Anatomy and Physiology II Exam 1

Overview to Endocrine Function

Homeostasis and the Internal Environment:
Homeostasis the tendency to maintain the relative constancy of certain
physiological variables even in the face of significant environmental
change.
Examples of physiological variables:
body temperature
blood glucose
blood pressure
Even though our bodies are surrounded by the external environment, our cells
are surrounded by extracellular fluid, which constitutes the internal environment.
Extracellular fluid is subdivided into:
blood plasma
interstitial fluid (surrounds non-blood cells)
The key to maintaining homeostasis is to maintain the constancy of the internal
environment (extracellular fluid)

Negative Feedback:
A typical negative feedback control system involves the following components:
sensor
controller
one or more effectors
Negative feedback control of arterial blood pressure.
Following hemorrhage, the fall in blood pressure is sensed by baroreceptors
which send this information to the controller located in the brainstem.
1In this example, the two effectors are the heart and blood vessels which act to
increase heart rate and vasoconstriction both of which lead to a(n) increase in
blood pressure.
When a physiological variable is altered, the controller compares the value of the
variable with the set point
and the difference between the two is known as the error signal.

Positive Feedback:
In a positive feedback loop, the effectors cause changes in the controlled
variable that tend to reinforce the initial disturbance
Unlike negative feedback systems where the change tends to oppose the initial
disturbance.
Consider the example of positive feedback mechanisms in the upstroke of the action
potential.
 +
Depolarization of the membrane causes voltage-gated Na channels to open
+
which increases Na permeability.
These events lead to further depolarization.
Positive feedback loops are generally found in processes which are self-limited.

Cellular Communication:
Gap junction The structure that allows the direct passage of small molecular
weight substances from one cell to the next
Nervous system involves the propagation of action potentials
Works on a time frame of milliseconds to seconds.
involves the release of molecules called neurotransmitters which must diffuse
across a space called the synaptic cleft
these molecules interact with special receptors located on the postsynaptic cell.
Neurotransmitter receptors can be found on:
neurons
skeletal muscle cells
smooth muscle cells
cardiac muscle cells
gland cells
Endocrine system involves the release of signal molecules called hormones into
the bloodstream.
target cells cells which have receptors that recognize a given hormone.
Slower timeframe taking anywhere from seconds to hours.
Neuro-endocrine system When a neurotransmitter is released into the blood
stream.
An example is the release of epinephrine from the adrenal medulla into the blood
stream.
Local communication
autocrine agent On the local level, a molecule that interacts with a receptor on
itself or a member of the same cell type
procaine agent when the target cell is a different cell type
These molecules dont enter the blood stream.

Control of Hormone Release:

In general regulation of hormone release comes in three forms involving:
Humerol stimuli
One example of humerol stimuli has to do with the regulation of PTH.
 Here the humerol factor is the plasma Ca2+concentrations.
A decrease in plasma Ca2+ will result in an increase in PTH secretion.
Neural stimuli
epinephrine release from the adrenal medulla is controlled by sympathetic
nerve
Hormonal stimuli
The anterior pituitary gland is an example of where hypothalamic hormones
regulate the secretion of anterior pituitary hormones.
negative feedback loop An example in which hormone A stimulates the
secretion of hormone B which in turn inhibits the release of hormone A.

Chemical Classes of Hormones:

Based on their solubility, hormones can be subdivided into:
lipid soluble: bound to carrier protein
water soluble: circulate free
Of the hormones that are able to diffuse across cell membranes, most are steroid
molecules although thyroid hormones can also pass cell membranes, presumably
due to their benzene rings.
Of the water soluble hormones, the amines are all synthesized from amino
acids:
catecholamines from the amino acid tyrosine
histamine from histidine
serotonin and melatonin from tryptophan.
Eicosanoids are all derived from arachidonic acid
prostaglandins
leukotrienes
The concentration of a hormone within blood at any given time depends on the
balance between the rate of production and the rate of inactivation.
The time period in which the hormone concentration is reduced in half due to
some inactivation mechanism is called the half-life

Mechanisms of Hormone Action:

All hormones interact with a protein called a receptor.
Receptors for steroid hormones are found within the nucleus of a target
cell.
Upon receptor binding, the hormone-receptor complex binds to DNA, altering the
rate of production of certain mRNA. The overall cellular effect of hormone binding is
altered transcription.
cAMP mediated hormone processes involve a receptor found on the surface (plasma
membrane) of a cell.
 The enzyme that is responsible for the production of cAMP is called adenyl cyclase
Once formed, cAMP activates an enzyme called protein kinase A which in turn
carries out the chemical process of phosphorylation of other cellular proteins. The
cAMP is finally inactivated through the enzymatic action of a phosphodiesterase.
Signal transduction processes allow for amplification

The Hypothalamus and Pituitary:

The pituitary gland can be subdivided into two divisions:
adenohypophysis
neurohypophysis
Within the adenohypophysis, there are three portions:
pars distalis
pars intermedia
pars tuberalis
Within the neurohypophysis, there are also three portions:
pars nervosa
infundibulum
median eminence
The two hormones released from the posterior pituitary are oxytocin & ADH
Both synthesized by hypothalamic neurons.
Many of the anterior pituitary hormones are called trophic hormones because they
affect other endocrine organs.
TSH
FSH
LH
ACTH
The two non-tropic hormones of the anterior pituitary are:
growth hormone
prolactin
Another name for the pituitary gland is the hypophysis.

The Endocrine Glands I

Oxytocin:
Oxytocin is synthesized by hypothalamic neurons located in the paraventricular
nucleus.
It is released from axon terminals located in the pars nervosa of the pituitary gland.
It is a small peptide consisting of only nine amino acids.
Target cells for this hormone include smooth muscle cells located in the:
uterus
mammary glands
Stimulation of oxytocin receptors:
in the uterus: uterine contraction
in the breasts: release of breast
During childbirth, stretch of cervix results in a release of oxytocin which leads to
further uterine contraction.
During breast feeding, suckling results in the release of oxytocin which leads to
further milk release
Both regulatory pathways represent examples of positive feedback and are self-
limited.
Pitocin oxytocin-like drug used to induce labor.

Anti-diuretic Hormone:
ADH is synthesized by hypothalamic neurons located in the suproptic nucleus.
It is released from axon terminals located in the pars nervosa of the pituitary gland.
It is a small peptide consisting of only nine amino acids.
Target cells for ADH are found in the:
kidney
arterioles
ADH acts on the kidney to increase water resorption from urine (thereby decreasing
water excretion); and arterioles causing them to vasoconstriction
With regard to regulation, an increase in plasma osmolarity will cause an
increase in the release of ADH.
In addition a significant decrease in blood pressure and/or blood volume will
also increase the release of ADH.
The resulting decrease in water excretion will tend to decrease plasma
osmolarity as well as increase blood volume.
The resulting vasoconstriction will tend to increase blood pressure.
This regulation represents examples of negative feedback.
Diabetes insidious is a condition involving hyposecretion of ADH.
increase in urine output and an increase in thirst
 plasma osmolarity is elevated
These patients should increase their consumption of water.
SIADH (syndrome of inappropriate ADH) inappropriately high levels of ADH
secretion
plasma osmolarity decreased.
These patients should restrict their consumption of fluids.

Prolactin:
Prolactin is secreted by cells called lactotropes and acts on target cells located in the
breast (mammary glands) which leads to increased secretion of breast milk.
Prolactin secretion is controlled by hormones produced by the hypothalamus.
Prolactin inhibiting hormone (PIH) dopamine inhibits prolactin secretion
Prolactin releasing hormone (PRH) stimulates secretion.
In lactating women, suckling leads to increase in prolactin secretion in a process that
involves positive feedback.
In non-lactating women, elevated estrogen levels lead to production of PRH with a
consequent increase in prolactin levels.
Hypersecretion of prolactin is often seen in patients with a pituitary tumor called
hyperprolactinemia resulting in inappropriate lactation and infertility in both sexes.
Elevated prolactin produces decreases in GnRH which leads to decreased levels of
LH and FSH

Growth Hormone (GH):

Somatotropes secrete growth hormone
located within the pars distills of the anterior pituitary
While GH affects a great many cells in the body its main targets can be distinguished
according to major effects of GH called the anabolic and the diabetogenic effects.
anabolic effect:
GH acts of many cell types promoting growth such as cells within bone and
skeletal muscle.
Growth of long bones is stimulated through the action of GH at the
epiphyseal plate
The growth promoting effects of GH are mediated by somatomedins
produced by the liver.
diabetogenic effect:
GH acts on adipose tissue to promote fat breakdown producing increases in
blood levels of fatty acids.
GH also acts on the liver to promote glycogen breakdown which produces
increases in blood glucose levels.
 GH secretion is stimulated by growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH) released
by neurons of the hypothalamus in response to decreased levels of blood glucose and
fatty acids as well as decreased plasma levels of GH itself. Exercise and other types of
stress also lead to a(n) increase in GH secretion.
GH secretion is inhibited by growth hormone inhibiting hormone (GHIH) also
known as somatostatin
Decreases in GH are elevated levels of:
glucose
fatty acids
GH
somatomedin
Hypersecretion of GH in a pre-puberty individual results in a condition called
giantism whereas if the hypersecretion occurs after puberty, this condition is called
acromegaly
Hyposecretion of GH in children results in pituitary dwarfism

Thyroid Hormones:
T3 and T4 are secreted by cells called follicular cells.
Both of these hormones contain atoms of iodine and 2 molecules of the
amino acid tyrosine
In target cells, T4 is converted to the more active form, T3.
Both forms are lipid soluble
T3 and T4 exert their effects in a wide range of target cells. One of these effects is the
increase of the basal metabolic rate (BMR) by stimulating ATP hydrolysis.
As a result of these processes, heat is given off so that body temperature
increases
This is called the calorigenic effect of thyroid hormones which becomes
important in maintaining body heat when its cold out.
Thyroid hormones also stimulate protein synthesis and thus promote growth.
They also stimulate glucose breakdown, and increase the number of adrenergic
receptors which leads to an increase in heart rate and a more forceful heart beat.
Follicular cells increase thyroid hormone production in response to thyroid
stimulating hormone (TSH) produced by thyrotropes of the anterior pituitary.
These cells in turn are stimulated by thyrotropin releasing hormones (TRH)
released from the hypothalamus.
T3 and T4 exert feedback inhibition at the level of the anterior pituitary and
hypothalamus.
Conversely when T3 and T4 levels are low, TRH secretion is stimulated.
Other conditions which stimulate TRH secretion include a low BMR and a
cold environment
 Hyposecretion of thyroid hormones during fetal life or infancy results in a condition
known as cretinism
growth problems resulting in dwarfism and severe mental retardation
When hyposecretion occurs in the adult, this condition involves a decreased
heart rate, sensitivity to cold, lethargy and weakness and a tendency to gain
weight easily.
Hypersecretion of thyroid hormones can occur in Graves disease
characterized by antibodies that stimulate TSH receptors on follicular cells.
These individuals will have enlarged thyroid glands, a condition known as
Goiter
An enlarged thyroid can also occur in iodine deficiencies due to a lack of T3
and T4 which in turn allows TSH levels to become elevated stimulating the
gland to grow.
 The Endocrine Glands I
Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) and Calcitonin:
Both PTH and calcitonin are protein hormones, which in combination with vitamin
D, affect plasma Ca2+ concentrations.
PTH is secreted by chief cells of the parathyroid gland whereas calcitonin is secreted
by parafollicular cells located within the thyroid gland.
PTH secretion is stimulated by a decrease in plasma Ca2+ whereas the same
conditions will decrease calcitonin secretion.
Conversely, an increase in plasma Ca2+ will result in a decrease in PTH secretion,
but an increase in calcitonin secretion.
PTH acts on target cells located in bone resulting in an increase in bone resorption.
PTH also acts on target cells located in the kidney resulting in an increase in Ca2+
reabsorption and a stimulation of calcitriol secretion.
Calcitriol is the active form of vitamin D, which acts on the digestive system
resulting in an increase in Ca2+ absorption from the gut.
As a result of all these changes, plasma Ca2+ tends to increase as a result of
PTH.
Calcitonin acts on target cells located in bone resulting in a decrease in bone
resorption.
As a result of these changes, plasma Ca2+ tends to decrease as a result of
calcitonin.
Under conditions of hyposecretion of PTH, plasma Ca2+ can become low giving rise
to the spontaneous contraction of skeletal muscles known as hypocalcemia tetany.
Conversely hypersecretion of PTH will result in an increase in plasma Ca2+
producing a variety of effects that include reduction in bone mass.
Altered calcitonin secretion produces no symptoms.

The Adrenal Gland:

The adrenal glands are situated atop the kidneys and as a result are sometimes
referred to as the suprarenal glands.
Each adrenal gland has an outer portion called the cortex and an
inner portion called the medulla.
Cells of the adrenal cortex produce steroid hormones whereas cells of the adrenal
medulla secrete epinephrine directly into the bloodstream.
The adrenal cortex consists of three regions:
zona glomerulosa
zona fasiculata
zona reticularis
 Cells of the zona glomerulosa secrete mineralocorticoids of which aldosterone is the
main one.
Cells of the zona fasiculata secrete glucocorticoids of which cortisol is the main one.
Finally a number of androgens are produced by cells of the zona reticularis

Aldosterone:
Target cells for aldosterone are found in the kidney, where it promotes Na+
reabsorption and K+ secretion.
As a result blood pressure and volume tend to increase.
Other target cells are found within exocrine glands in which aldosterone
causes in increase in Na + extraction from the secretions.
As a result of target cell activation, plasma Na+ levels tend to increase and
plasma K+ levels tend to decrease due to aldosterone.
The major regulator of aldosterone secretion is the renin-angiotensin system.
When blood pressure and/or blood volume decreases, renin release by the
kidney increases.
Renin is an enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of angiotensinogen to
angiotensin I .
This in turn is converted to angiotensin II in the lung by an enzyme called
angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE).
Angiotensin II not only stimulates aldosterone secretion, but it also causes
blood vessels to vasoconstrict and stimulates cells of the kidney to increase
Na+ reabsorption.
Other factors that stimulate aldosterone secretion include a decrease in plasma Na+
and/or an increase in plasma K+.
Similarly, a pituitary hormone called adrenocorticotropin hormone (ACTH)
stimulates aldosterone secretion.
Conversely, when blood volume is elevated, there is increased stretch of the right
atrium of the heart which stimulates the release of the peptide hormone, atrial
natriuretic peptide (ANP).
ANP decreases aldosterone secretion, and also acts upon the kidney leading
to an increase in Na+ excretion into urine.
Hypersecretion of aldosterone results in an increase in plasma Na+ and a decrease in
plasma K+.
As a result of the increase in plasma Na+, blood pressure tends to be
elevated.
As a result of the decrease in plasma K+ patients tend to experience muscle
weakness and a variety of cardiac arrhythmias.
Hyposecretion of aldosterone occurs as a result of Addisons disease.

Cortisol:
 Cortisol acts on cells to synthesize new glucose, mobilize fatty acids, and break down
proteins.
Cortisol secretion is stimulated by ACTH, itself stimulated by the hypothalamic
factor called corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH).
Under conditions of hypoglycemia and physiological stress, CRH secretion increases
and as a result, pituitary release of ACTH also increases.
A tumor involving corticotropes of the pituitary will result in elevated levels of
ACTH.
As a result cortisol secretion will increase, leading to an increase in plasma
glucose concentrations along with a reduction in skeletal muscle mass.
Hyposecretion of the adrenal cortex involving both aldosterone and cortisol is called
Addisons disease.
Under these conditions, low:
plasma glucose concentrations
plasma Na+
blood pressure
Elevated:
plasma K+

Glucagon and Insulin:

Glucagon is secreted by alpha cells of the pancreas
Insulin is secreted by beta cells
Both glucagon and insulin are protein hormones.
Glucagon is secreted in response to a fall in blood glucose
Insulin is secreted in response to elevated plasma glucose.
Glucagon stimulates the liver to increase glycogen breakdown
producing an increase in plasma glucose concentrations.
In addition, glucagon also leads to an increase in the plasma concentrations
of amino acids
Insulin stimulates the liver to increase glycogen synthesis, thereby reducing plasma
glucose concentrations.
In addition, insulin also stimulates certain cell types to increase glucose
uptake, also leading to decreases in plasma glucose.
Diabetes mellitus a person is unable to produce or utilize insulin
involves an increase in blood glucose and an increase in urine glucose.
The excess glucose in urine prevents water absorption giving rise to polyuria
and excessive thirst known as insulin.
Type I diabetes involves a lack of insulin.
Type II diabetes involves a lack of insulin receptors
 When a type I diabetic injects too much insulin, this results in a condition called
hyperinsulinism involving a decrease in blood glucose.
 Anatomy of the Digestive System
Overview to Digestive System Function:
Constancy of the internal environment involves the supply of nutrients to our cells in
order to make ATP.
In the form that it is consumed, much of the food that we eat cannot be used as
fuel for ATP production, but instead must be broken down into simpler molecules.
The process of breaking down food into simple nutrients that can be
absorbed is called digestion.
The process of digestion involves two distinct phases called mechanical digestion
and chemical digestion.
Mechanical digestion the physical breakdown and solubilizing of food.
begins in the oral cavity.
Chemical digestion the action of enzymes which catalyze the conversion of food
into simpler molecules.
Each digestive enzyme has a pH optimum which indicates the pH at which the
enzyme functions best. t
pH optimum of pepsin is approximately pH 2.o
pH optimum of amylase is approximately pH 7.4
Each digestive enzyme also has a substrate specificity which indicates which
nutrients the enzyme acts upon.
Amylase breaks down polysaccharides into dissachharides
Lipase breaks down triglycerides into glycerol
Peptidases break down fatty acids into peptide fragments
Enzymes reach the lumen of the GI tract by the process of secretion which involves
either exocrine glands or glands within the organ mucosa.
In other cases, enzymes are embedded in the cell membranes of lining cells
absorption nutrient molecules are taken up from the GI tract lumen.
Most nutrients pass to blood capillaries but large fats pass first to lymphatic
capillaries
The lumen of the digestive system is open to the external environment, meaning that
structural specializations are needed to prevent invasion by foreign material.
Further, the digestive system also contains many cells of the immune system
that are responsible for killing any invading organisms.

Overview to Digestive System Organs:

Anatomically, the digestive system can be subdivided into the:
GI tract
accessory digestive organs & glands
 The GI tract extends from the mouth to the anus and consists of the following
organs:
oral cavity
pharynx
esophagus
stomach
small intestine
large intestine
The accessory GI glands are all examples of exocrine glands whose ducts drain to the
lumen of GI tract
The accessory GI glands include:
parotid
submandibular
sublingual
liver
gallbladder
pancreas
Accessory digestive organs located in the oral cavity
teeth
tongue
Organs of the GI tract are partially isolated by muscular sphincters.
Upper esophageal sphincter separates the pharynx and esophagus
Lower esophageal sphincter separates the esophagus and stomach
Pyloric sphincter separates the stomach and small intestine
Ileocolonic sphincter separates the small and large intestines
internal & external anal sphincter found at the anus.
Visceral peritoneum The portion of the peritoneum in contact with a peritoneal
organ.
Consists of a single layer of cells called mesothelial cells.
An organ that comes to lie behind the peritoneum is referred to as being
retroperitoneal
The structure through which blood vessels and nerves pass to and from peritoneal
organs is called a mesentery.
Ascites An over-accumulation of peritoneal fluid
Peritonitis Infection of the peritoneum
Of the four basic histological layers, the one that lies closest to the lumen is called the
mucosa
Named because of the presence of glands which secrete mucus onto the
luminal surface.
 Besides the epithelium, the mucosa also includes the lamina propria &
muscularis mucosa
The layer immediately subjacent to the mucosa is called the submucosa.
Below that is the muscularis externa which in most organs consists of an inner
circular layer and an outer longitudinal layer
Sphincters are created as thickenings of the inner circular layer.
Finally, the outermost layer is called the adventitia (or serosa if the organ is covered
by peritoneum).

The Mouth:
In the general sense the oral cavity is a space bounded by the cheeks, lips, palate, &
tongue. Actually the vestibule is the space located between the teeth and gums >
cheeks and lips, whereas the oral cavity proper is the space between the teeth and
gums> pharynx.
The name of the skeletal muscle found in histological sections of the lip is the
orbiculares oris
The labial frenulum is a small fold of tissue that connects the lips to the gums.
Two palates:
hard palate
soft palate
The structure that dangles down from the back of the soft palate is called the uvula.
The two arches that descend from the palate are called the palatoglossal &
palatopharyngeal
The lingual frenulum is a structure that attaches the tongue to the floor of the mouth.
The sulcus terminalis divides the tongue into anterior 2/3s and posterior 1/3.
The lingual tonsils are found in the posterior 1/3 of the tongue.
The tongue has several types of specialized structures called papillae.
Filiform papillae pointed structures that help the tongue to develop friction
with the food.
Fungiform & circumvallate papillae mushroom-shaped
Teeth are classified as:
incisors
canines
premolars
molars
The portion of a tooth that extends above the gingiva is called the crown and is
covered by a material called enamel.

The portion of a tooth that lies within the socket is called the root.
 In this region the outer surface of the tooth is covered by a material called dentin.
The clinical name for a cavity is dental caries which results from a gradual
demineralization of the enamel and dentin through bacterial action.
gingivitis inflammation of the gums

The Pharynx:
The pharynx is divided into three portions:
nasopharynx
eustachian tube
oropharynx
laryngopharynx
Histologically, the pharynx is lined by an epithelium called stratified squamous.
possess a lamina propria
lacks a submucosa
the muscularis externa consists of skeletal muscle
organized into inner longitudinal and outer circular layers.

The Esophagus:
The esophagus is a muscular tube which conveys food and drink from the
pharynx to the stomach.
In so doing, the esophagus passes through a hole in the diaphragm called the
esophageal hiatus
At the junction of the esophagus and stomach there is a structure called the lower
esophageal sphincter (LES), which represents a physiological instead of an
anatomical sphincter because of the lack of any structural specialization.
In the esophagus the epithelium is stratified squamous
The components of the wall of the esophagus vary between different regions.
in the upper 1/3 of the esophagus, the muscle type in the muscularis externa
is exclusively skeletal muscle
lower 1/3, there is only smooth muscle in this layer.
the muscular mucosa becomes an increasingly intact layer moving from
upper to lower regions.
Heartburn is attributable to esophageal reflux, which when persistent can give rise to
a condition known as esophagitis

The Stomach:
 chyme food and drink are converted into a paste-like substance
rugae Series of folds when the stomach is empty
The size of the stomach can vary considerably.
Anatomically, the stomach is subdivided into four regions:
cardia
fundus
body
pyloric region
fundus & body histologically indistinguishable
The mucosa is organized into a series of depressions called gastric pits which lead to
gastric glands which extend nearly as far as the muscularis mucosa.
mucous columnar cell The cell type that lines the surface and pits of all regions of
the stomach
their main secretory product is mucous which forms a protective layer along
the epithelial surface.
Within the body and fundus of the stomach, the gastric glands contain additional cell
types.
parietal cells secrete stomach acid and intrinsic factor
chief cells, on the other hand secrete pepsinogen and small amounts of
gastric lipase.
throughout the stomach mucosa are found cells called enteroendocrine cells
which release hormones, in this case the hormone gastrin
The pyloric and cardiac portions of the stomach can be distinguished by the relative
lengths of their pits and glands.
In the pyloric stomach the pit/gland ratio is higher than that of the cardiac stomach.
Among the mechanisms that protect the wall of the stomach from the corrosive
effects of stomach acid include:
tight junctions
mucus layer
an elevated rate of cellular turnover
Ulcers are attributable to bacterial infections by H. pylori.
The effects of ulcers can be minimized by decreasing HCl secretion and
chemical buffering of the stomach acid.
 Anatomy of the Digestive System II
The Small Intestine:
The small intestine extends from the pyloric sphincter to the ileocolonic sphincter
The three portions of the small intestine:
duodenum
jejunum
ileum
The duodenum receives the exocrine secretions from the liver & pancreas
The mucosa throughout the small intestine is organized into projections called villi
and glands which are also called crypts.
plicae circulates Superimposed on this arrangement, in many places
projections of the submucosa pushing the mucosa ahead into the lumen
The epithelium throughout the small intestine consists of the tissue type simple
columnar epithelium
Within this epithelium the cell types are predominantly
columnar absorptive cells
goblet cells
At the base of the crypts are found two additional cell types:
paneth cells which secrete lysozyme
enteroendocrine cells which secrete the hormones CCK & secretin
There are a number of structural specializations for increasing surface area in the
small intestine:
microvilli
villi
plicae circulares
Brunners glands Special mucous glands in the submucosa of the duodenum,
responsible for neutralizing stomach acid coming through the pyloric
sphincter.
Goblet cell frequency increases as a function of distance along the small intestine
Paneth cell frequency increases as a function of distance along the small intestine.
Ileocolonic sphincter At the junction with the large intestine

The Large Intestine:

The large intestine extends from the ileocolonic sphincter to the
anal canal
It is referred to as large because of its diameter
The four principal divisions of the large intestine are the:
cecum
 colon
rectum
anal canal
The colon itself is subdivided into:
ascending
transverse
descending
sigmoid
The longitudinal layer of the muscularis externa is organized into
three longitudinal bands called teniae colo.
Contraction of this muscle throws the colon wall into pocket-like sacs called
haustra
Right colic (hepatic) flexure the transition from the ascending to transverse colon
Left colic (splenic) flexure the transition from transverse to descending colon.
The internal anal sphincter is composed of smooth muscle
The external anal sphincter is composed of skeletal muscle tissue.
The large intestine contains no villi or plicae circulares, but does contain crypts.
The two basic cell types in the surface epithelium are the columnar absorptive cells
and the goblet cells
Goblet cells more frequent
Unlike the small intestine, paneth cells are absent.
The vermiform appendix is usually attached to the cecum of the large intestine
although it can be found attached to the ileum or as high up as the ascending colon.
This histology of the appendix is similar to that of the small intestine.
Because the appendix is a blind-ended sac, it can become easily inflamed, a
condition known as appendicitis

The Salivary Glands:

The circular arrangement of secretory cells is called a(n) acinus, (two basic types):
mucous acini
serous acini
In addition the combination of the two is often observed, in this case referred
to as a mucous acinus with a serous demilune
Nuclei of serous cells are round whereas those of mucous are flattened.
Myoepithelial cells surround the outside of acini and are contractile.
Intralobular ducts are classifed as:
intercalated ducts
lined by a simple cuboidal epithelium
 striated ducts
lined by simple columnar epithelium.
The three paired salivary glands:
parotid glands
consists almost exclusively of serious acini
lies in the subcutaneous tissue just in front of the ear
duct opens just opposite the upper second molar
submandibular glands
duct opens just lateral to the lingual frenulum
sublingual glands
predominately mucous acini
consist of a series of glands that lie in the floor of the mouth and
empty via multiple interlobular ducts

The Pancreas:
Relative to the peritoneum, the pancreas is considered to be a retroperitoneal organ
It consists of three portions:
head
body
tail
The exocrine secretions of the pancreas originate from pancreatic acinar cells which
contain zymogen granules in their apical cytoplasm.
Centroacinar cells can be found in the middle of the serous acini.
Zymogen granules contain digestive enzymes that include:
lipase
amylase
peptides
The main pancreatic duct joins the common bile duct to form a dilated structure
called the hepatopancreatic ampulla which opens to the duodenum.
There is a sphincter there called the sphincter of Oddi
Scattered among the serous acini are pancreatic islets which have endocrine
functions.
The main type of intralobular duct is the intercalated duct.

The Liver
The main exocrine secretion of the liver is bile, which is produced by cells called
hepatocytes.
 This secretion is stored in an organ called the gallbladder.
The right and left bile ducts converge to form the common hepatic duct
which in turn joins the cystic duct to form the common bile duct.
The liver receives a dual blood supply from the hepatic artery
and the portal vein.
Branches of both of these vessels can be found within portal triads.
Hepatic lobules The hexagonal structures within the liver are
Blood from the portal triads passes to a capillary space called a hepatic sinusoid
Blood within the hepatic sinusoids drains to a structure called the central vein which
in turn drains to hepatic veins.
Hepatitis Inflammation of the liver due to viral infection