Refrigeration and Airconditioning by S K Mondal T&Q .0001

1.
Heat Pump and Refrigeration

Cycles and Systems
Theory at a Glance (For IES, GATE, PSU)
Refrigeration is the science of the producing and maintaining temperature below that of the
surrounding atmosphere.
Production of refrigeration:
(a) By melting of a solid.
(b) By sublimation of a solid.
(c) By evaporation of a liquid.
Refrigeration system:
1. Ice refrigeration system.
2. Air refrigeration system.
3. Vapour compression refrigeration system.
4. Vapour absorption refrigeration system.
5. Special refrigeration system.
i. Adsorption refrigeration system.
ii. Cascade refrigeration system.
iii. Mixed refrigeration system.
iv. Votex tube refrigeration system.
v. Thermoelectric refrigeration system.
vi. Steam jet refrigeration system.
Heat Engine, Heat Pump

Heat engines, Refrigerators, Heat pumps:
A heat engine may be defined as a device that operates in a thermodynamic cycle and does
a certain amount of net positive work through the transfer of heat from a high
temperature body to a low temperature body. A steam power plant is an example of
a heat engine.
A refrigerator may be defined as a device that operates in a thermodynamic cycle and
transfers a certain amount of heat from a body at a lower temperature to a body at a
higher temperature by consuming certain amount of external work. Domestic
refrigerators and room air conditioners are the examples. In a refrigerator, the required
output is the heat extracted from the low temperature body.
A heat pump is similar to a refrigerator, however, here the required output is the heat
rejected to the high temperature body.
Page 1 of 263
Hea
at Pump & Refriigeratio
on Cycle
es and Systems
Cha
apter 1
Fig. (a) Heat Eng

gine (b) Re
efrigeratio
on and heat pump c
cycles
Fig
g. Comparison of he
eat engine, heat pum
mp and refrigeratin
ng machin
ne
C
Carnots t
theorem
ms for hea
at engine
es:
Th heorem 1: 1 It is imp
possible to construct a heat enngine that operates bbetween two thermal
reeservoirs and
a is morre efficient than a reversible
r engine
e opeerating bettween the same two
reeservoirs.
Thheorem 2:: All reverssible heat en
ngines operrating betw
ween the same two theermal reservoirs have
th
he same theermal efficieency.
Thhe two theeorems cann be proved
d by carryiing out a thought
t exp periment a
and with thhe help of
seecond law. Carnots th
heorems ca
an also be formed
f for refrigeratoors in a ma
anner simillar to heat
enngines.
Carnot efficiency: Th he Carnot efficiencies
e are the effficiencies off completelly reversib ble cycles
op
perating beetween twoo thermal reservoirs.
r According to Carnotts theorem ms, for any given two
th
hermal reseervoirs, thee Carnot effficiency rep
presents the maximum m possible eefficiency.
Page 2 of 263
He
eat Pum
mp & Refrigerattion Cyc
cles and
d System
ms
Ch
hapter 1
Thermall efficiency at engine ( HE ) is de

y for a hea efined as:
Wcycle QC
HE = =1
QH QH
Where Wcycle
c is the net
n work ou utput, QC an nd QH and are the heat rejected to the low temperatu ure
reservoir and heat added
a (heatt input) from
m the high temperatu ure reservoir, respectiively.
Q
It follows from Ca arnots theeorem tha at for a reversible
r cycle C is a function
f of
QH
Q
temperatures of th he two reserrvoirs only. i.e. C = (TC , TH ) .
QH
If we chooose the absolute (Kelvvin) temperrature scale
e then:
QC T
= C
QH TH
QC T
hence, Carnot,HE = 1 = 1 C
QH TH
The efficiency of reffrigerator and
a heat puump is called as Coeffficient off Performa
ance (COP P).
Similarly to heat en ngines, Caarnot coefficcient of pe
erformance for heat p
pump and refrigeratoors
(COP) HP and
a (COP) R can be wrritten as;
QH QH TH
COPCarnot,HHP = = =
Wcycle QH QC TH TC
QC QC TC
COPCarnot,RR = = =
Wcyycle QH QC TH TC
Where
Wcyccle = workk input to the
t reversibble heat pu
ump and reffrigerator
QH = heatt transferreed between
n the system
m and the hot
h reservoiir
QC = heatt transferreed between
n the system
m and cold reservoir
TH = temp
perature off the hot reeservoir.
Page 3 of 263
Heat Pump & Refrigeration Cycles and Systems
Chapter 1
TC = temperature of the cold reservoir.
Although we have treated them as the same to this point, refrigeration and heat pump cycles
actually have different objectives. The objective of a refrigeration cycle is to cool a refrigerated
space or to maintain the temperature within a dwelling or other building below that of the
surroundings. The objective of a heat pump is to maintain the temperature within a dwelling or
other building above that of the surroundings or to provide heating for certain industrial
processes that occur at elevated temperatures.
Since refrigeration and heat pump cycles have different objectives, their performance
parameters, called coefficients of performance, are defined differently. These coefficients of
performance are considered next.
Refrigeration Cycles
The performance of refrigeration cycles can be described as the ratio of the amount of energy
received by the system undergoing the cycle from the cold body, Qin, to the
Net work into the system to accomplish this effect, Wcycle.
Thus, the coefficient of performance, (COP ) R is
Qin Coefficient of
(COP )R = ( For Refrigeration cycle ) performance:
Wcycle refrigeration
Introducing an alternative expression for (COP ) R is obtained as
Qin
(COP )R = ( For Refrigeration cycle )
Qout Qin
For a household refrigerator, Qout is discharged to the space in which the refrigerator is located.
Wcycle is usually provided in the form of electricity to run the motor that drives the refrigerator.
Heat Pump Cycles

The performance of heat pumps can be described as the ratio of the amount of energy discharged
from the system undergoing the cycle to the hot body, Qout, to the net work into the system to
accomplish this effect, Wcycle. Thus, the coefficient of performance, (COP )HP is
Qout Coefficient of
(COP )HP = ( For heat pump cycle) performance: heat
Wcycle pump
Introducing an alternative expression for this coefficient of performance is obtained as

Qout
(COP )HP = ( For heat pump cycle )
Q out Qin
From this equation it can be seen that the value of (COP )HP is never less than unity. For
residential heat pumps, the energy quantity Qin is normally drawn from the surrounding
atmosphere, the ground, or a nearby body of water. Wcycle is usually provided by electricity. The
coefficients of performance (COP )R and (COP )HP are defined as ratios of the desired heat
transfer effect to the cost in terms of work to accomplish that effect. Based on the definitions, it
is desirable thermodynamically that these coefficients have values that are as large as possible.
Page 4 of 263
He
eat Pum
cles and
d System
ms
Ch
hapter 1
An idea about
a the approximat
a te magnitude of the numerical
n v
values of th
hese coefficcients can be
had from the followwing approx ximate calcculations. The
T thermaal efficiencyy of a heatt engine is of
the order of 30 per cent
c (say) soo that
QH QC
th = = 0.3
QH
Then, if the
t enginee is reverseed in opera
ation to, work
w as a refrigerator
r r or a heat pump wiith
operatingg conditionss unchangeed (although in actuall practice th
he operatin
ng tempera
atures will be
different), we should
d have
QC 1 th
OP)R =
(CO = = 2.33
QH QC th
t
and
QH 1
OP)HP =
(CO = = 3.33
QH QC thh
Reverrsed Ca
arnot Cycle
C
Reverse
ed Carno
ot cycle employin
ng a gas
s
Reversed Carnot cyccle is an id
deal refrig geration cycle for coonstant tem mperature external
e heeat
source an
nd heat sinnks. Figuree below sh hows the scchematic of a reverseed Carnot refrigeratiion
system using
u a gaas as the working fluidfl alongg with the cycle dia agram on T-s and P-v
P
coordinates. As show
wn, the cyclle consists of the following four processes:
p
Process 1-2: Reverssible, adiabbatic comprression in a compressoor.
Process 2-3: Reverssible, isotheermal heatt rejection in
i a compreessor.
Process 3-4: Reverssible, adiabbatic expan
nsion in a tuurbine.
Process 4-1: Reverssible, isotheermal heatt absorptionn in a turbiine.
Fig
g. Schema
atic of a re
everse Car
rnot refrig
geration system
Page 5 of 263
Chapter 1
Fig. Reverse Carnot refrigeration system in P-v and T-s coordinates
The heat transferred during isothermal processes 2 3 and 4 1 is given by:

3
q23 = T .ds = Th ( s3 s2 )
2
1
q4 1 = T .ds = T1 ( s1 s4 )
4
s1 = s2 and s3 = s4 , hence s2 s3 = s1 s4
Applying first law of thermodynamics to the closed cycle,
q = ( q41 + q23 ) = w = (w23 w41 ) = wnet
The work of isentropic expansion, w3 4 exactly matches the work of isentropic compression w1 2 .
The COP of the Carnot system is given by:
q T
(COP )Carnot = 41 = 1
wnet Th T1
Thus the COP of the Carnot system depends only on the refrigeration (T1) and heat rejection
(Th) temperatures only.
Effect of Operating Temperature: We, thus, see that the Carnot COP depends on the
operating temperatures Tk and To only. It does not depend on the working substance
(refrigerant) used.
For cooling, To is the refrigeration temperature and Tk is the temperature of heat rejection to
the surroundings. The lowest possible refrigeration temperature is To = 0.
(Absolute zero) at which (COP)R = 0. The highest possible refrigeration temperature is To = Tk,
i.e., when the refrigeration temperature is equal to the temperature of the surroundings
(ambient) at which (COP)R =. Thus, Carnot COP for cooling varies between 0 and .
For heating, To is the temperature of heat absorption from the surroundings and Tk is the
heating temperature. Theoretically, the COP for heating varies between 1 and . It may,
therefore, be noted that to obtain maximum possible COP in any application.
(i) The cold body temperature To should be as high as possible, and
(ii) The hot body temperature Tk should be as low as possible.
The lower the refrigeration temperature required, and higher the temperature of heat rejection
to the surroundings, the larger is the power consumption of the refrigerating machine. Also, the
lower is the refrigeration temperature required, the lower is the refrigerating capacity obtained.
Page 6 of 263
He
eat Pum
cles and
d System
ms
Ch
hapter 1
Limitatiions of Carnot
C cy
ycle:
Carnot cy ycle is an id
dealization and it sufffers from several pracctical limita ations. Onee of the maain
difficultiees with Ca arnot cycle employing g a gas is the difficu ulty of ach hieving isotthermal heeat
transfer during
d abovve processees 2-3 and 4-1. For a gas to hav ve heat tran nsfer isothermally, it is
essential to carry out o work trransfer froom or to thhe system when hea at is transfferred to the
system (p process 4-1)) or from th he system (process 2-3). This is difficult too achieve in n practice. In
addition, the volum metric refriggeration ca
apacity of the
t Carnott system iss very sma all leading to
large commpressor displacementt, which giives rise to o large fricttional effeccts. All actu
ual processses
are irreveersible; hennce complettely reversiible cycles are
a idealiza ations only.
Liquefaction
n of Ga
ases
When a real
r gas wh hich is inittially at a temperatu
ure
lower thaan the maximum inv version tem mperature is
throttled, its temperrature decrreases. This principle is
used by Linde
L in th
he Liquefacction of gases. Refer to
figure bellow for undderstandingg the operatting cycle.
The gas isi compresssed to a high
h pressuure and the en
cooled at constant pressure
p in a counter current he eat
exchangerr with thee cold gas which com mes from th he
separatorr. The coooled gas is i throttled to a lo ow
pressure. Thus some amount of o gas is coonverted in
nto
the liquid
d phase. Thhe two-phasse mixture comes to th he
separatorr. The liquid
d is withdrrawn and th he cold gas is
fed to thee heat exchhanger. Th hen the ga as enters thhe
compressoor along wiith a fresh stream of make up gas g
F
Fig. Liqueffaction off Gases
for liquefa
action.
Produ
uction of
o Solid Ice
Dry ice is used for low w tempera ature
refrigeraation, such
h as to preeserve ice cream
c
and otherr perishablles. The prroperty dia
agram
of CO2 ono the p-h h coordinattes is giveen in
Figure below.
b Thee schemattic diagram m of
producingg solid CO2 and the correspondi
c ing p-
h diagra am are shown
s in Figure below
b
respectiveely.
Fig
g. p-h Diag
gram of CO
O2
Fig
g. Refriger
ration Cyc
cle of a Dr
ry Ice Plant
Fig. Production of Dry Ice-fflow Diagram on p-h Plot
P
Page 7 of 263
Chapter 1
Refrigeration capacity (Ton of refrigeration)
Unit of Refrigeration:
Capacity of refrigeration unit is generally defined in ton of refrigeration. A ton of
refrigeration is defined as the quantity of heat to be removed in order to form one ton
(1000 kg) of ice at 0C in 24 hrs, from liquid water at 0C. This is equivalent to 3.5 kJ/s
(3.5 kW) or 210 kJ/min.
The standard unit of refrigeration in vogue is ton refrigeration or simply ton denoted by the
symbol TR. It is equivalent to the production of cold at the rate at which heat is to be removed
from one US tonne of water at 32F to freeze it to ice at 32F in one day or 24 hours. Thus
1 2,000 lb 144 Btu/lb
1 TR = = 12,000 Btu/hr = 200 Btu/min
24 hr
It can be seen that
12,000
1 TR = 12,000 Btu/hr = = 3,024.2 kcal/hr
3.968
= 50.4 kcal/min 50 kcal/min
1 Ton of refrigeration = 12,660 kJ/h = 211 kJ/min = 3.5 KW
1 Tonne of refrigeration = 14,000 kJ/h
Refrigerating effect qe
( COP)R = =
work done W
( COP)HP = 1 + ( COP )Re f.
1
( COP)HP =
H.E.
Page 8 of 263
He
eat Pum
cles and
d System
ms
Ch
hapter 1
OBJECT
B TIVE QUEST S (GAT
TIONS TE, IES, IAS)
Pre
evious
s 20-Ye
ears GATE
G Questtions
Heat Engine
E e, Heat Pump
GATE-1. The coeffficient off perform mance (COP) of a re efrigerato or working as a he eat
pump is given by: [GA
ATE-1995;; IES-1992, 1994, 200 00]
(a)(COP)heat
h pump = (C
COP) refrigeratoor + 2 (b)(COPP) heat pump = (COP) refrige
erator + 1
(c)(COP)heat pump = (CCOP)refrigeratoor 1 (d)(COPP)heat pump = (COP)refrigeerator
GATE-1. Ans. (b)The
T COP of refrigerrator is on ne less thaan COP oof heat pump, if sam me
refrigerattor starts working
w as heat
h pump i.e. (COP)heat
h pump = (CCOP)refrigerattor + 1
GATE-2. An indusstrial hea at pump operates between th he temper ratures off 27C and
d
13C. Th he rates off heat add
dition and d heat rejjection are 750 W and
a 1000 W,
W
respectiv vely. The COP for the heat pu ump is: [GATE-200
[ 03]
(a) 7.5 (b)) 6.5 (c)) 4.0 (d)) 3.0
Q1 1000
GATE-2. Ans. (c) (COP )HP = = =4
Q1 Q2 10
000 750
GATE-3. Any thermodynam mic cycle

e operatin ng betweeen two teemperatur re limits is
reversible if the product
p off efficienc
cy when operating as a heat engine an nd
the coeffficient of performan
p nce when operatingg as refrig
geration is
s equal to 1.
GATE-3. Ans. Falsee
Efficiency
y Heat en
ngine,
TH TL
HE =
TH

TL
COP of Reefrigeratorr =
TH TL
Product of
o HEE and
COPR 1.
[G
GATE-199
94]
GATE-4. An irreversible heeat enginee extracts heat fromm a high te

emperaturre source at
a rate off 100 kW and rejec cts heat to o a sink at of 50 kW. The entire
a a rate o
work ouutput of the heat engine
e is used to drive
d a re
eversible heat pum mp
operatin
ng between a set off independ dent isoth
hermal he
eat reservooirs at 170C
and 750C.
C The rate e (in kW) at which the heat pump
p delivers heatt to its hig
gh
temperature sink is: [G
GATE -200 09]
(a) 50 (b)) 250 (c)) 300 (d)) 360
Page 9 of 263
Chapter 1
GATE-4. Ans. (c)
Reversed Carnot Cycle

GATE-5. A Carnot cycle refrigerator operates between 250K and 300 K. Its coefficient
of performance is: [GATE-1999]
(a) 6.0 (b) 5.0 (c) 1.2 (d) 0.8
T2 250
GATE-5. Ans. (b) (COP ) R = = =5
T1 T2 300 250
Q
GATE-6. In the case of a refrigeration system undergoing an irreversible cycle,
T
is: [GATE-1995]
(a) < 0 (b) = 0 (c) > 0 (d) Not sure
GATE-6. Ans. (a)

GATE-7. Round the clock cooling of an apartment having a load of 300 MJ/day
requires an air-conditioning plant of capacity about [GATE-1993]
(a) 1 ton (b) 5 tons (c) 10 tons (d) 100 tons
GATE-7. Ans. (a) 211 kJ/min = 1 T refrigeration
300 103
Refrigeration capacity = 1 ton
24 60 211
Previous 20-Years IES Questions

IES-1. A heat pump works on a reversed Carnot cycle. The temperature in the
condenser coils is 27C and that in the evaporator coils is 23C. For a work
input of 1 kW, how much is the heat pumped? [IES-2007]
(a) 1 kW (b) 5 kW (c) 6 kW (d) None of the above
Q T1 300
IES-1. Ans. (c) For heat pump (COP)HP = 1 = = or Q1 = 6 W = 6 kW
W T1 T2 300 250
IES-2. A heat pump is used to heat a house in the winter and then reversed to cool
the house in the summer. The inside temperature of the house is to be
maintained at 20C. The heat transfer through the house walls is 79 kJ/s
and the outside temperature in winter is 5C. What is the minimum power
(approximate) required driving the heat pump? [IES-2006]
(a) 405 W (b) 405 W (c) 425 W (d) 425 W
Q T1 293 7.9 15
IES-2. Ans. (b) (COP )HP = 1 = = or W = kW = 405 W
W T1 T2 15 293
IES-3. A refrigerator based on reversed Carnot cycle works between two such
temperatures that the ratio between the low and high temperature is 0.8. If
a heat pump is operated between same temperature range, then what would
be its COP? [IES-2005]
(a) 2 (b) 3 (c) 4 (d) 5
T2 T1
IES-3. Ans. (d) = 0.8 or (COP )H .P = =5
T1 T1 T2
Page 10 of 263
Chapter 1
IES-4. A heat pump for domestic heating operates between a cold system at 0C
and the hot system at 60C. What is the minimum electric power
consumption if the heat rejected is 80000 kJ/hr? [IES-2003]
(a) 2 kW (b) 3 kW (c) 4 kW (d) 5 kW
IES-4. Ans. (c) For minimum power consumption,
Q1 Q2 Q1 Q2 W
= = =
T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2
Q1 Q2 Q1 Q2 W
= = =
T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2
T1 T2 80000 333 273
W = Q1 = = 4 kW
T1 3600 333
IES-5. Assertion (A): If a domestic refrigerator works inside an adiabatic room

with its door open, the room temperature gradually decreases.
Reason (R): Vapour compression refrigeration cycles have high COP
compared to air refrigeration cycles. [IES-2009]
(a)Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct explanation of A.
(b)Both A and R are individually true but R is not the correct explanation of A.
(c)A is true but R is false.
(d)A is false but R is true.
IES-5. Ans. (d)
IES-6. A refrigerator working on a reversed Carnot cycle has a C.O.P. of 4. If it

works as a heat pump and consumes 1 kW, the heating effect will be:
(a) 1 KW (b) 4 KW (c) 5 KW (d) 6 KW [IES-2003]
IES-6. Ans. (c) (COP)Heat pump = (COP)refrigerator + 1 = 4 + 1 = 5

Q1 Heating effect
or (COP)Heat pump = =
W work input
or Heating effect, Q1 = W x (COP)Heat pump = 5 kW
IES-7. Assertion (A): An air-conditioner operating as a heat pump is superior to an

electric resistance heater for winter heating. [IES-2009]
Reason (R): A heat pump rejects more heat than the heat equivalent of the
heat absorbed.
(a)Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct explanation of A.
(b)Both A and R are individually true but R is not the correct explanation of A.
(c)A is true but R is false.
(d)A is false but R is true.
IES-7. Ans. (a)
IES-8. The coefficient of performance (COP) of a refrigerator working as a heat

pump is given by: [IES-1992, 1994, 2000; GATE-1995]
(a)(COP)heat pump = (COP)refrigerator+ 2 (b) (COP)heat pump = (COP)refrigerator+ 1
(c)(COP)heat pump = (COP)refrigerator 1 (d) (COP)heat pump = (COP)refrigerator
IES-8. Ans. (b) The COP of refrigerator is one less than COP of heat pump, if same refrigerator
starts working as heat pump i.e. (COP)heat pump = (COP)refrigerator + 1
IES-9. A heat pump operating on Carnot cycle pumps heat from a reservoir at 300
K to a reservoir at 600 K. The coefficient of performance is: [IES-1999]
(a) 1.5 (b) 0.5 (c) 2 (d) 1
Page 11 of 263
Chapter 1
T1 600
IES-9. Ans. (c) COP of heat pump = = =2
T1 T2 600 300
IES-9a A Carnot heat pump works between temperature limits of 277 C and 27 C.
Its COP is [IES-2010]
(a) 1.108 (b) 1.2 (c) 2.2 (d) 9.26
T1 (273 + 277) 550
IES-9a Ans. (c) (COP)H.P = = = = 2.2
T1 T2 277 27 250
[We may put T1 and T2 in C or in K but T1 T2 will be same]
IES-9b An ideal refrigerator is operating between a condenser temperature of 37 C

and an evaporator temperature of 3 C. If the machine is functioning as a
heat pump, its coefficient of performance will be [IES-2010]
(a) 6.00 (b) 6.75 (c) 7.00 (d) 7.75
T1 (273 + 37) 310
IES-9b Ans. (d) (COP)H.P = = = = 7.75
T1 T2 37 (3) 40
Alternative method
T2 (273 3)
(COP)H.P = (COP)R + 1 = +1 = +1
T1 T2 37 (3)
= 6.75 + 1 = 7.75
IES-10. The thermal efficiency of a Carnot heat engine is 30%. If the engine is
reversed in operation to work as a heat pump with operating conditions
unchanged, then what will be the COP for heat pump? [IES-2009]
(a) 0.30 (b) 2.33 (c) 3.33 (d) Cannot be calculated
IES-10. Ans. (c) Thermal Efficiency = 0.3
T T2
1 2 = 0.3 = 0.7
T1 T1
T1 1 1
COP of heat pump = = = = 3.33
T1 T2 1 0.7 0.3
IES-10a Efficiency of a Carnot engine is 75%. If the cycle direction is reversed, COP
of the reversed Carnot cycle is [IES-2010]
(a) 1.33 (b) 0.75 (c) 0.33 (d) 1.75
T T T2
IES-10a Ans. (a) = 1 2 = 1
T1 T1
1 T1 1
(COP)H.P = = = = 1.33
T1 T2 0.75
But (COP)R = (COP)H.P 1
= 1.33 1 = 0.33
If the cycle direction is reversed it will be a heat pump not refrigerator. Students
make a common mistake here and calculated (COP)R. We know that the definition
of refrigeration is producing a temperature below atmospheric temperature. In
heat engine lower temperature is atmospheric temperature. When we reverse this
cycle then lower temperature will be atmospheric and higher temperature will be
more than atmospheric means it will be a Heat Pump not a refrigerator.
IES-11. Operating temperature of a cold storage is 2C From the surrounding at

ambient temperature of 40C heat leaked into the cold storage is 30 kW. If
the actual COP of the plant is 1/10th of the maximum possible COP, then
what will be the power required to pump out the heat to maintain the cold
storage temperature at 2C? [IES-2009]
Page 12 of 263
Chapter 1
(a) 1.90 kW (b) 3.70 kW (c) 20.28 kW (d) 46.50 kW
RE 1 271 30
IES-11. Ans. (d) Actual COP = = W = 46.50 KW
W 10 313 271 W
IES-12. Assertion (A): Heat pump used for heating is a definite advancement over
the simple electric heater. [IES-1995]
Reason (R): The heat pump is far more economical in operation than
electric heater.
(a)Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b)Both A and R are individually true but R is not the correct explanation of A
(c)A is true but R is false
(d)A is false but R is true
IES-12. Ans. (a)
IES-13. A heat pump is shown schematically as [IES-1994]
IES-13. Ans. (c) In heat pump, heat is rejected to source, work done on compressor, and heat
absorbed from sink.
IES-14. A heat pump working on a reversed Carnot cycle has a C.O.P. of 5. lf it

works as a refrigerator taking 1 kW of work input, the refrigerating effect
will be: [IES-1993]
(a) 1 kW (b) 2 kW (c) 2 kW (d) 4 kW
Work done
IES-14. Ans. (d) COP heat pump = or heat rejected = 5 work done
Heat rejected
And heat rejected = refrigeration effect + work input
or, 5 work input work input = refrigeration effect
or, 4 work input = refrigeration effect
or refrigeration effect = 4 1 kW = 4 kW
IES-15. Assertion (A): The coefficient of performance of a heat pump is greater than
that for the refrigerating machine operating between the same temperature
limits. [IES-2002; IAS-2002]
Reason (R): The refrigerating machine requires more energy for working
where as a heat pump requires less.
Page 13 of 263
Chapter 1
IES-15. Ans. (c) R is false. For refrigerating machine our aim is to extract heat from lower
temperature source. In heat pump we are interested on heat addition to higher
temperature side so it is heat extracted + work added. That so why its COP is higher
but work requirement is same for both the machine.
IES-16. The refrigerating efficiency that is the ratio of actual COP to reversible
COP of a refrigeration cycle is 0.8, the condenser and evaporator
temperatures are 50C and 30C respectively. If cooling capacity of the
plant is 2.4 kW then what is the work requirement? [IES-2009]
(a) 1.00 kW (b) 1.33 kW (c) 1.25 kW (d) 2.08 kW
IES-16. Ans. (a) Condenser Temperature = 273 + 51 = 324 K
Evaporator Temperature = 273 30 = 243 K
243
Actual COP = 0.8
324 243
We know that
R.E 243 2.4
Actual COP = 0.8 = W = 1.00 kW
W 324 243 W

IES-17. A refrigerator works on reversed Carnot cycle producing a temperature of
40C. Work done per TR is 700 kJ per ten minutes. What is the value of its
COP? [IES-2005]
(a) 3 (b) 4.5 (c) 5.8 (d) 7.0
700 210
IES-17. Ans. (a) W = kJ/min, Q = 210 kJ/min, COP = =3
10 70
IES-18. The coefficient of performance of a refrigerator working on a reversed

Carnot cycle is 4. The ratio of the highest absolute temperature to the
lowest absolute temperature is: [IES-1999; IAS-2003]
(a) 1.2 (b) 1.25 (c) 3.33 (d) 4
T2 1
IES-18. Ans. (b) ( COP )Refrigerator of reversed Carnot cycle = = =4
T1 T2 T1
1
T2
T1 T1
or 1 = 0.25 or = 1.25
T2 T2
IES-19. In an ideal refrigeration (reversed Carnot) cycle, the condenser and

evaporator temperatures are 27C and 13C respectively. The COP of this
cycle would be: [IES-1997]
(a) 6.5 (b) 7.5 (c) 10.5 (d) 15.0
IES-19. Ans. (a) COP =

T1
=
( 273 13 ) = 6.5
T2 T1 ( 273 + 27 ) ( 273 13 )
IES-19a In a refrigeration plant, if the condenser temperature increases, the power

input to the compressor will [IES-2011]
(a) Increase (b) Decrease (c) Remain the same (d) Be unpredictable
IES-19a Ans. (a)
Page 14 of 263
Chapter 1
IES-20. A refrigerating machine working on reversed Carnot cycle takes out 2 kW of
heat from the system at 200 K while working between temperature limits of
300 K and 200 K. C.O.P. and power consumed by the cycle will, respectively,
be: [IES-1997; IAS-2004]
(a) 1 and 1 kW (b) 1 and 2 kW (c) 2 and 1 kW (d) 2 and 2 kW
T2 200 Q
IES-20. Ans. (c) COP = = =2=
T1 T2 300 200 W
Q
Given, Q = 2 kW; W = = 1 kW
2
IES-20a A refrigerator operates between the temperatures of 23C and 27C. If one TR = 3.5
kW, the minimum power required per TR to operate the refrigerator is [IES-2010]
(a) 0.5 kW (b) 0.7 kW (c) 0.9 kW (d) 1.0 kW
T2 Q2
IES-20a Ans. (b) Maximum COP = =
T1 T2 Wm in
Q2 Q (T1 T2 )
Wmin = = 2
COP T2
3.5 {( 273 + 27 ) (273 23)}
=
(273 23)
= 0.7 kW
IES-21. A Carnot refrigerator requires 1.5 kW/ton of refrigeration to maintain a

region at a temperature of 30C. The COP of the Carnot refrigerator is:
(a) 1.42 (b) 2.33 (c) 2.87 (d) 3.26 [IES-2003]
Q2 3.5
IES-21. Ans. (b) COP of Carnot refrigerator = = = 2.33 As 1 TR 3.5 kW
W 1.5
IES-22. In the above figure, E is a heat

engine with efficiency of 0.4 and
R is a refrigerator. Given that Q2
+ Q4 = 3Q1 the COP of the
refrigerator is:
(a) 2.5 (b) 3.0
(c) 4.0 (d) 5.0
[IES-1992]
Q2
IES-22. Ans. (d) For heat engine, efficiency = 1 = 0.4 or Q2 = 0.6Q1
Q1
And for refrigerator,
W + Q = Q4 or (Q1 Q2) + Q3 = Q4 or Q1 + Q3 = Q2 + Q4 = 3Q1
Therefore 2 Q1 = Q3
Q Q3 2Q1
COP of refrigerator = 3 = = =5
W Q1 Q2 Q1 0.6Q1
IES-23. For a given value of TH (Source temperature) for a reversed Carnot cycle,
the variation of TL (Sink temperature) for different values of COP is
represented by which one of the following graphs? [IES-2009]
Page 15 of 263
Hea
at Pump & Refriigeratio
on Cycle
es and Systems
Cha
apter 1
TL
ES-23. Anss. (c) COP =
IE
TH TL
COP is on y-axis
- and TL on x-axis
x
y=
K x
Curvee (C) is thhe correct representation of ab
bove equation since it passes
th
hrough the origin.
P
Produc tion off Solid Ice
IE
ES-24. Inn a vapour compresssion refrigeration cycle for making ic ce, the con
ndensing
teemperatur re for highher COP [IIES-2006]
(aa) Should be near the criticall temperatuure of the refrigerant
(bb) Should be abovee the critica
al temperatture of the refrigerantt
(cc) Should be muchh below the critical temmperature of the refriigerant
(dd) Could
d be of any value as itt does not affect
a the COP
IE
ES-24. Anss. (c)
IE
ES-25. Assertion (A):
A ( Quick k freezing g of food materials helps retain the original
teexture of food
f materials and taste of ju uices. [IIES-1994]
R
Reason (R)): Quick fr reezing ca auses the formation
f of smalleer crystals
s of water
w
which doess not dama age the tisssue cells of food materials.
m
(aa) Both A and R arre individually true an nd R is the correct expplanation of
o A
(bb) Both A and R arre individually true bu ut R is nott the correct explanatiion of A
(cc) A is true
t but R is
i false
(dd) A is false
f but R is true
IE
ES-25. Anss. (c) A is true
t but R is false. Quick-freezing processes could keeep large icce crystals
frrom forming g in the fooods and hellp thawed foods
f retain
n fresh tastte and textu
ure.
R
Refrige ration capaciity (Ton
n of reffrigera
ation)
IE
ES-26. One ton reffrigeration is equiv
O valent to: [IIES-1999]
(a
a) 3.5 kW (b) 50
0 kJ/s (c) l000 J/min (d) 10
000 kJ/min
n
IE
ES-26. Anss. (a)
Page 16 of 263
Chapter 1
IES-27. In a one ton capacity water cooler, water enters at 30C at the rate of 200
litres per hour. The outlet temperature of water will be (sp. heat of water =
4.18 kJ/kg K) [IES-2001; 2003]
(a) 3.5C (b) 6.3C (c) 23.7 C (d) 15C
IES-27. Ans. (d) 3.516 3600 = 4.18 200 (300 x )
or x = 14.98C 15C
IES-28. A refrigerating machine having coefficient of performance equal to 2 is used

to remove heat at the rate of 1200 kJ/min. What is the power required for
this machine? [IES-2007]
(a) 80 kW (b) 60 kW (c) 20 kW (d) 10 kW
Q Q 1200
IES-28. Ans. (d) COP = or W = = = 10 kW
W COP 60 2
IES-29. A Carnot refrigerator has a COP of 6. What is the ratio of the lower to the
higher absolute temperatures? [IES-2006]
(a) 1/6 (b) 7/8 (c) 6/7 (d) 1/7
T2 T 1 7 T 6
IES-29. Ans. (c) (COP ) R = = 6 or 1 = 1 + = ; 2 =
T1 T2 T2 6 6 T1 7
IES-30. A reversed Carnot cycle working as a heat pump has a COP of 7. What is the
ratio of minimum to maximum absolute temperatures? [IES-2005]
(a) 7/8 (b) 1/6 (c) 6/7 (d) 1/7
T1 T1 T2 1 T 6
IES-30. Ans. (c) (COP )H .P = =7 or = or 2 =
T1 T2 T1 7 T1 7
IES-31. Which one of the following statements is correct? [IES-2004]

In a domestic refrigerator periodic defrosting is required because frosting
(a) Causes corrosion of materials (b)Reduces heat extraction
(c) Overcools food stuff (d)Partially blocks refrigerant flow
IES-31. Ans. (b)
IES-32. Consider the following statements: [IES-1997]

In the thermoelectric refrigeration, the coefficient of performance is a
function of:
1. Electrical conductivity of materials
2. Peltier coefficient
3. Seebeck coefficient
4. Temperature at cold and hot junctions
5. Thermal conductivity of materials.
Of these statements:
(a) 1, 3, 4 and 5 are correct (b) 1, 2, 3 and 5 are correct
(c) 1, 2, 4 and 5 are correct (d) 2, 3, 4 and 5 are correct
IES-32. Ans. (c)
IES-33. When the lower temperature is fixed, COP of a refrigerating machine can be
improved by: [IES-1992]
(a) Operating the machine at higher speeds
(b) Operating the machine at lower speeds
(c) Raising the higher temperature
(d) Lowering the higher temperature
IES-33. Ans. (d) In heat engines higher efficiency can be achieved when (T1 T2) is higher. In
refrigerating machines it is the reverse, i.e. (T1 T2) should be lower.
Page 17 of 263
Chapter 1
IES-34. In a 0.5 TR capacity water cooler, water enters at 30C and leaves at
15C.What is the actual water flow rate? [IES-2005]
(a) 50 litres/hour (b) 75 litres/hour (c) 100 litres/hour (d) 125 litres/hour
IES-34. Ans. (c) Q = mCP t or 0.5 12660 = m 4.2 ( 30 15 ) or m = 100 kg/hr
Previous 20-Years IAS Questions

IAS-1. A building in a cold climate is to be heated by a Carnot heat pump. The
minimum outside temperature is 23C. If the building is to be kept at 27C
and heat requirement is at the rate of 30 kW, what is the minimum power
required for heat pump? [IAS-2007]
(a) 180 kW (b) 30 kW (c) 6 kW (d) 5 kW
Q T1 T 250
IAS-1. Ans. (d) (COP)H.P = 1 = or W = Q1 1 2 = 30 1 = 5 KW
W T1 T2 T1 300
IAS-2. In the system given above, the

temperature T = 300 K. When is the
thermodynamic efficiency E of engine E
equal to the reciprocal of the COP of R?
(a) When R acts as a heat pump
(b) When R acts as a refrigerator
(c) When R acts both as a heat pump and a
refrigerator
(d) When R acts as neither a heat pump nor
a refrigerator
[IAS-2007]
300 1 1
IAS-2. Ans. (a) E = 1 = = or COP = 2
600 2 COP
300 150
(COP )H .P = = 2 and (COP )R = =1
300 150 300 150
R must act as a Heat pump
IAS-3. Assertion (A): The coefficient of performance of a heat pump is greater than
that for the refrigerating machine operating between the same temperature
limits. [IAS-2002; IES-2002]
Reason (R): The refrigerating machine requires more energy for working
where as a heat pump requires less.
(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true
Page 18 of 263
Chapter 1
IAS-3. Ans. (c) R is false. For refrigerating machine our aim is to extract heat from lower
temperature source. In heat pump we are interested on heat addition to higher
temperature side so it is heat extracted + work added. That so why its COP is higher
but work requirement is same for both the machine.
IAS-4. In a certain ideal refrigeration cycle, the COP of heat pump is 5. The cycle
under identical condition running as heat engine will have efficiency as
(a) Zero (b) 0.20 (c) 1.00 (d) 6.00 [IAS-2001]
T1 T T2 1 1
IAS-4. Ans. (b) (COP )HP = and = 1 = = = 0.2
T1 T2 T1 ( COP )HP 5
IAS-5. The COP of a Carnot heat pump used for heating a room at 20C by
exchanging heat with river water at 10C is: [IAS-1996]
(a) 0.5 (b) 2.0 (c) 28.3 (d) 29.3
T1 293
IAS-5. Ans. (d) COP = = = 29.3
T1 T2 293 283
IAS-6. Assertion (A): Although a heat pump is a refrigerating system, the coefficient of
performance differs when it is operating on the heating cycle. [IAS-1994]
Reason(R): It is condenser heat that is useful (the desired effect) instead of the
refrigerating effect.
IAS-6. Ans. (a)
IAS-7. In a reversible cycle, the source temperature is 227C and the sink
temperature is 27C. The maximum available work for a heat input of 100 kJ
will be: [IAS-1995]
(a) 100 kJ (b) 60 kJ (c) 40 kJ (d) 88 kJ
500 300
IAS-7. Ans. (c) Maximum efficiency for 227 and 27C sources = = 0.4
500
Maximum work available for a heat input of 100 kJ = 0.4 100 = 40 kJ.

IAS-8. The coefficient of performance of a refrigerator working on a reversed
Carnot cycle is 4. The ratio of the highest absolute temperature to the
lowest absolute temperature is: [IAS-2003; IES-1999]
(a) 1.2 (b) 1.25 (c) 3.33 (d) 4
T2 1
IAS-8. Ans. (b) ( COP ) Refrigerator of reversed Carnot cycle = = = 4
T1 T2 T1
1
T2
T1 T1
or 1 = 0.25 or = 1.25
T2 T2
IAS-9. A refrigeration system operates on the reversed Carnot cycle. The

temperature for the system is: Higher temperature = 40C and Lower
temperature = 20C. [IAS-2007]
The capacity of the refrigeration system is 10 TR. What is the heat rejected
from the system per hour if all the losses are neglected?
(a) 125 kJ/hr (b) 155 kJ/hr (c) 23 kJ/hr (d) None of the above
Page 19 of 263
Chapter 1
T2 293 293 Q2
IAS-9. Ans. (d) COP = = = =
T1 T2 213 293 20 W
20
Q2 = 10 14000 KJ/hr or W = 14 104 KJ/hr
293
20 20
Q1 = Q2 + W = 14 104 + 14 104 = 14 104 1 + KJ/hr = 150 MJ/hr
293 293
IAS-10. A refrigerating machine working on reversed Carnot cycle takes out 2 kW of

heat from the system at 200 K while working between temperature limits of
300 K and 200 K. COP and power consumed by the cycle will, respectively,
be: [IAS-2004; IES-1997]
(a) 1 and 1 kW (b) 1 and 2 kW (c) 2 and 1 kW (d) 2 and 2 kW
T2 200 Q
IAS-10. Ans. (c) COP = = =2=
T1 T2 300 200 W
Q
Given, Q = 2 kW; W= = 1 kW
2
IAS-11. A refrigerating machine working on reversed Carnot cycle consumes 6kW to

produce a refrigerating effect of 1000kJ/min for maintaining a region at
40oC.The higher temperature (in degree centigrade) of the cycle will be:
(a) 317.88 (b) 43.88 (c) 23 (d) Zero [IAS-1997]
IAS-11. Ans. (b) COP =

Q
=
T2
or,
(1000 / 60 ) = 233
W T1 T2 6 T1 233
or, T1 233 = 83.88 or, T1 = 316.88 K = 43.88C
IAS-12. The COP of a Carnot refrigeration cycle decreases on [IAS 1994]

(a)Decreasing the difference in operating temperatures
(b)Keeping the upper temperature constant and increasing the lower temperature
(c)Increasing the upper temperature and keeping the lower temperature constant
(d)Increasing the upper temperature and decreasing the lower temperature
T2
IAS-12. Ans. (c) COP of Carnot refrigerator will decrease if upper temperature T1 is
T1 T2
increased and T2 keeping const.
IAS-13. The efficiency of a Carnot engine is given as 075. If the cycle direction is
reversed, what will be the value of COP for the Carnot refrigerator?
[IAS-2002]
(a) 027 (b) 033 (c) 127 (d) 233
1 1
IAS-13. Ans. (b) 1st method: (COP )R = (COP )H .P 1 = 1 = 1 = 0.33
Carnot 0.75
T2 T 1 T2 1
2nd method: Carnot = 1 = 0.75 or 2 = or = = 0.33 = (COP )R
T1 T1 4 T1 T2 4 1
IAS-14. A Carnot refrigerator works between the temperatures of 200 K and 300 K.
If the refrigerator receives 1 kW of heat the work requirement will be:
[IAS-2000]
(a) 0.5 kW (b) 0.67 kW (c) 1.5 kW (d) 3 kW
Q T2 1 ( 300 200 )
IAS-14. Ans. (a) COP = = or, W = KW = 0.5 KW
W T1 T2 200
Page 20 of 263
Chapter 1
IAS-15. It is proposed to build refrigeration plant for a cold storage to be
maintained at 3C. The ambient temperature is 27C. If 5 106 kJ/h of
energy is to be continuously removed from the cold storage, the MINIMUM
power required to run the refrigerator will be: [IAS-1997]
(a) 14.3 kW (b) 75.3 kW (c) 154.3 kW (d) 245.3 kW
T2 270 Q
IAS-15. Ans. (c) Maximum COP = = =9=
T1 T2 300 270 Wmin
Q 5 106
or Wmin = = kW = 154.3 kW
9 9 3600
IAS-16. If an engine of 40 percent thermal efficiency drives a refrigerator having a

coefficient of performance of 5, then the heat input to the engine for each
kJ of heat removed from the cold body of the refrigerator is:
[IAS-1996]
(a) 0.50kJ (b) 0.75kJ (c) 1.00 kJ (d) 1.25 kJ
W Q
IAS-16. Ans. (a) 0.4 = ...............(i ) and 5 = 2 ..................(ii )
Q1 W
Q2
0.4 Q1 = or Q1 = 0.5Q2
5
IAS-17. A reversible engine has ideal thermal efficiency of 30%. When it is used as a
refrigerating machine with all other conditions unchanged, the coefficient
of performance will be: [IAS-1994, 1995]
(a) 3.33 (b) 3.00 (c) 2.33 (d) 1.33
T T2 T
IAS-17. Ans. (c) Carnot engine = 1 = 0.3 1 2 = 0.3
T1 T1
T2 T2 1 T 1 7
COP Carnot refrigerator = = = = 2 = 0.7 = = 2.33
T1 T2 0.3 T1 0.3 T1 0.3 3
Production of Solid Ice

IAS-18. Assertion (A): When solid CO2 (dry ice) is exposed to the atmosphere, it gets
transformed directly into vapour absorbing the latent heat of sublimation from the
surroundings. [IAS-1997]
Reason (R): The triple point of CO2 is at about 5 atmospheric pressure and at 216 K.
IAS-18. Ans. (a)

IAS-19. Assertion (A): The COP of an air-conditioning plant is lower than that of an ice
plant. [IAS-1997]
Reason (R): The temperatures required in the ice plant are lower than those
required for an air-conditioning plant.
IAS-19. Ans. (d) The COP of an air-conditioning plant is higher than that of an ice plant.
Page 21 of 263
Chapter 1
N
IAS-20. The power (kW) required per ton of refrigeration is , where COP is the
COP
coefficient of performance, then N is equal to: [IAS-2001]
(a) 2.75 (b) 3.50 (c) 4.75 (d) 5.25
Q Q 12660
IAS-20. Ans. (b) COP = or W = ; if W is in KW , Q = kW = 3.52 kW
W COP 3600
IAS-21. Assertion (A):Power input per TR of a refrigeration system increases with decrease
in evaporator temperature. [IAS-2004]
Reason (R): COP of refrigeration system decreases with decrease in evaporator
temperature.
IAS-21. Ans. (a)
Page 22 of 263
2. Va
apou
ur Comp
C pression
n Sys
stem
m
T
Theor
ry at a Glance (Fo
or IES
S, GAT
TE, PSU
U)
Modiffication
ns in Reverse
R ed Carn
not Cycle witth Vapo
our as a
Refrig
gerant
Comparison between ga
as cycles
s and va
apor cyclles
Thermody ynamic cycles can be categorized
c d into gas cycles and vapour
v cyclles. As menntioned in the
previous chapter, in n a typical gas cycle, the workiing fluid (a a gas) does not und dergo pha ase
change; consequently the opeerating cyccle will be away from m the vapou ur dome. In gas cyclees,
heat rejecction and reefrigeration
n take placce as the ga
as undergoees sensible cooling an nd heating. In
a vapour cycle the working
w flu
uid undergooes phase change
c andd refrigerattion effect is due to the
t
vaporization of refriigerant liqquid. If the refrigerannt is a puree substancce then its temperatu ure
remains constant
c du
uring the phase
p channge processe es. Howeveer, if a zeootropic mix xture is ussed
as a refrigerant, theen there wiill be a tem
mperature glide durin ng vaporiza ation and condensatio
c on.
Since thee refrigerattion effect is produceed during phase
p chan
nge, large amount off heat (lateent
heat) can be transfeerred per kiilogram of refrigerantt at a near constant teemperature e. Hence, the
required mass flow rates for a given refrrigeration capacity
c wiill be muchh smaller co ompared too a
gas cycle. Vapour cy ycles can bee subdivideed into vapour compreession systems, vapou ur absorption
systems, vapour
v jet systems ettc. Among these
t the vapour comp pression reefrigeration
n systems are
a
predominnant.
Vapou
ur Com
mpression Cycle
The Carrnot refrigeration
n cycle
Carnot reefrigeration n cycle is a completely rever rsible cyc cle, hence is used ass a model of
perfection n for a refrrigeration cycle
c opera
ating betweeen a consttant tempeerature hea
at source an nd
sink. It iss used as reeference aga
ainst which
h the real cycles
c are compared. F
Figures (a) and (b) shoow
the schem matic of a Carnot
C vap
pour compression refrrigeration system
s andd the opera
ating cycle on
T-s diagra am.
Applying first and seecond lawss of thermod
dynamics to
t the Carn
not refrigera
ation cycle,,
Page 23 of 263
Vapour Compression Systems
Chapter 2
q = w
q = q q
4 1 2 3 = qe qc
w = w w
34 1 2 = wT wC = wnet ( qc qe ) = wnet
Fig. (a) Carnot refrigeration system Fig. (b) Carnot refrigeration cycle on T-s
diagram
Now for the reversible, isothermal heat transfer processes 2-3 and 4-1, we can write:
3 1
qc = q23 = T .ds = Tc ( s2 s3 ) and qe = q4 1 = T .ds = Te ( s1 s4 )
2 4
Where Te and Tc are the evaporator and condenser temperatures, respectively, and
s1 = s2 and s3 = s4
The Coefficient of Performance (COP) is given by:
Refrigeration effect q Te ( s1 s4 ) Te
(COP )carnot = = e = =
Net work input wnet Tc ( s2 s3 ) Te ( s1 s4 ) Tc Te
Thus the COP of Carnot refrigeration cycle is a function of evaporator and condenser
temperatures only and is independent of the nature of the working substance. This is the reason
why exactly the same expression was obtained for air cycle refrigeration systems operating on
Carnot cycle. The Carnot COP sets an upper limit for refrigeration systems operating between
two constant temperature thermal reservoirs (heat source and sink). From Carnots theorems,
for the same heat source and sink temperatures, no irreversible cycle can have COP higher than
that of Carnot COP.
Page 24 of 263
V
Vapour Compre
ession Systems
S
Ch
hapter 2
Fig
g. Carnot refrigerattion cycle representted in T-s plane
It can bee seen from m the abov ve expresssion that the

t COP of o a Carnoot refrigera ation systeem
increases as the eva aporator teemperaturee increases and condeenser tempeerature deccreases. Th his
can be exxplained veery easily with
w the heelp of the T-s
T diagram m (Figure aabove). As shown
s in the
figure, CO
OP is the raatio of area
a a-1-4-b to the area 1-2-3-4. For a fixed con
ndenser temmperature Tc,
as the evvaporator teemperaturee Te increa ases, area a-1-4-b
a (qe) increases and area 1-2-3-4 (wnet
n )
decreasess as a result, COP incrreases rapiidly. Similaarly for a fix
xed evaporrator tempeerature Te, as
the condeensing tem mperature Tc increasees, the nett work inp put (area 1
1-2-3-4) inccreases, ev
ven
though coooling outpput remain ns constantt, as a
result thee COP falls. Figure below
b show
ws the
variation of Carnoot COP with w evapoorator
temperatu ure for different conddenser
temperatu ures. It caan be seen n that thee COP
increases sharply withh evapoorator
temperatu ures, particularly at high condeensing
temperatu ures. COP reduces as a the cond denser
temperatu ure increasses, but the effect becomes
marginal at low ev vaporator temperatur
t res. It
will be shown la ater that actual vapour
v
compressiion refrigerration systtems also behave
b
in a ma anner sim milar to thatt of Carnot
C Fig
g. Effects of evapo orator and d condensser
refrigerattion systems as far as the tempera atures on COP of a standa ard
performan nce trends are concern ned. VCRS cycle
Actua
al Vapo
our Com
mpress
sion Cy
ycle
Practica
al difficu
ulties witth Carnott refrigerration sy
ystem:
It is difficcult to builld and operrate a Carnot refrigeeration systtem due too the follow wing practiccal
difficultiees:
i. During process 1-2, a mixture
m con
nsisting of liquid and d vapour h have to be e compresssed
isenntropically ini the compressor. Su uch a comppression is known as wet comp pression du ue
to the presen nce of liquuid. In pra actice, wet compressioon is very d difficult especially wiith
recipprocating compressor
c rs. This prroblem is particularly severe in case off high speeed
recipprocating compressor
c s, which geet damagedd due to thee presence of liquid drroplets in the
t
vapoour. Even though some types of o compresssors can tolerate
t thee presence e of liquid in
Vapour, since reciprocatin
r ng compresssors are most
m widely
y is refrigerration; tradditionally dry
commpression (compression of va apour only y) is preferrred to wet ccompressio on.
Page 25 of 263
Chapter 2
ii. The second practical difficulty with Carnot cycle is that using a turbine and
extracting work from the system during the isentropic expansion of liquid refrigerant is
not economically feasible, particularly in case of small capacity systems. This is due to the
fact that the specific work output (per kilogram of refrigerant) from the turbine is given by:
Pc
w34 = v.dP
Pe
Since the specific volume of liquid is much smaller compared to the specific volume of a
vapour/gas, the work output from the turbine in case of the liquid will be small. In addition, if
one considers the inefficiencies of the turbine, then the net output will be further reduced. As a
result using a turbine for extracting the work from the high pressure liquid is not economically
justified in most of the cases.
One way of achieving dry compression in Carnot refrigeration cycle is to have two compressors
one isentropic and one isothermal as shown in Figure below:
Fig. Carnot refrigeration system with dry compression

As shown in Figure above, the Carnot refrigeration system with dry compression consists of one
isentropic compression process (1-2) from evaporator pressure Pe to an intermediate pressure Pi
and temperature Tc, followed by an isothermal compression process (2-3) from the intermediate
pressure Pi to the condenser pressure Pc. Though with this modification the problem of wet
compression can be avoided, still this modified system is not practical due to the difficulty in
achieving true isothermal compression using high speed compressors. In addition, use of two
compressors in place of one is not economically justified.
From the above discussion, it is clear that from practical considerations, the Carnot
refrigeration system need to be modified. Dry compression with a single compressor is possible
if the isothermal heat rejection process is replaced by isobaric heat rejection process. Similarly,
the isentropic expansion process can be replaced by an isenthalpic throttling process. A
refrigeration system, which incorporates these two changes, is known as Evans-Perkins or
reverse Rankine cycle. This is the theoretical cycle on which the actual vapour compression
refrigeration systems are based.
Page 26 of 263
Chapter 2
Fig. Standard Vapour compression refrigeration system
Standard Vapour Compression Refrigeration System (VCRS)

Figure shown the schematic of a standard,
saturated, single stage (SSS) vapour
compression refrigeration system and the
operating cycle on a T-s diagram. As shown in
the figure the standard single stage, saturated
vapour compression refrigeration system
consists of the following four processes:
Process 1-2: Isentropic compression of
saturated vapour in compressor
Process 2-3: Isobaric heat rejection in
condenser
Process 3-4: Isenthalpic expansion of
saturated liquid in expansion
device
Process 4-1: Isobaric heat extraction in the Fig. Standard Vapour compression
evaporator. refrigeration cycle
By comparing with Carnot cycle, it can be seen that

the standard vapour compression refrigeration cycle
introduces two irreversibility: 1) Irreversibility due to
non-isothermal heat rejection (process 2-3) and 2.
Irreversibility due to isenthalpic throttling (process 3-
4). As a result, one would expect the theoretical COP
of standard cycle to be smaller than that of a Carnot
system for the same heat source and sink
temperatures. Due to this irreversibility, the cooling
effect reduces and work input increases, thus reducing
the system COP. This can be explained easily with the
help of the cycle diagrams on T-s charts. Figure shows
Fig. Comparison between Carnot
comparison between Carnot and standard VCRS in
and standard VCRS
terms of refrigeration effect.
The heat extraction (evaporation) process is reversible for both the Carnot cycle and Vapour
compression refrigeration system (VCRS) cycle. Hence the refrigeration effect is given by:
For Carnot refrigeration cycle (1-2"-3-4'):
1
qe , Carnot = q4' 1 = T .ds = Te ( s1 s4' ) = area e 1 4 ' c e
4'
Page 27 of 263
Chapter 2
For VCRS cycle (1-2-3-4):
1
qe , VCRS = q4 1 = T .ds = Te ( s1 s4 ) = area e 1 4 d e
4
Thus there is a reduction in refrigeration effect when the isentropic expansion process of Carnot
cycle is replaced by isenthalpic throttling process of VCRS cycle, this reduction is equal to the
area d-4-4-c-d (area A2) and is known as throttling loss. The throttling loss is equal to the
enthalpy difference between state points 3 and 4', i.e,
q e, Carnot q VCRS = area d 4 4' c d = ( h3 h 4' ) = ( h4 h4' ) = area A 2

It is easy to show that the loss in refrigeration
effect increases as the evaporator temperature
decreases and/or condenser temperature
increases. A practical consequence of this is a
requirement of higher refrigerant mass flow
rate.
The heat rejection in case of VCRS cycle also
increases when compared to Carnot cycle.
As shown in Figure, the heat rejection in case
of Carnot cycle (1-2"-3-4') is given by:
3
qc ,Carnot = q2"3 = T .ds = Tc ( s2" s3 )
2" Fig. Comparative evaluation of heat
= area e 2 " 3 c e rejection rate of VCRS and Carnot cycle
In case of VCRS cycle, the heat rejection rate is given by:
3
qc ,VCRS = q23 = T .ds = area e 2 3 c e
2
Hence the increase in heat rejection rate of VCRS compared to Carnot cycle is equal to the area
2"-2-2' (area A1). This region is known as superheat horn, and is due to the replacement of
isothermal heat rejection process of Carnot cycle by isobaric heat rejection in case of VCRS.
Since the heat rejection increases and refrigeration effect reduces when the Carnot cycle is
modified to standard VCRS cycle, the net work input to the VCRS increases compared to Carnot
cycle. The net work input in case of Carnot and VCRS cycles are given by:
wnet , Carnot = ( qc qe )Carnot = area 1 2 " 3 4 ' 1
wnet , VCRS = ( qc qe )VCRS = area 1 2 3 4 ' c d 4 1
As shown in Figure below, the increase in net work input in VCRS cycle is given by:
wnet , VCRS wnet , Carnot = area 2 " 2 2'+ area c 4 ' 4 d c = area A1 + area A2
Page 28 of 263
Chapter 2
Fig. Figure illustrating the increase in net work input in VCRS cycle
To summarize the refrigeration effect and net work input of VCRS cycle are given by:
qe ,VCRS = qe , Carnot area A2
wnet , VCRS = wnet , Carnot + area A1 + area A2
The COP of VCRS cycle is given by:

qe , VCRS qe , Carnot area A2
COPVCRS = =
wnet ,VCRS wnet , Carnot + area A1 + area A2
If we define the cycle efficiency, R as the ratio of COP of VCRS cycle to the COP of Carnot
cycle, then:
area A 2
1
COPVCRS q
R = = e, Carnot
COPCarnot
1 + area A1 + area A 2
wnet, Carnot

The cycle efficiency (also called as second law efficiency) is a good indication of the deviation of
the standard VCRS cycle from Carnot cycle. Unlike Carnot COP, the cycle efficiency depends
very much on the shape of T-s diagram, which in turn depends on the nature of the working
fluid.
If we assume that the potential and kinetic energy changes during isentropic compression
process 1-2 are negligible, then the work input w12 is given by:
w12, VCRS = ( h2 h1 ) = ( h2 hf ) ( h1 hf )
Page 29 of 263
Chapter 2
Now as shown in Figure, if we further assume
that the saturated liquid line 3-f coincides with
the constant pressure line Pc in the sub cooled
region (which is a reasonably good
assumption), then from the 2nd Tds relation;
Tds = dh v dP = dh; when P is constant
f
(h2 hf ) = Tds = area e 2 3 f g e

2
f
and, ( h1 hf ) = Tds = area e 1 f g e

1
Fig. Figure showing saturated liquid line

3-f coinciding with the constant
pressure line
Substituting these expressions in the expression for net work input, we obtain the compressor
work input to be equal to area 1-2-3-f-1. Now comparing this with the earlier expression for
work input (area 1-2-3-4'-c-d-4-1), we conclude that area A2 is equal to area A3.
As mentioned before, the losses due to superheat (area A1) and throttling (area A2 A3) depend
very much on the shape of the vapor dome (saturation liquid and vapour curves) on T s diagram.
The shape of the saturation curves depends on the nature of refrigerant. Figure below shows T-s
diagrams for three different types of refrigerants.
Fig. T-s diagrams for three different types of refrigerants
Refrigerants such as ammonia, carbon di-oxide and water belong to Type 1. These rerefrigerants
have symmetrical saturation curves (vapour dome); as a result both the superheat and
throttling losses (areas A1 and A3) are significant. That means deviation of VCRS cycle from
Carnot cycle could be significant when these refrigerants are used as working fluids.
Refrigerants such as CFC11, CFC12, and HFC134a belong to Type 2; these refrigerants have
small superheat losses (area A1) but large throttling losses (area A3). High molecular weight
refrigerants such as CFC113, CFC114, CFC115, iso-butane belonging to Type 3, do not have any
superheat losses, i.e., when the compression inlet condition is saturated (point 1), then the exit
condition will be in the 2-phase region, as a result it is not necessary to superheat the
refrigerant. However, these refrigerants experience significant throttling losses. Since the
compressor exit condition of Type 3 refrigerants may fall in the two-phase region, there is a
danger of wet compression leading to compressor damage. Hence for these refrigerants, the
Page 30 of 263
Chapter 2
compressor inlet condition is chosen such that the exit condition does not fall in the two-phase
region. This implies that the refrigerant at the inlet to the compressor should be superheated,
the extent of which depends on the refrigerant.
Superheat and throttling losses:

It can be observed from the discussions that the superheat loss is fundamentally different from
the throttling loss. The superheat loss increases only the work input to the compressor, it does
not affect the refrigeration effect. In heat pumps superheat is not a loss, but a part of the useful
heating effect. However, the process of throttling is inherently irreversible, and it increases the
work input and also reduces the refrigeration effect.
Analysis of standard vapour compression refrigeration system

A simple analysis of standard vapour compression refrigeration system can be carried out by
assuming
(a) Steady flow.
(b) Negligible kinetic and potential energy changes across each component, and
(c) No heat transfer in connecting pipe lines. The steady flow energy equation is applied to
each of the four components.

Evaporator: Heat transfer rate at evaporator or refrigeration capacity Q e is given by:

Qe = mr ( h1 h4 )

Where mr is the refrigerant mass flow rate in kg/s, h1 and h4 are the specific enthalpies (kJ/kg)
he exits and inlet to the evaporator, respectively. (h1 h4) is known as specific refrigeration
effect or simply refrigeration effect, which is equal to the heat transferred at the evaporator
per kilogram of refrigerant. The evaporator pressure Pe is the saturation pressure corresponding
to evaporator temperature Te, i.e,
Pe = Psat (Te)
Compressor: Power input to the compressor, Wc is given by:

Wc = mr ( h2 h1 )
Where h2 and h1 are the specific enthalpies (kJ/kg) at the exit and inlet to the compressor,
respectively. (h2 h1) is known as specific work of compression or simply work of
compression, which is equal to the work input to the compressor per kilogram of refrigerant.
Condenser: Heat transfer rate at condenser, Qc is given by:
Qc = mr ( h2 h3 )
Where h3 and h2 are the specific enthalpies (kJ/kg) at the exit and inlet to the condenser,
respectively. The condenser pressure Pc is the saturation pressure corresponding to evaporator
temperature Tc, i.e,
Pc = Psat (Tc )
Expansion device: For the isenthalpic expansion process, the kinetic energy change
across the expansion device could be considerable, however, if we take the control volume, well
downstream of the expansion device, then the kinetic energy gets dissipated due to viscous
effects, and
h3 = h4
The exit condition of the expansion device lies in the two-phase region, hence applying the
definition of quality (or dryness fraction), we can write:
h4 = (1 x 4 ) hf , e + x 4 hg , e = hf + x 4 hfg
Page 31 of 263
Chapter 2
Where x4 is the quality of refrigerant at point 4, hf,e, hg,e, hfg are the saturated liquid enthalpy,
saturated vapour enthalpy and latent heat of vaporization at evaporator pressure, respectively.
The COP of the system is given by:
m h h
Q
COP = e = r 1
( 4) ( h h4 )
= 1

m r ( h 2 h1 ) ( h 2 h1 )
W
c
At any point in the cycle, the mass flow rate of refrigerant mr can be written in terms of
volumetric flow rate and specific volume at that point, i.e.,
mr = V
v
Applying this equation to the inlet condition of the compressor,
V1
mr =
v1
Where V1 the volumetric flow is rate at compressor inlet and v1 is the specific volume at
compressor inlet. At a given compressor speed, V1 is an indication of the size of the compressor.
We can also write, the refrigeration capacity in terms of volumetric flow rate as:
h h4
Qe = m r ( h1 h 4 ) = V1 1
v1
h h4
Where 1 is called as volumetric refrigeration effect (kJ/m3 of refrigerant)
v1
Generally, the type of refrigerant, required refrigeration capacity, evaporator temperature and
condenser temperature are known. Then from the evaporator and condenser temperature one
can find the evaporator and condenser pressures and enthalpies at the exit of evaporator and
condenser (saturated vapour enthalpy at evaporator pressure and saturated liquid enthalpy at
condenser pressure). Since the exit condition of the compressor is in the superheated region, two
independent properties are required to fix the state of refrigerant at this point. One of these
independent properties could be the condenser pressure, which is already known. Since the
compression process is isentropic, the entropy at the exit to the compressor is same as the
entropy at the inlet, s1 which is the saturated vapour entropy at evaporator pressure (known).
Thus from the known pressure and entropy the exit state of the compressor could be fixed, i.e,
h2 = h ( Pc , s2 ) = h ( Pc , s1 )
s1 = s2
The quality of refrigerant at the inlet to the evaporator (x4) could be obtained from the known
values of h3, hf,e and hg,e.
Once all the state points are known, then from the required refrigeration capacity and various
enthalpies one can obtain the required refrigerant mass flow rate, volumetric flow rate at
compressor inlet, COP, cycle efficiency etc.
Page 32 of 263
Chapter 2
Use of Pressure-enthalpy (P-h) charts:
Since the various performance
parameters are expressed in terms of
enthalpies, it is very convenient to use a
pressure enthalpy chart for property
evaluation and performance analysis.
T h e us e o f t he se c h a r ts wa s f i rs t
suggested by Richard Mollier. Figure
above shows the standard vapour
compression refrigeration cycle on a P-h
chart. As discussed before, in a typical P-
h chart, enthalpy is on the x-axis and
pressure is on y-axis. The isotherms are
almost vertical in the sub cooled region,
horizontal in the two-phase region (for
pure refrigerants) and slightly curved in
the superheated region at high pressures, Fig. Standard vapours compression
and again become almost vertical at low refrigeration cycle on a P-h chart
pressures. A typical P-h chart also shows constant specific volume lines (isochors) and constant
entropy lines (isentropic) in the superheated region. Using P-h charts one can easily find
various performance parameters from known values of evaporator and condenser pressures.
In addition to the P-h and T-s charts one can also use thermodynamic property tables from
solving problems related to various refrigeration cycles.
Sub cooling and superheating:

In actual refrigeration cycles, the temperature of the heat sink will be several degrees lower
than the condensing temperature to facilitate heat transfer. Hence it is possible to cool the
refrigerant liquid in the condenser to a few degrees lower than the condensing temperature by
adding extra area for heat transfer. In such a case, the exit condition of the condenser will be in
the sub cooled liquid region. Hence this process is known as sub cooling. Similarly, the
temperature of heat source will be a few degrees higher than the evaporator temperature; hence
the vapour at the exit of the evaporator can be superheated by a few degrees. If the
superheating of refrigerant takes place due to heat transfer with the refrigerated space (low
temperature heat source) then it is called as useful superheating as it increases the
refrigeration effect. On the other hand, it is possible for the refrigerant vapour to become
superheated by exchanging heat with the surroundings as it flows through the connecting
pipelines. Such a superheating is called as useless superheating as it does not increase
refrigeration effect.
Sub cooling is beneficial as it increases the refrigeration effect by reducing the throttling loss at
no additional specific work input. Also sub cooling ensures that only liquid enters into the
throttling device leading to its efficient operation. Figure below shows the VCRS cycle without
and with sub cooling on P-h and T-s coordinates. It can be seen from the T-s diagram that
without sub cooling the throttling loss is equal to the hatched area b-4'-4-c, whereas with sub
cooling the throttling loss is given by the area a-4"-4'-b. Thus the refrigeration effect increases
by an amount equal to (h4 h4' ) = (h3 h3' ). Another practical advantage of sub cooling is that
there is less vapour at the inlet to the evaporator which leads to lower pressure drop in the
evaporator.
Page 33 of 263
Chapter 2
(a) On P-h diagram (b) On T-s diagram

Fig. Comparison between a VCRS cycle without and with sub cooling
Useful superheating increases both the refrigeration effect as well as the work of compression.
Hence the COP (ratio of refrigeration effect and work of compression) may or may not increase
with superheat, depending mainly upon the nature of the working fluid. Even though useful
superheating may or may not increase the COP of the system, a minimum amount of superheat
is desirable as it prevents the entry of liquid droplets into the compressor. Figure below shows
the VCRS cycle with superheating on P-h and T-s coordinates. As shown in the figure, with
useful superheating, the refrigeration effect, specific volume at the inlet to the compressor and
work of compression increase. Whether the volumic refrigeration effect (ratio of refrigeration
effect by specific volume at compressor inlet) and COP increase or not depends upon the relative
increase in refrigeration effect and work of compression, which in turn depends upon the nature
of the refrigerant used. The temperature of refrigerant at the exit of the compressor increases
with superheat as the isentropes in the vapour region gradually diverge.
(a) On P-h diagram (b) On T-s diagram

Fig. Effect of superheat on specific refrigeration effect and work of compression
Page 34 of 263
Chapter 2
Two-stage vapour compression Refrigeration system
Fig. Two-stage vapour compression refrigeration system
Cascade Systems
In a cascade system a series of refrigerants with progressively lower boiling points are
used in a series of single stage units.
The condenser of lower stage system is coupled to the evaporator of the next higher stage
system and so on.
The component where heat of condensation of lower stage refrigerant is supplied for
vaporization of next level refrigerant is called as cascade condenser.
This system employs two different refrigerants operating in two individual cycles.
They are thermally coupled in the cascade condenser. The refrigerants selected should
have suitable pressure-temperature characteristics.
An example of refrigerant
Combination is the use of carbon dioxide (NBP = 78.4C, Tcr = 31.06C) in low temperature
cascade and ammonia (NBP = 33.33C, Tcr = 132.25C) in high temperature cascade. It is
possible to use more than two cascade stages, and it is also possible to combine multi-stage
systems with cascade systems.
Fig. A two-stage cascade refrigeration Fig. A two-stage cascade refrigeration

system system (p-h) diagram
Applications of cascade systems:

i. Liquefaction of petroleum vapours
ii. Liquefaction of industrial gases
iii. Manufacturing of dry ice
Page 35 of 263
Chapter 2
iv. Deep freezing etc.
Advantages of cascade systems:

i. Since each cascade uses a different refrigerant, it is possible to select a refrigerant that is
best suited for that particular temperature range. Very high or very low pressures can be
avoided.
ii. Migration of lubricating oil from one compressor to the other is prevented.
Optimum cascade temperature:

For a two-stage cascade system working on Carnot cycle, the optimum cascade temperature at
which the COP will be maximum, Tcc, opt is given by:
Tcc , opt = Te Tc
where Te and Tc are the evaporator temperature of low temperature cascade and condenser
temperature of high temperature cascade, respectively.
For cascade systems employing vapour compression refrigeration cycle, the optimum cascade
temperature assuming equal pressure ratios between the stages is given by:

b +b
Tcc , opt = 1 2
b2 b1
T +T
c e
b
where b1 and b2 are the constants in Clausius-Clayperon equation: ln P = a for low and
T
high temperature refrigerants, respectively.
The condition of refrigerant before entering the expansion or throttle valve, in a vapour
compression system is high pressure saturated liquid.
In a refrigeration cycle the flow of refrigerant is controlled by expansion valve.
In the vapour compression refrigeration cycle, the refrigerant is generally in the form of
fairly wet vapour at entry to evaporator.
In the vapour compression cycle, the super heated vapour state of refrigerant occurs at
exit from the compressor.
Page 36 of 263
Chapter 2
Vapour compression refrigeration cycle
(Need to draw the figure)

In a vapour compression system the refrigerant after condensation process is cooled
below the saturation temperature, such a process is called sub-cooling.
In a refrigeration cycle, the sub-cooling increases COP by increasing refrigerating effect.
No effect in work done. [ESE-2009]
The liquid refrigerant is sub-cooled to ensure that only liquid and not the vapour enters
the throttling valve.
In a refrigeration system, the superheating decreases COP increase refrigerating effect
but increasing amount of work done.
In a refrigeration cycle, oil separator is installed between compressor and condenser.
Page 37 of 263
Va
apour Co
ompress
sion Sysstems
Cha
apter 2
OBJ VE QUESTIO
JECTIV U ONS (GAT
( E, IE
ES, IA
AS)
Prev
vious 20-Yea
2 ars GA
ATE Questio
Q ons
V
Vapour Comp
pression Cycle
G
GATE-1. The vap pour c
compressi ion
reefrigeratioon c
cycle is
reepresented as sho own in the t
figure beloow, with state
s 1 beiing
thhe exit off the evapporator. The
T
co oordinate system used
u in thhis
figure is:
(aa) p-h (b)) T-s
(cc) p-s (d)) T-h [GA
ATE-2005]
G
GATE-1. An
ns. (d)
G
GATE-2. Inn a vapo our compression refrigerati
r ion system m, liquid
d to suction heat
ex xchanger is used to o: [GA
ATE-2000]
(aa) Keep the COP constant
c
(bb) Preveent the liqu
uid refrigerrant from en
ntering thee compressoor
(cc) Subcoool the liqu
uid refrigerant leavingg the condeenser
(dd) Subcoool the vapour refrigeerant from the
t evapora ator
G
GATE-2. Anns. (c)
D
Data for Q3Q4 are
a given
n below. Solve th
he probllems and
d choose correct
nswers.
an [G
G
A refrigera
ator basedd on ideall vapour compression cycle operates between
th
he temperature lim mits of 20C
and
d 40C. The
T refrig
gerant ennters the
co
ondenser as saturatted vapou ur and leaves as satturated liq
quid. The enthalpy
an
nd entroppy values for satura ated liquiid and vappour at th
hese tempperatures
ar
re given in
n the table below:
T(0C) Hf(kJ/kg) Hg(kJ/kg)

H sf(k
kJ/kg K) sg(kJJ/kg K)
-20 20 180 0.07 0.7366
40 80 200 0.3 0.67
0
G
GATE-3. Iff refrigera
ant circula ation rate
e is 0.025 kg/s,
k the r
refrigeratiion, effectt is equal
to
o:
(a
a) 2.1 kW (b) 2.5 kW (c) 3.0
0 kW (d) 4.0 kW
W
Page 38 of 263
V
Vapour Compre
ession Systems
S
Ch
hapter 2
GATE-3. Ans. (a) h2 = 200 kJ//kg
S2 = 0.67 kJ/kg-K
h4 = h3 = 80 kJ/kg
ality (x) of vapour
First calculating qua v
S2 = S1
S2 = 0.07 + x(0
0.7366 0.0
07)
0.67
7 = 0.07 + 0.6666
0 x
Enthalpy at point 1,, we get
h1 = 20
2 + 0.90 (1180 20)
= 20
2 + 0.90 160
h1 = 164
1 kJ/kg
ant effect = m(h1 h2) = 0.025(164 80) = 2.1 KW
Refrigera
GATE-4. The COP P of the reefrigerator

r is: [GATE-200
[ 03]
(a) 2.0 (b)) 2.33 (c)) 5.0 (d)) 6.0
h1 h4 164 80
GATE-4. Ans. (b) COP
C = = = 2.33
h2 h1 200 164
1
on Data for
Commo f Ques
stions GA
ATE-5 an
nd GATE-6:
A refrigerator operrates betweeen 120 kP Pa and 800 0 kPa in ana ideal va apor compr ression cyc
cle
34a as the refrigerant
with R-13 r t. The refriigerant entters the co
ompressor a as saturate
ed vapor annd
leaves th
he condenser as saturated liquid. The ma ass flow ra ate of the refrigeran
nt is 0.2 kg
g/s.
Propertie
es for R-134
4a are as fo
ollows:
GATE-5. The rate

r at whic
ch heat is extracted,
e in
i kJ/s from
m the refrigerated space is
(a) 28..3 (b)) 42.9 (c) 34.4 (d) 14.6 E-2012]
[GATE
GATE-5. Ans. (a)
(
GATE-6. The power requiired for the

e compresssor in kW iss
94
(a) 5.9 (b)) 1.83 (c) 7.9 (d) 39.5 [GATE
E-2012]
GATE-6. Ans. (c)
(
Prreviou
us 20-Y
Years IES Questi
Q ons
Vapou
ur Com
mpression Cycle
IES-1. In a va apour com mpression n refriger
ration pla ant, the enthalpy
y values at
differentt points ar
re: 06]
[IES-200
(i)Enthalpy at exitt of the ev
vaporator = 350 kJ/kkg
(ii)Entha
alpy at exiit of the co
ompressor 375 kJ/kkg
(iii)Enth
halpy at exxit of the condenser
c r = 225 kJ//kg
Page 39 of 263
Chapter 2
The refrigerating efficiency of the plant is 08. What is the power required
per kW of cooling to be produced?
(a) 025 kW (b) 40 kW (c) 125 kW (d) 11 kW
IES-1. Ans. (a) h3 = h4

Refrigerating effect (Qo)
= (h1 h4) r
= (350 225) 0.8
= 100 kJ/kg
Compressor work (W)
= (h2 h1)
= 375 350
= 25 kJ/kg
W 25
The power required per kW of cooling = = kW/kW of cooling
Q 100
IES-2. The values of enthalpy at the beginning of compression, at the end of
compression and at the end of condensation are 185 kJ/kg, 210 kJ/kg and 85
kJ/kg respectively. What is the value of the COP of the vapour compression
refrigeration system? [IES-2005]
(a) 025 (b) 54 (c) 4 (d) 135
( h h4 ) = (185 85 ) = 100 = 4
IES-2. Ans. (c) COP = 1
( h2 h1 ) ( 210 185 ) 25
IES-3. For simple vapour compression cycle, enthalpy at suction = 1600 kJ/kg,
enthalpy at discharge from the compressor = 1800 kJ/kg, enthalpy at exit
from condenser = 600 kJ/kg. [IES-2008]
What is the COP for this refrigeration cycle?
(a) 33 (b) 50 (c) 4 (d) 45
RE 1600 600 1000
IES-3. Ans. (b) COP of refrigeration cycle = = = =5
W 1800 1600 200
IES-4. Air cooling is used for freon compressors whereas water jacketing is
adopted for cooling ammonia compressors. This is because [IES-1997]
(a) Latent heat of ammonia is higher than that of freon
(b) Thermal conductivity of water is higher than that of air
(c) Specific heat of water is higher than that of air
(d) Of the larger superheat horn of ammonia compression cycle.
IES-4. Ans. (a)
IES-5. In a vapour compression refrigeration plant, the refrigerant leaves the

evaporator at 195 kJ/kg and the condenser at 65 kJ/kg. For 1 kg/s of
refrigerant, what is the refrigeration effect? [IES-2005]
(a) 70 KW (b) 100 KW (c) 130 KW (d) 160 KW
IES-5. Ans. (c) Q = m ( h1 h4 ) = 1 (195 65 ) = 130 kW
IES-6. Consider the following statements in respect of absorption refrigeration

and vapour compression refrigeration systems: [IES-2003]
1. The former runs on low grade energy.
2. The pumping work in the former is negligible since specific volume of
strong liquid solution is small.
3. The latter uses an absorber while former uses a generator.
4. The liquid pump alone replaces compressor of the latter.
Which of these statements are correct?
Page 40 of 263
Chapter 2
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 1 and 3 (c) 1 and 4 (d) 2 and 4
IES-6. Ans. (a)
IES-7. A standard vapour compression refrigeration cycle consists of the following

4 thermodynamic processes in sequence: [IES-2002]
(a) Isothermal expansion, isentropic compression, isothermal compression and
isentropic expansion
(b) Constant pressure heat addition, isentropic compression, constant pressure
heat rejection and isentropic expansion
(c) Constant pressure heat addition, isentropic compression, constant pressure
heat rejection and isentropic expansion
(d) Isothermal expansion, constant pressure heat addition, isothermal
compression and constant pressure heat rejection
IES-7. Ans. (b)
IES-8. For a heat pump working on vapour compression cycle, enthalpy values of
the working fluid at the end of heat addition process, at the end of
compression process, at the end of heat rejection process, and at the end of
isenthalpic expansion process are 195 kJ/kg, 210 kJ/kg, and 90 kJ/kg
respectively. The mass flow rate is 0.5 kg/s. Then the heating capacity of
heat pump is, nearly [IES-2001]
(a) 7.5 kW (b) 45 kW (c) 52.2 kW (d) 60 kW
IES-8. Ans. (d)
IES-9. The enthalpies at the beginning of compression, at the end of compression

and at the end of condensation are respectively 185 kJ/kg, 210 kJ/kg and 85
kJ/kg. The COP of the vapour compression refrigeration system is:[IES-2000]
(a) 0.25 (b) 5.4 (c) 4 (d) 1.35
IES-9. Ans. (c)
IES-10. In a vapour compression plant, if certain temperature differences are to be

maintained in the evaporator and condenser in order to obtain the
necessary heat transfer, then the evaporator saturation temperature must
be: [IES-1999]
(a)Higher than the derived cold-region temperature and the condenser saturation
temperature must be lower than the available cooling water temperature by
sufficient amounts
(b)Lower than the derived cold-region temperature and the condenser saturation
temperature must be lower than the available cooling water temperature by
sufficient amounts
(c)Lower than the derived cold-region temperature and the condenser saturation
temperature must be higher than the available cooling water temperature by
sufficient amounts
(d)Higher than the derived cold-region temperature and the condenser saturation
temperature must be higher than the available cooling water temperature by
sufficient amounts
IES-10. Ans. (c)
IES-11. The correct sequence of the given components of a vapour compression

refrigerator is: [IES-1999]
(a)Evaporator, compressor, condenser and throttle valve
(b)Condenser, throttle valve, evaporator and compressor
(c)Compressor, condenser, throttle valve and evaporator
(d)Throttle valve, evaporator, compressor and condenser
IES-11. Ans. (c)
Page 41 of 263
Chapter 2
In a vapour compression system, a thermometer placed in the liquid line
can indicate whether the
1.Refrigerant flow is too low 2.Water circulation is adequate
3.Condenser is fouled 4.Pump is functioning properly
(a)1, 2 and 3 are correct (b)1, 2 and 4 are correct
(c)1, 3 and 4 are correct (d)2, 3 and 4 are correct
IES-12. Ans. (d) Thermometer in liquid line can't detect that refrigerant flow is too low.

In the case of a vapour compression machine, if the condensing
temperature of the refrigerant is closer to the critical temperature, then
there will be:
1.Excessive power consumption
2.High compression
3.Large volume flow
(a)1, 2 and 3 are correct (b)1 and 2 are correct
(c)2 and 3 are correct (d)1 and 3 are correct
IES-13. Ans. (a)
IES-14. A single-stage vapour compression refrigeration system cannot be used to

produce ultralow temperatures because [IES-1997]
(a)Refrigerants for ultra-low temperatures are not available
(b)Lubricants for ultra-low temperatures are not available
(c)Volumetric efficiency will decrease considerably
(d)Heat leakage into the system will be excessive
IES-14. Ans. (c)
IES-15. In a vapour compression refrigeration system, a throttle valve is used in

place of an expander because [IES-1996, 2011]
(a)It considerably reduces the system weight
(b)It improves the COP, as the condenser is small
(c)The positive work in isentropic expansion of liquid is very small.
(d)It leads to significant cost reduction.
IES-15. Ans. (c) In a vapour compression refrigeration system, expander is not used because
the positive work in isentropic expansion of liquid is so small that it can't justify cost
of expander. Thus a throttle valve is used in place of expander.
IES-16. Assertion (A): In vapour compression refrigeration system throttle valve is

used and not expansion cylinder. [IES-1995]
Reason (R): Throttling is a constant enthalpy process.
IES-16. Ans. (b) A and R are true. But R is not right reasoning for A.
In vapour compression refrigeration system throttle valve is used and not expansion
cylinder because the power produced by expansion cylinder is very low.
IES-16a The vapour compression refrigeration cycle is an inherently irreversible

cycle, because [IES-2010]
(a) The compressor is non-ideal
(b) The evaporator is not frictionless
(c) The condensation process is not isothermal
(d) Of the use of expansion valve instead of an expansion engine
Page 42 of 263
V
Vapour Compre
ession Systems
S
Ch
hapter 2
IES-16a Ans. (d)
(
IES-17. Consider r the follo

owing statements: [IES-199
95]
A decrea ase in eva aporator temperature of a vapour co ompressio
on machinne
leads to:
1.An incr rease in re efrigerating effect
2.An incr rease in sp pecific volume of vaapour
3.A decre ease in voolumetric efficiency y of compr ressor
4.An incr rease in co ompressor work
Of these statemen nts:
(a)1, 3 and 4 are correct (b)1, 2 and
a 3 are correct
d 4 are corrrect
(c)2, 3 and (d)2 andd 4 are corrrect.
IES-17. Ans.
A (c)
IES-18. In a vap pour com mpression refrigera ation plan nt, the re
efrigerant leaves thhe
evaporattor at 195 5 kJ/kg anda the co ondenser at 65 kJ//kg. For every
e kg of
refrigera ant the pla ant can su upply per second, a cooling lo oad of: [IES-199
93]
(a) 70 kWW (b)) 100 kW (c)) 130 kW (d)) 160 kW
IES-18. Ans.
A (c) h1 = 195 kJ/kg and h3 = 65 kJ/kg.
Since therre is no hea
at transfer in throttlinng, h3 = h4
Refrigeraation effect = h1 h4 = 195 65 = 130 kJ/kg
IES-19. Which one

o of the
e followin ng expansion proce esses take
es place in a vapou
ur
compresssion cycle e? [IES-200
09]
(a)Polytroopic processs with chan
nge in tempperature
(b)Adiabaatic processs with workk transfer
(c)Lsentroopic process with channge in enthhalpy
(d)Adiabaatic processs with consttant enthallpy
IES-19. Ans.
A (d)
IES-20. A refrige erating sy ystem oper rating on reversed Brayton r refrigerattion cycle is
used for r maintaiining 250K. If the tempera ature at tthe end of o consta
ant
pressure e cooling is 300 K and rise in the e tempera ature of air in th he
refrigera ator is 50 K, then th he net wor rk of comp pression w
will be (as ssume air as
the work king substtance with h cp = kJ per
p kg per C) [IES-199
93]
(a) 250 kJ
J/kg (b)) 200 kJ/kg
g (c)) 50kJ/kg (d)) 25kJ/kg
IES-20. Ans.
A (d) Figure showss the
reversed Bra ayton
refrigerattion cycle.
Various values are
shown.
Net work of
compressi ion
= (h2 h1) (h3 h4)
T2 T3 30
00
Now, = or T2 = 250 = 375
3
T1 T4 00
20
Net work = (375 25
50) (300 200) = 255 and Net work = 25 Cp = 25 kJ/kg
k
Actua
al Vapo
our Com
mpress
sion Cy
ycle
IES-21. Assertion
n (A): Sub
bcooling of
o refrigerant liquiid increasses the co
oefficient of
performaance of re
efrigeratio
on. [IES-20004]
Page 43 of 263
Chapter 2
Reason (R): Subcooling reduces the work requirement of a refrigeration
cycle.
IES-21. Ans. (c) Sub cooling Refrigerating effect thus COP but has no effect on compressor
work (Wc).
IES-22. Sub-cooling with regenerative heat exchanger is used in a refrigeration

cycle. The enthalpies at condenser outlet and evaporator outlet are 78 and
182 kJ/kg respectively. The enthalpy at outlet of isentropic compressor is
230 kJ/kg and enthalpy of subcooled liquid is 68 kJ/kg. The COP of the cycle
is: [IES-2002]
(a) 3.25 (b) 2.16 (c) 3.0 (d) 3.5
IES-22. Ans. (c)
IES-22a The effects of superheating of vapour in the evaporator and sub cooling of
condensate in the condenser, for the same compressor work [IES-2010]
(a) Increase the COP
(b) Decrease the COP
(c) Superheating increases COP, but sub cooling decreases COP
(d) Superheating decreases COP, but sub cooling increases COP
IES-22a Ans. (d) If liquid refrigerant is further cooled below the temperature of saturation by
a separate subcooler then refrigerating effect increased without changing compressor
work. In this case, COP is improved.
Super heating increases both the refrigeration effect as well as the work of
compression. Hence the COP (ratio of refrigeration effect and work of compression)
may or may not increase with superheat, depending mainly upon the nature of the
working fluid (d) is the best choice.
IES-22b Assertion (A): In a practical vapour compression refrigerator, the vapour should
leave the evaporator with a definite amount of superheat. [IES-2010]
Reason (R): It reduces the work done by the compressor.
IES-22b Ans. (c)
IES-23. Match items in List-I with those in List-II and List-III and select the correct
answer. [IES-1996]
List-I List-II List-III
A. Reversed Carnot engine 1. Condenser 6. Generator
B. Subcooling 2. Evaporator 7. Increase in
refrigerating effect
C. Superheating 3. Vortex refrigerator 8. Highest COP
D. Constant enthalpy 4. Throttling 9. Adiabatic
5. Heat pump 10. Dry compression
Codes: A B C D A B C D
(a) 3, 10 1, 7 2, 9 4, 6 (b) 5, 8 1, 7 2, 10 4, 9
(c) 4, 10 3, 8 3, 10 1, 6 (d) 2, 7 5, 8 4, 6 1, 9
IES-23. Ans. (b) Reversed Carnot engine is used for heat pump and it has highest COP. Thus
for A, the correct choice from List-II and List-III is 5, 8. Sub cooling occurs in
Page 44 of 263
V
Vapour Compre
ession Systems
S
Ch
hapter 2
condenserr and it in
ncreases reefrigeration
n effect. Th
herefore foor B, the correct choiice
from List-II and Listt-III is 1, 7.
Superheaating occurs in evaporator and it is involv ved in dry compressiion. Thus forf
Part C in n List-I, th
he correct choice froom Lists-III and List--III is 2, 10.
1 Consta ant
enthalpy process tak kes place during throtttling and is
i basically
y adiabatic process. Th
his
D is matcched with 4,
4 9.
IES-24. The figgure giv ven abo ove depiicts

saturatio on dome e for wa ater on the
temperature-entro opy plane e. What is the
temperature diffe erence T shown on o a
typical issobar linee known as?a
(a)Degreee of wet bullb depressioon
(b)Degreee of saturattion
(c)Degreee of sub coolling
(d)Degreee of reheat
[IES-200
06]
IES-24. Ans.
A (c)
IES-25. The oper

rating tem
mperature
e of a cold
d storage is
i 2C. H
Heat leakage from th
he
surround
ding is 30
0 kW for th
he ambien
nt temperature of 4
40C. The actual CO
OP
of the re
efrigeratio
on plant used
u is on
ne-fourth that
t of an
n ideal pla
ant workin
ng
between
n the same
e temperattures. The
e power re
equired to
o drive the
e plant is:
(a) 1.86 kW (b)) 3.72 kW (c)) 7.44 kW W [IES-199
(d)) 18.60 kW 94]
IES-25. Ans.
A (d) CO
OP of ideall plant worrking betwe
een limits 2
and 40C, i.e. 271 and 313 K is
T1 271
= = 6.45 , So COP of refrrigeration plant
p = 6.45/4 = 1.61
T2 T1 313 271
He
eat abstraccted 30
COP = or Work
W ed =
require = 18.6 KW
W
Work requirred 1.61
IES-26. Consider
r the follo
owing step
ps: [IES-199
94]
1. Sttarting of compressor
2. Sttarting of cooling to
ower pump
p
3. Sttarting of chiller wa
ater pump
p
4. Sttarting of blower
b mo
otor of coo
oling coil
The corr
rect seque
ence of the
ese steps in
i the starting of a cell air-co
onditionin
ng
plant usiing chilled
d water co
ooling coill, is:
(a) 3,1,4,2
2 (b)) 1,3,2,4 (c)) 3,2,1,4 (d)) 1,3,4,2
IES-26. Ans.
A (c) The
T correct sequence in starting of a cen
ntral air coonditioning
g plant using
ater cooling coil is starting of ch
chilled wa hiller wateer pump, sttarting of cooling
c tow
wer
pump, sta
arting the compressor
c r, starting of
o blower motor
m of cooling coil.
Page 45 of 263
Va
apour Co
ompress
sion Sysstems
Cha
apter 2
IE
ES-27. Which one of the
W e followiing
sttatementss is correct with
reespect t
to the schemaatic
diiagram ass shown ab bove?
(aa) Multii-evaporatoor vapoour
n system of refrigeration
coompression
(bb) Two stage compresssion
vaapour com mpression refrigerattion
syystem
(cc) Cascaade system m of vapoour
coompression
n refrigeratiion system
(dd) Nonee of the abov
ve
[IES-2009
9]
IE
ES-27. Anss. (c)
A two--stage casc
cade refriigeration system
s
A two-sttage casca
ade refrige
eration sy
ystem
Page 46 of 263
Chapter 2
Two-stage vapour compression refrigeration system
Two-stage vapour compression refrigeration system
Modifications in Reversed Carnot Cycle with Vapour as a

Refrigerant
IAS-1. The schematic diagram of a vapour compression refrigeration system can
be represented as [IAS-1996]
Page 47 of 263
Chapter 2
IAS-1. Ans. (b)
Vapour Compression Cycle

IAS-2. Replacing a water-cooled condenser with an air-cooled one in a vapour
compression refrigeration system with constant evaporator pressure results
in [IAS-2000]
(a)Increase in condensation pressure
(b)Decrease in pressure ratio
(c)Increase in pressure ratio
(d)Increase in condensation temperature
IAS-2. Ans. (d) Heat transfer co-efficient of gas very small compared to water hwater >> hair. So
for same heat transfer temperature difference will be high
Q = hw A ( T )w = hair A ( T )air , so ( T )air > ( T )w
IAS-3. Consider the following statements: [IAS-2007]

1.The work of compressor in vapour compression refrigeration system
increases with superheat of the suction vapour.
2.The work of compressor depends on the pressure difference rather than
the temperature difference of evaporator and condenser.
3.The coefficient of performance is within the range of 3 to 6 except at very
low temperature when it may be less than 1.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b)1 and 2 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 2 and 3 only
IAS-3. Ans. (a)
IAS-4. Consider the following statements pertaining to a vapour compression type

refrigerator: [IAS-2002]
1.The condenser rejects heat to the surroundings from the refrigerant.
2.The evaporator absorbs heat from the surroundings to be cooled.
3.Both the condenser and evaporator are heat exchangers with refrigerant
as a common medium.
4.The amount of heat exchanged in condenser and evaporator are equal
under steady conditions.
Which of the above statements are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 1, 2 and 3 (c) 1, 2 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4
IAS-4. Ans. (b)
Page 48 of 263
Chapter 2
IAS-5. In a vapour compression cycle, the refrigerant, immediately after expansion

value is: [IAS-2002]
(a) Saturated liquid (b) Subcooled liquid
(c) Dry vapour (d) Wet vapour
IAS-5. Ans. (d) In P-h diagram it is point 4 or
'
4 both are very wet vapour.
IAS-6. Assertion (A): In a vapour compression refrigeration system, the condenser pressure
should be kept as low as possible. [IAS-1999]
Reason (R): Increase in condenser pressure reduces the refrigerating effect and
increases the work of compression.
IAS-6 Ans. (a)
IAS-7. Match List-I (T-s diagram) with List-II (P-h diagrams) of vapour
compression refrigeration cycles and select the correct answer using the
codes given below the lists: [IAS-1999]
List-I List-II
(a) 1 4 2 3 (b) 1 4 3 2
(c) 4 1 3 2 (d) 4 1 2 3
IAS-7. Ans. (b)
Page 49 of 263
Chapter 2
IAS-8. Theoretical vapour compression refrigeration cycle is represented on a T-s
diagram as [IAS-1997]
IAS-8. Ans. (c)
IAS-9. In an ideal vapour compression refrigeration cycle, the enthalpy of the

refrigerant before and after the evaporator are respectively 75 kJ/hg and
180 kJ/kg. The circulation rate of the refrigerant for each ton of
refrigeration is: [IAS-1997]
(a) 1 kg/min (b) 2 kg/min (c) 3 kg/min (d) 4 kg/min
211
IAS-9. Ans. (b) Q = m (h1 h4) = m (180 75) = 211 or m = = 2 kg/min
105
IAS-10. In an ideal vapour compression refrigeration cycle, the enthalpy of the
refrigerant at exit from the condenser, compressor and evaporator is 80
kJ/kg, 200 kJ/kg and 180 kJ/kg respectively. The coefficient of performance
of the cycle is: [IAS-1996]
(a) 6 (b) 5 (c) 3.5 (d) 2.5
IAS-10. Ans. (b) h3 = h4 = 80 kJ/kg
h1 = 180 kJ/kg and
h2 = 200 kJ/kg
WC = h2 h 1
= 200 180 = 20 KJ/kg
Q = h1 h4
= 180 80 = 100 KJ/kg
Q 100
COP = = =5
Wc 20
IAS-11. The correct sequence of vapour compression (VC), vapour absorption (VA)
and steam ejector (SE) refrigeration cycles in increasing order of the COP
is: [IAS-1995]
(a) VC, VA, SE (b) VA, SE, VC (c) SE, VC, VA (d) SE, VA, VC
IAS-11. Ans. (b) The correct sequence of VC, VA and SE in increasing order of COP is VA, SE
and VC, the Value being of the order of 0.3 to 0.4 0.5 to 0.8 and 4 to 5 respectively.
IAS-12. Match List-I (Effect) with List-II (Process) in the case of an ideal
refrigeration cycle and select the correct answer using the codes given
below the lists: [IAS-1997]
List-I List-II
A. Work input 1.Constant pressure at higher temperature
B. Heat rejection 2.Isentropic compression
C. Expansion 3.Constant temperature at lower pressure
D. Heat absorption 4.Adiabatic
(a) 4 1 2 3 (b) 2 3 4 1
(c) 2 1 4 3 (d) 4 2 3 1
IAS-12. Ans. (c)
Page 50 of 263
Chapter 2
Actual Vapour Compression Cycle
IAS-13. A refrigerator storage is supplied with 3600 kg of fish at a temperature of
27C. The fish has to be cooled to 23C for preserving it for a long period
without deterioration. The cooling takes place in 10 hours. The specific heat
of fish is 20 kJ/kgK above freezing point of fish and 05 kJ/kgK below
freezing point of fish, which is 3C. The latent heat of freezing is 230 kJ/kg.
What is the power to drive the plant if the actual COP is half that of the
ideal COP? [IAS-2002]
(a) 30 kW (b) 15 kW (c) 12 kW (d) 6 kW
1 1 T2 1 250
IAS-13. Ans. (c) (COP )actal = (COP )ideal = = = 2.5
2 2 T1 T2 2 300 250
Total Heat transfer (Q ) = m.c pbf ( T )before freeze + m.c paf ( T )after freeze
= 3600[2 30 + 230 + 0.5 20]kJ = 3600 300 kJ
Q 3600 300
Rate of heat transfer =
= = 30 kW
t 10 3600
Q Q 30
COP = or W = = = 12 kW
W COP 2.5

High condenser pressure in a refrigeration system can occur because
1. The water flow rate is lower than the desired value.
2. Non-condensable gases are present in the system
3. Of accumulation of lubricating oil in condenser
4. Of low charge of refrigerant in the system.
(a) 1, 3 and 4 are correct (b) 1, 2 and 3 are correct
(c) 1, 2 and 4 correct (d) 2, 3 and 4 are correct
IAS-14. Ans. (b)
IAS-15. Excessive pressure drop in liquid line in a refrigerating system causes

[IAS-1998]
(a) High condenser pressure (b) Flashing of the liquid refrigerant
(c) Higher evaporator pressure (d) Under cooling of the liquid refrigerant
IAS-15. Ans. (b)
IAS-16. In system A vapour are superheated by 10C in the evaporator while in

system B vapour are superheated by 10C in a liquid vapour regenerative
heat exchanger, other conditions being the same. Then
(a) COP of A = COP of B [IAS-2002]
(b) COP of both A and B > COP of Reversed Carnot Cycle
(c) COP of A > COP of B
(d) COP of A < COP of B
IAS-16. Ans. (a) h1 h1 = h3 h3
For regeneration as
h1 h4 = h1 h4
COP is same
Page 51 of 263
Chapter 2
Page 52 of 263
3. Refrigerants

Note here, we notice that substances with normal boiling points in the range 50C to
+50C only find application as refrigerants in commercial refrigeration and air
conditioning.
In 1920 du pont develop CFCs (chloro fluoro carbons) under the name of Freons. And
Carre develops ammonia-water vapour absorption machine.
In 1834 peltier effect was discovered.
In 1926 Giaque and Debye independently proposed adiabatic demagnetization of a
paramagnetic salt to reach temperatures near absolute zero.
In Room Air-Conditioner refrigerant is CHClF2 (mono-chloro difluoro methane), also
called Freon 22 or R22.
In the Domestic Refrigerator refrigerant is R12, CCl2F2 (dicholoro difluoro methane)
Freons are responsible for the depletion of ozone layer by chlorine atoms in the upper
atmosphere (stratosphere).
Because of the problem of ozone layer depletion R11, R12, R113, R115 and R502,
all CFCs are being phased out.
Boiling point of R12 (CF2Cl2) is 29.8C
Boiling point of R22 (CHClF2) is 40.8C
Selection of a Refrigerant
Refrigerants have to be physiologically non-toxic and non-flammable. Thermodynamically,
there is no working substance which could be called an ideal refrigerant. Different substances
seem to satisfy different requirements and those also sometimes only partially. A refrigerant
which is ideally suited in a particular application may be a complete failure in the other. In
general, a refrigerant may be required to satisfy requirements which may be classified as
thermodynamic, chemical and physical, as discussed in the following sections. The selection of a
refrigerant for a particular application, therefore, depends on satisfying its essential
requirements.
The choice of a refrigerant for a given application is governed mainly by the refrigerating
capacity (very small, small, medium or large), and refrigeration temperature required, such as
for air conditioning (5C), cold-storage (10 to 2C), refrigerator (25C), food freezing (40C),
etc.
Thermodynamic Requirements
Critical Temperature and Pressure
For high COP, in general, the critical temperature should be very high so that the
condenser temperature line on the p-h diagram is far removed from the critical point.
Freezing Point
As the refrigerant must operate in the cycle above its freezing point, it is evident that the
same for the refrigerant must be lower than system temperatures.
Page 53 of 263
Refrigerants
Chapter 3
Volume of Suction Vapour
Isentropic Discharge Temperatures
Coefficient of Performance and Horsepower per Ton
Chemical Requirements
Flammability
Toxicity
Action of Refrigerant with Water
Action with Oil
Action with Materials of Construction
Physical Requirements
Dielectric Strength: This is an important property for systems using hermetic compressors.
For these systems the refrigerants should have a high dielectric strength as possible.
Thermal Conductivity: A high thermal conductivity is desirable for a high heat transfer
coefficient.
Viscosity: low viscosity is desirable for a high heat transfer coefficient.
Ease of leak detection: In the event of leakage of refrigerant from the system, it should be
easy to detect the leaks.
A good refrigerant should
have large latent heat of
vaporisation and low
operating pressures
Historically the development
of refrigerants can be divided
into three distinct phases,
namely:
i. Refrigerants prior to the
development of CFCs.
ii. The synthetic
fluorocarbon (FC) based
refrigerants.
iii. Refrigerants in the
aftermath of
stratospheric ozone layer
depletion. Fig. Classification of fluids used as refrigerants
Inorganic Refrigerants
Ammonia (NH3) Used with reciprocating and screw compressors, in Cold storages,
ice plants, food refrigeration, etc.
Water (H2O) Used in water-lithium bromide absorption system and Steam-ejector

system only for air conditioning
Carbon dioxide (CO2) Used as solid carbon dioxide or dry ice in frozen-food transport
Refrigeration.
Ammonia as a refrigerant:
o It has higher compressor discharge temperature compared to fluorocarbons.
o It is toxic to mucous membranes.
o It reacts with copper and its alloys.
Page 54 of 263
Refrigerants
Chapter 3
Organic Refrigerants
Refrigerant 11 or CFC 11 Used with centrifugal compressors in large capacity central air-
(CC13F) conditioning plants
Refrigerant 12 or CFC12 Used with reciprocating compressors in small units, specially
(CCl2F2) domestic refrigerators, water coolers, etc.
Refrigerant 22 or HCFC22 Used with reciprocating compressors in window-type air
(CHClF2) conditioners and large units such as package units and central
air conditioning plants. It is also used for low temperature
refrigeration applications, cold storages, food freezing and
storage, etc., with reciprocating and often with screw
compressors.
Among the less common refrigerants were:

Refrigerant 113 or CFC 113 With centrifugal compressors for air conditioning
(C2C13F3)
Refrigerant 114 or CFC 114 With rotary compressors
(C2C12F4)
Refrigerant 142b or HCFC For heat pump and high condensing temperature applications
142b (C2H3ClF2)
Refrigerant 502 For large supermarket frozen food cabinets involving high
pressure ratio applications
Environmental protection agencies advise against the use of chlorofluorocarbon
refrigerants because these react with ozone layer and cause its depletion.
Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP): According to the Montreal protocol, the ODP of
refrigerants should be zero, i.e., they should be non-ozone depleting substances.
Refrigerants having non-zero ODP have either already been phased-out (e.g. R11, R12) or
will be phased-out in near-future (e.g. R22). Since ODP depends mainly on the presence of
chlorine or bromine in the molecules, refrigerants having either chlorine (i.e., CFCs and
HCFCs) or bromine cannot be used under the new regulations.
Ozone depletion by CFCs occurs by breakdown of chlorine atoms from refrigerant by UV
radiation and reaction with ozone in stratosphere.
Note: Industries worldwide have turned to HCFCs, R22 and R123. While HCFCs have a Lower
ozone depletion potential than CFCs, they still damage the ozone layer. Never-The less, use of
these two HCFCs may continue well beyond 2030 of their very favourable properties.
Refrigerant and Application

Refrigerant Application Substitute suggested
Retrofit (R)/New (N)
R11 (CFC) Large air conditioning R123 (R,N)
NBP = 23.7C systems industrial heat R141b (N)
hfg at NBP = 182.5 kJ/kg pumps as foam blowing R245fa (N)
Tcr = 197.98C agent n-pentane(R,N)
Cp/Cv = 1.13
ODP = 1.0
GWP = 3500
Page 55 of 263
Refrigerants
Chapter 3
R12 (CFC) Domestic refrigerators R22 (R,N)
NBP = 29.8C Small air conditions R134a (R,N)
hfg at NBP = 165.8 kJ/kg Water coolers R227ea (N)
Tcr = 112.04C Small cold storages R401A,R 401B (R,N)
Cp/Cv = 1.126 R411A,R 411B (R,N)
ODP = 1.0 R717 (N)
GWP = 7300
R 22 (HCFC) Air conditioning systems R410A, R410B (N)
NBP = -40.8C Cold storages R417A (R,N)
hfg at NBP = 233.2 kJ/kg R407C (R,N)
Tcr = 96.02C R507, R 507A (R,N)
Cp/Cv = 1.166 R404A (R,N)
ODP = 0.05 R717 (N)
GWP = 1500
R 134a (HFC) Used as replacement for No replacement required
NBP = 26.15C R12 in domestic Immiscible in mineral oils
hfg at NBP = 222.5 kJ/kg refrigerators, water Highly hygroscopic
Tcr = 101.06C Coolers, automobile A/Cs
Cp/Cv = 1.102 etc.
ODP = 0.0
GWP = 1200
R 717 (NH3) Cold storages No replacement required
NBP = 33.35C Ice plants Toxic and flammable
hfg at NBP = 1368.9kJ/kg Food processing Incompatible with copper
Tcr = 133.0C Frozen food cabinets Highly efficient
Cp/Cv = 1.31 Inexpensive and available
ODP = 0.0
GWP = 0.0
R 744 (CO2) Cold storages No replacement required
NBP = 78.4C Air conditioning systems Very low critical
hfg at 40C = 321.3 kJ/kg Simultaneous cooling and temperature
Tcr = 31.1C heating (transcritical cycle) Eco-friendly
Cp/Cv = 1.3 Inexpensive and available
ODP = 0.0
GWP = 1.0
Table: Refrigerants, their applications and substitutes
Refrigerant Application Substitute suggested

Retrofit (R)/New (N)
R718(H2O) Absorption systems No replacement required
NBP = 100C Steam jet systems High NBP
hfg at NBP = 2257.9kJ/kg High freezing point
Tcr = 374.15c Large specific volume
Cp/Cv = 1.33 Eco-friendly
ODP = 00 Inexpensive and available
GWP = 1.0
R 600a (iso-butane) Replacement for R12 No replacement required
NBP = 11.73C Domestic refrigerators Flammable
hfg at NBP = 367.7 kJ/kg Water coolers Eco-friendly
Tcr = 135.0C
Cp/Cv = 1.086
ODP = 0.0
GWP = 3.0
Page 56 of 263
Refrigerants
Chapter 3
Designation of Refrigerants
o All the refrigerants are designated by R followed by a unique number
(a) For saturated hydrocarbons:
Cm H n Fp Clq
R (m 1) (n + 1) (P)
Equation: CHCl F2 R22

CCl 2 F2 R12
CH4 R50
C2H6 R170
C3 H8 R290
For Brominated refrigerant

Putting an additional B and a number denoted as how many chlorine atoms are replaced by
bromine atoms.
R13B1 i.e. CF3Br derived from R13 (CClF3)
In case of Butane C4 H 10 as n = 10 two digits figure Arbitrarily designated as
R600 n-butane
R600a iso-butane
(b) For unsaturated compounded
Put a 1 before (m 1)
i.e. R1(m 1) (n + 1) (P)
(c) For inorganic refrigerants
R(700 + molecular weight)
i.e. R717 for NH3
R718 for H2O
R744 for CO2
Mixtures: Azeotropic mixtures are designated by 500 series, where as zeotropic refrigerants
(e.g. non-azeotropic mixtures) are designated by 400 series.
Azeotropic mixtures:
R500: Mixture of R12 (73.8 %) and R152a (26.2%)
R502: Mixture of R22 (48.8 %) and R115 (51.2%)
R503: Mixture of R23 (40.1 %) and R13 (59.9%)
R507A: Mixture of R125 (50%) and R143a (50%)
Zeotropic mixtures:
R404A: Mixture of R125 (44%), R143a (52%) and R134a (4%)
R407A: Mixture of R32 (20%), R125 (40%) and R134a (40%)
R407B: Mixture of R32 (10%), R125 (70%) and R134a (20%)
R410A: Mixture of R32 (50%) and R125 (50%)
Alternative refrigerant as Freon. Responsible for depletion of O3 layer:

(i) R134a Tetra-fluoro ethane (C2 H2 F4) [CF3 CH2 F] But CHF2 CHF2 R134
(ii) R290 Propane (C3H8), CH3 CH2 CH3
CH3 CHCH3
(iii) R600a iso-butane (C4H10) i.e.
CH3
Page 57 of 263
Refrigerants
Chapter 3
Secondary Refrigerants
In large refrigeration plants, secondary refrigerants or coolants such as water, brines,
glycols and sometimes even halocarbons are used for carrying refrigeration from the plant
room to the space where it is usefully applied, instead of directly obtaining it by the evaporating
refrigerant at the place of application. This is done in order to reduce the quantity of the
refrigerant charge in the system and to reduce pressure losses in lines. The desirable properties
of secondary coolants are low freezing point, low viscosity, non-flammability; good
stability and low vapour pressure. Chilled water is used as a secondary refrigerant in
air-conditioning applications. For low temperature applications, brines, glycols and
hydrocarbons are used.
o Practically all refrigerants, except CO2 have fairly same COP and power
requirements.
o Ammonia does not mix freely with lubricating oil.
o Dielectric strength of refrigerants is an important property in hermetically sealed
compressor units.
o Leakage of ammonia is detected by its odour or sulphur candle with which ammonia
forms white smoke like fumes.
Azeotropic Mixtures
Azeotropes are essentially a class of non-ideal mixtures having bubble point temperature equal
to dew point temperature. Hence, they boi1 and condense at constant temperature like pure
substance. Azeotropes are generally formed when the difference in the boiling points of the two
components is not very large and when the deviations from ideal behavior are large enough.
Hence, there are azeotropes with positive deviation from Raoult's law as well as those with
negative deviation from it as described by Figure below. An example of an azeotrope which has
positive deviation from Raoult's law is R22/R12 azeotrope. Such an aztotrope has a bubble or
dew point which is lower than the boiling point of either of the components as shown in Figure
below and is, therefore, called a minimum-boiling azeotrope. On the other hand, an
azeotrope with negative deviation from Raoult's law has a bubble point which is higher than the
boiling point of either of the components as shown in Figure and is called a maximum boiling
azeotrope.
It is to be noted from Figure that there is an azeotropic composition ageo for the mixture at
the given pressure and temperature. This composition changes with the variation in pressure
and temperature. However, near the azeotropic composition the bubble and dew point curves
become flat. Thus in the range of usual condensation and evaporation temperature in
refrigerating machines, the azeotropic concentration more or less remains the same. Therefore,
a system charged with an azeotrope may be considered as working at all sections without any
change in composition.
It is also to be noted that a maximum boiling azeotrope, on account of the negative heat of
mixing, will have a higher latent heat of vaporization compared to the molal average latent
heat. On the contrary, a minimum boiling azeotrope will have a lower latent heat.
Page 58 of 263
Refrige
erants
Ch
hapter 3
Fig. t diagram
m of a min g. t dia
nimum boiiling Fig agram of a maxim
mum boilin
ng
azeootrope azeotroppe
Azeotrop
pic mixtur res:
R500: Mix
xture of R112 (73.8 %) and R152aa (26.2%)
R502: Mix
xture of R222 (48.8 %) and R115 (51.2%)
(
R503: Mix
xture of R223 (40.1 %) and R13 (5
59.9%)
R507A: Mixture
M of R125
R (50%) and R143aa (50%)
Leak Te
endency
The leak tendency of o refrigeran nts should be nil. Alsoo, the detecction of a leeak should be easy. The
T
greatest drawback
d o fluorocarrbons is thee fact that they are od
of dourless. T This, at times, results in
a complette loss of coostly gas frrom leaks without be eing detecteed. An amm monia leakk can be veery
easily dettected by itts pungent odour. Lea aks in amm monia plantts are very common due to the use u
of glands and lead gaskets in jooints and due
d to corro osion.
Several methods
m aree available for the dettection of le
eaks. The most
m commmon is the soap-bubb
s ble
method. The other is the ha alide torch h method used with h fluorocarbbons. In th
his, a meth hyl
alcohol orr hydrocarb
bon flame isi used whiich is light blue in collour, but which turns bluish green
in the presence of halocarbon
h n vapours. For ammo onia leaks, a burningg sulphur taper
t is ussed
which in the
t presencce of ammoonia forms white
w fumees of ammonium sulph hite.
An electr ronic leakk detectorr is most seensitive an
nd is used in
i the mannufacture and
a Assembbly
of refrigerration equiipment. Th
he operation
n of the insstrument depends
d on the flow off current due
d
to the ion
nization of the
t leaking g gas between two opp posite charg
ged platinu
um electrodes.
COPP of domesttic Refrigerrator is lesss in comparre to domesstic air cond
ditioner.
o pipelines for a systeem using Fr
The material of reon as reffrigerant shhould be co
opper.
The leakage inn a refrigera
ation system m using Frreon is detected by ha alide torch
h.
[ESE-20006]
The colour of fllame durin
ng halide toorch test forr Refrigera ge to blue or
ant leaks wiill be chang
brig
ght green.
The leakage ini a refrigeration system using g ammoniia as Refrrigerant is detected by
sulp
phur stick ks.
Action with
w Oil
The solub
bility behavviour of a refrigerant
r nd consequent changees in the viiscosity of oil
t and oil an
determinee the stepss which muust be takenn to provid
de good lub
brication. In
n compresssors, some oil
Page 59 of 263
Refrigerants
Chapter 3
is carried by the high temperature refrigerant vapour to the condenser and ultimately to the
expansion valve and evaporator. In the evaporator, as the refrigerant evaporates, a distillation
process occurs and the oil separates from the refrigerant. A build-up of oil in the evaporator will
result in a reduced heat transfer coefficient, oil choking in the evaporator due to restriction
caused to refrigerant flow and even blockage and ultimately to oil starvation in the compressor.
The solubility behaviour of a refrigerant in mineral oil may be classified:
(i) Immiscible
(ii) Miscible
(iii) Partially miscible
Refrigerants that are not miscible with oil, such as ammonia or carbon dioxide, do not
present any problems. In such a case, an oil separator is installed a little away from the
compressor in the discharge line and the separated oil is continuously returned to the crank-
case of the compressor.
R134a which is already in use as an alternative to R12 in domestic refrigerators, car air
conditioners, etc., is also not miscible in mineral oil. But, since we cannot install an oil separator
in hermetically sealed systems. We have to use oil which is Miscible. Accordingly, synthetic oil,
Polyol-ester (POE), is used in R134a system.
Refrigerants that are completely miscible with oil, such as R12, R152a, R290, R600a, etc., also
do not present problems.
For R123 naphthenic mineral oil is used. Oil which reaches the evaporator, is Returned to the
compressor along with the refrigerant as it is the refrigerant-oil mixture which boils off in the
evaporator. Thus, the miscibility of the refrigerant with Lubricating oil ensures oil-return to
the compressor. Any oil that gets separated in the evaporator can be returned to the compressor
either by gravity or by entrainment by the high velocity suction vapours. For the purpose, the
evaporatory exit should be above the suction line. The diameters of the suction lines are so
designed that the Velocity of the returning gas is sufficient enough to carry away the oil sticking
to the Walls of the tubing. A high velocity, however, increases the pressure drop which is
Undesirable.
In systems in which a refrigerant is only partially miscible with oil, the return of the oil to the
compressor creates problems.
Most fluorocarbons are miscible with oil in all concentrations and at all temperatures. However,
with R22, there is partial miscibility. Refrigerant and oil are miscible at the condenser
temperature, but separation takes place at the evaporator Temperature. Two liquid phases are
formed at low temperature, one predominantly consisting of the refrigerant and the other, oil,
thus resulting in oil separation. The Temperature at which liquid separation occurs depends on
the nature of the oil and its concentration. Thus, a solution of R22 with 10 per cent oil will
separate into two. Layers at 5C, but with 1 per cent oil, separation does not occur until 51C.
With 18 per cent oil, separation will occur even at 0.5C. No matter how little oil goes into the
evaporator, as the evaporation of refrigerant proceeds, the composition of oil in the liquid
solution increases and it is bound to pass through the critical-composition for separation
which usually lies between 15 and 20 per cent of Oil in the liquid phase.
The return of oil in these compressors, therefore, presents a problem. At low refrigeration
temperatures, it is all the more acute. One solution of the problem is to install an efficient oil
separator. Another is to use synthetic oils instead of mineral oils which are completely miscible
with the refrigerant at temperatures as low as 80C. Among the synthetic oils, polybutyl
silicate and alkyl benzenes have better miscibility with R22.
Also, in direct expansion evaporators, oil-refrigerant emulsion can be easily carried to the
compressor by high velocity suction vapours. These evaporators are, therefore, preferred over
flooded evaporators, and are particularly used for low temperature refrigeration and with
refrigerants such as R22.
In flooded evaporators, the separated oil-rich layer, being lighter, floats on top of the boiling
liquid, and because of the extremely low velocity of the suction vapour, it cannot be carried to
Page 60 of 263
Refrigerants
Chapter 3
the compressor. Thus, when flooded evaporators are used with R22, a connection must be
provided for the overflow of oil from the evaporator to the compressor crank-case.
In the case of ammonia, however, the oil being heavier than the refrigerant, it collects at the
bottom of the evaporator and can be drained out, if necessary.
Page 61 of 263
Refrigerants
Chapter 3
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS (GATE, IES, IAS)
Previous 20-Years GATE Questions
GATE-1. Environment friendly refrigerant R134a is used in the new generation
domestic refrigerators. Its chemical formula is: [GATE-2004]
(a) CH ClF2 (b) C2 Cl3 F3 (c) C2 Cl2 F4 (d) C2 H2 F4
GATE-1. Ans. (d)
number of fluorine atom
R134
number of Hydrogen atom
(-1)
number of Carbon atom

(+1)
Hence answer is,C2H2F2
Azeotropic Mixtures
GATE-2. The use of Refrigerant 22 (R-22) for temperatures below 30C is not
recommended due to its [GATE-1993]
(a) Good miscibility with lubricating oil
(b) Poor miscibility with lubricating oil
(c) Low evaporating pressure
(d) High compressor discharge temperature
GATE-2. Ans. (d)

IES-1. A good refrigerant should have [IES-1992]
(a) Large latent heat of vaporisation and low operating pressures
(b) Small latent heat of vaporisation and high operating pressures
(c) Large latent heat of vaporisation and large operating pressures
(d) Small latent heat of vaporisation and low operating pressures
IES-1. Ans. (a)
IES-2. The desirable combination of properties for a refrigerant include

(a)High specific heat and low specific volume [IES-1998]
(b)High heat transfer coefficient and low latent heat
(c)High thermal conductivity and low freezing point
(d) High specific heat and high bailing point
IES-2. Ans. (c) Required Properties of Ideal Refrigerant:
1. The refrigerant should have low boiling point and low freezing point.
2. It must have low specific heat and high latent heat. Because high specific heat
decreases the refrigerating effect per kg of refrigerant and high latent heat at low
temperature increases the refrigerating effect per kg of refrigerant.
Page 62 of 263
Refrigerants
Chapter 3
3. The pressures required to be maintained in the evaporator and condenser should
be low enough to reduce the material cost and must be positive to avoid leakage of air
into the system.
4. It must have high critical pressure and temperature to avoid large power
requirements.
5. It should have low specific volume to reduce the size of the compressor.
6. It must have high thermal conductivity to reduce the area of heat transfer in
evaporator and condenser.
7. It should be non-flammable, non-explosive, non-toxic and non-corrosive.
8. It should not have any bad effects on the stored material or food, when any leak
develops in the system.
9. It must have high miscibility with lubricating oil and it should not have reacting
property with lubricating oil in the temperature range of the system.
10. It should give high COP in the working temperature range. This is necessary to
reduce the running cost of the system.
11. It must be readily available and it must be cheap also.
Required Properties of Ideal Refrigerant:
1. The refrigerant should have low boiling point and low freezing point.
2. It must have low specific heat and high latent heat. Because high specific heat
decreases the refrigerating effect per kg of refrigerant and high latent heat at low
temperature increases the refrigerating effect per kg of refrigerant.
3. The pressures required to be maintained in the evaporator and condenser should
be low enough to reduce the material cost and must be positive to avoid leakage of air
into the system.
4. It must have high critical pressure and temperature to avoid large power
requirements.
5. It should have low specific volume to reduce the size of the compressor.
6. It must have high thermal conductivity to reduce the area of heat transfer in
evaporator and condenser.
7. It should be non-flammable, non-explosive, non-toxic and non-corrosive.
8. It should not have any bad effects on the stored material or food, when any leak
develops in the system.
9. It must have high miscibility with lubricating oil and it should not have reacting
properly with lubricating oil in the temperature range of the system.
10. It should give high COP in the working temperature range. This is necessary to
reduce the running cost of the system.
11. It must be readily available and it must be cheap also.
IES-3. Match List-I (Refrigerant) with List-II (Principal application) and select the
correct answer using the codes given below the lists: [IES-1995]
List-I List-II
A.Air 1.Direct contact freezing of food
B.Ammonia 2.Centrifugal compressor system
C.Carbon dioxide 3.Large industrial temperature
installation
D.Refrigerant-11 4.Automotive air-conditioners
5.Aircraft refrigeration
(a) 3 4 1 2 (b) 5 3 1 2
(c) 2 4 3 5 (d) 5 3 2 1
IES-3. Ans. (b)
IES-4. Which of the following statements are true for Ammonia as a refrigerant?
1.It has higher compressor discharge temperature compared to
fluorocarbons.
Page 63 of 263
Refrigerants
Chapter 3
2.It is toxic to mucous membranes.
3.It requires larger displacement per TR compared to fluorocarbons.
4.It reacts with copper and its alloys.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below: [IES-1993]
Codes: (a) 1 and 2 (b) 1, 2 and 3 (c) 1, 2 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4
IES-4. Ans. (c)
IES-5. In conventional refrigerants what is the element responsible for ozone

depletion? [IES-2009]
(a) Chlorine (b) Fluorine (c) Carbon (d) Hydrogen
IES-5. Ans. (a) Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP): According to the Montreal protocol, the
ODP of refrigerants should be zero, i.e., they should be non-ozone depleting
substances. Refrigerants having non-zero ODP have either already been phased-out
(e.g. R 11, R 12) or will be phased-out in near-future(e.g. R22). Since ODP depends
mainly on the presence of chlorine or bromine in the molecules, refrigerants having
either chlorine (i.e., CFCs and HCFCs) or bromine cannot be used under the new
regulations.
IES-6. Which of the following refrigerant has the maximum ozone depletion in the
stratosphere? [IES-1992]
(a) Ammonia (b) Carbon dioxide (c) Sulphur dioxide (d) Fluorine
IES-6. Ans. (d)
IES-7. Ozone depletion by CFCs occurs by breakdown of: [IES-2002]

(a)Chlorine atoms from refrigerant by UV radiation and reaction with ozone in
troposphere
(b)Fluorine atoms from refrigerant by UV radiation and reaction with ozone in
troposphere
(c)Chlorine atoms from refrigerant by UV radiation and reaction with ozone in
stratosphere
(d)Fluorine atoms from refrigerant by UV radiation and reaction with ozone in
stratosphere
IES-7. Ans. (c)
IES-8. Which one of the following is correct? [IES-2008]

Environmental protection agencies advise against the use of
chlorofluorocarbon refrigerants because these react with
(a)Water vapour and cause acid rain
(b)Plants and cause green house effect
(c)Oxygen and cause its depletion
(d)Ozone layer and cause its depletion
IES-8. Ans. (d)
IES-9. Consider the following statements regarding refrigerants: [IES-2000]
1. Refrigerant NH3 is used in reciprocating compressors.
2. Refrigerant CO2 is used in reciprocating compressors.
3. Refrigerant R-11 is used in centrifugal compressors.
(a) 1 and 3 (b) 1 and 2 (c) 2 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3
IES-9. Ans. (a)
IES-10. Match List-I (Refrigerant) with List-II (Chemical constituent) and select the
correct answer using the codes given below the lists: [IES-2001]
List-I List-II
Page 64 of 263
Refrigerants
Chapter 3
A.R-12 1.Trichlorotrifluroethane (CCl2FCClF2)
B.R-22 2.Difluoro monochloro methane (CHF2Cl)
C.R-717 3.Ammonia (NH3)
D.R-113 4.Difluoro dichloro methane (CCl2F2)
(a) 3 2 4 1 (b) 4 2 3 1
(c) 3 1 4 2 (d) 4 1 3 2
IES-10. Ans. (b)
1. Practically all common refrigerants have approximately the same COP and
power requirement.
2. Ammonia mixes freely with lubricating oil and this helps lubrication of
compressors.
3. Dielectric strength of refrigerants is an important property in hermetically
sealed compressor units.
4. Leakage of ammonia can be detected by' halide torch method.
(a)1, 2 and 4 are correct (b)2 and 4 are correct
(c)1, 3 and 4 are correct (d)1 and 3 are correct
IES-11. Ans. (d) Practically all refrigerants, except CO2 have fairly same COP and power
requirements. Thus statement (a) is correct. Ammonia does not mix freely with
lubricating oil. Therefore statement (b) is wrong. Dielectric strength of refrigerants is
an important property in hermetically sealed compressor units. Leakage of ammonia
is detected by its odour or sulphur candle with which ammonia forms white smoke
like fumes. Thus statements 1 and 4 are correct and choice (d) is the right choice.
IES-12. In milk chilling plants, the usual secondary refrigerant is: [IES-1998]
(a)Ammonia solution (b)Sodium silicate
(c)Propylene glycol (d)Brine
IES-12. Ans. (d)
IES-13. The leakage in a Freon-based refrigeration system can be detected by using

a/an [IES-2000]
(a)Oxy-acetylene torch (b) Halide torch
(c)Sulphur torch (d) Blue litmus paper
IES-13. Ans. (b)
IES-14. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer [IES-1994]
List-I List-II
A. Freon 12 1. Centrifugal systems
B. Freon 22 2. Low temperature cold storage
C. Freon 11 3. Window type a/c units
D. Ammonia 4. Ice plants
(a) 3 2 1 4 (b) 3 1 2 4
(c) 1 2 4 3 (d) 1 3 4 2
IES-14. Ans. (a)
Azeotropic Mixtures
IES-15. What is an azeotrope? [IES-2008]
(a) A non-halogenic refrigerant
(b) A refrigerant dissolved in alcohol
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Refrigerants
Chapter 3
(c) A mixture of refrigerants without phase separation
(d) An eco-friendly refrigerant
IES-15. Ans. (c) Azeotrope is a mixture of refrigerants without phase separation.
IES-16. Selection of a refrigerant for a vapour compression system depends on

which among the following? [IES-2007]
(a) Toxicity (b) Environmental effect
(c) Saturation pressure temperature relationship (d) All of the above
IES-16. Ans. (d)
IES-17. Which one of the following is the fluid whose properties in all its three
phase are made use of in thermodynamics? [IES-2007]
(a) Ammonia (b) Freon 12 (c) Helium (d) Water
IES-17. Ans. (d)
IES-18. Oil separator is NOT required in refrigeration system if: [IES-2003]

(a) Refrigerant and oil are immiscible at all pressures and temperatures
(b) Refrigerant and oil are immiscible at condensation pressure and temperature
(c) Refrigerant and oil are miscible at all pressures and temperatures
(d) Refrigerant and oil are miscible at condensation pressures and temperature.
IES-18. Ans. (b)

In ammonia refrigeration systems, oil separator is provided because
1. Oil separation in evaporator would lead to reduction in heat transfer
coefficient.
2. Oil accumulation in the evaporator causes choking of evaporator.
3. Oil is partially miscible in the refrigerant.
4. Oil causes choking of expansion device.
(a) 1 and 2 are correct (b) 2 and 4 are correct
(c) 2, 3 and 4 are correct (d) 1, 3 and 4 are correct
IES-19. Ans. (b)

Moisture should be removed from refrigerants to avoid
1. Compressor seal failure 2. Freezing at the expansion valve
3. Restriction to refrigerant flow 4. Corrosion of steel parts
(a) 1, 2, 3 and 4 are correct (b) 1 and 2 are correct
(c) 2, 3 and 4 are correct (d) 1, 3 and 4 are correct.
IES-20. Ans. (a) All the statements about effect of moisture on refrigerant are correct.
IES-21. The leaks in a refrigeration system freon are detected by: [IES-2006]
(a) A halide torch, which on detecting produces greenish flame lighting
(b) Sulphur sticks, which on detecting give white smoke
(c) Using reagents
(d) Sensing reduction in pressures
IES-21. Ans. (a) Several methods are available for the detection of leaks. The most common is
the soap-bubble method. The other is the halide torch method used with
fluorocarbons.
Page 66 of 263
Refrigerants
Chapter 3
IAS-1. Assertion (A): R-22 is used as a refrigerant in all refrigerators.
Reason (R): R-22 is non-toxic and non-inflammable.
IAS-1. Ans. (d)
IAS-2. Match List-I (Chemical formula of refrigerant) with List-II (Numerical
Designation) and select the correct answer using the codes given below the
lists: [IAS-2002]
List-I List-II
A. NH3 1.12
B. CCl2F2 2.22
C. CHClF2 3.40
D. CCl2 FCCl F2 4.113
5.717
(a) 4 1 5 2 (b) 5 3 2 4
(c) 4 3 5 2 (d) 5 1 2 4
IAS-2. Ans. (d) R(C 1)(H + 1)F and Cl by balance and for inorganic refrigerant R(700 +
Molecular weight).
IAS-3. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the codes given
List-I List-II
A. Refrigerant 11 1.CC12F2
B. Refrigerant 12 2.C2Cl2F4
C. Refrigerant 22 3.CCl3F
D. Refrigerant 114 4.CHClF2
5.CH2ClF
(a) 2 1 5 3 (b) 3 4 5 2
(c) 3 1 4 2 (d) 5 1 4 3
IAS-3. Ans. (c) R (C 1 )( H + 1 ) F
R11 = R011 C = 1, H = 0, F = 1, Cl = 3
R12 = R012 C = 1, H = 0, F = 2, Cl = 2
R22 = R022 C = 1, H = 1, F = 2, Cl = 1
R114 = R114 C = 2, H = 0, F = 4, Cl = 2
IAS-4. The refrigerant 12 (R 12) used in vapour compression refrigeration

system is: [IAS-2000]
(a) CHCIF2 (b) CCl2F2 (c) CHCl2F (d) CCIF3
IAS-4. Ans. (b) R12 = R012 = R(C 1)(H + 1)F. Therefore C = 1, H = 0, F = 2 by balance Cl = 2
IAS-5. Match List-I (Refrigerant) with List-II (Designation) and select the correct
answer using the codes given below the lists: [IAS-1999]
List-I List-II
A.Dichlorodifluoromethane 1.R 718
B.Water 2.R 22
C.Methyl chloride 3.R40
D.Monochloride-fluoromethane 4.R 12
Page 67 of 263
Refrigerants
Chapter 3
(a) 4 1 2 3 (b) 1 4 3 2
(c) 1 4 2 3 (d) 4 1 3 2
IAS-5. Ans. (d)
IAS-6. Assertion (A): Freon-12 is odourless and its leakage cannot be easily
detected. However, it is preferred in comfort air-conditioning. [IAS 1994]
Reason (R): It is almost impossible for Freon-12 leakage to attain a fatal
concentration.
IAS-6. Ans. (a)
IAS-7. The pipes and fitting in an ammonia refrigeration system should be made
of: [IAS-1998]
(a)Cast steel or wrought iron (b) Aluminium
(c)Naval brass (d) Copper
IAS-7. Ans. (a)
Azeotropic Mixtures
IAS-8. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the codes given
List-I List-II
A.Sulphur candle test 1.Propane
B.Halide torch test 2.Ammonia
C.Soap and water test 3.Halocarbon refrigerants
D.Ammonia swab test 4.Sulphur dioxide
(a) 2 3 1 4 (b) 4 1 3 2
(c) 2 1 3 4 (d) 4 3 1 2
IAS-8. Ans. (a)

1.In Freon 22 system, moisture chocking generally does not occur.
2.Freon 11 is mainly used in large capacity air-conditioning plants with
centrifugal compressor.
3.Pressure of lubricating oil in evaporator will increase the heat transfer
coefficient.
4.Refrigerants that are completely miscible with oil, do not cause oil
chocking.
(a)1, 2 and 3 are correct (b)1, 2 and 3 correct
(c)2, 3 and 4 correct (d)1, 3 and 4 are correct
IAS-9. Ans. (c)
IAS-10. Which one of the following refrigerants has the highest critical
temperature? [IAS-1996]
(a) Water (b) Carbon dioxide (c) Freon 12 (d) Ammonia
IAS-10. Ans. (a)
IAS-11. The significant advantage of using ammonia as a refrigerant is its

(a)Characteristic odour (b)High latent heat [IAS-1996]
Page 68 of 263
Refrigerants
Chapter 3
(c)Solubility (d)Inflammability
IAS-11. Ans. (b)
IAS-12. The color of the flame of halide torch, in a case of leakage of Freon
refrigerant, will change to: [IAS-1996]
(a) Bright green (b) Yellow (c) Red (d) Orange
IAS-12. Ans. (a)
IAS-13. Ideal refrigeration mixture is one which [IAS-2007]

(a)Obeys Raoult's law in liquid phase and does not obey Dalton's law in vapour phase
(b)Does not obey Raoult's law in liquid phase and does not obey Dalton's law in
vapour phase
(c)Obeys Raoult's law in liquid phase and obeys Dalton's law in vapour phase
(d)Does not obey Raoult's law in liquid phase and obeys Dalton's law in vapour phase
IAS-13. Ans. (c)
Page 69 of 263
4. Refrigerant Compressors

For gas compressor [always use Reversible process]
a. Work required for Reversible polytropic compression
(n 1 )
n
W= p1V1 P2

n
1
(for all n)
n-1 P1

b. Work required for Reversible Adiabatic compression
( 1 )

p1V1 P2

W= 1 (for all )
1 P1

c. But Work required when polytropic as well as adiabatic compression
(n 1 )

W= p1V1 P2 n
1
(mixture of n and )
1
P1

[Note: In reversible polytropic process there is heat transfer but in this case,
adiabatic, heat transfer is not there.]
Types of Compressors
Compressors used in refrigeration system can be classified in several Ways.
(a) Based on the working principle:

i. Positive displacement type.
ii. Roto-dynamic type.
In positive displacement type compressors, Compression is achieved by trapping a refrigerant
vapour into an enclosed space and then reducing its volume. Since a fixed amount of refrigerant
is trapped each time, its pressure rises as its volume is reduced. When the pressures rises to a
level that is slightly higher than the condensing pressure, then it expelled from the enclosed
space and a fresh charge of low-pressure refrigerant is drawn in and the cycle continues. Since
the flow of refrigerant to the compressor is not steady, the positive displacement type
compressor is a pulsating flow device. However, since the operating speeds are normally
very high the flow appears to be almost steady on macroscopic time scale since the flow is
pulsating on a microscopic time scale, positive displacement type compressors are prone to high
wear, vibration and noise level. Depending upon the construction, positive displacement type
compressors used in refrigeration and air conditioning can be classified into:
i. Reciprocating
ii. Rotary type with sliding vanes (rolling piston type or multiple vane type)
iii. Rotary screw type (single screw or twin-screw type)
iv. Orbital compressors, and.
v. Acoustic compressors.
In roto-dynamic compressors, the pressure rise of refrigerant is achieved by imparting kinetic
energy to a steadily flowing steam of refrigerant by a rotating mechanical element and then
converting into pressure as the refrigerant flows through a diverging passage. Unlike positive
displacement type, the roto-dynamic type compressors are steady low devices, hence are
subjected to less wear and Vibration. Depending upon the construction, roto-dynamic type
compressors can be classified into:
i. Radial flow type, or
Page 70 of 263
Refrigerant Compressors
Chapter 4
ii. Axial flow type
Centrifugal compressors (also known as turbo-compressors) are radial flow type, roto-dynamic
compressors. These compressors are widely used in large capacity refrigeration and air
conditioning systems. Axial flow compressors are normally used in gas liquefaction applications.
(b) Based on arrangement of compressor motor or external drive:

i. Open type
ii. Hermetic (or sealed) type
iii. Semi-hermetic (or semi-sealed) type.
In open type compressors the rotating shaft of the compressor extends through a seal in the
crankcase for an external drive. The external drive may be an electrical motor or an engine (e.g.
diesel engine). The compressor may be belt driven or gear driven. Open type compressors are
normally used in medium to large capacity refrigeration system for all refrigerants and for
ammonia (due to its incompatibility with hermetic motor materials). Open type compressors
are characterized by high efficiency, flexibility, better compressor cooling and
serviceability. However, since the shaft has to extend through the seal, refrigerant leakage
from the system cannot be eliminated completely. Hence refrigeration systems using open type
compressors require a refrigerant reservoir to take care of the refrigerant leakage for some time,
and then regular maintenance for charging the system with refrigerant, changing of seals,
gaskets etc.
In hermetic compressors, the motor and the compressor are enclosed in the same housing to
prevent refrigerant leakage. The housing has welded connections for refrigerant inlet and outlet
and for power input socket. As a result of this, there is virtually no possibility of refrigerant
leakage from the compressor. All motors reject a part of the power supplied to it due to eddy
currents and friction, that is, inefficiencies. Similarly the compressor also gets heated-up due to
friction and also due to temperature rise of the vapour during compression. In Open type, both
the compressor and the motor normally reject heat to the surrounding air for efficient operation.
In hermetic compressors heat cannot be rejected to the surrounding air since both are enclosed
in a shell. Hence, the cold suction gas is made to flow over the motor and the compressor before
entering the compressor. This keeps the motor cool. The motor winding is in direct contact with
the refrigerant hence only those refrigerants, which have high dielectric strength, can be used
in hermetic compressors. The cooling rate depends upon.
The flow rate of the refrigerant, its temperature and the thermal properties of the refrigerant. If
flow rate is not sufficient and/or if the temperature is not low enough the insulation on the
winding of the motor can burn out and short-circuiting may occur. Hence, hermetically sealed
compressors give satisfactory and safe performance over a very narrow range of design
temperature and should not be used for off-design conditions.
The COP of the hermetic compressor based systems is lower than that of the open compressor
based systems since a part of the refrigeration effect is lost in cooling the motor and the
compressor. However, hermetic compressors are almost universally used in small systems such
as domestic refrigerators, water coolers, air conditioners etc, where efficiency is not as
important as customer convenience (due to absence of continuous maintenance). In addition to
this, the use of hermetic compressors is ideal in systems, which use capillary tubes as expansion
devices and are critically charged systems. Hermetic compressors are normally not serviceable.
They are not very flexible as it is difficult to vary their speed to control the cooling capacity.
In some (usually larger) hermetic units, the cylinder head is usually removable so that the
valves and the piston can be serviced. This type of unit is called a semi-hermetic (or semi-
sealed) compressor.
Work in Reciprocating Compressor

The p-v diagram for the machine cycle of a reciprocating compressor is shown in Figure along
with the skeleton diagram of the cylinder and piston mechanism. When the piston is in the
Page 71 of 263
Refrigerant Co
ompresso
ors
Cha
apter 4
exxtreme leftt position of
o the innerr dead centtre (IDC), the
t volumee occupied by the gass is Vc = V3
alled the cllearance voolume, i.e., the volum
ca me between n the IDC position off the piston and the
cy
ylinder heaad. As the piston
p movees outward, the clearaance gas ex xpands to 4
4, where thee pressure
in
nside the cy
ylinder is eqqual to the pressure at
a the suctiion flange ofo the comp
pressor. As the piston
m
moves further, the sucction valve S opens and
a the vap
pour from thet evaporator is sucked in till
th
he extreme right posittion of the outer dead d centre (O
ODC) is rea ached. At th
his point th
he volume
occcupied by the
t gas is Vl . the strooke or swept volume orr piston dissplacement is
D 2
V p = (V1 V3 ) = L
4
Where D is the bore orr diameterr and L is the
W t stroke, i.e., the distance
d traavelled by the
t piston
beetween IDC C and ODC of the cylinder.
c A 1, the suction valv
At ve closes a as the pistton moves
in
nwards and d the comprression beg gins. At 2, the
t pressurre in the cy ylinder is eequal to the
e pressure
att the discharge flangee of the commpressor. A further inward
i movvement of the piston results in
th
he pressuree in the cyliinder exceeeding the coondenser pressure.
p Thhis opens th he discharg
ge valve D
annd the vapoour from thhe cylinderr flows into the condennser till the piston ag gain reachees the IDC
poosition. Ga
as equal too the Clea arance volu ume Vc , re
emains in the cylind der and th he cycle is
reepeated.
Fig. Cylind
der and pisston mech
hanism an
nd p-V diag
gram of a reciproca
ating Com
mpressor
Th
he work doone for comp
pression foor the mach
hine cycle iss given by the
t cyclic in
ntegral of pdV.
p
H
Hence,
2 3 4 1
W= p d V = pd V + p dV + p d V + p dV
1 2 3 4
2 4
= pdV + p2 (V3 V2 ) + pdV + p1 (V1 V4 ) = Area 1 2 3 4
1 3
Itt will be seeen that thiss area is alsso expresseed by the te

erm V
Vdp. Hence,,
2 2 2 2
W= 1
p dV = V dp = m p dv = m v dp
1 1 1
Where m is the
W t mass off the suctioon vapour. Thus,
T the specific
s worrk in a recip
procating
Coompressor is given by
y:
Page 72 of 263
Chapter 4
2 2
W= 1
p dv = v dp
1
Where 1 and 2 are the limits of integration from suction state 1 to the discharge state 2 as
indicated in Figure.
Work in Centrifugal compressor'

In a steady-flow process, the gas enters the centrifugal compressor, passes over the blades in a
centrifugal field and is subjected to momentum change, leaving finally, through a diffuser at the
discharge pressure. From the steady-flow energy equation
q = (h2 h1 ) + w
And from the combined First and Second Laws for reversible process,
2 2 2
q = Tds = (dh vdp) = ( h2 h1 ) vdp EquationA
1 1 1
Comparing the two expressions, we have for work

2
w = vd p
1
It is thus seen that the work of compression is the same for both reciprocating and centrifugal
2
compressors and is given by the expression vdp , integrated between the suction and
1
discharge states. Equation (A), therefore, represents the energy equation for both compressors,
viz,
2
q = ( h2 h1 ) vdp
1
For an adiabatic compression process, in which q = 0, it gives

2
w = vdp = (h2 h1 )
1
2
Note: The expression for work done is the same, viz., w = vdp whether it is a reciprocating
1
compressor or a centrifugal compressor.
Thermodynamic Processes during Compression

Here is a comparison of the theoretical arid actual thermodynamic processes during
compression. Theoretical compression processes considered here are those of constant entropy
and constant temperature. The actual compression process is, however, close to polytropic.
Isentropic Compression
For the isentropic compression process
pv = p1v1 = p2v2
So that,
1
2
p
w = vdp = v1 ( p1 / p)1/ dp = p1v1 2 1
1 1 p1
For a perfect gas, this become
w = C p (T2 T1 )
Since,
Page 73 of 263
Refrigerant Co
ompresso
ors
Cha
apter 4
1
R p
T2
p1v1 = RT1, ,C p = and 2
a =
1 p1 T1
Is
sotherma
al comprression
Th
he initial and
a final states
s are known
k to have
h pressure and teemperaturee as p1 T and
a p2 T .
H
Hence, h1 s2 can be found from the
t steam table
t of pro
operties an
nd work can
n be evalua
ated using
th
he steady-fllow energy equation, viz,
v
q = T ( s2 s1 ) = (h2 h1 ) + w
Foor a perfectt gas
h1 = h2 hence q = w
Allso, pv = p1v1 = p2v2 = const. Hen
nce,
2
p2 p
q = w = vdp = p1v1 ln RT1 ln 2 = T ( s2 s1 )
1
p1 p1
Adiabatic an
nd isothermmal processes are shoown as 1 2t and 1 2s 2 respectiive on the p v and
T s diagra
ams in Figgure the shhaded area on the p v diagram represen nts the diffference in
work. For th
he same preessure ratiio, isotherm
mal work iss seen to bee less than the isentroopic work.
Thhe shaded area on the T s dia
agram in Figure repre esents the heat transffer in the isothermal
i
prrocess.
Fig. Isothe
ermal, isentrop
pic a
and Fig. Isothermal, issentropic and
polytropic comp
pression processes
p on polytorpiic compression proc cesses on
agram
pv dia Ts diagr
ram
P
Polytropic
c Comprression
An
ny general process can be expresssed by thee polytropicc law
p1v1n = p2v2n = pvn = Constan
nt
In n n is such that 1 < n < .
n which thee polytropicc index of coompression
Th
he work doone in a polytropic com mpression process
p is th
hus
1/ n n 1

p1 n p1 n
w = vdp = v1 dp =
p1v1 1
p n 1 p
2 2
Foor a perfectt gas, sincee p1v1 = RT1 this becom
mes
Page 74 of 263
Chapter 4
n 1

n p n
n
w= RT1 1 =
1
. C p (T2 T1 ) Equation.A
n 1 p n 1 1
2

Equation (A) shows that work is a function of initial temperature, pressure ratio and
polytropic index n, viz,
w = f (T1i p2 / p1i n )
For isentropic compression, n = i and for isothermal compression, n = 1. Higher the value of
for a substance, more the work required and higher is the discharge temperature. To reduce the
work of compression and also to lower the discharge temperature, it is necessary to resort to
cooling during compression, specially, in the case of substances with high value of i
The, term polytropic compression is used in different senses. It may mean either (a) reversible
but non-adiabatic compression, in which heat is removed during the process or, (b) irreversible
but adiabatic compression, in which there is friction but no heat transfer, or (c) both.
Reciprocating compressors may approach case (a) with the cooling of the cylinder, provided the
velocities are small. Thus n will be less than i Centrifugal compressors approach case (b), i.e.,
friction effects are considerable but the flow is nearly adiabatic and n will be greater than i
We know that the isothermal compression process is the best but it would be extremely slow
and is not possible to achieve in practice. Actual compression processes are nearly adiabatic. We
can reduce the work of compression to some extent by cooling the compressor cylinder and
achieve a process of the type (a) viz., polytropic with cooling such as 1 2c in Figure Such a
process will have work less than that of an adiabatic process and more than that of an
isothermal process. If the value of for a gas is very high, such as 1.4 for air and 1.3 for
ammonia, and/or the pressure ratio is also high; the compressor cylinders are cooled by water
jacketing. If the value of is not as high as in the case of fluorocarbons, cooling by air through
natural convection is found satisfactory. To augment the heat transfer, the cylinder bodies of
these compressors are cast with fins on the external surface.
In centrifugal compressors, however, the process is nearly adiabatic. But an adiabatic
compression process (no cooling) will normally be accompanied with friction. Such a process can
also be represented by the polytropic law and will be of the type (b), viz., and polytropic with
friction as represented by the line 1 2f in Figure.
An actual compression process in reciprocating compressors will be accompanied with both
cooling and friction. Such a process can also be represented by the polytropic law with an
appropriate value of the index of compression n. The discharge state after compression may be
either to the left or to the right of the point 2s, depending on the degree of cooling and friction.
To compare the performance of a compressor, we define the following efficiencies
Isothermal work
Isothermal efficiency, =
Actual work
Isothermal work
Adiabatic efficiency, a =
Actual work
Adiabatic efficiency is the most commonly used term.

The minimum work of compression, with cooling, is isothermal work. Often isothermal
efficiency is, therefore, used to express the performance of reciprocating compression, which are
invariably cooled.
Page 75 of 263
Refrigerant Co
ompresso
ors
Cha
apter 4
Th he minimu um work off compressiion, withouut cooling, is
i isentropiic work. Ad
diabatic effficiency is,
thherefore, ussed to express the perrformance of
o centrifuggal compresssors in wh
hich it is no
ot possible
too arrange coooling during compresssion.
M
Multi-St
tage Co
ompression
When comprressing a gas
W g (or air)) to high pressure
p itt is advanttageous to do it in sttages. The
coondition forr minimum
m work requ
uires the coompressionn to be isotthermal. Siince the tem
mperature
( n 1)
affter compreession is giiven by T2 = T1 ( p2 / p1 ) n
. Thee delivery temperatur
t re T2 . Incrrease with
th
he pressuree ratio. Alsso the volu
umetric effficiency as given by decrease
d a
as the pressure ratio
in
ncrease, as mentionedd earlier.
Th
he volumettric efficien
ncy can be improved
i b carrying
by g out the coompression n in two sta ages. After
th
he first stag
ge of comp he state p1 ,T1 to the state px ,Tx , the fluid
pression (L..P.) from th d is passed
in
nto a smaller cylinderr (H.P.) in which
w the gas is compressed to the requirred final prressure p2
ure T2 (Fig
att temperatu gure).
Thhe gas afteer being coompressed in the L.P P. (low preessure) cylinder (a-b)) is passedd on to an
in
ntercooler for
f getting
g cooled. After
A leavin
ng the inttercooler th he gas en nters the H.P.
H (high
prressure) cy mpression (cd). Figu
ylinder for further com ure shows the
t pV diiagram for two-stage
coompressionn. Complete or perfeect intercoooling (bc) means th hat the ex xiting gas from the
in a temperatture Tx is coooled comp
ntercooler at pletely to th
he original (inlet) tempperature T1.
Fig. Pla
an showin
ng interco
ooling betw
ween com
mpressor sttages
d d ') mak
Siimilarly, peerfect afterr cooling (d kes the gas, leaving th
he H.P. com mpressor cooled
c also
th
he inlet tem
mperature T1 . This aft fter cooling reduces th
he volume ofo the gas lleaving, and thus the
size of the reeceiver beccomes smalller. The clearance vo
olume in booth the cyliinders has here been
asssumed to be
b the same.
Id
deal Intermed
diate Pressurre
he intermeediate presssure px (sh
Th hown in figu
ure above) has an optiimum valu
ue for minim
mum work
off compressiion. The tottal work peer kg of gas is given by
y
n 1
n 1

n px n n p2 n
Wc =
T1 1 +
RT
RT1 1
n 1 p n 1 p
1 x
n 1 n 1

n p n p n
= T1 + 2
RT x 2
n 1 p
1 px
H
Here p1 ,T1 and
a p2 fixed and px is the only variable. Differentiiating the a
above Equa
ation with
reespect to px and makiing it equal to zero.
Page 76 of 263
Refrig
gerant Compre
C ssors
Ch
hapter 4
n 1

dWc n n 1 n 1
1 1
n 1 1
1 + 1 n 1
= RT1 ( px ) n
+ p2 px
n n
n = 0
dpx n 1 n 1 p
1

1 1 n 1

+ 2
px n n
= ( p2 p1 ) n
n 1 n 1
2
or px n
= ( p2 p1 ) n
px = p1 p2 Equation
n 1
Thus, for minimum work of coompression n, the interrmediate prressure is tthe geomettries mean of
the suctioon and disch
harge pressures for a two-stage compressor.
From Equ
uation1
px = p1 p2
1
px p2 p2 2
= =
p1 px p1
Pressure ratio in L.P

P. stage = Pressure
P atio in H.P. stage
ra
n 1 n 1
Tx px n T p n
Also = d 2 = 2
and
T1 p1 T1 px
T2 = Tx
Fig. pV
V and Tss diagram
ms for two-stage compressio
on with p
perfect in
ntercoolin
ng,
show
wing the work
w save
ed
From aboove Figure it is seen that, work

k required in L.P. com
mpressor = work requ
uired in H..P.
compressoor.
Thus, thee intermed diate pressure that products
p minimum
m w
work will b
be also ressult in equ
ual
pressure ratio in thee two stagees of comprression. Eq
qual discha
arge temperratures andd equal woork
wo stages.
for the tw
For two sttage-comprressions, th
he minimum
m work,
n 1

2nRT1
x p n
Wc = 1
n 1 p
1
Page 77 of 263
Chapter 4
Where px / p1 is the pressure ration in each stage. In terms of overall pressure ratio, it becomes
n 1

2 p 2nRT1
2n
Wc = 1
p n 1
1
Heat rejected in the intercooler, Qbc = C p (Tc T1 ) kJ/kg
Let us now consider compression efficiencies and imperfect intercooling. As shown in Figure and
ideal gas in compressed from the initial state p1 ,T1 to px . It is then cooled at constant pressure
to T and then compressed from px , Ty to p2 , given p1 , T1 ,Ty and p2 , it is desired to find the
value of px which gives minimum work. Let the adiabatic compression efficiencies of the two
stages are respectively c1 and c2 ; then the work of compression is:
1
1

1 px
1
p2

Wc = W1 + W2 = RT1 1 + RTy 1
c1 1 p c2 1 p
1 y
1 1 1
px T' p
p T2'
But = x and 2 = 2 =
p Tx ,
p1 T1 y px
R T1 Tx' T T2'
Wc = 1 + y , 1
1 C 1 T1 C2 Tx
When, three stages of equal efficiencies are used, with intercooling to the initial temperature at
two points as shown in Figure the condition of minimum work and of equal division of work
among stages is:
1/3
px1 px 2 p p
= = 2 = 2
p1 px1 px 2 p1
Thus for 3-stages compressor the optimum pressure ratio per stage can be written as
1
px pd 3
=
p1 ps
Where pd and ps are the discharge and suction pressure respectively.

For N-stage compressor, the optimum pressure ratio per stage is:
1
px pd N
=
p1 ps
The minimum work of compression for N-stages is then
n 1

NnRT1 pd Nn
Wc = 1
n 1 ps

Page 78 of 263
Chapter 4
Advantages of multi-stage compressor are:
(i) Improved overall volumetric efficiency. If all compression were done in one cylinder
the gas in the clearance volume would expand to a large volume before the new intake
could begin. This results in a very low volumetric efficiency. By cooling the gas between
the stages a much higher efficiency can be obtained
(ii) A reduction in work required per stroke, and therefore the total driving power.
(iii) Size and strength of cylinders can be adjusted to suit volume and pressure of gas.
(iv) Multi-cylinders give more uniform torque and better mechanical balance thus needing
smaller flywheel
(v) Since the maximum temperature reached during the compression process is greatly
reduced by intercooling lubrication difficulties and explosion hazards are lessened.
(vi) Leakage losses are reduced considerably.
Practice appears to indicate that the economical value of pressure ratio per stage is in the
range of 3 to 5. For compression of atmosphere air, single-stage machines are often used
up to 550 kPa discharge pressure, two-stage from 350 kPa to 2.1. MPa, three stage from
2.1. MPa to 7.0 MPa, and four or more stages for higher pressures.
Volumetric Efficiency of reciprocating Compressors

Volumetric Efficiency of Reciprocating Compressors
Volumetric efficiency v is the defined in the case of positive displacement compressors to
account for the difference in the displacement or swept volume V p in built in the compressor
and volume Vs of the suction vapour sucked and pumped It is expressed by the ratio
Vs
v =
Vp
Clearance Volumetric Efficiency

The clearance of gap between the IDC position of the piston and cylinder head is necessary in
reciprocating compressors to provide for thermal expansion and machining tolerances. A
clearance of (0.005 L + 05) mm is normally provided this space, together with the volume of the
dead space between the cylinder head and values form the clearance volume. The ratio of the
clearance volume Vc to the swept volume V p is called the clearance factor (C) i.e.
Vc
C=
Vp
This factor is normally 5 percent.
The effect of clearance in reciprocation compressors is to reduce the volume of the sucked
vapour, as can be seen from Figure below The gas trapped in the clearance space expands from
the discharge pressure to the suction pressure and thus fills a part of the cylinder space before
suction begins. Considering only the effect of clearance on volumetric efficiency, we have from
Figure for clearances volumetric efficiency:
V1 V4 (V p + Vc ) V4
= =
Cv
Vp Vp
Page 79 of 263
Refrigerant Co
ompresso
ors
Cha
apter 4
Fig. Cylinder and pisto

on mechan
nism and pV
p diagra
am of a re
eciprocatin
ng
Th
he volume occupied by
y the expan
nded cleara
ance gases before sucttion begins, is
1/ 1/
p p
V4 = Vc 2 = CV
C p 2
p1 p1
Soo, that
C p ( p2 / p1 )
1/
V p + CV p CV
Cv =
Vp
1/
p2
=1+C C equation
n2
p1
Itt is seen tha he value of , lower th
at lower th he v , and higher thee value of , higher th
he v , the
ex
xpression foor volumetrric efficienccy can also be written
n in the form
m.
V4 V v
v = 1 + C = 1 + C C 4 = 1 + C C suuction
Vp Vc vdisscharge
V
Variation of Volum
metric Effficiency with Suction Pre
essure
Fiigure showws the natu he p-V diag
ure of variiation of th gram of a reciprocatiing compre
essor with
deecrease in suction prressure for constant discharge
d pressure.
p I is seen tthat with decreasing
It d
su
uction presssure, or inncreasing pressure
p ratio, the suction
s ume V1 an
volu nd hence volumetric
v
effficiency V decreasee until booth becomee zero at a certain low presssure p1 " . Thus the
reefrigerating
g capacity of a reciprrocating compressor tends
t to zeero with deecreasing evaporator
e
prressure.
Itt can be obsserved fromm above Eq
quation (2) that the cllearance voolumetric eefficiency will
w be zero
foor a pressurre ratio given by
Page 80 of 263
Chapter 4

p2 1
= + 1
p1min C
For a given discharge pressure p2 ' the above

expression gives the value of p1min' the lowest
pressure possible for obtaining any capacity
from a given compressor.
Fig. Decrease in suction volume of a

reciprocating compressor with
decreasing evaporator pressure
Effect of Clearance on Work

The effect of the clearance volume on the work of compression is mainly due to the different
values of the exponents of the compression and expansion processes. If the exponents are
different, the net work is given by
2 3
W = Vdp + Vdp
1 4

m 1
n 1
m
n p n
m p
= p1V1 1 +
2
p1V1 2 1
n 1 p m 1
1 p1

When the two exponents are equal, i.e., m = n

n 1

p n
W = p1Vs 1
2
p
1
Where Vs = V1 V4 = volume of the vapour sucked. Thus the work is only proportional to the
suction volume. The clearance gas merely acts like a spring, alternately expanding and
contracting. In practice, however, a large clearance volume results in a low volumetric efficiency
and hence large cylinder dimensions, increased contact area between the piston and cylinder
and so, increased friction and work. Shaded areas in Figure below represent additional work
due to valve pressure drops.
Page 81 of 263
Refrigerant Co
ompresso
ors
Cha
apter 4
Fig. Effect of valve pressure drop

ps
P
Perform
mance Charact
C teristics
s of Re
eciproca
ating C
Compre
essors
C
Capacity control of
o reciprrocating compres
ssors:
Various methods availa able in pracctice for con
ntrolling th
he capacity
y of compresssors are
a)) Cycling
g or on-off control
c
b)) Back pressure reg gulation byy throttling of suction gas
c) Hot gass by-pass
d)) Unloadding of cylin
nder in multi-cylinderr compresso ors, and
e)) Compressor speed d control.
Too compare the perform

mance of a compressorr, we define
e the follow
wing efficien
ncies
Isotthermal woork
y, =
Issothermall efficiency
Actual
A workk
Isoth
hermal workk
A
Adiabatic e , a =
efficiency,
Acttual work
Adiabatic effficiency is the
t most coommonly ussed term.
Thhe minimuum work of compressioon, with coooling, is iso

othermal work.
w often isothermall efficiency
is, thereforee, used too express the performance off reciproca ating comp pression, which
w are
nvariably coooled.
in
Th he minimu um work off compressiion, withouut cooling, is
i isentropiic work. Ad
diabatic effficiency is,
thherefore, ussed to express the perrformance of
o centrifuggal compresssors in wh
hich it is no
ot possible
too arrange coooling during compresssion.
Voolumetric efficiency v is the defined in
n the case of positivee displacem
ment compressors to
ept volume V p in buiilt in the co
acccount for the difference in the displacement or swe ompressor
nd volume Vs of the suction
an s vapour sucked
d and pump
ped It is exp
pressed by the ratio
Vs
v =
Vp
Volumeetric efficieency of a sin
ngle stage reciprocatin
r ng air comp
pressor is:
1
p n
v = 1 + C C. 2
p1
Depend
dent on clea
arance ratiio and deliv
very pressu
ure.
Page 82 of 263
Refrig
gerant Compre
C ssors
Ch
hapter 4
The clearance of gap betw ween the IDDC positionn of the pistton and cyllinder head
d is necessa
ary
in reeciprocating compresssors to provvide for the
ermal expan nsion and m machining tolerances.. A
clearrance of (00.005 L + 05) mm is normally
n prrovided this space, tog h the volum
gether with me
of th
he dead space betweeen the cylin nder head and valuess form the clearance volume. The T
ratioo of the cleearance vollume Vc too the sweptt volume V p is called the clear rance factor
(C) .i.e.
Vc
C=
Vp
Thiss factor iss normally
y 5 percent.
Rotary
y Compresso
ors
A rootary comprressor is ussed when a refrigeratting system m has to ha andle a refrrigerant wiith
large specific volume
v and
d low pressu ure differennce.
A vaane type rottary comprressor is a roto-dynam
r mic machinee.
A rooto-dynamic machine is one in which
w a flu
uid flows frreely throu
ugh the rottating part of
the machine.
m
Fixeed vane, rootary comprressors aree used in small capaccity system ms (less tha
an 2 kW) an nd
refriigerant leakage is min
nimized by hydrodyna amic lubriccation.
Rollin
ng pisto
on (fixe
ed vane) type
e comp
pressorrs
Rolling piston or fixed va ane type coompressors are used in i small reefrigerationn systems (uup
to 2 kW capacities) such asa domesticc refrigerattors or air conditioner
c rs.
Thesse compresssors belon ng to the class
c of po
ositive disp
placement ttype as compression is
achiieved by red ducing the volume of the refrigerrant.
In this type off compressors, the rootating sha aft of the roller has its axis of rotation
r th
hat
matches with the centerrline of thee cylinder; however, it i is eccenttric with reespect to the
rolleer (Figure below).
b This eccentriciity of the sh he roller creates suction
haft with respect to th
and compressioon of the reefrigerant as
a shown in n Figure beelow.
A siingle vane or blade is i positioneed in the non-rotatin
n ng cylindriccal block. The rotating
motiion of the roller
r causees a reciprocating mottion of the single
s vanee.
Fig. Working principle of a rollin ng piston type comp pressor

Thiss type of com mpressor does
d not re
equire a suuction valve but requ uires a disccharge valv
ve.
The volumetriic efficienccy does noot reduce drastically with incrreasing pressure rattio,
indiccating sma all re-expan nsion lossess.
The compressoor runs smooothly and is i relatively quiet as the
t refrigerrant flow iss continuouus.
The mass flow rate of refrrigerant through the compressor
c r is given by:

V SW V N 2
m = V = (
Ve Ve 4 60
)
A B2 L

Where A = Inner diameter
d off the cylinder
B = Diametter of the rooller
L = Length h of the cylin nder block
Page 83 of 263
Refrigerant Co
ompresso
ors
Cha
apter 4
N = Rotation speed,
s (r.p.m.)
v = Volumetrric efficienccy
Ve = specific volume of reefrigerant at
a suction.
M
Multiple
e vane type compre
c essors
This tyype of com mpressor does
d not require
r suction or discharge
d v
valves.
The buuilt-in volumme ratio is defined as the ratio of a cell as it is closed
d off from the suction
port to its volumee before it opens
o to thee discharge
e port. Since the volu ume ratio iss fixed, the
pressurre ratio, rp is given by
y:
P
rp = d = Vbk
Ps
Where Pd and Ps are the diischarge an
nd suction pressures, Vb is the b
built-in vollume ratio
and k is the index
x of compression.
Fig. Multiple
M va
anes, rotar
ry compre
essor
In
n Multiple
e vanes, ro
otary comp pressors:
(a
a) Compa ared to fix
xed vane compressor
c rs, the leaakage lossees are lesss in multtiple vane
compreessors.
(b
b) Multiple vane com
mpressors do
d not requ
uire suction
n and dischaarge valvess.
(c) A non-return, cheeck valve is
i used on suction sidde of the compressor
c to minimiize cycling
losses.
S
Screw C
Compr
ressors
s
Th
he rotary screw compressors can
n be either twin-screw
w type or sin
ngle-screw type.
(a
a) Twin-s
screw co
ompresso
or:
The twwin-screw ty ype compreessor consists of two mating
m hellically groooved rotors,, one male
and thee other fem
male. Generrally the male rotor drrives the feemale rotorr. The male e rotor has
lobes, while
w the female
f rotoor has flutees or gullies. Suction and comprression tak ke place as
the rotoors unmeshh and mesh h.
Page 84 of 263
Refrig
gerant Compre
C ssors
Ch
hapter 4
Fig. Twiin-screw compresssor with 4 male Fig. Dire

ection of fflow in a twin-scre
ew
lobe
es and 6 fe
emale gulllies com
mpressor
(b) Sing
gle-screw
w compre
essors:
Single screw comprressors con nsist of a single
helical sccrew and two
t planet wheels orr gate
rotors. The
T helicall screw is housed in a
cylindrica
al casing with
w suction
n port at onne end
and dischharge port at the otheer end as shown
s
in figure below. Suction and compressioon are
obtained as the screew and gatte rotors un nmesh
and mesh h. The high h and low pressure
p reegions
in the cyylinder cassing are seeparated byb the
gate rotorrs.
Fig. Workin
ng princip
ple of a single-scre
s ew
compre
essor
Scroll compress
c sors:
Scroll com
mpressors are a orbital motion, poositive displlacement ty ype compreessors, in which
w suctiion
and comp pression is obtained by using two mating, spirals shap
ped, scroll mmembers, oneo fixed an nd
the other orbiting. The T comprression proccess involv
ves three orrbits of thee orbiting scroll. In the
t
first orbitt, the scrollls ingest and
a trap tw
wo pockets of suction gas. Durin ng the secoond orbit, the
two pockeets of gas are comprressed to an a interme ediate presssure. In the final orrbit, the tw wo
pockets reach
r disch
harge presssure and area simulta aneously op
pened to th he discharg ge port. Th his
simultaneeous processs of suctioon, intermeediate compression and discharrge leads to o the smoooth
continuouus compresssion processs of the scrroll compre essor.
Page 85 of 263
Chapter 4
Fig. Scroll compressor
SUCTION
COMPRESSION
DISCHARGE
Page 86 of 263
Refrig
gerant Compre
C ssors
Ch
hapter 4
Fig. Wo
orking priinciple of a scroll co
ompressor
r
The scroll compresssors are used in small

s cap
pacity (3 to 50 kW
W) refrige
eration, air
a
conditioniing and hea
at pump ap
pplications.. They are normally
n of hermetic type.
Scroll co
ompresso
ors offer several advantage
a es such as:
a
1. Larg
ge suction and
a discharrge ports reeduce presssure losses during sucction and discharge.
d
2. Physical separration of suction
s an
nd compresssion reducce heat trransfer to suction ga
as,
lead
ding to high
h volumetriic efficiency
y.
3. Volu
umetric effiiciency is also
a high du
ue to very low re-expansion lossses and con
ntinuous floow
overr a wide ran
nge of operating condiitions.
4. Flattter capacitty versus ou
utdoor temperature cu
urves.
5. High
h compresssion efficciency, low
w noise and
a vibrattion comp
pared to reciprocati
r ng
compressors.
6. Com
mpact with minimum number
n of moving parrts.
Centrifugal Compr
C ressors
s
A single
e-stage centrifuga
c al compre
essor ma
ainly consists of the follo
owing fou
ur
compone
ents.
(i) An inlet
i casin
ng to acceleerate the flu
uid to the impeller
i inllet.
(ii) An impeller to transferr energy to
t the fluid
d in the form
fo of inccreased sta
atic pressu
ure
(enthalpy) and
d kinetic energy.
(iii) A diiffuser to convert thee kinetic en
nergy at th
he impellerr outlet intto enthalpy
y resulting in
presssure rise.
(iv) A vo
olute casing to colleect the fluid
d and to fu
urther conv
vert the remaining kiinetic enerrgy
into enthalpy resulting
r in
n further prressure rise
e.
1: Refriggerant inllet
(eye)
2: Impelller
3: Refrig
gerant
passag
ges
4: Vane le
ess
diffuse
er
5: Volute
e casing
6: Refrig
gerant
discha
arge
Fig. Centr
rifugal Co
ompressor
r
Inteercoolers in a multista
age compresssor that arre generallly integrateed with the
e casing.
The casing is usually
u madde of cast irron.
Page 87 of 263
Chapter 4
The impeller is made of high speed (chrome-nickel) steels.
The maximum stress is developed at the root of the blades.
The diffuser is normally of the vane less type as it permits more efficient part load
operation which is quite usual in any air-conditioning plant.
A vanes diffuser will certainly cause shock losses if the compressor has to run at reduced
capacity and flow (part-load).
The blades of the compressor or either forward curved or backward curved or
radial. Backward curved blades were used in the older compressors, whereas
the modern centrifugal compressors use mostly radial blades.
Work in Centrifugal Compressor

In a steady-flow process, the gas enters the centrifugal compressor, passes over the blades in a
centrifugal field and is subjected to momentum change, leaving finally, through a diffuser at the
discharge pressure. From the steady-flow energy equation
q = (h2 h1 ) + w
And from the combined First and Second Laws for reversible process,
2 2 2
q= TdS =
1
(dh vdp) = ( h 2 h1 ) = vdp
1 1
.equation 3
Comparing the two expressions, we have for work

2
w = vdp
1
It is thus seen that the work of compression is the same for both reciprocating and centrifugal
2
compressors and is given by the expression vdp, integrated between the suction and
1
discharge states. Equation (3), therefore, represents the energy equation for both compressors,
viz.
2
q = (h2 h1 ) vdp
1
For an adiabatic compression process, in which q = 0, it gives

2
w= vdp
1
= ( h 2 h1 )
2
Note: The expression for work done is the same, viz., w = vdp
1
whether it is a
reciprocating compressor or a centrifugal compressor.
Application of Steady-Flow Energy Equation to a Centrifugal Stage

Compression in a centrifugal compressor is achieved by the self-compression of fluid by
centrifugal force as well as by the conversion of kinetic energy of the 'high-velocity vapours into
static enthalpy. Applying the steady-flow energy equation to processes from the entrance to the
discharge for one stage of compression as shown on the h-s diagram in Figure below, we obtain
the following relations:
Page 88 of 263
Chapter 4
Fig. Mollier diagram of centrifugal stage
Flow through Inlet Casing (Process i-1): In this process the fluid is accelerated, but there is
no energy transfer. Hence, the stagnation enthalpy remains constant but there is a drop in the
static pressure and enthalpy.
2 2
h io = hi + Ci = h1 + C1 = h10
2 2
(Subscript 0 refers to stagnation state)
Flow through Impeller (Process 1-2): In this, work is done by the impeller. Energy is
transferred to the fluid and the velocity, pressure and enthalpy are increased. The energy
equation for the process is
C2 C12
w = (h 2 h1 ) + 2 = h 20 h10
2
Flow through Diffuser and Volute Casing (Processes 2-3 and 3-4): There is no energy
transfer, but kinetic energy is converted into static enthalpy in both processes.
C22 C32
Diffuser: h 20 h10 = h2 + = 3h + = h30
2 2
C2 C2
Volute casing: h 30 = h3 + 3 = h4 + 4 = h40
2 2
Combining the two equations for the process from 2 to 4
C22 C24
h 20 = h 2 + = h 4 + = h40
2 2
C24 C12
w = h20 h10 = h40 h10 = h 0 = (h 4 h1 ) +
2
This represents the overall energy balance for a centrifugal compressor stage.
To account for the irreversibility in centrifugal compressors, a polytropic efficiency pol is
defined. It is given by:
Page 89 of 263
Chapter 4
Pe
w pol vdp
pol = = Pi
wact (h e h i )
Where w pol and w act are the polytropic and actual works of compression, respectively.
The polytropic work of compression is usually obtained by the expression:

Pe n 1

n Pe n
Wpol = vdp = f Pivi 1
Pi n 1
Pi
Where n is the index of compression, f is a correction factor which takes into account the
variation of n during compression. Normally the value of f is close to 1 (from 1.00 to 1.02); hence
it may be neglected in calculations, without significant errors.
If the refrigerant vapour is assumed to behave as an ideal gas, then it can be shown that the
polytropic efficiency is equal to:
n 1
pol = n 1

Cp
Where = specific heat ratio, Cv
(assumed to be constant).
The velocity diagram at the outlet of the impeller

The torque required to rotate the impeller is equal to the rate of change of the angular
momentum of the refrigerant. Assuming the refrigerant to enter the impeller blade passage
radially with no tangential component at inlet, the torque is given by:
= m r2 Vt, 2
Where m is the mass flow rate of the refrigerant r2 is the outer radius of the impeller blade and
Vt, 2 is the tangential component of the absolute refrigerant velocity V2 at impeller exit. The
power input to the impeller W is given by:
P = . = m r2 Vt,2 = mu 2 Vt ,2
Where u2 is the tip speed of the impeller blade = . r2 . is the rotational speed in radians/s and
r2 is the impeller blade radius.
Where:
V2 Vr,2 u2 = .r2 = Tip speed of the
Vn,2 impeller
= Rotational speed of
Vt,2 u2 = .r2
impeller
V2 = Absolute velocity of
fluid
Vr,2 = Relative velocity of
fluid with respect to the
r2
impeller
Vt,2 = Tangential component
of V2.
Vn,2 = Normal component of
Fig. Velocity diagram at the outlet of the impeller V2.
Page 90 of 263
Chapter 4
of a centrifugal compressor
The velocity diagram also shows the normal component of refrigerant velocity, Vn,2 at the
impeller outlet. The volume flow rate from the impeller is proportional to the normal component
of velocity. From the velocity diagram the tangential component Vt,2 can be written in terms of
the tip speed u 2 , normal component Vn,2 and the outlet blade angle as :
V cot
Vt,2 = u 2 Vn,2 cot = u2 1 n,2
u2
Hence the power input to the impeller, W is given by:
V cot
W = m u 2 Vt,2 = mu22 1 n,2
u2
Thus the power input to the compressor depends on the blade angle . The blade angle will be
less than 90 for backward curved blade, equal to 90 for radial blades and greater than 90 for
forward curved blade. Thus for a given impeller tip speed, the power input increases with the
blade angle .
If the blades are radial, then the power input is given by:
V cot
W = mu22 1 n,2 = mu2 ; for = 90
2
u2
If the compression process is reversible and adiabatic, then power input can also be written as:
Pe
Wc,isen = m(he hi)isen = m vdp|isen
Pi
Comparing the above two equations:

Pe
(h e h i )isen vdp| = u 22 = ( r2 )
2
= isen
Pi
The above equation can also be written as:

Pe 1

P
= ( r ) 2
vdp| isen =
1
P v
i i

e
1
2
Pi Pi
P
Thus from the above equation, the pressure ratio, rp = e can be written as:
Pi

P 1 1 2
1
rp = e = 1 + ( r2 )
Pi Pi v i
Thus it can be seen from the above expression that for a given refrigerant at a given suction
conditions (i.e., fixed k, Pi and vi), pressure ratio is proportional to the rotational speed of the
compressor and the impeller blade diameter. Hence, larger the required temperature lift (i.e.,
larger pressure ratio) larger should be the rotational speed and/or impeller diameter.
Generally from material strength considerations the tip speed (u 2 = r2 ) is limited to about
300 m/s. This puts an upper limit on the temperature lift with a single stage centrifugal
compressor. Hence, for larger temperature lifts require multi-stage compression. For a given
impeller rotational speed and impeller diameter, the pressure rise also depends on the type of
the refrigerant used.
Expressing the radial velocity and head developed in dimensionless form we have
Page 91 of 263
Chapter 4
Cr
Flow coefficient, =
u
C u2
Head coefficient, h0
= =
u22 u2
=1 2 cot 2
This relation also shows that, for radial blades and with no pre-whirl, is equal to unity, i.e.,
the head developed is equal to u22 .
Performance Characteristics of Centrifugal Compressors

Figure below shows the pressure-volume characteristics of a centrifugal compressor
running at certain speed.
The relation between pressure and volume is a straight line in the absence of any losses.
However, in actual compressors losses occur due to eddy formation in the flow passages,
frictional losses and shock losses at the inlet to the impeller. As a result the net head
developed reduces as shown in the figure.
The entry losses are due to change of direction of refrigerant at the inlet and also due to
pre-rotation.
These losses can be controlled to some extent using the inlet guide vanes. Due to these
losses the net performance curve falls below the ideal characteristic curve without losses,
and it also shows an optimum point.
The optimum point at which the losses are minimum is selected as the design point for the
compressor.
Page 92 of 263
Refrig
gerant Compre
C ssors
Ch
hapter 4
Fig. Pressure-volu
ume chara
acteristicss of a cen
ntrifugal compresso
c or running
g at certa
ain
spee
ed
F
Fig. Perfor
rmance ch
haracterisstic and lo
osses of a centrifuga
c al compressor
Page 93 of 263
Refrigerant Co
ompresso
ors
Cha
apter 4
Fig. Efficie
ency curves of a ce
entrifugal compress
sor at diff
fferent per
rcentages
s of rated
speed and capaccity
S
Surging
g
Coonsider A in Figure below as the t point of
o
opperation at full load. W
When the
reefrigeration
n load deccreases, th he point ofo
opperation shhifts to thee left untill point B of
o
m
maximum h
head is reached.
r Iff the load d
coontinues too decrease tot the left of B, say to
C, the preessure ratiio develop ped by the
coompressor becomes less than the ratio
reequired between
b t
the condeenser and d
evvaporator pressure,
p viiz.,
p4 pk
p1 < p0
Hence som
H me gas floows back from th e
coondenser too the evapoorator, thuss increasing
g
in
ncreasing the
t evapora ator pressuure and deecreasing p k / po. . Th
he point off operation
n suddenly
shhifts to A. As
A the refriigeration looad is still less, the cy
ycle will rep
peat itself. This phenoomenon of
reeversal of fllow in centtrifugal com
mpressors isi called su urging. It occurs
o wheen the load decreases
too below 35 per
p cent off the rated capacity an nd causes severe
s stresss condition
ns in the co
ompressor
ass a result of hunting..
Fiigures abov he surge line drawn
ve show th n through the
t points of maximu
um head att different
sp
peeds.
Page 94 of 263
Chapter 4
Fig. Performance characteristics of a centrifugal compressor with backward curved

blades
Note:
Pressure rise in centrifugal compressor is due to the continuous conversion of angular
momentum into static pressure.
The stagnation enthalpy of refrigerant vapour remains constant everywhere, except across
the impeller blades.
In multi-stage centrifugal compressors, the width of the blades reduces progressively in
the direction of flow.
In reciprocating compressors, the irreversibility is mainly due to heat transfer and
pressure drops across valves and connecting pipelines.
In centrifugal compressors, the irreversibility is mainly due to viscous shear stresses.
Due to slip, the actual pressure rise and volumetric flow rate of a centrifugal compressor is
less than that of an ideal compressor.
For a given impeller diameter, the slip factor decreases as the number of blades decreases.
The capacity of a centrifugal compressor can be controlled by using inlet guide vanes and
by changing the width of the diffuser.
Surging in centrifugal compressors takes place as evaporator pressure decreases and
condenser pressure increases.
When operated away from the surge point, the reduction in evaporator temperature with
refrigeration load is smaller for centrifugal compressors compared to the reciprocating
compressors.
The problem of compressor motor overloading due to high condenser temperature does not
take place in a centrifugal compressor.
Page 95 of 263
Chapter 4
Comparison of Performance of Reciprocating & Centrifugal
Compressor
The advantages of the centrifugal compressor over the reciprocating compressor are:
High efficiency over a large range of load
A large volume of the suction vapour
A larger capacity for its size.
The most important is the flat head-capacity characteristic as compared to that of a
reciprocating compressor.
Another advantageous feature is the non-overloading characteristic. It is seen that for a
centrifugal machine, there is a decrease in the power requirement with an increase in the
condensing temperature. This is due to the fact that the flow rate (refrigerating capacity)
decreases as the head required increases while the power consumption represents the
product of the two quantities.
Fig. Effects of condensing and evaporator temperatures on the performance of

reciprocating and centrifugal compressors
Fig. Effect of condensing temperature on power input for both reciprocating as well
as centrifugal compressors at a particular evaporator temperature and
compressor speed
Page 96 of 263
Refrig
gerant Compre
C ssors
Ch
hapter 4
Fig. Effe
ect of com
mpressor speed
s on the
t perforrmance off reciproca
ating and centrifug
gal
com
mpressors at a given
n condensiing and evvaporator
r temperattures
Axial flow co
ompres
ssor
For larger unitts with highher pressurre ratios th
he axial-flow
w compresssor is more efficient an
nd
is ussually prefeerred.
For industrial and large marine ga as turbine plants
p axiaal compresssors are no
ormally useed,
although somee units may y employ two
t or morre centrifuggal compreessors withh intercooling
betwween stagess.
Centrifugal com mpressors are cheapeer to produ uce, more roobust and have a wid der operating
rangge than thee axial-flow
w type.
Fig. Axial
A flow compresssor
An axial-flow
a c
compressorr is similarr to an axiial-flow turrbine with a successio on of moving
blad
des on the rotor
r shaft and fixed blades
b arranged aroun nd the statoor (casing).
Air flows
f axiallly through
h the movin ng and fixed d blades, with
w diffuseers passages throughoout
whicch continuously increeases the pressure and a decrease the veloocity. Stationary guiide
vanees are provvided at enttry to the fiirst row of moving
m bla
ades.
The work inpu ut to the rotor
r shaft is transferred by th he moving blades to the t air, th
hus
acceelerating it..
The spaces beetween thee blades as well as the statorr blades frrom diffusiing passag ges
decrreasing veloocity and in
ncreasing pressure.
p
Therre can be a large num mber of stagges (5 to 14)) with a con
nstant work k input perr stage.
An equal
e tem
mperature rise in the e moving and fixed blades is usually maintained
m d.
Page 97 of 263
Refrigerant Co
ompresso
ors
Cha
apter 4
The axial velocityy of air is allso kept connstant thro oughout thee compressoor.
A diffusing flow iss less stable than a co onverging flow
fl as in a turbine an
nd for this reason
r the
blade shape
s and profile
p are more
m imporrtant for a compressorr than for a reaction turbine.
t
Blades are usually of twisted d section deesigned acccording to free
f vortex theory.
An axiaal flow air compressor
c r is often deescribe is a reversed reaction
r turrbine.
Ty de sections of an axial-flow
ypical blad a c
compressor
r are show
wn in Fig
gure below
w and the
ng velocity diagrams in
coorrespondin i Figure below.

put = mVb Vw
Power inp
From the geometry of

o the diagrram,
Vw = Vr1 sin 1 Vr2 sinn 2 = Vf (tan 1 tan 2 )
D
Degree o Reaction:
of A certain am mount of distribution
d n of pressu ure (a risee in static
prressure) taakes place as the airr passes th hrough the rotor as wellw as the stator; th he rise in
prressure thrrough the stage
s is in general, atttributed to
o both the blade
b rowss. The termm degree of
reeaction is a measure of the exte ent to whicch the rotor itself conntributes too the increase in the
sttatic head of
o fluid. It is
i defined as
a the ratioo of the stattic enthalpy
y rise in th
he rotor to that
t in the
whole stage. Variation n of over the
t relevannt tempera ature rangee will be n negligibly small
s and
atio of enth
heence this ra halpy rise will
w be equa al to the corrrespondingg temperatture rise.
D
Degree o reaction,
of
Ennthalpy rise
r in rootor
R=
Enth
halpy risse in the stage
h1 h0 2 2
r Vr 2
Vr1
= =
h2 h0 2 Vb Vw
orr
Static teemperature rise in rotoor TTA
D
Degreeof reaction of axial
a flow compressor
c r= =
Static teemperature rise in stagge TA + TB
By gement,
y re-arrang
Vf2 (seec 2 1 sec 2 2 ) Vf
R= = (tan 1 + tan 2 )
2 Vb Vf (tan
( 1 tann 2 ) 2 Vb
Page 98 of 263
Chapter 4
In an axial flow compressor:
1 = exit angle from stator 1 = inlet angle to rotor
2 = inlet angle to stator 2 = outlet angle from rotor
The condition to have a 50% degree of reaction is 1 = 2 and 1 = 2 .Axial flow compressor
with 50% degree of reaction, the velocity diagrams are symmetrical.
Due to non-uniformity of the velocity profile in the blade passages the work that can be put into
a given blade passage is less than that given by the ideal diagram. It is taken care of by
introducing a work done factor, y, defined as
Actual power input

Work done factor, (y) = i
mVb Vw
This is about 0.85 for a compressor stage.
Question:
Air enters an axial flow compressor at 25C and undergoes a pressure increase 6
times that at inlet. The mean velocity of rotor blades is 220 m/s. The inlet and exit
angles of both the moving and fixed blades are 45 and 15 respectively. The degree of
reaction at the mean diameter is 50 per cent and there are 10 stages in the
compressor. If the isentropic efficiency of the compressor is 83 per cent and the axial
velocity is taken constant throughout, find the work done factor of the compressor.
Answer:
Given:
Vb = 220 m/s, 1 = 45 = 2 , 2 = 15 = 1
Vr2 = V1, Vr1 = V2
We know that
V1 cos 1 = V2 cos 2
Vb = Vr2 sin 2 + V2 sin 2 = V1 sin 2 + V1 cos 1 tan 2
220 = V1 [sin 15 + cos 15 tan 45] = V1 (0.2588 + 0.8659)
V1 = 179.64 m/s
179.64 cos15 173.52
V2 = = = 245.4 m/s
cos45 0.7071
Vw = V2 sin 2 V1 sin 1 = 245.4 sin 45 179.64 sin 15 = 179.89 46.49 = 133.40 m/s
( 1)
T2s p 0.286
= 2 = 6 = 1.669
T1 p1
T2s = 1.669 298 = 497.36 K
Ts = T2s T1 = 497.36 298 = 199.36 K
199.36
T2 T1 = = 240.19 K
0.83
Page 99 of 263
Chapter 4
Fig. Velocity diagram
Work done per kg = 1.005 240.19 = 241.39 kJ/kg
Power input to compressor
= Vb Vw Work done factor 10

= 220 133.4 Work done factor 10
241.39 103
Work done factor = = 0.822
220 133.4 10
Stalling:
Stalling of blades in axial- flow compressor is the phenomenon of air steam not able to
follow the blade contour.
Stalling phenomena in an axial flow compressor stage is caused due to lower mass flow
rate or non-uniformity in the blade profile.
In the axial flow in an air compressor surging is a local phenomenon while stalling affects
the entire compressor.
Flash Chamber
In compound compression the throttling expansion of the liquid may also be done in stages as
shown in figure below. Thus the liquid from the condenser at 6 first expands into a flash
chamber to 7 at the intermediate pressure pi , and then the liquid from the flash chamber at 8
enters the evaporator through another expansion valve and expands to 9.
Page 100 of 263

Chapter 4
Fig. Two-stage vapour compression refrigeration system with flash gas removal
using a flash tank and intercooling
Fig. Two-stage vapour compression refrigeration system with flash gas removal
using a flash tank and intercooling (ph) diagram
The above system offers several advantages:

a. Quality of refrigerant entering the evaporator reduces thus giving rise to higher
refrigerating effect, lower pressure drop and better heat transfer in the evaporator
b. Throttling losses are reduced as vapour generated during throttling from Pc to Pi is
separated in the flash tank and recompressed by Compressor-II.
c. Volumetric efficiency of compressors will be high due to reduced pressure ratios.
d. Compressor discharge temperature is reduced considerably.
The above system has one disadvantage:
Disadvantage of the above system is that since refrigerant liquid in the flash tank is saturated,
there is a possibility of liquid flashing ahead of the expansion valve due to pressure drop or heat
transfer in the pipelines connecting the flash tank to the expansion device. Sometimes this
problem is tackled by using a system with a liquid sub-cooler.
Page 101 of 263

Refrigerant Co
ompresso
ors
Cha
apter 4
U of flash
Use f ta
ank forr flash gas re
emoval
In
ntercooling of refrigerrant vapou
ur using waater-cooled heat exchangers is p possible in ammonia
sy
ystems duee to high discharge temmperature of ammoniia. Howeveer, this is ggenerally no ot possible
in
n systems using
u refrig
gerants such ue to their low discharrge tempera
h as R12 orr R134a du atures.
Fig. Systemm schem matic, a two-sta age Fig. Cycle

C on Ph diag gram, a two-stage
t
compr ression syystem with
h flash tan
nk compressi
c ion system
m with flash tank
for flash gas rem
moval only
y for
f flash g
gas remov al only
U of flash
Use f ta
ank forr interc
cooling
g only
Soometimes the
t flash ta
ank is used for intercoooling of thee refrigeran
nt vapour b
between the
e low and
hiigh-stage coompressorss. It is not used
u for fla
ash gas rem
moval.
Fig. A two-stage compressi

c ion syste
em Fig. Cycle
C on Ph diag gram: A two-stage
t
with the flassh tank used for
f compressi
c ion system m with the
t flash
intercooling onlly tank
t used
d for interc
cooling on
nly
Page 102 of 263

Chapter 4
Highlight
For gas compressor [always use Reversible process]
d. Work required for Reversible polytropic compression
(n 1 )
n
W= P1V1 P2

n
1
(all n)
n 1 P1

e. Work required for Reversible Adiabatic compression

( 1 )

W= P1V1 2
P
1 (all )
1 P1

f. But Work required when polytropic as well as adiabatic compression
(n 1 )

W= P1V1 P2 n
1
(mix of n and )
1
P1

[Note: In reversible polytropic there is heat transfer but in this case, adiabatic, heat
transfer is not there]
Page 103 of 263

Chapter 4
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS (GATE, IES, IAS)
Previous 20-Years GATE Questions
GATE-1. pv diagram has been obtained from a test on a reciprocating compressor.
Which of the following represents that diagram? [GATE-2005]
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
GATE-1. Ans. (d) It is obtained from a test, so pout will be some less than compressor outlet
pressure for opening the delivery valve.
GATE-2. A single-acting two-stage compressor with complete inter cooling delivers

air at 16 bar. Assuming an intake state of 1 bar at 15C, the pressure ratio
per stage is: [GATE-2001]
(a) 16 (b) 8 (c) 4 (d) 2
GATE-2. Ans. (c) Pressure ratio of each stage must be same
p p pi p2 p2
rp = i = 2 = = = 16 = 4
p1 pi p1 pi p1
GATE-3. Air (Cp = 1 kJ/kg, = 1.4) enters a compressor at a temperature of 27C. The
compressor pressure ratio is 4. Assuming an efficiency of 80%, the
compressor work required in kJ/kg is: [GATE-1998]
(a)160 (b)172 (c)182 (d)225
1 1

RT1 p2 p2 1.4 1
GATE-3. Ans. (c) Wideal = 1 = c p T1 1 = 1 300 4 1.4 1 = 146kJ / kg

1 p1 p
1
Wideal 146
Wactual = = = 182kJ / kg
0.8
GATE-4. Consider a two stage reciprocating air compressor with a perfect

intercooler operating at the best intermediate pressure. Air enters the low
pressure cylinder at 1bar, 27C and leaves the high pressure cylinder at 9
bar. Assume the index of compression and expansion in each stage is 1.4 and
Page 104 of 263

Chapter 4
that for air R = 286.7 J/kg K, the work done per kg air in the high pressure
cylinder is: [GATE-1997]
(a) 111 kJ (b) 222 kJ (c) 37 kJ (d) 74 kJ
GATE-4. Ans. (a) Pressure ratio must be same
Pi P2 Pi P2 P2 9
rP = = = = = =3
P1 Pi P1 Pi P1 1
Work done of each stage also same
1
RT1
1.4 287 300 1.4 1
Weach stage = r 1 = 3
1.4
1 = 111 kJ
1 P (1.4 1)
GATE-5. A refrigeration compressor designed to operate with R 22.

(can/cannot) be operated with R 12 because the condensing pressure of R22
at any give temperature is..(higher/lower) than that of R 12. [GATE-1992]
(a) Cannot; Higher (b) Can; Higher

(c) Cannot; Lower (d) Can; Lower
GATE-5. Ans. (a)
GATE-6. Select statements from List-II matching the processes in List-I. Enter your
answer as A, B if the correct choice for (1) is (A) and that for (2) is (B)
List-I List-II [GATE-1999]
1. Inter-cooling A. No heat transfer during compression
2. Isothermal compression B. Reduces low pressure compressor work
C. Heat rejection during compression
D. Reduces high pressure compressor work
GATE-6. Ans. (c, d)

GATE-7. Which of the following statements does NOT apply to the volumetric
efficiency of a reciprocating air compressor? [GATE-1999]
(a)It decreases with increase in inlet temperature
(b)It increases with decrease in pressure ratio
(c)It increases with decrease in clearance ratio
(d)It decreases with increase in clearance to stroke ratio
GATE-7. Ans. (a)

GATE-8. Clearance volume of a reciprocating compressor is 100 ml, and the volume
of the cylinder at bottom dead centre is 1.0 litre. The clearance ratio of the
compressor is: [GATE-1997]
1 1 1 1
(a) (b) (c) (d)
11 10 9 12
GATE-8. Ans. (c) Piston displacement volume = 900 ml
Clerance volume 100 1
Therefore clearance ratio = = =
Piston displacement volume 900 9
Page 105 of 263

Refrigerant Co
ompresso
ors
Cha
apter 4
G
GATE-9. A R-12 refrrigerant re eciprocatiing
coompressor r operate es betwe een
th
he conden nsing tem mperature of
300C and evaporattor
te
emperatur re of 20C. The T
cllearance volume ratio r of the
t
coompressor r is 0.03. Specific
S heeat
ra
atio of th
he vapour is 1.15 and a
th
he speciffic volum me at thet
su
uction is 0.1089
0 m /k
3 kg.
O
Other prop
perties at various
v
[GAATE-2004]
sttates are given
g in the
t figure. To realiz ze 2 Tons of refrigeeration, thhe actual
voolume displacemen nt rate con nsidering thet effect of clearan
nce is:
(a
a) 6.35 10
0-3 m3/s (b) 63.5 10-3 m3/s (c) 635 10-3 m3/s (d) 4.88 10-3 m3/s
G
GATE-9. An
ns. (a) Giveen, Clearan nce volume ration, C = 0.03
Speciific volume at suction,, v1 = 0.108 89 m3/kg
Net refrigeratin
r ng effect = 2 ton = 2 3.516 kJ = 7.032 kJ/s
Speciific heat rattio, c = 1.15
5
Volumme = 0.063 0.1089 = 6.89 103 m3/s
1
p 45 1.15
7.4
Volummetric efficciency = 1 + C C 2 ve = 1 + 0.03
3 0.03 = 0.9
909
p1 50
1.5
Volumme displaceement rate considerin ng effect of clearance
c
= 6.89
9 10 0.909
3 0 = 6.266 10 m /s
3 3
C
Centrifu
ugal Co
ompres
ssors
G
GATE-10. The specifiic speed off a centriffugal comp pressor iss generally
y [GA
ATE-1997]
(aa)Higher th
han that of an axial coompressor
(bb)Less than
n that of a reciprocatin
r ng compresssor
(cc)Independeent of the type of compressor
c r, but depends only on the siize of the
coompressor
(dd)More than n the speciific speed of
o the recip
procating compressor
c r but less that
t of the
ax xial compreessor
G
GATE-10. A
Ans. (d)
P
Perform
mance Charac
cteristiics of Centrif
C ugal Compre
essors
G
GATE-11. A (Cp = 1 KJ, = 1.4)
Air 1 enters a compr ressor at a temper rature of 27C, the
co
ompressor r pressur re ratio is 4. Assuming an a efficieency of 80%,
8 the
co
ompressor r work req quired in KJ/Kg is: [GA
ATE-1998]
(a
a) 160 (b) 17 72 (c) 18
82 (d) 22
25
( 1)

P 2
G
GATE-11. A
Ans. (c) Widdeal = ( 1V1 P2V2) =
(P P1V1 1

1 1 P 1

( 1)
( 1)

P 2 P 2
= RT1 1 = Cp T1 1 = 1 300[40.4/1.4-1]] = 146

1 P 1 P 1

146
Wactuaal = W ideal = = 182
2
0.8
Page 106 of 263

Chapter 4
IES-1. A centrifugal compressor is suitable for which of the following? ` [IES-2008]
(a) High pressure ratio, low mass flow
(b) Low pressure ratio, low mass flow
(c) High pressure ratio, high mass flow
(d) Low pressure ratio, high mass flow
IES-1. Ans. (d)
IES-2. Match List-I (Name of equipment) with List-II (Pressure ratio) and select
the correct answer using the code given below the lists: [IES-2007]
List-I List-II
A. Fan 1.1.1
B. Blower 2.2.5
C. Centrifugal air compressor 3.4
D. Axial flow air compressor 4.10
(a) 2 1 3 4 (b) 1 2 3 4
(c) 1 2 4 3 (d) 2 1 4 3
IES-2. Ans. (b)
IES-3. Which of the following can be the cause/causes of an air-cooled compressor

getting overheated during operation? [IES-2006]
1.Insufficient lubricating oil.
2.Broken valve strip.
3.Clogged intake filter.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) Only 3 (b) Only 1 and 2 (c) Only 2 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3
IES-3. Ans. (d)
IES-4. Which type of valves is generally used in reciprocating refrigerant

compressors? [IES-2006]
(a) Mushroom valve (b) Puppet valve
(c) Plate valve (d) Throttle valve
IES-4. Ans. (c)
IES-5. Reciprocating compressors are provided with [IES-2000]
(a) Simple disc/plate valve (b) Poppet valve
(c) Spring-loaded disc valve (d) Solenoid valve
IES-5. Ans. (a)
IES-6. Which one of the following statements is correct? [IES-2004]

In reciprocating compressors, one should aim at compressing the air
(a) Adiabatically (b) Isentropically (c) Isothermally (d) Polytropically
IES-6. Ans. (c)
IES-6a. In a single stage reciprocating air compressor, the work done on air to
compress it from suction pressure to delivery pressure will be minimum
when the compression is [IES-2011]
(a) Isothermal process (b) Adiabatic process
(c) Polytropic process (d) Constant pressure process
IES-6a Ans. (a)
IES-7. Roots blower is an example of: [IES-2003]
Page 107 of 263

Chapter 4
(a) Reciprocating (positive displacement) compressor
(b) Rotary (positive displacement) compressor
(c) Centrifugal compressor
(d) Axial compressor
IES-7. Ans. (b)
IES-8. Match List-I (Refrigeration equipment) with List-II (Characteristic) and

select the correct answer: [IES-2002]
List-I List-II
A. Hermetically sealed compressor 1. Capillary tube
B. Semi-hermitically sealed 2. Both compressor and motor enclosed
Compressor in a shell or casting
C. Open type compressor 3. Both compressor and motor enclosed
in a shell or casing with a removable
cylinder cover
D. Expansion device 4. Driving motor of enclosed in a shell
or casing and connected to the shaft
driving
(a) 1 4 3 2 (b) 2 3 4 1
(c) 1 3 4 2 (d) 2 4 3 1
IES-8. Ans. (b)
IES-9. The capacity of an air compressor is specified as 3 m3/min. It means that the
compressor is capable of: [IES-2000]
(a) Supplying 3 m3 of compressed air per minute
(b) Compressing 3 m3 of free air per minute
(c) Supplying 3 m3 of compressed air at NTP
(d) Compressing 3 m3 of standard air per minute
IES-9. Ans. (b)
IES-10. Which one of the following pairs of features and compressors type is NOT
correctly matched? [IES-2000]
(a) Intake and delivery ports : Vane compressor back flow and internal
compression is attained by compression cylindrical rotor set to
eccentric casing
(b) Intermittent discharge : Reciprocating compressor pressure, slow
requires receiver, produces high speed and lubrication problems
(c) Continuous flow, radial now, Centrifugal compressor much higher
handles large volume : speed and fitted into design of aero-
engine
(d) Successive pressure drops Axial flow compressor passages, blades
through contracting : are formed from a number of circular
arcs, axial now
IES-10. Ans. (c)
IES-11. When a burnt out hermetic compressor is replaced by a new one, it is

desirable to include in the system a large drier-cum strainer also. This is to
be placed in [IES-1999]
(a) Liquid line (b) Suction line (c) Hot gas line (d) Discharge line
IES-11. Ans. (d)
IES-12. Assertion (A): A reciprocating air compressor at sea level would deliver a
greater mass of air than a compressor on a mountain. [IES-1998]
Reason (R): The compressor ratings are given for free air.
Page 108 of 263
Chapter 4
IES-12. Ans. (b)
IES-13. What is the preferred intercooler pressure for a two stage air compressor
working between the suction pressure ps and the delivery pressure pd?
(a) (ps + pd)/2 (b) (ps + pd)/2 (c) (ps x pd)1/2 (d) (ps + pd)1/4 [IES-2006]
IES-13. Ans. (c)
IES-14. When are shock waves formed in air compressors? [IES-2006]

(a) Mach number < 0.9
(b) Mach number > 09
(c) Mach number = 2
(d) Mach number changes suddenly from one value to another
IES-14. Ans. (b)
IES-15. Assertion (A): In multi-stage compressors, the polytropic efficiency is

always greater than the isentropic efficiency. [IES-2005]
Reason(R): Higher the pressure ration, the greater is the polytropic
efficiency.
IES-15. Ans. (b)
IES-16. For a two-stage reciprocating air compressor, the suction pressure is 1.5 bar
and the delivery pressure is 54 bar. What is the value of the ideal
intercooler pressure? [IES-2004]
(a) 6 bar (b) 9 bar (c) 27.75 bar (d) 9/ 2 bar
IES-16. Ans. (b) Pi = P1 P2 = 54 1.5 = 9 bar
IES-17. During steady flow compression process of a gas with mass flow rate of 2
kg/s. increase in specific enthalpy is 15kJ/kg and decrease in kinetic energy
is 2 kJ/kg. The rate of heat rejection to the environment is 3kW. The power
needed to drive the compressor is: [IES-2003]
(a) 23 kW (b) 26kW (c) 29kW (d) 37 kW
IES-17. Ans. (c) Power needed to drive the compression
v2 v2
Using, S.F.E.E., we get: h1 + 1 + Q = h2 + 2 + W
2 2
W = 3 30 + 4 = 29 KW
IES-18. 0.70 kg/s of air enters with a specific enthalpy of 290 kJ and leaves it with
450 kJ of specific enthalpy. Velocities at inlet and exit are 6 m/s and 2 m/s
respectively. Assuming adiabatic process, what is power input to the
compressor? [IES-2009]
(a) 120 kW (b) 118 kW (c) 115kW (d) 112 kW
V2 V 2
IES-18. Ans. (d) Power input to compressor = m h2 + 2 h2 + 1
2g 2 g
22 62
= 0.7 450 + 290 + = 112 kW
2 9.8 100 2 9.8 1000
Page 109 of 263

Chapter 4
IES-19. In a two-stage compressor with ideal intercooling, for the work requirement
to be minimum, the intermediate pressure Pi in terms of condenser and
evaporator pressure pc and pe respectively is: [IES-2003]
(a) pi = pc pe (b) pi = pc pe (c) pi = pc / pe (d) pi = pc / pe
IES-19. Ans. (b)
IES-19a For minimum work input in a two-stage compression process the intermediate
pressure is the [IES-2011]
(A) Arithmetic mean of suction and discharge pressures
(B) Logarithmic means of suction and discharge pressures
(C) Geometric mean of suction and discharge pressures
(D) Hyperbolic mean of suction and discharge pressures
IES-19a Ans. (c)
IES-19b Consider the following statements: [IES-2010]

p1 + p 3
1. p2 = 2. p2 = p 1 p 3
2
3. Intercooling is perfect.
4. Work in the LP cylinder is twice the work in the HP cylinder.
Which of the above statements are correct for maximum compression efficiency in a
2-stage compressor?
(a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 2 and 4 only (d) 1, 3 and 4
IES-19b Ans. (b) For maximum compression efficiency in a 2-stage compressor.
1. Pinternal = P in it ia l P fin a l
2. Intercooling must be perfect
3. Work in the LP cylinder = Work in HP cylinder
4. Tinitial = Tafter inter cooling
IES-20. When a refrigerator system is started from ambient conditions, the

evaporator temperature decreases from ambient temperature to design
value. This period is known as a pull-down period. The power requirement
of compressor during pull-down [IES-2003]
(a) Decreases continuously (b) Increases continuously
(c) Remains constant (d) Increases and then decreases
IES-20. Ans. (b)
p
IES-21. If n is the polytropic index of compression and 2 is the pressure ratio for a
p1
three-stage compressor with ideal inter-cooling, the expression for the total
work of three stage is: [IES-2001]
( n 1) ( n 1)
3n p2 n
n p2 3n

(a) p1v1 1 (b) p1v1 1
( n 1) p1 ( n 1) p1

( n 1) ( n 1)
n p2 n
3n p2 3n

(c) p1v1 1 (d) p1v1 1
( n 1) p1 ( n 1) p1

IES-21. Ans. (d)
IES-22. The air with enthalpy of 100kJ/kg is compressed by an air compressor to a

pressure and temperature at which its enthalpy becomes 200kJ/kg. The loss
of heat is 40 kJ/kg from the compressor as the air passes through it.
Page 110 of 263

Chapter 4
Neglecting kinetic and potential energies, the power required for an air
mass flow of 0.5kg/s is: [IES-2000]
(a) 30kW (b) 50kW (c) 70 kW (d) 90 kW
IES-22. Ans. (c)
IES-23. Two-stage compressors takes in air at 1.1 bar and discharges at 20 bar. For
maximum efficiency, the intermediate pressure is: [IES-2000]
(a) 10.55 bar (b) 7.33 bar (c) 5.5 bar (d) 4.7 bar
IES-23. Ans. (d). We know that for minimum compressor work pressure ratio of both stages
P1 P
must be same so = i or Pi = P1 P2 = 1.1 20 = 22 = 4.7 bar
Pi P2
IES-24. The discharge pressure of the compressor in the refrigeration system goes
up due to the [IES-2000]
(a) Lower volumetric efficiency of the compressor
(b) Formation of scale in the condenser
(c) Large size of the condenser
(d) Undercharge of the refrigerant
IES-24. Ans. (a)
IES-25. A 3-stage reciprocating compressor has suction pressure of 1 bar and

delivery pressure of 27 bar. For minimum work of compression, the delivery
pressure of 1st stage is: [IES-1999]
(a) 14 bar (b) 9 bar (c) 5.196 bar (d) 3bar
IES-25. Ans. (d) For minimum work of compression in 3 stage compressor the delivery pressure
of 1st stage is 3 27/1=3 bar = 3 bar
IES-26. Which one of the following statements is true? [IES-1998]

(a) In a multi-stage compressor, adiabatic efficiency is less than stage efficiency
(b) In a multi-stage turbine, adiabatic efficiency is less than the stage efficiency
(c) Preheat factor for a multi-stage compressor is greater than one
(d) Preheat factor does not affect the multi-stage compressor performance
IES-26. Ans. (c)
IES-27. The heat rejection by a

reciprocating air compressor
during the reversible
compression process AB, shown
in the following temperature-
entropy diagram, is represented
by the area:
(a) ABC (b) ABDE
(c) ABFG (d) ABFOE
[IES-1997]
IES-27. Ans. (b) Heat rejection during AB is given by area below it on entropy axis, i.e. ABDE.
DES
IES-28. For a multistage compressor, the polytropic efficiency is: [IES-1996]

(a) The efficiency of all stages combined together
(b) The efficiency of one stage
(c) Constant throughout for all the stages
(d) A direct consequence of the pressure ratio
IES-28. Ans. (a) For multistage compressor, the polytropic efficiency is the efficiency of all
stages combined together.
Page 111 of 263
Chapter 4
IES-29. Phenomenon of choking in compressor means [IES-1996]
(a) No flow of air.
(b) Fixed mass flow rate regardless of pressure ratio.
(c) Reducing mass flow rate with increase in pressure ratio.
(d) Increased inclination of chord with air stream.
IES-29. Ans. (b) Phenomenon of choking in compressor means fixed mass flow rate regardless
of pressure ratio.
IES-30. The usual assumption in elementary compressor cascade theory is that

(a) Axial velocity through the cascade changes. [IES-1996]
(b) For elementary compressor cascade theory, the pressure rise across the cascade is
given by equation of state
(c) Axial velocity through the cascade does not change.
(d) With no change in axial velocity between inlet and outlet, the velocity diagram is
formed.
IES-30. Ans. (c) The usual assumption in elementary compressor cascade theory is that axial
velocity thr6ugh the cascade does not change.
IES-31. In a reciprocating air compressor the compression works per kg of air.

(a) Increases as clearance volume increases [IES-1995]
(b) Decreases as clearance volume increases
(c) Is independent of clearance volume
(d) Increases with clearance volume only for multistage compressor.
IES-31. Ans. (a) Compression work per kg. of air increases as clearance volume increases.
IES-32. Assertion (A): The isothermal efficiency of a reciprocating compressor becomes

100% if perfect cooling of the fluid during compression is attained. [IES-1993]
Reason (R): Work done in a reciprocating compressor is less if the process of
compression is isothermal rather than polytropic.
IES-32. Ans. (a) Both assertion and reason are correct and R provides correct explanation for
A.

1. Reciprocating compressors are best suited for high pressure and low
volume capacity.
2. The effect of clearance volume on power consumption is negligible for
the same volume of discharge
3. While the compressor is idling, the delivery valve is kept open by the
control circuit.
4. Inter-cooling of air between the stages of compression helps to minimize
losses.
(a) 1 and 2 are correct (b) 1 and 3 are correct
(c) 2 and 4 are correct (d) 3 alone is correct
IES-33. Ans. (b)
IES-34. For two stage compressor in which index of compression for low pressure
stage is m and for high pressure stage in n. The load shearing with perfect
inter-cooling is expressed as: [IES-1992]
Page 112 of 263

Chapter 4
W1 m ( n 1) W1 n ( n 1) W1 n W1 m
(a) = (b) = (c ) = (d ) =
W2 n ( m 1) W2 m ( m 1) W2 m W2 n
IES-34. Ans. (a)
IES-35. The suction pressure is 1 bar and delivery pressure is 125 bar. What is the
ideal intermediate pressure at the end of first stage for a 3-stage air
(a) 25 bar (b) 5 bar (c) 10 bar (d) 20 bar
IES-35. Ans. (b)
IES-35a In a two-stage reciprocating air compressor, the suction and delivery

pressures are 1 and 4 bar respectively. For maximum efficiency, the
intercooler pressure is [IES-2010]
(a) 1.5 bar (b) 2.0 bar (c) 2.5 bar (d) 3.0 bar
IES-35a Ans. (b)
IES-36. For an air-conditioning plant above 300 ton, which one of the following
systems would normally be preferred? [IES-1997]
(a) Ammonia reciprocating compressor (b) Centrifugal chiller
(c) Absorption refrigeration system (d) Hermetic compressor
IES-36. Ans. (b)
IES-37. When the discharge pressure is too high in a refrigeration system, high
pressure control is installed to: [IES-1996]
(a) Stop the cooling fan (b) Stop the water circulating pump.
(c) Regulate the flow of cooling water (d) Stop the compressor.
IES-37. Ans. (d)
IES-38. The optimum intermediate pressure Pi for a gas turbine plant operating
between pressure limits P1 and P2 with perfect inter cooling between the
two stages of compression (with identical isentropic efficiency is given by:
1
(a) Pi= P2-P1 (b) Pi= (P1+P2) [IES-2003, IES-1996]
2
(c) Pi= P1 P2 (d) Pi= P22 P12
IES-38. Ans. (c). We know that for minimum compressor work pressure ratio of both stage
P1 P
must be same so = i or Pi= P1 P2
Pi P2
IES-39. For a two stage-reciprocating compressor, compression from P1 to P2 is with

perfect inter-cooling and no Pressure losses. If compression in both
cylinders follows the same poly-tropic process and the atmospheric
pressure is Pa , then the intermediate pressure Pi is given by: [IES-1994]
1
(a) Pi= P2-P1 (b) Pi= (P1+P2) (c) Pi= P1 P2 (d) Pi= P22 P12
2
IES-39. Ans. (c). We know that for minimum compressor work pressure ratio of both stages
P1 P
must be same so = i or Pi= P1 P2
Pi P2
Note: Here Pa is superfluous data that has no use.
IES-40. 3-stage reciprocating compressors have suction pressure of 1 bar and

delivery pressure of 27 bar. For minimum work of compression, the delivery
pressure of first stage is: [IES-1999]
Page 113 of 263

Chapter 4
(a) 14 bar (b) 9 bar (c) 5.196 bar (d) 3 bar
IES-40. Ans. (d). We know that for minimum compressor work pressure ratio of 3-stage must
be same so Pi1 = P i 2 = P2 = 3 Pi1 Pi 2 P2 =3 P 2
P 1 P i1 P i2
P P P
1 i1 i2 P 1
or Pi1= P1 3 P=
2 P12/3 .P21/3 = 1 271/3 = 3 bar
P
1
IES-41. In a gas turbine cycle with two stages of reheating, working between
maximum pressure P1 and minimum pressure P4, the optimum pressures
would be: [IES-1993]
(a) (P1P4) 1/3 and (P1P4) 2/3 (b) (P12 P4) 1/3 and (P1P42) 1/3
(c) (P1P4) 1/2 and P1P42/3 (d) (P1P4) 1/2 and (P1P4) 2/3
IES-41. Ans. (b) We know that for minimum compressor work pressure ratio of 3-stage must be
P P P P P P P
same so = 2 = 3 = 4 = 3 2 3 4 = 3 4
P1 P2 P3 P1 P2 P3 P1
P4 P4
or P2 = P1 3 = (P12 P4)1/3 and P3 = = (P1P42)1/3
P1 P4
3
P1
Alternatively you may give answer by dimensional similarity. Only choice (b) has the
dimension of pressure.
IES-42. Four-stage compressor with perfect inter-cooling between stages

compresses air from 1 bar to 16 bar. The optimum pressure in the last
intercooler will be: [IES-1998]
(a) 6 bar (b) 8 bar (c) 10 bar (d) 12 bar
IES-42. Ans. (b): We know that for minimum compressor work pressure ratio of 4-stage must
be same so P i1 = P i2 = P i3 = P 2 = 4 Pi1 Pi 2 Pi 3 P2 =4 P 2
P 1 P i1 P i2 P i3
P P P1 i1 i2 P i3 P 1
or Pi3 = P2 = P1 1/4P2 =11/4x(16) = 8 bar

P2
4
P1

IES-43. Which one of the following statements is correct for reciprocating air
(a)Its volumetric efficiency increases with increasing clearance ratio
(b)Its volumetric efficiency increases with increasing pressure ratio
(c)Its volumetric efficiency does not vary with change in clearance ratio and pressure
ratio
(d)Its volumetric efficiency decreases with increasing clearance ratio and pressure
ratio, both
1
p n
IES-43. Ans. (d) v = 1 + C C. 2
p1
IES-43a Which of the following statements is not correct for the volumetric
efficiency of a reciprocating air compressor? [IES-2011]
(a) It decreases with increase in ambient temperature
(b) It increases with decrease in pressure ratio
(c) It increases with decrease in clearance ratio
(d) It decreases with increase in delivery pressure
IES-43a Ans. (a)
Page 114 of 263

Chapter 4
Volumetric efficiency of a reciprocating air compressor increases with
1.Increase in clearance ratio
2.Decrease in delivery pressure
3.Multi-staging
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) Only 1 and 2 (b) Only 2 and 3 (c) Only 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3
1
p n
IES-44. Ans. (b) v = 1 + C C 2 if p2 thenv
p1
IES-45. Which of the following statements are correct for multi staging in a
reciprocating air compressor? [IES-2006]
1.It decreases the volumetric efficiency.
2.The work done can be reduced.
3. small high-pressure cylinder is required.
4.The size of flywheel is reduced.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2, 3 and 4 (c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) 1, 2 and 4
IES-45. Ans. (b) 1 is false, it increases the volumetric efficiency.
IES-45a Consider the following statements regarding a reciprocating air

compressor: [IES-2010]
1. The effect of clearance is to reduce the volumetric efficiency.
2. The clearance has no effect on work done per kg of air delivered.
3. The volumetric efficiency decreases with increasing pressure ratio.
Which of the above statements is/are correct?
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2 only
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 3 only
IES-45a Ans. (a)
IES-46. Consider the following statements [IES-2000]

The volumetric efficiency of a reciprocating compressor can be enhanced
by:
1. Heating the intake air
2. Decreasing the clearance volume
3. Cooling the intake air
Which of these statements is/are correct?
(a) 1 alone (b) 1 and 2 (c) 2 and 3 (d) 3 alone
IES-46. Ans. (c)
IES-47. Assertion (A): Decrease of pressure and increase of temperature of the

refrigerant in the suction pipeline connecting the evaporator to the
reciprocating compressor reduces the refrigerating capacity of the system.[IES-2003
Reason (R): Decrease of pressure and increase of temperature of the
refrigerant in the suction pipeline connecting the evaporator to the
compressor reduces the volumetric efficiency of the reciprocating
compressor.
IES-47. Ans. (a)
Page 115 of 263

Chapter 4
IES-48. The ratio of the clearance volume to the displacement volume of a R12
reciprocating compressor is 0.05. Specific volume at inlet and outlet of
compressor are 0.04 and 0.02 m3/kg respectively. Volumetric efficiency of the
compressor is: [IES-2002]
(a) 95.0% (b) 47.5% (c) 38.0% (d) 19.0%
IES-48. Ans. (a)
IES-49. The bore and stroke of the cylinder of a 6-cylinder engine working on an
Otto-cycle are 17 cm and 30 cm respectively, total clearance volume is 9225
cm3, then what is the compression ratio? [IES-2009]
(a) 7.8 (b) 6.2 (c) 15.8 (d) 5.4
9225
IES-49. Ans. (d) Clearance volume of a single cylinder = = 1537.5 cm3
6

Swept volume = VS =
4
d2 L =
4
( )
172 30 = 6805.95 cm3
VS 6805.95
Compression ratio = 1 + =1+ = 5.42
VC 1537.50

The volumetric efficiency of a compressor depends upon
1. Clearance volume 2. Pressure ratio 3. Index of expansion
Of these correct statements are:
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 1 and 3 (c) 2 and 3 (d) 1, 2, and 3
IES-50. Ans. (d) The volumetric efficiency of a compressor depends upon
1. Clearance volume 2. Pressure ratio 3. Index of expansion
IES-51. A gas engine has a swept volume of 300 cc and clearance volume of 25 cc. Its
volumetric efficiency is 0.88 and mechanical efficiency is 0.90. What is the
volume of the mixture taken in per stroke? [IES-1995]
(a) 248 cc (b) 252 cc (c) 264 cc (d) 286 cc
Volume of mixture
IES-51. Ans. (c) Volumetric = , and
300
Volume of mixture = 300 0.88 = 264 cc
IES-52. Which one of the following graphs shows the correct representation of the
processes for a two stage air compressor with perfect intercooling and no
pressure drop in the intercooler? [IES-2009]
Page 116 of 263

Chapter 4
IES-52. Ans. (b)

IES-53. A large clearance volume in a reciprocating compressor results in
(a) Reduced volume flow rate (b) Increased volume flow rate
(c) Lower suction pressure (d) Lower delivery pressure [IES-1995]
IES-53. Ans. (a)
Performance Characteristics of Reciprocating Compressors

IES-54. Which of the following techniques are employed for control of reciprocating
compressors? [IES-2007]
1. Throttle control 2. Clearance control 3. Blowing air to waste
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1 and 3 only
IES-54. Ans. (d)
IES-55. Consider the following factors: [IES-1999]

1. Cylinder size 2. Clearance ratio
3. Delivery pressure 4. Compressor shaft power
The factors which affect the volumetric efficiency of a single-stage
reciprocating air compressor would include
(c) 1 and 2 (b) 3 and 4 (c) 2 and 3 (d) 1 and 4
IES-55. Ans. (a) Volumetric efficiency of a single stage reciprocating air compressor is
1
p n
v = 1 + C C. 2 dependent on clearance ratio and delivery pressure.
p1
Page 117 of 263

Refrigerant Co
ompresso
ors
Cha
apter 4
IE
ES-56. The diagr ram show wn in the t
figure re epresents reversib ble
co ompressioon of air on the p-Vp
co o-ordinate
es. The work of
co ompressioon need
ded by a
ce entrifugall compresssor is equ
ual
too the area
(aa) ABDE-AABC
(bb) ABDE
(cc) ABFG
(dd) ABFG-AB BC
[IIES-1999]
IE
ES-56. Anss. (c)
R
Rotary Comprressors
s
IE
ES-57. Assertion (A
A A): A vane e type rotaary compr ressor is a roto-dyn namic mac chine.
R
Reason(R): A roto-d dynamic machine
m is
i one in which a fluid flow ws freely
thhrough the rotating g part of thhe machin ne. [IIES-2005]
(aa) Both A and
a R are in ndividually
y true and R is the corrrect explannation of A
(bb) Both A and
a R are in y true but R is not thee correct ex
ndividually xplanation ofo A
(cc) A is true but R is faalse
(dd) A is falsee but R is trrue
IE
ES-57. Anss. (a)
IE
ES-58. The inlet and
a exit velocity diagrams off a turbom
machine r
rotor are shown
s in
th
he given fiigure. Thee turbo-maachine is: [IES-20
002; 1993]
(aa) An axial compressoor with back kward curvved blades

(bb) A radial compressorr with back kward curv
ved blades
(cc) A radial compressorr with forw ward curvedd blades
(dd) An axial compressoor with forw ward curved
d blades
IE
ES-58. Anss. (c) Fromm inlet and outlet diag grams it will be seen the blade velocity u2 > u1 from
w
which it is cllear that itt is radial compressor
c . For axial compressor, u2 = u1. Further
F in
ouutlet velociity trianglee, velocity Vr2 is in th
he directionn of u2 whicch means blades
b are
foorward currved. In ca ase of back kward currved bladess the direction of Vr2 will be
oppposite to that of u2 i.ee. angle bettween Vr2 & u2 will bee acute.
C
Centrifu
ugal Co
ompres
ssors
IE
ES-59. In
n the centtrifugal air
a compreessor desiign practiice, the vvalue of polytropic
exxponent of
o compresssion is ge
enerally ta
aken as [IIES-1998]
(a
a) 1.2 (b) 1.3 (c) 1.4
4 (d) 1..5
IE
ES-59. Anss. (c)
IE
ES-60. W
What does applicatio
on of centrifugal air
r compresssors lead to?
Page 118 of 263
Chapter 4
(a) Large frontal area of aircraft [IES-2006]
(b) Higher flow rate through the engine
(c) Higher aircraft speed
(d) Lower frontal area of the aircraft
IES-60. Ans. (a)
IES-61. In a centrifugal compressor, how can the pressure ratio be increased?

(a) Only by increasing the tip speed [IES-2006]
(b) Only by decreasing the inlet temperature
(c) By both (a) and (b)
(d) Only by increasing the inlet temperature
IES-61. Ans. (c)
IES-62. The pressure rise in the impeller of centrifugal compressor is achieved by: [IES-2
(a) The decrease in volume and diffusion action
(b) The centrifugal action and decrease in volume
(c) The centrifugal and diffusion action
(d) The centrifugal and push-pull action
IES-62. Ans. (c)
IES-63. The flow in the vane less space between the impeller exit and diffuser inlet
of a centrifugal compressor can be assumed as [IES-2001]
(a) Free vortex (b) Forced vortex
(c) Solid body rotation (d) Logarithmic spiral
IES-63. Ans. (d)
IES-64. Consider the following statements [IES-2000]

In centrifugal compressors, there is a tendency of increasing surge when
1. The number of diffuser vanes is less than the number of impeller vanes
2. The number of diffuser vanes is greater than the number of impeller
vanes
3. The number of diffuser vanes is equal 10 the number of impeller vanes
4. Mass flow is greatly in excess of that corresponding to the design mass
flow
Which of these statements is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 4 (b) 2 alone (c) 3 and 4 (d) 2 and 4
IES-64. Ans. (b)
IES-65. In a radial blade centrifugal compressor, the velocity of blade tip is 400 m/s
and slip factor is 0.9. Assuming the absolute velocity at inlet to be axial,
what is the work done per kg of flow? [IES-2005]
(a) 36 kJ (b) 72 kJ (c) 144kJ (d) 360 kJ
IES-65. Ans. (c)
IES-66. In centrifugal compressor terminology, vane less space refers to the space
between [IES-1999]
(a) The inlet and blade inlet edge (b) Blades in the impeller
(c) Diffuser exit and volute casing (d) Impeller tip and diffuser inlet edge
IES-66. Ans. (d)
IES-67. Centrifugal compressors are suitable for large discharge and wider mass
flow range, but at a relatively low discharge pressure of the order of 10
bars, because of: [IES-1997]
(a) Low pressure ratio (b) Limitation of size of receiver
(c) Large speeds (d) High compression index
IES-67. Ans. (a) Pressure ratio is low for centrifugal compressors
Page 119 of 263
Chapter 4
IES-68. Given: Vw2 = velocity of whirl at outlet [IES-1997]
u2 = peripheral velocity of the blade tips
The degree of reaction in a centrifugal compressor is equal to:
Vw 2 u2 2Vw 2 Vw 2
(a )1 (b)1 (c)1 ( d )1
2u2 2Vw 2 u2 u2
IES-68. Ans. (a)
IES-69. For large tonnage (more than 200 tons) air-conditioning applications, which
one of the following types of compressors is recommended? [IES-1996]
(a) Reciprocating (b) Rotating (c) Centrifugal (d) Screw
IES-69. Ans. (d) For large tonnage air conditioning applications, specially built centrifugal
compressors are used.
IES-70. In a centrifugal compressor assuming the same overall dimensions, blade

inlet angle and rotational speeds, which of the following bladings will given
the maximum pressure rise? [IES-1995]
(a) Forward curved blades
(b) Backward curved blades.
(c) Radial blades
(d) All three types of bladings have the same pressure rise.
IES-70. Ans. (a) Forward curved blades give maximum pressure rise.
IES-71. In a centrifugal compressor, the highest Mach number leading to

shockwave in the fluid flow occurs at [IES-1995]
(a) Diffuser inlet radius (b) Diffuser outlet radius
(c) Impeller inlet radius (d) Impeller outer radius
IES-71. Ans. (c)
IES-72. If two geometrically similar impellers of a centrifugal compressor are

operated at the same speed, then their head, discharge and power will vary
with their diameter ratio 'd' as [IES-1994]
(a) d, d2 and d3 respectively (b) d2, d3 and d5 respectively
(c) d, d3 and d5 respectively (d) d2, d and d3 respectively
IES-72. Ans. (d) Head, discharge and power are proportional to d2, d and d3.
IES-73. The stagnation pressure rise in a centrifugal compressor stage takes place.
(a) Only in the diffuser (b) In the diffuser and impeller [IES-1994]
(c) Only in the impeller (d) Only in the inlet guide vanes
IES-73. Ans. (a)
IES-74. A multistage compressor is to be designed for a given flow rate and pressure
ratio. If the compressor consists of axial flow stages followed by centrifugal
instead of only axial flow stages, then the [IES-1993]
(a) Overall diameter would be decreased
(b) Overall diameter would be increased
(c) Axial length of the compressor would be increased
(d) Axial length of the compressor would be decreased
IES-74. Ans. (b) In case of axial flow stages, diameter will be less and same but in case of
centrifugal compressor, the flow is radial at outlet and thus overall diameter will
increase.
IES-75. Assertion (A): Multistaging compression is done only in reciprocating

compressors. [IES-2009]
Page 120 of 263

Chapter 4
Reason (R): Reciprocating compressor are used to compress large pressure
ratio at low discharge.
(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct explanation of A.
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the correct explanation of A.
(c) A is true but R is false.
(d) A is false but R is true.
IES-75. Ans. (d) Multi-staging compression is done for both rotary and reciprocating
compressors.
IES-76. When the outlet angle from the rotor of a centrifugal compressor is more
than 90, then the blades are said to be: [IES-1992]
(a) Forward curved (b) Backward curved
(c) Radial (d) Either backward or forward curved
IES-76. Ans. (a)
Performance Characteristics of Centrifugal Compressors

IES-77. Which one of the following
expresses the isentropic
efficiency of the
compression process in terms
of enthalpy changes as
indicated in the figure given
above?
H s
(a) =
H
H
(b) =
H s
(H H s )
(c) =
H
( H H s )
(d) =
H s [IES-2005]
IES-77. Ans. (a)
IES-78. Which portion of the centrifugal

compressor characteristics
shown in the figure is difficult
to obtain experimentally?
(a) RS
(b) ST
(c) TU
(d) UV
[IES-2001]
IES-78. Ans. (a)
IES-79. For centrifugal compressors, which one of the following is the correct
relationship between pressure coefficient ( p) slip factor ( s) work input
factor ( w) and isentropic efficiency ( a)? [IES-2005]
Page 121 of 263

Chapter 4
s w w s a
(a) p = (b) p = (c) p = s w a (d) p =
a s a w
IES-79. Ans. (c)
IES-80. Which one of the following is the effect of blade shape on performance of a
centrifugal compressor? [IES-1996]
(a) Backward curved blade has poor efficiency.
(b) Forward curved blade has higher efficiency.
(c) Backward curved blades lead to stable performance.
(d) Forward curved blades produce lower pressure ratio.
IES-80. Ans. (c) In centrifugal compressor, backward curved blades lead to stable performance.
IES-81. The curve in the given figure

shows the variation of
theoretical pressure ratio with
mass of flow rate for a
compressor running at a
constant speed. The permissible
operating range of the
compressor is represented by
the part of the curve from
(a) A to B (b) B to C
(c) B to D (d) D to E
[IES-1995]
IES-81. Ans. (c) Curve B to D represents permissible operating range of compressor.
Axial flow compressor

IES-82. Consider the following statements pertaining to axial flow compressors:
1. Like centrifugal compressor, axial flow compressors are limited by surge
at low mass flow rates. [IES-2009]
2. Axial flow compressors experience choking at low flow rates.
3. The design point of axial flow compressors is close to the surge limit.
4. As mass flow diminishes the compressor blades stall causing flow
separation.
Which of the above statements is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1, 2 and 3 (c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) 3 and 4 only
IES-82. Ans. (d)
IES-83. In an axial flow compressor, when the degree of reaction is 50%, it implies
that [IES-2006]
(a) Work done in compression will be the least
(b) 50% stages of the compressor will be ineffective
(c) Pressure after compression will be optimum
(d) The compressor will have symmetrical blades
IES-83. Ans. (d)

For a large aviation gas turbine an axial flow compressor is usually
preferred over centrifugal compressor because
1. The maximum efficiency is higher
2. The frontal area is lower
3. The pressure rise per stage is more
4. The cost is lower
Which of the statements given above are correct?
Page 122 of 263
Chapter 4
(a) 1 and 4 (b) Only 1 and 2 (c) 1,2 and 3 (d) 2,3 and 4
IES-84. Ans. (b)
IES-84a The following statements refer to axial flow compressors as compared to

centrifugal compressors: [IES-2010]
1. Can be designed for higher pressure ratios than centrifugal compressors.
2. Maximum efficiency higher than centrifugal compressors but in a narrow speed
range.
3. More suitable for aviation gas turbines due to lower frontal area.
4. Lighter in mass than centrifugal compressors.
Which of the above statements are correct?
(a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1, 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
IES-84a Ans. (c)
IES-85. While flowing through the rotor blades in an axial flow air compressor, the
relative velocity of air: [IES-2005]
(a) Continuously decreases (b) Continuously increases
(c) First increases and then decreases (d) First decreases and then increases
IES-85. Ans. (a)
IES-86. What is the ratio of the static enthalpy rise in the rotor to the static
enthalpy rise in the stage of an axial flow compressor defined as?
(a) Power input factor (b) Flow coefficient [IES-2008]
(c) Temperature coefficient (d) Degree of reaction
IES-86. Ans. (d) Degree of Reaction: A certain amount of distribution of pressure (a rise in
static pressure) takes place as the air passes through the rotor as well as the stator;
the rise in pressure through the stage is in general, attributed to both the blade rows.
The term degree of reaction is a measure of the extent to which the rotor itself
contributes to the increase in the static head of fluid. It is defined as the ratio of the
static enthalpy rise in the rotor to that in the whole stage. Variation of over the
relevant temperature range will be negligibly small and hence this ratio of enthalpy
rise will be equal to the corresponding temperature rise.
IES-87. Which one of the following is the correct expression for the degree of
reaction for an axial-flow air compressor? [IES-2004]
Work input to the rotor Change of enthalpy in the rotor
(a) (b)
Work input to the stage Change of enthalpy in the stage
Pressure rise in the rotor Isentropic work
(c) (d)
Pressure rise in the stage Actual work
IES-87. Ans. (b) Degree of reaction,
2 2
Enthalpy rise in rotor h1 h0 Vr1 Vr2
R= = =
Enthalpy rise in the stage h2 h0 2Vb Vw
By re-arrangement,
V 2 (sec2 1 sec2 2 ) V
R= f = f (tan 1 + tan 2 )
2VbVf (tan 1 tan 2 ) 2Vb
IES-88. If the static temperature rise in the rotor and stator respectively are TA
and TB, the degree of reaction in an axial flow compressor is given by:
TA TA TB TB
(a) (b) (c) (d) [IES-1999]
TB TA +TB TA +TB TA
Page 123 of 263

Chapter 4
Static temperature rise in rotor
IES-88. Ans. (b) Degreeof reaction of axial flow compressor =
Static temperature rise in stage
TA
=
TA +TB
IES-89. Degree of reaction in an axial compressor is defined as the ratio of static

enthalpy rise in the [IES-1996]
(a) Rotor to static enthalpy rise in the stator
(b) Stator to static enthalpy rise in the rotor
(c) Rotor to static enthalpy rise in the stage
(d) Stator to static enthalpy rise in the stage
IES-89. Ans. (c) Degree of reaction in an axial compressor is defined as the ratio of static
enthalpy rise in the rotor to static enthalpy rise in the stage.
IES-90. Compared to axial compressors centrifugal compressors are more suitable

for [IES-2002]
(a) High head, low flow rate (b) Low head, low flow rate
(c) Low head, high flow rate (d) High head, high flow rate
IES-90. Ans. (c)
IES-91. Stalling of blades in axial- flow compressor is the phenomenon of:

(a) Air stream blocking the passage [IES-2002]
(b) Motion of air at sonic velocity
(c) Unsteady, periodic and reversed flow
(d) Air steam not able to follow the blade contour
IES-91. Ans. (d) Same Q. [IES-2007]
IES-92. In an axial flow compressor [IES-2002]

1 =exit angle from stator 1 = inlet angle to rotor
2 = inlet angle to stator 2 = outlet angle from rotor
The condition to have a 50% degree of reaction is:
(a) 1 = 2 (b) 2 = 1 (c) 1 = 2 and 1 = 2 (d) 1 = 2 and 1 = 2
IES-92. Ans. (c)
IES-93. In an axial flow compressor design, velocity diagrams are constructed from
the experimental data of aerofoil cascades. Which one of the following
statements in this regard is correct? [IES-2000]
(a) Incidence angle of the approaching air is measured from the trailing edge of the
blade
(b) is the deviation angle between the angle of incidence and tangent to the camber
line.
(c) The deflection of the gas stream while passing through the cascade is given by
= 1 2
(d) is the sum of the angle of incidence and camber less any deviation angle, i.e.,
= i +
IES-93. Ans. (c)
IES-94. The turbo machine used to circulate refrigerant in a large refrigeration

plant is: [IES-1998]
(a) A centrifugal compressor (b) A radial turbine
(c) An axial compressor (d) An axial turbine
IES-94. Ans. (a)
IES-95. The energy transfer process is: [IES-1998]

(a) Continuous in a reciprocating compressor and intermittent in an axial compressor
Page 124 of 263
Refrig
gerant Compre
C ssors
Ch
hapter 4
(b) Contin
nuous in ann axial com
mpressor an nd intermitttent in a reeciprocating
g compresssor
(c) Contin
nuous in booth reciproccating and axial comp
pressors
(d) Interm
mittent in both
b reciproocating and
d axial com
mpressors
IES-95. Ans.
A (b)
IES-96. In an axial flow co ompressor stage, aiir enters and a leaves the stagge axially. If
the whir rl component of the e air leavinng the rottor is halff the mean
n peripherral
velocity of the rotor blades,, then the degree off reaction will be: [IES--1
(a) 1.00 (b)) 0.75 (c)) 0.50 (d))0.25
IES-96. Ans.
A (b) Deegree of re eaction,
Enthalpy rise in rotor
R=
Enthalpy y rise in th
he stage
V 1
DRR = 1 w2 = 1 = 0.75
2Vb 22
IES-97. If an axiial flow co ompressor is desig gned for a constantt velocity through all a
stages, thhen the ar rea of annnulus of thhe succeed ding stage es will:
(a) Remain the same (b)) Progressiively decreaase [IES-199
98]
(c) Progreessively inccrease (d)) Depend upon
u the nu
umber of stages
IES-97. Ans.
A (b) as pressure inncreases voolume will decrease
Fig. Axial flow co

ompressor
r
IES-98. The inlet and exitt velocity diagramss of a turb

bo-machin
ne rotor ar
re shown in
the Figure I and Figure
F II respective
r ely. 95]
[IES-199
The turb bo-machin ne is:

(a) An axxial compressor with radial
r blade
es
(b) A radiial compresssor with raadial blade
es.
(c) A radiial compresssor with foorward curvved blades
(d) An axxial compressor with foorward currved bladess.
IES-98. Ans.
A (a) Veelocity diag
grams are for
fo axial com
mpressor (uu1 = u2) witth radial bllades (V1 an
nd
Vr2) are perpendicular to u1 and u2).
Page 125 of 263

Refrigerant Co
ompresso
ors
Cha
apter 4
IE
ES-99. Inn a multi--stage axiial flow co
ompressor r with eq qual temperature rise in all
sttages, the pressure ratio in th
he subsequent stage es [IIES-2007]
(aa) Remainss constant (b) In
ncreases grradually
(cc) Decreasees (d) In
ncreases ra
apidly
IE
ES-99. Anss. (a)
IE
ES-110. Consider th he following statem ments in reespect of axial
a flow compress sor:
1.. An axia al flow air compressor is offten descr ribe is a reversed reaction
tu
urbine. [IIES-2007]
2.. With 50% % degree ofo reaction, the veloocity diag
grams are symmetriical.
W
Which of th
he stateme ents given
n above is//are correct?
(a
a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both
B 1 and 2 (d) N
Neither 1 no
or 2
IE
ES-110. Anns. (c)
IE
ES-111. Sttalling ph henomena a in an ax xial flow compresssor stage is caused due to
w
which one of the folllowing? [IIES-2007]
(aa) Higher mass
m flow raate than th
he designed
d value
(bb) Lower mass
m flow ra
ate than thee designed value
(cc) Higher mass
m flow raate or non-uniformity
y in the blad
de profile
(dd) Lower mass
m flow ra
ate or non-uuniformity in the blad
de profile
IE
ES-111. An ns. (d)
IE
ES-111a In an axxial flow compresso
c or, stallingg is the ph
henomenon n of [IIES-2011]
(a) Air motion
m at soonic velocityy (b) Aiir stream blocking
b thee passage
(c) Reverrsed flow off air (d
d) Air strea
am not folloowing the b
blade counto our
IE
ES-111a Ans. (d)
IE
ES-112. Consider the t followwing statements regarding
r the axia al flow inn an air
co
ompressor r: [IIES-2001]
1.. Surging g is a lo ocal phen nomenon while stalling
s a
affects thhe entire
co
ompressor r.
2.. Stallingg is a lo ocal phen nomenon while surging a affects thhe entire
co
ompressor r.
3.. The pre essure ratiio of an ax
xial comp pressor sta
age is sma aller than that of a
ce
entrifugall compresssor stage.
O these sta
Of atements are correc ct:
(a
a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2 (c) 2 and
a 3 (d) 1 and 3
IE
ES-112. Anns. (c)
IE
ES-113. In
n the graaph as shhown above,
or an axiial flow compresssor,
fo
su
urging iss likely to
t occur in
w
which one e of thee followiing
zo
ones?
[IES-
2
2009]
(a
a) A (b) B (c) C (d) D
Page 126 of 263

Refrig
gerant Compre
C ssors
Ch
hapter 4
IES-113. Ans. (a)
IES-114. High possitive incidence in an a axial co ompressor blade ro ow leads to

o:
(a) Suuppression of separatiion of flow on
o the blad de [IES-199
94]
(b) Chhoking of th
he flow
(c) Seeparation off flow on th
he suction side
s of the blade
b
(d) Seeparation off flow on th
he pressuree side of thee blade
IES-114. Ans. (a)
IES-115. Assertion n (A): In axial

a flow compressor
c rs, momenttum blading g is more efficient
e than
radial floww blading. [IES-199 97]
Reason (R):( In raddial flow bllading, thee pressure head increeases due to t centrifug gal
head.
(a) Both A and R aree individua ally true an
nd R is the correct exp
planation off A
(b) Both A and R aree individua ut R is not the correctt explanatio
ally true bu on of A
(c) A is trrue but R iss false
(d) A is fa
alse but R is
i true
IES-115. Ans. (b)
IES-116. Assertion n (A): The work requ uired per kg g of air flow
w / min. forr axial flow
w compressoors
is lower th gal compresssor for thee same presssure ratio. [IES-199
han that foor centrifug 95]
Reason (R):( The issentropic effficiency off axial flow
w compressoor is much h higher than
that of a centrifugal
c compressoor.
(a) Both A and R aree individua ally true annd R is the correct exp planation off A
(b) Both A and R aree individua ally true buut R is not the correctt explanatio on of A
(c) A is trrue but R iss false
(d) A is fa
alse but R is
i true
IES-116. Ans. (a) Both
B A and R are correect and R provides
p rig
ght explanaation for A.
IES-117. In air-craft gas tur rbines, the axial flo

ow compre essor is pr referred because
b
(a) Of hig
gh pressuree rise (b) It iss stall free 93]
[IES-199
(c) Of low
w frontal arrea (d) Of higher
h thru
ust
IES-117. Ans. (c) Axial flow w compressor is preferred in aircraft ga as turbiness because of
requiremeent of low frontal
f areaa.
IES-118. In axial flow comp pressor, exit flow angle devia ation fromm the blad
de angle iss a
functionn of: [IES-199 93]
(a) Blade camber (b) Space-chord ra
atio
(c) Both blade
b camb
ber and spa
ace-chord ra
atio
(d) Blade camber an
nd incidence angle
IES-118. Ans. (c)
IES-119. Match List-I

L with List-II (P
Pertaining
g to blowe
er performmance) and
d select th
he
correct answer
a ussing the co
odes given
n below th
he lists: [IES-19997]
List-I Liist-Il
Page 127 of 263
Chapter 4
A. Slip 1. Reduction of whirl velocity
B. Stall 2. Fixed mass flow rate regardless of
pressure ratio
C. Choking 3. Flow separation
4. Flow area reduction
Codes: A B C A B C
(a) 4 3 2 (b) 4 1 3
(c) 1 3 2 (d) 2 3 4
IES-119. Ans. (c)
IES-120. Under which one of the following sets of conditions will a supersonic
compressor have the highest efficiency? [IES-1995]
(a) Rotor inlet velocity is supersonic and exit velocity subsonic; stator inlet velocity is
subsonic and exit velocity is subsonic.
(b) Rotor inlet velocity is supersonic and exit velocity subsonic; stator inlet velocity is
supersonic and exit velocity is subsonic.
(c) Rotor inlet velocity is supersonic and exit velocity supersonic; stator inlet velocity
is supersonic and exit velocity is subsonic.
(d) Rotor inlet velocity is supersonic and exit velocity supersonic; stator inlet velocity
is subsonic and exit velocity is subsonic.
IES-120. Ans. (d)
IES-120a Assertion (A): The performance parameter Polytropic efficiency is used for axial
flow gas turbines and air compressors. [IES-2010]
Reason (R): Polytropic efficiency is dependent on the pressure ratio.
IES-120a Ans. (b) For comparing the performance of compressors with different stages, the
concepts of polytropic efficiency is introduced. It is the isentropic efficiency of one stage of a
multi-stage compressor. This small stage efficiency is constant for all stages of a compressor
with infinite number of stages.
IES-121. Which one of the following diagrams depicts correctly the radial
distribution of axial velocity over the blades in the last stage of multistage
axial flow compressors? [IES-2009]
Page 128 of 263

Chapter 4
IES-121. Ans. (c)
Flash Chamber
IES-122. The flash chamber in a single stage simple vapour compression cycle
(a) Increases the refrigerating effect [IES-1998]
(b) Decreases the refrigerating effect
(c) Increases the work of compression
(d) Has no effect on refrigerating effect
IES-122. Ans. (d) Flash chamber has no effect on refrigerating effect.
IES-123. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the codes given
below the lists: [IES-1998]
List-I List-II
A. Bell Colemn refrigeration 1. Compressor
B. Vapour compression refrigeration 2. Generator
C. Absorption refrigeration 3. Flash chamber
D. Jet refrigeration 4. Expansion cylinder
(a) 1 4 3 2 (b) 4 1 3 2
(c) 1 4 2 3 (d) 4 1 2 3
IES-123. Ans. (d)
IES-124. Match List-I (Cycle) with List-II (Equipment) and select the correct answer
using the code given below the lists: [IES-2008]
List-I List-II
A. Air refrigeration 1. Absorber
B. Vapour compression refrigeration 2. Flash chamber
C. Vapour absorption refrigeration 3. Turbine
D. Steam jet refrigeration 4. Compressor
(a) 3 2 1 4 (b) 1 4 3 2
(c) 3 4 1 2 (d) 1 2 3 4
IES-124. Ans. (c)
IAS-1. What is the cause of burn out of hermetically sealed refrigerant
compressors? [IAS-2007]
(a) Phase to phase short because of worn insulation
(b) By prolonged overload operation
(c) By some mechanical failure
(d) All the above
IAS-1. Ans. (d)
IAS-2. Which of the following are the special features of a hermetically sealed
compressor of a refrigerator? [IAS-1999]
1. The compressor may be reciprocating to rotary type
Page 129 of 263
Chapter 4
2. No shaft seal is necessary
3. More silent in operation
4. COP is more than that of open compressor
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
(a) 2 and 4 (b) 1, 2 and 3 (c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4
IAS-2. Ans. (b)
IAS-3. Use of hermetically sealed compressor in a vapour compression

refrigeration system results in [IAS-1998]
(a) Decrease in energy consumption (b) Increase in energy consumption
(c) Increase in COP (d) Increase in pressure ratio
IAS-3. Ans. (b)
IAS-4. When does L.P. cut-off occur in a refrigeration system? [IAS-2004]

(a) If the ambient temperature is low
(b) If non-condensable gases are present in the condenser
(c) If refrigerant charge is low
(d) If lubricating oil gets accumulated in the condenser
IAS-4. Ans. (a)

IAS-5. The clearance volume of a reciprocating compressor directly affects
(a) Piston speed (b) Noise level [IAS-1998]
(c) Volumetric efficiency (d) Temperature of air after compression
1/ n
P
IAS-5. Ans. (c) v = 1 + c c 2
P1
IAS-6. Which of the following are the reasons for the volumetric efficiency of
reciprocating compressor being less than 100%? [IAS-1995]
1. Deviations from isentropic process.
2. Pressure drop across the valves.
3. Superheating in compressor.
4. Clearance volume.
5. Deviations from isothermal process
6. Leakages.
Select the correct answer from the codes given below:
(a) 1, 2, 3 and 5 (b) 2, 3, 4 and 5 (c) 1, 4, 5 and 6 (d) 2, 3 and 6
IAS-6. Ans. (d) The reason for volumetric efficiency of reciprocating compressor being less that
100% are pressure drop across the valves, superheating in compressor, clearance
volume and leakages.

In a reciprocating compressor, clearance volume is provided.
1. So that piston does not hit and damage the valves
2 To account for differential thermal expansion of piston and cylinder
3. To account for machining tolerances
4. To achieve isentropic compression
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1, 2 and 4 (c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4
IAS-7. Ans. (a) In centrifugal compressor there also isentropic compression occurs so.
Page 130 of 263

Chapter 4
Performance Characteristics of Reciprocating Compressors
IAS-8. Performance of a reciprocating compressor is expressed by: [IAS-2003]
Isothermal work Indicated work
(a) (b)
Indicated work Isothermal work
Adiabatic work Indicated work
(c) (d)
Indicated work Adiabatic work
IAS-8. Ans. (a)
IAS-9. The isothermal efficiency of a reciprocating compressor is defined as actual

work done during compression [IAS-1994]
Actual work done during compression
(a)
Isothermal work done during compression
Adiabatic work done during compression
(b)
(c)
Actual work done during compression
(d)
Actual work done during adiabatic compression
IAS-9. Ans. (c)
Rotary Compressors
IAS-10. A rotary compressor is used when a refrigerating system has to handle a
refrigerant with [IAS-1997]
(a) Low specific volume and high pressure difference
(b) Low specific volume and low pressure difference
(c) Large specific volume and high pressure difference
(d) Large specific volume and low pressure difference
IAS-10. Ans. (d)
Axial flow compressor

IAS-11. Consider the following characteristics: [IAS-2002]
1. The fluid enters the pump axially and is discharged radially.
2. Maximum efficiency may be of the order of 90%.
3. Development of a low head
4. A limited suction capacity
Which of the above characteristics are possessed by axial flow pumps?
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 (c) 2 and 4 (d) 3 and 4
IAS-11. Ans. (b) In Axial flow pumps the fluid both enters and discharged axially.
Flash Chamber
IAS-12. Flash chamber is used in refrigeration for which one of the following?
(a)Decreasing the pressure during multistage compression [IAS-2007]
(b)Increasing the compressor pressure ratio
(c)Effective inter-cooling medium for purpose of increasing COP
(d)Maintaining the same pressure and temperature
IAS-12. Ans. (c)
Page 131 of 263

5. Condensers & Evaporator
Introduction
Condensers
Condensers and evaporators are basically heat exchangers in which the refrigerant
undergoes a phase change.
Next to compressors, proper design and selection of condensers and evaporators is very
important for satisfactory performance of any refrigeration system. Since both condensers
and evaporators are essentially heat exchangers, they have many things in common as far
as the design of these components is concerned. However, differences exist as far as the
heat transfer phenomena are concerned.
In condensers the refrigerant vapour condenses by rejecting heat to an external fluid,
which acts as a heat sink. Normally, the external fluid does not undergo any phase change,
except in some special cases such as in cascade condensers, where the external fluid
(another refrigerant) evaporates.
Types of Condensers
Air cooled condensers
In air-cooled condensers air is the external fluid, i.e., the refrigerant rejects heat to air
flowing over the condenser.
Water cooled condensers

In water cooled condensers water is the external fluid. Depending upon the construction,
water cooled condensers can be further classified into:
1. Double pipe or tube-in-tube type
2. Shell-and-coil type
3. Shell-and-tube type.
Evaporative condensers
In evaporative condensers, both air and water are used to extract heat from the
condensing refrigerant. Evaporative condensers combine the features of a cooling tower
and water-cooled condenser in a single unit. In these condensers, the water is sprayed
from top part on a bank of tubes carrying the refrigerant and air is induced upwards.
There is a thin water film around the condenser tubes from which evaporative cooling
takes place. The heat transfer coefficient for evaporative cooling is very large. Hence, the
refrigeration system can be operated at low condensing temperatures (about 11
to 13 K above the wet bulb temperature of air). The water spray countercurrent to
the airflow acts as cooling tower. The role of air is primarily to increase the rate of
evaporation of water. The required air flow rates are in the range of 350 to 500 m3/h per
TR of refrigeration capacity.
Evaporative condensers are used in medium to large capacity systems. These are normally
cheaper compared to water cooled condensers.
Page 132 of 263

Condensers & Evaporator
Chapter 5
Note:
Natural convective type condensers are used in small capacity systems as the overall
heat transfer coefficient obtained is small.
Compared to natural convection type, forced convection type condensers have smaller
weight per unit capacity.
Compared to water cooled condensers, the maintenance cost is low in air cooled condensers
Normally, systems with water cooled condensers operate at lower condensing temperature
as compared to systems with air cooled condensers.
The initial cost of water cooled condenser is high compared to air cooled condenser.
The approximation of constant temperature in a condenser generally holds good as:
a) The heat transfer coefficient in de-superheating zone is smaller than that in
condensing zone.
b) The temperature difference between refrigerant and external fluid in de-superheating
zone is large compared to condensing zone.
In water-cooled condensers using synthetic refrigerants, fins are used on refrigerant side
due to low condensing heat transfer coefficient.
Fouling resistance on external fluid side is negligible in air-cooled condensers.
Heat Rejection Ratio

The heat rejection ratio (HRR) is the ratio of heat rejected to the heat absorbed (refrigeration
capacity), that is,
Qc Qe + Wc 1
HRR = = =1+
Qe Qe COP
For a fixed condenser temperature, as the evaporator temperature decreases the COP
decreases and heat rejection ratio increases.
For fixed evaporator temperature as the condenser temperature increases the COP
decreases hence the heat rejection ratio increases.
At a given evaporator and condenser temperatures, the HRR of refrigeration systems
using hermetic compressors is higher than that of open compressor systems.
Evaporators
The liquid refrigerant evaporates by extracting heat from an external fluid (low
temperature heat source).
The external fluid may not undergo phase change, for example if the system is used for
sensibly cooling water, air or some other fluid. There are many refrigeration and air
conditioning applications, where the external fluid also undergoes phase change. For
example, in a typical summer air conditioning system, the moist air is dehumidified by
condensing water vapour and then, removing the condensed liquid water. In many low
temperature refrigeration applications freezing or frosting of evaporators takes place.
Effect of air and non-condensable

This is usually a problem with high boiling point refrigerants such as R11, R113 and R718
(water), which operate under vacuum leading to air leakage into the system.
Compressor work requirement will increase.
The reduction in heat transfer area causes the temperature difference between cold water
and refrigerant to increase.
Page 133 of 263

Refrigeration and Airconditioning by S K Mondal T&Q .0001

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Refrigeration and Airconditioning by S K Mondal T&Q .0001

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1.

Heat Pump and Refrigeration

Heat Engine, Heat Pump

Fig. (a) Heat Eng

Thermall efficiency at engine ( HE ) is de

Thus, the coefficient of performance, (COP ) R is

Introducing an alternative expression for (COP ) R is obtained as

Heat Pump Cycles

Introducing an alternative expression for this coefficient of performance is obtained as

Fig. Reverse Carnot refrigeration system in P-v and T-s coordinates

The heat transferred during isothermal processes 2 3 and 4 1 is given by:

GATE-3. Any thermodynam mic cycle

GATE-4. An irreversible heeat enginee extracts heat fromm a high te

Reversed Carnot Cycle

Refrigeration capacity (Ton of refrigeration)

Previous 20-Years IES Questions

Heat Engine, Heat Pump

IES-5. Assertion (A): If a domestic refrigerator works inside an adiabatic room

IES-6. A refrigerator working on a reversed Carnot cycle has a C.O.P. of 4. If it

IES-6. Ans. (c) (COP)Heat pump = (COP)refrigerator + 1 = 4 + 1 = 5

IES-7. Assertion (A): An air-conditioner operating as a heat pump is superior to an

IES-8. The coefficient of performance (COP) of a refrigerator working as a heat

IES-9b An ideal refrigerator is operating between a condenser temperature of 37 C

IES-11. Operating temperature of a cold storage is 2C From the surrounding at

IES-13. A heat pump is shown schematically as [IES-1994]

IES-14. A heat pump working on a reversed Carnot cycle has a C.O.P. of 5. lf it

Reversed Carnot Cycle

IES-18. The coefficient of performance of a refrigerator working on a reversed

IES-19. In an ideal refrigeration (reversed Carnot) cycle, the condenser and

IES-19. Ans. (a) COP =

IES-19a In a refrigeration plant, if the condenser temperature increases, the power

IES-21. A Carnot refrigerator requires 1.5 kW/ton of refrigeration to maintain a

IES-22. In the above figure, E is a heat

IES-28. A refrigerating machine having coefficient of performance equal to 2 is used

IES-31. Which one of the following statements is correct? [IES-2004]

IES-32. Consider the following statements: [IES-1997]

Previous 20-Years IAS Questions

Heat Engine, Heat Pump

IAS-2. In the system given above, the

Reversed Carnot Cycle

IAS-9. A refrigeration system operates on the reversed Carnot cycle. The

IAS-10. A refrigerating machine working on reversed Carnot cycle takes out 2 kW of

IAS-11. A refrigerating machine working on reversed Carnot cycle consumes 6kW to

IAS-11. Ans. (b) COP =

IAS-12. The COP of a Carnot refrigeration cycle decreases on [IAS 1994]

IAS-16. If an engine of 40 percent thermal efficiency drives a refrigerator having a

Production of Solid Ice

Refrigeration capacity (Ton of refrigeration)

It can bee seen from m the abov ve expresssion that the

Fig. Carnot refrigeration system with dry compression

Fig. Standard Vapour compression refrigeration system

Standard Vapour Compression Refrigeration System (VCRS)

By comparing with Carnot cycle, it can be seen that

q e, Carnot q VCRS = area d 4 4' c d = ( h3 h 4' ) = ( h4 h4' ) = area A 2

The COP of VCRS cycle is given by:

(h2 hf ) = Tds = area e 2 3 f g e

and, ( h1 hf ) = Tds = area e 1 f g e

Fig. Figure showing saturated liquid line

Fig. T-s diagrams for three different types of refrigerants