First Order System

Transfer function:

Response to a unit step input is:

Partial Fraction Expansion leads to:

Inverse Laplace transform leads to:

 First Order System
At t = T, the output is:

T represents the time required for the system response to reach 63.2% of the
final value. T is referred to as the Time Constant of the system

The slope of the system response at time = 0 is:

Response of the first order system to a unit ramp is:

Tracking error as time tends to infinity is:

 Second Order System
Transfer function:

Response to a unit step input is:

 S-plane representation
Laplace transform with zero initial conditions leads to:
 Transient Response
In analyzing and designing control systems, we must have a basis of comparison of
performance of various control systems. This basis may be set up by specifying
particular test input signals and by comparing the response of various systems to these
input signals. Typical test signals: Step function, ramp function, impulse function,
sinusoid function.

The time response of a control system consists of two parts: the transient and the
steady-state response. Transient response corresponds to the behavior of the system
from the initial state to the final state. By steady state, we mean the manner in which
the system output behaves as time approaches infinity.

For a step input, the transient response can be characterized by:

Delay time td: time to reach half the final value for the first time.
Rise time tr: time required for the response to rise from 10% to 90% for overdamped
systems, and from 0% to 100% for underdamped systems
Peak time tp: time required to reach the first peak of the overshoot
Percent Overshoot Mp:

Settling time ts: time required for the response curve to reach and stay within 2% or
5% of the final value. Is a function of the largest time constant of the control system.
Transient Response
 Transient Response
For a step input, the transient response can be characterized by:
Rise time tr: time required for the response to rise from 10% to 90% for overdamped
systems, and from 0% to 100& for underdamped systems

Since

Thus, the rise time is:

 Transient Response
For a step input, the transient response can be characterized by:
Peak time tp: time required to reach the first peak of the overshoot

Thus, the peak time is:

 Transient Response
For a step input, the transient response can be characterized by:
Percent Overshoot Mp:

Maximum overshoot is function of damping ratio only.

 Transient Response
For a step input, the transient response can be characterized by:
Settling time ts:

2% Settling time:
2 % Settling Time

5% Settling time:

5 % Settling Time
 Transient Response

zetavec = linspace(0.3,1,501);
tvec = linspace(0,30,1001);
ind = 1;
for zeta = zetavec,
sys = tf([1],[1 2*zeta 1]);
[y,t] = step(sys,tvec);
err = 1-y;
ii = find(abs(err) > 0.02);
tind(ind) = t(max(ii))*zeta;
ind = ind+1;
end;

plot(zetavec,tind);
 Routh Stability Criterion
Consider the closed loop transfer function of the form:

where as and bs are constant and where m< n.

If any of the coefficients are zero or negative in the presence of at least one positive
coefficient, there is a root or roots which are imaginary or which have positive real
parts.

If all the coefficients are positive, arrange the coefficients of the polynomial in rows and
columns according to the pattern:
 Routh Stability Criterion

sn a0 a2 a4 a6
sn-1 a1 a3 a5 a7
sn-2 b1 b2 b3 b4
sn-3 c1 c2 c3 c4

sn-4 d1 d2 d3 d4

s2 e1 e2
s1 f1

s0 g1
 Routh Stability Criterion
Rouths stability criterion states that the number of roots of the system G(s) with
positive real parts is equal to the number of changes in the sign of the coefficients of
the first column of the array.

The necessary and sufficient condition that all poles of G(s) lie in the left half plane is
that all the coefficient of the denominator of G(s) be positive and all terms in the first
column of the array have positive signs.

Special Case:
If a first-column term in any row is zero, but the remaining terms are
not zero or there is no remaining term, then the zero term is replaced by a
very small positive number and the rest of the array is evaluated.

If the sign of the coefficient above the zero is the same as that below it, it indicates
that there are a pair of poles on the imaginary axis.
 Routh Stability Criterion
Special Case:
If all the coefficients in any derived row are zero, it indicates that
there are roots of equal magnitude lying radially opposite in the s-plane, eg.
two real roots with equal magnitudes and opposite signs and/or two
conjugate imaginary roots

In such a case, the evaluation of the rest of the array can be continued by forming an
auxiliary polynomial with the coefficient of the last row and the coefficients of the
derivative of this polynomial in the next row
 Routh Stability Criterion

One change in sign, implying one pole with a positive real part. Solving the
characteristic equation, we have:

Thus, it is clear that there is one unstable poles.

 Routh Stability Criterion
The Routh criterion can be used for control system analysis, eg. for the determination
of the range of gains of the feedback controller which guarantee stability.
Consider the two-mass-spring system
x1 x2
k
u
m m

Whose equations of motion are:

Assuming m = k =1, the transfer function relating the input u to the output x1 is:

Assuming a PD controller:
 Routh Stability Criterion
The closed loop system can be represented as:

The Routh table for the closed loop system is:

The second and fifth row indicate that :

 Routh Stability Criterion
The third and fourth row requires:

The requirement:

Results in a stable controller for all gains which satisfy the inequality constraints:
 Routh Stability Criterion
Consider the flow control problem, with a transfer function:

With R = 2, C=1, and a PI controller, the closed loop system is:

R(s) + E(s) C(s)

The closed loop system is:

 Routh Stability Criterion
The Routh table for the closed loop system is:

The second and third row indicate that :

The poles of the closed loop system is:

which corroborates the constraint:

 Static Error Coefficients

Consider the open loop transfer function:

which includes N poles at the origin of the s-plane.

A system is called type 0, type 1, type 2,., if N = 0,1,2,, respectively.

The transfer function of the closed loop system:

R(s) + E(s) C(s)

G(s)
-

H(s)
 Static Error Coefficients

and the error transfer function can be calculated as:

The steady state error can be calculated as:

 Static Position Error Coefficients Kp

The steady-state error of a system subject to an unit step input is:

The static position error coefficient Kp is defined as:

The steady state error is given by the equation:

 Static Position Error Coefficients Kp

For a type 0 system, the static position error coefficient Kp is:

For a type 1 or higher system, the static position error coefficient Kp is:

The steady state error is finite for a type 0 system and is zero for system of type 1 or
higher.
 Static Velocity Error Coefficients Kv

The steady-state error of a system subject to an unit ramp input is:

The static velocity error coefficient Kv is defined as:

The steady state error is given by the equation:

 Static Velocity Error Coefficients Kv

For a type 0 system, the static velocity error coefficient Kv is:

For a type 1 system, the static velocity error coefficient Kv is:

For a type 2 or higher system, the static velocity error coefficient Kv is:

The steady state error is infinite for a type 0 system, finite for a type 1 system and is
zero for system of type 2 or higher.
 Static Acceleration Error Coefficients Ka

The steady-state error of a system subject to an unit parabolic input is:

The static acceleration error coefficient Ka is defined as:

The steady state error is given by the equation:

 Static Acceleration Error Coefficients Ka

For a type 0 system, the static velocity error coefficient Ka is:

For a type 1 system, the static velocity error coefficient Ka is:

For a type 2 system, the static velocity error coefficient Ka is:

The steady state error is infinite for a type 0 & 1 system, finite for a type 2 system and
is zero for system of type 3 or higher.
Static Error Coefficients