Class 15: History of Quantum Mechanics 2

In the last class we looked at the origin of Quantum Mechanics. Max Plancks
investigation of blackbody radiation, and his unexpected discovery that matter exchanged
energy with radiation in discrete increments of , which he called quanta, represents the
start of quantum mechanics as a field of science. At that time Max Planck was unsure
what his discovery implied, or whether nature actually behaved this way, but it led to a
good fit with the data obtained from blackbodies.

It is of interest to note that if at the end of Plancks analysis, had turned out to be zero,
then it would have implied that matter exchanged energy with radiation in a continuous
manner at all frequencies. Quantum mechanics would not have existed. The small, but
non zero value of is the signature that nature follows quantum mechanics.

Max Planks discovery, helped in the explanation of not only blackbody radiation, but
also of the other major experiments that had eluded satisfactory explanation up until that
time.

The photoelectric effect displayed the following features:

1) No electrons are ejected regardless of intensity of the incident radiation, unless

the frequency , of the radiation, exceeds a threshold value.

2) Kinetic energy of the ejected electrons increases with frequency of incident

radiation and is independent of the intensity of the radiation

3) Even at low intensities electrons are ejected if the threshold frequency is

exceeded.

To explain these observations, Einstein proposed the following equation:

where is the kinetic energy of the ejected electrons and is the work function of
the solid from which the electrons are being ejected.

Einstein suggested that the energy of the incident light, at any given frequency , was
given by the expression - an idea that he borrowed and extended from Planks analysis
of blackbody radiation. Einstiens equation, which successfully explained the data
corresponding to the photoelectric effect, implied the following:

1) Electromagnetic radiation of frequency cannot possess any arbitrary amount of

energy it can only possess energies , , , , .
 2) Electromagnetic radiation of frequency behaves as though it consists of 1, 2, 3,
, n particles each with energy .

Specifically the equation implied that at a frequency , light could not have possess
energy that were non integral multiples of . For example an energy of was
prohibited at .

Light, which had been thought of as exhibiting wave like behavior for a very long time,
suddenly seemed to display particle like behavior. Einstein called these particles of light
as photons. It is interesting to note that nearly 200 years before Einsteins analysis,
Newton had suggested that light consisted of particles, which he called corpuscles.
However, when experiments showed that light displayed diffraction and interference
phenomena, Newtons idea of particles of light was abandoned and the wave nature of
light was established. With Einsteins analysis, the idea of light as particles, resurfaced
and the ideas had come through a full circle. Although Newton preceded Einstein in the
idea of light as particles, Einstein takes the credit for this idea, since he placed it on a
stronger theoretical footing and successfully explained phenomena on this basis, while
Newton had merely suggested the possibility.

For his contribution to explaining the photoelectric effect, Einstein was awarded the
Nobel Prize in 1921. A photograph of Einstein, and his citation is indicated in Figure 15.1
below.

Figure 15.1: Photograph of Einstein, and the citation mentioned as part of the Nobel
Prize awarded to him.
Einstein was also responsible for introducing the world to the ideas of relativity, the
general theory of relativity and the special theory of relativity. But Einstein was awarded
the Nobel Prize for his work on the photoelectric effect, an indication perhaps of how
significantly quantum mechanics changed the landscape of science.

While Einstein suggested that light, which had been thought of as waves, could also be
thought of as particles, Louise de Brouglie considered the opposite that particles could
be thought of as waves.

Louis de Broglie proposed, in 1924, the idea that any particle, travelling with a linear
momentum , can be thought of as having a wavelength given by:

This possibility that particles could be thought of as waves, was successfully explored by
Davisson and Gremer. In 1927 they demonstrated that a beam of electrons could diffract.
Electrons from a heated filament, incident on a Ni sample, demonstrated diffraction.
There was an element of luck in their work since the wavelengths involved in their
experiment worked out just right for them to observe the diffraction easily in reflection
mode.

Louise de Broglies theory suggested that even large, day-to-day, objects could be
thought of has having a wavelength associated with them. Using his theory, we find that
indeed such a wavelength can be determined even for large day-to-day objects, but it is
just that the wavelength turns out to be insignificant in the size scale of day-to-day
objects and hence does not impact our physical observation and interactions with these
objects.

Between Einstein, Louis de Broglie, and Davison and Gremer, the world was introduced
to the ideas that waves could show particle like behavior and all particles could show
wave like behavior.

Quantum Mechanics presented within its framework the idea of wave-particle duality.
The approach presently adopted in physics is to treat matter either as waves or as
particles entirely based on circumstances. Wherever convenient particle like description
of matter is assumed, and wherever convenient wave like description of matter is used.

For his insights into the wave nature of particles, Louis de Broglie was awarded the
Nobel Prize in 1929. Figure 15.2 below shows a photograph of Louis de Broglie, and the
citation for his Nobel Prize.
Figure 15.2: Photograph of Louis de Broglie, and the citation mentioned as part of the
Nobel Prize awarded to him.

New tools were required to deal with ideas of quantum mechanics. The trajectory of
particles in classical physics, needed to fit inside the description of a wave, a requirement
that was successfully addressed by Erwin Schrdinger.

Quantum mechanics accepts the wave-particle duality by treating the trajectory of a

particle as a wave, represented by a wave function . The wave function , has the
properties of the system and can be obtained by solving the Schrdinger wave equation:

( )

The Schrdinger wave equation cannot be derived from more fundamental principles. It
is itself considered the fundamental principle. It merely states that the total energy of the
system consists of the kinetic energy and potential energy of the system.

In the studies involving quantum mechanics, we typically identify the constrains placed
on a system and solve the Schrdinger wave equation consistent with these constraints to
obtain the wave function of the system. This wave function then encapsulates the
properties of the system. Schrdinger provided us with the tool using which we could
extract an understanding of the system within the framework of quantum mechanics. For
his contributions to quantum mechanics Schrdinger was awarded the Nobel Prize in
1933. He shared that years Nobel Prize with Paul Dirac, whose contributions we will
discuss a little later. Figure 15.3 below shows photographs of Schrdinger and Dirac and
the citation for their Nobel Prize.

Figure 15.3: Photographs of Erwin Schrdinger and Paul Dirac, and the citation
mentioned as part of the Nobel Prize awarded to them.

The Schrdinger wave equation is easy to solve only for a few simple cases. In general it
can get quite complicated to solve and may require specific mathematical tools in some
cases.

The Schrdinger wave equation indicated above is one form of the equation, known as
the time independent Schrdinger wave equation. There is another form of the equation
called the time dependent Schrdinger wave equation. This later equation is in conflict
with aspects of relativity and is yet another indication that there may be more to discover
about the workings of nature.

While the Schrdinger wave equation became accepted as a fundamental aspect of the
quantum mechanical world, considerable confusion prevailed on the significance of the
wave function . Max Born provided the interpretation of the wave function . If is
the complex conjugate of , he stated that *dx, or | | dx, is the probability of
2

finding the electron between x and x + dx. For this contribution to quantum mechanics,
called the Born interpretation, Max Born was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1954. A
photograph of Born, and the citation for his Nobel Prize, are shown in Figure 15.4 below.

Figure 15.4: A photograph of Max Born, and the citation for his Nobel Prize

For a bound electron, for example, the wave function will turn out such that
will have a high value in the vicinity of the atom, and will be virtually zero everywhere
else.

Niels Bohr looked at atomic and molecular spectra and attempted to explain the discrete
nature of these spectra. He proposed that electrons went around the nucleus in fixed
orbits and that the energy released when electrons jumped from one orbit to another, was
a fixed value depending on the orbits between which the jump occurred. While this
planetary model of the atom has not turned out to be exactly right, it did explain the
experimental spectra seen. Schrdinger showed that the results obtained using his wave
functions were consistent with the predictions of Niels Bohr.

For his contributions to explaining atomic and molecular spectra, Niels Bohr was
awarded the Nobel Prize in 1922. A photograph of Niels Bohr and the citation for his
Nobel Prize, are shown in Figure 15.5 below.
Figure 15.5: A photograph of Niels Bohr and the citation for his Nobel Prize.

As indicated earlier, it is not easy to solve the Schrdinger wave equation in many cases.
The wave function itself may end up being very complicated. If the wave function can be
thought of as a sum of many waves, then each measurement of momentum of the particle
will result in a value corresponding to any one of the waves that go to make up the wave
function. This idea and its surprising implication was explored by Heisenberg and led to
his identification of the Uncertainty Principle.

The uncertainty principle, attributed to Heisenberg, effectively states that if the location
of a particle is identified very precisely, then determining its momentum will be very
difficult or will be very imprecise. High school texts, in order to simplify the complexity
involved, explain the theory by saying that to determine the position of a particle very
precisely, we need to shine a light on the particle to see it. In this process the light
impinges on the particle and it disturbs it. As a result the momentum of the particle
changes and we are hence unable to determine the exact position as well as the exact
momentum of the particle at the same time.

The problem with this explanation is that it conveys the sense that the Heisenberg
uncertainty principle is just an experimental limitation. If it were only an experimental
limitation, the situation should have likely improved over the years we should have
much lower uncertainty now, than nearly a hundred years ago, in view of our improved
experimental facilities. However, this improvement does not seem to have occurred. We
dont hear news reports of lowered uncertainty with respect to the Heisenbergs
uncertainty principle. Such a lack of improvement is a hint that this principle is perhaps
not one of experimental limitation.

A more advanced view of the uncertainty is as follows. Momentum and position of a

particle are related to each other through a Fourier transform, and hence are referred to as
conjugate variables of each other. It turns out that when we carry out Fourier transforms,
then as a direct result of the Fourier transform process, the product of the variability of
one variable and that of its conjugate variable is equal to or greater than a certain value.

For example, if A and B are variables related by a Fourier transform, and and are
represent the variability associated with each of these variables, then:

Where is a constant

Any conjugate variable pair will therefore create the situation that when we try to
decrease the variability in one variable, we will automatically increase the variability in
the other. Therefore, this rule appears as a result of a mathematical necessity arising from
the Fourier transform process. It has no direct link to experimental limitations.

The momentum , and the position , of a particle are conjugate variables. Therefore,
Heisenberg proposed that if is the momentum associated with a particle and is the
uncertainty in determining this momentum, and if is the location of the particle and
is the uncertainty in determining its location, then the Uncertainty Principle states:

One way to understand the situation is that many waves have to be added to get a
description that ensures that the particle is confined to a small location. Therefore the
particle can now have many wavelengths and hence many possible momenta.

For his discovery of the uncertainty principle Heisenberg was awarded the Nobel Prize
in 1932. Figure 15.6 below shows a photograph of Heisenberg and the citation for his
Nobel Prize.
Figure 15.6: Photograph of Werner Heisenberg and the citation for his Nobel Prize.

The concept of the uncertainty principle is summarized in Figure 15.7 below.

Figure 15.7: The concept of the uncertainty principle.

Specifically with respect to electrons, Wolfgang Pauli proposed that no two electrons can
have all of their quantum numbers being identical. This is referred to as the Paulis
exclusion principle, and resulted in a Nobel Prize for Pauli in the year 1945. A
photograph of Pauli and the citation for his Nobel Prize, are shown in Figure 15.8 below.
Figure 15.8: Photograph of Wolfgang Pauli and the citation for his Nobel Prize.

The key concepts of quantum mechanics and the people credited with their discovery, are
summarized in Figure 15.9 below.

Max Planck

Einstein

Louis de Broglie

( ) Schrdinger

, or | | Born

Heisenberg

Figure 15.9: The key concepts of quantum mechanics, and the people credited with their
discovery.

It is relevant to note that several of the ideas associated with quantum mechanics, resulted
in Nobel Prizes for their proponents. Such is the significance of these discoveries. At the
same time, although several major unexplained phenomena were successfully explained
using the idea of quantum mechanics, there was considerable discomfort with the idea.
There was a school of thought that perhaps there was a deeper theory that did not require
quantization but which would still explain the phenomena observed. Such thoughts did
not materialize in all of the investigations since, and quantum mechanics came to stay. So
when we sometimes face difficulties in understanding and accepting the ideas of quantum
mechanics, when we feel that these ideas are not intuitive, we can take comfort from the
fact that some of the greatest minds in the history of science also struggled to accept it
and worried about its significance.