Technical white paper: TE328

Calibration of machine squareness

by M.A.V. Chapman

Introduction
This paper describes a variety of methods for evaluating the squareness between the linear axes of
motion of a machine tool, in accordance with the 2012 version of ISO230-1 (Test code for machine
tools - Geometric accuracy of machines operating under no-load or quasi-static conditions). Computer
simulation is used to compare and contrast the squareness results that each method produces,
depending on the squareness, straightness and angular (pitch or yaw) errors present in the machines
axes and the location of the test within the machines working zone. The paper concludes with a
performance comparison table and advice on how to evaluate and apply machine squareness errors
as part of a volumetric accuracy compensation process.

Squareness between two axes of linear motion - definitions

ISO230-1 section 3.6.7 defines the squareness error between two axes of linear motion as the
difference between the inclination of the reference straight line of the trajectory of the functional point
of a linear moving component with respect to its corresponding principal axis of linear motion and
(in relation to) the inclination of the reference straight line of the trajectory of the functional point of
another linear moving component with respect to its corresponding principal axis of linear motion.
ISO230-1 states that the reference straight
lines may be obtained by straight line fitting the
measured trajectory of a functional point on each
axis using either;
a) the mean minimum zone reference
straight line, or
b) the least squares fit reference straight line,
or
c) the end-point fit reference straight line
Figure 1 illustrates the various fitting methods.
The red traces show the variation in straightness
deviation (i.e. the trajectory) recorded as the
axis moves. The dotted blue lines indicate the
reference lines obtained by fitting using either
minimum zone, least squares or end point
methods. The inclination (slope) of the reference
line is indicated on the end point fitted trace.
Note that the inclination of the reference line is
likely to vary according to the fitting method used.
The most widely used fitting methods are end
point and least squares because of the ease of
calculation. It is advisable to use the same fitting
method for both reference lines when calculating
the squareness error. All reference line fitting Figure 1
calculations in this paper are based on the least
squares method.
 Figure 2 illustrates how the squareness error
between two linear axes of motion is calculated.
The solid black lines represent the X and Y axes
of the machine. The solid red and blue lines
represent the variation in straightness deviation
in the motion of the X and Y axes (i.e. their
trajectories) recorded along the length of the
axis. Note that the scale of these deviations has
been greatly exaggerated for clarity. The dotted
red and blue lines show the least squares fitted
reference lines to each of these trajectories.
The inclination, (slope), of the reference lines
are shown as x and y. In this example, the
squareness error is calculated by adding x and
y. Note that there are various alternative sign
conventions that can be used. Renishaws ballbar
and laser squareness analysis software indicates
Figure 2
a positive squareness result if the angle between
the positive directions of the two axes of motion
is >90. This sign convention is used throughout
this paper.
Notes:
1. ISO230-1 recommends a different sign convention based on defining one machine axis as a
datum axis and the other as the referred axis and using the right hand rule to define the
direction of the squareness error as a rotation of the referred axis relative to the datum axis. In
Figure 2 above, if X is taken as the datum axis, then the squareness error of Y relative to X is
+ve. But, if Y is taken as the datum axis, the squareness error of X relative to Y is -ve. To avoid
confusion ISO230-1 recommends also adding a note stating if the angle between the axes is larger
or smaller than 90! Clearly when comparing squareness test results it is important to understand
the sign convention that has been used.
2. Although ISO defines the inclination of the reference lines relative to their respective machine axis
(X, Y or Z), when the squareness error is measured, the inclinations are typically measured relative
to the orthogonal lines defined by a reference artefact or laser beams. The end result is the same,
however, there may be an error in the squareness of the artefact, indexer or optical prism which
needs to be included in the calculation. If the error is not known, the reference may need to be
reversed, the measurement repeated and the average squareness result used.
3. A squareness result is said to be global if it is based on a test using the full working length of the
machines axes. Tests involving portions of the axes give a local squareness result.

Squareness between two axes of linear motion - test methods

ISO230-1:2012 now includes five methods for assessing machine squareness, as follows;
1) Mechanical square and indicator (section 10.3.2.2)
2) Mechanical straightedge, indicator and indexing table (section 10.3.2.3)
3) Optical square and laser straightness interferometer (section 10.3.2.4)
4) Circular test (section 10.3.2.6 and ISO230-4)
5) Diagonal displacement test (section 10.3.2.6 and ISO230-6)
Each method will now be described on more detail.

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Method 1 Bi-axial straightness test using a mechanical square and indicator
This method involves positioning a mechanical
square such that it is nominally aligned to the
machine axes of interest and then measuring the
straightness deviation of each axis in turn, using
a linear displacement sensor (e.g. digital indicator
or clock gauge). This setup is illustrated in Figure
3. This configuration is referred to as L shaped in
this paper. Once the straightness data has been
collected for both axes, the inclination (slope) of each
set of data is calculated (by least squares, end point,
or minimum zone fitting) and the two inclinations are
compared to give the squareness error. Care needs
to be taken to ensure the correct sign conventions
are used throughout, depending on the orientation of
the square, the indicator, and direction sense of the
axes.
Figure 3

If a mechanical straightedge is also available, then

an alternative T shaped arrangement is possible
as shown in Figure 4. This arrangement has the
advantage that it can be reversed (left to right
mirror image of Figure 4) to eliminate any error
in the square by using the reversal technique. It
also allows testing of one of the axes close to the
centre of the machines working zone.
Note that when measuring the squareness of two
horizontal axes, it is possible to use the L and
T shaped set-ups in four different orientations
(0, 90, 180 or 270) by rotating the equipment
accordingly. However, when one of the axes is Figure 4
vertical, only two L shaped orientations (0 and
90), or one inverted T shape (180) are straightforward. The different orientations are mentioned
here because they are included in the simulations later.
Method 2 Bi-axial straightness test using straightedge, indicator and indexing table
This method utilises a mechanical straightedge
mounted on an angular indexer. After
measuring the straightness deviation of
the first axis the indexer is used to rotate
the straightedge through 90 so that the
straightness of the second axis can be
measured. This method is illustrated in
Figure 5 and is referred to as the + shaped
configuration in this paper.
The squareness is calculated in the same way
as Method 1.
The advantage of this method is it allows
testing of both machine axes whilst they are
positioned close to the centre of the working
zone. However it does require a precision Figure 5
indexer with an accuracy which is better than the
accuracy of the squareness result required.

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Method 3 Bi-axial straightness test using optical square and laser straightness interferometer
This method uses a laser interferometer
system, (such as Renishaws XL-80
system), with straightness optics and
an optical square. The equipment
can be set up (depending on the
machine configuration) in either L
or T shaped configurations. Figure
6 shows an L shaped configuration
which is often used for testing the
squareness between two horizontal
axes. The setup works as follows; The
straightness reflector projects an optical
straightedge in space which the optical
square turns through 90. Straightness
deviations from these optical
straightedges are measured (indicated)
by the straightness interferometer. Figure 6

There is a direct analogy between the straightness

reflector and optical square in Figure 6 and the
mechanical square in Figure 3. Both provide the
same L shaped reference lines. The straightness
deviations from the optical straightedges in Figure
6 are measured by the straightness interferometer,
in the same way as the straightness deviations
from the mechanical straightedges in Figure 3 are
measured by the linear displacement sensor. The
Figure 7
direct analogy between a mechanical straightedge
with an indicator and a straightness reflector with an interferometer is illustrated in Figure 7 and
explained in more detail in the Renishaw white paper entitled TE325 - Interferometric Straightness
Measurement and Application
to Moving Table Machines.
Again, when measuring the
squareness of two horizontal
axes, it is possible to arrange
the components in any of four
L shaped orientations (0,
90, 180 or 270) by rotating
the equipment accordingly,
depending on machine access Figure 8a
limitations. All four L shaped
orientations have been included
in the simulations later.
It is also possible, by using
an additional turning mirror
and large retro-reflector to
rearrange the components
and carry out the test in a
T shaped configuration, as
shown in Figures 8a & b. This
configuration is often used
when one of the axes being
tested is vertical. The horizontal
axis is tested using the laser,
straightness interferometer
and reflector, as shown in
Figure 8a. The vertical axis is Figure 8b
tested with the turning mirror,
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optical square and large retro-reflector added, as shown in Figure 8b. Note that it is essential that
the alignment of the straightness reflector is not altered between the measurements of each axis
since it generates the reference line for both tests. Again there is a direct analogy between the laser
interferometer measurements shown in Figures 8a and b, and those obtained with a mechanical
square, as shown in Figure 4.
The squareness results are calculated in exactly the same way as in methods 1 & 2 although, due
to manufacturing tolerances, it is usually necessary to include a small correction for a tiny error
in the angle of the optical square, often referred to as the prism error. This correction is applied
automatically by the analysis software, after the user has entered a prism error value.
The benefit of laser based measurements is that they can easily be used to provide global squareness
measurements on large machines where suitable mechanical straightedges and squares may be
unavailable, overly cumbersome or expensive, and can cause mechanical distortion of the machine
structure due to their weight.
Method 4 - Circular test
For machines capable of carrying out precise circular interpolation under CNC control, machine
squareness can be determined using a dynamic circular test with a telescoping ballbar, such as
Renishaws QC20-W, as shown in Figure 9. This test
method is described in ISO230-4. The machine is
programmed to move at a low feedrate over a 360
circular path (shown by the red dotted line) in CW
then CCW directions. One end of the telescoping
ballbar is attached to a pivot on the machine table at
the centre of the circle. The other end is attached to a
pivot attached to the machine spindle. As the machine
moves around the circle, a sensor in the ballbar
measures any variation in the radius to produce an
error trace (as shown exaggerated in solid red). If there
is a squareness error, the mean CW and CCW ballbar
error trace will have an elliptical shape as shown. The
squareness error can be estimated by comparing the
lengths of the 45 diagonals (i.e. the major and minor
axes of the ellipse). Renishaws ballbar plot diagnosis
software carries out extensive calculations to isolate the
Figure 9
squareness error from any other machine errors (e.g.
backlash, servo, scale mismatch, cyclic, straightness errors) that may be present; thereby ensuring the
squareness result is not contaminated by these errors. Renishaws software also allows estimation of
squareness from partial arc tests (down to 220).
The advantage of the ballbar test is that it is quick and
simple. The speed of the test means the squareness
results are largely unaffected by the environmental
variations (e.g. thermal drift) which can affect other
methods. Extension bars can be used to alter the test
radius, from 50mm 1000mm, allowing testing of a
wide range of machine sizes. Tests can be carried
out at several locations and the results averaged to
evaluate the squareness of machines with significant
differences in axis lengths, (this technique is covered in
more detail towards the end of this paper).
In the case of machines that cannot carry out circular
interpolation (e.g. a CMM), a test can be carried out
with Renishaws Machine checking gauge (MCG)
instead - see Figure 10. Alternatively on smaller
machines the test may be carried out using a Figure 10
Renishaw probe and ring gauge.

5
Method 5 - Diagonal displacement test
The final method for assessing machine
squareness involves using a laser
interferometer system, (such as Renishaws
XL-80 system) with linear optics to measure
the length of two diagonals, as shown in
Figure 11. This test method is described in
ISO230-6. Typically the laser is aligned to
allow the measurement of the length of the
first diagonal. The laser is then realigned to
allow measurement of the second diagonal.
It is essential that the portion of each axis
which is traversed during the test is identical
for both diagonals and that the effects of any
backlash are removed, ideally by measuring
the length of each diagonal in both directions
and taking the average.
It is also important that the two diagonal
lengths are measured promptly one after the Figure 11
other, to minimise the possibility of thermal
drift. On small machines care must also be taken to accurately align the laser to the diagonals to
minimise cosine errors.
Considering a test in the XY plane, as shown in Figure 11. If X is the programed travel length along
the X axis, and Y is the programmed travel length along the Y axis, then the squareness (in radians) is
given by;
Squareness = D0 (D1-D2)/(2XY)
Where D0 is the nominal diagonal length and D1 and D2 are the actual diagonal lengths.
If X=Y then this equation simplifies to;
Squareness = (D1-D2)/ D0
The advantage of this test is that it is quick and simple and ideally suited to larger machines and those
with unequal aspect ratios. The setup is less straightforward when one of the axes is vertical so a
turning mirror and swivel joint maybe required. Because the result is based on just two laser distance
readings, if the machine has poor repeatability it may be necessary to repeat the test to obtain a good
average. Alternatively, data may be taken at multiple positions along each diagonal. The measured
displacements are then compared with the programmed displacements. A least squares straight
line is fitted to the linear error data for each diagonal and the slopes are compared to determine the
squareness error. This paper uses the difference in the overall diagonal lengths to determine the
squareness error, as recommended in ISO230-1 and ISO230-6.

6
Simulation of machine errors
In order to assess the performance of the different squareness test methods, five machines with
differing combinations of squareness, straightness and yaw errors were simulated, as illustrated in
Figure 12. All five machines have X and Y axes that are 800mm long and the simulation considers
distortions in the XY plane only (however the results are generally applicable to other combinations
of axes). The blue lines in Figure 12 show the resulting distortion of the XY plane of each machine,
magnified 2000x and overlaid on a feint grid of undistorted 100mm squares.

Figure 12

All five machines have an underlying global squareness error of +15m/m. Superimposed on top of
this are various combinations of straightness and yaw distortion errors from the X and Y axes. Note
that when a yaw distortion error is included, the amount is that which would typically be associated
with the straightness error in that axis (assuming rigid body kinematics - refer to Appendix 1 for more
details). Note that a straightness error does not always cause angular distortion of the machines
XY plane, it depends on the machines kinematic construction (the kinematic chain). This is why the
simulations include straightness error combinations both with, and without, the associated yaw induced
distortions. If the axis with a straightness error supports the work-holder then any resulting yaw in that
axis is likely to distort the working volume as shown by Machines 3 and 5. If however the axis with the
straightness error supports only the tool then, even if there is a yaw error, it will not induce an angular
distortion of the machines XY plane. These error combinations have been deliberately chosen to
highlight differences in the ways the various test methods react when angular and straightness errors
(which can cause local variations in squareness), are superimposed on top of a global squareness
error. Machines 3 and 5 are of particular interest because, although they contain variable degrees of
yaw induced distortion, they have a uniform local and global squareness distortion of 15 m/m.

7
Simulation modes
Because of the direct analogy between a mechanical straightedge with indicator and a straightness
reflector with interferometer, the simulation results from these two methods in L and T shaped
configurations will be identical. Five different simulation modes can therefore be used to cover all the
test methods and equipment combinations described earlier. The five simulation modes (a-e), and the
test method/equipment they apply to, are listed below.
a. Circular test using telescoping ballbar
b. Laser diagonal test using laser interferometer and linear optics
c. Bi-axial straightness tests in + shaped configuration using;
Mechanical straightedge, indicator and 90 indexer
d. Bi-axial straightness tests in T shaped configuration using;
Mechanical straightedge, square and indicator, or
Laser straightness interferometer, optical square, large retro-reflector and turning mirror.
e. Bi-axial straightness tests in L shaped configuration using;
Mechanical square and indicator, or
Laser straightness interferometer and optical square
Figure 13 illustrates the five different simulation modes. As before, the blue lines show the distortion
of the XY plane of the simulated machine, overlaid on a feint grid of undistorted 100mm squares.
The movement of the machine during the test is shown in red. Any distortion in the movement of the
machine is also magnified 2000x. (Note, in the case of the ballbar trace, the red line is auto-scaled and
centred to match the scaling of traces typically seen during ballbar test analysis).

Figure 13

Note that simulation modes d and e can be carried out with the test equipment in four different
orientations (0, 90, 180, 270). The simulation parameters can also be adjusted to vary the size and
location of the test equipment within the 800mm x 800mm XY plane of the machine. For example, to
simulate a global squareness test the ballbar radius is set to 400mm and the test located in the centre of
the XY plane. For local squareness tests, the ballbar radius can be reduced and the test location altered.
8
Global squareness simulation results Machine 1
Figure 14 shows the results of the global squareness test simulations for Machine 1, using each of the
test simulation modes.

Figure 14

The numbers in the small rectangular boxes show the calculated squareness results from each
simulation in m/m. In the case of the T and L shaped configurations there are four results, one for
each possible orientation of the test equipment. The results are placed close to the intersection of the
axis movement paths for the equipment orientation to which they apply, however, only one red T or L
shaped machine movement path is shown for clarity. For example in Figure 14 d) the top result relates
to the T shaped equipment orientation shown in red. The right hand result relates to a T shaped
arrangement which has been rotated clockwise by 90.
The results for machine 1 show that the global squareness result is always 15m/m irrespective of the
test method and equipment orientation. This is exactly as expected since the simulated machine has a
global squareness error of 15 m/m and no other errors.

9
Global squareness simulation results Machine 2
Figure 15 shows the results of the global squareness test simulations for Machine 2, using each of the
test simulation modes.

Figure 15

The results for machine 2 show that the global squareness result is again always 15m/m irrespective
of the test method and equipment orientation. This shows the addition of an X axis straightness error
has not affected the performance of any of the global squareness test methods.

10
Global squareness simulation results Machine 3
Figure 16 shows the results of the global squareness test simulations for Machine 3, using each of the
test simulation modes.

Figure 16

The results for machine 3 show that the global squareness results for the ballbar, laser diagonal and
+ shaped bi-axial straightness methods are again 15m/m. However, the results for the T and L
shaped test methods have changed. This shows these methods are sensitive to X axis yaw. These
results are not wrong, they simply highlight the change in the angle between the X and Y axes from
-35m/m to +65m/m as the Y axis is moved from the left hand end of the X axis to the right hand end.
Although the T and L shaped squareness tests involve the full travel of both axes, (and hence are
classified as global squareness tests), they actually only indicate the squareness between the two
axes when tested in a specific position. This comment also applies to the + shaped configuration.
However, in this example the symmetry of the simulated distortion has ensured the squareness result
from the + shaped configuration matches the value given by the ballbar and laser diagonal methods.
Note that if the L or T shaped squareness results from opposing corners or sides are averaged, they
match the values given by the other methods.
Note: ISO230-1 advises that ideally machine squareness should be evaluated along lines that pass
through the centre of the machines working zone. The above results indicate why. Both lines involved
in an L shaped test typically lie along the edges of the machines working zone, and therefore reflect
the machines squareness at the edges, rather than the centre.

11
Global squareness simulation results Machine 4
Figure 17 shows the results of the global squareness test simulations for Machine 4, using each of the
test simulation modes.

Figure 17

The results for machine 4 show that all the global squareness results are now 15m/m again,
irrespective of the test method and equipment orientation. Now that the yaw error distortion has been
removed, all methods give the same result, even though there are now straightness errors on both X
and Y axes.

12
Global squareness simulation results Machine 5
Figure 18 shows the results of the global squareness test simulations for Machine 5, using each of the
test simulation modes.

Figure 18

The results for machine 5 show that the global squareness results for the ballbar, laser diagonal and
+ shaped bi-axial straightness methods have remained at 15m/m. However, the results for the T
and L shaped test methods have changed again due to their sensitivity to X and Y axis yaw. Again,
these results are not wrong, they simply reflect the change in the angle of the X and Y axes as the Y
axis is moved from one end of the X axis to the other or as the X axis is moved from one end of the Y
axis to the other. Note that if the L or T shaped squareness results from opposing corners or sides
are averaged, they match the values given by the other methods.

Global squareness results - Overview

If the machines XY plane is not distorted by varying yaw errors, then the global squareness results are
the same (15m/m) for all test methods in all orientations
However, if symmetrically varying yaw errors are introduced to the machines XY plane then;
Ballbar, laser diagonal and + shaped bi-axial straightness test methods still give the same
(15m/m) global squareness result.
T & L shaped bi-axial straightness tests give varying results depending on equipment
orientation.

13
Local squareness simulation results - Machine 1
Local squareness tests have been simulated at five locations within the machines XY plane using
each of the test methods. Figure 19 shows the results of the local squareness test simulations for
Machine 1, using each of the test simulation modes. The local squareness is evaluated over just a
200mm length of each axis in the various locations shown.

Figure 19

Machine 1 shows local squareness results of 15 m/m, irrespective of test location and method. This
is exactly as expected since the simulated machine has a global squareness error of 15 m/m and no
other errors.

14
Local squareness simulation results - Machine 2
Figure 20 shows the results of the local squareness test simulations for Machine 2, using each of the
test simulation modes.

Figure 20

Machine 2 shows local squareness results that vary according to the location of the test, but all test
methods give the same results. This shows that the introduction of an X straightness error has caused
a variation in local squareness. Clearly on such a machine it is important to choose the location of the
test carefully. All test methods give the same results because there arent any yaw induced angular
distortions errors on Machine 2.

15
Local squareness simulation results - Machine 3
Figure 21 shows the results of the local squareness test simulations for Machine 3, using each of the
test simulation modes.

Figure 21

Machine 3 shows local squareness results that vary according to the test method, but not test location.
The ballbar, laser diagonal, + and T shaped bi-axial straightness methods give the same result,
but the L shaped bi-axial test gives a different result. The consistency of the squareness result,
irrespective of test location is interesting. It shows that, if a machine has a straightness error in an axis
which induces a corresponding yaw distortion (rigid body model), the local and global squareness is
unaffected, even though the machine is clearly bent.

16
Local squareness simulation results - Machine 4
Figure 22 shows the results of the local squareness test simulations for Machine 4, using each of the
test simulation modes.

Figure 22

Machine 4 shows local squareness results that vary according to the location of the test, but all test
methods give the same results. This shows that the introduction of an X and Y straightness errors
has caused a variation in local squareness. Clearly on such a machine it is important to choose the
location of the test carefully. All test methods give the same results because there arent any yaw
induced angular distortions errors on Machine 4.

17
Local squareness simulation results - Machine 5
Figure 23 shows the results of the local squareness test simulations for Machine 5, using each of the
test simulation modes.

Figure 23

Machine 5 shows local squareness results that vary according to the test method, but not test location.
The ballbar, laser diagonal and + shaped bi-axial straightness methods give the same result, but
the L and T shaped bi-axial test give different results. The consistency of the squareness result
irrespective of test location is again interesting. It shows that, if a machine has a straightness error in
two axes which both induce corresponding yaw distortions (simple rigid body model), the local and
global squareness is unaffected, even though the machine is clearly bent.

Local squareness results - Overview

If a machine contains a straightness error in one or more axes without any corresponding yaw induced
angular distortion, then the local squareness will vary with test location but all test methods give the
same squareness results.
If a machine contains straightness errors which induce corresponding angular (pitch or yaw) distortion
errors, then no local squareness variations are introduced and hence the local squareness test
results are independent of test location. However, the local squareness results for T and L shaped
tests differ from those of ballbar, laser diagonal and + shaped biaxial tests. Other simulations (not
shown) demonstrated that the T and L shaped local squareness results will also vary depending on
equipment orientation, as they do for the global squareness test results under the same conditions.

18
Testing global squareness errors on machines with unequal aspect ratios
The machines simulated so far have had X and Y axes of equal length. Real machines typically have
an X axis that is longer than Y, and a Z axis that is shorter. Testing the global squareness of machines
with significant differences in axis lengths requires test equipment that can be configured to handle
this. The bi-axial straightness and laser diagonal test methods can easily be adapted to deal with this
difference. However, ballbar tests typically rely on a 360 circular test and are therefore best suited
to machines with similar axis lengths. Renishaws advanced ballbar diagnosis software partially
addresses this by allowing analysis from a 220 arc, thereby allowing global squareness testing of
machines with aspect ratios approaching 1 : 1.
For machines with larger aspect ratios, it is possible to carry out multiple ballbar tests in a line along
the longer axis and then average the squareness results. In order to investigate the performance of
this method versus the other test methods, another machine was simulated (Machine 6) with a 750mm
long X axis and a 250mm Y axis. The machine has a global squareness error of 15m/m, an X axis
straightness error of 10m and a Y axis straightness error of 5m. Figure 24 shows the results of the
global squareness test simulations for Machine 6, using each of the test simulation modes.

Figure 24

Note that the average of the three ballbar squareness results matches the 15m/m global squareness
results from each of the other test methods.

19
The straightness errors simulated on machines 1 - 6 have been simple curves. Machines with long thin
axes often exhibit more complex forms of straightness error. In order to investigate the performance of
the various test methods under such conditions another machine was simulated. Machine 7 is identical
to Machine 6 except that its X axis shows a more complex form of straightness error, such as might
be shown by an axis supported at its airy points. Figure 25 shows the results of the global squareness
test simulations for Machine 7, using each of the test simulation modes.

Figure 25

The average of the three ballbar squareness results again matches the global squareness result from
each of the other test methods. Note that if associated X and Y axis yaw distortion errors are added in,
then the global squareness results obtained from the T and L shaped bi-axial straightness methods
become significantly different at 95 m/m and 39m/m respectively. However, the average ballbar
squareness and global squareness results from + shaped bi-axial straightness and laser diagonal
tests remain consistent at 15 arc-seconds.
The tests simulated above conveniently utilise three 125mm radius ballbar tests which exactly fit within
the 750mm x 250mm area of the machine. However, on most machines it isnt possible to exactly fit
several ballbar test circles into the machines working area. Under these conditions it is possible to use
overlapping circles that are evenly spaced. In order to investigate the performance of this method, 4
overlapping ballbar tests were simulated on machines 6 and 7 as shown in Figure 26.

20
Figure 26

These simulations show that the average squareness results from the four overlapping ballbar tests
match the 15m/m average squareness result from the three adjacent ballbar tests. Whilst an exact
match is not expected under all conditions, it does indicate that the method can tolerate some overlap.
If more than two tests are overlapped it is recommended that the tests are arranged so that the
amount of overlap is equal.
The above results indicate that using the average result from multiple ballbar tests can provide a useful
method of estimating the global squareness of machines with unequal axis lengths.

Overall conclusions
The paper has reviewed the ISO230-1 definition of squareness between two linear axes of motion
and the various test methods that can be used to measure it. It has modelled the test methods and
compared their performance in the presence of various combinations of straightness and yaw errors in
the machines axes.
The simulations undertaken indicate the following:-
The results obtained from the various squareness test methods listed in ISO230-1 can vary
according to the test method used, the location of the test within the machines working zone
and the orientation of the test equipment.
Ballbar, laser diagonal and + shaped bi-axial straightness configurations gave identical results
under all conditions. However, when there are pitch or yaw induced angular distortions within
the machines working zone, the L and T shaped bi-axial straightness test configurations gave
different results which also varied with equipment orientation.
It should be noted that none of the results are wrong, they are simply using different frames of
reference. Considerable care is therefore needed when comparing squareness results between
systems. It is not unlikely that results will differ if the test location or the test methods are not
identical. Differences in sign convention and reference line fitting methods also need to be taken
into account.

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 If L or T shaped bi-axial straightness tests are repeated in opposing corners or on opposing
sides of the machines working zone and the global squareness results obtained are averaged,
they will agree more closely with results obtained from ballbar, laser diagonal or + shaped bi-
axial straightness configurations.
The global squareness of machines with unequal axis lengths can be estimated by taking the
average squareness result from multiple ballbar tests.
Because pitch and yaw errors can cause variability in squareness test results according to
the test method, location and orientation, a careful approach is required when carrying out
volumetric accuracy compensations involving squareness. This topic is covered in more detail in
Appendix II.
As a footnote, Figure 27 shows a rough table of merit for the various global squareness test methods
described in ISO230-1. It is based on the results of these simulations combined with the key features
and limitations of each method.

Figure 27

22
Appendix I - Modelling of straightness and associated yaw errors
The equations used to model
straightness errors and
associated yaw errors are as
follows. Consider the X axis of a
machine, of length L, which has a
simple bend or curve giving rise
to a straightness error of S. This
is illustrated in Figure 28 which
shows the distortion, in blue
(grossly exaggerated for clarity).
This simple straightness error
can be modelled by a quadratic
equation of the form y = Kx,
Figure 28
where y is the straightness
deviation in the Y direction at position x along the X axis, and K is a constant. Substituting for y = S
and x = L/2 and rearranging gives K = 4S/L. The equation relating the X axis straightness error in the
Y direction, to X axis position is therefore;
y = 4Sx/L . Equation 1
Now consider what happens if a
straight Y axis is mounted on top
of the machines bent X axis, as
shown (in red) in Figure 29. In the
absence of other constraints, as
the X axis moves, the angle of the
Y axis with alter according to the
local yaw angle of the X axis. This
associated yaw angle , can be
found by differentiating Equation
1 with respect to x, giving =
8Sx/L. The associated yaw error
causes a small displacement x
in the X direction which will vary
according to the position along Figure 29
the Y axis. If is expressed in
radians and ignoring second order terms, this displacement can be closely approximated by
x = -y. Note that if the machine also has a global squareness error 0, then this is added to before
calculating x, giving x = -y(0 + ). Substituting for gives;
x = -y(0 +8Sx/L) ... Equation 2
Equations 1 and 2 allow the small errors, x and y, in machine position to be calculated for any
general x,y location. If the machine is commanded to move to position [x,y] then the actual position
achieved will be [(x+x),(y+y)]. Substituting for x and y gives;
Actual position = [(x - y(0 +8Sx/L)),(y+4Sx/L)] .. Equation 3
Equation 3 is the general equation used to calculate the positioning error at any x,y location for
a machine with an XY squareness error and a straightness error in the X axis which causes an
associated yaw distortion. Because straightness errors do not always cause associated yaw error
distortions (it depends on the machines construction and kinematic chain) the 8Sx/L maybe zero.
Under these conditions Equation 3 becomes;
Actual position = [(x - y0),(y+4Sx/L)] .. Equation 4

23
The equations used to model the effects of a straightness error in the Y axis and any associated
yaw errors are derived in a similar same way. (Note in this case there is no need to account for
the squareness error again). In combination these equations allow the positioning errors of all the
machines modelled in this paper to be calculated.
Simulation of each squareness test method involves generating an appropriate sequence of command
positions (according to the test method), calculating the machines positioning errors at each, and then
applying the appropriate algorithm to calculate the squareness.

Appendix II Volumetric compensation of machine squareness errors

The following points should be considered when carrying out squareness compensation or
adjustments.
Because straightness, pitch and yaw errors can cause variability in squareness test results according
to the test method, location and orientation it is recommended that straightness, pitch and yaw errors
are measured and compensated for
first. Once these errors have been
minimised, the measurement of
squareness (and incidentally linear)
errors become largely independent
of test location and test method,
thereby improving the reliability of the
squareness result and making it easier
to apply.
Considerable care should be taken
when compensating for the measured
squareness error to ensure that the
compensation is applied in such a
Figure 30a
way that alignments to other reference
lines/features on the machine are
maintained, or improved. The following
are examples of alignments to be
considered.
Parallelism or perpendicularity
of the compensated axis
movements to the axis of
rotation of the spindle
Parallelism or perpendicularity
of the compensated linear axis
movements to the table surface
Alignment of the compensated
Figure 30b
axis movements to reference
points of 4th and 5th axes.
The potential pitfalls are best illustrated
by considering a simple example.
Suppose the squareness error
between the X and Z axes of a lathe
has been measured as 40m/m using
one of the test methods described in
the paper. This is illustrated in Figure
30a. In the figure, the Z axis is shown
correctly aligned, parallel to the axis
of rotation of the spindle, but the X
axis is out of alignment. Based on
an XZ squareness measurement in
Figure 30c
isolation the user cannot tell whether
the X or the Z axis (or neither) is
24
correctly aligned to the spindle, therefore there is a danger that squareness compensation could be
applied incorrectly. The user has a choice of correcting the squareness error by applying cross axis
compensation to the X or the Z axis (or any combination of the two).
Figure 30b shows the effect of (correctly) using the Z axis to apply small (40m/m) z corrections
during X axis movement. Note that the compensated X movement of the tool is now at 90 degrees to
the Z axis (hence the X and Z axes now appear square) and the Z axis has remained parallel to the
spindles axis of rotation.
Figure 30c shows the effect of (incorrectly) using the X axis to apply small (40m/m) x corrections
during Z axis movement. Note that although the compensated Z axis movement of the tool is at 90
degrees to the X axis (the X and Z axes still appear square), the compensated Z movements are not
parallel to the spindles axis of rotation.
In both figures 30b and c compensation has ensured the compensated X and Z movements are
square to one another, but in the case of 30c, the compensation has caused a misalignment of these
movements to the axis of rotation of the spindle. This example clearly illustrates why it is important to
ensure other machine alignments are considered before making software compensations for machine
squareness. This is particularly important when compensating for large XZ or YZ squareness errors.
In such cases it is suggested that mechanical adjustments are used first to remove the majority of
any squareness and parallelism misalignments between the X, Y and Z axes, the axis of rotation
of the spindle, and the machine table. Volumetric compensation can then be used to make the final
adjustments.

REFERENCES
1. ISO230-1:2012 Test code for machine tools - Part 1: Geometric accuracy of machines operating
under no-load or quasi-static conditions.
2. Renishaw White Paper TE325 - Interferometric Straightness Measurement and Application to
Moving Table Machines
3. ISO230-4:2005 Test Code for machine tools - Part 4: Circular tests for numerically controlled
machine tools
4. ISO230-6:2002 Test Code for machine tools - Part 6: Determination of positioning accuracy on
body and face diagonals (Diagonal displacement tests)

25
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