Introduction:

Forest is one of the most essential parts of a country. Every country has to maintain a
minimum level or ratio of forest or forest areas within their border. The minimum level of
forest or percentage of forest should be 25% of the total area of a country. Every independent
country has some policies or strategies to manage & maintain their forests properly. These
policies or strategies generally known as National Forest Policy. Every country & their
government try to up-date the National Forest Policy every year considering their
environment & forest areas. But in some cases, the National Forest Policy of some countries
also plays some negative impacts on their forests.

What is National Forest Policy:

The term policy is not tightly defined but is used in different ways on different occasions.
Often, it can mean a course of action adopted and pursued. A policy can be explicitly stated
or not. It can also be planned or it can emerge through evident behavior. It is thus often
viewed either as a rational system based on deliberate aims and plans or as a consequence of
political activity arising from a series of decisions. In any case, a policy needs to provide
guidance and a sense of direction over a certain period of time in order to be useful. People
complain that central government, a ministry or other stakeholders do not have a policy
when decisions are made on an ad hoc basis or are incoherent or contradictory.

A policy is intended to guide and determine present and future decisions and actions. It
usually comprises two elements:

A set of aspirations, goals or objectives

An outline of a course of action to achieve them.

In this book, a national forest policy is considered to be a negotiated agreement between

government and stakeholders (i.e. all those who depend on or benefit from forests or who
decide on, control or regulate access to these resources) on the orientations and principles of
actions they adopt, in harmony with national socioeconomic and environmental policies, to
guide and determine decisions on the sustainable use and conservation of forest and tree
resources for the benefit of society.

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A national forest policy is not to be unilaterally imposed by government. Ideally, it is an
agreement among bodies that represent different forest interests and is formally adopted by
government. Who should be involved in its development is thus a key question, as the
selection of the participants influences which interests are taken into account. As Byron
(2006) observes, it is difficult to imagine a national forest policy that can be relevant and
useful without being firmly placed within the broader aims of society. Forest policies thus not
only have to cover issues under the competence of the forestry administration and its
agencies, but they also need to contribute to overarching policies, including those responsible
for national development or economic and poverty strategies. They also need to be consistent
with policies issued by other government authorities, e.g. on environmental protection,
climate change, agriculture, industry and trade. Further, they need to be in line with a
countrys forest-related international commitments. Thus, a forest policy is a policy for
people, not for the forestry administration.

Being an agreement among government and stakeholders, a national forest policy is endorsed
by government and implemented through legal, economic and informational instruments, and
by other stakeholders with their respective means. Ultimately, through government
endorsement, a formal national forest policy is the official position of the government, as a
clear statement of a countrys goals and objectives, made public so that all parties know the
directions being pursued and the outcomes to be achieved. If different actors each pursue
their particular interests and change course frequently, larger goals or longer-term objectives
are unlikely to be reached. Thus, there are a number of good reasons for jointly developing
and using an agreed forest policy:

The process of bringing stakeholders with diverse interests together to negotiate an agreement
is extremely valuable in itself.

A mutually accepted forest policy builds a sense of joint ownership, which is essential
for its implementation.
The involvement of stakeholders beyond the forest sector gives the policy legitimacy
across society. Wide buy-in is particularly advantageous when negotiating with
powerful ministries such as agriculture, energy, planning or finance.
A national forest policy provides excellent guidance for developing more coherent
institutional frameworks and policy instruments, including forest legislation.

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 A national forest policy can guide the planning and operations of forestry stakeholders
including administrations and agencies at various levels.
A national forest policy facilitates communication, coordination and collaboration
across government, non-governmental organizations and the public.
A national forest policy can provide a solid basis for international policy discussions
and for strengthening technical assistance cooperation.
The national forest policy can serve as a reference to guide decisions on emerging
issues, particularly those where quick, difficult or controversial decisions must be
made.

Sri Lanka; Forest areas:

General:

Sri Lanka covers an area of 65 610 km2. The country is divided into three major agro-
ecological zones according to annual rainfall. The wet zone receives an average annual
rainfall that exceeds 1 500 mm. The annual rainfall in the intermediate zone is between 900
and 1 500 mm. It is below 900 mm in the dry zone. Sri Lankas population is 18.73 million
and the population density is 309 persons/km2. The current population growth rate is 1.14
percent. The rural population constitutes approximately 75 percent. The per capita gross
national product (GNP) was LKR63 752 in 2000. The annual GNP growth rate was five
percent in 2000 and is estimated to have been around one percent in 2001.

Present status of forestry:

In 1999, the forest cover was estimated to be about 2 million ha, which amounts to 30.8
percent of the total area of Sri Lanka. The forest areas consist of 1.46 million ha of dense
forests and 0.46 million ha of sparse forests (Table 1). The per capita forest area is around
0.11 ha and the estimated annual rate of deforestation is 0.8 percent.

Category Extent (ha) Percent of total land area

Dense forests 1 462 900 22.4
Sparse forests 460 600 7.0

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 Forest plantations 93 000 1.4
Total 2 016 500 30.8
Table 1. Forest covers area (1999)

Problems and issues in the forestry sector in Sri Lanka:

Deforestation and forest degradation are the key issues facing the forestry sector. Sri Lanka
has a predominantly agricultural economy, and agricultural production has increased to
support the growing population mainly by expanding cropping areas. The forest resources in
Sri Lanka diminished dramatically during the last century. The main causes of land-use
change are rapid population growth, which has led to the conversion of forests to non-forest
uses through agricultural plantations (e.g. tea, coconut and rubber) and shifting cultivation.
The only significant natural causes for deforestation and forest degradation are fires and
cyclones. The main causes for deforestation and forest degradation are:

Conversion of forests to non-forest uses;

Overexploitation of forests for timber production;
Lack of established forest boundaries;
Lack of a national land-use policy;
Illegal felling of timber and encroachment on state forests; and
Shifting cultivation.

The closed canopy forest cover in Sri Lanka has dwindled rapidly from about 44 percent in
1956 to 24 percent in 1992. The average annual rate of deforestation from 1956 to 1992, both
through planned and spontaneous conversion, has been about 42 000 ha. The average annual
deforestation from 1992 to 1999 was around 17 000 ha, or an annual deforestation rate of
about 0.8 percent. The reduced rate is primarily attributable to the completion of most large-
scale agricultural expansion schemes such as the Mahaweli Project, by 1990. Between 1965
and 1990 the natural forests were overexploited for timber production to provide raw material
for the forest industries. Formerly, forest management was based on the Commercial
Selection System, which caused severe forest degradation with regard to stand structure and
species composition. The absence of a national land-use policy and principles for land-use
management has contributed further to deforestation and the degradation of land resources.
Forest boundaries have been surveyed and demarcated only in gazette forest areas that

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represent only about 66 percent of the total forest area. The balance of 34 percent,
categorized as Proposed Forest Reserves and Other State Forests, has not been surveyed and
demarcated. This shortcoming has contributed to illegal logging and encroachment of state
forests. The control of illegal activities in state forests has been difficult due to widespread
socio-economic problems such as limited land availability, unemployment and poverty. The
meager resources of the Forest Department are another constraint. Shifting cultivation, which
is a major contributor to deforestation, is still a traditional practice in remote areas. Large
swathes of secondary forests are cleared every year by shifting cultivators, particularly in the
intermediate and dry zones. The main constraints of the forestry sector can be listed as
follows:

Ineffective management of forest plantations.

An inadequate legal framework for effective participatory forest management.
The lack of participatory forest management and benefit-sharing mechanisms.
Inadequate support and incentives for private sector involvement in commercial forest
plantation development.
Outdated and inefficient machinery in the wood industries that generate much waste.
Inadequate attention paid to non-timber forest products.
The State Timber Corporations monopoly for extraction of timber from state
forestland.
Inappropriate national accounting systems, which do not consider the total value of
forest products and services.

In light of the increasing demands placed on the forestry sector, its diminished capacity to
meet the needs of society sustainably is a major problem. The most serious consequences of
deforestation and forest degradation include:

Reduction of biodiversity because of the destruction of natural habitats;

Increased scarcity of wood, including fuel wood;
Increased soil erosion and associated loss of soil fertility;
Irregular water supply due to reduced dry season flows;
Shortened lifespan of irrigation and hydropower reservoirs; and
Reduced carbon sequestration.

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Current national forest policies of Sri Lanka:

Objectives related to forests:

The objectives related to forest management and conservation is clearly defined in the
National Forest Policy (1995). They are to:

Conserve forests for posterity, with particular regard to biodiversity, soils, water, and
historical, cultural, religious and aesthetic values;
Increase the tree cover and productivity of the forests to meet the needs of present and
future generations for forest products and services; and
Enhance the contribution of forestry for the welfare of the rural population and to
strengthen the national economy, with special attention being paid to equity in
economic development.

The National Forest Policy was formulated after the Ministry of Agriculture, Lands and
Forestry organized three-year intensive consultations with relevant government agencies,
universities, research institutes, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and the general
public. The Ministry of Agriculture, Lands and Forestry and the Forest Department provided
the leadership during the consultation process. The National Forest Policy was published in
July 1995, along with implementation strategies and the Executive Summary of the Forestry
Sector Master Plan (FSMP) prepared by the Forestry Planning Unit of the Ministry. Copies of
this publication have been disseminated to all the relevant stakeholders and are available in
the Forest Department library and libraries of relevant government institutions and
universities. The National Forest Policy was approved for implementation by the Cabinet of
Ministers in 1995. Since then, the objectives of the policy have been recognized by all the
state and non-state sector organizations. The National Forest Policy and policy objectives and
statements have been referred to in many policies and action plans, including the:

National Land Use Policy (draft), 2002. Ministry of Lands.

National Status Report on Land Degradation, Implementation of the Convention to
Combat Desertification in Sri Lanka, 2001. Natural Resources Management Division,
Ministry of Forestry and Environment.
State of the Environment, Sri Lanka, 2001. Ministry of Forestry and
Environment/UNEP.

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Specific forestry policies and thrust areas:

The following section outlines the policy statements in the National Forest Policy related to
specific thrust areas. These policy statements describe lower level policy objectives for
attaining overall national policy objectives.

Forest resources and land-use change:

Planned conversion of forests to other land uses can take place only in accordance
with procedures defined in the legislation and with accepted conservation and
scientific norms.

Forest management including timber harvesting:

All state forest resources will be managed sustainably both in terms of the continued
existence of important ecosystems and the flow of forest products and services.
Natural forests will be allocated primarily for conservation, and secondly for
regulated multiple-use production forestry.
For the management and protection of natural forests and forest plantations, the state
will, where appropriate, form partnerships with local people, rural communities and
other stakeholders, and introduce appropriate tenurial arrangements.
The establishment and management of industrial forest plantations on state lands will
be entrusted progressively to local people, rural communities, industries and other
private bodies, keeping pace with the institutionalizing of effective environmental
safeguards.
Degraded forestland will be rehabilitated as forest for conservation and multiple-use
production, where this is economically and technically feasible, mainly for the benefit
of local people.

Forest and biodiversity conservation:

All state forest resources will be managed sustainably both in terms of the continued
existence of important ecosystems and the flow of forest products and services.
Natural forests will be allocated primarily for conservation, and secondly for
regulated multiple-use production forestry.

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 Degraded forestland will be rehabilitated as forest for conservation and multiple-use
production, where this is economically and technically feasible, mainly for the benefit
of local people.
The general public and industries will be educated about the importance of forestry,
and of conserving biodiversity and protecting watersheds.

Forest industries:

Greater responsibility will be given to local people, organized groups, cooperatives,

industries and other private bodies in commercial forest production, industrial
manufacturing and marketing.
Efficient forest product utilization, development of competitive forest industries based
on sustainable wood sources and the manufacturing of value-added products will be
promoted.

Non-wood forest products:

Effective measures to protect the forests and prevent illegal trade in wood, non-wood
forest products and endangered species of flora and fauna will be institutionalized.

Trees outside forests:

Growing trees on homesteads, and other agro forestry activities, will be promoted as a
main strategy to supply wood and other forest products to meet household and market
needs.
The state will promote tree growing by local people, rural communities, NGOs and
other non-state sector bodies for the protection of environmentally sensitive areas.
The state will facilitate the harvesting and transport of forest products grown on
private lands.

Wood energy:

All state forest resources will be managed sustainably both in terms of the continued
existence of important ecosystems and the flow of forest products and services.
Degraded forestland will be rehabilitated as forest for conservation and multiple-use
production, where this is economically and technically feasible, mainly for the benefit
of local people.

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Investments in forestry and wood processing:

The establishment, management and harvesting of industrial forest plantations by

local people, communities, industries and others in the private sector will be
promoted.
Greater responsibility will be given to local people, organized groups, cooperatives,
industries and other private bodies in commercial forest production, industrial
manufacturing and marketing.
Efficient forest product utilization, development of competitive forest industries based
on sustainable wood sources and manufacturing of value-added products will be
promoted.

Peoples participation and devolution of forest management responsibilities:

For the management and protection of the natural forests and forest plantations the
state will, where appropriate, form partnerships with local people, rural communities
and other stakeholders, and introduce appropriate tenurial arrangements.
The establishment and management of industrial forest plantations on state lands will
be entrusted progressively to local people, rural communities, industries and other
private bodies, supported by effective environmental safeguards.
Growing trees on homesteads and other agro forestry activities will be promoted as a
main strategy to supply wood and other forest products to meet household and market
needs.
The establishment, management and harvesting of industrial forest plantations by
local people, communities, industries and others in the private sector will be
promoted.
Greater responsibility will be given to local people, organized groups, cooperatives,
industries and other private bodies in commercial forest production, industrial
manufacturing and marketing.
Nature-based tourism will be promoted to the extent that it does not damage
ecosystems and insofar as it provides benefits to the local population.
The National Forestry Policy will be kept up to date and implemented in a
participatory and transparent manner.

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The role of forestry agencies in forest management:

The establishment and management of industrial forest plantations on state lands will
be entrusted progressively to local people, rural communities, industries and other
private bodies, supported by effective environmental safeguards.
The state will provide full support to the various resource managers for sustainable
forestry development, and its institutions will be reoriented and strengthened to enable
them to accomplish their role.
NGOs and community-based organizations will be supported in their forest-based
rural development activities.

Forestry research, education and extension:

The state will coordinate, carry out and promote research that focuses on the
requirements of beneficiaries and supports the implementation of the sectoral policy.
The general public and industries will be educated about the importance of forestry,
and about conserving biodiversity and protecting watersheds.

Forest plantations:

For the management and protection of natural forests and forest plantations, the state
will, where appropriate, form partnerships with local people, rural communities and
other stakeholders, and introduce appropriate tenurial arrangements.
The establishment and management of industrial forest plantations on state lands will
be entrusted progressively to local people, rural communities, industries and other
private bodies, supported by effective environmental safeguards.
The establishment, management and harvesting of industrial forest plantations by
local people, communities, industries and others in the private sector will be
promoted.

Watershed management:

Natural forests will be allocated primarily for conservation and secondly for regulated
multiple-use production forestry (conservation includes soil and water conservation
and watershed protection). Forest fires were not identified as a significant problem.
Hence no specific policy statements have been included in the National Forest Policy

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 on fire prevention and management. There are also no specific forest policy
statements related to climate change.

Policy instruments of specific forest policies and implementation processes:

Regulatory and administrative instruments and tools:

With regard to legal and regulatory provisions, there are three laws relating to the
management of forest resources in Sri Lanka:

(a) Forest Ordinance No. 16 of 1907

(b) National Heritage and Wilderness Areas Act No. 3 of 1988

(c) Fauna and Flora Protection Ordinance No. 2 of 1937

The Forest Ordinance and National Heritage and Wilderness Areas Act are administered by
the Forest Department whilst the Fauna and Flora Protection Ordinance is administered by
the Department of Wild Life Conservation.

Forest Ordinance:

The Forest Ordinance No. 16 of 1907 (amended by Act No. 13 of 1966) and subsequent
amendments make provisions for the establishment of forest reserves, conservation forests
and for the protection of other state forests and their products. The forest reserves,
conservation forests and other state forests are managed by the Forest Department and the
Forest Ordinance and regulations framed under the ordinance provide legal provisions for the
following issues:

Declaration of forest reserves and conservation forests (protected area category).

Protection of forest reserves, conservation forests and other state forests.
Extraction of forest products from state forests through a permit system.
Transport of timber (including private timber) through a permit system.
Regulation and monitoring of timber industries through a registration and reporting
system.
Inspection and legal action for illegal timber under storage.

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The Forest Ordinance is being amended at present to incorporate new provisions for the more
effective implementation of the National Forest Policy (e.g. for participatory management,
benefit sharing, private sector involvement).

National Heritage and Wilderness Areas Act:

The National Heritage and Wilderness Areas Act No. 3 was passed in 1988 to overcome
some inherent weaknesses of the Forest Ordinance and to provide for the preservation of
unique ecosystems and genetic resources, physical land, biological formations and precisely
delineated areas constituting the habitats of threatened plant and animal species of universal
scientific or conservation value. This law provides legal provisions for the management of
very special protected areas as described above and has provisions for the:

Declaration of national heritage and wilderness areas.

Protection of fauna and flora, habitats, biological and physical features in such areas.
Observation of fauna and flora and scientific research.
Preparation of management plans for national heritage and wilderness areas.

Activities permitted within a national heritage and wilderness area are restricted to the
observation of fauna and flora and scientific research. This law is administered by the Forest
Department. At present only the Sinharaja World Heritage Forest has been declared under
this act.

Fauna and Flora Protection Ordinance:

The protected areas under the jurisdiction of the Department of Wildlife Conservation are
administered under the provisions of this law. The Fauna and Flora Protection Ordinance No.
2 of 1937 (last amended in 1993) makes provisions for:

Declaration of national reserves (strict natural reserves, national parks, nature

reserves, jungle corridors, buffer zones, refuges) and sanctuaries.
Protection of fauna and flora and habitats of wildlife within national reserves and
sanctuaries.
Total protection of protected species of fauna and flora.

Administrative provisions: In addition to provisions in the legislation to implement the

National Forest Policy, there are many administrative orders (circulars) with respect to
implementing various policy directives. These administrative orders cover various forest

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management aspects (e.g. forest protection, reforestation, establishment of private nurseries,
participatory forestry, management of forest plantations, forest harvesting, private timber
transport, release of forest lands for non-forest uses, legalization of encroached areas). Some
administrative orders (circulars) provide guidance for operationalizing policies that do not
have appropriate legal support for effective implementation. Others provide details on
strategies for implementing various policy statements.

A critical review of National Forest Policy of Sri Lanka:

Institutional arrangements and actions carried out to achieve policy objectives:

Legislation:

Implementation of the forest policy requires sound legislation and an efficient organizational
framework. However, the present legislation seems to be ad hoc in nature. Various items of
legislation were introduced over the years in response to problems and needs at the time.
While they were relevant then they may have lost their significance and justification in the
present environment. When the laws were enacted, priority was given to forest exploitation
and revenue collection by the state. Today, conservation and peoples participation have
emerged as priority issues. Weak law enforcement and cumbersome legal procedures are
other major constraints. Despite the increased attention on conservation by the Forest
Ordinance, forest cover has continued to decline and the remaining forests are being
degraded. As a result of the command and control nature of the legislation and weak
enforcement, forest officers spend too much time in courts instead of managing the forest.
The main problems and their implications can be summarized as follows:

Outdated forest legislation.

A glaring deficiency is that the existing laws do not address the main issues and thus
do not support policy implementation adequately. As legislation is the most important
tool in translating policy statements into action, achieving the objectives set out in the
policy is unlikely. The legislation should be designed to permit and encourage wise
use of the resource.
Wildlife policy is not supported by legislation. The legislation concerned is not
conducive to achieving the policy objectives. In particular, the conservation aspects of
the objectives will not be reached.
Excessive emphasis on regulatory command and control mechanisms.

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 Lack of corresponding legislation in other sectors, particularly in agriculture.
Lack of interagency linkages.
Forest legislation and other legislations that may impact forestry are not well
coordinated.
Forest and wildlife legislations do not classify forests and protected areas clearly.
Lack of transparency and participation.

Problems regarding National Forest Policy of Sri Lanka:

The slow attitudinal changes and pressure from outside sources has hindered the
implementation of certain programs. For example, according to the forest policy, the State
Timber Corporations monopoly for harvesting timber from state forest areas is to be
abolished. To date, this has not occurred due to a lack of political will and pressure from
certain groups. Some new policy elements such as private sector participation in forest
management and participatory forest management are not being implemented. The lack of
provisions in the current legislation and the slow change in attitudes by government officials
have contributed to this delay. Various components of the FSMP were based on the new
forest policy. Subsequently, a five-year investment program was prepared with the intention
of implementing some components of the plan to achieve policy objectives. Based on the
five-year investment program, the ADB agreed to fund the Forest Resources Management
Project. The project started in 2000 and its main thrust areas are conservation, commercial
forest production, participatory forestry management and encouragement of private sector
involvement in various activities such as forest management and reforestation.

Some recent steps regarding National Forest Policy of Sri Lanka paving the way of
brighter prospects:

Policy on conservation:

Most of Sri Lankas forests have been reserved for conservation purposes. The National
Heritage Wilderness Area Act of 1988 emphasizes the importance of conservation. The
Sinharaja forest was established under this act and was also declared as a World Heritage
Area by UNESCO. The National Conservation Review undertaken during the late 1990s was

14
instrumental in collecting data on biodiversity, soil and water conservation and similar
aspects. It led to the declaration of an additional 32 conservation forests. The conservation
forest (protected area) network, at present under the Forest Department, represents 33 forests
in the wet zone. At present the forest legislation is being amended to include three categories
of forests: strict conservation forests, conservation forests and multiple reserved forests.

Action has also been taken to survey and demarcate the boundaries of all the forest areas in
the country through the Forest Resources Management Project and to classify them into
various categories. The ultimate objective is to declare a national forest estate for
conservation and multiple-use management.

Private sector participation:

A program has been initiated to involve the private sector in establishing commercial forest
plantations through long-term leases of degraded land. Until now 506 ha have been handed
over to 80 private sector entities. In addition, under the Forest Resources Management
Project, initial action has been undertaken to hand over 6 000 ha of forest plantations to the
private sector for management.

Monopoly status of the State Timber Corporation:

In line with the forest policy, the monopoly of the State Timber Corporation will be abolished
by 2004 and the private sector will be allowed to bid for the harvesting of timber from state
forest plantations along with the State Timber Corporation through an open tender system.

Participatory forest management:

A pilot project will be initiated under the Forest Resources Management Project to involve
communities in forest management. In addition, the Natural Resources Management Project
has been proposed with funding from the Australian Agency for International Development
(AusAID) with an emphasis on participatory forest management.

Facilitating private timber transport:

The forest policy stresses the importance of facilitating timber harvesting and transport from
nonforest areas. Trees outside forests are the main source of wood in Sri Lanka. In this
context, several timber species have been deregulated and action has been taken to simplify
the issuance of timber permits for other species.

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Development of wood industries:

Although the forest policy states that the government is to develop an efficient wood
industry, unfortunately no action has been undertaken in this context. Owing to lack of funds,
timber utilization research is non-existent. The aforementioned pilot programs will be
monitored and evaluated regularly to discover whether amendments to legislative and
administrative procedures are required. Steps will be taken to effect necessary amendments
on the basis of these evaluations.

Conclusion:

The priorities of forest policy in Sri Lanka have drastically changed throughout the countrys
history. The main objective of forest policy has shifted from sustainable management of
forests by the community during the classical period, a supply of timber by foreign rulers, the
protection of forest resources after Independence, and recently, to the management of forests
as an economic resource. However, the multiple objectives in terms of conservation,
production, and rural development in the current policy show again the increasing trends
towards sustainable forest resource management. The involvement of local communities in
effective conservation of protected forests is still a difficult task. Joint forest management and
leasehold forestry have become promising strategies for scientific management of a multi-
purpose forest, which allows sharing the benefits of forests among the stakeholders as
common goods. The integrated and participatory approach in the management of watersheds
is directing the community to adopt appropriate farming systems to regenerate vegetation,
preserve the soil, and increase the productivity of highly degraded lands. Many forest
plantations have been established as a common policy since the foreign administration. The
establishment and management approach of forest plantations has been moved from
government plantations, community forest plantations, and presently, to the commercial
forest plantations by private sector on lease agreements. With the amendment of forest policy
with social forestry in the 1990s, the government has implemented several people-driven,
people-centered community forestry programs to grow trees on common lands with the view
of producing fuel wood and other forest products, protecting natural forests, and providing
employment and some income to the local communities. Compared to community forestry
programs on common lands, agro forestry and growing forest trees in home gardens are
becoming very popular strategies that provide the rural people with secure rights, indivisible

16
benefits, and restoration of the agricultural ecosystem. The management of forest resources in
national reserves and sanctuaries has not been functioning under scientific norms. In
harvesting timber the government agencies do not follow scientific techniques. However,
illegal felling, which has led to over-cutting, is still a serious drawback of forest management
without proper legal procedures. Broadening of the institutional framework and integration of
forest-related institutions in order to improve inter-agency coordination is a timely move
suggested by the most recent forest policy. However, the very small research division of the
Forest Department still plays an insignificant role in the development of the forestry sector.
Even the forest extension programs are mainly designed as individual projects funded by
donor agencies, without national-level strategic planning.

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Bandaratillake H.M. & Sarath Fernando M.P., National forest policy review.
Bandarathilleke, H.M. 1991. National forest policy and strategies for conservation of
forest resources in Sri Lanka, Proceeding of the second regional workshop on
multipurpose trees, Kandy, Sri Lanka, 5-7 April 1991.
Dubois, O., and J. Mayers. 1998. Analysis of Sri Lankas forest policy documents.
London: IIED Forestry and Land Use Program.
Fernando, R., and S.W.R. de A. Samarasinghe. 1988. Forest conservation and the
forest master plan for Sri Lanka: A reviewSri Lanka: Wildlife and Natural Protection
Society.
Forestry Planning Unit (FPU). 1995a. Sri Lanka forestry sectors master plan: National
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Sri Lanka.
Gunasena, H.P.M. 1993.Forest policies of Sri Lanka. In FAO (1993), Forestry
policies of selected countries in Asia and the Pacic. Rome: FAO Forestry Paper 115,
1993.
Hewage, T. 1996. National Forest Policy for sustained development. Economic
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Maddugoda, P. 1991. Experience of community forestry in Sri Lanka, Proceedings
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1991.
Nanayakkara, V.R. 1981. National forest policy development in Sri Lanka. The Sri
Lanka Forester Vol. 15 (1 and 2), January-December 1981.pp.5-11.
Pushparajah, M. 1981. Forestry extension program in Sri Lanka. The Sri Lanka
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Hitinayake, G. and Nurse, M. 2001. Livelihoods Approaches and Project Design:
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Kariyawasam, D. 2001. Forest Restoration Policy and Practice in Sri Lanka.
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