Erf (T)
Erf (T)
Erf (T)
Reading Problems
Outline
Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Gaussian function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Error function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Complementary Error function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Assigned Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1
Background
The error function and the complementary error function are important special functions
which appear in the solutions of diffusion problems in heat, mass and momentum transfer,
probability theory, the theory of errors and various branches of mathematical physics. It
is interesting to note that there is a direct connection between the error function and the
Gaussian function and the normalized Gaussian function that we know as the bell curve.
The Gaussian function is given as
2 /(2 2 )
G(x) = Aex
The Gaussian function can be normalized so that the accumulated area under the curve is
unity, i.e. the integral from to + equals 1. If we note that the definite integral
r
Z
ax2
e dx =
a
1 2 /(2 2 )
G(x) = ex
2
If we let
2
x2 1
t = and dt = dx
2 2 2
x x
1
Z Z
2
G(x) dx = et dt
x x
or recognizing that the normalized Gaussian is symmetric about the yaxis, we can write
2
x x
2 x
Z Z
t2
G(x) dx = e dt = erf x = erf
x 0 2
2
Z
2
erfc x = 1 erf x = et dt
x
Historical Perspective
The normal distribution was first introduced by de Moivre in an article in 1733 (reprinted in
the second edition of his Doctrine of Chances, 1738 ) in the context of approximating certain
binomial distributions for large n. His result was extended by Laplace in his book Analytical
Theory of Probabilities (1812 ), and is now called the Theorem of de Moivre-Laplace.
Laplace used the normal distribution in the analysis of errors of experiments. The important
method of least squares was introduced by Legendre in 1805. Gauss, who claimed to have
used the method since 1794, justified it in 1809 by assuming a normal distribution of the
errors.
The name bell curve goes back to Jouffret who used the term bell surface in 1872 for a
bivariate normal with independent components. The name normal distribution was coined
independently by Charles S. Peirce, Francis Galton and Wilhelm Lexis around 1875 [Stigler].
This terminology is unfortunate, since it reflects and encourages the fallacy that everything
is Gaussian.
3
Definitions
1. Gaussian Function
The normalized Gaussian curve represents the probability distribution with standard
distribution and mean relative to the average of a random distribution.
1 2 /(2 2 )
G(x) = e(x)
2
This is the curve we typically refer to as the bell curve where the mean is zero and
the standard distribution is unity.
2. Error Function
The error function
equals twice the integral of a normalized Gaussian function between
0 and x/ 2.
x
2
Z
2
y = erf x = et dt for x 0, y [0, 1]
0
where
x
t=
2
2
Z
2
1 y = erfc x = 1 erf x = et dt for x 0, y [0, 1]
x
inerf y exists for y in the range 1 < y < 1 and is an odd function of y with a
Maclaurin expansion of the form
4
X
inverf y = cn y 2n1
n=1
5
Theory
Gaussian Function
The Gaussian function or the Gaussian probability distribution is one of the most fundamen-
tal functions. The Gaussian probability distribution with mean and standard deviation
is a normalized Gaussian function of the form
1 2 /(2 2 )
G(x) = e(x) (1.1)
2
where G(x), as shown in the plot below, gives the probability that a variate with a Gaussian
distribution takes on a value in the range [x, x + dx]. Statisticians commonly call this
distribution the normal distribution and, because of its shape, social scientists refer to it as
the bell curve. G(x) has been normalized so that the accumulated area under the curve
between x + totals to unity. A cumulative distribution function, which totals
the area under the normalized distribution curve is available and can be plotted as shown
below.
GHxL DHxL
x x
-4 -2 2 4 -4 -2 2 4
When the mean is set to zero ( = 0) and the standard deviation or variance is set to unity
( = 1), we get the familiar normal distribution
1 2
G(x) = ex /2 dx (1.2)
2
which is shown in the curve below. The normal distribution function N (x) gives the prob-
ability that a variate assumes a value in the interval [0, x]
x
1
Z
2 /2
N (x) = et dt (1.3)
2 0
6
NHxL
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
x
-4 -2 2 4
Gaussian distributions have many convenient properties, so random variates with unknown
distributions are often assumed to be Gaussian, especially in physics, astronomy and various
aspects of engineering. Many common attributes such as test scores, height, etc., follow
roughly Gaussian distributions, with few members at the high and low ends and many in
the middle.
Potential Applications
1. Statistical Averaging:
7
Error Function
The error function is obtained by integrating the normalized Gaussian distribution.
x
2
Z
2
erf x = et dt (1.4)
0
where the coefficient in front of the integral normalizes erf () = 1. A plot of erf x over
the range 3 x 3 is shown as follows.
0.5
erfHxL
-0.5
-1
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
x
The error function is defined for all values of x and is considered an odd function in x since
erf x = erf (x).
The error function can be conveniently expressed in terms of other functions and series as
follows:
1 1 2
erf x = ,x (1.5)
2
2x 1 3 2
2x x2 3 2
= M , , x = e M 1, , x (1.6)
2 2 2
2 X (1)n x2n+1
= (1.7)
n=0 n!(2n + 1)
where () is the incomplete gamma function, M() is the confluent hypergeometric function
of the first kind and the series solution is a Maclaurin series.
8
Computer Algebra Systems
Potential Applications
2T 1 T
=
x2 t
T (x, t) Ts
x
= erfc
Ti Ts 2 t
9
complementary Error Function
The complementary error function is defined as
erfc x = 1 erf x
Z
2 2
= et dt (1.8)
x
1.5
erfHxL
0.5
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
x
and similar to the error function, the complementary error function can be written in terms
of the incomplete gamma functions as follows:
1 1 2
erfc x = ,x (1.9)
2
As shown in Figure 2.5, the superposition of the error function and the complementary error
function when the argument is greater than zero produces a constant value of unity.
Potential Applications
1. Diffusion: In a similar manner to the transient conduction problem described for the
error function, the complementary error function is used in the solution of the diffusion
equation when the boundary conditions are constant surface heat flux, where qs = q0
2q0 (t/)1/2 x2
q0 x x
T (x, t) Ti = exp erfc
k 4t k 2 t
10
1 Erf x + Erfc x
0.8 Erf x
erfHxL
0.6
0.4
0.2 Erfc x
T
and surface convection, where k = h[T T (0, t)]
x x=0
" !#
T (x, t) Ti h2 t
x hx x h t
= erfc exp + erfc +
T Ti 2 t k k2 2 t k
11
Relations and Selected Values of Error Functions
erf 0 = 0 erfc 0 = 1
erf = 1 erfc = 0
erf () = 1
Z
erfc x dx = 1/
0
Z
erfc2 x dx = (2 2)/
0
Ten decimal place values for selected values of the argument appear in Table 2.1.
x erf x x erf x
12
Approximations
Since
2 x
2 x
(1)n t2n
Z Z
t2
X
erf x = e dt = dt (1.10)
0 0 n=0
n!
and the series is uniformly convergent, it may be integrated term by term. Therefore
2 X (1)n x2n+1
erf x = (1.11)
n=0 (2n + 1)n!
x3 x5 x7 x9
2 x
= + + (1.12)
1 0! 3 1! 5 2! 7 3! 9 4!
Since
2 2 1
Z Z
t2 2
erfc x = e dt = et t dt
x x t
1 2
u = dv = et d dt
t
1 2
du = t2 dt v = et
2
therefore
Z t2
1 t2
1 1e
Z Z
t2
e t dt = uv v du = e 2
dt
x t x x 2t x x 2 t
13
Thus
( 2
)
2 1 1
et
Z
x2
erfc x = e dt (1.13)
2x 2 x t2
2
X 1 3 5 (2n 1)
xex erfc x = 1 + (1)n (1.15)
n=1
(2x2 )n
This series does not converge, since the ratio of the nth term to the (n1)th does not remain
less than unity as n increases. However, if we take n terms of the series, the remainder,
2
1 3 (2n 1)
et
Z
dt
2n x t2n
2
et
dt
Z Z
x2
dt < e <
x t2n 0 t2n
We can therefore stop at any term taking the sum of the terms up to this term as an
approximation of the function. The error will be less in absolute value than the last term
retained in the sum. Thus for large x, erfc x may be computed numerically from the
asymptotic expansion.
x2
X 1 3 5 (2n 1)
xe erfc x = 1 + (1)n
n=1
(2x2 )n
1 13 135
= 1 + + (1.16)
2x2 (2x2 )2 (2x2 )3
14
Some other representations of the error functions are given below:
2 x2 X x2n+1
erf x = e (1.17)
n=0
(3/2)n
2x 1 3 2
= M , , x (1.18)
2 2
2x x2 3 2
= e M 1, , x (1.19)
2
1 1 2
= ,x (1.20)
2
1 1 2
erfc x = ,x (1.21)
2
The symbols and represent the incomplete gamma functions, and M denotes the con-
fluent hypergeometric function or Kummers function.
2
erfc x = ex = (2x)ex (1.23)
dx dx
d3
d 2 x2
2 2
3
erfc x = (2x)e = (4x2 2)ex (1.24)
dx dx
dn+1 n
2 x2
erf x = (1) H n (x) e (n = 0, 1, 2 . . .) (1.25)
dxn+1
15
Repeated Integrals of the Complementary Error Function
Z
n
i erfc x = in1 erfc t dt n = 0, 1, 2, . . . (1.26)
x
where
2 2
i1 erfc x = ex (1.27)
1
= exp(x2 ) x erfc x (1.29)
Z
2
i erfc x = i erfc t dt
x
1 2
2 2
= (1 + 2x ) erfc x x exp(x )
4
1
= [erfc x 2x ierfc x] (1.30)
4
1
in erfc 0 (n = 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .) (1.32)
n
n
2 1+
2
d2 y dy
+ 2x 2ny = 0 (1.33)
dx2 dx
16
The general solution of
is of the form
d
[in erfc x] = (1)n1 erfc x (n = 0, 1, 2, 3 . . .) (1.36)
dx
dn h x2
i 2
e erfc x = (1)n 2n n!ex in erfc x (n = 0, 1, 2, 3 . . .) (1.37)
dxn
17
Some Integrals Associated with the Error Function
x2
et
Z
dt = erf x (1.38)
0 t
Z x
t y
e dt = erf x (1.39)
0 2y
2 x2
1
et
Z
2
ex 1 {erf x}2
dt = (1.40)
0 1 + t2 2
et x
Z
dt = exy erfc ( xy) x>0 (1.41)
0 y+t x
2x
et
Z
2
dt = exy erfc ( xy) x > 0, y > 0 (1.42)
0 t2 + y2 2y
etx
Z
dt = exy erfc (xy) x > 0, y 6= 0 (1.43)
0 (t + y) t y
y
Z p
et x
erf ( yt) dt = (x + y)1/2 (x + y) > 0 (1.44)
0 x
1 2xy
Z p
et x erf ( y/t dt = e x > 0, y > 0 (1.45)
0 x
Z
erfc (t) dt = ierfc (a) + 2a = ierfc (a) (1.46)
a
Z a
erf (t) dt = 0 (1.47)
a
Z a
erfc(t) dt = 2a (1.48)
a
1
Z
ierfc (t) dt = i2 erfc (a) = + a i2 erfc (a) (1.49)
a 2
t+c a+c
Z
n n+1
i erfc dt = bi erfc (1.50)
a b b
18
Numerical Computation of Error Functions
The power series form of the error function is not recommended for numerical computations
when the argument approaches and exceeds the value x = 2 because the large alternat-
ing terms may cause cancellation, and because the general term is awkward to compute
recursively. The function can, however, be expressed as a confluent hypergeometric series.
2 x2
3 2
erf x = x e M 1, , x (1.51)
2
in which all terms are positive, and no cancellation can occur. If we write
X
erf x = b an 0x2 (1.52)
n=0
with
2x 2 x2
b = ex a0 = 1 an = an1 n1
(2n + 1)/2
then erf x can be computed very accurately (e.g. with an absolute error less that 109 ).
Numerical experiments show that this series can be used to compute erf x up to x = 5
to the required accuracy; however, the time required for the computation of erf x is much
greater due to the large number of terms which have to be summed. For x 2 an alternate
method that is considerably faster is recommended which is based upon the asymptotic
expansion of the complementary error function.
2
Z
2
erfc x = et dt
x
2
ex
1 1
= 2 Fo , 1, x (1.53)
x 2 x2
which cannot be used to obtain arbitrarily accurate values for any x. An expression that
converges for all x > 0 is obtained by converting the asymptotic expansion into a continued
fraction
19
2 1
ex erfc x = x>0 (1.54)
1/2
x+
1
x+
3/2
x+
2
x+
5/2
x+
x + ...
2
ex
1 1/2 1 3/2 2
erfc x = x>0 (1.55)
x+ x+ x+ x+ x+
It can be demonstrated experimentally that for x 2 the 16th approximant gives erfc x
with an absolute error less that 109 . Thus we can write
2
ex
1 1/2 1 3/2 8
erfc x = x2 (1.56)
x+ x+ x+ x+ x
Using a fixed number of approximants has the advantage that the continued fraction can be
evaluated rapidly beginning with the last term and working upward to the first term.
20
Rational Approximations of the Error Functions (0 x < )
Numerous rational approximations of the error functions have been developed for digital
computers. The approximations are often based upon the use of economized Chebyshev
polynomials and they give values of erf x from 4 decimal place accuracy up to 24 decimal
place accuracy.
2
erf x = 1 [t(a1 + t(a2 + a3 t))] ex + (x) 0x (1.57)
where
1
t=
1 + px
p = 0.47047
a1 = 0.3480242
a2 = 0.0958798
a3 = 0.7478556
This approximation has a maximum absolute error of |(x)| < 2.5 105 .
Another more accurate rational approximation has been developed for example
2
erf x = 1 [t(a1 + t(a2 + t(a3 + t(a4 + a5 t))))] ex + (x) (1.58)
where
1
t=
1 + px
21
and the coefficients are
p = 0.3275911
a1 = 0.254829592
a2 = 0.284496736
a3 = 1.421413741
a4 = 1.453152027
a5 = 1.061405429
This approximation has a maximum absolute error of |(x)| < 1.5 107 .
22
Assigned Problems
Problem Set for Error and Due Date: February 12, 2004
Complementary Error Function
1. Evaluate the following integrals to four decimal places using either power series, asymp-
totic series or polynomial approximations:
Z 2 Z 0.002
x2 2
a) e dx b) ex dx
0 0.001
10
2 2
Z Z
x2 2
c) e dx d) ex dx
1.5 5
1.5 r
1 2 1
Z Z
x2 x2
e) e dx f) e dx
1 2 1 2
2. The value of erf 2 is 0.995 to three decimal places. Compare the number of terms
required in calculating this value using:
Compare the approximate errors in each case after two terms; after ten terms.
3. For the function ierfc(x) compute to four decimal places when x = 0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.8,
and 1.6.
4. Prove that
1 2
i) erf (x) = ,x
2
1 2
ii) erfc(x) = ,x
2
1 2
1 2
where ,x and ,x are the incomplete Gamma functions defined as:
2 2
23
Z y
(a, y) = eu ua1 du
0
and
Z
(a, y) = eu ua1 du
y
5. Show that (x, t) = 0 erfc(x/2 t) is the solution of the following diffusion
problem:
2 1
= x 0, t > 0
x2 t
and
(0, t) = 0 , constant
(x, t) 0 as x
6. Given (x, t) = 0 erf x/2 t:
i) Obtain expressions for and at any x and all t > 0
t x
x
ii) For the function
2 0 x
showthat it has a maximum value when x/2 t = 1/ 2 and the maximum value
is 1/ 2e .
7. Given the transient point source solution valid within an isotropic half space
q
T = erfc(r/2 t), dA = r dr d
2kr
24
derive the expression for the transient temperature rise at the centroid of a circular
area (a2 ) which is subjected to a uniform and constant heat flux q. Superposition of
point source solutions allows one to write
Z aZ 2
T0 = T dA
0 0
8. For a dimensionless time F o < 0.2 the temperature distribution within an infinite
plate L x L is given approximately by
T (, F o) Ts 1
1+
=1 erfc + erfc
T0 Ts 2 Fo 2 Fo
Z 1
T = T (, F o) d
0
The initial and surface plate temperature are denoted by T0 and Ts , respectively.
3
(2n 1) (2n 1) +
X
n+1
(, F o) = 1 (1) erfc + erfc
n=1 2 Fo 2 Fo
3
X 2(1)n+1 2
(, F o) = en F o cos(n )
n=1
n
25
Table 1: Exact values of (0, F o) for the Infinite Plate
Fo (0, F o)
0.02 1.0000
0.06 0.9922
0.10 0.9493
0.40 0.4745
1.0 0.1080
2.0 0.0092
26
References
1. Abramowitz, M. and Stegun, I.A., Handbook of Mathematical Functions, Dover,
New York, 1965.
3. Hochsadt, H., Special Functions of Mathematical Physics, Holt, Rinehart and Win-
ston, New York, 1961.
4. Jahnke, E., Emdw, F. and Losch, F., Tables of Higher Functions, 6th Edition,
McGraw-Hill, New York, 1960.
7. Magnus, W., Oberhettinger, F. and Soni, R.P., Formulas and Theorems for the
Functions of Mathematical Physics, 3rd Edition, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1966.
9. Sneddon, I.N., Special Functions of Mathematical Physics and Chemistry, 2nd Edi-
tion, Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh, 1961.
10. National Bureau of Standards, Applied Mathematics Series 41, Tables of Error
Function and Its Derivatives, 2nd Edition, Washington, DC, US Government Printing
Office, 1954.
11. Hastings, C., Approximations for Digital Computers, Princeton University Press,
Princeton, NJ, 1955.
27
Chebyshev Polynomials
Reading Problems
d2 y dy
(1 x2 ) x + n2 y = 0 n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .
dx2 dx
d2 y
+ n2 y = 0
dt2
y = A cos nt + B sin nt
or as
or equivalently
where Tn (x) and Un (x) are defined as Chebyshev polynomials of the first and second kind
of degree n, respectively.
1
If we let x = cosh t we obtain
d2 y
n2 y = 0
dt2
y = A cosh nt + B sinh nt
or as
or equivalently
y = ATn (x) + BUn (x) |x| > 1
1 h p n p n i
Tn (x) = x+i 1 x2 + x i 1 x2
2
The sum of the last two relationships give the same result for Tn (x).
2
Chebyshev Polynomials of the First Kind of Degree n
The Chebyshev polynomials Tn (x) can be obtained by means of Rodrigues formula
(2)n n! p dn
Tn (x) = 1 x2 (1 x2 )n1/2 n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .
(2n)! dxn
The first twelve Chebyshev polynomials are listed in Table 1 and then as powers of x in
terms of Tn (x) in Table 2.
3
Table 1: Chebyshev Polynomials of the First Kind
T0 (x) = 1
T1 (x) = x
T2 (x) = 2x2 1
T3 (x) = 4x3 3x
4
Table 2: Powers of x as functions of Tn (x)
1 = T0
x = T1
1
x2 = (T0 + T2 )
2
1
x3 = (3T1 + T3 )
4
1
x4 = (3T0 + 4T2 + T4 )
8
1
x5 = (10T1 + 5T3 + T5 )
16
1
x6 = (10T0 + 15T2 + 6T4 + T6 )
32
1
x7 = (35T1 + 21T3 + 7T5 + T7 )
64
1
x8 = (35T0 + 56T2 + 28T4 + 8T6 + T8 )
128
1
x9 = (126T1 + 84T3 + 36T5 + 9T7 + T9 )
256
1
x10 = (126T0 + 210T2 + 120T4 + 45T6 + 10T8 + T10 )
512
1
x11 = (462T1 + 330T3 + 165T5 + 55T7 + 11T9 + T11 )
1024
5
Generating Function for Tn (x)
The Chebyshev polynomials of the first kind can be developed by means of the generating
function
1 tx X
= Tn (x)tn
1 2tx + t2 n=0
Tn (1) = (1)n
6
Orthogonality Property of Tn (x)
We can determine the orthogonality properties for the Chebyshev polynomials of the first
kind from our knowledge of the orthogonality of the cosine functions, namely,
0 (m 6= n)
Z
cos(m) cos(n ) d = /2 (m = n 6= 0)
0
(m = n = 0)
Then substituting
Tn (x) = cos(n)
cos = x
0 (m 6= n)
Z 1
Tm (x) Tn (x) dx
= /2 (m = n 6= 0)
1 1 x2
(m = n = 0)
We observe that the Chebyshev polynomials form an orthogonal set on the interval 1
x 1 with the weighting function (1 x2 )1/2
7
where the coefficients An are given by
1
1 f (x) dx
Z
A0 = n=0
1 1 x2
and
1
2 f (x) Tn (x) dx
Z
An = n = 1, 2, 3, . . .
1 1 x2
The following definite integrals are often useful in the series expansion of f (x):
1
dx x3 dx
1
Z Z
= = 0
1 1 x2 1 1 x2
1
x dx x4 dx
1
3
Z Z
= 0 =
1 1 x2 1 1 x2 8
1
x2 dx x5 dx
1
Z Z
= = 0
1 1 x2 2 1 1 x2
2
i = 0, , , . . . (N 1) ,
N N N
where
xi = arccos i
We have
8
0 (m 6= n)
N 1
1 X 1
Tm (1)Tn (1)+ Tm (xi )Tn (xi )+ Tm (1)Tn (1) = N/2 (m = n 6= 0)
2 i=2
2
N (m = n = 0)
The Tm (x) are also orthogonal over the following N points ti equally spaced,
3 5 (2N 1)
i = , , , ...,
2N 2N 2N 2N
and
ti = arccos i
0 (m 6= n)
N
X
Tm (ti )Tn (ti ) = N/2 (m = n 6= 0)
i=1
N (m = n = 0)
The set of points ti are clearly the midpoints in of the first case. The unequal spacing of
the points in xi (N ti ) compensates for the weight factor
W (x) = (1 x2 )1/2
9
Additional Identities of Chebyshev Polynomials
The Chebyshev polynomials are both orthogonal polynomials and the trigonometric cos nx
functions in disguise, therefore they satisfy a large number of useful relationships.
The differentiation and integration properties are very important in analytical and numerical
work. We begin with
and
and
or
0 0
Tn+1 (x) Tn1 (x) 2 cos n sin
= = 2Tn (x) n2
(n + 1) (n 1) sin
10
Therefore
T10 (x) = T0
T00 (x) = 0
We have the formulas for the differentiation of Chebyshev polynomials, therefore these for-
mulas can be used to develop integration for the Chebyshev polynomials:
1 Tn+1 (x) Tn1 (x)
Z
Tn (x)dx = +C n2
2 (n + 1) (n 1)
1
Z
T1 (x)dx = T2 (x) + C
4
Z
T0 (x)dx = T1 (x) + C
Tn (x) = Tn (2x 1)
T0 = 1
T1 = 2x 1
T2 = 8x2 8x + 1
11
and the following powers of x as functions of Tn (x);
1 = T0
1
x = (T0 + T1 )
2
1
x2 = (3T0 + 4T1 + T2 )
8
1
x3 = (10T0 + 15T1 + 6T2 + T3 )
32
1
x4 = (35T0 + 56T1 + 28T2 + 8T3 + T4 )
128
Tn+1 (x) = (4x 2)Tn (x) Tn1
(x) T0 (x) = 1
or
1 1 1
xTn (x) =
Tn+1 (x) + Tn (x) +
Tn1 (x)
4 2 4
where
1
xTn (x) = [Tn+1 (x) + Tn1 (x)] n = 1, 2, 3 . . .
2
xT0 (x) = T1 (x)
12
To illustrate the method, consider x4
4 2
x2 x
x = x (xT1 ) = [T2 + T0 ] = [T1 + T3 + 2T1 ]
2 4
1 1
= [3xT1 + xT3 ] = [3T0 + 3T2 + T4 + T2 ]
4 8
1 1 3
= T4 + T2 + T0
8 2 8
X
f (x) = an xn + EN (x) |x| 1
n=0
where |En (x)| does not exceed an allowed limit, it is possible to reduce the degree of the
polynomial by a process called economization of power series. The procedure is to convert
the polynomial to a linear combination of Chebyshev polynomials:
N
X N
X
n
an x = bn Tn (x) n = 0, 1, 2, . . .
n=0 n=0
It may be possible to drop some of the last terms without permitting the error to exceed
the prescribed limit. Since |Tn (x)| 1, the number of terms which can be omitted is
determined by the magnitude of the coefficient b.
The Chebyshev polynomials are useful in numerical work for the interval 1 x 1
because
13
3. The maxima and minima are spread reasonably uniformly over the interval
1 x 1
5. They are easy to compute and to convert to and from a power series form.
The following table gives the Chebyshev polynomial approximation of several power series.
14
Table 3: Power Series and its Chebyshev Approximation
1. f (x) = a0
f (x) = a0 T0
2. f (x) = a0 + a1 x
f (x) = a0 T0 + a1 T1
3. f (x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2
a2 a2
f (x) = a0 + T0 + a1 T1 + T2
2 2
4. f (x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + a3 x3
a2 3a3 a2 a3
f (x) = a0 + T0 + a1 + T1 + T2 + T3
2 4 2 4
5. f (x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + a3 x3 + a4 x4
a2 a3 3a3 a2 a4 a3
f (x) = a0 + + T0 + a1 + T1 + + T2 + T3
2 8 4 2 2 8
a4
+ T4
8
6. f (x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + a3 x3 + a4 x4 + a5 x5
a2 3a4 3a3 5a5 a2 a4
f (x) = a0 + + T0 + a1 + + T1 + + T2
2 8 4 8 2 2
a3 5a5 a4 a5
+ + T3 + T4 + T5
4 16 8 16
15
Table 4: Formulas for Economization of Power Series
x = T1
1
x2 = (1 + T2 )
2
1
x3 = (3x + T3 )
4
1
x4 = (8x2 1 + T4 )
8
1
x5 = (20x3 5x + T5 )
16
1
x6 = (48x4 18x2 + 1 + T6 )
32
1
x7 = (112x5 56x3 + 7x + T7 )
64
1
x8 = (256x6 160x4 + 32x2 1 + T8 )
128
1
x9 = (576x7 432x5 + 120x3 9x + T9 )
256
1
x10 = (1280x8 1120x6 + 400x4 50x2 + 1 + T10 )
512
1
x11 = (2816x9 2816x7 + 1232x5 220x3 + 11x + T11 )
1024
For easy reference the formulas for economization of power series in terms of Chebyshev are
given in Table 4.
16
Assigned Problems
1. Obtain the first three Chebyshev polynomials T0 (x), T1 (x) and T2 (x) by means of
the Rodrigues formula.
3. By means of the recurrence formula obtain Chebyshev polynomials T2 (x) and T3 (x)
given T0 (x) and T1 (x).
1 h p n p n i
Tn (x) = x + i 1 x2 + x i 1 x2
2
where i = 1.
3
X
2
x = An Tn (x)
n=0
17