / gygoltn
5 fardriist is vexed, annoyed fardrosn
niis sneeze / gynosn
/ gyniis is of use / gynosn
5 friier freeze / gyfruuern 2
krig get / gykrogn2
kriiex crawl )(/ gykroxn (bin)

sit pour (dry things) / gysotn2
silt curse / gysoltn
siis shoot / gysosn
sliis close / gyslosn
ziid boil / gyzotn

3 Also weak.
 278 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

Fourth class: Gradation H - oi

162
)(/ gyboiem (viier)
, bom
veig weigh / gyvoign
viier uun lose* $/ ()$ uun gyvoiem
ieiert ferments /()- gyiotem
& bafeil send word 6 bafoiln
h'eier ,swear (oath) / ()gysvotern
Icier cut (scissors), / )gyioiem
shear

Fifth class: Gradation ai - oi

63 / gyboign
baig 4bend
haib lift, heave / gykoibn
zaig suck, suckle / gjzoign

Sixth class: Gradation ii - oi

164
M
6 farliter ' lose 6 ()farloiem
6 friier ' freeze 6 / )6 gyfroiem
(b)
6 fit, , fly ( ( 6 / 6 gyfloign (bin)
cii pull / gycoign

Seventh class: Gradation i - j

bii bark / gybjln1
bind' bind / gybjndn
/ gybjnyn
fargin not to grudge 1686
/88 fargjnyn
ding hire / gydjngyn
drtng draw a conclusion / gydrjngyn
hink limp / gyhjnkyn
/ gyvtn ,win / gyvjnyn
vine wish / gyvjncn
vtnk *bcckon / gyvjnkyn
zing sing / tjzjngyn
)(/ aan gyzjnkyn
(viier) sunk
 279 Morphology

trmk drink* / gytrjnkyn

link ous sprain / ous gyljnkyn
6/ 6 gyfin find / 6 gyfpy*
cmd uun light / uun gycjndn
/ uun gycjnyn
kling ring, sound / gJklJ*gyn
rint runs, flows )(/ gyrjnyn (iz)
Svim swim )(/ gyivjmyn (bin)
) (1*6/86 farSvjndn (viier)
disappear
ittnk stink / gyitjnkyn
Sind skin / gySjndn
Sling swallow /
Ipin spin / gyipjnyn*
Spring spring )(/ gyiprjngyn (bin)

Eighth class: Gradation aa - i

16s
boat change / gybitn
3 baas bite / gybisn
glaax compare )(/ gygUxn ( M b
)(/! gyglixnt (bin)
vaaz show / gyvizn
3 traab drive / 3 gytribn
klaab gather / gykhbn
knaap pinch / gyknipn2
raab rub / gyribn
root ride on horseback / gyritn
raas tear / gyrisn
ivaag be silent / gyivig*
imaas smite, thrash / gySmisn
3 {raab write / gyiribn
0>)
zaa(i) strain, sift /
laa(i) lend, borrow / gykgn
0 Spaa(i) spit /
iraa(i) shout / gjtng*

4 Regionally weak.
5 If tnm itiw , weak. 0 fit* * ms ftr*ifhttn ic weak.
 280 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

h a d suffer
(C) u u g y Utn
/
maad avoid / gym itn 2
h a a d cut / gym itn

Ninth class: Miscellaneous gradations

166
gai walk, go )(/ g y gangyn (bin)
) ( / gygdn {bin) 2
stai stand ) ( / gystanyn (bin)
kloub gather / gyklibn
gib give / gygeibn
Ug lie (position) )(/ gyleign (bin)
geb give / gygeibn
lo if run )( / gylofn (bin)
laaxt shine (intrans.) / gyloxtn 1
nem take / gynjmyn
t jj do / gytuun 6
)(/ gyzesn (bin)
zic sit

Tenth class: No gradation

167
bund (reflex.) / gybuudn
take a bath
bluuz blow / gybluuzn
bruut roast / gybruutn
luud sue / gyluudn
muul grind / gymuuln
muul paint / gymuuln 3
fuur ride ) ( 5 / 5 gyfuurn (bin)
/ geruut succeed )(/ gyruutn (iz)
/ gyruutn in
resembling
grub dig / gygrubn
cvug wash (hair) / gycvugn
sub scrape / gysubn
slug beat, hit / gyslugn
sluf sleep )(/ gyslufn (bin)

6 Regional. - Infinitive turn.

 281 Morphology

stois push / gystoisn

kloub gather / gykloubn
bah bake / gybakn
halt hold / gyhaltn
vaks grow ) ( / gyvaksn (bin)
vas wash / gyvasn
zalc salt / gyzalcn
5 / /fall )(/ 5 gyfaln (bin)
spalt split / gyspaltn
hats be called; / gyhaisn
command
tjj do / g ytjjn
r j j f calV / g yrjjfn
es eat / gygesn
nern take / gynemyn2
fres eat (of / gyfresn
animals eating)
5 farges forget 5 fargesn
/ g yfel please ) ( 5 / 5
gyfeln (bin)
beit beg, ask / gybeitn
)(/ gyveizn (bin)
)(/ gyvein (bin)
zei see /gyzein
treit tread / gytreitn (intrans.
bin, trans. (h)ob)
/ gyneizn veiern
recover (from
illness)
/ gyseit happens )(/ gyse'in (iz)
gib give / gygibn2
krig get / gykrign
hilt guard / gyhiitn4
tjnk dip / gytjnkyn
kjrn come ( ( / gykjm yn (bin)

Alphabetical list o f strong verbs1

! 68
1 IO
5
8 4 ,2 /() 10
1 The figures indicate the class. The figures beyond 10 indicate numbered paragraphs in the text.
 282 An Outline of Yiddish Gnnunar

$() ! 0 / 7 8
8 7 3 7
2 7 126
2 4 7
2 / 126 # 10
/ 126 8
3 2 10 B 9 3
/ 3 ? 4 2
/ 10 to
9 10 2
/ 7
i o 09 * 3 ! 0, 9
8 9
5
! 0 3 0
! 26 8 7
8 10 7
1 3
!n 0,9 8
1 6/ 6 7
xo 9
6
6 2 86 10 0
10
6/ ! 0 $ 10
10
* 6 4 8
6 6,3 6 1
7
7
10,2
7
10 2 3
6 2
2
7
4 ,2
! 0
2 10
!0 $
10 5
:0
!0, 9
9
7
8 2
9 1
7
8 2
8 2
8
10,2
9
! 0 ,3 7 10
3 1
6 6
2 1
/ 10 10
! 0 () 10 8
 283 Morphology

8 2 8
10 /^ 1 & 8
2 10 8
2 9 2 6
4,2 7 7
10,1 2
8 3 10 $
7 3 ! 0
7 10 , 86/ 86
2 $ 7 7
8 3 8
8 8 7
2 2 4,2

2?44! 8 i io king 2
boat 8 kiit 10
baig 5 Fal 10 AinA 7
bak 10 farb 1
barit 1 bafeil 4 / (< > * 2,4
bht 10 Ejfin 7 Kjm io
birit2 flix t 2 ^ 8
W 7 flii 6 kling 7
WW 7 friier 3,6 kloub 9, 10
Maoi 8 fuu(e)r 10 knaap 8
bluuz 10 kniit 2, 10
gyboiem 4 Cat 9
trig 3 I
Ar/r 2 gM 9 kriiex
Arm/ 10 fargii 10 kvil 2
faW 10 9. io
3 Laa(i) 8
Cm 6 * 3 load 8
a n J uun 7 fargm 7 laaxt 9
rrag 10 glaax 8 lii 2
jra i 10 % 9
fardarb 1 far liter 6
ding 7 Hath 5 link ous
ir// 2 Aa// 10 loif 9
fardriist 3 hift ous 2 loz 10
>* 7 hilf 2 luud io
 284 Outline of Yiddish Grammar

Maad 8 8k 3 traab 8
mild 2 ifiu 3 tr if 2
milk 2 /ftv 7 trfit 2,10
mist 2 iluf 10 trink 2
muul 10 Slug 10 trtnJc 7
mitt//6 10 imdu 8
/m A 2
Vaaz 8
fara/ 8
gynitxn (viier) 10 vaks 10
Spaa(i) 8
nbn 9, 10 varf 1
7
mis 3 varg 1
iprix up 2
7 *3 vai 10
7 viier 2
fraa(i) 8
viier uun 4, 2
8 /r<wi 8
Wi 2 4
8 vil 2
raat 8 i/di 9
Itarb 1 7
farrixt 2, 3 um/ 7
rint 7 ilix 2
wni 7
Stink 7
r jjf >0
gyruut 10 Stois 10
Sub 10 Zaa(i) 8
Svaag 8 zaig 5
BaSaf 10 Svilier 2,4 10
Seier 2, 4 Svim 7 zA' 10
gyiiit 10 farSvjndn (viier) 7 tie 9, 10
Silt 2 z</ 3
Sixt 2 Tjj 10 zing 7
His 3 tjnk 10 gyzjnkyn, aan 7

Alphabetical list o f strong participles

169
/ / /
2 7 *3 10 p $ a
3 7 / 10
9 8 2
9 / 8 2,1
3 ! 0 5
6 / 6 10 4 ()
10 ! 0 $ 7 3
 285 Morphology

/ / /
2 ! 26 8
() 10 126 8
) 10 10,9,9 P ? 1
2 10
3
2 10 3 10
8 86 1
5
/ 7 6 1
( ) 3 / 7
/,
(/) 3 2
/ 7
/ 9 / 7
8
!0 (,) 6 3
io
/ 10
? io
9 10
6 10
6 10 6 2
6 1 9 9 / 2
6 4 10 6 , 2
/ io 8 6 . 2
6/ 7 2 5
6 2 / 2 / 7
6 6 2 ! 0
6 10 / 7
6 3 8
4
8() 6 10
() 4
6 10
7
6 * 2 / 7
() 4 / 7
,/,
2
/ 7
$ 10 10
2 10 1
/ 10 9 2,1
10 6 9 2
/ 7 2 2
9 , 8 8() 6 ! 0
2 /. 4
8 7 $ 4
3 8 7
3 8 7
10

9 8
 286 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

/ nn
10 6 4 10
7 / 2 2 6
8 4 /
8 2 10
10 / 4 8
10 8
1 8 8
7 / 8 ()
8 2 ? 10
2 $ , 2 3
7 / 9 / 2
2 1 3,2
! 0 ?/ ?, 10 3
8 7 / io 6
8 10 2

Gybakn 10 7 gangyn 9
beitn 10 fardorbn 1 9 .9
bisn 8 iorfn 1 fargisn 10
bitn 8 drjngyn 7 gibn 10
bjln 7 fardrosn 3 fargjnyn
bjndn 7 droin 2 glexn 10
bjnyn 7 gUxnt 10
8 10 goltn 3
bluuzn 10 gosn 3
4 fabi 10 grubn 10
boign 5 fetn 10
I, 2 fjnyn 7 kaltn 10
broxn 2 floign 6 hiitn 10
bruutn 10 floxtn 2 kjnkyn 7
W n 10 bafoiln 4 hoftn,ous 2
buuem 2 forbn 1 bahoftn 2
fiesn 10 hoibn 5
froum 6 holfn 2
uun 7 fruuem 3 hongyn 2
uim 7 fuuern 10
coign 6 wwni 4
10 gin 9 iuuern 2
 287 Morphology

kjmyn 10 r# 8 farivjndn, viier

klibn 8 ,9 rim 8 ivoiem 4
kljngyn 7 ritn 8 ivoln 3
kloubn 10 rjnyn 7 Svuuem 2
kneitn 10 farroxtn 2
knipn 8 ruuin 10
knotn 2 tjjn 10
krign 10 tjnkyn 10
baiafn 10 triitn 10
krogn 3
kroxn 3 &* 10 tribn 8
trjnkyn 8
kvobt 2 7
//0nt 3
trofn 2
ilufn 10 tronkyn 2
liign 9 ilugn 10 troln 2
lign 8 bnisn 8 turn 9
litn 8 imolcn 2
Ijnkyn, ous 7 hatn 8 vaksn 10
loxtn 9 ioiem 4 vain 10
lofn 9 ioltn 2,3 vizn 8
farloiem 6 iosn 3 vjnkyn 7
loin 2 /to 3 vjnyn 7
lozn 10 /oxto 2 voiem, uun 4
luudn 10 fya/rtr 10 voign 4
ipign 8 voksn 1
ipjnyn 7 voln 2
mitn 8
ipoltn 1 voom 2
moldn 2
iprjngyn 7 vorfn 1
molkn 2
{prom, up 2 1,2
mostn 2
iribn 8 vuum, uun 2
muuM** 10
irign 8
muubtb) 10
Srokn 2
itanyn 9 za&w 10
nhzn, viier 10 itjnkyn 7 2/m 10
nimyn 10 itoisn 10 2/m 9
njmyn 9 itorbn 1 zicn 10
nosif** 3 itoxn 2 zign 8
nosfP> 3 fubn 10 zjngyn 7
htuem 2 zoign 5
ivign 8 3
rjjjk 10 kjm yn 7 tjnkyn, aan 7
 288 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

THE PERIPHRASTIC VERBS: THE THIRD CONJUGATION

3 bm + Invariable

170 3 ex bin m oixl'I forgive: This conjugation is formed by the com-

bination of an invariable element and the substantive verb as an auxiliary.

Infinitive ^ moixl zaan

Contemporal ^ moixl zaa(i\yndik
Participle / moixl gyviin
Past / 1 ex (h)ob moixl gyviin
Pluperfect / ex (h)ob gyhat moixl gyviin

Future ^ ex vel moixl zaan
Future past / ^ ex vel hubn moixl gyviin
Imperative 1 zaa moixl
Optative (a) 1 lomex moixl zaan
Optative (b) 1 zol ex moixl zaan
Permissive ex miig moixl zaan
Prohibitive 1 ex tuur niit moixl zaan
Obligative ex mjz moixl zaan
Necessitative 8 ex darf moixl zaan
Conditional / 1 ex volt moixl gyviin
Past Conditional ex volt gyviin moixl gyviin
p rim /
Past Habitual ^ ex fliig mom! zaan

Reflexive

Real Reflexive - 3 ex bin mex - zex matriiex ts

trouble*
Psychological Reflexive 1 - ex bin mex - zex toiy I am
making a mistake, I am
mistaken*
Infinitive zex toiy zaan or
toiy zaan zex
Contemporal 1 toiy zaa(i]yndik zex or
zex toiy zaa(i)yndik
Participle / 1 zex toiy gyviin ot
/ toiy gyviin zex
 289 Morphology

Past / - ex (h)ob mex - zex toiy gyviin

Pluperfect / - ex (h)ob mex - zex gyhat toiy
/ gyviin
Future - ex vil mex - zex toiy zaan
Future past - ex vil - zex mex (h)ubn toiy
/ gyviin
Imperative - zaa(i) dex - zex toiy
Optative (a) lomex zex toiy zaan
Optative (b) - zol ex mex - zex toiy zaan
Permissive - ex miig mex - zex toiy zaan
Prohibitive - ex tuur mex - zex niit toiy zaan
Obligative - ex mjz mex - zex toiy zaan
Necessitative - 7 ex darf mex - zex toiy zaan
Conditional / - volt mex - zex toiy gyvim
Past conditional / - ex volt mex - zex gyviin toiy
/ gyviin
Past habitual - 6 ex fliig mex - zex toiy zaan
Note: This conjugation must not be confused with constructions like
ex bin gliklex *I am happy, i.e., substantive verb plus adjective. The
invariable element of the third conjugation - historically a Hebrew participle - is
not used as an adjective. This is evident in two ways. If it were an adjective, the
construction of the past tense would not be, e. g. , / er (h)ot
moixl gyviin he forgave - has forgiven but / er iz gyviin
moixl or / n iz moixl gyvim , on the model of /
er iz gyvim gliklex or 2/ gliklex gyvim
he was - has been happy: The normal auxiliary to have is employed, on the
model of, e.g., 88 er (h)ot fartaact he translated - has trans-
lated, and not the auxiliary to be. Secondly, the non-verbal element cannot be
inflected: it would not be possible to say er iz a moixeler he
forgives (lit. is a forgiver) on the lines of er iz a gliklexer
he is happy, which is a frequent construction.

THE PERIPHRASTIC VERBS: THE FOURTH CONJUGATION

Viter + Invariable

171 viier niilym *I disappear, ex viier myvjlbl

I become confused: This conjugation is formed by the combination of an unin-
fleeted element with the auxiliary viier become. The verbs of the fourth
conjugation are inflected like the passive voice of the simple verb.
 290 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

This conjugation denotes a change of a state or condition (see the above ex-
amples). Hence, some of these verbs function as a passive to a verb of the third
conjugation, e.g., bin myvalbl confuse.
These compound verbs must not be confused with constructions formed from
an adjective plus the auxiliary viier become, e.g., viier gliklex
become happy. For although the uninflected element of the verbs of the fourth
conjugation - niilym, myvjlbl - originates in a Hebrew participle, it
cannot function as an adjective: there is no such form as ( * J a*
niiljmer m ini a vanished person nor can such an adjective become a noun - there
is no such form as der niiljmer the vanished one.

FORMATION OF VERBS

172 Non-primary verbs are derived from words of other word classes by the
following means.

I. From nouns
A. In unchanged fo rm
173 $ tu p becomes day, xuulym to dream, lexer make holes*
from lixer, the plural of lox hole : T he noun is taken over unchanged.
B. In changed fo rm
(a) By umlaut
kip behead, from kop head: The noun undergoes umlaut.
(b) By suffix
$6 /: tilyfoniir to telephone: The suffix T iir takes the stress.
koloniziir colonize: The final syllable of the double suffix iziir ise/ize
takes the stress. / balbatyvy act as the owner from
/ balbatym, the plural of / balbuus master
of the house; owner, minus the plural ending (representing as it were the stem).
The suffix vrvp rrvyvy is combined with the unchanged form of the noun.
raiser to smoke from 1 roi(e)x smoke: Here we have the suffix er in
combination with umlaut.

II. From adjectives

A. In unchanged form
174 - { tark mex - zex control oneself, / ^vdrym
warm: The adjective is used in unchanged form. hixer to increase, raise,
- liter mex - z e x 1grow old: The comparative form of the adjective
is used.
 291 Morphology

b. In changed form
(a) By Umlaut
- grais mex - z e x pride oneself from grois great, hater
clear up, purify, from [ outer clear, pure: The adjective undergoes
umlaut.

(b) By prefix
farziis sweeten, 6 0 [ arbiter embitter, baiaitt'adorn: The
adjective is unchanged but a prefix has been added. 6 fargrmger lighten,
make easy, 6 farbeser improve: The comparative form of the adjective
is used.
86 farkrim distort from brjm crooked: wrong: The adjective under-
goes umlaut.
(c) By suffix
rairuk to clean, cleanse: The adjective is unchanged but a suffix has been
added.
- raitl mex - zex blush: The adjective undergoes umlaut and a
suffix is added.

I II . From roots
176 8 xanfy flatter, / taany argue, from the Hebrew roots
hnp and /' : These are in Yiddish realised as CaCC functioning as a stem.

iv. Onomatopoeic verbs

177 havky yelp, yap, njjky to say njj* ( = well?): The suffix of
onomatopoeic verbs is ky.

iv. From verbs

175 Verbs are derived from other verbs with the aid of prefixes. See Prefixed
Verbs (122).

Adverbs

178
W
*avik away, ous out, Jmisttt on purpose, azoi so,
uun on, anider down, up off, 6 oft often, arjm around,
duu here, dortn there kii here (in this town/village) etc.

(*)
179 gjt well, iam beautiful, tang long, 6 / 8 cjflamt
flaming: Adjectives and participles, in their uninflected form, serve as adverbs.
 292 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

(3)
180(a) ijngerhait being young broigyzerhait *being angry -
cross, 88 0 fartraxterkait in thought, ? imjjysndi-
kcrhait while talking: The suffix erhait forms adverbs from adjectives,
participles and con temporals.
(b) maxnysvaaz in swarms, in groups, matdhaaz when
she was a girl: The suffix vaaz forms adverbs from nouns.

(4)
181 -
gancn tug - a gancy vox - a ganc iuuer - a hipin mehalex He travels a - the whole
day - week - year - a considerable distance:T he accusative functions as the
adverbial case.

Prepositions

182 Simple prepositions: jnter under, below, behind; iber over,

above; mit with, nuux after; 6 fa r for; p6 fjn from, of,
cviin - ] cUn between etc.
183 Compound prepositions: 6 fjn jnter *from under, below, behind;
cjrik mit or . . . mil . . . cjrik ago, e.g., mit
iuuem cjrik years ago. Compound prepositions are combinations of prepositions
with adverbs.
184 deriber therefore, derbaa next to, dermit there-
with, with th at dcmuux after that, 6 derfjn therefrom: A com-
bination of the prefix der with a preposition is often used instead of the group
preposition + the demonstrative dcim (dative) this - 3 iber deim
therefore. Not all prepositions are treated in this way.

C onjunctions

185 Co-ordinating conjunctions: jn and, - oux - oix also, too,

demuux after that, lysof1in the end, <saadn unless, * - * ii-ii
*... as well, nor but, ober but, p6 fjn dlst viign in
spite of it, vuum for (because), deriber therefore, bexen
therefore, etc.
186 Subordinating conjunctions: az when; that, 1 oib if, 1 zint since,
xod although, kol-zman *as long as, etc.
 Syntax

The Statement Sentence

187(a) Di !jn iaant The sun is shining: The normal word order is
subject - predicate.

THE PREDICATE

(b) / Di zjn (h)ot gyiaant The sun shone - was sh

When the predicate is a verb, the finite follows immediately on the subject.
(c) Di ituut iz grois , The town is big: When the predicat
consists of the substantive verb plus a predicative, and the latter is an adjective,
then this remains uninflected.
(d) di ituut iz a groisy The town is big/a big one: But
adjective is inflected if it is preceded by the (indefinite) article.
Di ituut iz di gristy in ganen land The town is the biggest
in the whole country: When the adjective is a superlative the definite article is
used.
(e) / / Er iz ipys
up to the mark: The words 0$ dus' this, t hat , / ipys something or
ys it, when added to the predicate, qualify it in a vague way.
(f) / Er iz gyvoorn an apta
pharmacist: When the verb form is periphrastic, the predicate normally follows it.
(g) ? Vist zaan a bal-meluxy You will be an
Occasionally the second person singular of the personal pronoun is omitted.
(h) 5 ?iz duu azomy There are such people: It sometime
happens that the predicate does not agree with the subject, the latter being a
plural and the predicate a singular.
 294 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

(i) p j n Zai frHgn ainer baam andem They ask each

other: On the other hand, the constructio ad sensum is not rare - the predicate
is in the plural although the subject is in the singular.
(j) Zaanvl jn zaan huger darfk haant
fuuem Zaanvel and his brother-in-law have to leave today (by train, car etc.):
In a compound sentence with several subjects in the singular, the predicate is in
the plural.
( k) 6 Der hiier mit der higer darfk
haant fuuem The father-in-law and the mother-in-law have to leave today:
Here, jn is replaced by a preposition ( mit).
(1) / / Ez iz dorm gyblibn jn
gylaxt He remained there and laughed: In a composite sentence, when one of
its predicates forms the past with have and the other with be, the auxiliary of
the second predicate is sometimes omitted, notwithstanding the discrepancy.

THE OBJECT

The direct object

188(a) Er nimt dus beritl He takes the brush: The direct
object is placed after the predicate.
(b) Zi vit vain di hbnder She will wash the shir
the verb form is periphrastic, the object normally follows the last part of the verb.
(c) M inin viin ym niit fa
not understand hi m; 6 / 6 M ot zexgyfrait The people were
glad: But when the object is a pronoun, especially a personal or reflexive one, it
follows immediately on the finite part of the verb.
(d) 86 Ex haib uun cjfaritain I am beginning to und
When the object is a verb, the infinitive with y to is used.
(e) / ? $ Ex haib u
am beginning to understand the matter: This infinitive can take an object.
( f ) zol gain should go, / 7 loz hiiem let hear,
mjz ilufn must sleep, miig zugn may say, fUig laign
*he used to lay, p < P kin xapn can snatch, gai spaciiem go for a
walk, haib uun imjjsn begin to talk : However, the cj is omitted
after the modal verbs zol, loz, mjz, miig, fliig and kin, also
after gai, occasionally after 3 haib uun; d a rfmust, have to is con-
strued with or without cj but the latter is more frequent - ( ) darf
(cj) vartn have to wait.
(8) M y lim t mex derxiiryc I am being taught manners :
A verb may govern two direct objects.
 29S Syntax

The indirect object

189(a) Zi iraabt der iviger She is writing to her mother-in-
law: The indirect object also follows the verb.
(b) Zi vit iraabn der iviger She will w
mother-in-law ; Z i vit ir iraabn She will write to her : When the
verb form is periphrastic, the word order is the same as in the case of the direct
object
(c) Ex gai mir ipaciim I am taking a walk : The ethic dat
is often used.

Direct plus indirect object

190(a) y e a Zi git der htjjer dus pikl She gives her daughter-
in-law the parcel: When a sentence contains both kinds of object, the indirect
one precedes the direct one.
(b) 3 Zi darf ys gUbn der injjer *She has to
her daughter-in-law ; 8 Z i darfirgiibn dus pikl She must
give her the parcel: When one of the objects is a pronoun it takes precedence,
following immediately on the finite part of the verb.
(c) Er darfys irgHbn He must give it to her: When
objects are pronouns the word order is not fixed but the sequence, accusative-
dative, is preferred; both pronouns follow immediately on the finite part of the
verb.
(d) 3 ?
a gjty maasy iz niit kain kjnc He thinks that to write a good story is no gTtat feat:
An object can be governed by a noun, i.e., a substantival infinitive.

The prepositional object

191 / M ydarfvartn ofdi
to wait for the musicians ^ ; 6 /6 Er ipit fjnym oilym He mocks
the people: The object can also consist of a prepositional phrase.
6 M indl iz hixer fjn Moiiyn Mendel is taller than Moses: The object of
comparison is a similar case. Occasionally, in place of 6 f jn *from ( = than),
we come across "*fi fa r for ( than).

THE ATTRIBUTE

192 The attribute can take the form of an adjective, pronoun, numeral, noun,
adverb or adverbial phrase. It generally precedes the governing noun but an
attributive adverb or an adverbial phrase mostly follow the governing noun.
 296 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

The adjectival attribute

193(a) & Er vil koifn a grohn suud mit alty
baimer He wants to buy a large orchard with old trees: The adjective is inflected
on the pattern of Declension I (p. 241): It agrees with its noun in number (
groisn, alty).
(b) zaan eltern brjjders his elder brothers,
zaan elterer hesters his elder sisters, an amuuliky
xaverty a former (female) friend: It also agrees in case and gender with the few
nouns which have case endings and with those nouns whose suffixes indicate male
or female. But, apart from that, it is the adjective that shows by its terminations
the theoretical case and gender of the noun.
(c) mit grois fra id with great joy: When the adjective
grois great qualifies an abstract noun not preceded by an article, it stays un-
inflected.

The pronominal attribute: The possessive pronoun as attribute

(A) Noun unattended by article

194(a) Ir toxter iz in der haim Her daughter is at
home: When the noun is in the singular and has no article, the pronoun is not
inflected.
(b) / b y texte
daughters are at home: When, however, the noun is in the plural, the pronoun is
inflected.

(B) Noun with indefinite article

195(a)
Nom. 8 ii(e)rer z zjjn a son of hers
Acc. ii(e)rn a zjjn
Dat. ii(e)rn a zjjn
Poss. H(e)rn a zjjns
Nom. ii(e)ry a toxter a daughter of hers
Acc. ii(e)ry a toxter
Dat. ii(e)rer a toxter
Poss. ii(e)rer a toxters
Nom. Hers a kind a child of hers
Acc. Hers a kind
Dat. Hern a kind
Poss. : Hern a kinds
 297 Syntax

When the noun has the indefinite article, the Utter is preceded by the pronoun.
(b) 8 ii(e)rs a zjjn a son of hers, DTK ii(e)rs a toxter , a
daughter of hers,' 0 * ii(e)rs a kind a child of hers : All the forms in the
preceding table can be replaced by the invariable ii(e)rs.
(c) 3 3 Zi v ity s zugn der buby ii(e
it to her grandmother, 8 a zjjn maaner a son of mine,
a toxter maany a daughter of mine, 0 a kind moans , a child of mine,
der zjjn maaner my son, that sone of mine, di
toxter maany my daughter, that daughter of mine dus kind moans
my child, that child of mine: The possessive pronoun may also be placed after
its noun - which may have the indefinite or definite article; it is inflected according
to the second declension (see p. 253).

The demonstrative pronoun as attribute

196(a) deter m int this (male) person, ot deier wW this
(male) person, 5 di doziky xivry this society,
dus zilby faa(i)xys the same relationship: The demonstrative pronoun, function-
ing as an attribute, is nearly always used adjectivally and precedes the noun.
(b) diier and ot diier this are inflected according to para. 101,
der doziker this, der iiniker that, 3 der
zelber the same, / der aigyner the same, der
zelbiker the same* - all these are inflected like the first adjectival declension;
iiner that is inflected like the first declension of the possessive pronoun;
azoiny such and ()ozel(e)xy such are plurals (their singulars
azomer and 18 () azel(e)xer are not used adjectivally and are inflected in
accordance with the first declension of the possessive pronoun. SUJ azd such a
and ] ?a miin a kind o f are indeclinable.

The indefinite pronoun os attribute

197(a) itlexer m ini everybody: With two exceptions, all in-
definite pronouns precede their noun.
(b) itlexer, aider, a iiider and iitvider (all:)
every, each are inflected in accordance with the first declension of the possessive
pronoun. itlexy some, several and 8 aly all have no singular.
( c) dii itlexy mincn these several people
dii aly iraaber all these writers: These two pronouns may be preceded by the
demonstrative dii.
(d) - / aldys gjts (singular) ,all the bes
all the, plural: When al precedes the definitive article it is not inflected and
the two are felt to form a single word.
 298 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

(e) niit kain not a, not any, no ., niit kain ijm or

kain ijm niit absolutely not a, not any, no * MJfi abii vus far
a (just) any are indeclinable.
(f) 8 Dortn itait ainer a iid *Over there stand
man: The numeral am one serves as an indefinite pronoun (first declension
of the possessive pronoun). 8 / Ipys a zlk e r some soldier:
When the indefinite article is used with these two pronouns it steps between them
and the noun.
(g) ! Gazlyn ainer] You banditi In an exclamation of this kind the
pronoun follows the noun.
(H) $ Di pouerym alain zugn dus The peasan
say so;
(i) 8 6 Di vilt g jjfy iz a xuulym The world itself is a dream :
The two indefinite pronouns alain and 8 g jjfy *my - your - him - her -
itself, our - your - themselves follow their noun.
(j) 8 Di pouerym v i k dus alain zugn The peasants
will say so themselves: When the verb form is periphrastic, alain may follow
later in the sentence, where it will precede the last part of the verb form.
(k) $ & Di pouerym g jjfy v i k dus zugn The peasants
themselves will say so: 6 g jjfy , however, cannot change its position.

The numeral as attribute

198(a) naan guums *nine storeys : The numeral precedes the noun; after
a cardinal, the noun is, as a rule, in the plural.
(b) clln hour ten years, 3 axt mynjt eight minutes,
cvai mls-Ils'vwo days (i.e., 48 hours), 8 6 fjfc n im fifteen hours,
DXlC draa(i) fjn t three pounds, ziks tuuler'six dollars;90or 180
kopeks, flrcn raanii fourteen guilders, 1 ztkn axt I seven
eights: In the preceding nouns - denoting units of time, measurement, money or
the denominator of a fraction - the numerals do not govern the plural. Under
certain conditions this also applies to tug day.
( c) hjndert-jn-am houz or hjndert-
jn-ain-haazer *hundred and one houses : Hundreds ending in am one, may
govern either the singular or the plural.
(d) 8 6 6 a man fjfc ik about fifty men, *176 pKTl a voxn fiier about
four weeks: When a noun is preceded by a ,denoting approximation, the cardinal
is placed after it. 1 ( t a zaiger ziks six oclock: This word order is also
valid for clock time, side by side with the opposite order: ziks a
zaiger.
 299 Syntax

(e) / der ferder tug the fourth day

a topyly fra id a double joy1: Ordinals and the multiplicative
topl are adjectives.

The noun as attribute

199(a) _ zaan svesters ziindl his sisters little son: When the
attribute is a noun preceding its governing noun, the attribute is in the possessive;
the governing noun has then no article. This construction is practically always
restricted to human beings, although, on accasion, it is used for other living beings,
too.
(b) zaan svesters a ziindl a little son of his sister
of the little sons of his sister: The governing noun may have the indefinite article,
for the sake of greater accuracy.
(c) Iser Braandls Isser the son or husband of Braandl : In this
idiom the normal word order is reversed, the possessive following its governing
noun - the first name indicating the son - daughter - husband - wife of the second
person named.
(d) 5 der klimat f jn Kanady the climate of
When the attribute follows the governing noun it is linked to it by the preposition
f j n from, of. , Er halt,
a z dus sraabn a g jty maasy iz nist kain kjnc He thinks that to write a good story is
no great feat: When the governing word is an infinitive it is not linked with a
possessive but functions as a verb.

The adverb and adverbial phrase as attribute

200 D i kinder dortn spiiln zex The childre
over there are playing, D i kinder in guuertn spiiln zex
The children [who are] in the garden are playing: The adverbial attribute - in
the form of an adverb or prepositional phrase - follows the governing noun.

Co-ordination o f attributes
201 / dym altn dr. Hermans ziin
mans sons, ieider kjk zaaner every look of his, ,
a vaat, fargesn vinkl a far-off, forgotten corner. Nearly all kinds
of attributes can be combined in a co-ordinated relationship.

A P P O S IT IO N

202(a) a gleizl tai a glass of tea, _ ain zaat puunyrn one

side of the face: The syntactic connection between the two nouns is not expressed
by a marker.
 300 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

(b) j m t a t j c kistlex a dozen boxes, 8 / a maiy mhUn

hundred people, 8 / a mmiyn Riidymer ,ten (male Jewish)
inhabitants (or natives) of Radymno, / an aidy Iidn ,a community
of Jews, 8 a puuer doktotrym ,several doctors, - 8
a cindlmg - cindltk iuuem a decade, / a iok ater ' five
dozen eggs: The apposidonal partners of these collective nouns in the singular
are in the plural.
8 a ituut menin *the people of the town* is formed on the above
pattern.

JUXTAPOSITION

203 a lid a lamdn ,a learned (Jewish) man, 8 6

0 ?8 Z i trift Aazikn a farkliiertn ,she met Aazik deep in thought,
der fiter Biniumyn ,uncle Benjamin, dokter Stinger
, Dr. Ettinger, di ituut Viin ,the City of(!) Vienna,
der biker Faavii: Here too, the nouns are in juxtaposition without a formal link.
However, the syntactical connection is quite different. Where it is a case of
apposition it is of possessive/genitival nature, while here the attribution is, as it
were, one of identity. The difference is clear when the constructions are replaced
by certain - unidiomadc - devices. When it is a case of apposition there would
have to be a prepositional phrase: 6 /6 ain zaal fjnympuunym
,one side of the face, but here we would have to use a relative clause: 0 ,
a ltd, vus iz a lamdn a ,(Jewish) man who is a scholar (in traditional
Jewish literature).

QUALIFIERS OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS

204 / - Dus iz niit gynjjg-gynjg ka

enough: A qualifier of an adjective or adverb precedes the governing word.
8 guuer a iam bild ,a most beautiful picture, 8
zaier a hoiexer boim ,a very tall tree: When the governing adjective is the attribute
of a noun with the indefinite article, the qualifiers guu{e)r very, most* and
zaier very precede the article.

WORD ORDER

205(a) Er iluft iom He is already asleep,

Zi iraabt atind a briiv She is now writing a letter, z i vit bald
ilu fn ' She will soon sleep, Etl (h)ot taikyf farmaxt
 301 Syntax

di tii(e)r Ettel immediately shut the door: A simple adverb follows on the verb -
the finite part of it when the verb has a periphrastic form - and precedes the object.
(b) 8 ex velym haant sraabn a b
him a letter today: When the object is a personal or reflexive pronoun, it precedes
the adverb.
(c) ! 5 Morgn d a r f z i fu u em ! Tomorrow she must go!
! Zi darffuuem morgn! She must go tomorrow!: To express
emphasis the adverb may, of course, be placed at the beginning or end of the
sentence.
(d) Z i iz farblibn in der haim 1She stay
When the adverbial phrase is a prepositional one, it generally follows the complete
periphrastic form of the predicate.
( e) : - Z i t
guuertn araan She is sending - will send the children into the garden: When
there is an object in the sentence it precedes the prepositional phrase.

GO VERNM ENT OF P R E P O S IT IO N S

206(a) / inym iam, in - into the sea, in der kreicmy

in - into the inn: Prepositions govern the dative.
(b) fjn di kinders viign for the sake - on behalf o
children: The pre- and postposition ... pS together govern the possessive -
the only exception to the above rule.
(c) in top in - into the pot, p f jn top from the pot, 3
leibn top next to the pot: The prepositions in in, p 5 f jn from, liibn
next to can stand for / inym in the, / fjn ym from the
(< / m dym, / f j n dym), / ?? uibn dym next to
the: The definite masculine/neuter article is very often omitted after the final n of
these prepositions.
(d) in stuut in - into the town, p f jn ituut from the town,
Uibn stuut next to the town; in s jjjl in - into the synagogue,
7/ sjjl from the synagogue, Uibn sjjl next to the synagogue:
Here the article is omitted on analogy with the above usage although the nouns are
feminine, so that the article would have to be der ( p f jn der stuut
etc.) and this could not lead to the assimilation with the /n/ of the preposition.
(e) pvw in haisn oivn in - into the hot stove, fjn haisn
oivn from the hot stove, leibn altn haazl next to the little old
house: The article may also be omitted when the noun is qualified by an adjective.
The feminine article, however, cannot be omitted in such a case:
 302 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

m der alter ijjl in - into the old synagogue, 0 \in der groiser
ituut in - into the big town.

NEGATION

207 Zi kjmt mit She is not coming, Er vit niit rein

He will not speak: The negation follows immediately on the finite verb.
Er vil ys niit derzugn He does not want to finish saying it *: How-
ever, a personal or reflexive pronoun steps between the finite and the negation.
( b) / Er vilguu(e)r~nHt visn He does
know anything or He does not want to know at all: The negation is generally
omitted if the object consists of the word guu(e]r-niit nothing. Occasion-
ally, however, the negation is added: Er vil guuer-niit
niit visn.
(c) Kain m ini vaist ys niit Nobody k
Er vaist nist kain zax He does not know anything: In a
negative sentence the indefinite article before the subject or object is replaced by
the pronoun kain. However, the negation may also follow on the object:
Er vaist kain zax niit.

The Word Order Predicate - Subject

208(a) 0 1 In guu(e)rtn iz duu a hipier oilym In the
garden there are quite a lot of people: When a sentence starts with an adverb or
adverbial phrase, the usual word order is reversed, the subject following the
predicate.
(b) The adverb rak only is an exception: Rak ir vilt niit
You insist on refusing - in spite of the adverb at the beginning, the sentence
has the first word order. The adverb mamyi actually, really can be used in
the same way: mamyi zi zingt (She was not speaking), she was sing-
ing! However, it can also be: Zi zingt mamyi.
(c) /
in Kruky In a years time Bendet will be in Cracow: When the predicate is a
periphrastic form, the subject follows on the finite.
( d) 6 / Dortn vet ym Bendyt
Bendit will meet him or 6 / Dortn vet Bendyt
ym trefn: An object that consists of a personal or reflexive pronoun precedes or
follows the subject.
(e) 6 Dortn vit er ym trifn There he wi
But if the subject is also a personal or reflexive pronoun, then the subject comes
first.
 303 Syntax

(f) /
ahaim fuuem Now the guests have to go home: The subject can be anticipated
by placing an expletive y s it or dus that after the finite.
(g) / Ys cjgain zex di volkns The clouds
away: Even if the anticipated subject is placed at the beginning of the sentence,
the second word order is retained.
(h) / - Dus/E
maasy 1He (happens to be) dreaming a beautiful story : Instead of OV - SO sy - y s ,
dus is sometimes employed, also / epys something which seems to
imply a stronger degree of vagueness.
(i) / Louter iz gyvein der himl Clea
The predicate can be stressed by placing the predicative adjective at the head of
the sentence.
(j) Zugn vet z i ir nist zugn (As far as telling is concerned)
she will not tell her: Strong emphasis is achieved by placing the infinitive of the
verb, which follows as predicate, at the head of the sentence.
(k) Gancy taaxn vaser giist der himl Whole
rivers of water were pouring from the sky: The object can be emphasized by
placing it at the head of the sentence.
(1) ! Nam! zugt er No! he said: This object at the beginning of a
sentence is a piece of direct speech.

Co-ordination o f Sentences

209( a) , Er vaist dus nist, nor er vil niit

moidy zaan He does not know that but he does not want to admit it: An inde-
pendent sentence which is joined to another one by means of a co-ordinating
conjunction, generally keeps its word order.
( b) ! Er iz k
nist sraabn He is ill, he cannot, therefore, write to you: However, some of the
conjunctions must be placed after the verb - i.e., the finite - in order to keep the
first word order.
(c) : Er
aax nist sraabn, or ; Er iz krank; ken
er aax deriber nist sraabn He is ill; so he cannot write to you: Some conjunctions
require the second word order, particularly the conclusive ones, therefore, for
that reason - deriber, 5 derfar, maxmys deim.
(d) : Er iz krank;
The conjunction may be omitted, but the second word order will still have con-
elusive force.
 304 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

(e) Far st ait niit za

father-in-law did not understand the matter : The same construction appears even
when there is clearly no causal connection.
(f) 5 5 !
kostn a fjfciker 1 must have that, it will cost me fifty5: When a sentence follows
closely on a preceding one, without being linked by a conjunction, the subject
- sy - y s o f the second one is sometimes omitted.
(g)
redn mit M oiiyn We shall go to Warsaw and speak to Moses : In the second of
two sentences which have the same subject, this is usually omitted. When appro-
priate, the same applies to the predicate.
(h)
fe sljn avek in ituut He took the barrel and went to town: The finite auxiliary of
the predicate is sometimes omitted in the second sentence although it would have
to differ from that in the first sentence - iz avek.
(i) Ys ve
She feels constricted (lit. it becomes tight for her) in the house and wants to get
out: When the real but not formal subject of one of two sentences is identical
with that of the other, the latter is sometimes omitted.

The Interrogative Sentence

210( a) ? D j vest zaan in stuut? -

Vestj - Vest zaan in itu u t? Will you be in town ? Either the first or second word
order is used together with the interrogative intonation.
(b) ? / V jj iz er ? Interrogative sentences which are introduced by an
interrogative are built on the second word order.
(c) ? Veier iz der mexaber ? Who is the author ? But when the
subject of the interrogative sentence is a pronoun, then the first word order is used.
(d) ? D jj veier bist? You - who are YOU?: Special emphasis is
effected by placing the subject before the interrogative.
(e) ? 1 Ci vaist er den niit, vus duu tjjt
- tjt zex? Doesnt he know (i.e., surely he knows) what is happening here?:
Occasionally a direct interrogative sentence is introduced by the indirect interroga-
tive particle cii (often ci).

Com m and and Optative Sentences

211(a) Avruum zo l mir iikn dipen Abraham should send

me the pen: In a command referring to a third person, the first word order is
generally used.
 305 Syntax

(b) But the second word order is frequently used too: Q7n S g
Zol mir Avruum iikn di pen.
(c) ?Lomexym zein I want to see him: In an optative sentence
the second word order is always followed, as the sentence starts with a verb.
(d) 1 6 Mii(e)r zol zaan far daany bamdlex! (To
a child:) On ME may [evil] be [visited instead of] on you (lit. your little bones)!:
When an object or adverbial phrase are to be strongly emphasized, they may pre-
cede the predicate.

Subordination o f Sentences

CONJUNCTIONAL CLAUSES

212(a) & /6 8
/ Cvaitns Waab ex dir, az baa - ban - bar jndz (h)ot zex
gytrofn an jmglik mil a glik in ainym Secondly I am writing to tell you that a mis-
fortune and a piece of good luck have come to us at one and the same time;
/ 6
Di mamy (h)ol ir dercailt maasalex, biz Kraindl is antilufn gyvoom *The mother
told her fairy tales until Kraindl fell asleep. When the conjunctional clause
follows on the principal sentence, then either the first or the second word order is
used in both parts.
(b) 6
dir niit viin zugn, darfstjym niit friign kain sax If he should not want to tell you,
you need not ask him many questions: When the conjunctional clause, in the first
word order, precedes the principal sentence, the second word order is used in the
latter.
(c) /
gytrofn, volt exysym gyzugt *If I were to meet him I would tell it to hi m;
/ ,6 / A z ex zol
ym gyviin trifn, volt exysym gyviin gyzugt If I had met him, I would have told
it to him: In conditional sentences either volt would, should or zol
should is employed in the protasis, while in the apodosis - where the second
word order is used - only volt is employed.
( d) /6
gyzugt, oib ex volt ym gytrofn lI would tell it to him if I were to meet him: The
same holds good when the apodosis - now with the first word order - precedes the
protasis.
 306 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

(c)
visn, vusys tjjt zex baa ir Svister, volt zi zex dirkvikt 4If she knew what is happening
at her sisters she would be delighted: When the conditional clause precedes the
principal sentence - expecially when the auxiliary is zol should - the con-
junction is often absent.
( f ) / , z i (h)ot moiry, er
zol niit arup iprmgyn She is afraid he might jump down: The conjunction is
generally omitted in final clauses when the verb of the principal sentence expresses
apprehension; the verb has to take the negat i on. / 3 ,
Zi maint, ex bin myfjgy gyvoom She thinks I have gone crazy : In other cases, too,
the conjunction (here az that) is sometimes omitted.

THE RELATIVE CLAUSE

213(a) , , Der ltd, vus zict baam til,

iz maanc a fvuger The (Jewish) man who is sitting at the table, is a brother-in-law
of mine: A clause - of either the first or second word order - which refers to a
noun, is linked to it by the neuter relative pronoun 0 vus what (i.e., that).
If the noun is in the nominative there is no need to indicate what case it is in.
(b) , Z i ziit dus pikl, vus
parcel that he is carrying: The same holds good for the accusative of a neuter
noun.
(c) ,
tii, iz maanc a fvuger; , Z i ziit dus pikl, vus er
trugt ys: However, a personal pronoun often indicates the case of the construction -
whether nominative or accusative.
(d) ,
haant, iz ict in Lodi , Her husband to whom she is writing today is now in Lodz;
, , Dus kind, vus zaan
mamy vart in der haim, iz naan iuuer alt The child whose mother is waiting at
home is nine years of age: The dative or possessive are always indicated by a
personal or possessive pronoun, respectively.
(e) / ,
akn the brother-in-law to whom Til send t hi s: / / ,
di ftuut, vjj er vohtt the town where he lives: Sometimes interrogatives serve as
relative pronouns.

INDIRECT INTERROGATIVE CLAUSE

214(a) , Zai friign ym ci er kin mex They asked him

whether he knew me: The direct interrogative sentence introduced by an interrog
 307 Syntax

ative, has a parallel indirect one; it mostly follows the first word order.
/ , Er vaist niit vOmyn zai zjjexn He does not know whom
they are looking for: The direct interrogative sentence without an introductory
interrogative, has its counterpart in the indirect interrogative clause, but the latter
follows the first word order.
( b) , Er vaist niit, viier ys vit blaa
not know who will stay behind*: When the introductory pronoun is in the nomin-
ative, the pronoun ys is inserted before the predicate.
(c) ,
aa(i)er ituut We have to know how big your town is*: When the predicate con-
tains an adjective, then this precedes the 0 ys.
( d) 1 , Viier ys vit blaabn, vaist er niit' He
know who will be staying behind: Tlie indirect interrogative clause may precede
the principal sentence for emphasis.
(e) VUys laaxtn di itiiem! How the stars do s
The exclamatory sentence is an indirect interrogative sentence, introduced by
how.
 P A R T F IV E

BIBLIOGRAPHY
 Contents

NUMBERS PACKS
Prefatory Note III
Abbreviations 3 " 3 <8
1 Yiddish as a Jewish Language 45 319-321
2 Introduction to the Language 46- 74b 321-322
3 Grammar 75- " 2 322-324
4 The Linguistic Inheritance of Yiddish and " 3-139 325-326
its Development
5 Phonology 140-189 326-329
6 Spelling 190-211 329-330
7 Transcription 212-223 330-33 *
8 Dialects and Regional Matters 224-2913 33 335
9 Vocabulary, Etymology, Semantics 292-3824 335-340
10 Onomastics 383 418 340-34*
11 Texts in Transcription 4 9 503 342-343
A From Earlier Periods 419-450 343-344
B From Modem Times 451503 a 345-347
12 Texts in Hebrew Characters 504- 534* 347-349
13 About Texts 535-593 349-353
14 Various Linguistic and Philological Matters 594-660 353-356
15 Miscellaneous 661-8783 357-364
16 Influence of Yiddish on Other Languages 879-912 364-366
17 Folklore 913-939 366-3 67
18 Literature 940-1033 367-372
19 Bibliographical Writings 1034-1062 372-374
Supplement to the Bibliography 375-379
Index to the Bibliography 380-388
 PREFATORY NOTE

In each section the entries are arranged in order of publication. All the dates are
then combined in Index b . The aim of the chronological arrangement is to provide
a bibliographical picture of the way Yiddish studies developed, and thus to
facilitate research in their history.

ABBREVIATIONS

An asterisk indicates that the publication is not a periodical.

AAWB Abhandlungen der Koniglichen AMYL An Anthology of Modern Yid-

Akademie der Wissenschaften dish Literature (Ed. J. Left-
zu Berlin. Phil. hist. Abhand- wich)
lungen Ant Anthropos
ACCS American Contributions to the Antph Anthropophyteia
Fourth International Congress Ar lArche
of Slavicists* AS American Speech
Ada Almanach Adam (Bucharest)* ASNS Archiv fur das Studium der
A t. Algymamy tnciklopidiy* neueren Sprachen
AfdA Anzeiger fur deutsches Alter- ASPh Archiv fur Slawische Philologie
turn (in z d a ) ASW Die alte Synage zu Worms*
AIGK Akten des Intemationalen Ger- Auf Der Aufstieg
manisten-Kongresses AUT Acta Universitatis Turkuensis
A IO Der Ainhaitlexer Iidiier Ous- AWJD Allgemeine Wochenzeitung dcr
laig Juden in Deutschland
AJHQ American Jewish Historical
Quarterly
AJP American Journal of Philology B Biblica
AJRI AJR Information (Association BDL Blatter fur den Deutschlehrer
of Jewish Refugees in Great BGVJS Beitrage zur Geschichte und
Britain) V o lk s k u n d e d c r J u d e n in d e r
AL Anthropological Linguistics Schweiz
ALG Archiv fur Literaturgeschichte Bl Bats laankyv
ALH Acta Linguistica Academiae BiOr Bibliotheca Orientals
Scientiamm Hungaricae BiV Di Biixer-vih
 312 Bibliography

BJVK Bayerisches Jahrbuch fur ED K K Ehime Daigaku Kyokyobu kiyo

Volkskunde [Memoirs of the Faculty of
BM Be! Miqra General Education, Ehime
BNC Bulletin de nos Communcaut& University
B$ Beer Sheva EG tudes Gcrmaniques
BSLP Bulletin de la Societc Lingui- EI Ha-Enziklopedia ha-Ivrit*
stique de Paris EJB Encyclopaedia Judaica
BV Dr. Bitmboims Voxn-blat (Berlin)*
EJJ Encyclopaedia Judaica (Jem -
salem)
C Caat-bift
EJLT Essays on Jewish life and
CAIU Cahiers de l'Alliance Israelite
thought ... in honour of Salo
Universelle
W. Baron*
CHAL Cambridge History of Ameri-
Em Emuna
can Literature*
ENGK Die Entwicldung neuer germa-
CMF Casopis pro Moderni Filologii
nischer Kultursprachen*
Com Commentary
(H. Kloss)
EPH Essays ... Presented to J.H.
DA Dissertation Abstracts Hertz*
DAI Dissertation Abstracts Inter- Eu Euphorion
national
Daph Daphnis FAJ Fragen des alteren Jiddisch (in
DDM Die deutschen Mundarten TB)
DFU Deutsche Forschungen in Un- FB Festschrift zum 70. Geburtstag
gam A. Berliners*
DLMV Die deutsche Literatur des FF Forschungen und Fortschritte
Mittelalters-Verfasserlexikon* FI Folklore International (Fest-
DLSMA Deutsche Literatur des spate- schrift W.D. Hand)*
ren Mittelalters - Hamburger FI Der Flaker
!Colloquium* FLB Festschrift fur Leo Baeck
DLZ Deutsche Literaturzeitung F0Y The Field of Yiddish
DM Deutsche Mundarten Fr Die Freistatt
DNK Deutsche Namenkunde Fra Der Fraand (Warsaw)
(A. Bach)* FRJ For Roman Jakobson*
DPhA Deutsche Philologie im F$ Filologiiy Srifln
Aufriss* FSB Festschrift rum 75 jahrigen
DuKr Duitse Kroniek Bestehen des judisch-
DVJLG Deutsche Vierteljahrsschrift theologischen Seminars
fur Literaturwissenschaft und Fraenckelscher Stiftung,
Geistesgeschichte Breslau*
 313 Abbreviations

G Germanistik IB A Iuur-Bjjx fjn Amuptail

GA In gang fjn arbyt: lid ii jn IB N B Iubileium-Bjjx ... Nuusn Biirn-
mizrex-airopeiisy itudiys* boim*
G B IF Geirin Baders Iidiser folks- IBS Intelligenz-Blatt, Beilage zum
kalender Serapeum
GBr Der Grosse Brockhaus* ID Iidiiy Dialogn*
GDi Germanische Dialektologie* ID F Iidiiy Dialektologiiy Forsjngyn;
GDL Geschichte der Deutschen Li- Materialn fa r a visnsaftlexer
teratur* gramatik jn f a r an etimologiin
Ges Geser verter-bjjx fjn der Iidiier
GGA Gottingische Gelehrte Anzei- iprax*
gen IF Indogermanische Forschungen
GIF Giornale Italiano di Filologia IF A lid ii Far A ly
GfJ Germania Judaica IFAISA Indogermanische Forschun-
GJE Germania Judaica (Ed. Elbogen gen, Anzeiger fur indogerma-
et al.)* nische Sprach und Altertums-
GK D i Goldyny K a it kunde
GL Germanistische Linguistik IFB Israelitisches Familienblatt
GLL German Life and Letters (Hamburg)
Glo Globus IGe Indogermanica*
GQ German Quarterly IGFD In Gang Fjn Doirys; Eseiyn
GRM Germanisch-Romanische Mo- veign Tnax,folklor jn literatuur,
natsschrift by Iaankyv I. M aitlis [Jacob J.
Maitlis/Meitlis]*
IGK Internationaler Germanisten-
HB Hebraische Bibliographie kongress, Akten
HBVK Hessische Blatter fur Volks- IHGL An Informal History of the
kunde German Language, by W.B.
Heb Hebraica Lockwood*
HRJ To Honour Roman Jakobson uf Itdiiy Filologiy
HS Historiiy Sriftn fjn Iidiin Visn- IiFr Iidn in Frankraax *
saftlexn Institut IJAL International Journal of Ameri-
HWJ H.A. Wolfson Jubilee Volume* can Linguistics
IJB Indogermanisches Jahrbuch
IL Der Israelit, Lemberg/Lwow
IA A Iuur A rbyt in der Aspirantuur ILo lid ii London
baam Iidisn Visniaftlexn IM Iazyk i Myslenie
Institut* IN S S S R Iazyki Narodov S S S R *
IA IB Ijjdy A . Iufy-Bjjx* IS Iidiiy Sprax
IB Iivuu-Bleter IV D i Iidiiy Veit
 314 Bibliography

IWS Israelitisches Wochenblatt fiir JR Jiidische Rundschau

die Schweiz JRM Jiidische Rundschau Makkabi
ly s lysjjrn JSG Jubelschrift zum 70. Geburts-
tag des Prof. Dr. H. Graetz*
JAb Jiidische Abende JT Jndzer Tug (Vilna)
JABC Das jiidische ABC* JVB Jiidisches Volksblatt (Briinn/
JAF Journal of American Folklore Brno)
JAs Journal Asiatique JVLF Jahrbuch fiir Volksliedfor-
JBA Jewish Book Annual schung
JBL Jewish Bookland JWB Jiidisches Wochenblatt
JC Jndzer Caat (Kishinev) (Zurich)
JCB Jiidisches Centralblatt JZ Jiidische Zeitung (Vienna)
JCh Jewish Chronicle
Jd Der Jude KAY Kobez al Yad
Jdc Judaica KCB K[artell]-C[onvent]-Blatter
Jdm Judaism KLL Kindlers Literatur-Lexikon*
Je Jeschurun KS K irya t Sefer
JEGP Journal of English and Ger- KTJ Kurtrierisches Jahrbuch
manic Philology
JEJW Jahrhundertende- L Lesonenu
Jahrhundertwende LB Leuvense Bijdragen
JES Journal of European Studies LBDM Lautbibliothek der deutschen
JFLF Jahrbuch fiir frankische Lan- Mundarten
desforschung LBDMS Lautbibliothek der deutschen
JGIE Jahrbuch fiir die Geschichte Mundarten in der Schweiz
der Israeliten in Elsass-Loth- LBIYB Leo Baeck Institute, Year Book
ringen LCB Litterarisches Centralblatt
JGSLEL Jahrbuch fiir Geschichte, LGRP Literaturblatt fur germanische
Sprache und Literatur Elsass- und romanische Philologie
Lothringens Lin Linguistics
JJGL Jahrbiicher fiir jiidische Ge- Ling Lingua
schichte und Literatur L it Literattiur (New York)
JJS Journal of Jewish Studies LK Literatur und Kritik
JJSo Journal of Jewish Sociology LM Literarisy Monatsriftn
JL Jiidisches Lexikon* LPo Lingua Posnaniensis
JLNO Jahrbuch fiir die Landeskunde LV Leibn jn Visnsaft
von Niederosterreich LW Die Literaturen der Welt in
JPPP The Jewish People: Past and ihrer miindlichen und schrift-
Present* lichen Uberlieferung (Ed. W.
JQR Jewish Quarterly Review v. Einsiedeln)*
 315 Abbreviations

LWJB Literaturwissenschaftliches Mu Mus^on

Jahrbuch Mus Museum
I.7H Literarisches Zentralblatt fiir
Deutschland NBAS Nathan Bimbaum: Ausge-
wahlte Schriften zur jiidischen
MAG Mitteilungen der anthropolo- Frage*
gischen Gesellschaft, Vienna NEMBN Notices et Extraits des Manu-
MAj Mitteilungen des Arbcitskrei- scrits de la Bibliotheque Na-
ses fiir Jiddisch tionale de Paris
MAL Modern Austrian Literature NGHG Nachrichten der Giessener
MAWEPC>Mitteilungen der Akademie Hochschulgesellschaft
zur wissenschaftlichen Erfor- NHLW Neues Handbuch der
schung und zur Pflcge des Literaturwissenschaft *
Deutsch turns NJMH Neue jiidische Monatshefte
MCA Melanges offerts 3 M. Charles NL Dus naaiy liibn
Andler* NPh Neophilologus
MOV Monatshefte fur deutschen NPhM Neuphilologische Mitteilungen
Unterricht N P K Noiex Prilickis Ksuvym
ME Die Mundarten im Elsass*
MEL Mein Elsassland* OcOr Occident and Orient ... Gaster
MFM Melanges de linguistique et de Anniversary Volume*
philologie Fernand Mosse in OK Ostkunde
memoriam OL Ostland
MGJN Maandblad voor de Geschie- OLZ Orientalistische Litcraturzei-
denis der Joden in Nederland tung
MGJV Mitteilungen der Gesellschaft Ono Onoma
fur jiidische Volkskunde Orb Orbis
MGWJ Monatsschrift fiir Geschichte OW Ost und West
und Wisscnschaft des Juden-
turns P Der Pbtkys, Iuur-bjjx far der
MKJ Mordecai M. Kaplan Jubilee gy Sixty fjn der Iidiier literatuur
Volume* jn Sprax, far folklor, kritik jn
ML Modeme Literatur (Vienna) bibliografiy
MLJ Modern Language Journal PAAJR Proceedings of the American
MLR Modem Language Review Academy for Jewish Research
MM Miscellanea Medievalia* PAPhS Proceedings of the American
Mom Der Moment (Warsaw) Philosophical Society
Mor Der Morgen PBB Beitriige zur Geschichte der
MSL M&noires de la Soci6te de deutschen Sprache und Litera-
Linguistique de Paris tur
 316 Bibliography

P F IL Pinkys fa r der Forsjng f jn der RGG Religion in Geschichte und

Iidiier Liter atuur jn Presy Gegenwart*
PFLL Publications de la Faculte des RL Revue de Linguistique
lettres et sciences humaines RPh Romance Philology
de PUniversite de Clermont- RSL Readings in the Sociology of
Ferrand Language*
Pho Phonetica RSO Rivista degli studi orientali
PhSCL Philologische Studien und RTI Rasi - torato ve-isiuto (Ed.
Quellen S. Federbush)*
Pi Pinkys, A fertl-iuuriker zurnal
fa r Iidiser literatuur-gyiixty,
iprax-forijng , folklor jn biblio- SBBL Studies in Bibliography and
grafiy Booklore
PJB Preussische Jahrbiicher Sea Scandinavistik
PP Philologica Pragensia Sch Der Schlern
PrC Problems of Communism SDLS Studien zur deutschen
Literatur und Sprache des
Mittelalters
QEBG Quellen und Erorterungen zur
SDMH Siiddeutsche Monatshefte
bayerischen Geschichte, N.F.
SDTTD Schweizer Dialekte in Text und
18: Raphael Straus, Urkunden
Ton ... Deutsche Schweiz*
und Aktenstiicke zur Ge-
SEER Slavonic and East European
schichte der Juden in Regens-
Review
burg 1453-1738*
Sel Selbstwehr
Sem Semasia
RBPhH[ Revue belgique de philosophie Ser Serapeum
et histoire SH Sovietis Haimland
RCHL Revue critique dhistoire et de S ha Shakespeare Quarterly
literature SI Semitskie Iazyki
RDLG Reallexikon der deutschen Li- S if Ha-sifrut
teraturgeschichte SJA Soviet Jewish Affairs
REJ Revue des Etudes juives SJLL Studies in Jewish Languages,
RENLO Revue de lEcole Nationale des Literature and Society, for
langues orientales Max Weinreich
Res Resumot SK Studies in honour of J. Alex-
RFF Festschrift zum 75 jahrigen ander Kerns*
Bestehen der Realschule mit SM Studi medievali
Lyzeum der Israelitischen SN B Smjjl-Niger-Bjjx
Religionsgesellschaft SODV Siidostdeutsche
(Frankfurt/M)* Vierteljahrsblatter
 317 Abbreviations

SOF Siidostdeutsche Forschungen, Wo Word

Siidostforschungen WCJS World Congress of Jewish
som Studia Onomastica Monacen- Studies, Papers
ses WK Weltkampf
sr Studia Rosenthaliana WPY Working Papers in Yiddish and
ss Semitic Studies in memory of East European Jewish Studies
Immanuel Low* WW Wirkendes Wort
SSS Sprachspiegel, Schweizer Zeit- WWT The Way We Think, A Collec-
schrift fiir die deutsche Mut- tion of Essays from the Yiddish
tersprache (Ed. J. Leftwich)*
ST Studi tedeschi
StD Studia Delitzschiana
YAJSS Yivo Annual of Jewish Social
SUL Storia universale della lettera-
Science
tura*
YBCC Year Book of the Central Con-
ference of American Rabbis
T Teuthonista
Yd Yiddish
tb Trierer Beitrage
YWMLS Years Work for Modern Lan-
TLB Theologisches Literaturblatt
guage Study
tlz Theologische Literaturzeitung
tps Transactions of the Philologi-
cal Society Zap Zapiski (of the Odessa Institute
for Education)
ui Der ungarische Israelit Z B IF Noiex Priluckis Zaml-biixer fa r
Uni LUnivers Israelite Iidisn folklor , filologiy jn kul-
uj Unij ournal, Zeitschrift der Uni- tuur-gysixty
versitat Trier ZDA Zeitschrift fiir deutsches Alter-
UJE Universal Jewish Encyclopae- turn und deutsche Literatur
dia* ZDL Zeitschrift fur Dialektologie
und Linguistik
V Dus Vort ZDLB Zeitschrift fiir Dialektologie
v id Verhandlungen des und Linguistik, Beiheft
internationalen ZDM Zeitschrift fur deutsche Mun-
Dialektologenkongresses darten
VLU Vestnik Leningradskavo univer- ZDMG Zeitschrift der Deutschen
siteta Morgenlandischen
V SR G I Voprosy sintaksisa romano-ger- Gesellschaft
manskix iazykov ZDPh Zeitschrift fur deutsche Philo-
VVPK Veroffentlichungen des Vereins logie
fiir pfalzische Kirchenge- ZDS Zeitschrift fur deutsche Spra-
schichte
 318 Bibliography

ZDSJ Zeitschrift fiir Demographie ZNFB Zeitschrift fiir Mundartfor-

und Statistik der Juden schung, Beiheft
ZDWF Zeitschrift fiir deutsche Wort- ZOF Zeitschrift fiir Ostforschung
forschung ZPhAS Zeitschrift fiir Phonetik
ZGJD Zeitschrift fiir Geschichte der und allgemeine
Juden in Deutschland Sprachwissenschaft
ZHB Zeitschrift fiir hebraische Bib- ZRGG Zeitschrift fiir Religions- und
liographie Geistesgeschichte
ZHDM Zeitschrift fiir hochdeutsche ZS Zeitschrift fiir Slawistik
Mundarten ZVK Zeitschrift fiir Volkskunde
ZMF Zeitschrift fiir Mundartfor- ZVSF Zeitschrift fiir vergleichende
schung Sprachforschung
 Bibliography

1 Y I D D I S H AS A J E W I S H L A N G U A G E

1 moritz Gr Onwald . Vber den jiidisch-deutschen Jargon, vulgo Kauderwahch

genamt. (ui 1876) Reprints: Budapest, 1876; Prague, 1888. Reviews see Nos.
667,668
2 alyksander hark Avi [alexander harkavy]. Ha-yet mispat luu&i li-sfas iyhjjdis?
Tijjvy brjjry ly-sotny sfas iyhjjdis ha-mdjbeirys [Ha-yes mispat lason li-sfat
yehudit? tsuva brura le-sotne sfat yehudit ha-mduberet.] (Ner ha-maaruvi [Ner
ha-maaravi], vol. 1, and separate print.) 1896
3 nathan birnbaum . Hebrdisch und Judtsch (ow 2: 457-64) 1902. Reprint:
(NBAS 1: 301-7) 1910
4 - Die Sprachat des jiidischen Volkes (JAb 1:1: 1-10) 1904. Enlarged reprint:
( nbas 1: 308-24) 1910
5 - Fiir die jiidische Sprache; Einige Protestworte gegen Ruben Brainin (JZg 1:
No. 20) 1907. Reprint: (nbas 2: 34-40) 1910
6 NUUSN biirnboim [n a th a n birnbaum]. Di konferbu far der Iidiier iprax,
efynjngs-riidy (bv 1:1: 3-7) 1908
- Der 'Zargon' (gbif 15: 139-43) *909
8 nathan birnbaum . Erdffnungsrcde auf der jiidischen Sprachkonferenz in Czerno-
witz. The authors translation of No. 6. (nbas 2: 41-45) 1910
9 - Der 'Jargon. The authors translation of No. 7 (nbas 2: 46-51) 1910
10 - Zum Sprachenstreit; Eine Entgegnung an Achad Haam (NBAS 2: 52-74)
1910
11 heinrich [,oewe . Die Sprachen d a Juden. Cologne, 1911. Reviews see Nos. 677,
678, 680
12 nuusn biirnboim [nathan birnbaum ]. Der iixys fjn lidii. Berlin, 1913. See
No. 13
13 NATHAN birnbaum . Sprachadel; Zur jiidischen Sprachenfrage. The authors
translation of No. 12. (Fr 1: 83-88, 137-45) !9 3
 320 Bibliography

14 HUGO bergmann . Unsere Stellung zum Jiidischen. (Sel?) 1914. Reprinted in the
authors Jaume und Jerusalem (27-32) Berlin, 1929
15 Mathias mieses. Die Entstehungsursache der jiidischen Dialekte. Vienna, 1915.
Reviews see Nos. 16, 17
16 JACOBUS J.A. VAN GINNEKEN. Review of No. 15 ( 1JB 4: 31) 1916
17 FRITZ MORDECHAl KAliFMANN. Review of Der Pinkes (Jd 1: 750-58) 1916/1917.
Reprinted in his Gesammelte Sckriften (201-17). Berlin, 1923
18 jizchak epstein . Die jiidischen Dialekte. Review of No. 15 (Jd 2: 720-25)
1917/1918
19 I. ENGEL. Jiidisch-Deulsch oder Hebraisch ? (Je 5: 332-36) 1918
20 NUXYM $TIF [( nahum ) sh tif ]. Iidn jn lidii. Kiev, 1919. Reprint: Warsaw, 1920
21 bn -C1Iyn rub$TA1N [BENZION rubstein ], Di antitaijng jn antvikljng fjn der
Iidiier iprax. Warsaw, 1922
22 NUXYM St if [( nahum ) sh tif ]. An jmzister iber-irek. (Review of No. 19) (B iV
1922: 487-503; NL 1923, No. 7: 48-57)
23 &.OIMY U. BIIRNBOIM [SOLOMON A. BIRNBAUM], lidii jn Hdiikait (IB N B : !47-57)
Warsaw, 1925
- See No. 154, 1929
24 sa lo m o [so lo m o n a.] b i k n b k v m . Jiddische Sprache (rc g 2nd ed. 3
>72-75) 1929
25 - Jiddische Rechtschreibung und Judentum (Auf. 1: 113 f.) 1930
26 loim y u . biirnboim [solomon a . birnbaum ], Iidilkait jn luubt. Warsaw, 1930.
27 - Gjly fjn luubt. Lodz, 1931
28 - Iidii-njmer ( bi No. 71/72; vol. 8) 1931
29 6. rdbrg (Ed.). Far lidii; A zaml-bjjx. New York, 1931
30 liDl&R visnSaftlexer INSTITVT. Di eirsty Iidiiy iprax-konferenc ... 1908. Vilna,
93
31 LEO &ICER [leo spitzer ]. Der of-kjm fjn di lidii-Romaniiy ipraxn ( ib 14: 193-
210) 1939
32 maks vaanraax [max w einreich ]. lidii (A t vol. Iidn, 11: 23-90) Paris, 1940;
New York, 1940
33 Sm jjl niger [samuel charney]. Di cvai-ipraxikait fjn jndzer literatuur. Detroit,
1941
34 SOLOMON A. BIRNBAUM. Jewish Languages (e p h : 51-67) 1944
35 I isruul efroikin [ israel jefroykin ]. Jm-kjm jn of-kjm fjn Iidiiy guulyn-ipraxn
jn dialektn. Paris, 1951
36 1. Sm jjl toubys [j . samuel taubes]. lidii - niit Hebreiii. New York, 1952
37 MAX w einreich . Yidishkayt and Yiddish: on the impact o f religion on language
in Ashkenazic Jewry ( m k j : 281-314; r sl : 382-413) 1953, 1968
38 nuusn ziiskind [nathan sOsskind ]: Batraxtjngyn viign der gyiixty fjn lidii
(1$ 13: 97-108) 1953
 321 Bibliography

39 SOLOMON A. b ir n b a u m . Old Yiddish or Middle High German? (j j s 12: 19-31)

1961
40 MAX w e i n r e i c h . The reality o f Jewishness versus the ghetto myth; The soeio-
linguistic roots o f Yiddish ( h r j 3: 2199-211) 1967
41 s o l o m o n A. b i r n b a u m . Judaism and Yiddish ( w w t 2: 513-18) 1969. (Transla-
tion, by Ir e n e b i r n b a u m , of No. 23,1925.) ( a n y l : 122-8) 1974. Transl. J o s e p h
l e f t w ic h

41a d a v id r o m e . The strange fate o f Yiddish. Montreal, 1969

42 SOLOMON A. BIRNBAUM. Jewish Languages ( e j j i o : 66-69) 1971
43 MAURICE SAMUEL. In praise o f Yiddish. New York, 1971
44 e m a n u e l s. g o l d s m i t h . Architects o f Yiddishism at the beginning o f the twentieth
century; A study in Jewish cultural history. Dissertation, Brandeis University,
1972. ( d a i 33A: 3538) 1973. Rutherford etc. 1976
44a m o r d e k a i [ m o r d e c a i ] a m i t a i . Ha-teomut ha-du-lelonit lei sifrut Yisrael ba-
zman he-hadas; Be-vet midral qatan 0 ba-luq lifne ha-am; Ma-sehu al Bialik
ba-Yidis; M i mefahedme-targonistim ?(In the authors Hadgadya ve-gado) 1974
45 Fl o r e n c e g u g g e n h e i m - g r On b e r g . Sprachen und schrieben die Ziircher
Juden jiddisch zu Ende des 14. Jahrhunderts ? ( f a j : 2 f.) 1977

2 IN T R O D U C TIO N TO THE LANGUAGE

46 RICHARD LOEWE. Die jiidisch-deutsche Sprache (0 W 4 : 655-64) 1904
47 j .a . v a n g i n n e k e n . De Jodtntaal. In the authors Handboek der
ja c o b u s

Nederlandsche taal (2-102) Nijmegen, 1914. Dcel 11, De sociologische structuur

48 HEINRICH l o e w e . Die jiidisch-deutsche Sprache der Ostjuden; Ein Abriss; Im
Auftrage des 1Komitees fiir den Osten.' Berlin, Oktober 1915. Als Handschrift
gedruckt
49 - Die judischdeutsche Sprache der'Ostjuden ( s d m h 13: 711-19) 1916
50 JOSEPH W o h l g e m u t h . Die jiidischdeutsche Sprache. (Je 3: 422-41) 1916
51 HEINRICH LOEWE. A us der Sprachgeschichte der Juden ( n j m h 3: 219-30)
1919
52 SALOMO [ s o l o m o n ] a . b i r n b a u m . Die jiddische Sprache ( g r m i i : 149-55) 1923

53 s ig m u n d Die Sprachen der Juden (In the authors Stammeskunde der

f e is t .

Juden, Chapter 13, Leipzig) 1925

54 FELIX PERLES. Jiidisch-Deutsch und Jiidisch-Spanisch (Mor 1: 370-82) 1925
55 Sl o i m y u . b i i r n b o i m [ s o l o m o n a . b i r n b a u m ]. Di historiy fjn lidii (FI 1: 38-41,
69-73) !9*6
56 SALOMO [ s o l o m o n a .] b i r n b a u m . Jiddische Sprache ( j l 3: 269-78) 1929
57 HEINRICH m e y e r - b e n f e y . Die jiddische Sprache ( p j b 222: 139-44) >93
58 SALOMO [SOLOMON] A. BIRNBAUM. Jiddisch (GBr 15th ed. 6 : 643) I93I
 322 Bibliography

59 - Jiddisch ( ejb 9: 112-27) 1932

60 j e c h ie l f is c h e r . Das Jiddische und sein Verkaltnis zu den deutschen Mundarten,
unter besonderer Berikksichtigung der ostgalizischen Mundart. Erster Teil, Erste
Hiilfte: Allgemehter Teil (of the Dissertation, Heidelberg, 1934) Leipzig,
1936 - 2nd ed., + Lautlehre; see No. 61
61 j e c h ie l Bin - n u n . Jiddisch und die deutschen Mundarten; unter besonderer
Berikksichtigung des ostgalizischen Jiddisch. Tubingen, 1972. Reviews see Nos.
849, 852, 854, 856, 857, 858, 863, 864
62 - Studienausgabe des Allgemeinen Teils. Tubingen, 1973
63 SOLOMON A. BIRNBAUM. Yiddish (UJE 10: 598-601) I9431
64 f r a n z j. b e r a n e k . Jiddisch (DPhA; 1551-90) 1952; 2nd iiberarbeitete ed.,
1955-1957; unveranderter Nachdruck, 1966-1967
65 HEINZ KL0SS. Jiddisch ( e n g k : 40-50) Munich, 1952
66 sa l c ia l a n d m a n n . Jiddisch; Das Abenteuer einer Sprache. Freiburg/Br., 1962;
Munich, 1964. Review see No. 789
67 h a n s P. a l t h a u s . Die jiddische Sprache; Eine Einfuhrung ( g j n .f . vol. 4: 1-23;
N.F. [23], vol. 7: 1-24) 1965, 1968
68 w il l ia m b . l o c k w o o d . Yiddish ( i h g l : 235-64) 1965
69 E. f a l ' k o v i C. Evreiskii iazyk (IN S S S R 1) 1966
70 f r a n z j. b e r a n e k . Die jiddische Sprache ( o k 1968?)
71 u r ie l vaanraax [ w e in r e ic h ). Yidit, Yidis, A (E I 19: 783-94) 1968
72 URIEL w e in r e ic h . Yiddish language ( e jj 16: 789-98) 1972
73 o t t o F. b est . Mameloschen; Eine Sprache und ihre Literatur. Frankfurt/M.,
1973. Reviews see Nos. 850, 857, 868
74 SOLOMON a . b ir n b a u m . Die jiddische Sprache. Ein kurzer Cberblick und Texte
aus acht Jahrhunderten. Hamburg, 1974. Reviews sec Nos. 862, 865
74a c la u s j. h u t t e r e r . Jiddisch (in the authors Die germanischen Sprachen; Ihre
Geschlichte in Grundziigen: 347-61) Budapest, 1975
74b k azuo u ed a . Idishugo-gairyaku [ The outline o f Yiddish'J ( y ik No. 7) 1975

3 GRAMMAR
75 LEO w ie n e r . On theJudaeo-German spokenby the RussianJews(kj?
14:41-67) 1893
76 Al f r e d Das Deminutivum der galizisch-jiidischen Mundart; Ein Capitel
landau.

aus der jiidisch-deutscken Grammatik ( d m i : 46-58) 1896.

- Sec No. 114, 1902
t Unauthorized translation of No. 56. J.A. Joffe was obviously responsible for some peculiar
phonetical statements and very odd renderings of some Yiddish phonemes. In addition, tbe
translation - also by Joffe? - is very poor and inaccurate; the additions and abridgments, as
well as other changes, are in fact, out of line with the author's views and intentions.
 323 Bibliography

78 H. b o u r g e o is . Petite grammaire jude'o-allemande d Vusage des personnes que

desirent s'initier a la langue des juifs de Russie, Galicie et Roumanie ( r l 1912-
1913). In book form: Paris, 1913
79 m o r d x y v n g e r [ m o r d e c a i v e in g e r ]. Iidiier sintaksis. Warsaw, 1913
80 SALOMO [SOLOMON A.] b ir n b a u m . Praktische Grammatik der jiddiscken Sprache
fiir den Selbstunterrickt; M it Lesestiicken und einem Worterbuch (Die Kunst dcr
Polyglottie, 128. Teil) (Preface: 1915) Vienna, 1918-2nd cd.: Grammatik der
jiddischen Sprache; M it einem Worterbuch und Lesestiicken. Hamburg, 1966.
Reviews see Nos. 690, 702, 794, 796
81 z a lm y n RA1Z1N [zalm an r e is e n ]. Gramatik fjn der Iidiier iprax. 1st part. Vilna,
1920. Review see No. 703
82 i j j d l m a r k . Sul-gramatik. Kaunas/Kovno, 1921. 2nd ed., 1923
83 Ma t t h ia s m ie s e s . Diejiddische Sprache; Eine historische Grammatik des Idioms der
integralen Juden Ost- und Mitteleuropas. Berlin, 1924. Reviews see Nos. 706,707
84 z a l m y n r a iz in [ z a l m a n r e is e n ]. Gramatiier miin in lidii (IiF: 11-22, 180-92,
303-22) 1924
85 i vg n i k a g a rov . Di grjnd-stixiy fjn lidisn sintaksis (F$ 1: 425-28) 1926
8 6 z a l m y n r a iz in [ z a l m a n r e is e n ], Di deklinaciyfjn dym iim-iicym in lidii (F$ 1:
387-412) 1926
87 ia a n k y v v il e r [ja c o b w il l e r ]. Der gramatiier miin fjn di hoipt-vbter in mizrex-
galiciin lidii (F$ 1: 249-64) 1926
88 a azik Z A R iaci. Praktiiy Iidiiy gramatik fa r Hirers jn studenten. Moscow, 1926
89 ie v g e n i k a g a r o v . Cj dym gybroux fjn di baig-faln in lidii (F$ 2: 187-98) 1928
90 z a l m y n r a iz in [ z a l m a n r e is e n ]. A bisl material cj der vortbildjng in lidii (F$ 2:
453-66) 1928
91 ie v g e n i kag a rov . Ainiky axt-ghbjngyn ofn gybiit fjn Itdiin sintaksis (F$ 3:
467-72) 1929
92 z a l m y n r a iz in [z a l m a n r e is e n ]. A bisl viign der bildjngfjn baa-vort; A kapitl
Iidiiy gramatik (F$ 3: 589-98) 1929
93 a a z ik Z A R iaci [ISAAC ZARETZKij. Gramatiiy behiftjngyn (F$ 3: 185-210) 1929
94 n o ie x P R iL u ac i [ n o a h p r y l u c k i / p r il u t z k i ], Der brjjder maaner - - (IF A 1:
274-80) 1938
95 z a l m y n r a iz in [z a l m a n r e is e n ]. Normy, ioky-mm-haklol, gramatiiy dubUtn
(IFA 1: 171-82) 1938
96 ij j d l [ y u d e l ] m a r k . A puur guur vixtiky sfaikys fjn jndzer klal-iprax (IFA 1:
233-44, 265-72; 2: 80-86, 97-100) 1938, 1939
97 t. FALKOVid lidii. Moscow, 1940
98 i j j d l [ y u d e l ] m a r k . Der gramatiier miin fjn zax-virter (1S 3: 97-136) 1943
99 m a k s v a a n b e r g [m a x w e i n b e r g ] , Der gramatiier miin loutn Besaraber njsex
)/$ 4 : 55 57( 1944
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100 NORDKHE SCHAECHTER. Aktionen im Jiddischen; Em sprachmissenschaftlicher

Beitrag zur vergleichenden Bedeutungslehre des Verbums. Dissertation, Vienna
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101 MORDXY &XTER [mordecai schaechter ], Di tjj-itaigers in der Iidiier iprax (1S
12: 11-17) 1952
102 MAX WEINREICH. Chrysander's Yiddish grammar o f 17s0 Reproduced from
the original with introductory remarks (in English and Yiddish). New York,
!958
103 franz j. beranek. Die Verklemerungsformen im Jiddischen (maj 2: 5-9) i960
- See No. 130, 1961
104 Siegfried colditz . A us der sowietrussischen Jiddistik ( maj 2: 116) 1963
105 MARVIN 1. herzog . Grammatical features o f Markuze's Seyfer Refues <1 9>>
(F0Y 2: 49-62) 1965
106 RICHARD M.R. HALL. Yiddish syntax: phrase structure rules and optional singulary
transformations o f the modem standard language. Dissertation, New York
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107 MEYER WOLF. The geography o f Yiddish case and gender variation. Dissertation,
Columbia University, 1968. (F0Y 3: 102-15) 19&9 ( da 29A: 2699) 1969
107a RICHARD R.M. and BEATRICE [lincoff ] h all . A problem o f rule ordering
anarthrous locatives in Yiddish (SK: 49-58) 1970
108 jcazuo ueda. Yiddish-go bumpo gairyaku (E D K K No. 2 [Feb.]: m -5 1 ) 1970.
(The outline of Yiddish grammar]
108a m oi $y goldvaser [ morris goldwasser]. Di lang-fargangyny coat in Yiddish
(GA 5) 1974
109 VERA LOCKWOOD baviskar. The position o f aspect in the verbal system o f Yiddish
( w py 1) 1974
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n o MEYER WOLF. Contributions to a transformational grammar o f Yiddish - The
long form o f the Yiddish adjective; The passive and related constructions; A note
on the relative pronouns vos, vemen, and velkh ( w py 4) 1974
111 vera lockwood baviskar. Negation in a sample o f seventeenth century Western
Yiddish ( w p 14) 1975
112 WALTER ROLL. Die Pluralbildung im Jiddischen und im Deutschen ( aigk v :
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4 TH E L IN G U IS T I C IN H E R IT A N C E OF Y ID D IS H
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113 LEO WIENER. On the Hebrew element in Slavo-Judaeo-German (Heb 10:175-87)

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114 JACOB g e r z o n . Die jiidisch-deutsche Sprache; Eine grammatisch-lexikalische

Untersuchung ihres deutschen Grundbestandes. Frankfurt/M., 1902. Reviews see

Nos. 670-74
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115 SALOMO [s o l o m o n A.] b ir n b a u m . Das hebrdische und aramdische Element in der
jiddischen Sprache (Dissertation, Wurzburg University, 1921) Leipzig, 1922.
Reviews see Nos. 691-94, 697, 698, 700
- See No. 324, 1925-1926
116 K. lu b a r s k i . Okraiinizmyn in der Iidiser iprax (Zap 1: 130-61) 1927
117 ij jd y A. iu f y [ju d a h A. jo f f e ]. Der slaviier elyment in lid ii (Pin: 235-56, 296-
3 12) 19 28
118 a . landy [a lfr ed l a n d a u ]. D i slaviiy elymentn jn haipuuys in lid ii (F $ 2:
199-214) 1928
- See No. 923, 1928
119 1. STAINB01M [j. s t e in b a u m ] , Der hebreiiier elyment in lid ii. A prjjv fjn a verter-
skaly (IB 5: 304-28): 1933
120 n o ie x p r il u c k i [n o a h p r y l u c k i / p r il u t z k i ]. Cjm vikjjex veign di Hebreiizmyn
(IF A 1: 65-75) 1938
121 m a k s vaanraax [m a x w e in r e ic h ]. Veign Engliiy elymentn in jndzer kultuur-
iprax (IS 1: 33-46) 1941
122 h a im b l a n c . The Yiddish language - A survey o f its Slavic elements, b .a . thesis,
Harvard University, 1948
- See No. 347, 1953
123 y u d e l m a r k . A study o f the frequency o f Hebraisms in Yiddish (F0Y 1 : 2 8 -4 7 )
1954
124 u r ie l w e in r e ic h . Yiddish blends with a Slavic element (Wo n : 603-10) 1955
125 MAX w e in r e ic h . The Jewish languages o f Romance stock and their relation to
earliest Yiddish (RPh 9: 403-28) 1956
126 - Yiddish-Knaanic-Slavic; The basic relationships (f r j : 622-32) 1956
127 ij j d l [y u d e l ] m ark. lidii-H ebreiiiy jn Hebreiiii-Iidiiy naai-iafjngyn (IB 4 1 :
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128 [ ja co b ] l . l e v in . Virter-biixlfjn Hebreiii-Iidiiy verter mit der rixtiker
ia a n k y v

ous-iprax jn der gyheiriker derkle'irjng fjn ieidn vort. New York, 1958
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129 XAAIYM Sloim y [chaim solomon ] kazdan . Vfign fariiidjny grupys Hebreiizmyn
(1$ 20: 33-44) i960
130 M.x. FRIDBERG. Sloinopodiinemoe predloienie v yidil-taic x v i-x v ill w .
(VSRG I: 79-88) 1961
- See No. 360, 1964
131 PAUL wexler . Slavic influence in the grammatical functions o f three Yiddish
verbal prefixes (Lin 7: 83-93) *9^4
132 moshe altbauer. Zum Riickgang der Slavismen im literarisehen Jiddisch ( vid 2 -
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133 ilse z. sand . The vocabulary o f the Mayscbukh. M.A. thesis, Columbia Uni-
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134 mordecai kosover. Arabic elements in Palestinian Yiddish; The old Ashkenazic
community ht Palestine, its history and its language. Dissertation, Johns Hopkins
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135 M.x. fridberg . EvoVucia sredneverxnemeckix soiuzov daz 1 als v y id isi vozikno-
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136 J. BIHARI. Zur Erforschung des slamschen Bestsndteils des Jiddischen (alh 19:
' 57 99 ( 969
137 nexemia alloni [ nehem iah allony ]. Hamel meot millim ivriyot billon ha-
dtbbur ( bm 144: 85-106) 1971
138 PAUL WEXLER. A mirror image comparison o f languages in contact: Verbal prefixes
in Slavicised Yiddish and Germanicised Sorbian (Lin No. 82: 89-123) 1972
138a c h . l e m c h e n a s . Lietwi\t Kalbos / taka Lietuvos Zydy Tarmei. Vilna, 1973.
[ The influence of the Lithuanian language on the Yiddish/Jewish dialect in
Lithuania.]
138b iaankyv [jacob ] robinson . Review of No. 136a. (IB 44: 310-11) 1973
139 R. LOTZSCH. Slamsche Elementf in der grammatischen Struktur des Jiddischen
(zs 19: 446-59) 1974

5 PHONOLOGY

140 moritz GUDEMANN. Geschichte des Erzieh ungswesens und der Cultur der Juden in
Frankreich und Deutschland (l: 278 f.) Vienna, 1880; Amsterdam, 1966.
140a Yiddish translation by nuxym t if [nahum sh t if ]. Iidiiy kultuur-gysixty in
mitlalter; Iidn in Daailand dus X IV jn XViuur-hjndert, pp. 180-92. Berlin, 1922
141 - Uber die Aussprache der deutschen Buchstaben; Bernerkungen emiger Rabbmen
des /5. Jahrhunderts (zds 1: 104-9) 1887
142 bier buurexov [ber borochow ]. Uun-merkjngyn cjm fuurikn <wf/jW[N0. 142a]
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142a m . &MEJUNSK1 [ t c h e m e r i n s k i ] , Di iidiiy fonitik (P: 48-71) 1913. See No. 142
143 PAULINE M . f l e i s s . Das Buch Sime hath Hanefesch von Houle Kirchhain aus dem
Jahre 1 2 ; Rcmuntersuchung als Beitrag zur Kenntniss der jiidisch-deutschen
Mundarten. Dissertation, Berne University, 1913. Berne, 1913
144 MORDXY vnger [mordecai yI inger ]. Hibriiiiy klangyn in der Iidiier iprax
(P: 79-84) 1913
145 EDWARD sapir . Notes on Judaeo-German phonology (jqr n .s . 6: 231-66) 1915.
Reprint in the authors Selected writings in language, culture and personality
(252-72). Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1949
146 noiex priluoci [( noah ) pryluoci/ prilutzki]. Der Iidiier konsonantizm (IDF
1 = N P K vi) Warsaw, 1917
147 ISAAK spielrein . Zur Aussprache und Transkription des Jiidischen (Jd 2 : 285-88)
1917/1918
148 Review of No. 146. (JR May 17) 1918
149 noiex priluoci [(noah ) prylucki/ prilutzki]. Dialiktologiiy paraleh jn
bamerkjngyn: tiudn veign lidiin vokalizm (IDF III = N P K v iii = zbif i i )
Warsaw, 1920
150 - Cjm Ildiin vokalizm (1DF IV = N P K x) Warsaw, 1920
151 salomo [solomon a.] birnbaum . Vbersicht uber den jiddischen Vokalismus
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152 NOIEX priluoci [( noah ) pryluoci/ prilutzki]. Mamy-luuin; Iidiiy iprax-
visniaftlexy fuur-arbytn (IDF v = N P K x) 1924
152a iaankyv viler [jacob w iller ]. Fonitik fjn Mizrex-GalicUn lidii (UF: 23-33,
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153 TEODOR GUTMAN. Di konsonantn-asimilaciy in zac (F$ 2: 107-10) 1928
154 $LOIMY U. BIIRNBOIM [SOLOMON A. BIRNBAUM]. Luubt, ous-laig jn asimilaciy
(ly i 1: 19-26) 1929
155 bruno korman . Die Reimtechnik der Esther-Paraphrase Cod. Hamburg 144;
Beitrag zur Erschliessung des altjiddischen Lautsystems. Dissertation, Hamburg
University. Kolomea, 1930. Review see No. 715
156 &OIMY BIIRNBOIM [SOLOMON A. BIRNBAUM]. Kumyc = 0 (IB 1: 147-49) 1931
157 SALOMO [SOLOMON A.] birnbaum . Das diteste datierte Schriftstikk in jiddischer
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158 - Die Umschrift des Jiddischen (t 9: 90-105) 1933
159 Sloim y biirnboim [solomon A. birnbaum J. Di historiy fjn di alty u-klangyn in
lidii (IB 6: 25-60; and separately) Vilna, 1934
160 noiex pr il Ooci [(noah ) pryluoci/ prilutzki]. Dialiktologiiy fuur-arbytn.
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161 Sloim y u . biirnboim [solomon a . birnbaum ]. Di havuury fjn Alt-Ildii (IB 18:
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162 - Interdialektii (IS 4 : 1 0 4 -9 ) 1944

163 l iv ia k ov a cs . Zum Problem der Sekunddrdiphthonge in der jiddischen Sprache
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164 ij j d l [y u d e l ] m ark. Veign a kluulisn arous-red (IS 11: 1 -2 5 ) 1951
165 j r ii y l VAANRAAX [ u r ie l w e in r e ic h ]. C j der fra g y veign a normiirter ous-sprax

(IS 11: 2 6 -3 0 ) 1951

- S e e N o . 2 1 0 , 1953
166 s l o im y u. b iir n b o im [s o l o m o n a . b ir n b a u m ]. A problem; Der princip fjn
vaaterkaif ( I n t h e a u th o r s Fjn daacmerizm biz der hail in der midber Iyhjjdy
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167 r o m a n ia k o b s o n [ja k o b so n ], Der Iidiser klangyn-bastand in farglaax mitn

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168 FLORENCE GUGGENHE1M-GRUNBERG. Ein deutscher Urfehdebrief in hebrdischer
Schrift aus Zurich vom Jahre 1385 ( z m f 2 2 : 2 0 7 -1 4 ) 1955
169 URIEL w e in r e ic h . Notes on the Yiddish rise-fall intonation ( f r j : 6 3 3 -4 3 ) 1956
170 f r a n z j. b e r a n e k . Germ p -, pp im Jiddischen ( m a j i : 8 5 -8 7 ) 1957
171 Fl o r e n c e GUGGENHE1M-GRUNBERG. Zur Umschrift deutscher Mundarten des
14 -11S Jahrhunderts mit hebrdischer Schrift ( z m f 2 4 : 2 2 9 -4 6 ) 1957
172 m a k s v a a n r a a x [m ax w e i n r e i c h ] . Bnai-Hes jn Bnai-Xes in A skynyz: D i
problem - jn vus z i lozt jn d z heiern (IB 4 1 : 1 0 1 -2 3 ) I 957/ I 958
173 f r a n z j . b e r a n e k . Zur Entwicklung des jiddischen Vokalismus ( m a j i : 9 9 -1 0 2 ,

1 1 6 -1 8 , 1 4 8 -5 1 ) 1958, 1959
174 HANS NEUMANN. Sprache und Reim in den judendeutschen Gedichten des Cam-
bridger Codex t . s . io . k . 22 ( I G e : 1 4 5 -6 5 ) i9 6 0
175 FRANZ j. beranek. Nichtzwiegelautetes mhd. i, iu , u im Jiddischen ( m a j 2 : 4 0 -4 2 )
1961
176 - Sukke, Sukkes ( m a j 2 : 6 6 -7 1 ) 1962
177 s ie g m u n d a . w o l f . Studien zum Vokalismus des dltesten Jiddischen (P h o 8 :
3 I _ 54) 1962
178 franz j . beranek. Gefen, gdfen , gofen ( m a j 2 : 1 1 3 -1 5 ) 1963
179 jo s e f w e is s b e r g .The vowel system o f m s Cambridge t .s . io . k . 22 compared with
M iddle High German ( jjs 14: 3 7 -5 1 ) 1963
180 f r a n z j. b e r a n e k . Zur Geschichte des jiddischen Vokalismus (z m f 3 2 : 2 6 9 - 7 4 ) 1965
181 p a v e l t r o s t . Yiddish in Bohemia and M oravia - The vowel question ( F 0 Y 2 :
8 7 -9 1 ) 1965
182 Das Konsonantensystem des Dukus H oran f und der ubrigen
jo s e f w e is s b e r g .

Texte des Cambridger Manuskripts T.s. 10. K. 2 2 , verglichen mit dem Mittelhoch-
deutschen ( z m f 3 2 : 1 -4 0 ) 1965
183 Wa l t e r r o l l . Zum Konsonantensystem der Cambridger Handschrift ( z m f 3 3 :
1 4 4 -4 6 ) 1966
 329 Bibliography

184 JOSEFw e is s b e r g . Johann Christof W'agenseils Bericht Wie das Jvidhch-Teiitsche

zu lesen ( zd s 25: 154-68) 1969

- See No. 61: Lautlehre, 1972
185 JOAN g . b r a t k o w s k y . Sharpness in Yiddish - A fifth riddle in bilingual dialec-
tology. Dissertation, Indiana University, 1974. ( d a i 35: 2248 f.) 1974
186 M. g e r n o t h e id e . Graphematisch-phonematische Untersuchmgen zum A lt-
jiddischen; Der Vokalismus. Berne-Frankfurt/M., 1974 = European Univer-
sity Papers, Series 1, vol. 106. Review see No. 870
187 jo a n G. Palatalization in Yiddish ( w p y 7: 1-23) 1975
bra tk ow sk y .

188 ja m es L. Proto-Yiddish and the history o f Yiddish phonology - The front

h a in e s .

rounded vowel phonemes (w p y 9) 1975

189 M. g e r n o t h e id e . Die h-Graphen im alteren Jiddisch ( f a j : 4-15) 1977

6 SPELLING

190 b e ie r bu urexo v [ b er b o r o c h o w ]. Veign der ortografiy fjn fuurikn artikl

(p: 18-22) 1913
191 [s o l o m o n a . b ir n b a u m ]. D i klangyn jn dus ous laign fjn
s l o im y b iir n b o im

lid ii (UF: 176-80) 1924

192 - D i iysoidys fjn Iidisn ous-laig (A IO : 18-19) 1930
193 - A lyf-baiz fjn ortodoksisn ous-laig (A IO : 86-87) 1930
194 TEODOR GUTMAN. D i interpunkciy in Daac, Englis, Poilis jn Francaizis (A IO :
118-21) 1930
195 a ly k sa n d er h a r k a v i [ a lex a n d er h a rk a vy ], Etlexy bamerkungyn veign ouslaig
(A IO : 85) 1930
196 KALMANOVid [ z e l ik k a l m a n o w ic z ], C i iz miiglex a fonetiser ous-laig fa r
z e il ik
der Iidiser literariser sprax? (A IO : 3-17) 1930
197 ia a n k y v l e v in [ja c o b l e w in ]. Ortografisy noticn (A IO : 66-71) 1930
198 ij j d l [y u d e l ] m a r k . Veign a sistem up-stel-caixns (A IO : 88-117) 1930
199 B. SLOSBERG [ b . SCHLOSSBer g ]. Der Iidiser ous-laig in Ratn-farband (A IO :
72-84) 1930
200 m a k s vaanraax [m a x w e in r e ic h ]. Proiekt fjn an ainhaitlexn Iidisn ous-laig
(A IO : 20-65) 19301

1 See p. 112, footnote. When I read this (in 1930) it escaped me that the words our name seem
to imply that cvai vuvn is the traditional term. However, there are no traditional names for the
digraphs: double vuv, vuv + ijjd, double ijjd, zaaiyn + siin and tes + s'iin. I therefore used
these designations in my Grammatik (1918 [1915]). Max Weinreich either assumed that I knew
the traditional name to be cvai vuvn or he just adopted my designation.
 33<> Bibliography

201 &LOIMY BIIRNBOIM [ s o u i m o n A. tlexy kluulym fin ous-laig. (In:

b ir n b a u m ] .

e l ia iz e r Di Iidiiy nyivmy: 105-9) Lodz, 1931

i n d l e r [ e l i Es e x Sc h i n d l e r ] .
202 - Cvai vuvn ke-xolha-gooiym (Bl 8: No. 14/15 (No. 71/72): 32-33) 1931
203 i i o i & R v is n Sa f t l e x e r i n s t i t u t . Ous-laig-takuunys fin lidii. Vilna, 1935.
Takuunysfin lidiin ous-laig. Vilna, 1937; New York, 1941, etc.
204 &XHMY BIIRNBOIM [SOLOMON A. BIRNBAUM], Vokal-oisiys (IB 18: 87-88) 1941
205 - InterdiaUktii (1$ 4: 104-9) 1944
206 - Kuuzmark (1$ 8: 12) 1948
207 i j j d l [ y u d e l ] m a r k . tlexy hyuurys (1$ 9: 21-22) 1949
208 m a k s v a a n r a a x [ m a x w e i n r e i c h ] . Vus iz der miier mitn lidiin ous-laig?
Pruutym-fragys jn principn (1$ 9: 1-21) 1949
209 x a a iy m g i n i n g e r [ c h a i m g i n n i n g e r ]. Cj der aksiomatik fin lidiin ous-laig
(IS 11: 30-38) 1951
210 Sl o i m y b i i r n b o i m [SOLOMON A. b i r n b a u m ]. Fonologiy jn ous-laig; Der uun-
haib fjn lidiin ous-laig; Der ous-laig fjn lidii. (In the authors Fjn daacmerizm
biz der hail in der midber lyhjjdy [/.$ 13: 113-20 = IA IB : 199-206]) 1953,
1958
210a i j j d l [ y u d e l ] m a r k . In fartaidikungfin dym itjmyn a lyf (I$ 19: 1-21) 1959
211 MORDXY &XTER [MORDKHE (MORDECAl) SCHAECHTER]. Kitrsfjn Iidiier ortografiy.
With a preface by J.A. Fishman. New York, 2nd ed., 1972
- See No. 291a, 1977

7 TRANSCRIPTION

212 i j j d y a . iu f y [j u d a h a . jo f f e ], Di klangyn fjn lidii jn der Iidiier alyf-baiz (NL

1:5: 29-32,701-07) 1909
213 dr. x . ( i .e ., l a z a r / l u d w i g z a m y n h o f [ z a m e n h o f ]). Veign a Iidiier gramatik jn
ryforym in der Iidiier iprax (L V 1: 53-54; 7: 89-96; 9: 97-103) 1909, 1910
213a - Sraabn oder iraabyn ? (Lit July: 102-11) 1910
214 s a l o m o [ s o l o m o n a .] b ir n b a u m . Tabelle (Fr 1: 58-59) 1913
215 A. d o b s c h u t z . Der orthographische Hokuspokus; Wie die ,Freistatt' jiddische
Gedichte transkribiert ( j r 18: No. 35) 1913
215a s a l o m o [ s o l o m o n a .] b i r n b a u m . Der orthographische Hokuspokus (Fr 1:
412-14) 1913
- See No. 80, pp. n -3 1 , 1918
- See No. 115, 1922
216 Sl o i m y u . b i i r n b o i m [ s o l o m o n a . b ir n b a u m ]. Transkripciys fin Yiddish.
First part (F$ 3: 485-96) 1929
- See No. 431, 1932
 33! Bibliography

See No. 432, 1932

See No. 158, 1933
217 S i.o im y u . b i i r n b o i m [s o lo m o n A. b i r n b a u m ] . An infer mikoiex maany
transkripciys (1S 7: 29-36) 1947
218 $JJKL FIRMAN [sh ik l / joshua fishman ]. Veign dym proiikt vii cj transkribiim o f
nglii Iidiiy niimyn jn titlyn fjn biixer (1S 7 : 4 2 - 4 4 ) 1 9 4 7
219 MAIER HURVIC [ meyer hurw itz ]. Viign dym proiikt vii cj transkribiim o f
nglii Iidiiy niimyn jn titlyn fjn biixer (I$ 7: 41-42) 1947
220 ijjd l [ yudel ] mark . Veign dym proiikt vii cj transkribiim o f nglii Iidiiy niimyn
jn titlyn fjn biixer (I$ 7: 44-46) 1947
2 21 AVRUUM a. ROBAK [ABRAHAM A. roback]. Viign dym proiikt vii cj transkribiim o f
nglii Iidiiy niimyn jn titlyn fjn biixer (1$ 7: 36-40) 1947
222 $loimy u . biirn bo im [solomon a . birnbaum ]. Transkribiim fjn lidii (1$ 8 :
13-14) 1948
223 ijjd l [yudel ] mark . A puur korcy hyuurys cj $. Biirnboims noticn ( 1S 8: 15-16)
1948

8 DIA LECTS AND REGIONAL M ATTERS

See Section 5 (Phonology), passim.

224 C. TH. WEISS. Das Elsasser Judendeutsch (JGSLEL 12: 121-82) 1896
225 C.w. FABER. Zur Judensprache im Elsass ( jgslel 13: 173-83) 1897
226 heinrich lew y . Zum Elsasser Judendeutsch ( jgslel 14: 78-82) 1898
See No. 535b, 1901
See No. 114, 1902
227 Sm jjl aazn^tat [samuel eisenstat ], Di geografiiy grimycn fjn jndzer iprax jn
iiry ousipraxn (LM May, 1908)
228 EDUARD HALTER. Die Mundart der Juden (Judendeutsch) (m e : 115-21) Stras-
bourg, 1908
See No. 425, 1911
See No. 143, 1913
229 honel m . meiss . Traditions populates alsaciennes; A travers le dialecte judio-
alsacien. Nice, 1923
230 RACHEL MIESES. [Phonetics o f Yiddish o f Central Galicia (Przemyil)]. Disserta-
tion. c. 1924
231 PAUL livY. Le parler des Juifs en Alsace et en Lorraine (Uni 80: 256 if.)
5.6.1925-17.7.1925
232 t e o d o r G utm an. A prjjv fjn a fonitik fjn Lodzer lidii (F$ 1: 377-88) 1926
233 z 1l i k KALMANOVid [z e lik k alm an o w ic z]. Der Iidiier dialekt in Kurland
(F$ 1: 161-88) 1926
 332 Bibliography

234 cvi p iir n . Di Iidiiy iprax in Jngem (F$ 1: 195-200) 1926

235 MORDXY vtNGER [ moroechai vtlNGE*]. Viign Iidiiy dialiktn (C 1: 181-208)
1926
236 R. s t a l e k . Materiaht cjm Burgnlinder lidii (F $ 2: 265-80) 1928
237 PAUL l v y . Histoire linguistique d'Alsace et de Lorraine. Passim, see index, under
Judio-allemand, p. 545. Paris, 1929
238 la iz e r viiiNK iN [ l. w ile n k in ]. Iidiier iprax-atlys fjn Sovit-Farband, ofn grjnt
fjn di dialiktologiiy materiaht, vus zaanyn cjnoif gyzamlt gyvoom dorx der
iprax-komisiy fjn lidiin Sikter fjn der Vaas-Rjsiier Visniafi-akadimiy jnter M.
vtNGERS [ m . w ein g e r] uun-furjng. Minsk, 1931. Reviews see Nos. 713, 716,
726, 738
239 MORDXY [ m o r d e c a i ] KOSOVEX. Viign lidii fjn altn Aikyniizibt iiiyv in Eiryc-
Iisruul (IB 4: 43-50) 1932
239a l 01my biirnboim [solomon a. birnbaum ]. Jngem oder Lity ? (IB 5: 329-31)
1933
240 franz j. beranek. lidii in Cexoslovakaa (IB 9 : 63^75) 1936
- See Nos. 60/61
240a IJJDY A. IUFY [JUDAH A. JOFFE], lidii m Amiriky (IB 10: 127-45) !936
241 M01y ^ ta rk m a n . Cj der gyiixty fjn lidii in Amiriky (IBA) 1939
242 f r a n z j. b e r a n e k . Die jiddische Mundart Nordostungams. Bninn/Bmo, 1941.
Reviews see Nos. 748, 752
243 levinski. Francaiziiy virter inym Pariizer lidii (HFr 2: 193-204) 1942
244 JUDAH A. joffe . The development o f Yiddish in the United States (UJE 10: 601-2)
1943
245 franz j . beranek . Sprachgeographie des Jiddischen in der Slovakei (ZPhAS 3:
25-46) 1949
246 Florence guggenhei m- grOnberg . Die Sprache der Schtmzer Juden von
Endingen und Lengnau (iw s) 1950. Reprint: bgvjs i , 1954
247 ROBERT m . Copeland and NATHAN SUSSKINCH. The language o f Hertz's Esther;
A study in Judeo-German dialectology. Dissertation, Harvard University, 1951.
Alabama, 1976
248 Ur ie l w e in r e ic h . Sabesdiker losn m Yiddish: A problem o f linguistic affinity
(Wo 8: 360-77) 1952
249 ioxvyd iufyn [jean jofen ], Iidiiy dialiktn-aan-tailjng lout fonitiiy jn liksiiy
principn (IS 13: 157-60) 1953
250 MAKS VAANRAAX [MAX WEINREICH]. Ruuiy-prukym viign maaryvdikn lidii ( 1S
3 : 35- 69) 953
251 H. beem . Yiddish in Holland; Linguistic and socio-lmguistic notes (F0Y 1 : 122-

33) 954
- See No. 638, 1954
 333 Bibliography

252 JEAN B. JOFEN. The dialectological makeup o f East European Yiddish: Phono-
logical and lexieological criteria. Dissertation, Columbia University, 1953
( da 14: 140) 1954
253 judah A. joffe . Dating the origin o f Yiddish dialects (F0Y 1: 102-21) 1954
254 franz j. beranek. Zur westjiddischen Wortgeographie (maj i : 37-40) 1956
255 - Das Pinsker Jiddisch und seine Stellung im gesamtjiddischen Sprachraum.
Berlin, 1958. Reviews see Nos. 769, 771, 775, 777, 778, 786
256 Florence guggenheim - grCnberg . Zur Phonologie des Surbtaler Jiddischen
(Pho 2: 86-108) 1958
257 franz j. beranek. K.W . Fridrichs mundarthehe Einteilung des Jiddischen
( maj 1: 143-48) 1959
258 ALBERT PFR1MMER. Un Hot judio-alsacien dans le Haut-Rhin (MFM: 362-78)
Paris, 1959
259 franz j. beranek . Die frankische Landschaft des Jiddischen (jflf 21: 267-303)
1961
260 FLORENCE guggenhei m - grunberg . Gatlinger Jiddisch ( lbdms 22) Gottingen,
1961. Review see No. 787
261 JOHN w . KNOTT. Spoken Yiddish; A study o f the Lithuanian and the Polish
dialect o f Yiddish in Toronto, m .a. Thesis, University of Toronto, 1963
262 franz j. beranek. Die mundertliche Gliederung des Westjiddischen ( maj 2:
148-52) 1964
263 Florence guggenheim - gr Onberg . Uherreste westjiddischer Dialekte in der
Schweiz, im Elsass und in Suddeutschland (sjl l : 72-81) 1964
264 marvin 1. herzog . Channels o f systematic extinction in Yiddish dialects (s jl l :
93-107)1964
265 JEAN JOFEN. A linguistic atlas o f Eastern European Yiddish. New York, 1964
266 Uriel w einreich . Western traits in Transcarpathian Yiddish (SJLL: 245-64)
1964
267 A r t h u r z iv y . Elsasser Jiidisch-Deutsch ( iw b 64: Nos. 1, 6, 9, 11, 14, 25, 31)
1964
268 franz j . beranek. Westjiddischer Sprachatlas. Marburg/Lahn, 1965. Reviews
see Nos. 795, 800, 804, 807, 810, 813
269 joshua fishm an . Yiddish in America; Socio-lmguistic description and analysis.
Bloomington, 1965
270 PAUL L. GARVIN. The dialect geography o f Hungarian Yiddish (F0Y 2: 92-115)
1965
271 marvin I. HERZOG. The Yiddish language in northern Poland; Its geography and
history. Dissertation, Columbia University, 1964. Bloomington, 1965. (da 28:
2228) 1967. Reviews see Nos. 815, 817, 829, 851
272 claus j. hutterer . The phonology o f Budapest Yiddish (F0Y 2: 116-46) 1965
 334 Bibliography

273 MAX WEINREICH. On the dynamics o f Yiddish dialect formation (F0Y 2: 73-86)
1965
274 FLORENCE GUGGENHEIM-GRUNBERG. Surbtaler Jiddisch, Endingen und Lengnau;
Mit Anhang jiddischer Sprachproben aus Elsass und Baden. Two L .P. records of
the Phonogramm-Archiv of Zurich University and text book, Yiddish,
German translation, and commentary. Frauenfeld, 1966. Review see No. 809.
See also No. 380
- See No. 134, 1966
275 LEOPOLD s c h n it z l e r . Prager Judendeutsch; Em Beitrag zur Erforschung des
alteren Prager Judendeutsch in lautlicher und insbesondere in lexikalischer Bezie-
hung. Dissertation, Prague University, 1922. Grafelfung bei Miinchen, 1966.
Review see No. 286
276 Ale x a n d e r d e r c z a n s k i . Introduction d une etude du Yiddish en France (RENLO 4:
125-50) 1967
277 CLAUS J. h u t t e r e r . Geschichte des Vokalismus der westjiddischen Mundart von
Ofen und Pest ( a l h 17: 345-82) 1967
278 Ar n o l d m a n d e l . Langues et dialectes juifs de France; 2. Le yiddish (Ar 123:
42- 45. 73) 967
279 franz j . beranek. Zum westjiddischen Sprachatlas ( z m f 35: 146-48) 1968
280 FLORENCE Erwiderung (to No. 279) ( z m f 35: 148-49)
g u g g e n h e im - g r u n b e r g .

1968
281 h a l in a k o z l o w s k i . Zur Forschungsgeschichte der jiddischen Dialekte (LPo

12/13: 135- 46) 1968

282 m a r v in 1. h e r z o g . Yiddish in the Ukraine: Isoglosses and historical inferences

(F0Y 3: 58-81) 1969

283 CLAUS J. HUTTERER. Theoretical and practical problems o f Western Yiddish
dialectology (F0Y 3: 1-15) 1969
284 STEVEN l o w e n s t e in . Results o f atlas investigations among Jews from Germany
(FoY 3: 16-35) 1969
- See No. 368, c. 1969
- See No. 369, 1969
285 u r ie l w e in r e ic h . The geographic makeup o f Belorussian Yiddish (FoY 3:

82-101) 1969
286 h e r t h a w o l f - b e r a n e k . Bemerkungen zum Prager Judendeutsch (ZOF 18:90-92)

1969. Review of No. 275

- See No. 106, 1969
287 r ic h a r d z u c k e r m a n . Alsace - An outpost o f Western Yiddish (FoY 3: 36-57)

1969
288 MORDXY &XTEK [ m o r d k h e ( m o r d e c a i ) s c h a e c h t e r ]. Dus luubI fjn Sovitii
Hamland' (1S 29: 10-42; 30: 32-65) 1969/1970, 1971
 335 Bibliography

289 moi$y Sapiiro. Di iprax fjn Sovetil Haimland' jn dus haant-caatiky literariiy
lidii (sh No. 7: 120-33) 197 1
290 FLORENCE GUGGENHEIM-GRUNBERG. Jiddisch a u f alemamischem Sprachgebiet,
56 Karten zur Sprach- und Sachgeographie. Zurich, 1973. Reviews see Nos.
847, 857, 869
- See No. 534a, 1973
- See No. 374a, 1974
- See No. 909, 1974
- See No. 375a, 1974
- See No. 375b, 1974
- See No. 380, 1976
291 m aier L. volf [meyer w olf I. Di iprax fjn dym Saifer Svuxy Bal-Sem-Tov
( / ^ 35 : 3- 48) 1976 ' * JJ ^ ^
291a solomon A. birnbaum . Soviet Yiddish ( sja) 1978

9 VOCABULARY, ETY M O LO G Y , S EM A N TIC S

292 WILHELM CH. J. CALLENBERG. Jiidisch-tcutsches Worterbiichlem. Halle, 1736.

See No. 653
- See No. 609, 1784
- See No. 612, 1860-1862
293 a d a lb e r t s t a r c e v s k i . Karmanni stoiazycni slovar'. St Petersburg, 1887. See
No. 328
- See No. 224, 1896
- See No. 225, 1897
- See No. 456: 147-55: Glossar, 1900
- See No. 535b: 47-68: Glossar, 1901
294 o t h m a r m e is in g e r . Die hebriiischen Fremdworter der Rappenauer Mundart;
Nachtrag ( z h d m 2: 73-75) 1901. See No. 884
- See No. 114: 83-129: Wortschatz, 1902
- See No. 462: 1-84: Glossar, 1908
295 cvi n is n g o l o m b . Milim bilioini; Hebreiii-lidiiys verter-bjjxfjn Hebreiiiy verter,
ousdriky jn Toiry-verter, vilxy veiern banjet in lidiingyiprex jn in iir literatuur...
Vilna, 1910
296 ED. NASCh r . Das Buck des jiidischen Jargons, nebst einem Anhang Die Gauner-
oder die Kochemersprache, mit Quellennachu>eis und Erkldrungen. Vienna, 1910
- See No. 425: 116-33: Glossar, 1911
297 x a a iy m c . d . s p iv a k jn iy h o iy S (Sl o im y b l u m g a r t e n / b l o o m g a r d e n ). lidii
verter-bjjx; enthalt aly Hebreiiiy jn Xaldiiiiy verter, ousdrjkn jn aign-niimyn,
 336 Bibliography

vilxe viiem gybrouxt in der Iidiier iprax, mit zaier ous-iprax jn akcint... New
York, 1911
298 Alfred LANDAU. Zur russisch-judischen 'Klesmer'sprache ( mag ) 1913
299 ERNEST H. l vy . Judio-allemand Schnerie ( msl 18: 317 f.) 1913
300 SAMUEL weissenberg . Die 'Klesmer'sprache ( mag ) 1913
301 PAUL abelson (ed.). nglii-Iidiiys enciklopidiiys verter-bjjx. New York, 1915
302 jonas L. voorzanger en jonas E. POLAK JZ. Het Joodsch in Nederland; Aan het
Hebreeuwsch en andere talen ontleende moorden en zegsmjzen, verzameld en
toegelicht. Amsterdam, "1915. Review see No. 689
303 HERMANN L. strack. Jiidisches Worterbuch: M it besonderer Beriuktichtigung der
gegenmartig in Polen ublichen Ausdriicke. Leipzig, 1916. Reviews see Nos. 304-
33
304 paul fieb ig . Review of No. 303 (lcb 67: 1251) 1916
305 h . laible . Review of No. 303 (tlb 37: 482-85) 1916
306 josef Wohlgem uth . Review of No. 303 (Je 3: 714) 1916
307 ISAAK SPIELREIN. Review of No. 303 (Jd 1: 633-36) 1916/1917
308 paul fieb ig . Review of No. 303 ( t l z : 157) 1917
309 [b en n o ?] jacob . Review of No. 303 ( kcb 7: 839) 1917
310 samuel krauss. Review of No. 303 ( dlz 38: 144-46) 1917
- See No. 147, 1917/1918
311 heinrich loew e . Review of No. 303 ( n jm h 2: 169 f.) 1917/1918
- See No. 800, pp. 102-75: Worterbuch (not glossary to the Lesestiuke or
Grammatik), 1918
312 A. bloch . Elsassisch-judische Redensarten und Sprichworter (jgiel ) 1918
313 FELIX p e rle s. Review of No. 303 ( 0 LZ 21: 196-204) 1918
314 - Zur Erforschung des Jiidisck-Deutschen (PBB 43: 296-309; 44: 182-84) 19 18.
1920
315 EMMANUEL w e il l . Le Yidisch Alsacien-Lorram; Recueil des mots, locutions et
dictons particuliers aux Israilites d'Alsace et de Lorraine (rj 70: 180-94; 71:
66-88; 72: 65-88) 1920, 1921
316 nathan porges . Remarques sur le yidisch Alsacien-Lorrain (to No. j / j ) (rj 72:
201 f.) 1921
317 EMMANUEL WEILL. Quelques remarques sur les remarques pricidentes (to No. J16)
( rj 72: 201-2) 1921
318 CH. lauer . Le mot 'Mane' en judio-allemand ( r j 74: 104-5) 1922
319 nathan porges . Le mot Kippe' en judio-allemand (r j 74: 103-4) 19 22
320 noiex prilucki [(noah ) prylucki / prilutzki ]. Dusgyvet; dialogn viign iprax jn
kultHur. Warsaw, 1923
321 ZINA AND PAULA horow itz . English-Yiddish and Yiddish-English dictionary.
Warsaw, ca. 1923. Review see No. 707
 337 Bibliography

321a p o u l a h o r o v ic [p a u l a h o r o w it z ]. Liliput verter-bjjx, Iidis-Englis. Leipzig,

c. 1925
321b z in a h o r o w it z . Liliput dictionary, English-Yiddish. Leipzig, c. 1925
322 G. e p s t a in [e p s t e in ] - s l o m o r iv l i n . M illon-Ivri-Angli-Yidis. Jerusalem, 1924
323 n o ie x p r il u c k i [n o a h p r y l u c k i / p r il u t z k i ], Spet-luusn (B F : 33-45, 123-40,
338-82) 1924
324 SIMON d e b r e . Quelques expressions hebraiques [/ humoristiques!hebraiques-
humoristiques\ dans le judeo-alsacien (Uni 81) 1925-1926
325 n u x y m s t if [n a h u m s h t if ], Ven-den; bind-verter in der Iidiser sprax dus xv,
xvi iuur-hjndert (FS 1: 95-128) 1926
326 a ly k sa n d er h a r k a v i [ a lex a n d er h ark a vy ], Iidis-Englis-Hebrenser verter-
bjjx. C vaity,farbesertyjn fargreserty ouflage. New York, 1928
327 - Ouscugn fjnym Iidisn folks-ve'rter-bjjx (IB 1: 289-300) 1931
328 z a l m y n r a iz in [z a l m a n r a is e n / r e is e n ], Itdis in A . Starcevskis hjndert-
spraxikn verter-bjjx (IB 2: 284-86) 1931
329 k . b en y o v sk y und j. g r u n s f e l d . Glossary in their Pressburger Ghettobilder.
Bratislava/Pressburg, 1932
330 s l o im y u. b iir n b o im [s o l o m o n A. b ir n b a u m ]. Bdis verter-biixl fjn ous-laig,
gramatisn miin, baigjngjn vort-klas; M it di naitiksty kluulym fjn ous-laig. Lodz,
1932
331 A. b e n - j jr y [ a . b e n u r y ], Hebreiis-Bdis verter-bjjx. Warsaw, 1933
332 s i m o n d e b r e . Uhumeur judeo-alsacien; Expressions humoristiques judeo-
alsaciennes. Paris, 1933
333 L. m o s e s . Die Juden in Niederdsterreich: 56-59, 119-53, passim. Vienna, 1935
334 z e il ik KALMANOVid [ z e l ig k a l m a n o w ic z ], Der soirys fjn Daac'meris (IFA 1:
209-16) 1938
335 n o ie x p r il u c k i [( n o a h ) p r y l u c k i / p r il u t z k i ]. Internaciomlizmyn (IFA 1:
129-40)1938
336 - Metodologysy bamerkjngyn cjm problem Daac'meris (IF A 1: 201-9) 193&
337 s l o im y u. b iir n b o im [s o l o m o n a . b ir n b a u m ]. A bintl termiinyn fjn der Ijft-
milxumy (IS 1: 149-51, 177-79) 194 1
338 m o r d x y [m o r d e c a i ] k o so v e r . Milxumy-terminologiy injndzery caatjngyn (IS 1:
24-30) 1941
339 ij j d l [ y u d e l ] m a r k . Lomir o f hiitn di asiirys fjnym talmid-xuxyms sprax!
(IS 1: 65-77) 1941
340 i o s y f o p a t o s u [jo s e p h o p a t o s h u ( 0 PAT0 WSK1)]. Xjmys-verter (IS 1 : 30-32)
- 1941
341 s l o im y n o b l [s h l o m o n o b l e ]. Xjmys-taac; An ous-forstjng veign der tradiciy
fjn taacn Xjm ys in di xaduurym. New York, 1943
- See No. 633, 1945
 338 Bibliography

342 m a x w e in r e ic h . Lanlukh, a Jewish hobgoblin ( y a jss 2-3: 243-51) 1947-1948

343 NUXYM STu G cOV [NAHUM STUTCHKOFF], (Ed. MAKS VAANRAAX [MAX WEINREICH]).
Der oicer fjn der Iidiier iprax. New York, 1950
344 x a a iy .m g in in g e r [ c h a im g i n n in g e r ]. A naais m der Iidiier Uksikogrofiy;
Veign dym Oicer fjn der Iidiier iprax. Review of No. 343 (IB 35: 175-92) 1951
344a MAKS vaanraax [ m a x w e in r e ic h ]. Cj X . Ginmgers artikl viign Oicer fjn der
Iidiier iprax (IB 35: 192-98) 1951
344b e u g e n l . r a p p . Schum ( w p k 4) 1952. Review see No. 762
345 l e o s p i t z e s . Confusion Shmooshun ( j e g p 51: 226-33) 1952
346 IJJDL [ y u d e l ] m a r k . Vus iz a vort in der Iidiier iprax (I$ 13: 132-43) 1953
347 Vocabulatre hebreu dans le parler judeo-alsacien (BNC No. 17: 10-11, No. 19:
11-12) 1953
348 Britannica World Language Dictionary for French, German, Italian, Spanish,
Swedish, Yiddish. 1627-1895: English to other languages; 1896-1944: Yiddish
to English; compiled by d a v id g r a u b a r t and EZRA p e r k a l [In: Funk and
Wagnall's new practical standard dictionary o f the English language.] New
York, 1954
349 Fl o r e n c e g u g g e n h e im - g r On b e r g . The horse dealers' language o f the Swiss Jews
in Endhtgen and Lengnau (FoY 1: 48-62) 1954
350 d ov s a d a n . Alter Terakh; The byways o f linguistic fusion (FoY 1: 134-42) 1954
- See No. 894, 1955
351 m n d l [ m e n d e l ] m a r k . Cenyreny-verter (I$ 16: 117-23) 1956
352 il s e z. s a n d . The vocabulary o f the Mayse-Bukh; A sample glossary to a Middle
Yiddish text. m . a . thesis, Columbia University, 1956
- See No. 934, 1958
- See No. 116, 1958
353 JUDAH A. j o f f e . The etymology o f 1davenen' and katoves ( p a a jr 28: 77-92)
!959
354 s h l o m o n o b l e . Yiddish Lexicography ( j b a : 17-22) 1961/1962
355 Groiser verter-bjjx fjn der Iidiier iprax. New York (ed. Y. m a r k , j .a . j o f f e )
vol. 1: 1961,11: 1966, in : 1971. Reviews see Nos. 374, 375
356 SIGMUND A. WOLF. Jiddisches Worterbuch; Wortschatz des deutschen Grund-
bestandes der jiddischen (jiidisch-deutschen) Sprache. Mannheim, 1962
357 c la u s j. h u t t e r e r . Etymologische Bemerkungen ( m a j 2: 9 7 -io t) 1963
358 w e r n e r w e in b e r g . A plagiarism o f an eighteenth century Judeo-German
dictionary (SBBL 6: 103-10) 1963
359 Ha n s p. a l t h a u s . Zur Etymologie von schummeln, beschummeht (ZMF 30: 66-69)
1963-1964
360 Sl o im y n o b l [ s h l o m o n o b l e ]. Hibriiixmyn in dym Itdii fjn M itl-Aikynyz in
i j t n iuur-hjndert (SJLL: 411-501) 1964
 339 Bibliography

361 r y f u u l iDLMAN [ r a p h a e l e d e l m a n n ]. Ordliste (In the authors Iidiiy xristo-

matiy [Jiddisch Krestomati]: 7-20) Copenhagen, 1966. Review see No. 822
- See No. 121. Vocabulary. 137-350; Ladino words in Palestinian Yiddish:
351-357; Specific Hebrew loan words in Palestinian Yiddish: 358-63; Charac-
teristic Yiddish words and expressions: 364-77, 1966
361a h a r i Fa a n ma n [ h a r r y f in e m a n ]. Fiil-faxer lidii-Esperanto vtrter-bjjx jn
speranto-Iidil verter-bjjx. Montreal, 1966
- See No. 504: Vocabulary, 1966
362 H. b e e m . Sche'eriet; Resten van ten taal; Woordenboekje van het Nederlandse
Jidisch. Assen, 1967
363 m a x w e in r e ic h . Holekrash - A Jewish rite o f passage; A preliminary statement1
(po: 243-53) 1967
364 h a n s p . a l t h a u s . Probleme und Ergebnisse derjiddischen Lexikographie ( z m f 35:
320-32) 1968
365 p e t e r m . BERGMAN. The concise dictionary o f 26 languages in simultaneous trans-
lation. New York, 1968
366 FRED KOGOS. A dictionary o f Yiddish slang and idioms. New York, 1968
367 URIEL WEINREICH. Modem English-Yiddish, Yiddish-English dictionary. New
York, 1968*. Reviews see Nos. 373a, 373b
368 a l b e r t A. n e h e r . Lexique alsacienne. Strasbourg, c. 1969
369 ROSALINE B. s c h w a r t z . The geography o f two food terms; A study in Yiddish
lexical variation (FoY 3: 240-66) 1969
370 w e r n e r WEINBERG. Die Reste des Judischdeutschen. (StD 12) Stuttgart, 1969.
Reviews see Nos. 831, 833-36; 841, 844. - 2nd erw. Aufl., 1973
371 JOSEF w eissberg. Die Homonyme im Jiddischen ( 1GK 4 : 513-26) 1970
372 LILLIAN M. FEINSILVER. The taste o f Yiddish. New York, 1971
373 s u s a n n e t h ie m e . Rosinkess mit Mandlen, Glossar und Forschungsbericht zu einer
jiddischen Schwanksammlung. Dissertation, Bale, 1970. Reihen, 1971
374 david L. gold . Entire vocabulary o f Yiddish (jbl ) 1972. Review of No. 355
374a h . b e e m . Judaeo-Nederlands. See No. 909: 67-83. 1974
374b I. f jjr m a n [ f u h r m a n ]. Termmologiy fjn biker-fax ( 1S 33: 32-37) 1974
374c MORRIS l a m b . A great dictionary for a great language (Jdm No. 91; 23:
376-83) 1974. Review of No. 355

1 The / 11 of Holekrtsh is not doubled, which shows the /0/ to be long, that being also indicated by
the variant with a diphthong: Haultkrtsk. Both speak against connecting Hole with Frau Holle
(Hulda).
2 A very large number of words have clearly not been culled from the written or spoken language
but art neologisms, most of them obviously created by the compiler on the basis of the English
dictionary.
 340 Bibliography

375 l iv n $t a in [s t e v e n l o w e n s t e in ], Di iyakys-haplaity fjn lidii in

Sl o im y
Frankn (I$ 33: 37-45; 34: 37-43) 1974, 1975
375a XAAlYM &SKIN [ h y m a n s h e s k i n ] . Nox verier fjn gyretn lidii in Crodny ( I $ 33 :
45- 47) 1974
376 m o r d x y x t e r [ m o r d k h e ( m o r d e c a i ) s c h a e c h t e r ] . Folkis jn puuiyi-folkii
(IS 3 3 :5 2 -5 5 )1 9 7 4
376a volf tam bur [ t a m b u r ]. Veign Maramuuryier Iidiiy verter ( 1$ 33: 45-47)
1974
377 JOSEPH a . WEINGARTEN. A dictionary o f Yiddish idioms, including proverbs and

selected words; Completely in transliteration. Pt. 1. Brooklyn, 1974

377a Termmologiiy ankety (1 33: n -3 1 ) 1974
378 vera l o c k w o o d ba v isk a r . Go! and hoyl: The geographical dispersion and
semantic specialization in Yiddish o f variants o f a common Slavic lexical item
( w p y 7: 24-37) 19 7 5
378a l i l l ia n M. f e in s il v e r . Yiddish ganyf: its family and friends ( a s : 147-51)
975
379 [ d a v id l . g o l d ]. Mikoiex a kolikciy verter fjn Poihht dialekt;
duvyd- l . gold

Di evidenc fjn Lagyver lidii ( 1S 34: 49-52) 1975

379a AZRIIL KAC [IRVING KATZ]. Hyuurys jn hoisufys fjn a Marmeroier kjk-vinkl (I$
34: 43- 47; 35: 71- 75) !975 976
379b BEATRICE Sil v e r m a n WEINREICH. Kinship terminology in a modem fusion
language. New York, 1975
380 Fl o r e n c e g u g g e n h e im - g r On b e r g . Worterbuch zu Surbtaler Jiddisch. Zurich,
1976. Review see No. 874
381 MORDXY &XTER [ m o r d k h e ( m o r d e c a i ) s c h a e c h t e r ]. Food: A Yiddish ter-
minology. New York, 1976
382 w u l f - o . DREESSEN. Zur altjiddischen Synonymik (PAJ: 63-67) 1977
382a ZELDA KAHAN NEWMAN. On the intensifier particles den and dokh (w p y 23) 1977

10 O N O M A S T I C S

383 l e o p o l d z u n z . Die Namen der Juden. Leipzig, 1837; Hildeshcim, 1971

383a m o r it z s t e in s c h n e id e r . Index geographicus (in his Catalogus Itbrorum
hebraeorum in Bibliotheca Bodleiana, lxxxx - l l and pages 3097-3103, passim)
Berlin, 1852-1860
384 MORITZ g r O n w a l d . Ein Beitrag zur Bezeichnung der Ortsnamen in Bohmen und
Mahren bei den jiidischen Schriftstellem ( jcb 7 : 37-42) 1888
385 s ie g m u n d s a l f e l d . Das Martyrologiun des Numberger Memorbuches. Berlin,
1898
 34! Bibliography

386 LOWS lam m . Das Memorbuch von Buttenmiesen ( m gw j n .f . 9: 540-49) 1901

387 JUUUS ARON1US. Regesten zur Geschichte der Juden im frdnkischen und deutschen
Reiche bis zum Jahre 1273. 1902; Hildesheim, 1970
388 LEOPOLD low enstein . Abbreviaturen (f b : 255-64) 1903
389 JUUUS MltDfJL. Jiidische Namen aus Schwaben (in his: Die Juden in Memmmgen)
Memmingen, 1909
390 I. k ra c a u e r . Die Namen der Frankfurten Juden bis zum Jahre 1400 (m gw j 55
[ n .f . 19]: 447-63, 600-13) 1911
391 Germania Judaica, I. (ed. J. e lb o g e n , a. fre im a n n , h . tik o c y n s k i) Frankfurt/
M. 1917,1934.1 1963 mechan. reprint; 11. (ed. zvi a v n e ri [i.e., h a n s l i c h t e n -
s te in ] ) Tubingen, 1968
392 A. SCHIFF. Die Namen der Frankfurter Juden. Freiburg/Br., 1917.
392a salomo [solomon a.] birnbaum . Emige geographische Namen; Die hdufigsten
Jiidischen Rufnamen (See No. 80: 180-81 and 179-80) 1918
393 I. x t a g l i x t [j . CHTAGL1CHT]. Di geografiiy niimyn fjn Cexoslovakaai jn fjn
ixamysdikn Burgnland (F$ 1 : 337-46) 1926
394 erw in M. dreifuss. Die Familiennamen der Juden; unter besonderer Beriicksich-
tigung der Verhdltnisse in Baden zu Anfang des /9. Jahrhunderts; Ein Beitrag
zur Geschichte der Emanzipation. Frankfurt/M., 1927
395 S. silberstein . Die Familiennamen der Juden; unter besonderer Beriicksichtigung
der gesetziichen Festlegung in Mecklenburg (fsb 2: 303-66) 1929
396 Sm jjl vaasnbrg [samuel weissenberg]. Di Iidiiy familiy-ne'imyn in Ukraimy
(F$ 3: 313-66) 1929
397 Sm jjl vinter [samuel w inter ]. A bisl Poilii-Itdiiy geografiy (F$ 3: 585-88)
1929
398 yisra' el haalpern [h a ilperin , h a ilpr in , halpern ]. Sbnot geografiyim sel
Polin bi-mikorot hahriyim (L 4: 233-40) 1932
399 S o i l x a a iy s . Niimyn fjn GaliciSy irter in Iidiiy mykoirym jn inym folks-luuin
(187:229-42,286)1934
400 gerhard KESSLER. Die Familiennamen der Juden in Deutschland. Leipzig,
>935
400a JECHIEL FISCHER. Zur Erkldrung einiger jiidischer Namen (f l b : 151-60) 1938
- See No. 927, pp. 351-52, and map, 1938
401 noiex prilucki [noah prylucki/ prilu tzk i. Neimyn fjn Under, itiit, gam (IFA
I: 47- 54) >93
402 ADOLF bach . Die Namen der Juden in Deutschland. (In the authors Deutsche
Namenkunde: 551-56) Berlin, 1943; Heidelberg, 1952-1954
403 LAlB zamyt [leib samet]. Niimyn jn cjj-niimyn fjn itiit jn itiit lex in Lity (IS 4:
96-1040) 1944
- See No 206, 1948
 342 Bibliography

404 fra n z j. b e r a n e k .Jiddische Qrtsmmen (ZPhAS 5: 88-100) 1951

405 Veign nicn Iidisy geo-
m o r d x y D e x te r [ m o r d k h e /m o r d e c a i s c h a e c h t e r ] ,
grafisy neimyn (IS 17: 1-9) 1957
406 v. b e r n s t a i n
m o rd x y [m o rd e c a i w . b e rn s te in ], Geograjisy ruuiy-taivys (IS
20: 56-59) i960
407 PAUL l e v y . Les noms des Israelites en France; Histoire et dictionnaire. Paris,
i960
408 f r a n z j. b e r a n e k . Jiddische Ortsnamen ( s o m 2: 131 ff.) 1961
409 ruuiy-taivys (IS 21:
m o rd x y v. b e r n s ta in [m o rd e c a i w . b e r n s te in ] , N o x
57-59) 1961
410 fra n z j. b e r a n e k . Die jiddischen Qrtsbenennungen in Niederdsterreich ( j l n o 36:
870 ff.) 1964
- See No. 1055, 1964-1965
411 F l o r e n c e g u g g e n h e i m - g r u n b e r g . Place names in Swiss Yiddish; Examples o f
the assimilatory power o f a Western Yiddish dialect (FoY 2: 147-57) 1965
412 E d w a r d s t a n k i e w i c z . Yiddish place names in Poland (FoY 2: 158-81) 1965
413 KLAUS CUNO. Das Aufkommen der jiidischen Familiennamen im deutschen Sprach-
gebiet. M.A. thesis, Bonn University, 1969
414 m e i r f r a e n k e l . Jiidisch-deutsche Ortsbezeichnungen ( a w j d 1969: 24: 20)
415 e d w a r d s t a n k i e w i c z . The derivational pattern o f Yiddish personal (given)
names (FoY 3: 266-83) 1969
416 k l a u s c u n o . Namen Kolner Juden ( r h p n . f . 4: 278-91) 1974
417 w i l l i a m s t e r n . On the fascination o f Jewish surnames ( l b i y b 19: 219-35) 1974
418 k l a u s c u n o . Aschkenasische Familiennamen des 12.-1$. Jahrhunderts (Jdc)
1977

11 T E X T S IN T R A N S C R IP T IO N

Texts in a satisfactory transcription are exceedingly rare. In the publications listed

in Section A, the transcribers hardly ever understand the difference between
rendering an original according to the letters or the phonemes, the difference
between transliteration and transcription, or, if they understand it, they are not
accurate in their system and mix the two. Some even simply use the normalized
spelling of Middle High German. In the publications listed in Section b , good
transcriptions are also extremely rare. As a rule they are quite unsystematic, more
or less Germanized, or even simply German.
It is a mistake to try and make things easier for the layman or even for the
student of German/Germanic philology. To do so only blurs and obscures the
facts and problems, or blinds him to their existence.
 343 Bibliography

A I FROM EARLIER PERIODS

419 paulus /tMlLlUS. Die zu>ey ersten Btuher der KLnigf wekhe Samuelis genandt
merdenj ... aus dem Hebraischen Buchstoben mit Fleifi in unser Hochteutsch
gebracht. Ingolstadt, 1562
420 johann c h . wagenseil . Belehrung der Judisch-Teutschen Red- und Sckreibart...
Kdnigsberg, 1699; Frankfurt/M., 1715; ibid. 1737. See No. 184
421 JOHANN j. SCHUDT. Jiidische Merckwiirdigkeiten ... Ill: 1- 82, 202-327; IV:
81-192. Frankfurt/M., 1710-1718; Berlin, 1922
422 max grCnbaum . Jiidisch-deutsche Chrestomathie. Leipzig, 1882; Hildesheim,
1969
423 FELIX rosenberg . Ober eine Sammlung deutscher Volks- und Gesellsckaftslieder
in hebraischen Lettem (zgjd 2: 232-96; 3: 14-28) 1888, 1889
424 moritz GUDEMANN. Quellenschriften zur Geschichte des Unterrichts und der
Erziehung bet den deutschen Juden von den dltesten Zeiten bis a u f Mendelssohn.
I: 72-79. Berlin, 1891; facsimile ed., Amsterdam, 1968
425 Alfred landau . Jiidische Privatbriefe aus dem Jahre 161 g; Nach den Origmalen
des k.u.k. Haus-, Hof- und Staatsarchivs ... Vienna, 1911
426 LEO landau . Arthurian legends; The Hebrew-German rhymed version o f the
legend o f King Arthur ( Teutonia 21). Leipzig, 1912. Review see No. 948
427 - Hebrew-German (Judeo-German) paraphrase o f the book o f Esther o f the
fifteenth century (jegp 18: 497-555) 1919
428 w illy STAERK und albert leitzmann . Diejiidisch-deutschen Bibeliibersetzungen,
von den Anfangen bis zum Ausgang des 18. Jahrhunderts; Nach Handsckriften
und alten Drucken dargestellt. Frankfurt/M., 1924. Reviews sec Nos. 695,696,
699, 701
429 LEO landau . Der jiddische Midrasck Wajoscha ( m gw j 72, N.S. 36: 601-21)
1928
430 MEIER SCHULER. Beitrage zur Ketmtnis der alten jiidischdeutschen Profanliteratur
( r ff : 79-132) Frankfurt/M., 1928. Review see No. 714
431 SALOMO [SOLOMON A.] birnbaum . Umschrift dts altesten datierten jiddischen
Schriftstiicks (t 8: 197-207) 1932
432 - Die jiddische Psalmeniibersetzung (in HANS VOLLMER et al.: Die Psalmen-
verdeutsckung von den ersten Anfangen bis Luther ... M it einem Sonderabschnitt
'Die jiddische Psalmeniibersetzung von salomo birnbaum : 4-5, 8-9, 19,
Tabelle 11-iiia) Potsdam, 1932
433 L. fuks. The oldest known literary document o f Yiddish literature (c. 1382)
Leiden, 1957. Reviews see Nos. 763, 767, 768, 770, 772, 774, 776, 779-784
434 SALOMO [solomon A.] BIRNBAUM. Ubersetzungen der hebraischen Texte und
Umschriften der altjiddischen Texte (qebg : 455-62) i960
 344 Bibliography

435 FRANZ j. b e r a n e k . Das Ratit I des Regensburger Briickenmarmschens ( b jv k 1961:

61 - 68).
- See Nos. 984, 985, 1961
436 p a v e l TROST. Zwet Stikke des Cambridger Codex T.-s. 10. K. 22 (PP 4: 17-24)
196(
437 JAMES w. m a k c h a n d and Fr e d e r ic c. t u b a c h . Der keusche Joseph; Em mittel-
deutsches Gedicht aus dem 13-14. Jahrhundert; Beitrag zur Erforsekung der
hebraisch-deutschen Literatur (ZdPh 81: 30-52) 1962
- See No. 356: 35-87: Leseproben aus der jiddischen Literatur
438 ELI KATZ. Six Germano-Judaic poemsfrom the Cairo Genizah. Dissertation, Los
Angeles, 1963
439 WILLIAM B. LOCKWOOD. Die Textgestaltung des jiingeren Hildebrandliedes in
jiidisch-deutscher Sprache ( p b b 85: 433-47) 1963
440 PETER F. GANZ, FREDERICK NORMAN, WERNER SCHWARZ. DtlkuS Horant; Mit
einem [palaographischen] Exkurs von s.A. b i r n b a u m . Tubingen, 1964. Reviews
see Nos. 577, 578, 797-99, 808, 821
441 s o l o m o n A. b ir n b a u m . Specimens o f Yiddish from eight centuries (FoY 2: 1-23)
1965. Enlarged edition, see No. 74, pp. 64-86, 87-89
442 h . n ie d e r m e y e r . Das alljtJdtschc Midrasch Wajoscha (Jdc 21: 33-55) 1965
443 W a lte r r o l l et al. Das Horantlied; Versueh einer kritischen Herstellung der
Eingangsstrophen (1-26). Hamburg, 1965. Mimeograph
444 h e ik k i j. h a k k a r a in e n . Studien zum Cambridger Codex T.-s. 10. K. 22; I. Text
( a u t Ser. b , tom. 104) Turku, 1967 - 11. Graphemik und Phonemik (ibid., tom.
174) 1971 - ill. Lexikon (i.e., verse concordance) 1973. Reviews see Nos. 716,
721, 723, 801, 823, 825, 843-845, 853, 857
445 PERCY m a t e n k o and sa m u e l Sl o a n . The Aqedath Jifhaq; A sixteenth century
epic; With introduction and notes (in: PERCY MATENKO: Two studies tn Jewish
culture; 1). Leiden, 1968
446 h a n s P. a l t h a u s . Die Cambridger Ldwenfabel von 1382; Untersuchung und
Edition eines defektiven Textes. Berlin, 1971. Reviews see Nos. 838, 853
447 w u l f - o . d r e e s s e n . Akedass Jizhak; Ein altjiddisches Geduht uber die Opferung
Isaaks; M it Emleitung und Kommentar kritisch herausgegeben. Dissertation
Hamburg, 1970. Hamburg, 1971. Reviews see Nos. 839, 842
448 s ie g m u n d a . w o l f . Ritter Widuwilt ( s g w t 1) Bochum, 1974
449 WALTER r o l l . Zu den ersten drei Texten der Cambridger Handschrift von 1382/
1383 (ZDA 104: 54-68) 1975
450 ERIKA TIMM. Berta und Simra; Erne jiddische Erzahlung des 16. Jahrhunderts
( l w jb n .f . 14: 1-94) 1975- Text und literarhistorischer Kommentar.
- See No. 591, 1977
- See No. 592, 1977
See No. 593, 1977
 345 Bibliography

B I FRO M M O D ERN T IM E S

451 MAUSCHE WORSCHT (pseudonym). Das Lied vum Lockschen; Parodie u f Schiller
sem Lied vun de Clock; In jiddisch-deitschem Dialekt und mit Erkldrungen fiir
Nichtjidden. Hamburg, 1853
452 a b r a h a m M. TENDLAU. Sprichworter und Redensarten jiidischer Vorzeit, auf-
gezeichnet aus dem Munde des Volkes und noch Wort und Shm erldutert. Berlin,
i860. Gekiirzte (122 proverbs out of more than one thousand) Neuausgabe,
Berlin, 1934
453 GUSTAF H. DALMAN. Judischdeutsche Volkslieder aus Galizien und Russland.
Leipzig, 1888; 2nd ed., 1891
454 Am [later: Der] Urquell, 1892-1897, contains a number of Yiddish folklore
texts by various transcribers
455 Mitteilungen der Gesellschaft fu r jiidische VolkskundejMitteilungen zur jiidischen
Volkskunde, 1897-1922; Jahrbucher fiir jiidische Volkskunde, 1923-1925; ed.
m a x g r u n w a l d . Contain much folklore material in transcription

456 LEO WIENER and MORRIS ROSENFELD. Songs from the ghetto; With prose transla-
tion, glossary and introduction. Boston, 1898; New and enlarged edition,
1900
457 THEODOR GARTNER. Texte in Bukominer Judendeutsch ( z h d m 2: 277-81) 1901
458 w olf eh renkranz. M aktl Noam, Jiidische Volkslieder viin WOLF zb a r y er
eh ren k ra n z, Braila, 1902. Transcription by the editor, ja c o b so t e c
459 s o t e c . (Feuilletons) (Cronica Israelita, 1902 if.; Curierul Israelit,
ja c o b

1906(?), 1908 ff.). Bucarest

460 Transcription o f Yiddish poetry by various authors
n a t h a n b ir n b a u m . ( jv b
Nos. 12, March 26, July) 1905
461 SALAMON d e m b it z e r . (a) Lebensklangen, Kassel, 1907; (b) Verloirene Welten,

Berlin, 1910; (c) Vun maine Tag, Frankfurt/M., 1911; (d) Wolken, Antwerp,
1912; (e) Schwarze Blatter, Berlin, 1913
462 ig n a z b e r n s t e in . Jiidische Sprichworter und Redensarten; Gesammelt und

erklart; Unter Mitwirkung von B.W. Segel; Zweite vermehrte und verbesserte
Auflage mit gegeniiberstehender Transkription, Index und Glossar. Warsaw, 1908.
Separate part, printed as manuscript: Erotica und Rustka. Reviews see Nos.
464-68
463 - Reprint, Mit enter Emfiihrung und Bibliographie von h a n s p e t e r a l t h a u s .
Hildesheim, 1969
464 Review of No. 462 ( j l b 5) 1908
465 Review of No. 462 ( l c b 59: 503) 1908
466 SAMUEL KRAUSS. Review of No. 462 (Antph 4: 377) 1908
467 n a t h a n p o r g e s . Review of No. 462 ( z h b 12: 101-3) 1908
 346 Bibliography

468 SAMUEL WEISSENBERG. Review of No. 462 (Glo 93: 242) 1908
469 Wolwel Zbaraier, der fakrende Singer des gali&isch-jiidiscken
m e ir w e is s b e r g .

Humanismus ( m jv k No. 31-32) Leipzig, 1909

470 MEXL KAPLAN jn B&IERL BOTWIN1K. Unzer Shrift; Zhumal far literatur un
kunst. New York, 1911
471 z. k is l h o f [ k is s e l g o f f ] et al. Liider-zamt-bjjx far der Iidiier iul jn familiy.
4th ed. Berlin, 1912
472 Sie g f r ie d m e h r i n g . Reb Schmuel und Reb Awrohom auf Wathe; Erirmertatgcn
aus denjahren 1813 und 1814. Introduced by s ig m a r m e h r in g ( o w 12: 339-
46) 1912
474 salom o [s o l o m o n Jiddische Dichtung (Fr 1: 56-62, 123-26,
a .] b ir n b a u m .

188-92, 250-54, 327-30, 395-98, 464-69, 535-38. 593-97. 726 f.) 1913
475 HONEL MEISS. Choses d'Alsace; Contes d'avant guerre, 1913. Nice, 1920
- See No. 302, 1915
476 He r m a n n l. STRACK. Judischdeutsche
Texte; Lesebuch zur Emfiihrung in Denken,
Leben und Sprache der osteuropdischen Juden. Leipzig, 1917. Reviews see Nos.
477-480, 482, 483
477 p a u l f i e b i g . Review of No. 476 ( l c b : 268) 1917
478 - Review of No. 476 ( t l z : 157) 1917
479 h . l a ib l e . Review of No. 476 ( t l b 38: 198) 1917
480 ISAAK s p i e l r e in . Zur Aussprache und Transkription desJiidischen. Review of No.
476 (Jd 2: 285-88) 1917/1918
481 a . b l o c h . Elsassisch-jiidische Redensarten und Sprichworter ( j g ie ) 1918
482 HEINRICH LOEWE. Review of No. 476 ( n /M H 2 : 196-204) 1917/1918
483 FELIX PERLES. Review of No. 476 ( o l z 21) 1918
484 f r it z m o r d e c h a i k a u f m a n n . Die schdnsten Ueder der Ostjuden. Berlin, 1920.
Reprint, 1935
485 IMMANUEL o l S v a n g e r . Rosmkcss mit Mandlen; Aus der Volksliteratur der

Ostjuden; Schwanke, Erzdhlungen, Sprichworter, Ritsel. Basel, 1920

486 Zweite vollig veranderte und vermehrte Auflage, 1931. Reprint: Zurich, 1964.
See No. 373
487 SALOMO [SOLOMON a .] b ir n b a u m . Transcription in Jiidische Volkslieder, [music]
bearbeitet von a r n o n adel. Berlin, 1921; Heft 2, 2nd ed., 1923
488 berty Ein Donnerstagmorgen vor der Metzg; In der
f r ie d l a n d e r - b l o c h .

Rasterstube. 1928
489 R ic u b l a u . Frehliche moment1n. Sofia, 1931
490 CHAIM GINNINGER, NOTE HELFER, HERSCH SEGAL, ITZIK SCHWARZ. Naje jidiie
dichtung; Klejne antologie, Czemowitz, 1934. Review see No. 72
491 im m a n u e l o l Sv a n g e r . Rejte Pomcranzen. Berlin, 1935. Reprint: Rojte Pome-

rantsen. New York, 1965

 347 Bibliography

492 Dos Fraje Wort; Organ fun di bafrajte jidn in Feldafing, 1945
493 j f der Fraj; Arojsgegebn in center fun di bafrajte jidn in Sztutgart, 1946
494 Admonter Hajnt; Cvejwochenszrift funem VNRR,\-Lager Admont, 1946
495 m . s t e in b e r g . D i Jidn in H o f Hof, 1947
496 IMMANUEL o l s v a n g e r . VChajim. Jewish wit and humor. New York, 1949
497 b e r t y f r ie s l a n d e r - b l o c h . Vier Woche lang vor Purem, 1950. ,s Lenile und ,s
Mathildile. Gailingen, 1952
498 h . b e e m . Jerosche; Jiddische spreekwoorden en zegswijzen uit het Nederlandse
taalgebied; Verzameld , ingelijd en toegelicht. Assen, 1959. 2. gem jzigde en
aangevulde druk. Title here: Jerosche (.Erfenis) etc. 1970
499 c h a n a h m i l n e r . H et jiddische hart zingt; M uziek en tekst, met inleiding, ver-
taling en toelichting. The Hague, i960
500 j e h u d a l . f r a n k . Loschen hakodesch; Jiidisch-deutsche Ausdrucke, Sprichworter
und Redensarten der Nassauischen Landsjuden. Tel-Aviv, 1961. Cholon, 1962.
Mimeograph
501 e l s b e t h j a n d a und m a x M. SPRECHER. Lieder aus dem Ghetto; 5 0 Lieder ,
jiddisch und deutsch, mit Noten; M it einem Vorwort von f r i t z n o t z o l d .
Munich, c. 1962. Reprint: Jiddische Lieder; M it deutscher Ubersetzung und
Noten; M it einem Vorwort von f r i t z n o t z o l d . Hamburg, 1970
502 Je langer ein Blinder lebt, desto mehr sieht er; Jiddische Sprichworter. Frank-
furt/M., 1965
- See No. 274, 1966
503 Ar t h u r z i v y . Jiidisch-deutsche Sprichworter und Redensarten; Gesammelt und
glossiert. Title on cover: Elsasser Jiddisch. Bale, 1966
- See No. 74, pp. 85, 86, 89-104, 1974
- See No. 377, 1974
504 k a z u o u e d a . Senso-no-ato ( e d b No. 4: 67-74) 1976. Transcription of k a l m y n
SYGAL, s Nuux der milxumy [GK No. 82: 48-53. 1973]

12 T E X T S IN H E B R E W C H A R A C T E R S

505 g l i k l h a m y l . Die Memoiren der Gliickelvon Hameln; Hrsg. d a v id k a u f m a n n .

Frankfurt/M., 1896
- See No. 425, 1911
505a n o ie x p r i l i j c k i [( n o a h ) p r y l u c k i / p r i l u t z k i ], Iidisy folks-liider. Warsaw, 1:
1911; 11: 1913
506 i j j d y l . k a h a n [ j .l . c a h a n ], Iidisy folks-liider , mit melodiiyn. New York, 1912;
2nd ed., 1957
 348 Bibliography

507 n o iex p r il Oc k i [( n o ah ) pr y lu c k i / pr il u t z k i ]. (Vol. 1: jn Sm jjl lI im a n

[samuel leh m a n n ]). Zaml-biixcT fa r lidiin folklor, fiiologiy jn kultuur-gyiixte.
1: 1912; 11: 1917; in : 1920
508 L. B-N. Folks-liider (P: 377-98) 1913
509 xaaiy faan jn d . a- n . Folks-liider (P: 397-410) 1913
- Sec No. 146, 1917
- See No. 770, 1923
510 x a a k l [ch a im ] l ! 5n s k i. Iserlins lidii (UF: 288-302) 1924
511 - lidii ba r. laankyv Vailn (F$ 1 : 2 8 5 -8 8 ) 1926
512 v. St r k [ w il l y s ta er k ]. Ous di alt-Iidiiy oicrys fjn der Minxyner myljjxiier
btblwteik (F$ 1: 55-68) 1926
513 nuxym t!F [ n a h u m s h t if ], Eliy ha-Lahys Hid <ha-mavdiV Ms. Codex Bodletana
No. 1217, fol. 20ja-206b (C 1: 150-58) 1926
514 maks vaanraax [max w e in r e ic h ]. A lidii liid veign Sabsy Cvii fjn iuur /6 6 6
(C 1: 159-72) 1926
515 ijjd y - l . kahan [j .l . cahan ], Iidiiy folks-liider (Pi 65-128, 321-64) 1928
516 I icxyk [ISAAC] r iv k in d . lidii in Hebreiiiy drjkn bizn iuur tax -1648 (Pi: 26-38,
263-65, 294-96)1928
- See No. 1039: after col. 384, 1928
- See No. 236, 1928
517 I icxyk [ isaac] r iv k in d . Di historiiy alygoriy fjn r. Maier Sac (F$ 3 : 1-42)
1929
518 IAANKYV SacXI [ja COB SHATZKy J. Dus klug-liid ouf dym xorbn fjn Vorms (FS 3:
4 3 -5 6 ) 1929
519 I isruul x. TAGLIXT [ israel c h . ta g lic h t ]. Liider fjn Jngem jn der Slovakaai
(F$ 3: 297-321) 1929
520 ijjDY L. KAHAN [j.L. c a h a n ]. Probysfjnym lidiin Folklor in Burgnland; Maaselex
jn liider (IB 2: 200-21) 1931
521 A Iidiier of-rjjf in Umberig in 1848 (H $ 2: 633) 1937
522 Gyzairy mimdimys Ostraaix (H $ 2 : 19-25) 1937
523 Sm jjl zaanvl jn e . p ip y [samuel zaanvl and 0. p ip e ]. Iidiiy folks-liider fjn
Galiciy (IB 11: 53-70, 252-69) 1937
524 Sl o im y u . b iir n b o im [so lom o n a . birn ba um ]. Cvai Alt-Iidiiy liider (IB 13:
172-80) 1938
525 FtiLJKS [ f e l ix ] FALK. Di Talmjjdiiy aguudy fjn Sloimy ha-mailex mitn Aimydaai
jn dym Swnir in cvai Alt-Iidiiy njsxuuys; Arous gygtibn cjm tierstn muul lout
ksav-iadn jn mit a hakdumy (IB 13: 2 4 6 -7 4 ) 1938
526 Sl o im y u . b iir n b o im [ so lo m o n a . birn ba u m ]. Dus iltsty brirvl o f lidii (HL 2:
106-9) 939
- See No. 556, 1961
 349 Bibliography

- See No. 557a, 1961

- See No. 987a, 1962
527 h a n a s m e r u q [ c h o n e s h m e r u k ], Ha-sippurim a lr. Adam baai sem ve-gilgulehem

be-nusheot Sivhe ha-Best (Ta 28: 86-105) 1963

528 e l x u u n y n h e l yn / v e e r t h a a i m e r [ w e r t h e im e r ] , M ygilys Vine. Photomechani-
cal reprint of the ed. Amsterdam, 1648. Jerusalem, 1963
529 SLOIMY u. b i i r n b o i m [ s o l o m o n A. b ir n b a u m ]. Zeks hjndert iuur Tilym o f Iidis
( s j l l : 524-500) 1964
530 x u u n y s m e r u k [ c h o n e s h m e r u k ]. D i Moisy-rabainy-basraabjng; An jm bavjsty

dramy fjn 18tn iuur-hjndert ( g k No. 50: 3-27) 1964

531 b e ie r v a a n r ib [B e r n a r d s. w e in r y b / w a jn r y b ]. A pekl briiv in Bdis fjn 1588
(H S 2: 43-67) 1964
- See No. 505, 1965
- See No. 361: 3-64, 1966
532 h a n a s m e r u q [ c h o n e s h m e r u k ]. Ha-sir alha-srefa bi-Venetsiya le-Eliyahu Bahur
( k a y n . s . 6 : i : 345-68) 1966
533 s n e ' u r z a l m a n s a z a r [ s h a z a r / r u b a s h o v ], Ma'ase r. Iosef dela Reina bi-msoret
ha-Sabbata'it; Besraibung fun Sabsy Cvii (in his Ore dorot: 239-319; 84-95)
1971
534 n e h e m y a a l o n i [n e h e m i a a l l o n y ], Mekorot hadasim li- Smjjl-bjjx'' ve-li-
Meluxym-bjjx' (B S 1: 90-123 and facss. of 44 m s pages) 1973
534a 1. k a r a . Bdisy handls-koryspondenc fjn M oldyvy fjn 1829-1842 (IB 44:78-106)
1973
- See No. 1028, 1977
- See No. 591, 1977

13 ABOUT TEXTS

See also sections 11, 12 and 14.

535 d a v id k a u f m a n n . Buxtorfs Aruchhandschrift wiederaufgefunden ( m g w j 34:
185-92, 225-33) 1885
535a j o s e f p e r l e s . Die Berner Handschrift des kleinen Aruch (jSG : 1-38) 1887
5 3 5 b Al f r e d l a n d a u . Die Sprache der Memoiren Gliickels von Hameln ( m g jv Heft 7 :
20- 68) 1901
536 f e l i x f a l k . Die Bucher Samuelis in deutschen Nibelungenstrophen des XV. Jahr-
hunderts ( m j v k , Heft 25: 95-116; Heft 28: 129-50) 1908
536a - Melanges bibliographiques sur les livres de Samuel en strophes de Nibelungen.
Leipzig, 1909
537 m a r c e l SCHWOB. Le manuscrit hebreu no. 1408 de la Bibliotheque Nationale de
Paris ( n e m e n 39: 409-38) 1909
 350 Bibliography

538 [ b e r b o r o c h o w ] . A gerjjs fjn fa r draai hjndert iuur. Review of

b e ie r b u u r e x o v

No. 425 (P: 351-56) 1913

- See No. 143, 1913
- See No. 510, 1924
539 m a k s e r ik [pen name of z a l m y n m e r k i n ], Veign M aasy Briiy v y Zimry (FS
1: 153-62) 1926
- See No. 511, 1926
540 LEO l a n d y [l a n d a u ] . A nist-bakanter Iidis-Daacer njsex fjn der Artus-lygendy
(FS 1: 129-40) 1926
541 n u x y m t i f [ n a h u m s h t i f ]. A gysribyny Iidisy biblioteik in a Iidis houz in
Veneciy in mitn dym zexcntn iuur-hyndert (Codex Bodleiana, Neubauer No. 121 7)
(C 1: 141-50; 2: 525-44) 1926, 1928
- See No. 517, 1929
- See No. 518, 1929
- See No. 155, 1930
- See No. 157, 1932
542 i i c x y k 31PER [ i g n a c y s c h i p p e r ] , A Iidiser liiby-roman fjn mitl-elter; Cjj-staaiern
cj der gysixty veign dym of-kjm fjn 'Maasy Briiy vy Z im ry (IB 13: 232-45) 1938
543 i r v i n g l i n d . Widuwilt, son o f Gawain. Dissertation, New York University,
1942
544 . f u k s . The oldest literary works in Yiddish in a manuscript o f the Cambridge
l

University Library ( j j s 4: 176-81) 1953

545 - On the oldest dated work in Yiddish literature (FoY 1: 267-74) 1954
546 c h a i m g i n n i n g e r . A note on the Yiddish Horant (FoY 1: 275-77) 1954
547 Fr e d e r ic k n o r m a n . Remarks on the Yiddish Kudrun ( j j s 5: 85-86) 1954
- See No. 167, 1955
548 f r a n z j. b e r a n e k . Neues zur jiddischen Gudrunhandschrift ( m a j r : 49-52) 1956
549 e r i c h j. t h i e l . Zur Cambridger jiddischen Gudrunhandschrift ( m a j i: 34-46)
1956
- See No. 433, 1957
550 p e t e r f . g a n z . Dukus Horant. An early Yiddish poem from the Cairo Genizah
( j j s 9: 47-62) 1958
551 il s e z . s a n d . An extract from an unpublished manuscript o f the M ayse Bukh o f
1544(?). New York, 1958
552 j e a n f o u r q u e t . Ernest-H. Levy et le Dukus Horant ( e g 14: 50-56) 1959
553 s a l o m o [ s o l o m o n a .] b i r n b a u m . Das Datum des Codex Zim t-Sand ( m a j 2: 9 f.)
i9 6 0
554 HANS fro m m . Die Erzahlkunst des Rothers-Epikers (Eu 4: 347 ff., passim) i960
555 max w e in r e ic h .Old Yiddish poetry in linguistic literary research (Wo 16:
100-18) i960
 35 ! Bibliography

556 FELIX FALK.Das Schmuelbuck des Mosche Esrim Wearba; Em biblisches Epos aus
dem /5. Jahrhundert; Emlettung und textkritiscker Apparat. Assen, 1961
557 J a m es w. m a r c h a n d . Einiges zur sogenamten 'jiddischen Kudrun' (NPh 45:
55-63) 1961
557a ERNST ROTH. Das Wormser Mochsor ( a s w : 222) 1961
558 HERMANN MENHARDT. Zur Hcrkunft des 'Dukus Horant' (MAJ 2: 33-36) 1961
- See No. 436, 1961
559 hellm ut ro sen feld . Die Kudrun - Nordseedichtung oder Donaudichtung
(ZDPh 81: 314) 1962
560 HELMUT A.w. d e b o o r . Die deutsche Literatur im spaten Mittelalter. 1. Teil,

1250-1350, Munich, 1962; 4th ed. ( = GDL, vol. 3) 1973

561 pa v el tr o st. Noch etnmal zur Josefsiegende des Cambridger Kodex (pp 5: 3-5)
!962
562 j. c a r les . Le pobne de Kudrun ( p f l l 2nd series, facs. 16: 231-41) 1963
563 PETER F. GANZ, FREDERICK NORMAN, WERNER SCHWARZ. Zu dem Cambridger
Joseph (ZDPh 82: 86-90) 1963
564 dov SADAN. Der iltster grdm in lidii ( g k N o. 47) 1963
565 - Ketovet risona be-yidis qeduma be-mahazor Vermayze (K S 38: 575-76) 1963
565a ROSWITHA WISNIEWSKI. Kudrun: 14-15, 49, 58. Stuttgart, 1963
- See No. 160, 1963
566 HELLMUT ROSENFELD. Der Dukus Horant und die Kudrun von 1233 (MAJ 2:
129-34) 1964
567 colette S1RAT. Le monuscrit hebreu no. 1408 de la Bibliothique Nationale de
Paris ( r j 123: 335-58) 1964
568 B. sym o ns (ed.). Kudrun, 4th ed., revised: B. boesch ( x v ii - x v iii ) Tubingen,
1964
569 pav el TROST. Glosse zu den Erzvateriegenden des Cambridger Codex (m a j 2:
152-53) 1964
- See No. 531, 1964
570 n u u s n z iis k in d [n a t h a n s u s s k in d ]. Smjjl-bjjx-problemyn (SJLL: 399-77) 1964
571 K. (ed.). Kudrun, 5th ed., revised:
ba rtsch K. st a a c x m a n n ( lx x iv - l x x v ii )
Wiesbaden, 1965
572 la jb Fines. Das altjiddiscke Epos Meloitm-buh; 1. Einleitung und Faksimile der

editio princeps, Augsburg 1543. II. Hebrdische und aramaische Quellen, text-
kritischer Apparat und Glossar. Assen, 1965. Reviews see Nos. 805, 806
573 DOV SADAN. The Midrashic background o f the Paradise - Its implication for the
evaluation o f the Cambridge Yiddish codex (1382) (FoY 2: 253-62) 1965
574 il s e z. s a n d . A linguistic comparison o f five versions o f the Mayse-Bukh; 16th-
18th centuries (FoY 2: 24-28) 1965
- See No. 182, 1965
 352 Bibliography

575 SIEGFRIED COLDITZ. Das hebrdisch-mittelhochdeutsche Fragment vom Dukus

Horant' 40: 302-6) 1966
(f f
576 m ic h a e l c u r s c h m a n n . ,Dukus Horant' (in the author's Spieknamseptk; Wege
und Ergebnisse der Forschung von 1907-1965 ( d v jl 40: 474-78) 1966. Separate
ed., with subtitle: Mit Erganzungen und Nachtrdgen his 1967. Stuttgart, 1968
577 STEPHAN J. KAPLOWITT. Review of No. 440 (JEGP 65: 537-42) 1966
578 URSULA RAUH. Review of No. 440 (Eu 60: 154) 19661
579 w a l t e r r 6 l l . Das alteste datierte jiidisch-deutsche Sprachdenkmal; Ein Vers-

paar im Wormser Machsor von 1272/1273 ( z m f 33: 127-37) 9^6

- See No. 183, 1966
580 WERNER SCHWARZ. Prinzipielle Erwagungen zur Untersuchung der Cambridger
Handschrift t .- s . 10. K. 22 ( z m f 33: 138-43) 1966
- See No. 996, 1966
581 J. bern feld . Der Alt-lidiier ipos 'Myluxym-bjjx' (ID 267-286) 1968
582 Elia Levita's Bovo-Buch; A Yiddish Romance o f the early / 6th
je r r y c h . s m i t h .

century. Dissertation, Cornell University, 1968 ( da 29A: 4021) 1969

583 k l a u s c u n o . Die jiddischen Zeugenaussagen der Responsen als Quelle der
Geschichte des Jiddischen. Paper for a course about the history of Yiddish.
Columbia University, 1972
584 c a l ie b e . Dukus Horant; Studien zu seiner literarischen Tradition.
Ma n f r e d
Dissertation, Kiel University, 1970 (PhSQ^o) 1973
585 HAVA t u r n ia n s k y . Aleksander ben Yitshaq. Dissertation, Hebrew University,
Jerusalem, 1973
586 k la u s c u n o . Megiles Vintz; A 17th century megile from Frankfurt. Summary
(m l s4: 41) 1974
587 w u l f - o . d r e e s s e n . Die altjiddische Bearbeitung des Barlaam-Stoffes (ZDPh 93,
Sonderheft: 218-33) 1974
588 m a r t in h ir s c h b e r g . Gliickel von Hameht. 1974. Annotated ed.
589 WULF-O. Die altjiddischen Estherdichtungen; Uberlegungen zur
d reessen .

Rekonstruktion der Geschichte der alteren jiddischen Literatur. Mimeograph

( ig k ) 1975 (Daph 6 : 27-39) 977

1 It is a pity that the author di9cusses the problem of dating the script of the codex even though
Hebrew palaeography does not belong to her field of study. The author of the Exhrs in No. 440
dates the script of the codex by comparing it with that of three MSS written in typiea! Ashkenazic
cursive, the choice of which for comparison was based on many years of previous work on
hundreds of specimens of tbe Ashkenazic type and cursive style, from pbotognphs in his
palaeographical collection as well as from the study of original MSS. In that authors The Htircw
Scripts, Plates Volume (1954-1957), Not. 350-60, she might have found some additional
examples. If she will look up the Text Volume (1971), she can now find in Appendix c Tm*
Cketktag Experiments which may assist her in her judgment.
 353 Bibliography

- See No. 1021, 1975

- See No. 449, 1975
- See No. 450, 1975
590 t h e r e s ia f r id e r ic h s . Zu Fieri Blankeflere'' (f a j : 35-41) 1977
591 e r ik a t i m m . Jiddische Sprachmaterialien aus dem Jahre 1290; Die Glossen des
Berner kleinen Aruch ( f a j : 16-34) 1977
592 WALTER r o l l . Zum Sefer ha-Gan Jizhaks ben Elieser ( f a j : 3 5 -4 1 ) 1977
593 He r m a n n j . m u l l e r . Zur Edition des altjiddischen Donielbuchs ( f a j : 57-62)
1977

14 V A R I O U S L I N G U I S T I C A N D
PHILOLOGICAL MATTERS

594 Elementale Introductorium in hebreas litteras teutonice

jo a n n e s b o e s c h e n s t e in .

et hebraice legendas. Augsburg, 1514

594a p a u l u s FAG1US. De variis liter arum figuris seu notulis (in his: Compendiaria
isagoge in linguam hebraeam). Constance, 1543
595 p a u l h e l ic z . Elemental!oder lesebuchlein/Doraus meniglich mit gutem Grund
underwisen wird , wie man deutsch ... mit hebraischen oder Judischen buchstaben ...
lesen und vorsten sol. Hundsfeld, 1543
595a M ic h a e l ADAM. Institutio brevis legendi Judaeo-Germanice. Zurich, 1546
596 el ia s SCHADE. Mysterium ... Bericht von der Juden teutsch-hebreischer schrifft
deren sich die Juden gebrauchen. Strasbourg, 1592
597 JOHANNES b u x t o r f . Lectionis hebraeo-germanicae usus et exercitatio (in his:
Thesaurus grammaticus linguae sanctae). Basel, 1609
- See No. 420, 1669
597a a u g u st p f e if f e r . De lectione Ebraeo-germanica (in his : Critica sacra; Manu-
ductio facilis ad lectionem talmudico-rabbinicam). Dresden, 1680
598 m . Ch r is t ia n m o l l e r . Bericht wie das Judisch-Teutsche zu lesen. Frankfurt/O.,
1700
599 jo a c h im f . s c h m id t . Ratio legendi hebraeo-germanice (in his: Manuductio
grammaticalis ad linguam Ebraicam). Frankfurt/O., 1708
600 jo h a n n m . k o c h . Brevis manuductio ad lectionem scriptorum judaeorum germani-
corum. Frankfurt/M., 1709
601 CASPER CALV0 R. Anleitung wie das Judisch-Teutsche zu lesen (in his: Gloria
Christi). Leipzig, 1710
602 j o h a n n j. s c h u d t . Jiidische Merckwiirdigkeiten; vol. 11: 283-89, in : 1-82,
iv: 81-192. Frankfurt/M., 1710-1718
 354 Bibliography

6 0 3 PHJL 1P N. LEBRECHT. Anweisung das Judischdeutsche richtig zu erlernen (in his:

Eckstein des wahren christlichen Glaubens). Lcipzig-Dresden, 1719
6 0 4 eb e r h a r d c.F. OPPENHE1MER. Hodegus Ebraeo-Rabbinicus; Kurtze und deutliche
Anwetsung wie ... die ... Bucher und Briefe, Contracte, Handschriften, Wechsel-
zettel... des heutigen Judenteutsch zu lesen und zu verstehen. Leipzig, 1731
6 0 5 w il h e l m CH. j. c a l l e n b e r g . Kurtze Anlettung zur jiidischteutschen Sprache.
Halle, 1733
6 0 6 [j.P . l Gt k e ] p h il o g l o t t u s . Kurtze und grundliche Anwetsung zur Teutsch-
jiidischen Sprache. Frcybcrg, 1733
607 w i l h e l m c h . j . c h r y s a n d e r . Jiidisch-tcutsche Grammatik. Leipzig, 1750
608 GOTTFRIED SELIG. Kurze und griindiiche Anleitung zu einer leichten Erlemung
der jiidischdeutschen Sprache. Leipzig, 1767
609 R .w . f r id r ic h . Unterricht in der Judensprache und Schrift. Prenzlau, 1784
610 [GOTTFRIED s e l ig ] l e c t o r p u b l ic u s . Lchrbuch zur griindlichcn Erlemung der
jiidisch-deutschen Sprache ... mit einem vollstandigen jiidisch-deutschen Worter-
buch. Leipzig, 1792
611 LEOPOLD z u n z . (Pp. 438-42 in his Die gottesdierutlichen Vortrage der Juden.)

Berlin, 1832; 2nd ed., pp. 452 ff., Frankfurt/M., 1892

612 FRIEDRICH CH. B. Avt-LALLEMANT. (Vols. Ill a n d IV of his Das deutsche
Gaunerthum in seiner socialpolitischen, literarischen und linguistischen Aus-
bildung.) Leipzig, 1860-1862. Reviews see Nos. 664-66
613 JOSEF PERLES. Beitrage zur Geschichte der hebraischen und aramaischen Studien
(passim). Munich, 1884
614 PH1L1PP m a n s c h . Der jiidisch-polnische Jargon (1L 2 1 : Nos. 1 8 - 2 3 ; 22 ' Nos.
1-4, 6, 7, 9 , 10, 12, 14, 18; 2 3 : No. 1, 3 - 8 ) 1888, 1889, 1890
615 LAZAR 5A1NEANU [s c h e in ], Studiu dialectologic asupra graiului evreo-german.
Bucarest, 1889
- See No. 424, vol. Ill, pp. 280-97: judischdeutsche Schriftsprache. 1891
616 L. SAJNEAN. Essai sur le judeo-allemand et specialement sur le dialecte parle en
Valach1e(MSL 1 2 : 9 0 - 1 3 8 ,1 8 7 - 9 6 ) 1903. Enlarged translation of No. 615 by the
author. Review see No. 673
6 1 7 s a l o m o [s o l o m o n A.] b ir n b a u m . Die jiddische Orthographic [und Umschrift des
Jiddischen] (Fr 1: 588-91) 1913
618 b ie r BUUREX0v[BER b o r o c h o v J. Di ofgabnfjn der Iidiierfilologiy (P: 1-18) 1913
619 n o ie x p r il u c k i [( n o a h ) p r y l u c k i / p r il u t z k i ]. Iidiiy dialektologiiy forijngyn,
1-vi. Warsaw, 1917-1937
620 FELIXp e r l e s . Zur Erforschung des Jiidisch-Deutschen (pb b 43: 296-309; 44:
182-84) 1918, 1920
6a 1 m a k s vaanraax [ m ax w e in r e ic h ]. Staplyn; Fiir itiudn cj der Iidiier iprax-
visniaft jn literatuur-gyiixty. Berlin, 1923
 3 SS Bibliography

622 ERNEST-H. l v y . Langue des hommes et langue des femmes en judio-allemand

(MCA: 197-215) 1924

623 n o ie x p r il u c k i [( n o a h ) p r y l u c k i / p r il u t z k i ]. Mamy-luuin, Iidiiy iprax-

visniaftlexy fuur-arbytn. Warsaw, 1924

624 I ic x y k Sip e r [ ig n a c y s c h ip p e r ], Der uunhaib fjn 'luuin A ikynyz' In der
balaaxtjng fjn onomatiiy kvibn (11F: 101-12, 272-87) 1924
625 NOIEX PRILUCKI [(NOAH) PRYLUCKI/PRILUTZKI] jn $MJJL 111MAN [SAMUEL
L ehm an] (editors). Arxiiv fa r Iidiier iprax-visniaft, literatuirforijngjn etnologiy.
Warsaw, 1926-1933
626 n e c h a m a l e i b o w i t z . Die Obersetzungstecknik der jiidisch-deutschen Bibeliiber-
setzungen des x v . und XVI. Jahrhunderts, dargestellt an den Psalmen (p b b 55:
37- 563) >93
627 m a k s vaanraax [ m ax w e in r e ic h ]. Ildii-filologiiy arbytn in Daai (IB 4: 262-71)
932
628 ia a n k y v Sa c k i [ ja c o b s h a t z k y ], Di licty iprocjngyn fjn der Iidiier iprax jn

literatuur in Holand (IB 10: 232-65) 1936

629 m ax w e in r e ic h . Form versus psychic function in Yiddish; A study in the 'spirit
o f language' (OcOr: 532-38) 1936
630 - Le yiddish comme objet de la linguistique genhale. Vilna, 1937
631 m a k s vaanraax [ m a x w e in r e ic h ]. Daac'merti toig nit (IFA 1: 97-106) 1938
632 s o l o m o n a . b ir n b a u m . The age o f the Yiddish language ( t p s : 31-43) 1939
633 - Yiddish phrase book. London, 1945
634 s h l o m o n o b l e . Sacred and secular in the language o f the Yiddish Bible transla-
tion ( y a jss i : 274-82) 1946
635 x a a iy m g in in g e r [ c h a im g in n in g e r ]. A bjjx cj lemyn di Iidiiy iprax. Review
of No. 637 (IB 33: 204-n) 1949
636 yudel m ark. The language ofY .L . Peretz ( y ajss 4: 64-85) 1949
637 u r ie l w e in r e ic h .College Yiddish; An introduction to the Yiddish language and
to Jewish life and culture. New York, 1949; 5th ed., 1971. Reviews see Nos. 635,
746
638 s o l o m o n A. b ir n b a u m . Two problems o f Yiddish linguistics (FoY 1:63-72) 1954

639 CHAIM GINNINGER. Sainean's accomplishments in Yiddish linguistics (FoY 1:

>47-78) 1954
640 BENJAMIN HRUSHOVSKl. On free rhythms in modem Yiddish poetry (FoY 1:
219-66) 1954
641 URIEL WEINREICH. Stress and word structure in Yiddish (FoY 1: 1-27) 1954
642 XAAIYM [CHAIM] S. KAZDAN. Ritym in Iidiier prozy ( 1$ 15: 33-47) 1955
643 M. HEZQUN1 Hal pa'at raft al hitpathutah ielyidis ( rti) 1958
644 m a k s vaanraax [ m ax w e in r e ic h ]. Bnai-hes jn bnai-xes in Aikynyz; Di problem
jn vus zi lozt jndz hiiem (s n b : 101-23) >95^
 356 Bibliography

645 URIEL WEINREICH and Be a t r ic e w e in r e ic h . Say it in Yiddish. New York, 1958

646 MAX w e in r e ic h . History of the Yiddish language; The problems and their
implications ( p a p s 103: 563-70) 1959
647 URIEL WEINREICH. On the cultural history of the Yiddish rime ( e j l t : 423-42) 1959
648 JAMES w. m a r c h a n d . Three basic problems in the investigation o f early Yiddish
(Orb 9: 34-41) i960
649 e u g e n e g r e e n . Yiddish and English in Detroit; A survey and analysis o f recip-
rocal influences in bilingual pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Dissertation,
University o f Michigan, 1962 ( da 23: 629) 1962
650 URIEL w e in r e ic h . Multilingual dialectology and the new Yiddish atlas ( a l 4:1:
6-22) 1962
- See No. 261, 1963
651 MOSCHE ALTBAUER. The Yiddish rimes of Kh. N. Bialik; A manifestation o f the
trend toward standard Yiddish (FoY 2: 182-84) 1965
- See No. 69, 1965
652 DANIEL LEIBL. On Ashkenazic stress (FoY 2: 63-72) 1965
653 HANS P. a l t h a u s . Johann Heinrich Callenberg; Wilhelm Christian Just Ckry-

sander-Schriften zur jiddischen Sprache; Faksimiledruck nach den Ausgaben von

1733,1736 und 1750; Herausgegeben und mit einem Nachwort versehen; Quellen
zur Geschichte der jiddischen Sprache. Marburg/Lahn, 1966
654 Sl o m o a . [s o l o m o n A.] b ir n b a u m . Le-sa'alat gilah sel sfatyidis (GeS 12:80-84)
1966. Translation of No. 655
655 Sl o im y u . b iir n b o im [s o l o m o n a . b ir n b a u m ], Vi alt iz lidii? (ID: 245-50)
1968
656 Bilingualism and dialect mixture among Lubavitcher hasidic
g e o r g e j o c h n o w it z .

children ( as 43: 182-200) 1968

657 m o r d k h e [ m o r d e c a i ] s c h a e c h t e r . The hidden standard'; A study o f competing
influences in standardization (FoY 3: 284-304) 1969
657b y isr a e l h . b il e ^ k i [ isr a e l h . b il e t z k i ] Bialik ve Ytdts. Tel-Aviv, 1970
- See No. 372, 1971
658 h a n s p. a l t h a u s . Examples o f a contrastive dialectology of Western Yiddish and

German dialects (wejs: 5:4: 1-16) 1973

659 d 1MS A. MATISOF [JAMES a . MATISOFf J. Sifrut ha-bittuy be-yidis; Lason psikho-
ostensivit be-dibbur he-amami (Translation from English) (S if No. 18/19:
181-223) 1974. English summary: Psycho-ostensrve expressions in Yiddish
(Ibid., xi-xii)
659a d u v y d h . ROSKYS. Iidiiy baab-ipraxn in igtn i.h. (1$ 33: 1-11) 1974
659b JOSEF WEISSBERG. Alteres Deutsch als Basis fiir die jidduche Synonymik (s d l s :
370-88) 1974
660 W a lte r r Ol l . Die Pluralbildung im Jiddischen und im Deutschen (1GK: iv ) 1975
 357 Bibliography

15 MISCELLANEOUS

661 WILHELM c h . j. CHRYSANDER. Unterricht vorn Nutzen des Jiidisch-Teutschen.

Wolfenbiittel, 1750
662 a n t o n r e . Die Sprathverhaltnisse der deutschen Juden. Hamburg, 1844
663 MORITZ STONSCHNEIDER. Der Vokalbuchstabe ( h b 6: 119 f.) 1863
664 jo s e f M. w a g n e r . Review of No. 612 ( l c b : No. 3) 1863
665 - Review of No. 612 ( a sn s xviii, vol. 33: 197-246) 1863.
666 m o r it z s t e in s c h n e id e r . Review of No. 612 ( h b 7:128-30; 8:13-17,113-116)
1864, 1865
667 n e h e m ia br Ol l . Review of No. 1 (j j g l : 3) 1877
668 m o ses g a st e r . Review of No. 1 ( m g w j ) 1879
669 o t h m a r m e is in g e r . Review of No. 114 ( z h d m 3: 378) 1902
670 j. s c h a t z . Review of No. 114 ( a sn s 109: 389) 1902
671 f r a n k e l . Review of No. 114 ( l g r p : 88) 1903
672 m ax h . j e l l in e k . Review of No. 114 (AfdA 47: 268-70) 1904
673 Al f r e d l a n d a u . Review of Nos. 114 and 616 (ZDPh 36: 262-69) 1904
674 r ic h a r d l o e w e . Review of No. 114 ( ifa isa 16: 43-50) 1904
675 d a v is TRIETSCH. Von dm Sprachenverhdltnissen der Juden ( zd sj 2) 1905
676 LEON Le Franfais, tel que Von parle (Yiddish text book of French
f r id m a n n .

conversation) Paris, 1908

677 E. sar TORI US. Review of No. 11 ( l h w 49: 953) 1911
678 HERMANN L. STRACK. Review of No. 11 ( t l b 32: 553) 1911
679 j. w e jg l . Iwriteitsch, Judendeutsch (in the authors: Das Judentum: 302-11)
Berlin, 1911
680 s( a m u e l ] w [ e is s e n b e r g ]. Review of No. 11 ( m g jv n .s . 8:39) 1912
681 Review of No. 11 ( zd sj 9: 64) 1912
682 BilER BUUREXOV [ b e r BOROCHOv]. Gramatiiy frjmkait (V 2: 147-53) 1913
- See No. 215, 1913
See No. 216, 1913
684 f . p iq u e t . Review of No. 426 (r c h l n .s . h l 76:472) 1913
685 b n - c i i y n r u b St a in [b e n - z io n r u b s t e in ], Di amuuliky iprax fjn Iidn in di
Rjsiiy geigntn (P: 21-35) 1913
686 SALOMO [SOLOMON A.] BIRNBAUM. Review of Der Pinkys (Fr 2: 58-60) 1914
687 nuxym St i f [ n a h u m s h t if ] = b a l - d i m i y n . Review of Der Pinkys (IV 3:
247-61. 395-410) 1914
688 d a v is TRIETSCH. Juden und Deutsche; Eine Sprach und Interessengemeinschaft.
Vienna, 1915
689 JACOBUS j . a . v a n g in n e k e n . Review of No. 302 ( i j b 4 [1916]: 31) 1917
690 FELIX p e r l e s . Review of No. 80 ( o l z 23: 163 f.) 1920
 358 Bibliography

691 s. gans. Review of No. 115 ( if b 24: No. 50) 1922

692 M.L. b a m b e r g e r . Review of No. 115 ( l z b : 416) 1923
693 HUGO DUENSING. Review of No. 115 ( t l z : No. 7) 1923
694 Sig m u n d f e is t . Review of No. 115 ( z d m 18: 141) 1923
695 s a l o m o [ s o l o m o n a .] b ir n b a u m . Review of No. 428 ( g r m 1 2 :3 1 8 f.) 1924
696 s. gans. Review of No. 428 ( m g w j 6 8 : 176) 1924
697 a. koller. Review of No. 115 ( je g p 3 3 : 15 6 -5 9 ) 1924
698 jo n a s e . p o l a k jz . Review of No. 115 (Mus 3 1 : 14 9 -5 1 ) 1924

699 n a t h a n p o rg e s . Review of No. 4 28 (j 9 : 2 4 9 -5 5 ) *9*4

700 w il l y s t a e r k . Review of No. 115 ( o l z 2 7 : 655) 1924

701 p . k r Cg e r . Review of No. 4 28 ( t i : 75) 1924/1925

702 - Review of No. 80 ( t i : 236) 1925

703 abraham A. roback. Review of No. 81 ( j e g p 2 3 : 1 3 2 -3 5 ) 1925
703a m ord eca i so ltes. The Yiddish press an Americanizing agency. New York,
192 S
704 S lo im y u. b iirn b o im [s o lo m o n a. b irn b a u m ]. Dialikt jn literatuur-luuin
(F$ 1: 8 9 -9 2 ) 1926
705 sa lo m o a .] b ir n b a u m . Review of No. 302 ( t 2 : 70) 1926
[s o l o m o n
706 Review of No. 83 ( l w : 883) 1926
s a m u e l k r a u ss .

707 m a r t in p l e s s n e r . Review of Nos. 83 and 321 (o l z 3 0 : 3 8 5 -8 8 ) 1927

708 h e i n z k l o s s . *Nebensprachen'; Eine sprachpolitische Broschiire, Studie uber die

Beziehungen eng verwandter Sprachgemeinschaften. Wien-Laipzig, 1929.
Chapter Nebensprachen-Proben reprinted (m a w e p d 1930: 3 4 -4 0 ) includes the
Yiddish translation, in transcription, by S.A. BIRNBAUM, of a specimen text
(PP 57 f )
709 nuxym St i f [ n a h u m s h t i f ]. Poul HeiUcys 'ttmbttal oder Iffzbixlen.' Hunds-
feld, 1543 (F$ 3 : 5 1 5 -2 4 ) 1929
710 Ber n a r d S. w e in r y b . Neue jiddische Literatur. Review of IiF, F$, Pi (m g w j
78 [N.F. 3 7 ]: 2 6 7 -8 1 ) 1930
711 [ s o l o m o n a .] b ir n b a u m . Die Stellung der jiddischen Sprache; Zu einem
sa lo m o

Programmentaurf fiir die 'Jiddische Abteilung des Nahsprachen-Instituts

( m a w e p d 1930: 3 5 5 -6 4 )
712 HEINZ KLOSS. Deutsche undjidden ( m a w e p d : 1 -13) 1930
713 m a k s vaanraax [m a x w e in r e ic h ]. Review of No. 238 (IB 4 : 16 8 -79 ) 19 3 2
714 - Review of No. 430 (IB 4 : 264 f.) 1932
715 - Review of No. 155 (IB 4 : 266 f.) 1932
716 s a l o m o [s o l o m o n a .] b ir n b a u m . Review of No. 238 ( t 9 : 179-81) 1933
717 Sa c k i [ja c o b s h a t z k i ]. Review of The Memoirs ofGliickel o f Hameln;
ia a n k y v

Translated m th introduction and notes by m a r v in l o w e n t h a l (IB 6 : 13 8 -4 4 )

1933
 359 Bibliography

717a J.R. b r in m a n . A klamy antologiy mit Lataaniser {rift {Mom June 8) 1934.
Review of No. 490
718 a .m . podolski (pen name of A.M. m a ia n s k i ). Review of No. 490 (JC May 2)
934
719 Review of No. 490 (Fra) 1934
z a l m y n r a iz in .

720 A {ainy zax ( j t July 21) 1934. Review of No. 490

B. lo sb r g [ s z l o s s e r g ] .
721 m a k s vaanraax [ m a x w e in r e ic h ], lidii mit Lataaniiy oisiys. Review of No. 490

(IB 7:268-71) 1934

722 NUIISN ZIISKIND [NATHAN s Os s k in d ], Review of No. 970 (IB 6: 157-65) 1934
723 l . m o s e s . Die Juden in Niederosterreich (56-59, 119-53, passim) Vienna, 1935
724 ia a n k y v Sa c k i [ja c o b s h a t z k y ], Veign di niimyn fa r Iidii(IB 8: 148-54) 1935
724a i [ a a n k y v ] l [ & in s k i ], Di mjter-iprax baa Iidn in Poibt lout der folks-cailjng
fjn 1931 (IB 9: 140-43) 1936
725 x a a iy m g in in g e r [CHAIM g in n in g e r ]. Vi azoi darf ous gysadert viiem Alfred

Landys itimologiier vbter-bjjx? (IB 12: 369-409) 1937

726 v ik t o r iiRMUNSKiY. Review of No. 238 (IM 9: 135-45) 1937
727 Sl o im y u. b iir n b o im [s o l o m o n a. b ir n b a u m ]. Sjtvysdik iraab-luuh jn
ijtvysdiky havuury (IFA 1: 245 f.) 1938
728 Ar n c a it l in [aaron z e it l in ], Prisy-lidii (IFA 1: 8-12) 1938
729 XAAIYM GININGER [CHAIM g in n in g e r ]. Di koryspondinc A. Landy-L. Saineanu
(IB 13: 275-300) 1938
730 n o ie x p r il Oc k i [( n o a h ) p r y l u c k i / p r il u t z k i ]. targoniziirjng fjn lidii (IFA 2:
3 (938
731 zo z y aI k o v sk i [ zosa s z a jk o w s k i ] Der
(Sa ik o [ is a ia h ] f r id m a n / f r y d m a n ).

kam f kiign Iidiier glaax-barlxtikjng in Frankraax, x v iii - x ix i.h. (IB 11: 46-77)
939
732 Review of No. 242 ( o l 22: 276) 1941
733 h e in r ic h s c h m id t . Review of No. 242 ( d f u 6 : 387) 1941
734 a . g Ot z e . Review of No. 242 ( l g r p 63: 181) 1942
735 Review of No. 242 ( zv sf 67: 236) 1942
736 o. p a u l . Review of No. 242 ( w k : 234) 1942
737 h . w e in e l t . Review of No. 242 ( s o f 7: 315, 721) 1942
738 v ik t o r iiRMUNSKi. Review of No. 238 = Translation of part of No. 726
(IB 19: 243-49) 1942
739 ia a n k y v l 6 n s k i [ja c o b l e s z c z in s k i / l e s t c h in s k y ], Di ipraxn baa Iidn m

jmufhingikn Poibt (IB 22: 147-62) 1943

740 s o l o m o n a . b ir n b a u m . The cultural structure o f East Ashkenazic Jewry ( seer
25: 73- 92) 946
741 ISRAEL ZINBERG. A defense o f Yiddish in Old Yiddish literature (YAJSS 1: 283-93)
1946
 360 Bibliography

742 franz J. b e r a n e k . Die Erforschung der jiddischen Sprache (ZDPh 70: 163-74)
1947/11948
7 4 3 c h a im s. k a z d a n . The Yiddish secular school movement between the two World
Wars ( j p p p 2 : 1 3 1 -5 0 ) 1948
744 G. EIS. Fruhneuhochdeutsche Bibeliibersetzungen; Texte von 1400-1600 (74 f.)
Frankfurt/M., 1949
745 robert A. fow kes. Review of No. 637 (Wo 6: 93-95) 1950
746 allan F. hubbell. A Yiddish grammar ( as 25: 209 f.) 1950. Review of No.
637
747 WILHELM RUDOLPH. Moses Mendelssohn in semen jiddischen Briefen (hbvk 41:
78-90) 1950
748 HEINZ KLOSS. Review of No. 242 ( z m f 20: 124 f.) 1951
749 SHLOMO Rabbi Jehiel Mikhel Epstein, educator and advocate o f Yiddish
n oble.

in the seventeenth century (YAJSS 6: 302-19) 1951

750 a lbert dauzat. L'Europe linguistique: 13, 77, 188, 197, 201 f., 207, 217, 222.
Paris, 1953
751 URIEL WEINREICH. The Russification o f Soviet minority languages (PrC 2:6:
46- 57) !953
752 d ie t r ic h g e r h a r d t . Review of No. 242 (IF 61: 139) 1954
753 CHAIM g in n i n g e r . Sainean's accomplishments in Yiddish linguistics (FoY 1:
147-78) 1954
754 Fl o r e n c e GUGGENHEIM-CRUNBERG. Die Sprache der Ziircher Juden im 14. Jakr-
hundert; Deutsch oder Jiddisch ? (m s No. 21a) 1954
755 HERBERT H. PAPER. An early case of Standard German in Hebrew characters
(FoY 1: 143-46) 1954
756 s o l o m o n A. b ir n b a u m . The development of the Ashkenazic cursive script (in his:
The Hebrew Scripts, vol. 2: Nos. 349-65; vol. 1: 303-9) 1954-1957, 1971
757 sam uel NIGER. Yiddish culture (JPPP 4: 264-307) 1955
758 Ur ie l One man's psycho-linguistics. Review of a b r a h a m a . r o b a c k :
w e in r e ic h .

Destiny and motivation in language ( as 50: 123-25) 1955

759 SIEGMUND a . w o l f . Jiddistik und Stadtkemforschung ( m a j i : 5-9) 1955
760 franz j. beranek. Review of FoY 1 (ZPhAS 9: 288) 1956
761 - Das Jiddische in Ost-Mitteleuropa als Aufgabt der deutschen Sprachwissen-
schaft ( z o f 5: 233-41) 1956
762 - Review of No. 344 ( z m f 25: 191) 1957
763 p e t e r F. g a n z . Review of No. 433 (jjs 8: 246-49) 1957
764 Fl o r e n c e g u g g e n h e im - g r On b e r g . Review of FoY 1 ( z m f 25: 248-51) 1957
765 harry m ao r. Die Stellung des Jiddischen in Israel ( m a j i : 66-68) 1957
766 [ jo s e p h t e n e n b a u m ]. Di Iidiiy Iprax o f der tugordynjng fjn
io s y f t e n y n b o im

der ivulym-konferenc in Pariiz, 1919 (IB 41: 217-29) 1957/1958

 361 Bibliography

767 J. CARLES. Un fragment judio-allemand du cycle du *Kudrun.' Review of

No. 433 (e g 13: 348-5O 958
768 Le o n a r d forstex. Ducus Horant. Review of No. 433 ( g l l i i : 276-85) 1958
769 peter f . g an z. Review of No. 255 ( j js 9: 102 f.) 1958
770 k a r l h a b e r sa a t . Review of No. 433 ( b 39: 536 f.) 1958

771 H e r m a n n ja n s s e n s . Review of No. 255 (RBPhH 36: 1096 f.) 1958

772 Fr e d e r ic k n o r m a n . Review of No. 433 (JCh 21.2.1958)
773 g o t t f r ie d s c h r a m m . Review of No. 433 ( g g a 212: 211
21) 1958
774 w e r n e r s c h w a r z . Emige Bemerkungen zur jiddischen Gudrun. Review of No.

433 (NPh 42: 327-32) 1958

775 s ie g m u n d a . w o l f . Review of No. 255 (Pho 2: 124 f.) 1958

776 s o l o m o n a . b ir n b a u m . Review of No. 433 (BiOr 16: 50-52) 1959

777 k a r l h a b e r sa a t . Review of No. 255 (ZDPh 78: 330 f.) 1959

778 l u ig i l u n . Review of No. 255 ( g i f 12: 189-92) 1959

779 h . w . j . k r o e s . Review of No. 433 (DuKr 1959: 89-93)

780 ja m e s w. m a r c h a n d . Review of No. 433 (Wo 15: 383-94) 1959

781 i n g e b o r g s c h r o b l e r . Z u L. Fuks' Ausgabe der dllesten bisher bekannten

Denkmdler jiddischer Literatur ( z d a 89: 135-62) 1959
782 pavel t r o st. Review of No. 433 ( c m f 2: 112) 1959
783 H. b im Cjj-it aaier cj der forijngfjn iltstn lidiin manuskript; Hyuurys cj:
[ b e e m ].
Di iltsty haant bakenty virk fjn der Iidiier literatuur ( 1S 20: 9-16) i960
784 SIEGFRIED c o l d it z . Das hebrdisch-mittelhochdeutsche Fragment von Dukus
Horant' ( f f 14; Oct., i960)
785 rudolf n eu m a n n . Review of No. 255 ( z o f 9: 134 f.) i960
786 franz J. BERANEK. Deutsche und jiddische Philologie ( n g h g 30: 127-39) 1961
787 Review of No. 260 ( g 3: 341, No. 1103) 1962
e r ik a b a u e r .

788 LUCY Yiddish; Past, Present and Future (Com 33: 375-85) 1962.
d a w id o w ic z .

Reprint in the authors The Jewish Presence: 133-53, New York, 1977
789 a b r a h a m A. r o b a c k . Review of No. 66 (JJSo 5: 259 f.) 1963
790 ZOSA SZAJKOWSKI [s z a jk o ( is a ia h ) FRYDMAN]. The struggle for Yiddish during
World War 1; The altitude o f German Jewry 9: 131-58) 1964
( l b iy b
- See No. 441, 1965
792 s o l o m o n p o l l . The role o f Yiddish in American ultra-orthodox and Hassidic

communities (yajss 13: 125-52) 1965

793 h a n s p . a l t h a u s . Die jiddische Missionsgrammatik im 18. Jahrhundert.
Marburg/Lahn, 1966
794 - Review of No. 80 (GJ N.S. 18, vol. 5: 25) 1966
795 Fl o r e n c e g u g g e n h e im - g r Cn b e r g . Review of No. 268 ( z m f 33: 353-57) 1966
796 W a l t e r r 6 l l . Review of No. 80 ( g 7: 522 f.) 1966
797 - Review of No. 440 ( s m 3rd series, vol. 7, 1: 269-75) 1966
 363 Bibliography

798 HELLMUT ROSENFELD. Review of No. 440 (DLZ 87: 126-29) 1966
799 Review of No. 440 ( g 7: 72-74) 1966
in g e b o r g s c h r Cb l e r .

800 s o l o m o n a . b ir n b a u m . Review of No. 268 (BiOr 24: 361-63) 1967

801 m a n f r e d c a l ic b e . Review of No. 444 (ww 20: 139-41) 1967

802 a l ex a n d r e d e r c z a n sk y . Introduction &une itude duyiddish en France ( r e n l o 4:
125-50) 1967
803 k u r t r e in . Review of No. 268 ( g 8: 31 f., No. 122) 1967
804 - Review of No. 268 ( g j n .s . 21: vol. 6) 1967
805 Wa lte r r 6 l l . Review of No. 572 ( d l z 88: 220-23) 1967
806 in g e b o r g s c h r &b l e r . Review of No. 572 ( g 8: 578 f., No. 2462) 1967
807 Review of No. 268 ( l b 56: 94 f.) 1967
808 h u g o s t o p p . Review of No. 440 (ZDPh 86: 457-63) 1967
809 b e r t h o l d w y l e r . Review of No. 274 (iws No. 40) 1967
810 Review of No. 268 (s o d v Series 4, vol. 16) 1967
811 HANS P. ALTHAUS. In Memoriam FranzJ. Beranek (Ono 1966/1967,12:280-83)
1967/1968
812 io s y f fr n k l [j o s e f f r a e n k e l ], Di Iidiiy prisy in di tfijcyt (ID 131-40) 1968
813 m e ir f r a e n k e l . Review of No. 268 (ww 18: 63) 1968
814 Sm j j l g o l d Sm i t [SAMUEL g o l d s m it h ]. Cvai-ipraxikait baa Iidn (ID 428-34)
1968
815 pav le ivid Review of No. 271 (Lin 20: 85-92) 1968
816 Notifies betreffende de ghetto-uitspraak van het Nederlands ( s r 2:
1SAAX k i s c h .
245-52) 1968
817 h a l in a k o z l o w s k i . Review of No. 271 (LPo 12/13: 199-203) 1968
818 S. l iv n b r g [ l e v e n b e r g ]. lidii in Ratn-Farband (ID 179-83) 1968
819 j.
i a a n k y v i. m a a t l i s [ j a c o b m a itlis /m e itu s ]. Di viadafi in lidii far di Ucty
fjfcik iuur (ID: 76-85) 1968
820 Review of No. 268 ( m l ) Dec. 1968
821 Ar n o l d PAuacER. Review of No. 440 ( g l l n .s . 21: 274 f.) 1968
822 Wa lte r R & X . Review of No. 361 (G 9: 35, No. 123) 1968
823 - Review of No. 444, vols. 1-11 ( g 9: 274 f., No. 1134) 1968
824 h a n s p . a l t h a u s . Ansdtze und Moglichkeiten einer koMrastrven Sprachgco-

graphic: Jiddisch - Deutsch ( z d l 36: 174-89) 1969

825 s o l o m o n a . b ir n b a u m . Review of No. 444, vol. I ( j js 20: 101-3) 1969
826 yudel m ark. Tht Yiddish Language; Its cultural impact ( a jh q 59: 201-9)
1969
827 and jo s h u a a . f is h m a n . Word naming and
ju d a h r o n c h , ro bert l . c o o per

usage scores for a sample o f Yiddish-English bilinguals ( m l j 53: 232-35) 1969

828 h a n s p . a l t h a u s . Sprache der Nachbam; Entdeckung und Rezeption tines
konlaktsprachlichen Phdnomens ( g l 1/6: 717-40) 1969/1970
 363 Bibliography

829 d a v id c o h e n . Review of No. 271 ( b s l p 64: No. 2: 60-62) 1969/1970

8 3 0 MILTON d o r o s h k in . Yiddish in America; Social and cultural foundations.
Rutherford, 1970
831 robert D. k in g . Review of No. 370 ( je g p 69: 510-13) 1970
832 b r ia n Mu r d o c h . Review of No. 444, vol. 1 ( m l r 6 5 : 4 4 1 - 4 4 ) 1970
833 Wa l t e r r &l l . Review of No. 370 ( g i i : 256 f., No. 1481) 1970
834 m a n fre d c a lie b e . Review of No. 3 7 0 ( w w 2 1 : 1 3 7 -3 9 ) 197 1
835 pavel t r o st . Review of No. 370 ( z d l 38: 244) 1971
836 w. b eltz. Review of No. 3 7 0 ( o l z 6 7 : 5 8 f.) 1972
8 3 7 SOLOMON A. BIRNBAUM. Institutum Ascettezicum ( l b i y b 1 7 : 2 4 3 - 4 9 ) 197 2
838 MANFRED CALIEBE. Review of N0. 446 (G 13:103 f. : 491) I9 7 2
839 - Review of No. 4 4 7 (G 1 3 :1 1 1 : 5 18) 1972
8 4 0 MICHAEL CLYNE. Review of No. 9 0 6 (G 1 3 :2 6 1 : 1311) 1972
841 JURGEN EICHHOFF. Review of No. 3 7 0 (MDU 6 4 : 58) 1972
8 4 2 k u r t h r u b y . Review of No. 4 4 7 (Jdc 2 8 : 4 4 f.) 1972
843 k aj b . l in d g r e n . Review of No. 4 4 4 , vol. 11 (NPhM 7 3 : 7 2 4 -2 6 ) 1972
8 4 4 f . m a d e r . Review of No. 4 4 4 , vol. 1 (NPhM 7 3 : 7 2 1 -2 3 ) 1972
8 4 4 a Fr is c o m e l z e r . Review of No. 3 7 0 (Mu: 3 4 4 ) 1972
845 Wa l t e r r6 l l . Review of No. 444, vols. 1-11 ( g 13:101 f.: 482) 1972
846 m ordxy & x ter [ m o r d k h e ( m o r d e c a i ) s c h a e c h t e r ]. Kurs fjn Iidiier ortografiy.
New York, 2nd ed., 1972
847 Review of No. 2 9 0 ( j r m 32 :'No. 52) 1973
847a GYULA d c s y . Die Imguistische Struktur Europas; Vergangenheit, Gegenwart,
Zukunft (1 4 2 , 1 4 4 -4 7 , passim) Wiesbaden, 1973
848 sa n d r a PARKER. Inquiry into the Yiddish secular schools in the United States;

A curricular perspective. Dissertation, Harvard University, 1973 ( d a i 34A:

3 2 4 1 ) 1973
849 ja c k t h ie s s e n . Yiddish in Canada; The death of a language. Leer, 1973
849a Report on No. 61 ( y w m l s 35: 505) 1973/74
850 h a n s p . a ltha us.Die Kunst der Paraphrase: Otto F. Best uber das Jiddische
(z d l 41: 318-37) 1974. Review of No. 73
851 J. b ih a r i und s. r a k . Review of No. 271 ( a l h 24: 410-17) 1974
852 m a n f r e d c a l ie b e . Review of No. 61 (G 15: 283 f.) 1974
853 - Review of No. 444, vols. n -iu and 4 4 6 ( w w 2 4 : 2 8 6 -8 9 ) 1974
854 - Review of No. 61 (ww 2 4 : 4 2 6 -2 8 ) 1974
855 A. and d a v id e . f is h m a n . Yiddish in Israel; A case study o f efforts to
jo s h u a

revise a monocentric language policy (Lin 120: 1 2 5 -4 6 ) 1974

856 Fl o r e n c e g u g g e n h e im - g r On b e r g . Review of No. 61 (iws April 5) 1974
857 W a l t e r RdLL. Review of No. 444, vol. i n (g 1 5 :3 5 : 22 7 2 ) 1974
858 hans 1. bach. Review of No. 61 ( a jr i June) 1975
 364 Bibliography

860 JOSHUA A. FISHMAN. Language maintenance and language shift in the United States
( y ajss 16: 12-26) 1975
861 Ma r in o f r e s c h i. Nuovt studi jiddisch ( s t 18: 101-13) 1975
862 FLORENCE GUGGENHEIM-GRUNBERG. Review of No. 74 (iws No. 28: 49) 1975
863 kurt hruby. Review of No. 61 (Jdc 31: 87 f.) 1975
864 H e l m u t p r o t z e . Review of No. 61 ( d l z 96: 466-70) 1975
865 W a lte r r o l l . Review of No. 74 ( g 16:804: 5376) 1975
866 Max Weinreich's History of the Yiddish Language and
e d w a r d s t a n k ie w ic z .

its contribution to Yiddish linguistics (Yd 1:4: 26-39) *975

867 m ax w e in r e ic h . Bird's-eye view o f the history o f the Yiddish language. English
translation by RICHARD ZUCKERMAN (Yd 1: 40-64) 1975
868 jo s e f w e is s b e r g . Review of No. 73 (ZDPh 94: 151 f.) 1975
869 SIGMUND A. WOLF. Review of No. 290 ( z d l 42: 87-90) 1975
870 m anfred c a l ie b e . Review of No. 186 ( g 17: 92 f.) 1976

871 f ir m a n [JOSHUA A. FISHMAN], Di lerjiulaaiymer vMt-konferenc fa r ltdiijn

Si i k l
Iidiser kultuur' fjn a socio-lingvistiln kjk-vmkl (1$ 35: 16-32) 1976
871a p h y l l is h o d e s . A psycholmguistic study of Yiddish-English bilingual children.

Dissertation, Wayne State University, 1976 ( d a ! 37A: 2694) 1976

872 He r b e r t m a a s . Review of No. 61 ( b d l 20: 30 f.) 1976
873 W a lte r ro ll. Jiddisck-Kolloquium in Trier (uj 2:4: 7) 1976
874 robert sch la pfer. Review of No. 380 (iws No. 46) 1976
875 Nochmals: *Die Kunst der Paraphrase'; Zu H.P. Althaus'
j o s e f w e is s b e r g .

bedenklicher Kritik ( z d l 43: 54-62) 1976

876 GUNTER m a r w e d e l . Zu jiddischen Brief en aus der Zeit und Umwelt Clikkels von
Hameln ( f a j : 46-56) 1977
877 n o r b e r t h . o t t . Die Bilderlosigkeit jiddischer Handschriften ( f a j 42-45) 1977
878 s o l o m o n A. b ir n b a u m . Review of Hebrew and Judaic manuscripts in Amsterdam

public collections, (Part) 1 ... compiled by L. f u k s and r . g . f u k s - m a n s f e l d ,

Leiden, 1973 (BiOr passim) 1978
878a p. f r e im a r k . Sprachverhalten und Assimilation; Zur Situation der Juden in
Norddentschland in der ersten Halfte des ig Jahrhunderts ( l b iy b 24) 1979

16 INFLUENCE OF YIDDISH ON OTHER LANGUAGES

879 l [ o r e n z ] d [ ie f f e n b a c h ?]. Einwirkungen der Juden a u f deutsche Sprache und

deutsches Volkslied ( d d m 6: 221-25) 159

880 - Schdwesdeckel ( d d m 6: 370) 1859
881 G. karl fr o m m e. Schdwesdeckel ( d d m 6 : 370) 1859
882 l e o w ie n e r . The Judaeo-German element in the German language (a jp 15:
329-47) 1894.
 365 Bibliography

883 - Die jiidischen Elemente tm Polnischen (asp 20: 620) 1897

884 o t h m a r m e is in g e r . Die hebraischen Fremdworter der Rappenauer Mundart
( z h d m i : 11900 ( 2- . See No. 294
885 THEODOR GARTNER. Fehier und Eigentiimlichkeiten in der deutschen Verkehrs-
und Schriftsprache der Bukowma. (Passim) Vienna, 1901
886 o t h m a r m e is in g e r . LotekhSlisch; Em Beitrag zur Kermtnis der frankischen
Hdndlersprache ( z h d m 3: 121-27) 1902
887 Fr ie d r ic h WEIK. Fremdworter in der Mundart von Rheinbischofsheim; 11.
Hebraische ( z d m 8: 248 f.) 1913
888 MOSES GINSBURGER. Jiidisches in den elsdssischen Mundarten ( m e l i : 388-89)
1921
889 R. LARIS. lidii in fLiryc-Iisruuldikn Hibriiii (IB 5: 80-84) 1933
890 SALOMO [SOLOMON A.] b ir n b a u m . Hebraische Etymologien im Deutschen (ZDPh
59: 238-41) 1934
891 IlSRUUL RUBIN [ISRAEL r u b in ], Veign der virkjng fjn lidii ofn gyre'tn Hebri'tii in
ttrye-hsruul (IB 25: 303-9) 1945
892 p o n t t i AALTO. Ein jiidisch-deutsches Wort im Fhtnischen? (NPhM 50: 103-7)
1949
893 h a n s g a l in s k y . Jiddisch (in his: Die Sprache des Amerikaners: 55-57, 116,

347-48, 484) Heidelberg, 1952

894 salom o [s o l o m o n a .] b ir n b a u m . Der Mogcl(ZDPh 74: 225-50) 1955
895 h a im BLANC. A note on Israeli Hebrew psycho-phonetics' (Wo 12: 107-11) 1956

896 Sl o im y nobl [s h l o m o n o b l e ]. lidii in a Hibretiin lyvji (IB 41: 158-75)

19S7/*958
897 Ur ie lw e in r e ic h . Yiddish and colonial German in Eastern Europe; The differ-

ential impact o f Slavic ( a c c s : 1-53) 1958

898 CLAUS J. HUTTERER. Zur Frage der jiddischen Lehnwdrter im Madjarischen
( m a j 2: 24-26) i960
899 h a n s P. a l t h a u s . Jiidisch-hessischc Sprachbeziehungen ( z m f 30: 104-56) 1963
900 - Zur Etymologie von schummcln, beschummeln ( z m f 30: 66-69) 1963/1964
901 - Wortgeographische und sprachsoziologtsche Studien zum jiddischen Lehn-
wortschatz im Deutschen am Beispiel Kazzew Fleischer * (zd s 21: 20-41) 1965
902 h a im b l a n c . Some Yiddish influences in Israeli Hebrew (FoY 2: 185-201) 1965
903 ju d a h A. j o f f e . Mutual borrowing between Yiddish and Slavic languages
( h w j i : 423-26) 1965
904 M. zand. Hdis iak substrat sovremennavo Ivrita (si Issue 2, pt. 1: 221-45) 1965
905 JAN L. ja n s s e n . Jiddisches im Ddnischen ? (Sea: 37-46) 1970
906 The languages of a bilingual community. Dissertation, 1959.
jo a n r a y f ie l d .

The Hague, 1970. Reviews see No. 836a, 840, 841a, 847b
 366 Bibliography

907 KARL s p a n g e n b e r g . Baumhauers Stromergesprdche m Rotwelsch (30-32, 40-50).

Halle/Saale, 1970
908 WOLFGANG Br u c k n e r . Frankfurter Worterbuch (passim). Frankfurt/M., 1971 ff.
909 H. beem . (Jit mokurn en de mediene; Joodse moorden m Nederlandse omgevmg
(1-66). Assen, 1974
9 j o CAROLINE KOHN. Der Wiener jiidische Jargon rm Werke von Kart Kraus ( m a l 8 :
240-67 [vi-vil]) 1975
911 An d r e w QSTRIN. An inquiry into the influence o f Yiddish on three eastern
European Hebrew sources ( w p y 21: 8-10) 1976
912 y a l e j. r e is n e r . Shivas Tziyon; Yiddish borrowingsfrom the Hebrew which have
returned to the slang o f modern-day Israel ( w p y 21: 1-6) 1976

17 FOLKLORE
- See No. 452, i860
- See No. 455, 1897-1925
913 sau l g in z b u r g i p io t r / p e s a c h MAREK. Yevreyskie narodnie pesni v Rosii.
St Petersburg, 1901
914 IICXYK [ISAAC] PIROZNIKOV. Iidiiy iprix-virter. Vilna, 1908
- See Nos. 505-9
915 f r it z m o r d e c h a i k a u f m a n n . Die Auffiikrung jiidischer Volksmusik vor West-

juden (Jd 1: 750-58) 1916/1917

916 arno nadel. Jiidische Volkslieder (Jd 1: 112-21, 182-94, 255-67, 326-39,
465-79, 623-30, 691-700, 759-71, 834-46) 1916/1917
917 Das jiidische Volkslied. Berlin, 1919
f r it z m o r d e c h a i k a u f m a n n .

918 Sl o im y b a s t o m s k i. Baam kval; Iidiiy iprix-virter, glaax-vertlex... Vilna, 1920

- See No. 484, 1920
- See No. 485/6, 1920
919 M.v a n v il d [ w a n w il d ] (ed.). Baa jndz Iidn; Zaml-bjjx fa r folklor jn filelogiy.

Warsaw, 1923
920 I. GOLDBERG. Bamerkjngyn viign poetiin itaigerfjn lidiin folks-liid (C 1:105-16)
1926
921 ij jd y l a ib k a h a n [ j .l . c a h a n ]. Iidiiy folks-maasys (Pi: 217-34, 369-76) 1928
922 evil Sp u r n . Di roly fjn niimyn in jndzer mamy-luuin (F$ 2: 175-86) 1928
923 l a ib l t o u b y s [ l 6 b e l t a u b e s ]. Talmjjdiiy ilymintn inym lidiin iprixvort; M it an
anhang: Talmjjdiiy gyfliglty virter in der Iidiier iprax. 2nd revised and enlarged
ed. Vienna, 1928
924 la za r v a a n er . Nigjjnym cj di folks-liider (Pi: 365-68) 1928
- See No. 519, 1929
- See No. 520,1931
 367 Bibliography

925 ij j d y l a ib k a h a n [ j .l . c a h a n ]. Cjm of-kjm fjn lidiin tanc-liid (IB 1: 28-29)

! 93 !
925a n e x u m y e p St a in [n . e p s z t a jn ], Review of No. 486 (IB 4: 73-76) 1932
926 S m jjl z a a n v l p ip y [ s a m u e l z a a n v e l p ip e ]. Iidiiy kinder-ipiiln (IA 1 : 39-47)
1937
- See No. 523, 1937
927 ij jd y l a ib k a h a n [ j .l . c a h a n ]. Iidiier folklor. Vilna, 1938
928 Sm j j l za a n v l p i p y [s a m u e l za a n v el p i p e ). Iidiiy kinder-liidlex (1A 2:112-25)
1938
929 h a n a n y . aya lti (ed.). Yiddish proverbs. Transl. I s id o r e g o l d s t ic k . New
York, 1949, 1963
930 ij jd y l a ib k a h a n [j . l . c a h a n ]. Studiys veign Iidiier folks-iafjng. New York,
19S2
931 r u t h r u b in . Nineteenth century Yiddish folksongs o f children in Eastern Europe
( ja f 65: 227-54) 1952
932 e l e a n o r GORDON m l o t e k . America in East European Yiddish folksong (FoY 1:

179-98) 1954
933 Be a t r ic e Sil v e r m a n w e in r e ic h . Four Yiddish variants o f the Master Thief tale
(FoY 1: 199-213) 1954
934 m o r d x y [ m o r d e c a i ] k o so v e r . Iidiiy maaxuulym ( i a i b : 1-145) 1958

935 ia a n k y v 1. m a a t l is [ja c o b j. m a it l is ]. Di ivuxym fjn rib Smjjl jn rib Ijjdy

Xuusyd; A cjj-itaaier cj der Iidiier folklor-forijng. London, 1961

936 WILHELM h e is k e . Deutsche Volkslieder in jiddischem Sprachgewand ( jv l f 9:
31-44) 1964
937 ELEANOR GORDON MLOTEK. International motifs in the Yiddish ballad ( s j l l :
209-28) 1964
938 b i i n y s il v e r m a n - vaanraax [B e a t r ic e s il v e r m a n w e in r e ic h ]. Formaly pro-

blimyn baam for in dus Iidiiy iprixvort (SJLL 394-83) 1964

939 BEATRICE SILVERMAN w e i n r e ic h . Genres and types o f Yiddish folk tales about the
prophet Elijah (FoY 2: 202-31) 1965
- See No. 503, 1966

18 LITERATURE

See also Sections 11, 12 and 17.

940 Jiidisch-deutsche Literatur; Nach einem handschrift-
m o r it z s t e in s c h n e id e r .

lichen Catalog der Oppenheimschen Bibliothek (m Oxford), mit Zusatzen und

Berichtigungen (Ser. 9: 313-36, 344-52, 363-68, 375-84; 1848; 10: 9-16,
15-32, 42-48, 74-80, 88-96, 107-12; 1849; IBS: 54 f., 57-59, 68-70; 1849;
 368 Bibliography

Ser. 25: 33-46, 49-62, 65-79, 81-95, 97- 1(30 ;1866 ;1-12 :27 ;1864 ;4 :
129-40, 145-59; !896. Reprint: Jerusalem, 1961
941 Fr i e d r i c h H . VON DER HAGEN. Die romantische und Volksliteratur der Juden in
jiidisch-deutscher Sprache ( a a w b ) 1854
942 H e r m a n n l o t z e . Zur jiidisch-deutschen Literatur ( a l g 7: 90-101) 1870
- See No. 422, 1882
943 f e l i x r o s e n b e r g . Uber eine Sammlung deutscher Volks- und Gesellschaftslieder
in hebraischen Lettern ( z g j d 2: 232-93; 3: 14-28) 1888; 1889; separately:
Berlin, 1889
944 l e o w i e n e r . A history o f Yiddish literature. New York, 1897; 2nd ed., With a
new Introduction by e l ia s s c h u l m a n , 1973
945 m a i e r J. p i n e s . Histoire de la litter ature judeo-attemande; Avec une preface de
CHARLES a n d l e r . Dissertation, Paris University, 1910. Paris, 1911. See Nos.
946, 949
946 - D i gysixty fjn der Iidiser UteratMr. Translation of No. 945. Warsaw, 1911.
Review see No. 952
- See No. 426, 1912
947 s. n i g e r [pen name of s m j j l 6 a r n i / s a m u e l c h a r n e y ] . Review of No. 946
( I V 1) 1912
948 f . p i q u e t . Review of No. 426 ( r c h l n .s . 76: 427) 1913
949 m a i e r j . p i n e s . Die Geschichte der jiidisch-deutschen Literatur; Nach dem
franzdsischen Original bearbeitet von GEORG h e c h t . Leipzig, 1913
950 m o 'i's e s c h w a b . Review of No. 426 (JAs Ser. 11:1: 671) 1913
951 n u x y m s t i f [ n a h u m s h t i f ] . Dr. Pinysys Gysixty fjn der Iidiser literatuur'
(P: 313-48) 1913. Review of No. 946
952 e l u u z e r / l u u z e r s u l m a n [ e l e a z a r s c h u l m a n n ], Sfas Iyhjjdis-Askyneizis vg-
safrjjso mikec ha-maiy ha-15 ad kec snos ha-maiy ha-18 \S fa t yehudit-askenazit
ve-sifrutah, mi-kez ha-mea ha-15 kez snot ha-mea ha-18]. Riga, 1913
953 robert petsc h . Review of No. 945 (a sn s Jg. 68, vol. 132: 175-81) 1914
954 z a l m y n r a iz in [z a l m a n r e j z e n / r e is e n ], Leksikon fjn der Iidiser literatuur jn
presy. Redaktiirt fjn S . Niger. Warsaw, 1914
955 NATHANIEL b u c h w a l d . Yiddish ( c h a l 4: 598-609) New York, 1921
956 NUXYM St i f [ n a h u m s h t i f ]. Duurym-Iidntum jn Iidisy literatuur. Berlin, 1922
957 s . b . f r e e h o f . Devotional literature in the vernacular ( y b c c 33: 375-424) 1923

958 NUXYM s t i f [ n a h u m s h t i f ] . D itrix fjn Bern; Iidiskait jn veltlexkait in der alter

Iidiser literatuur (IiF 1: i - n , 112-22) 1924
959 m a k s e r ik [pen name of z a l m y n m e r k i n . Bletlex cj der gysixty fjn der elterer
Iidiser literatuur (C 1: 173-78) 1926
960 z a l m y n r a i z i n [ z a l m a n r e j z e n / r e is e n ] , Leksikon fjn der Iidiiser literatuur,
presy jn filologiy. Vilna, 1926-1929
 369 Bibliography

961 ia a n k y v Sa ck ! (ja c o b s h a t z k i ], *Paris jn Vieny (F$ 1: 187 -9 6 ) 1926

962 [pen name of z a l m y n m r k ! n ]. Di gyiixty fjn der Iidiier literatuur,
m a k s e r ik

fjn di fluty caatn biz der haskuuly-tkjjfy, fercnter - axcnter iuur-hjndert; Mit
bilder jn melodiys. Warsaw, 1928
963 MAKS vaanraax [ m a x w e in r e ic h ]. Bilder fjn der Iidiier literatuur-gyiixty.
Vilna, 1928
964 salom o [s o l o m o n a .] b ir n b a u m . Literatur, Jiddische (jl 3: 1155-1175)
1929
9 6 5 I1SRUUL CINBERG [ I s r a e l z in b e r g ]. O us der Alt-Iidiier literatuur (F$ 3 :1 7 3 - 8 4 )

1929
966 NUXYM St i f [ n a h u m s h t if ]. Di iltery Iidiiy literatuur; Literariiy xrestomatiy

mit an araan-fiir jn derkleirjngyn cj iiidn iraaber. Kiiyv, 1929

966a z a l m y n r a iz in [ z a l m a n r e is e n ]. Cj der gyiixty fjn der Iidiier haskuuly-
literatuur (IB 1: 193-207) 1931
9 6 6 b - Naaiy arbytn cj der gyiixty fjn der haskuuly-literatuur (IB 2: 3 6 7 -8 9 ) 1931
9 6 7 NACHMAN m e ise l . Jiddische Literatur (after 1881) ( ejb 9 : 1 2 7 -80) 1932
968 ZALMYN RAIZIN [ z a l m a n r e is e n ]. Cj der gyiixty fjn der Iidiier folks-literatutir
(IB 3: 240-59) 1932
968a SAUL CHAJES. Pseudonymen-Lexikon der hebraischen und jiddischen Literatur.
Vienna, 1933. Reprint: Hildesheim, 1967
9 6 9 1ISRUUL CINBERG [ISRAEL z in b e r g ]. Alt-Iidiiy literatuur fjn di iltsty caatn biz
der haskuuly-tkjjfy (Vol. 6 of the authors Di gyiixty fjn der literatuur baa Iidn.
2nd ed., Vilna, 1933. Hebrew translation by b. k a r u , S.z. a r i e l and D. k n a 'a n i ;
vol. 4 of Toldot sifrut Yisra'el. Tel-Aviv, 1955; 2nd ed., 1958-1971
9 7 0 ja k o b j. m e it l is [ m a it l is ]. Das Ma'assebuch; Seine Entstehung und Quellen-
geschichte. Berlin, 1933. Review see No. 722
971 MEYER WAXMAN. Judaeo-German literature (in: A history o f Jewish literature,
vol. II. From the twelfth century to the middle o f the eighteenth century, chapter
x ii ) New York, 1933
972 iic x y k Si p e r [ ig n a c y s c h ip p e r ]. Problemynfjn der alt-Iidiier literatuur-gyiixty
(IB 7: 36- 46)1934
973 - Kultu&r-gyiixtlexer fon fjn der ihster Iidiier UteratuHr (IB 8: 44-60) 1935
974 a b r a h a m A. ROBACK. The story of Yiddish literature. New York, 1940
975 - Psychology through Yiddish literature; Apologia pro vita yiddicia. New York,
1942
976 m a ie r vilNER. Cj der gyiixty fjn der Iidiier literatuur tn igtn iuur-hjndert,
Etiudn jn materiaht. New York, 1945
976a LEO Fines. Als der sof is gut, is alles g u t... An anonymous Yiddish comedyfrom
the end o f the 18th century; Introduction, notes and modernized version. Paris,
1948
 370 Bibliography

976b leo fu k s. Van Poerimspelen tot Poermkranten (m g j n i : 6 /7 , 162-76) 1948

977 n a h u m b . m in k o f f in c o lla b o ra tio n w ith ju d a h a . j o f f e . Old Yiddish literature
(j p p p 3: 145-64) 952
977a s a m u e l n ig e r [pen name of s a m u e l c h a r n e y ], Yiddish literature in the past 200
years ( j p p p 3: 165-219) 1952
978 jo s e p h o p a t q s h u . Fifty years of Yiddish literature in the United States ( y a js s 8:
72-82) 1954
979 ABRAHAM A. R0 BACK. Contemporary Yiddish literature; A brief outline. London,
>957
980 fran z j. beranek. Jiddische Literatur ( r d l g , 2 n d ed ., 1 : 7 6 6 -7 0 ) 1958
981 ja c o b j. m a it l is . The maaseh in the Yiddish ethical literature. London, 1958
982 Ar n o l d PAUCKER. Yiddish versions o f the German Volksbuch. Thesis, Notting-
ham University, 1959
983 - Yiddish versions of early German prose novels (jjs 10: 151-67) 1959
984 - Das deutsche Volksbuch bei den Juden (ZDPh 8 0 : 3 0 2 -1 7 ) 1961
985 - Das Volksbuch von den Sieben Weisen Meistem in der jiddischen Literatur
( zvk 5 7: 177-94) >961
986 g ia c o m o PRAMPOLINl. Letterature Jiddisch e neo-ebraica (SUL 7 : 7 8 6 -8 1 7 )
Turin, 1961
987 p a v e l t r o s t . Em angebliches Prager Purimspiel ( m a j 2 : 5 3 -5 7 ) 1961
987a ia a n k y v i . m a a t l is [ ja c o b J. m a it l is ]. An jmbakanter Medrys Vaioify (IB 4 2 :
2 7 8 -8 2 ) 1962
988 sol l ip t z in . The flowering of Yiddish literature. New York, 1963
989 franz j . bera n ek . Das Tiroler Maissebuch (Schl 38: 36-41) 1964
990 hasye COOPF.RMAN. Yiddish literature in the United States ( i n : OSCAR JANOWSKY
[ed.]. The American Jew; A reappraisal: 193-209) Philadelphia, 1964
991 leo f u k s . Die jiddische Literatur ( l w : 1 0 1-9) Zurich, 1964
992 ja c o b m . m a it l is . Akedas Jizchok (kll i : 320-21) 1965
993 Der Nister's Under a Fence'; Tribulations of a Soviet Yiddish
c h o n e shm eru k .

symbolist (FoY 2: 263-87) 1965

994 ROLF ECKART u n d WALTER roll. Dukus Horant ( k l l 2 : 1691 f.) 1966
995 w e r n e r s c h w a r z . Die weltliche Volksliteratur der Juden (mm 4 ; 7 2 -8 9 ) 1966
996 He r m a n n h a k e l . Jiddisch - Sprache etner zweitausendjahrigen Wanderung ( l k
15: 2 93-30 7 ) 1967
997 WALTER ROLL u n d CHRISTOPH GERHARDT. Zur literarhistorischen Emordnung des
sogenannten Dukus Horant ( dvjl 4 1 : 5 1 7 -2 1 ) 1967
998 xuuny Sm e r u k [ c h o n e s h m e r u k ]. Di naaiy ediciy fjnym Alt-Iidiin Myiuxym-
bjjx' ( g k 59: 20 8 -1 5 ) 1967
999 d in a a b r a m o w ic z . Yiddish literature in English translation; Books published

1945; 2nd ed., supplementary list. New York, 1968

 371 Bibliography

1000 Yiddish literature; Its scope and major writers. New York,
Charles A. m a d iso n .
1968; reprint: 1971. See No. 1027a
1001 ia a n k y v 1. m a a t l i s [ja c o b j. m a i tl is /m e i tl is ] . Folks-iafjng jn literatuur
( g k : 70-76) 1968
1002 - Sprax- jn literatuur-forijng (ID : 256-66) 1968
1003 Leonard prager . Shakespeare in Yiddish (ShQjg: 149-63) 1968
1003a Sm jjl rozanski [ samuel ro llansky ] (ed.). Antologiy njsex haskuuly.
Buenos Aires, 1968
1004 h a n a Sm e r u q . Yidit, Yidis(EI 19: 794-810) 1968
1005 jutta ja n k e . Jiddische Literatur (Dei Biicherkarren, No. 1) [East] Berlin, 1969
1006 IAANKYV I. MAATLIS [JACOB J. m a itlis / m e it l is ]. Maasy-bjjx. Buenos Aires,
1969
1007 evelyn T. beck . Kafka and the Yiddish theater; A study o f the impact o f the
Jewish theater on the work o f Franz Kafka. Dissertation, University of Wis-
consin, 1969 ( dai 30A: 5439) 1970
1008 r u t h r . w isse. The Schlemihl as hero in Yiddish and American fiction. Dis-
sertation, McGill University, 1969 ( d a i 30A: 2983) 1970
1009 c h o n e sh m e ru k . Yiddish literature ( ejj 16: 798-8333) 1971
1010 so l l ip t z in . A history of Yiddish literature. Middle Village, N.Y. 1972
1011 b r i a n M u rd o c h . A Yiddish writer and the German cultural hegemony before
World War 11 (JSS 34: 95-106) 1972
1012 Zur Stellung der altjiddischen Literatur in der Germanistik
josef w eissberg .
(ZDPh 91: 383-406) 1972
1013 ABRAMOVid [ d in a abramow icz ]. Haskuuly-literatuur (IB 44: 311-18)
d iin y
1973. Review of No. 1003a
1013a JOHN A. HOWARD. Hebrew-German and early Yiddish literature: survey of
problems. Dissertation, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1972
(DAI 34A: 774 f.) 1973
1013b 1. l if Sic [ e . l ifsg h Otz ]. Di Varsouer Iidisy Caatjng (IB 44: 107-37) 1973
jo 14 A traveler disguised; A study in the rise o f modem Yiddish fiction
d a n m ir o n .
in the nineteenth century. New York, 1973
1015 f r a n c o p a lm ie r i. La letteratura della terza diaspora; La cultura ebraica dallo
Yiddish all'Ameridish. Ravenna, 1973
1016 e u a s sc h u l m a n . Bialik's Yiddish poetry (Yd 1: 66-74) *973
1017 He l m u t d in se . Die Entwicklung desjiddischen Schriftums im deutschen Sprach-
gebiet. Stuttgart, 1974. Reviews see Nos. 1018-1020,1022,1024-253, 1029,
1030,1033
1018 Walter r6 l l . Review of No. 1017 (G 15:594: 3521) 1974
1019 Review of No. 1017 ( je s ) 1974
1020 w u lf - o . dreessen . Review of No. 1017 (AfdA 104:162-66) 1975
 372 Bibliography

1021 - Zur Rezeption deutscher epitcher Literatur im AUjiddischen: Das Betspiel

'Wigalois' - 'Artushof ( d l s m a 1973: 116-28) 1975
1022 Fl o r e n c e g u g g e n h e im - g r u n b e r g . Review of No. 1017 (iws July 11) 1975
1023 Ia a n k y v L MAATUS [JACOB J. MAITLIS/MEITLIS]. Forijngyn jn literatuur ( 1GFD
191-240) 1975
1024 g On t e r m a r w e d e l . Review of No. 1017 (ZDPh 94: 466-68) 1975
1025 WALTER r o l l . Review of No. 1017 (Daph 4: 87-94) 1975
1025a - Review of No. 1017 (G 15:594: 3521) 197S
1026 DAVID G. The genres o f Yiddish popular literature (w p y 8) 1975
r o s k ie s .

1027 hana s h m e r u k ]. Ha-maggacim ben ha-sifrut ha-polanit te-ven

Sm e r u q [ c h o n e
si/rut yidis, al-pi sippur Esterke ve-Kaztmtr ka-Cadol melekh Polm (Sif No.
21:60-100) 1975
1027a Ch a r l e s a . m a d is o n . Jiddische Literatur, Vbersetzt von Otto F. Best (j e j w :
297-310 = nhlw vol. 18) 1976. See No. 1000
1028 Wa l t e r ROLL. Man hart uvnig sagen von Frieden; Ein jiidisches Lehrgeduht aus
dem Mayen des 17. Jahrhunderts ( k t j 16: 40-42) 1976
1029 XUUNY Sm e r u k [ c h o n e s h m e r u k ]. Di Alt-Iidiiy literatuur; Iiry uun-haibn jn
primary kontaktn; Iber gyzect fjn Hebreiiin ksav-iad by a v r u u m n o v er t ie r n
( p f i l 3: 1-80) 1976
1030 Review of No. 1017 (SR 10: 247) 1976
1031 m an fred c a l ie b e . Zur Problematik von Gesamtdarstellungen jiddischer

Literaturgeschichte in deutscher Sprache; Bedenken, Berichtigungen und Ergdn-

zungen zu Helmut Dmse, 1Die Entmcklung des jiddischen Schrifttums im
deutschen Sprachgebiet* (ww 27: 51-66) 1977
- See No. 590, 1977
1032 LEO f u k s . Zum Emfluss der niederlandischen Kultur a u f die jiddische Literatur
des /7. und 18. Jahrhunderts ( f a j : 74-77) 1977
1033 HARRY Z0HN. Review of No. 1017 ( g q 50: 97 f.) 1977

19 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL W RITINGS

- See No. 940

1034 Al f r e d l a n d a u . Bibliographie desJiidisch-Deutschen ( d m i : 126-32), Register
(208-9) >897
1035 - Bibliographie der jiidisch-deutschen SprUchmorter ( m g jv : i 15-21) 1901
1036 s a l o m o [s o l o m o n a .] b ir n b a u m . Neuere Werke uber Jiddisch (Fr 1: 121 f.)
>9>3
1037 BilER b u u rex o v [ ber BOROCHOv], Di bibliotSik fjnym Itdiin filolog; ierster

tail; Fiir-hjndert iuur Itdiiy iprcuc-forijng (P: after col. 442: cols. 1-68) 1913
 373 Bibliography

1038 maxs vaanraax [ max w e in r e ic h ]. Bibliografiy fjn Dr. Alfred Landys iriftn
i : 4-10) 1926
1039 avruum a . robak [ abraham a . robacx ]. Ziltyny Iidiiy biixer (F$ 2 : 381 -4 0 0 )
1928
1040 karl habersaat . Zur Datierung der jiidisch-deutschen Hohelied-Paraphrasen;
Em biblicgraphisch-kritischer Versuch. Berlin, 1933
1041 D. SAMUEL LOWINGER u n d S. BER WEINRYB. Jiddische Handschriften in Breslau.
Budapest, 1936
1042 i I d i & s v isn ^a ft l e x e r in s t it u t . Ihuu-bibliografiy; A ryiiimy fjn di biixer,

zumaln, broiuum, artiklyn, rycenziys jazv, vus der Iidiier Visniaftlexer

Institut hot publikiirt in di iuunt 1935-1941. New York, 1943. Vol. 2 : 1942-
1950. Ibid., 1955
1043 Linguistic Bibliography: Yiddish. (195 0 -1 9 5 1 , under: Germanic languages,
C; 1952-1953/19 5 2 -1 9 5 6 , under: Mixed languages, I, Jewish languages, 1;
1954-1958/1957-1 9 6 7 , under: Germanic languages, German, b; 1970-1972,
under: West Germanic, German1
1044 KARL HABERSAAT. Beitrage zur jiddischen Dialektologie (RSO 2 6 : 2 3 -2 6 ; 27 :
2 3 7 ) J951. 952
1045 - Repertorium der jiddischen Handschriften ( rso 29 : 5 3 -7 0 ; 3 0 : 2 3 5 -4 9 ; 31 :
4 J -4 9 ) 1954, 1955, 1956. Review see No. 1047
1046 URIEL WEINREICH. Literary bibliographies; I. Sholom Akichem (FoY 1: 2 7 8 -
84) 954
1047 franz j. beranek . Bibliographie des Jiddischen seit 1945 ( m aj 1: 8 - 1 1, and
each No. until end of publication) 1955-1964
1048 URIEL and Be a t r ic e w e in r e ic h . Yiddish language and folklore; A selective
bibliography for research. The Hague, 1959. Review see No. 1049
1049 karl habersaat . Review of No. 1048 (ZDPh 80: 447) 1961
1050 hana Sm eru q (ed .). Pirsumim yehudiyim bt-vrit ha-moezot, Nos. 349-4005.
Jerusalem, 1961
1051 karl habersaat . Materialien zur Geschichte derjiddischen Crammatik (Orb r 1:
35 2 -6 8 ) 1962
1052 - Prolegomena zum Repertorium der jiddischen Handschriften (ZDPh 81 :
33 8 -4 8 ) 1962
1053 - Beitrag zur Chronologie der datierten jiddischen Handschriften, 1307-1619
( maj 2 : 117 f.) 1963
1054 - Die dltesten Hohelied-Handschriften von 1304 bis 1590, nebst Chronologie der
jiddischen Handschriften. Freiburg/Br., 1964
1055 franz j . beranek . Bibliographie zur jiddischen Ortsnamenkunde (Ono 11:
3 5 -4 2 ) 1964-1965
1 Four changc* of classification in two decades.
 374 Bibliography

1056 joshua a . f ish m a n .Yiddish in America (IJA1 31: 73-76) 1965

1057 karl habersaat . Zur Geschichte derjiddischen Grammatik (ZDPh 84:419-35)
1965
1058 - Die jiddischen Handschriften in Italien (ASNS Jg. 116, vol. 201: 48-50) 1965
1059 - Die jiddischen Handschriften in der Schweiz (asns Jg. 117, vol. 202: 114 f.)
*965
- See No. 80, second ed., pp. 185-95, 1966
- See No. 134:390-407: Arabic- Yiddish vocabularies; An annotated bibliography,
1966
1059a i f im a. iy Sj jr in [ y f !M a . JESHURIn ]. 100 iuur mod/my Iidiiy literatuur;
Bibliografiier ejjitaaier. New York, 1965
1060 HANS p . a l t h a u s . Ergebnisse der Dialektologie; Bibliographie der A u f satze in

den deutschen Zeitschriftenfiir Mundartforschung 1854-1968 ( z d l b 7; Register:

13, Jiddisch, pp. 237 f.) 1970
- See No. 1009, 1971
1061 w ulf - o . dreessen , Walter r o l l u n d erika t im m . Jiddische
Druckc vor 1800;
Hilfen fiir den Umgang mit einem neuen Quellenverzeichnis ( zda 1 0 5 : 3 1 0 -1 7 )
1976
1062 hanaSm er u q [ ch on e sh m eruk ]. Rehma bibliografit se! defuse polin be-yidis
adgezerot tah ve-tat (KS 52: 383-417) 1977
1063 Zjjx-cetlyn cjm iumal Iidiiy Sprax 1941-1974 (1S 36: 1-152) 1977

The bibliographies of Hebrew works also list Yiddish books.

 SUPPLEMENT TO THE BIBLIOGRAPHY

ACXWSAdvances in the Creation and Revision of Writing

Systems (ed. J. A. Fishman)
BZIH Biuletyn Zydowskiego Instytutu H is to ry c z n e g o
EDB Ehime-doitsu-bungaku
Ga Gal'td
ILi Issues in Linguistics*
LS Language Sciences
0$ Ofn Svil
Ta Tarbiz
YIK Yudaya-isuraeru-kenkyu

13* f r it z MORDECHAI KAUFMANN. Der Boykott des Jiddischen; Em Protest (Fr 1:

195) *9*3
14a n a t h a n b i r n b a u m . Vom sterbenden Jiddisch (Fr 1: 665) 1914
14b - Ein Witz der Geschichte der zu denken gibt (Fr 2: 185) 1914
23a idv m . S p i i lx a i n . lidii; A konspikt fjn a kurs in dym 2tn Moskver Myljjxiin
Onhirzitit. Moscow, 1926
30a m a t i s i u u h j m iiz y s [Referat viign der Iidiier iprax] (Sec No. 30: 143-93) 1931
62a m a k s v a a n r a a x [m ax w e i n r e i c h ] . lidii (A 2nd ed. vol. Jidn B: 23-90) 1940
97a i j j d l [ y u d e l] m a r k . Di atributitvy frazy (1$ 2: 39-47) 1942
97b - Di hilfs-virbn hubn jn zaan baam iafn difargangyny coat (1S 2: 119-25) 1942
97c - Der atributitver baa-zac (1$ 2: 130) 1942
99a ij j d l [ y u d e l ] m a r k . Imittmjng in cuul cviin subiict jn pridikat (1S 9: 22-34)
1949
99b - Viign dym infinitih (I 10: 1 -13) 1950
99c - Viign dym partikl cjfam infinitih (1$ 10: 3 5 -4 9 ) 1950
101a ij j d l [ y u d e l ] m a r k . Di itam-konstrukciy ( / 5 12: 8 1 -8 9 ) 195 2
101b j r iiy l vaanraax [ u r ie l w e in r e ic h ]. Cjrik cj aspiktn (1S 12: 9 7 -1 0 1 ) 1952
101c ij jd y a . iu f y [ju d a h a . jo f f e ]. Der akuzatih mitn infinitih ( 1$ 1 3 : 5 -1 2 ) 1953
loid ij j d l [ y u d e l ] m a r k . Kinyn mir zex cjnoifraidn ? An infer Ijjdy A. Iufyn (/$
13: 12-15) 953
ioie - Miier-cuuifjn zax-virter (1S 14: 33-42, 80-92, 120-26; 15: 5 u , 58-63,
65-79, 0-18; 16: 8-21) 1954-1956
ioif - Die pripoziciy fjn (1$ 16: 33- 44) *956
101g - Di kamys-farbmdjng cviin cvai zax-virter (f$ 16: 65-86) 1956
ioih - Di pripoziciy far (1$ 17: 33-45) 1957
103a - Di pripoziciy of (1$ 20: 71-81) i960
103b - Viign miinym advirbn (1S 22: 1-18) 1962
 376 Supplement to the Bibliography

104a IJJDY A. IUFY [JUDAH A. jo f f e ] . Der gthtiliiv in ISdii ( I $ 2 4 : 1 9 -2 3 ,5 2 -5 6 ) 1964

105a L. z a m y t. Di cjj-gub-caatn ( 1$ 2 6 ; 1 9 -2 5 ) 1966
106a j r i i y l v a a n r a a x [ u r i e l w e in r e ic h ] . Zaan krank - zaan a kranker; Cjm
lintaks fjn lidiin adiektirv (1$ 28j i - i i ) 1968
106b i j j d l [y u d e l] m a rk . Der adiiktiiv {1$ 2iL 6 5 -8 7 ) 1968
108a DAVID L. GOLD. Regional variations in the formation o f Yiddish noun plurals.
MA essay, Columbia University, 1971
115a y is r a e l h . t a v io v . Ha-yesodot ha-hrim be-argon (in Kitve y . h . t a v io v )

Berlin, 1923
119a MOISY ALTBOUER. D i keign-zaatiky Poilii-ISdisy haipuuys ofn {prax-gybiil,
Vilna, 1934
121a moe a l t b a u e r . Meqorah ha-hri sel ha-mila Sitwa (L y j 8 5 -8 7 ) 1944
122a L $ ta in b rg . Hebriiizmyn in der Iidiier iprax. Wroclaw/Breslau, 1949
122b y e h i e l b in - n u n [ j e c h ie l f is c h e r ] . H a-hrit se-be-yidit (L 13 9 -4 4 ) 1951
126a n u x y m k r u p in . Hant-bjjx fjn Hebreiizmyn in der Iidiier iprax, Buenos Aires,
1957
130a i j j d l [y u d e l] m a rk . Puuiyty verbn cviin Hebreiizmyn ( / $ 2u 3 3 - 5 1 ; 221
8 6 -8 7 ) 1961, 1962
134a io s y f & r n i a k [jo se p h c h e r n ia k ] , Luuin-koidyi in Iidiiy vertlex (A$ 2 j: 79-
90) 1967
139a y e h u d a m a rk . Ha-markiv ha-slavi be-yidii al admat polm (Ga 3 : 5 7 -6 6 ) 1977
174a m ak s v a a n r a a x [m ax w e in re ic h ]. Di sistem Iidiiy kadmyn-vokaln (1$ 201
6 5 -7 1 ) i9 6 0
175a ijjd y a . iu f y [ ju d a h a . jo f f e ] . Di klangyn e jn t in lid ii (1$ 2 1 : 1-8)
1961
184a s m jj l D. v a a s [sam w eiss], (A j , / : / jn faij inym lidiin vokalizm ( / 3 0 : 6 5 -6 9 )
1971
190a mordxy v nger [( m ordecai) w eing er ]. Maan ous-laigjng. Warsaw, 1913
191a Su u ly m b a il in [ b e il in ], Cjm ous-laigfjn Hebreiiiy verter in lidii (FS i : 289-
90) 1926
191b m ak s v a a n r a a x [m ax w e in r e ic h ] . Sraab uun graazn! Vilna, 1926
191c a v ru u m viviORKY. Der ous-laig fjn lidii. Moscow, 1926
193 (After No. 153:) See No. 25, 1930
203a m ak s v a a n r a a x [m ax w e in r e ic h ] . Der Iidiier ous-laig haant jn amuul (in the
authors D i hiarcy pintelex; 224-40) Vilna, 1939
204a b in iu m y n g , x a if y c [b e n g . k a y f e tz ] , Veign problemyn fjn transkripciy (1$
u 125 f.) 1941
205a i j j d l [y u d e l] MARK. A proiektfa r an interdiaUktiin ous-laig (1$ 6 : 118-21) 1946
, 208a ij jd y A. iu f y [jUDAH A. jo f f e ] . Lomtr analiziirn nit stam debatiim (1$ 10: 49-
52) 1950
 377 Supplement to the Bibliography

210 b MAKS v a a n r a a x [m ax WEfNREiOi]. Der ahthaitlexer ous-laig, zaan gyiixty jn

vhdy (1$ 1 3 8 -6 4 ) *959
2 ioc zosa SZAJK0WSK1. Catalogue o f the Exhibition The History o f Yiddish Orthog-
raphyfrom the Spelling Rules of the Early Sixteenth Century to the Standardized
Orthography of 1936. New York, 1966
2 1 1a DAVID L. GOLD. Successes andfailures in the standardization and implementation
o f Yiddish spelling and Romanization ( aCXWS: 3 0 7 -6 9 ) 1977
216a ijjd l [ yudel ] m ark . [A proiekt] vii cj transkribiim o f nglii Iidiiy niimyn jn
titlyn fjn biixer (/.$ 6 ; 121-23) 1946
216b avruum a . robak [ abraham a . roback ], Veign Dr. S. Biimboims transkripciys
(1S 6 : 113-18) 1946
223a avruum a . robak [ abraham a. roback ]. A puur verter viign transkripciy jn
dialiktn (/$ 9 : 52 -5 5 ) 1949
265 Review see No. 856a
272 Review see No. 857a
272a S lo im y n o b l [s h lo m o n o b l] . Diferinciirjngfjn Iidiiy dialiktn in ain pjnkt (1$
2 5 : 4 6 - 5 0 1965
290b d u v y d l . k r o u s [d a v id l , k ra u s ] jn d u v y d [d a v id ] l . g o l d . A bisl Painter
lidii fjn far hjndert iuur (J$ 3 2 : 3 3 -3 8 ) 1972
297a A J- B1SKO. Milom muuly vy-hmlym iargoni-ivri [Millon male ve-salem iargoni-
h r i], Hjjgy bt-ksav [Huga bi-ketav] Y.M. z a lk i n d , London, 1913
330a n u x y m S t i f [n au m S tif]. Ortografiier virter-bjjx. Moscow, 1932
332a z a lm y n r a i z i n [z a lm a n r e jz e n /r e is e n ] . Nuxym Stifs licty arbyt (IB 5: 382-
400 ) 1933
336a s. RUXKIND jn H. S k lia r . Hdii-Rjsiier virter-bjjx. M in sk , 1940
344b IJJDL [YUDEL] MARK. Viign neologizmyn ( 1$ L2J 33-47) 1952
344c - Viign iafn rixtiky neologizmyn (1S i i : 6 5 -8 3 ) 1952
346a moiSy St a r k m a n [m oses STARKMAN]. Gymuury-Iidii (1S i j j 154- 57) 1953
349a Iic x y k r i v k in d [is a a c r iv k in d ] . Rjml ci r.j.m.1. (1S 14: 2 1 -2 4 ) >954
352a m o rd x y [m o rd e c a i] k o so v e r. Amuulyk', M u x y\ Timxy' = Arminer (1$
1-20) 1958
357a ijjd l [ yudel ] mark . Viign iiidlexy jn niclexy Daacmerizmyn (IS 23J 6 5 -8 7 )

1963
357b - Kloimerity, sufykdiky jn niclexy Daaimerizmyn (1$ 24J 1-ig) 1964
366a MYNASY JNGER [ m . UNGER], Iidiiy virter in luubt-koidyin tikst fjn Sipjjry
Maasys (A$ 28; 11-21) 1968
373a maks vaanraax [ max w ein r e ic h ]. Di Iidiiy klal-iprax in der cvaiter hilft
cvancikstn iuur-hjndert (/5 joj 2-18) 1971. Review of No. 362
373b duvyd [ david ] l . g o ld . Mikoiex a cvaitn arous-kjm fjn Jriiyl Vaanraaxs
Modem nglii-Itdii Iidii-nglii Virter-bjjx (1S 30J 19-32) 1971
 378 Supplement to the Bibliography

401a M. LAZERSON [ lase&SON], A bisl Baltii-Iidiiy giografiy (1 21 84-88) 1942

412a mordxy & xter [ m o rdk he ( m ordecai) SCHAeo tter ]. Niimyn fjn baimer jn
kiakys; Termmologiier proiikt (/5 2fn 65-80) 1966
416a TOMAZ OPAS. Uwagi 0 wptywie jfxykv polskiego na tworzeme sif nazisk Zydow
pokkich (od drugiej potowy X V I do X V II w.) (b z ih i : 47-63) 1974
433 Transliteration and German translation
526a See No. 433. Facsimile and letterprint
538a w il l y staerx . Zur Vberliefermgsgeschkhte des jiidisch-deutschen Samuel- und
Konigsbuches ( m g w j 6 3 : 2 0 -3 3 ) 1919
552a H. b jm [ h . beem ]. Cjj-itaaier cj der forijngfjn iltstn ItdiSn manuskript (A$ 2 a ;
-16) i960. To No. 433
565a MAKS VAANRAAX [MAX WEINREICH], A Iidiier zacfjn far zibn hjndert iuur
2 87-03; Ml 61 f ) *963. 964
581a m o r ris L goldwasser . *Azhoras N osh im A linguistic study of a sixteenth
century Yiddish work, ma thesis, Columbia University, New York, 1968
616a salom o [so lo m o n a .] b ir n b a u m . Hebr'disches Worterbuch (Fr u 400) 1913.
Review
625a im u n ii y l r i n g lb lO m [e m a n u e l r i n g e lb l u m ] . Adnotaciys jn bamirkjngyn m
luuin-koidyijn Alt-Iidii fjn istn LL (F$ 1: 3 3 3 -3 8 ) 1926
631 R e p rin t: [1$ 3 4 : 23 - 33 ) !975
632a maks vaanraax [ max w e in r e ic h ]. Iidiiy filologiy ( A E 2 n d e d ., vol. Iidn B:
1 01-108) 1940
632b m yna $y jng ek [m . u n ger ], Iidiiy virter in Svuxy ha-Best (1$ z u 6<;-73)
1961
635a x a a iy m L [ q ia jm s.] k a z d a n . Bilderiikait ht der Iidiier foli-iprax (A$ q :
34 - S 0 ) >949
637a n u u sn ZIISKIND [n a th a n SUSSKINd J. Batraxtjngyn viign der gyiixty fjn lidii
(I$ 13:97-108) !953
640a m ax w e in r e ic h . Prehistory and early history o f Yiddish (FoY 2: 73-10!) 1954
640b - Ikerym in der gyiixty fjn lidii (1$ y j 97110 ; is: 12- 19) 1954, 1955
643a i j j d l [y u d e l] m a rk . ProbUmyn baam normiim di Iidiiy klal-iprax ( I $ !41
33-50)1958
645a URIEL VAINRAJX [ ur iel w e in r e ic h ]. Nosah ha-sofrrim ha-rori-yidi (L 221 54-
66) 1958
654a x. liib e r m a n [c h . lie b e rm a n ]. Viign dym Saifer ha-Magyd jn zaan mexaber
(I$ 2 6 : 3 3 -3 8 ; 2 0 : 7 3 -7 6 ) 1966, 1969/1970
657a NUUSN ZIISKIND [NATHAN SUSSKIND]. Alt-Ildii jn Mitl-Iidii [1$ 2Q: 4 3 -6 4 )
19 6 9 /I9 7 0
657c m ordxy ^ xter [ m ordk he ( m ordecai ) schaechter ]. Dus luuin fjn S0v6tis
H a im la n d (/ 2 $ : 1 0 -4 2 ; 30: 3 2 -6 5 ) 1969/1970, 1971
 379 Supplement to the Bibliography

658a GERROlD M. sadock, Word-final de-voicmg in the development o f Yiddish (ILi:

790-97) 1973
659b jo s e f w e issb e rg . Alteres Deutsch als Basis fiir die jiddische Synonymik (s d ls )
974
681a n a t h a n b irn b a u m . Review of No. 947a (Fr c 399) 1913
788a m o rd x y $ e x te r [m o rd k h e (m o rd e c a i) s c h a e c h t e r ] . Dr. Sloimy Biirnboim -
der iprax-narmiirer (1S 2Zl 33-43) 1962
788b - Toponimikjn verter-forymjng baa Dr. Sloimy Biirnboim (1S 22J 74-80) 1962
836a b n -ijjd y -g ir$ n . A bjjx veign lidii jn P.nglti in a Los-Andiyleser fiier-ituut
(0S No. 208: 221L) 972
841a jo s h u a a. fis h m a n . Review of No. 906 (La 48: 969-76) 1972
846a Maks Vaanraax [Max Weinreich]. Gysixty fjn der lidis sprax. Bagrifn, faktn,
mytodn. New York, 1973.
846b Max Weinrcich. History ofthe Yiddish Language. Translated by Shlnmo Noble
with the assistance of Joshua A. Fishman. Chicago, 1979
847b david 1 g o l d . Review of No. 906 (LS No. 2J1 21-28) 1972
855a david l . go ld . Review of sjl l (LS No. 31J 1974
856a salcia la n d m a n n . Review of Nos. 6r, 265 ( zrgg 2h1 259-62) 1974
857a henry r . ste rn . Review of No. 372 ( as 4s/t1974) 1970 (260-62 :4)
877a Mordkhe Schaechter. Four Schools o f Thought in Yiddish Language Planning
(m gs 3.2: 34-^6) 1977
877b Khone Shmeruk. The Hebrew Acrostic in the Yosef Hatsadik Poem o f the
Cambridge Yiddish Codex (m gs III, 21 67 8jJ 1977
895a IJJDY lz t [y e h u d a e lz e t] . Bi-leSon ha-am, bi-le50n ha-dibbur, anstuut
cj zugn lidii (1S ihi 44-S4) 1956
947a $ m jjl n i g e r [s a m u e l c h a r n e y ] . Veign Iidiiy haaber. Warsaw, 1913. Review
see No. 681a
969 (After Knaani add:) Sifrut Yidii me-reiitah ve'ad litequfat ha-haskala
975b Sm jjl NIGER [SAMUEL CHARNEY]. Dereailers jn romanistn. New York; Vol. I,
1946
981a 3m j j l n i g e r [s a m u e l c h a r n e y ] . Iidiiy iraaber in Soviet-Rjsland. New York,
1958
986a dov sadan . Avne miftan; Masot al sofre yidii. Tel-Aviv, 1961
996 xuuny Di naaiy ediciyfjnym Alt-Iidiin Myluxym-
m ruk [c h o n e shm eruk ].
Bjjx(GK 55; 208-15) 1967
1032a hana Sm eru q [ c h o n e shm eruk ]. Qawim li-demutah set sifrut yidii be-polin
u-ve-lita adgezerot tah ve-tat (Ta 46: 258-314) 1977
1047a Sm jjl n ig e r [sam uel ch arney ] and iaankyv Sacki (jacob shatzki ) et al.
Leksikon fjn der naaier Iidiier literatuur. New York, 1956 ff.
 INDEX TO THE BIBLIOGRAPHY

The numbers referring to each authors writings are arranged chronologically.

Aalto, P. 892 Benyovsky, K. 329

Aaznstat, S. [AizenJtat, S.] 227 Beranek, F.J. 240, 242, 742, 245, 6 ^
Abelson, P. 301 404, 1047, 548, 760, 761, 169, 762,
Abramovil [Abramowjcz], D. 999,1013 73. 254. 980, 257, 048, 103! !75,
Adam, M. 595a ?59! 4s 435, 1A 12!410 ,262 , gHg,
Aemilius, P. 419 180, 268, 1055, 20j 279
Alloni [Allony], M. 132 Bergman, P.M. 365
Altbauer, M. 119a, 121a, 132, 651 Bergmann, fcL 14
Althaus, HiL 899, 359, 900, 67! 13^ Bemfeld, J. 581
651,901,653,793,794,811,364* 463, Bernstain, M.V. [Bernstein, M.W.]
924, 828, 1060, 446, 658, 850 406, 409
Amitai, M. 44a Bernstein, L [Bernstain, y 462
A-n. D. 509 Best, O.F. 22
Ariel, S.Z. 969 Bihari, J. 136, 851
Aronius, J. 387 Biirnboim, N. see Birnbaum, N.
Ave-Lallemant, F.Ch.B. 612 Biirnboim, S.U./Birnbaum, S.A. 214,
Avneri, Z. 331 215a, 474, 616a, 617, 1036, 686, 80,
Ayalti, H X 929 391a, 487, LL51 5h 151, 191, 695, y ,
55 704, 705, 241 ,56 S4, 216, 964,
Bach, A. 402 2^26,28, 1g2, !93, 711, 27, 58, 156,
Bach, ILL 858 201, 202* 5$j 152j 33, 43*. 43158 ,,
Bailin, S. [Beilin, S.] 191a 239>, 7 *6, LS9 . 890, 524, 727 526,
Bamberger, M.L. 692 632, 161, 204, 337, 6i 162, 205,633,
Bartsch, K. 571 740, 217, 206, 222, 172, 210, 638,756,
Bastomski, S. 918 894, 776, 434. 553, 39! 44. 529. 44.
Bauer, E. 787 654, 800, 655, 41, 825, 42j 837,
Baviskar, V.L. sec Lockwood Baviskar 291a, 878
Beck, E.T. 1007 Bilecki, Y.H. [l.H. Biletzki]. 657a
Beem, H. 251, 498, 552a, 783, 362, Bin-Nun, J. see Fischer, J.
374a,909 Birnbaum, L 41
Beilin, S. see Bailin, S. Birnbaum, N. & 5j <>121 ?! 2! ?1 I i
Beim, H. see Beem, H. ii 14a, 14b, 460, 6S1a
Beltz, W. 836 Bisko, A.L. 297a
Ben-Ijjdy-Geirsn 836a Blanc, H. 122, 895, 902
B61-Jjri, [Benury], A. 331 Blau, R. 489
 381 Index to the Bibliography

Bloch, A. 312, 481 Cemerinski [Tchemerinski], M. 142a

Bloomgarden, Y.S. [Blumgarten, I.S.]
see Iyhoiys Dalman, G.H. 453
B-n, L. 508 Dauzat, A. 750
Boor, H.A.W. de 560 Dawidowicz, L. 788
Borochov, B., see Buurexov, B. Debri, S. 324, 332
Boesch, B. 568 Decsy, Gy. 847a
Boeschenstein, J. 594 Dembitzer, S. 461
Botwinik, B. 470 Derczanski, A. 276, 802
Bourgeois, H. 78 D[ieffenbach], L. 879, 880
Blumyntal [Blumental], N. 350 Dinse, H- 1017
Bratkowsky, J.G. 185, 187 Dobschutz, A. 215
Brin man, J.R. 717a Doroshkin, M. 830
Bruckner, W. 908 Drecssen, W.O. 447, 587, 389, 1020,
Brull, N. 667 1021, 1061, 382
Buchwald, N. 955 Dreifuss, E.M. 334
Buurexov [Borochov], B. 190, 538,618, Ducnsing, H. 693
1037
Buxtorf, J. 597 Eckart, R. 994
Edelmann [Aidlman], R. 361
Cahan, J.L. sec Kahan, I.L. Efroikin [Jcfroykin], L 35
Caitlin [Zeitlin], A. 728 Ehrenkranz [Zbaryier], V. 458
Caliebe, M. 801, 834, 838, 839, 584, EichhofT, J. 841
852, 53 854, 870, 1031 Eis, G. 744
Callenberg, W.Ch.J. 605, 232, 661 Eisenstadt, S. see Aaznstat, S.
Calvor, C. 601 Elbogen, j. 301
Carles, J. 767, 562 Elzit, I[Y] 895a
Chajes, S. 968a Engel, L ig
Charney, S. sec Niger, S. Epstein, J. 18
Chrysander, W.Ch.J. 607, 661 Epstain [Epstein], G. 322
Cinberg [Zinberg], L 965. 969. 74* Epstain [Epsztajn], N. 925a
Cjkerman, R. see Zuckerman, R. Erdb^rg, S. 29
Qyne, M. 840 Erik, M. [Merkin, Z.] 539, 959, 962
Cohen, D. 829
Colditz, S. 784, io^j 575 Faan, X. 509
Cooper, R.L. 827 Faanman [Fineman], H. 361a
Cooperman, fcL 990 Faber, C.W. 225
Copeland, R.M. 247 Fagius, P. 594a
Cuno, K. 413, 583, 416, 586, 418 Falk, F. 536, 536a, 525, 556
ami, S. see Niger, S. Falkovid, E. 97, 69
 38a Index to the Bibliography

Feinsilver, L.M. 372, 378a Garvin, P.L. 270

Feist, S. 694 Gaster, M. 270
Fiebig, P. 304, 477, 478 Gerhardt, Ch. 997
Fineman, tL see Faanman, tL Gerhardt, D. 752
Fischer [Bin-Nun], J. 60, 61, 122b, 62 Gerzon, J. 114
Fishman, D.E. 855 Ginneken, J.J.A. van. 47, 16, 689
Fisman, 1 A. [S] [Fishman, J.A.] 218, Gininger, X. [Ginninger, Ch.] 490,
269, 1056, 827, 210d, 211, 855, 860, 7*5. 729. 635 20Q! 344753 .639 .&54
871 Ginsburger, M. 888
Fjjerman [Fuhrman], L 374a Ginzburg, S. 913
Fleiss, P.M. 143 Glikl Hamyl 505
Forster, L. 768 Gold, D.L. 373b, 373c, 290b, 847b,
Fourquet, J. 552 855a, 3721 2na
Fowkes, R.A. 745 Goldberg, L 920
Frank, J.L. 500 Goldsmith, E.S. 44
Frankel 671 Goldsmith, S. see Goldsmit,
Fraenkel, J. see Frinkl, L Goldstick, D. 929
Fraenkel, M. 414 Goldsmit, S. [Goldsmith, S.] 814
Freehof, S.B. 957 Goldvaser [Goldwasser], MJL 538a,
Frcimann, A. 331 581a, 108a
Freimark, P. 878a Golomb, C.N. 295
Frdnkl, L 812 Gordon Mlotek, E. 932, 937
Freschi, M. 861 Gotze, A. 734
Fridberg, M.X. 130, 133 Graubard, D. 348
Friderichs, T. 590 Green, E. 649
Friedlander-Bloch, B. 488, 497 Griinbaum, M. 422
Fridman, L. 676 Griinsfeld, J. 329
Fridman, S. [Frydman, S.] see Baikov- Grunwald, M. 455
ski, Z. Griinwald, M. 1, 384
Fridrich, R.W. 609 Giidemann, M. 140, 141, 424
Fromm, L 554 Guggenheim-Griinberg, F. 246, 349,
Fromme, G.K. 881 754^< 7. 70, 764. 25^, 260,263,4 ,
Frydman, S. see Saikovski, Z. 274, 795. 280, 290, 856, 862, 1022,
Fuhrman, L see Fjjerman, L 380
Fuks, L. 976a, 976b, 544,545,432,991, Gutman, T. 232, 153, 154
572, 1032
Haalpem [Halpem], L 338
Galinsky, H! 893 Habersaat, K. 1040, 1043, 1045, 770,
Gans, S. 691, 696 777, 1049, 1051, 1052, 1053, 1054,
Ganz, P.F. 763, 550, 769, 563, 440 1057, 1058, 1059
Gartner, T. 457, 885 Hagen, F.H. von der 854
 383 Index to the Bibliography

Haines, J.L. 188 Janssens, H, 771

Hakel, tL 996 Jefraykin, L see Efroikin, L
Hakkarainen, H.J. 444 Jellinek, M.H. 672
Hall, R.M.R. 1126 Jcshurin, Y.A. see Iysjjrin, I.A.
- and B. Hall 107a Jnger, M. [Unger, M.] 632b, 366a
Halter, E. 228 Jochnowitz, G. 656
Harkavi [Harkavy], A. 326, 195, $2 Jofen, J.B. 249, 252, 265
Hccht, G. 949 Joffe, J.A. see Iufy, LA.
Heide, M.G. 186, 189
Heiske, W. 936 Kac, A. [Katz, IJ 379a
Heifer, N. 490 Kagarov, L 85, 89, 91
Helicz, P. 59s Kahan, LL* [Cahan, J.L.] 506, 515,
Herzog, M. 264, 105, 22^ 282 9 2 I 520. 925. 927. 930
Hezquni, M. 643 Kahan Newman, Z. 382a
Hirschberg, M. 588 Kalmanovid [Kalmanowicz], Z. 233,
Hodes, Ph. 871a 96, 334
Horovic [Horowitz], P. 321, 321a Kaplowitt, S.J. 577
Horowitz, Z. 321b Kara, L 534a
Howard, J.A. 1013a Karo [Krupnik], B. 969
Hruby, K. 842, 863 Katz, L see Kac, A
Hrushovski, B. 640 Katz, E. 438
Hubbell, F. 746 Kaufmann, D. 535
Hurvic [Hurwitz], M. 219 Kaufmann, F.M. 13a, 12, 915, 484
Hutterer, C.J. 898, 357, 272, 277, 283, Kayfetz, B.G. see Xaifyc, B.G.
74a Kazdan, X.S. [Ch.S.] 743, 635a, 642,
129
Iakobson [Jakobson], R. 166 Kessler, G. 400
Iufy, I.A. [Joffe, J.A.] 2t2, 117, 240a, King, R.D. 831
244, 208a, 242j i o i c , 253, 353, 355, Kisch, L 816
104a, 903 Kislhof [Kisselgoff], Z. 471
Iufyn, L see Jofen, J.B. Kloss, fcL 708, 712, 748, 65
lvid, P. 815 Knaani, D. 969
Iyhoiys [Blumgartn, I S./Bloomgarden, Knott, J.W. 261
Y.S.] 292 Koch, J.M. 600
Iysjjrin, I.A. [Jcshurin, Y.A.] 1059a Kogos, F. 366
Kohn, C. 910
Jacob, (B.) 309 Koller, A. 697
Jakobson, R. see Iakobson, R. Korman, B. 1j
Janda, E. 501 Kosover, M. 239, 338, 352a, 934, 134
Janke, J. 1005 Kovacs, L. 163
Janssen, J.L. 905 Kozlowski, H, 281, 817
 384 !dex to the Bibliography

Kracauer, L 390 Lifsic, L [Lifschiitz, E.]

Kraus, D.L. see Krous, D.L. Lifschiitz, E. see Lifsic, L
Krauss, S, 466, 706 ,0! Lind, L 543
Kroes, H.W.J. 7 7 9 Lindgren, K.B. 843
Krous, D.L. 290b Liptzin, S. 988, 1010
Kruger, P. 701 Lockwood, W.B. 439, 68
Krupin, N. 126a Lockwood Baviskar, V. lit, 378
Krupnik, B. 969 Lotze, fcL 942
Lotzsch, R. 139
Lai Me, tL 305, 479 Loewe, H, n , 45, 49, 51, 311, 482
Lamb, M. 374c Loewe, R. 46! 674
Lamm, L. 386 Lowenstein, L. 388
Landau, A. 76, 1034, 535b, 1035, 673, Lowenstein, S. 284, 375
425, 298, ul8 Lowinger, D.S. 1041
Landau, L. 426, 427, 540, 429 Lubarski i _l6
Landmann, S. 66,856a Lun, L. 778
Landy, A. see Landau, A. Lunski, X. [Lunski, Ch.] 510, 511
Laris, R. 889 Liitke, J.P. 606
Lazerson [Laserson], M. 401a
Lauer, Ch. 318 Maas, H. 872
Lebrecht, Ph.N. 603 Madcr, F. 844
Lector Publicus see Selig, G. Madison, Ch.A. 1000, 1027a
Lehman, S. see L&man, S. Maianski, A.M. see Podolski, A.M.
Leibl, D. 652 Maitlis/Meitlis, J.J. See Maatlis, LL
Leibowitz, N. 626 Maatlis, LL [Maitlis, J.J.] 819,935,970,
Leitzmann, A. 428 981, 987a, 1006, 1023
Livnbrg [Levenberg], S. 818 Mandel, A. 278
Ltivnstain, S. see Lowenstain, S. Mansch, Ph. 614
Lemchenas, Ch. 136a Maor, H, 765
Lsinski, L 724a, 739 Marchand, J.W. 780, 648, 557, 437
Levenberg, S. see Liivenberg, S. Marek, P. 913
Lvin, L [Lewin, J.] 197 Mark, L/Y. 213a, 82, iq8, q6, 330,
Levin, I.L. [J.L.] 128 97*19797 <c19?! 2 5. 2, 6*22 <22 i
Levinski 243 99a, 207, 636, 99b, 164, 101a, 344b,
Levy, E.-H. 299, 622 344c, ioid, 346, 101e, 123! 10f
Levy, P. 231, 237, 407 ioig, 127, ioih, 127,210a, 103a, 355J
Lewin, J. see Levin, L 103b, 130a, 357a, 357b, 826,139a
Lewy, tL 226 Mark, M. 351
Liberman, X. [Liebertnan, Ch.] 654a Marwedel, G. 1024, 876
Lichtenstein, U, 391 Matenko, P. 445
 385 Index to the Bibliography

Matisof, Di.A. [Matisoff, J.A.] 659 Palmieri, F. 1015

Mehring, Sie,. 472 Paper, H.H. 755
Mehring, Sig. 472 Parker, S. 848
Meisel, N. 967 Paucker, A. 982, 983, 984, 985, 821
Meisinger, O. 384, 294, 669, 886 Paul, O. 736
Meiss, H.M. 475, 229 Perkal, E. 348
Melzer, F. 844a Perles, F. 313, 483, 620, 314, 690, 54
Menhardt, H 558 Perles, J. 613, 535a
Merkin, Z. see Erik, M. Petsch, R. 953
Meyer-Benfrey, fcL 57 Pfeiffer, A. 597a
Miedel, F. 389 Pfrimmer, A. 258
Mieses, M. 15, 83, 30a Philoglottus see Liitke, J.P.
Mieses, R. 230 Pines, M.J. 945, 946, 949
Milner, Ch. 499 Pipy, E. [Pipe, O.] 523
Minkoff, N.B. 977 Pipy, S. Z. [Pipe, S.Z.] 523, 926, 928
Miron, D. 1014 Piquet, F. 948
Moller, M.Ch. 598 Piroinikov, L 914
Moses, L. Plessner, M. 707
Muller, HJ_. 593 Podolski, A.M. 718
Murdoch, B. 832, 1011 Polak, Jz., J.E. 302, 698
Poll, S. 792
Nadel, A. 916, 487 Porges, N. 467, 316, 319, 699
Nascher, E. 296 Prager, L. 1003
Neher, A.A. 368 Prampolini, G. 986
Neumann, fcL 174 Prilucki [Pryhicki, Prilutzki], N. 505a,
Neumann, R. 785 507,146,619,149,150,320, LS?! 323.
Niedermeyer, fcL 442 623, 625,160, 94, 120! 335, 336, 401,
Niger, S. 947, 947a, 33! 975977 ,<. 730
757, 1047a, 896, 981a Protze, fcL 864
Nobl, S. [Noble, Sh.] 341^ 634, 749,
354. 360. 272 Raizin [Reisen, Rejzen], Z. 954, 8r, 84,
Norman, F. 547, 772, 563, 440 86,960, go! 92, 328, 966a, 966b, 968,
Notzold, F. 50 332a, 719, 95
Rak, S. 851
OlSvanger, L 485, 491, 496, 486 Rapp, E.L. 344
Opatosu, L [Opatoshu, J.] 978 Rauh, U. 578
Opaz, T. 416a Rayfield, J. 906
Oppenheimer, E.C.F. 604 R6e, A. 662
Ostrin, A. 911 Rein, K. 803, 804
OttTN.H. 877 Reisen, S. see Raizin, Z.
 386 Index 10 the Bibliography

Rcisncr, Y.J. 912 Schiff, A. 332

Ringibljm, I. [Ringelblum, E.] 625a Schipper, L see Siper, L
Rivkind, I. 516, 517, 349a Schlapfer, A. 874
Rivlin, S. 322 Schmidt, iL 733
Robak [Roback], A.A. 708, 1039, 974, Schmidt, J.F. 599
975, 216b, 22!, 223*. 979. 789 Schnitzler, L. 275
Robinson, L [J.] 138a, 1026 Schramm, G. 773
Roll, W. 443, 183, 796, 797, 805, 997, Schrdbler, L 781, 799, 806
822, 823, 833, 579, 1061, 845, 857, Schudt, J.J. 421, 602
1018,449,660,865,1025,1025a, 112, Schuler, M. 430
873, 1028, 592 Schulman, E. 944
Rome, D. 41a Schulmann, E. see Sulman, E.
Roach, J. 827 Schwab, M. 950
Rosenberg, F. 423 Schwartz, R.B. 369
Rosenfeld, iL 559, 566 Schwarz, L 490
Rosenfeld, M. 456 Schwarz, W. 774, 563, 440, 580, 995
Rosiys [Roskies], D.H. 659a, 1026 Schwob, M. 537
Roth, E. 557a Segal, H. 490
R02anski, . [Rollansky, S.] 1003a Selig, G. 608, 610
Rubasov [Rubashov], S.Z. see azar, Shatzky, J. see Sacki, L
S.Z. Shazar, Sh.Z. see Sazar, S.Z.
Rubin, L 891 Sheskin, H. see Seskin
Rubin, R. 931 Shmeruk, Ch. see Smeruk/Smcruq
Rubstain [Rubstein], B. 685, 21 Silberstein, S. 325
Rudolph, W. 747 Silverman Weinreich, B. 933, 1048,
Ruxkind, S. 336a 938, 939. 379b
Sirat, C. 567
Sadan, D. 350, 986a, 564, 565, 573 Sloan, S. 495
Sadock, J.M. 658a Smith, J.Ch. 582
Sainan/aineanu [Sain/Schein], L. Soltes, M. 703a
615, 616 Sotec, J. 458,459
Salfeld, S. 385 Spangenberg, K. 907
Samet, L. see Zamyt, L. Spielrein, L see Spiilrain, L
Samuel, M. 43 Spitzer, L. 45! ,]
Sand, LZs 352, 551, 133, 574 Spivak, X.C.D. 222
Sapir, E. 145 Sprecher, M.K. 501
Sartorius, E. 677 Staackmann, K. 571
Schaechter, M. sec &xter, M. Stalek, R. 236
Schade, E. 596 Stankiewicz, E. 412, 415, 866
Schatz, J. 670 Starievski, A. 253
 387 Index to the Bibliography

Staerk, W. 538a, 428, 700, 512 Starkman [Starkman], M. 241

Steinbaum, J. see Stainboim, L Stfck, V. see Staerk, W.
Steinberg, M. 495 Stif,N. 951,687,20,1403,956,22,958,
Steinschneider, M. 940,383a, 663,666 3*5. 5*3. 541, 709 966, 330a
Stern, H.R. 857a
Stern, W. 417 Taglicht, I-Ch. see Taglixt, I-X.
Stopp, fcL 808 Taglixt, UL 332, 519
Strack, H.L. 678, 303, 476 Tambur, V. [Tambur, W.] 376a
Studkov, N. 343 Taubes, J.S. see Toubys, I.S.
Stutchkoff, N. see Studkov, N. Taubes, L. see Toubys, L.
Siisskind, N. see Ziiskind, N. Taviov, I.H. 115a
Symons, B. 568 Tendlau, A.M. 452
Szajkowsky, Z. see Saikovski, Z. Tenenbaum, L see Tenynboim, L
Sacki, L [Shatzky, J.] 961, 578, 717, Tdnynboim, L 766
724, 628 Thiel, E.J. 549
Saikovski [Szajkowski], Z. 731, 790, Thieme, S. 322
2 I0 C Thiessen, J. 849
$iineanu, L. see Sainean, L. Tikocynski, fcL 331
Sapiiro, M. 289 Timm, E. 450, 1061, 591
Sazar, S.Z. [Shazar/Rubashov, Sh.Z.] Toubys, I.S. [Taubes, J.S.] 36
533 Toubys [Taubes], L. 923
S&kin, X. 375a Trietsch, Davis 675, 688
Sexter [Schaechter], M. ioo, !or, 101a, Trost, P. 782, 436, 987, 561, 569, 181,
405, 788a, 788b, 657,657c, 288,657c, 835
211, 846, 376, 381, 877 Tubach, F.C. 437
Siper, L [Schipper, y 624, 972, 973, Turnianski, IL 585
542
Skliar, fcL 366a Ueda, K. 108, 74b, 504a
Slosberg [Szlosberg, Schlossberg], B. Unger, M. see Jnger, M.
199, 720
Smeruk, X. [Smeruq, R , Shmeruk, Ch.] Vaanbcrg [Weinberg], M. gg
:050, 527, 530, 993, 532, 998, 996, Vaaner, L. 924
1004, 1009, 1027, 1029, 1032a, 1062, Vaanraax, J. [Weinreich, U.] 165,101b,
877b 248, 751, 641, 758, 1046, 124, 168,
Spicer, L. see Spitzer, L. 645, 645a, 647, 650, 266, 211 367.
Spiilrain [Spielrein], L 307, 147, 480, 106a, 72
23a Vaanraax [Weinreich], M. 621, 191b,
Spiim, C. 234, 922 514, 1038, 963, 200, 627, 713, 715,
Stainbrg, L 122b 721,714,629,630,631,203a, 32,62a,
Stainboint, L [Steinbaum, J.] 113 632a, 121, 342, 208, 343, 344a, 32,
 388 Index to the Bibliography

250, 640a, 640b, 12jj 126! 171, 102, Weissberg, J. 179, 1012,659b, 868,875
644, 210b, 646, 174a, 555, 565a, 273, Weissberg, M. 469
40. 363. 373a. *46, 846b, 867 Weissenberg, S. [Vaasnberg, S.] 468,
Vaanrib, B.S. sec Weinryb, B.S. 680,300,396
Vaas, S.D. (Weiss, S.] 184a Wertheimer, . see Helyn, .
Vaasnberg, S. see Weissenberg, S. Wexler, P. 131! 138
Vanvild [Wanwild], M. 919 Wiener, L. 75, M3, 882, 883, 456
V&rthamer, . see Helyn, . Wiener, M. see Viiner, M.
Vinger [Weinger], M. 79, 144, 190a, Wilenkin, L. see Vilenkin, L.
238 Wilier, J. see Viler, I.
Veviorky, A, 191c Winter, S. see Vinter, S.
Viiner [Wiener], M. 976 Wisniewski, R. 565a
Vilenkin [Wilenkin], L. 238 Wisse, R.R. 1008
Viler, L [Wilier, J.] 152a, 87 Wohlgemuth, J. 50, 306
Vinter, S. [Winter, S.] 397 Wolf, M. see Volf, M.L.
Volf, M.L. [Wolf, M.] 291 Wolf, S.A. 759, 775. 77. 356, 448,
Vollmer, J. 432 869
Voorzanger, J.L. 302 Wolf Beranek, IL 286
Worscht, M. 451
Wagenseil, J.Ch. 420 Wyler, B. 809
Wagner, J.M. 664, 665
Wanwild, M. see Vanvild, M. Xaaiys, S. [Chajes, S.] 968a, 399
Waxman, M. 971 Xaifyc ]Kayfetz], B.G. 2040
Weigl, J. 679
Weik, F. 887 Yehoash see Iyhoiys
Weill, E. 315, 317
Weinberg, M. see Vaanb6rg Zalkind, Y.M. 297a
Weinberg, W. 358, 370 Zamyt [Samet], L. 403, 105a
Weinelt, fcL 737 Zand, M. 904
Weiner, L. see Vaancr, L. Zar&ki, A. 88, 93
Wcingarten, J.A. 377 Zbaiyfer, V. see Ehrenkranz, W.
Weinger, M. see Venger, M. Zeitlin, A. see Caitlin, A.
Weinreich, B. see Silverman Wcin- Ziiskind [Susskind], N. 722, 570, 657a
rekh, B. Zinberg, L sec Cinberg, L
Weinreich, M. see Vaanraax, M. Zivy, A. 267, 53
Weinreich, U. sec Vaanraax, J. Zohn, H !033
Weinryb, B.S. 710, 1041, 531 Zuckerman [Cjkerman], R. 287
Weiss, C.Th. 224 Zunz, L. 611, 383
Weiss, S. see Vaas, S.D. Zirmunski, V. 726,738
 GENERAL INDEX

Abbreviations xv As/Asch/Ash
Abramovitch, Sh.Y. 26, 125 Asceticism 2g
Accent system, Ashkenazic 65 Aschcr Leb 161
Aemilius, P. 46 Asher Anshel b. Joseph 169
Africa 15 Ashkenaz 60n
Africa, North g Ashkenazim, East-/West-11,16,17,60n
Age criteria: practical 44^ psychological Asia 15
45, linguistic 462 sociological 52 Aspects, verbal 153, 258, 269
Agriculture 1j Assimilation 25
Aibiker ltd, Der vjj Assimilationists 11
Ainhoom/Ajnhom, D. 182 Atatiirk, K. 14
Amitams relathiteitts-teoriy 184 Auerbach, S. 163
Akffdys Iuxyk 152 Augsburg 46
Alemannic 7, 55, 56 Austria 16
Algymamy Enciklopediy 182 Austria-Hungary qjn
Alphabet g, 13, 138 Avroom oviittu 146
Alsace 34,35, 165 Azoi hot ys zex uun gykoibn 187
Amphibrach 65
Amsterdam 162. 164 Bach 171
Analogy 88 Baden 165
Anapaest 65 Baghdad 121
'Ancient treasures 11 Bahya 174
Andalusia 7 Balkans 16
Anglo-Saxon 11 Baltic countries 22
Anshel Levi 152 Barditchever, L. L 2?
Anti-traditionalism 25 Baruch b. Isaac 149
Arabic language !2 Bavaria 16
Arabic, Maghrebinian j Bavlic 121
Arabic script 9, 2 Bayis Khudosh 131
Arabo-Turkish script 9 Bendit 161
Aramic, East/West 15, 60, 66 Benjamin Altorf 161
Aramic clement in Yiddish 13, 2$ Berberic 15
Archaisms 10 Berdytchev 152
Archives Nationales (Paris) 119 Bergen-Belsen 187
Armenia 15 Berlin 182, 184
Armenian crypto-Jew 24 [Berlin: Staatsbibliothek] 116,122,151,
Arvic 15 LS?
 390 General Index

Bernstein, L vii Bytuxn 182

Bessarabia 17 Byzantine Jews 16
Bialik, Ch.N. 180 Byzantium if
Bible: i^j 5i concordance 169; recita-
tion 60; translations 63, 120. 154 Cabbala 66
Biblical books: Sam. 46, Ruth 120, Ps. CaitIin 173
i i q , 151, 1S2, 162, 170, Prov. n g Cambridge Manuscript, The 106, 109n
Bibliotheque Nationale 115-118, 149, Cambridge: University Library 114,
L52 11S, n6. 117, 118, 120, 138
Biimyn 161 Canada 17
Bilder fjn der Iidiier literatuurgyiixty Carpathians 17
185 Carpatho-Russia: see Ruthenia
Bioxemiy 187 Carpatho-Ukraine: see Ruthenia
Birnbaum, L viii Casimir 169
Black Death: 3^ 55; persecutions 55 Caspian Sea 16
Black Sea 16 Catalan 78
Blacks 4 Catalanic 15, 12fl
Bljmgartn, I.S./Bloomgarden, J.S. 178 Caucasus 15
Bodleian Library 114-20, 122, 158 Cdnereny 171
Bogylain 161 Central German element 1
Bohemia L 12! 331 35 Central Yiddish 96! 166
Bollag, E. 164 Chassidim 17, 26. 36, 81
Bologna inj Christian, Christians 12. 13, 14, 6, 76
Borchling, C. 39 Ci iz miiglex a fonitiier ous-laig far der
Boston 176 Itdiier literariier iprax ? L&1
Bovo dAntona 161 Cj afolkistUer baviigung 185
Brasiav/Braslyv 172 Class vi
Braunschweig, D. 164 Clermont-Tonnerre 35
Breslau: City Library 170 Ousters 220
Bucharic language 15 Cockney 6
Bucovina 37 Cologne: Archiv der Stadt Koln 113,
Biieberl 161 S> 15 2

Buld 161 Components 82n

Buovo dAntona 158 Conference on behalf of Yiddish, The
Burgenland 168 32
Byelo-Russia ^ 22! 541 Si Conservatism 10
Byelo-Russian element 78 Constantinople 120, 121
Byman 161n Corrupted language 5
Byt hds 171 Court documents 153,155, 16g, 171
Byt Ycqb 198 Cracow 18
 39! General Index

Creolized languages !2 East Aramic 15

Crimchak 15 East Ashkenazim: ^ 16, 81; cultural
Crimea y structure 18; social structure 1J
Croatian language 13 East Rome 16
Croats 41 East Yiddish 24! 5!! 96, 169
Crusades 23 Eastern Europe 15, 16, 36, 80
Crypto-Jews 24 Eastern Jews 16
Cultural autonomy 19 Efroikin, L 1S1
Cyrillic script 13 Egypt *5
Czech: language 41^ 78; element 77!29 Einhorn, D': see Ainhoorn, D.
Czemowitz 33 Einstein, A. 184
Elbe 22
Dacians 4 Elia Levita 158, 161
Dactylus 65 Elijah 28
Danube 16 Emancipation 12
Dead Sea Scrolls: sec Qumran Scrolls Endingen 164
Denmark 24 England 29
Dental accretion 56 English language 2! 4 5?! 79
Dcvanagari script !2 Enlightenment 34, 29! 198
Dialect 6 Epic 46! 47! 48! 49
Dialect map of Yiddish 95 Essays 170, 181, 185
Dialect, Northern/Southern S4. SS, 97, sterky 182
58, 99j 100, 101. m2 Estonian language 17
Dialect, Silesian German 76n Europe, Eastern/Western 24
Dialect statistics of Yiddish 99
Dialect table of Yiddish Phonology im Falk, F. vii
Dialects 94 Farmers 17
Dialects, Names of 97n Fariaat Haabl, A 182
Disturs 164 Far vuus hobn nist Litviiy Iidn dym
Divine: names 28j services ifi naitrabt mint ? 185
Doctoral theses 29 Fiider, Z. 183
Double U/waw/yodh 112 Fiction 172, 17S, 176, !70, 181, 182
Drama 177 Fiderholc/Fiderholcz 153
Dravidian languages 15 Finnish Gulf 16
Dreessen, W.-O. 1^7 F10rian6w 171
Dress 17,22 Folksongs 22, 42,42,445 4S
Durmenach 165 Fraand, Der 182
Dutch language 4, 6, 41, 78 France 22! &
Didezmu/Didy6 7. 10. 11, !4, is, Franco-German 8
12a Franconia 25
 392 General Index

Frankfort/M 114 Great Britain 12

Fremder, Der 177 Greco-Turkish 9
French language 4, 8. 11, 14, 65 Greece 15
French, Medieval 142 Greek language 4J, 53
Greek-Latin element 28
Galicia lj! 32 Group-forming factor 13
Gallo-Larin 8 Griinbaum, M. vii
Galxys 46! 107n Griinwald, M. vii
Gauls 4 Giidemann, M. vii
Gemara 13 Gurjic 15
Genocide 41 Gydaxt 181
Geographical factor (in the develop- Gyklibyny dixtungyn 182
ment of Yiddish) L2 Gyzamlty liider 178
Geometry 184 Gyzamlty liider 182
Georgia 15
German Jews 1_2 Haggada L22
German language 67 .66 ,56 ,55 ,8 . Ha-maggid 170
German, Low 6, j i Ha-mavdil 158
German, Middle High: 63j 62! 106j Hamburg 6, 33, 39
108n; connections with Yiddish 51- Hamburg: Staats- und Universitats-
54i spelling m bibliothek 114, n 6 , 156
German philologists 207 Hanna b. R$$zyl/Resel 167
German spelling in Yiddish 198 Harkavy, A. vii
German/Germanic element of Yiddish Hebrew alphabet 197n2, 198-99
58, 60. 66 Hebrew, Ashkenazic 60
German element in Yiddish, New High Hebrew element in Yiddish 13, S9. 79
29J&1 Hebrew language 14, 26n, 34, 36
Germanization 79 Hebrew language, Medieval 59
Germanisms 80 Hebrew palaeography 67
Germany Hebrew script 167 ,8,
56, 52j 60n, 76. 106. 122 Hebrew script, Ashkenazic type 197n3
Gerschel, P. 165 Hebrew vowel signs 214
Gerzon, J. vii Hellas 26
Ghetto 12,18 Hellenic if
Ginninger, Ch. vii Heller, P. 161
Ginsburg, M. vii H&icly Kirchhaan 163
Glosses i4q, isi, 1<; Hertz, N. 172
Goc/Gotz 159 Hesse 35, 163n
Gothic script HeSeq Selomo L20
Grammarian 158 Hindi 13
 393 General Index

Hindu 13 Japanese language 3

Historily Sriftn fjn ltdiin VimiaftUxnJargon 6, 32
Institut 175 Jerusalem: Jewish National and Uni-
Hitler 42 versify Library 11;, 149
Holocaust 42 Jerusalem: S. D. Sassoon 122
Hoschel/Hosyl 161 Jewish language Q, rj
Hostility to Yiddish 32 Jewish linguistics 14
Htebrnt hlbbwt 174 Jewish ,particularity 34
Hungarian: language 2& Jewry 1j_ Jewish persuasion, Germans of the 35
Hungary 17 Jewish Theological Seminary of Amer-
ica n8, 121
Iambus 65 Joel Serkes b. Samuel Jalfe 171
Iberian Peninsula 15 Joffe, J.A. vii
Ichenhausen 162 Joseph b. Moses 113
lidii jn xsiidii 186 Joseph b. Yakar 162
Ifdiikait jn luuSn 202n2 Joseph Mordecai b. Gcrshon 169
Imber, S.I. 182 Joy in religion 2Q
Immigrants language 52 Judaism 22j 25, 34
In iap 176 Judaeo-Arabic: see Bavlic, Temanic
In vald 181 Judaeo-Arabic, Mahxebinian: see
India 13 Maaravic
Indo-European languages 15 Judaeo-Catalan: see Catalanic
Indo-European element in Yiddish 198 Judaeo-French: see Zarphatic
Infinitive, Absolute gz Judaeo-German 8
Ingolstadt 46 Judaeo-Latin: see Latinic
Innsbruck: Landesregierungsarchiv 155 Judaeo-Persian: see Parsic
loslin Vicnhauzyn 162 Judaeo-Spanish 8, and see Diidezmu/
louxynyn Roufy 164 Didy6
Iranian languages 1^ Judah b. Abraham 175
Isny 161
Isolation 85 Kahanovil/Kahanowitch, P. 181
Israel Baal-Shem 26, 28 Kalmanovid/Kalmanowicz, Z. 181
Israel Isserlin b. Petahiah m , 114 Karaite languages 15
Istanbul. See Constantinople Karlsruhe: Badische Landesbibliothek
Italkian language 12, 13, 116. 11Q
151
it^y 32! 34 Kazimierz 169
lyhoiyi 178 Klinigsberg, D. 184
Ketubat hatTora 12a
Jacob b. Isaac Ashkenazi 170, 171 Khazar empire 16
Jaffe, J.: see Joel Serkes Kiev 16, 24
 394 General Index

Kirchhaan/Kirchhain 163 Lithuanian language 22

Konigsberg, D. 184 Lithuanians 17
Koouzmer 169 Liturgy sg
Koran 13 Loan words 58, 80
Ksav min kol korys hahakozy vehav- Lombardy 153
ridin 152 London: British Library 114, 115, 6 ,
Kuuzxnark 169 t!7, 118. 1i <k 121,153
London: University viii, 40
Ladino 67 Lorch, M. 161
Landau, A. vii, 166 Loutynslager 161
Landau, L. vii Lublin 170
Landau, R. 167 Lucerna, M. 166
Language t, 8? 13 Luthers German 67
Language: loyalty y j nationalists 11; Lviv 175
nationalism 36
Larin 4! 59! *Hi 1*1 142 Maaravic 7, 12, 1$
Latinic 67, 109, 142 Maasy my-ks-hvy biitkrs 1 2
Lauttenschlaher 161 Magyars 16
Leftwich, J. vii Maier, D. 165
Leghorn 120. 122 Maitlis, J. J. vii
Lehman, J./Liman, L 184 Maltese language 13
Leipsic: Universitatsbibliothek 151 Man: see Mlndyl
Lemberg 175 Mantua ng
Lemgnau 164 Maor Katan 166
Length opposition of vowels 220 Marek, P. vii
Leningrad: Publichnaya Biblioteka 121 Mark, I/Y. vii
Lettish language 79 Mashait 195
Lera 17 Mattersburg/Mattersdorf 168
Leqe! hayYoSer 113 Maximilian, Emperor 156
Leqet hazZohar 120 Meam loez 120
Letters 27,155, 159, 170 Medicine 152
Levi Isaac Barditchever 30 Mediterranean countries 7, 15
Litby 179 Mendaly Moixer Sfuurym/Mendele
Linguistics 46, 185 Moicher Sfurim 26! 175
Lintz, Z. 167 Mendyl 159
Literature, Modem Hebrew 25 Mergam/Meriam 161
Literature, Rabbinic 66 Mesopotamia 15, 121
Literature, Traditional Yiddish 2^ 80 Meyer-Benfey, IL 33
Literature, Yiddish 23, 25 Middle High German: see German
Lithuania 17, 33, 54, 55 Migration n , 33, 34
 39$ General Index

Minsk 179 Old Yiddish: 106, 108* 109, 146-1

Miriam b. Moses 166 spelling system ioq, 109n6
Mishna 13 Olsvanger/Olsvanger, E. 184
Mixed languages 3 Ooser br Iuudy 161
Moldavia 17 Opatoshu/Opatosu/Opatovski, J. 183
Mposy Loutynslagcr 161 Oriental Jews 16! 65
Moosy Niirbek 161
Moravia 16! 17, 33, 35, 168 Palestine 15, 117
Morphology 53! 54! 55! 24! 251 Peirye, I.L. 176
Mosche Lorch 161 Penultimate 65
Mosse Lauttenschlaher 161 Peretz, J.L. 176
Mrkbt hmsnh Iqamqardsym 169 Persia 15
Miillheim 165 Persian language 3} 4, 8, 9
Munich 6j 15^ Philosophy 174
Munich: Bayerische Nationalbibliothek Phoneme inventory 218
t 1 ; Bayerisches Hauptstaatsarchiv Phonetical remarks 209
113; Kreisarchiv 159 Phonology
Mysiirys niifyl 176 63! 6^ 67, 68, 69, 20, 71, 72, ZL 24
Mysticism 26 75 77
Pines, M.J. vii
Pinman 161
Nachman of Braslav 172 Pinski/Pinsky, D.
Nahuatl 3 Plene spelling 200
Nathan b. Naphtali 172 Podolia 12
Nation 35 Poems 20,21.22, 30,146,14Q, 154,156,
National spirit 9
!57, !58, 161, 163, 176, 177, 178,
Nationalism 24, 36, 80 179, 180,182,184, 186, 187
Nationality 35 Poetry 59
National-Socialism 41 Poeziy 180
Naxmyn Braslyver 28, 172
Pogroms 24
Near East
Neo-paganism 26 Poland 16! LZ! 3!. 39! 54! 551 & 22!
200
Netherlands 34, 35
Poles 16
New York 18, 185, 187
Polish element in Yiddish 22 29
Niger, S. vii Polish Jewry 17
Nister, Der 181
Polish language 78
Norman-Anglo-German 8 Political aspect 38
Niirnberg 46n, 161 Portuguese language 4, 78
Portuguesic language 15
Ofn M l 185 Prague 166, 167
 396 General Index

Prayers 18, 38, 60 Raznfeld, M. 176

Prayer book 59, rig, 121* 162 Rumania 33, 35
Press 81 Rumanian Jewry u
Preterite 11 Rumanian language 41, 79
Prilucki/PrihitzkyfPrylucki, N. vii, 166 Rumanians 16
Protestantism 67 Russia 24, 36, 38
Provence 15 Russian element in Yiddish 78
Proverbs 168 Russian language 77
psqym vktbym 113 Russian revolution 16
Pyman, Pymann 161n Ruthenia i j

S*ryt Ywsp 169

Qumran Scrolls 123
Sain6u1 vii
Salfeld, S. 46
Rabinovitch, Sh. 176 Salonica 120
Race 9 Samaritan language 15
Raizin, A. 177 Samson b. Abraham 119
Rashi 109* 122 Samuel Book/Epic 465 47, 48, 154
Ratisbon 155, 153, 161 Scandinavian 78
Reading exercises 20g, 213, 215 Science 187
Regensburg: see Ratisbon Schaechter, M. vii
Registration note 156 Schindler, E. 186
Reisen, A.: see Raizin, A. Schoeffel, R.M. viii
Relativity, Theory of 184 Script: Cursive Hebrew 195; Cyrillic
Religion 13, 19, 22, 34, 58, 81 13; Hebrew 9, 13, w j, 195; ,Rab-
Religious experience 26 binic 19504; Roman 9 ,13 , 107
Religious terms 13n, 9 Scriptio defectiva 198
Reminiscences 164, 165 Scriptio plena 198
Rhythm 65 Seclusion, compulsory 12
Roback/Robak, A.A. 185 Secularization 14, 24, 36
Rome 161 Secularized language Si
Roman empire 33 Semantics 83, 86
Roman times 142 Semitic languages 15
Romance element in Yiddish 56, 58, 66. Semitic clement in Yiddish 56, 58, 65,
22 66*74
Romance languages 66, 68 Semitic grammars 60
Root of word 66 Sephardim 7, n* 62! L2Q
Rosenberg, F. vii Serbian 41
Rosenfeld, M. 176 Serkes: sec Joel Serkes
Roufy 164 Shambat 24
 397 General Index

Shatzki, J. 163 Standard Yiddish 101

Shewa 64, 142 Standard pronunciation of Yiddish 1a
Shin/Sin, Pronunciation of 142 Standard language 6, j
Shneur, Z. 129 Statistics of Yiddish 40
Shondlin 113 Steinberg, I.N. 185
Shtif, N. 153 Steinschneider, M. vii
Shulem Alaichem 136 Stem of word 66
Shuadit y Stern, M. 46
Signatures 161 Stif, N. 159
Silesia 33 Strasbourg 165
Simeon b. Yohai 123, 125 Strasbourg: University 118
Simha b. Judah 149 Straus, R. 155
Simxys ha-neifys 163 Stress 6g, 217
Simxys-Toiry 178 Strong inflection 54
Sindler, L. 186 Stub, E. 189
Sipjjry maasys 132 Suulym Alaixym 176
Slavonic element in Yiddish 56, 63, 76 Surbtal 164
Slavonic regions 33 Syairis Iosyf 169
Slavs 4 Symbols, Religious 22
Sloimy rib Xaaiyms 175 Symon von der Freyenstat 161
Slovak language 79 Syntactical shifts qi
Slovakia 1j Synthesis of elements in Yiddish 82
Slovaks 16 Synthesis of German elements in
Smjjl-bjjx, Dus: see Samuel Epic Yiddish 76
Snaier, Z. 175 Syria 117
Socialism 26
Songs of the Ghetto 176 Talmud so. 66, 122
South Africa 39 Tatic language if
Soviet Jewry ij Temanic language 15* 122
Soviet orthography 217 Territorial concentration 18
Soviet Union 39 Tiberian vocalization 62, 63, 64n
Spain 2, 11 Tradiciy, caixns jn simioln 181
Spaniards 8 Traditional Jewry 36
Spanish language 4j 8, 11 traditionalism 37, &1
Spelling system, Ancient Semitic 200 Transcribing 132
Spelling Phonctic 1&1 Transcription 102! I3 1 201
Spelling systems, Yiddish zqq Transcription alphabet 216
Spires: Archiv der Stadt Speyer itf Transcription alphabet for Old Yiddish
Stain berg, I N. 18; 109
Stalin 39 Transliteration 108
 398 General Index

Trwml hdsn n j Vus darf Itsruuyl tjjn in ietiker coat fjn

Tsarfat 33 xevly Mymex ? 179
TsenncTcnne 171
Turkey 14 Wachsiein, B. 161
Turkic languages 1 Wagenseil, J.Ch. 44
Turkish 3 Warsaw 176, 179,183
Weil, J. 113, 114, 153
Weinreich, M. vii, 1!3n, 185
Ukraine 16.17, Weinreich, U. vii
Ukrainians 17
Weinryb, B. 170
Ukrainian element in Yiddish 78
Weissenburg 165
Ulm !53 West Yiddish 12, 46, 94, 138
United States of America 17
White Russia: see Byelo-Russia
Urdu language 13 Wiener, L. vii, 175, 176
Urkunden und Aktenstucke zur Geschithte
Witzenhausen, J. 162
dvr Juden rn Regensburg 155
Word formation 84
Uuser And b. Iosyf 169
Word order 92
Utrecht 164
Words, development of new 90
Uvnt-klangyn 177
Working class i j
Worship 29
Vaanraax, M. vii, 185, 113n Writing exercise 224
Vaanraax, J. vii Wroclaw: Gty Library 170
Vail, L ill, 114, !S3
Vallachia 1j /X/, pronunciation of 56
Valuation 4 X(dm ha-itetfyi, A 181
Vatican Xoivys hahuvys 174
Venice 119, 120
Venosa Catacomb rrj Yefroikin, L 181
Vicynhauzyn, L 162 Yemenite: see Temanic language
Vienna 3 ! L2Q Yevanic language 15, 33
Vienna: Archiv der Stadt Wien 114* 115 Yevreyski language 39
Vienna: Haus-, Hof- und Staatsarchiv Yiddish, borderlines of 16
114 115 Yiddish Scientific Institute 38
Villages 35 Yiddish transcription of English 10gn7
Vilna/Vilnius 79 Yoslin: see Joseph
Vocabulary it. 58, 74, 78, 90
Vogelein 161 Zamljngfjn katit jn gtio-liider 187
Volhynia tj Zanvel Lintz 167
Vowel letters 142 Zarephat 33
Vowels, long 228 Zarphatic element in Yiddish 58,79
 399 General Index

Zarphatic language 15, 33, 56, 58, 67, Zeitlin, H. 179

115, 118, 149, 151, 200 Zimlin 153
Zarphatic pronunciation of Hebrew 150 Ziwy, A.
Zarphatic spelling system 108n, 126, Zjnyn-Jntergang 178
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