Climate is the statistics of weather over long periods of time.

[1][2] It is measured by assessing the

patterns of variation in temperature,humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind, precipitation,
atmospheric particle count and other meteorological variables in a given region over long periods
of time. Climate differs from weather, in that weather only describes the short-term conditions of
these variables in a given region.

A region's climate is generated by the climate system, which has five

components: atmosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere,lithosphere, and biosphere.[3]

The climate of a location is affected by its latitude, terrain, and altitude, as well as nearby water
bodies and their currents. Climates can be classified according to the average and the typical
ranges of different variables, most commonly temperature and precipitation. The most commonly
used classification scheme was the Kppen climate classification. The Thornthwaite system,[4] in
use since 1948, incorporates evapotranspiration along with temperature and precipitation
information and is used in studying biological diversity and how climate change affects it. The
Bergeron and Spatial Synoptic Classification systems focus on the origin of air masses that
define the climate of a region.

Paleoclimatology is the study of ancient climates. Since direct observations of climate are not
available before the 19th century, paleoclimates are inferred from proxy variables that include
non-biotic evidence such as sediments found in lake beds and ice cores, and biotic evidence
such as tree rings and coral. Climate models are mathematical models of past, present and
future climates. Climate change may occur over long and short timescales from a variety of
factors; recent warming is discussed in global warming. Global warming results in redistributions.
For example, "a 3C change in mean annual temperature corresponds to a shift in isotherms of
approximately 300400 km in latitude (in the temperate zone) or 500 m in elevation. Therefore,
species are expected to move upwards in elevation or towards the poles in latitude in response
to shifting climate zones".[5][6]

Contents
[hide]

1Definition
2Climate classification
o 2.1Bergeron and Spatial Synoptic
o 2.2Kppen
o 2.3Thornthwaite
3Record
o 3.1Modern
o 3.2Paleoclimatology
4Climate change
o 4.1Climate models
5See also
6References
7Further reading
8External links
Definition[edit]
Climate (from Ancient Greek klima, meaning inclination) is commonly defined as the weather
averaged over a long period.[7] The standard averaging period is 30 years,[8] but other periods
may be used depending on the purpose. Climate also includes statistics other than the average,
such as the magnitudes of day-to-day or year-to-year variations. The Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC) 2001 glossary definition is as follows:

Climate in a narrow sense is usually defined as the "average weather," or more rigorously, as the
statistical description in terms of the mean and variability of relevant quantities over a period
ranging from months to thousands or millions of years. The classical period is 30 years, as
defined by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO). These quantities are most often
surface variables such as temperature, precipitation, and wind. Climate in a wider sense is the
state, including a statistical description, of the climate system.[9]

The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) describes climate "normals" as "reference points
used by climatologists to compare current climatological trends to that of the past or what is
considered 'normal'. A Normal is defined as the arithmetic average of a climate element (e.g.
temperature) over a 30-year period. A 30 year period is used, as it is long enough to filter out any
interannual variation or anomalies, but also short enough to be able to show longer climatic
trends."[10] The WMO originated from the International Meteorological Organization which set up a
technical commission for climatology in 1929. At its 1934 Wiesbaden meeting the technical
commission designated the thirty-year period from 1901 to 1930 as the reference time frame for
climatological standard normals. In 1982 the WMO agreed to update climate normals, and these
were subsequently completed on the basis of climate data from 1 January 1961 to 31 December
1990.[11]

The difference between climate and weather is usefully summarized by the popular phrase
"Climate is what you expect, weather is what you get."[12] Over historical time spans there are a
number of nearly constant variables that determine climate, including latitude, altitude, proportion
of land to water, and proximity to oceans and mountains. These change only over periods of
millions of years due to processes such as plate tectonics. Other climate determinants are more
dynamic: the thermohaline circulation of the ocean leads to a 5 C (9 F) warming of the
northern Atlantic Ocean compared to other ocean basins.[13] Other ocean currents redistribute
heat between land and water on a more regional scale. The density and type of vegetation
coverage affects solar heat absorption,[14] water retention, and rainfall on a regional level.
Alterations in the quantity of atmospheric greenhouse gases determines the amount of solar
energy retained by the planet, leading to global warming or global cooling. The variables which
determine climate are numerous and the interactions complex, but there is general agreement
that the broad outlines are understood, at least insofar as the determinants of historical climate
change are concerned.[15]

Climate classification[edit]
 Worldwide climate classifications

There are several ways to classify climates into similar regimes. Originally, climes were defined
in Ancient Greece to describe the weather depending upon a location's latitude. Modern climate
classification methods can be broadly divided into genetic methods, which focus on the causes of
climate, and empiric methods, which focus on the effects of climate. Examples of genetic
classification include methods based on the relative frequency of different air mass types or
locations within synoptic weather disturbances. Examples of empiricclassifications
include climate zones defined by plant hardiness,[16] evapotranspiration,[17] or more generally
the Kppen climate classification which was originally designed to identify the climates
associated with certainbiomes. A common shortcoming of these classification schemes is that
they produce distinct boundaries between the zones they define, rather than the gradual
transition of climate properties more common in nature.

Bergeron and Spatial Synoptic[edit]

Main article: Air mass

The simplest classification is that involving air masses. The Bergeron classification is the most
widely accepted form of air mass classification.[18] Air mass classification involves three letters.
The first letter describes itsmoisture properties, with c used for continental air masses (dry) and
m for maritime air masses (moist). The second letter describes the thermal characteristic of its
source region: T for tropical, P for polar, A for Arctic or Antarctic, M for monsoon, E for equatorial,
and S for superior air (dry air formed by significant downward motion in the atmosphere). The
third letter is used to designate the stability of the atmosphere. If the air mass is colder than the
ground below it, it is labeled k. If the air mass is warmer than the ground below it, it is labeled
w.[19] While air mass identification was originally used in weather forecasting during the 1950s,
climatologists began to establish synoptic climatologies based on this idea in 1973.[20]

Based upon the Bergeron classification scheme is the Spatial Synoptic Classification
system (SSC). There are six categories within the SSC scheme: Dry Polar (similar to continental
polar), Dry Moderate (similar to maritime superior), Dry Tropical (similar to continental tropical),
Moist Polar (similar to maritime polar), Moist Moderate (a hybrid between maritime polar and
maritime tropical), and Moist Tropical (similar to maritime tropical, maritime monsoon, or maritime
equatorial).[21]

Kppen[edit]

Monthly average surface temperatures from 19611990. This is an example of how climate varies with
location and season

Monthly global images from NASA Earth Observatory (interactive SVG)

Main article: Kppen climate classification

The Kppen classification depends on average monthly values of temperature and precipitation.
The most commonly used form of the Kppen classification has five primary types labeled A
through E. These primary types are A) tropical, B) dry, C) mild mid-latitude, D) cold mid-latitude,
and E) polar. The five primary classifications can be further divided into secondary classifications
such as rainforest,monsoon, tropical savanna, humid subtropical, humid continental, oceanic
climate, Mediterranean climate, desert, steppe, subarctic climate, tundra, and polar ice cap.

Rainforests are characterized by high rainfall, with definitions setting minimum normal annual
rainfall between 1,750 millimetres (69 in) and 2,000 millimetres (79 in). Mean monthly
temperatures exceed 18 C (64 F) during all months of the year.[22]

A monsoon is a seasonal prevailing wind which lasts for several months, ushering in a region's
rainy season.[23] Regions within North America, South America, Sub-Saharan
Africa, Australia and East Asia are monsoon regimes.[24]

The worlds cloudy and sunny spots. NASA Earth Observatory map using data collected between July 2002
and April 2015.[25]
A tropical savanna is a grassland biome located in semiarid to semi-humid climate regions
of subtropical and tropical latitudes, with average temperatures remain at or above 18 C (64 F)
year round and rainfall between 750 millimetres (30 in) and 1,270 millimetres (50 in) a year. They
are widespread on Africa, and are found in India, the northern parts of South America, Malaysia,
and Australia.[26]

Cloud cover by month for 2014. NASA Earth Observatory[27][28]

The humid subtropical climate zone where winter rainfall (and sometimes snowfall) is
associated with large storms that the westerliessteer from west to east. Most summer rainfall
occurs during thunderstorms and from occasional tropical cyclones.[29] Humid subtropical climates
lie on the east side of continents, roughly between latitudes 20 and 40 degrees away from
the equator.[30]

Humid continental climate,worldwide

A humid continental climate is marked by variable weather patterns and a large seasonal
temperature variance. Places with more than three months of average daily temperatures above
10 C (50 F) and a coldest month temperature below 3 C (27 F) and which do not meet the
criteria for an arid or semiarid climate, are classified as continental.[31]

An oceanic climate is typically found along the west coasts at the middle latitudes of all the
world's continents, and in southeasternAustralia, and is accompanied by plentiful precipitation
year-round.[32]

The Mediterranean climate regime resembles the climate of the lands in the Mediterranean
Basin, parts of western North America, parts of Western and South Australia, in
southwestern South Africa and in parts of central Chile. The climate is characterized by hot, dry
summers and cool, wet winters.[33]

A steppe is a dry grassland with an annual temperature range in the summer of up to 40 C

(104 F) and during the winter down to 40 C (40 F).[34]

A subarctic climate has little precipitation,[35] and monthly temperatures which are above 10 C
(50 F) for one to three months of the year, with permafrost in large parts of the area due to the
cold winters. Winters within subarctic climates usually include up to six months of temperatures
averaging below 0 C (32 F).[36]

Map of arctic tundra

Tundra occurs in the far Northern Hemisphere, north of the taiga belt, including vast areas of
northern Russia and Canada.[37]

A polar ice cap, or polar ice sheet, is a high-latitude region of a planet or moon that is covered
in ice. Ice caps form because high-latituderegions receive less energy as solar radiation from
the sun than equatorial regions, resulting in lower surface temperatures.[38]

A desert is a landscape form or region that receives very little precipitation. Deserts usually have
a large diurnal and seasonal temperature range, with high or low, depending on location daytime
temperatures (in summer up to 45 C or 113 F), and low nighttime temperatures (in winter down
to 0 C or 32 F) due to extremely low humidity. Many deserts are formed by rain shadows, as
mountains block the path of moisture and precipitation to the desert.[39]

Thornthwaite[edit]
See also: Microthermal, Mesothermal, and Megathermal

Precipitation by month

Devised by the American climatologist and geographer C. W. Thornthwaite, this climate

classification method monitors the soil water budget using evapotranspiration.[40] It monitors the
portion of total precipitation used to nourish vegetation over a certain area.[41] It uses indices such
as a humidity index and an aridity index to determine an area's moisture regime based upon its
average temperature, average rainfall, and average vegetation type.[42] The lower the value of the
index in any given area, the drier the area is.

The moisture classification includes climatic classes with descriptors such as hyperhumid, humid,
subhumid, subarid, semi-arid (values of 20 to 40), and arid (values below 40).[43] Humid
regions experience more precipitation than evaporation each year, while arid regions experience
greater evaporation than precipitation on an annual basis. A total of 33 percent of the Earth's
landmass is considered either arid or semi-arid, including southwest North America, southwest
South America, most of northern and a small part of southern Africa, southwest and portions of
eastern Asia, as well as much of Australia.[44] Studies suggest that precipitation effectiveness
(PE) within the Thornthwaite moisture index is overestimated in the summer and underestimated
in the winter.[45] This index can be effectively used to determine the number
of herbivore and mammal species numbers within a given area.[46] The index is also used in
studies of climate change.[45]

Thermal classifications within the Thornthwaite scheme include microthermal, mesothermal, and
megathermal regimes. A microthermal climate is one of low annual mean temperatures,
generally between 0 C (32 F) and 14 C (57 F) which experiences short summers and has a
potential evaporation between 14 centimetres (5.5 in) and 43 centimetres (17 in).[47] A
mesothermal climate lacks persistent heat or persistent cold, with potential evaporation between
57 centimetres (22 in) and 114 centimetres (45 in).[48] A megathermal climate is one with
persistent high temperatures and abundant rainfall, with potential annual evaporation in excess
of 114 centimetres (45 in).[49]

Record[edit]
Modern[edit]

Global mean surface temperature change since 1880. Source: NASA GISS

See also: Instrumental temperature record and Satellite temperature measurements

Details of the modern climate record are known through the taking of measurements from such
weather instruments asthermometers, barometers, and anemometers during the past few
centuries. The instruments used to study weather over the modern time scale, their known error,
their immediate environment, and their exposure have changed over the years, which must be
considered when studying the climate of centuries past.[50]

Paleoclimatology[edit]
Main article: Paleoclimatology
Paleoclimatology is the study of past climate over a great period of the Earth's history. It uses
evidence from ice sheets, tree rings, sediments, coral, and rocks to determine the past state of
the climate. It demonstrates periods of stability and periods of change and can indicate whether
changes follow patterns such as regular cycles.[51]

Climate change[edit]

Variations in CO2, temperature and dust from the Vostok ice core over the past 450,000 years

See also: Climate change, Global warming, Temperature record, and Attribution of recent climate
change

Climate change is the variation in global or regional climates over time. It reflects changes in the
variability or average state of the atmosphere over time scales ranging from decades to millions
of years. These changes can be caused by processes internal to the Earth, external forces (e.g.
variations in sunlight intensity) or, more recently, human activities.[52][53]

2015 Warmest Global Year on Record (since 1880) Colors indicate temperature anomalies
(NASA/NOAA; 20 January 2016).[54]

In recent usage, especially in the context of environmental policy, the term "climate change"
often refers only to changes in modern climate, including the rise in average
surface temperature known as global warming. In some cases, the term is also used with a
presumption of human causation, as in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC). The UNFCCC uses "climate variability" for non-human caused variations.[55]

Earth has undergone periodic climate shifts in the past, including four major ice ages. These
consisting of glacial periods where conditions are colder than normal, separated
by interglacial periods. The accumulation of snow and ice during a glacial period increases the
surface albedo, reflecting more of the Sun's energy into space and maintaining a lower
atmospheric temperature. Increases in greenhouse gases, such as by volcanic activity, can
increase the global temperature and produce an interglacial period. Suggested causes of ice age
periods include the positions of the continents, variations in the Earth's orbit, changes in the solar
output, and volcanism.[56]

Climate models[edit]
See also: Climate model and Climatology

Climate models use quantitative methods to simulate the interactions of

the atmosphere,[57] oceans, land surface and ice. They are used for a variety of purposes; from
the study of the dynamics of the weather and climate system, to projections of future climate. All
climate models balance, or very nearly balance, incoming energy as short wave (including
visible) electromagnetic radiation to the earth with outgoing energy as long wave (infrared)
electromagnetic radiation from the earth. Any imbalance results in a change in the average
temperature of the earth.

The most talked-about applications of these models in recent years have been their use to infer
the consequences of increasing greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, primarilycarbon
dioxide (see greenhouse gas). These models predict an upward trend in the global mean surface
temperature, with the most rapid increase in temperature being projected for the higher latitudes
of the Northern Hemisphere.

Models can range from relatively simple to quite complex:

Simple radiant heat transfer model that treats the earth as a single point and averages
outgoing energy
this can be expanded vertically (radiative-convective models), or horizontally
finally, (coupled) atmosphereoceansea ice global climate models discretise and solve the
full equations for mass and energy transfer and radiant exchange.[58]

Climate forecasting is a way by some scientists are using to predict climate change. In 1997 the
prediction division of the International Research Institute for Climate and Society at Columbia
University began generating seasonal climate forecasts on a real-time basis. To produce these
forecasts an extensive suite of forecasting tools was developed, including a multimodel
ensemble approach that required thorough validation of each model's accuracy level in
simulating interannual climate variability