Determinants of commercial bank interest margins and profitability:

some international evidence

Asli Demirg-Kunt and Harry Huizinga1

First draft: June 1997

Abstract: Using bank level data for 80 countries in the 1988-1995 period, this paper
shows that differences in interest margins and bank profitability reflect a variety of
determinants: bank characteristics, macroeconomic conditions, explicit and implicit bank
taxation, deposit insurance regulation, overall financial structure, and several underlying
legal and institutional indicators. Controlling for differences in bank activity, leverage, and
the macroeconomic environment, we find that a larger bank asset to GDP ratio and a
lower market concentration ratio lead to lower margins and profits. Foreign banks have
higher margins and profits compared to domestic banks in developing countries, while the
opposite holds in developed countries. Also, there is evidence that the corporate tax
burden is fully passed on to bank customers.

Keywords: bank profitability, taxation, financial structure

1
Development Research Group, The World Bank, and Development Research Group, The World Bank
and CentER and Department of Economics, Tilburg University, respectively. The findings,
interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not
necessarily represent the views of the World Bank, its Executive Directors, or the countries they represent.
We thank Jerry Caprio, George Kaufman, Mary Shirley and 1998 AEA session participants for comments
and suggestions. We also thank Anqing Shi for excellent research assistance and Paulina Sintim-Aboagye
for help with the manuscript.
1. Introduction

As financial intermediaries, banks play a crucial role in the operation of most

economies. Recent research, as surveyed by Levine (1996), has shown that the efficacy of

financial intermediation can also affect economic growth. Crucially, financial

intermediation affects the net return to savings, and the gross return for investment. The

spread between these two returns mirrors the bank interest margins, in addition to

transaction costs and taxes borne directly by savers and investors. This suggests that bank

interest spreads can be interpreted as an indicator of the efficiency of the banking system.

In this paper, we investigate how bank interest spreads are affected by taxation, the

structure of the financial system, and financial regulations such deposit insurance.

A comprehensive review of determinants of interest spreads is offered by Hanson

and Rocha (1986). That paper summarizes the role that implicit and explicit taxes play in

raising spreads and goes on to discuss some of the determinants of bank cost and profits,

such as inflation, scale economies, and market structure. Using aggregate interest data for

29 countries in the years 1975-1983, the authors find a positive correlation between

interest margins and inflation.

Recently, several studies have examined the impact of international differences in

bank regulation using cross-country data. Analyzing interest rates in 13 OECD countries

in the years 1985-1990, Bartholdy, Boyle, and Stover (1997) find that the existence of

explicit deposit insurance lowers the deposit interest rate by 25 basis points. Using data

from 19 developed countries in 1993, Barth, Nolle and Rice (1997) further examine the

impact of banking powers on bank return on equity - controlling for a variety of bank and

2
market characteristics. Variation in banking powers, bank concentration and the existence

of explicit deposit insurance do not significantly affect the return on bank equity.

This paper extends the existing literature several ways. First, using bank-level data

for 80 developed and developing countries in the 1988-1995 period, we provide summary

statistics on size and decomposition of bank interest margins and profitability. Second, we

use regression analysis to examine the underlying determinants of interest spreads and

bank profitability. The empirical work enables us to infer to what extent the incidence of

taxation and regulation is on bank customers and/or the banks themselves.

Apart from covering many banks in many countries, this study is unique in its

coverage of interest margin and profitability determinants. These determinants include a

comprehensive set of bank characteristics (such as size, leverage, type of business, foreign

ownership), macro indicators, taxation and regulatory variables, financial structure

variables, and legal and institutional indices. Among these, the ownership variable, the tax

variables, some of the financial structure variables, and the legal and institutional

indicators have not been included in any previous study in this area. To check whether

some of these determinants affect banking differently in developing and developed

countries, we further interact these variables with the countrys GDP per capita.

The results indicate that bank characteristics, macro indicators, implicit and explicit

financial taxation, deposit insurance, overall financial structure, and the legal and

institutional environment all significantly affect bank interest spreads and profitability.

Our results show that well-capitalized banks have higher net interest margins and

are more profitable. This is consistent with the fact that banks with higher capital ratios

tend to face a lower cost of funding due to lower prospective bankruptcy costs. In

3
addition, a bank with higher equity capital simply needs to borrow less in order to support

a given level of assets.

Differences in the bank activity mix also have an impact on spreads and

profitability. Our results show that banks with relatively high non-interest earning assets

are less profitable. Also, banks that rely largely on deposits for their funding are less

profitable, as deposits apparently require high branching and other expenses. Similarly,

variation in overhead and other operating costs is reflected in variation in bank interest

margins, as banks pass on their operating costs to their depositors and lenders.

The international ownership of banks also has a significant impact on bank spreads

and profitability. Foreign banks, specifically, realize higher interest margins and higher

profitability than domestic banks in developing countries. This finding may reflect that in

developing countries a foreign banks technological edge is relatively strong, apparently

strong enough to overcome any informational disadvantage. Foreign banks, however, are

shown to be less profitable in developed countries.

Macroeconomic factors also explain variation in interest margins. We find that

inflation is associated with higher realized interest margins and higher profitability.

Inflation entails higher costs - more transactions, and generally more extensive branch

networks - and also higher income from bank float. The positive relationship between

inflation and bank profitability implies that bank income increases more with inflation than

bank costs. Further, high real interest rates are associated with higher interest margins and

profitability, especially in developing countries. This may reflect that in developing

countries demand deposits frequently pay zero or below market interest rates.

4
 Banks are subject to implicit and explicit taxation which may affect their

operations. Implicit taxes include reserve and liquidity requirements that are remunerated

at less-than-market rates.2 We find that reserves reduce interest margins and profits

especially in developing countries, since there the opportunity cost of holding reserves

tends to be higher and remuneration rates are lower. Explicit taxes translate into higher net

interest margins and bank profitability. In fact, the regression coefficients suggest that the

corporate tax is fully passed on to bank customers in poor and rich countries alike, and is

not simply a tax on bank rents. This result is consistent with the common notion that bank

stock investors need to receive a net-of-company-tax return that is independent of this

company tax.

The existence of an explicit deposit insurance scheme coincides with lower interest

margins. The effect on bank profitability is also negative, although it is not significant.

These results may reflect design and implementation problems inherent in explicit deposit

insurance systems.

Regarding financial structure, banks in countries with a more competitive banking

sector -- where banking assets constitute a larger portion of the GDP -- have smaller

margins and are less profitable. The bank concentration ratio positively affects bank

profitability, and larger banks tend to have higher margins. A larger stock market

capitalization to GDP increases bank margins, reflecting possible complementarity

between debt and equity financing. A larger stock market capitalization to bank assets,

2
Directed and subsidized credit practices that interfere with the banks credit allocation policies represent
additional implicit taxes. However, due to lack of data for most of the countries in our sample we do not
evaluate the impact of such practices here.

5
however, is related negatively to margins, suggesting relatively well-developed stock

markets can substitute for bank finance.

Finally, we find that legal and institutional differences matter. Indicators of better

contract enforcement, efficiency of the legal system and lack of corruption are associated

with lower realized interest margins and lower profitability.

Section 2 next describes the basic approach of this study. Section 3 discusses the

data. Section 4 presents the empirical results. Section 5 concludes.

2. Investigating banking spreads and profitability

The efficiency of bank intermediation can be measured by both ex ante and ex post

spreads. Ex ante spreads are calculated from the contractual rates charged on loans and

rates paid on deposits. Ex post spreads consist of the difference between banksinterest

revenues and their actual interest expenses. The ex ante measures of spread are biased to

the extent that differences in perceived risks are reflected in the ex ante yields. Since

bearing of risk is an important dimension of banking services, any differences in the risks

faced by bankers will tend to distort spread comparisons. An additional problem with

using ex ante spread measures is that data are generally available at the aggregate industry

level and are put together from a variety of different sources and thus are not completely

consistent. For these reasons, we focus on ex post interest spreads in this paper.3

As a measure of bank efficiency, we consider the accounting value of a banks net

interest income over total assets, or the net interest margin. To reflect bank profitability,

3
A problem with ex post spreads, however, is that the interest income and loan loss reserving associated
with a particular loan tend to materialize in different time periods. Due to differences in nonperforming

6
we consider the banks before-tax profits over total assets, or before tax profit/ta. By

straightforward accounting, before tax profit/ta is the sum of after-tax profits over total

assets, or net profit/ta, and taxes over total assets, or tax/ta. From the banks income

statement, before tax profit/ta further satisfies the following accounting identity:

(1) before tax profit/ta = net interest margin + non-interest income/ta - overhead/ta

- loan loss provisioning/ta

where the non-interest income/ta variable reflects that many banks also engage in non-

lending activities, such as investment banking and brokerage services; the overhead/ta

variable accounts for the banks entire overhead associated with all its activities, while

loan loss provisioning/ta simply measures actual provisioning for bad debts.

While net interest margin can be interpreted as a rough index of bank

(in)efficiency, this does not mean that a reduction in net interest margins always signals

improved bank efficiency. To see this, note that a reduction in net interest margins can, for

example, reflect a reduction in bank taxation or, alternatively, a higher loan default rate. In

the first instance, the reduction in net interest margins reflects an improved financial

market function, while in the second case the opposite may be true. Also, note that

variation in an accounting ratio such as net interest margin may reflect differences in net

interest income (the numerator) or differences in (say) non-lending assets (in the

denominator). The data used have been converted to common international accounting

standards as far as possible. All the same, there may still be some remaining differences in

loans/or monitoring costs associated with loan quality, these spreads may not reflect efficiency differences

7
accounting conventions regarding the valuation of assets, loan loss provisioning, hidden

reserves, etc.4

This study focuses on accounting measures of income and profitability, as (risk-

adjusted) financial returns on bank stocks are equalized by investors in the absence of

prohibitive barriers. For this same reason, Gorton and Rosen (1995) and Schranz (1993)

also focus on accounting measures of profitability when examining managerial

entrenchment and bank takeovers.

The above accounting identity suggests a useful decomposition of realized interest

spreads, i.e. net interest margin, into its constituent parts, i.e. into non-interest income,

overhead, taxes, loan loss provisions, and after-tax bank profits. This approach, with some

modifications, is taken in the study by Hanson and Rocha (1986). As a first step to

analyzing the data, section 3 of the paper provides an accounting breakdown of the net

interest variable, net interest margin, for individual countries and for selected aggregates.

While it may be misleading to compare accounting ratios without controlling for

differences in the macroeconomic environment the banks operate in and the differences in

their business, product mix, and leverage, these breakdowns still provide a useful initial

assessment of differences across countries.

Next, controlling for bank characteristics and the macro environment, we provide

an economic analysis of the determinants of the interest and profitability variables, net

interest margin, and before tax profit/ta. This empirical work also provides insights as to

how bank customers and the banks themselves are affected by these variables. The net

interest margin regressions specifically tell us how the combined welfare of depositors and

accurately.

8
lenders is affected by the spread determinants. The relationship between the interest spread

variable and a banks corporate taxes, for instance, informs us to what extent a bank is

able to shifts its tax bill forward to its depositors and lenders. Next, the before tax

profit/ta regressions give information on how spread determinants affect bank

shareholders. Equivalently, the relationship between bank profitability and bank corporate

income taxes reflects to what extent a bank can pass on its tax bill to any of its customers,

depositors, lenders or otherwise.5

The subsequent regression analysis starts from the following basic equation:

(2) Iijt = o + i Bit+ jXjt +

where Iijt = is the independent variable (either net interest margin or before tax profits/ta)

for bank i in country j at time t; Bijt are bank variables for bank i in country j at time t; Xjt

are country variables for country j at time t; and Tt and Cj are time and country dummy

variables. Further, o is a constant, and i, j,

error term. Several specifications of (2) are estimated that differ in which bank and

country variables are included.

3. The data

4
See Vittas (1991) for an account of the pitfalls in interpreting bank operating ratios.
5
Generally, taxes and other variables can change interest rates as well as quantity variables, i.e. loan and
deposit volumes. In the short term, the major effects may come through pricing changes, in which case
net interest margin and before tax profit/ta immediately yield easily interpreted welfare consequences for
the banks and their customers. With market imperfections in the form of credit rationing or imperfect
competition in the credit markets, changes in quantities generally have first order welfare implications
independently of changes in prices. Quantity changes, however, are not pursued in the empirical work.

9
 This study uses income statement and balance sheet data of commercial banks

from the BankScope data base provided by IBCA (for a complete list of data sources and

variable definitions, see the Appendix). Coverage by IBCA is very comprehensive in most

countries, with banks included roughly accounting for 90 percent of the assets of all

banks. We started with the entire universe of commercial banks worldwide, with the

exception that for France, Germany and the United States only several hundred

commercial banks listed as largewere included. To ensure reasonable coverage for

individual countries, we included only countries where there were at least three banks in a

country for a given year. This yielded a data set covering 80 countries during the years

1988-1995, with about 7900 individual commercial bank accounting observations. This

data set includes all OECD countries, as well as many developing countries and economies

in transition. For a list of countries, see Table 1.

Table 1 provides country averages of interest spreads and bank profitability.

Column 1 provides information on net interest income over assets, or net interest margin,

as a percentage. At the low end, there are several developed countries, Luxembourg and

the Netherlands, and Egypt with a net interest margin of about 1 percent. For the case of

Egypt, the low net interest margin can be explained by a predominance of low-interest

directed credits by the large state banking sector. Generally, developing countries, and

especially Latin American countries such as Argentina, Brazil, Costa Rica, Ecuador and

Jamaica, display relatively large accounting spreads. This is also true for certain Eastern

European countries such as Lithuania and Romania. Columns 3 though 6 provide an

accounting breakdown of the net interest income into its four components: overhead

minus non-interest income, taxes, loan loss provisioning, and net profits, all divided by net

10
interest income. These shares add to one hundred percent except for cases where

information on loan loss provisioning is missing.

The tax/ni variable reflects the explicit taxes paid by the banks (mostly corporate

income taxes). Banks also face implicit taxation due to reserve and liquidity requirements

and other restrictions on lending through directed/subsidized credit policies. These indirect

forms of taxing banks show up directly in lower net interest income rather than in its

decomposition. Nonetheless, the tax/ni variable indicates that there is considerable

international variation in the explicit taxation of commercial banks. Several countries in

Eastern Europe (for example Lithuania, Hungary and the Czech Republic) impose high

explicit taxes on banking. The lowest value of tax/ni is at 0 for Qatar, in the absence of

significant taxation of banking. For some countries, such as Norway, Sweden or Costa

Rica, low tax/ni values reflect the tax deductibility of plentiful bad debts.

The loan loss provisioning/ni variable is a direct measure of difference in credit

quality across countries and it also reflects differences in provisioning regulations. This

variable is high for some Eastern European countries. The loan loss provisioning/ni

variable is also high for some developed countries such as France and the Nordic

countries. As a residual, the net profits/ni variable reflects to what extent the net interest

margin translates into net-of-tax profitability.

Columns 7-11 of Table 1 further tabulate the various accounting ratios (relative to

total assets) in the accounting identity (1) presented above. The non-interest income/ta

variable reveals the importance of fee-based services for banks in different countries.

Banks in Eastern Europe, for example in Estonia, Hungary, and Russia, seem to rely

heavily on fee-based operations. This is also the case in some Latin American countries,

11
such as, Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Peru and a few African countries as in Nigeria, and

Zambia.

The overhead/ta variable provides information on variation in bank operating costs

across banking systems. This variable reflects variation in employment as well as in wage

levels. Despite high wages, the overhead/ta variable appears to be lowest at around 1

percent for high-income countries, such as Japan and Luxembourg. The overhead/ta cost

measure is notably high at 3.6 percent for the United States, perhaps reflecting the

proliferation of banks and bank branches due to banking restrictions. In the tax/ta column,

Jamaica, Lithuania, and Romania stand out with high tax-to-assets ratios of around 2

percent. Loan loss provisioning, proxied by loan loss provisioning/ta, is equally high in

Eastern Europe, and in some developing countries. Finally, net profits over assets, or net

profit/ta, also tends to be relatively high in developing countries.

In Table 2 we present statistics on accounting spreads and profitability for selected

aggregates. The first breakdown is by ownership; a bank is said to be foreign-owned if

fifty percent or more of its shares is owned by foreign residents. The table displays a

rather small difference in the net interest margin variable for domestic banks (at 3.7

percent) and foreign banks (at 2.9 percent). This small difference, however, masks that

foreign banks tend to achieve higher interest margins in developing countries, and lower

interest margins in developed countries.6 These facts may reflect that foreign banks are

less subject to credit allocation rules and have technical advantages (in developing

6
See Claessens, Demirg-Kunt and Huizinga (1997) for more detailed information on the average
spreads of domestic and foreign banks for different groupings of countries by income. This paper also
considers how entry by foreign banks affects the interest spreads and operating costs of domestic banks.

12
countries), but also have distinct informational disadvantages relative to domestic banks

(everywhere).

Interestingly, foreign banks pay somewhat lower taxes than domestic banks (as

indicated by the tax/ta variable). This difference may reflect different tax rules governing

domestic and foreign banks, but also foreign banksopportunities to shift profits

internationally to minimize their global tax bill. Foreign banks also have a relatively low

provisioning as indicated by loan loss provisioning/ta, which is consistent with the view

that foreign banks generally do not engage in retail banking operations.

The next breakdown in the table is by bank size. For countries with at least 20

banks, large banks are defined as the 10 largest banks by assets. Large banks tend to have

lower margins and profits and smaller overheads. They also pay relatively low direct taxes,

and have lower loan loss provisioning.

The table also considers bank groupings by national income levels and location.7

Analyzing data on 4 income levels, we see that the net interest margin is highest for the

middle income groups. Banks in the middle income group also have the highest values for

the overhead/ta, tax/ta, and loan loss provisioning/ta variables. The net profit/ta variable

tends to be highest for banks in the lower income groups. Banks in the high income group,

instead, achieve the lowest net interest margin, and they face the lowest ratios of

overhead, taxes, loan loss provisioning, and net profits to assets.

Next, the breakdown by regions reveals that the net interest margin is highest in

the transitional economies at 6.4 percent, and also rather high in Latin America at 6.2

percent, while it is the lowest for industrialized countries at 2.7 percent. The transitional

13
countries further stand out with high ratios of overhead, taxes, loan loss provisioning, and

net profits to assets. Industrialized countries, have the lowest net profit/ta value at 0.4

percent, probably due to high level of competition in banking services. Figures 1 and 2

also illustrate income decomposition for different regions.

Table 3 provides information on some of the macroeconomic and institutional

indicators used in the regression analysis. The data is for 1995, or the most recent year

available. The tax rate variable is computed on a bank-by-bank basis as taxes paid divided

by before-tax profits. The figure reported in the table is the average for all banks in the

country in 1995. The reserves/deposits variable is defined as the banking systems

aggregate central bank reserves divided by aggregate banking system deposits. Actual

reserve holdings reflect required as well as excess reserves. Reserves are generally

remunerated at less-than-market rates, and therefore actual reserves may be a reasonable

proxy for required reserves, as averaged over the various separate deposit categories. For

several developing countries, Botswana, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Jordan, and for Greece,

the reserves ratio is above 40 percent, indicating substantial financial repression. In

contrast, this ratio is rather low in Belgium, France and Luxembourg at 0.01.

The deposit insurance variable is a dummy variable that takes on a value of one if

there is an explicit deposit insurance scheme (with defined insurance premia and insurance

coverage), and a value of zero otherwise. Even for the case of an explicit deposit

insurance scheme, however, the ex post insurance coverage may prove to be higher than

the de jure coverage, if the deposit insurance agency chooses to guarantee all depositors.

7
For country groupings by income, see the World Development Report (1996). Countries in transition are
China, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Russia, and Slovenia.

14
With a value of zero, there is no explicit deposit insurance, even if there may be some

type of implicit insurance by the authorities.

Next, the table presents some indicators of financial market structure. The

concentration variable is defined as the ratio of the three largest banksassets to total

banking sector assets. As is well known, the concentration of the U.S. banking market is

rather low, at a value of 16 percent, compared to values of about 50 percent for France

and Germany.8 The number of banks in the table reflects the number of banks in the data

set with complete information. The bank/gdp ratio defined as the total assets of the

deposit money banks divided by GDP. This ratio reflects the overall level of development

of the banking sector. The next variable, mcap/gdp is the ratio of stock market

capitalization to GDP, as a measure of the extent of stock market development.

Developing countries tend to have lower bank/gdp and mcap/gdp ratios, with some

notable exceptions. Malaysia, South Africa and Thailand, for instance, have relatively high

ratios for both variables.

The final column in the table provides an index of law and order, which is one of

the institutional variables used in the regression analysis. This variable is scaled from 0 to

6, with higher scores indicating sound political institutions and strong court system. Lower

scores, in contrast, reflect a tradition where physical force or illegal means are used to

settle claims. The table reflects that there is considerable variation in legal effectiveness

among countries in the sample.

4. Empirical results

15
 This section presents regression results. Table 4 and Table 5 report the results of

regressions of the net interest margin and before tax profit/ta variables, respectively. All

regressions include country and year fixed effects. The tables include several

specifications, with the basic specification including a set of bank-level variables, and

macroeconomic indicators as regressors. These are important control variables which we

include in all specifications. Subsequently, we add the taxation variables, the deposit

insurance index, financial structure variables, and legal and institutional indicators. The

deposit insurance index, is again excluded from the specification in columns 4 and 5, while

the financial structure variables are excluded from the specification in column 5. The

reason for dropping some variables from regressions 4 and 5 is that we wish to ensure that

banks from a reasonable number of countries is included in the regressions. The estimation

technique is weighted least squares, with the weight being the inverse of the number of

banks for a the country in a given year. This weighing corrects for the fact that the number

of banks varies considerably across countries. The five specifications in the two tables are

discussed in each of the five subsections.

4.1 Bank characteristics and macroeconomic indicators

The first bank characteristic is book value of equity divided by total assets lagged

one period, or equity/tat-1 .9 Previously, Buser, Chen and Kane (1981) have examined the

theoretical relationship between bank profitability and bank capitalization. These authors

find that banks generally have an interior optimal capitalization ratio in the presence of

8
The U.S. figure may understate the the concentration ratio in individual banking markets, as protected
from outside competition by banking restrictions.

16
deposit insurance. Generally, banks with a high franchise value - reflecting costly bank

entry - have incentives to remain well-capitalized and to engage in prudent lending

behavior (see Caprio and Summers (1993), and Stiglitz (1996)). Berger (1995) provides

empirical evidence that for U.S. banks there is a positive relationship between bank

profitability and capitalization. The author notes that well-capitalized firms face lower

expected bankruptcy costs for themselves and their customers, thereby reducing their cost

of funding.

The first columns in Table 4 and 5 confirm a positive relationship between the

equity/tat-1 variable and net interest income and bank profitability. In the regressions, the

equity/tat-1 variable is also interacted with GDP per capita (measured in units of constant

$1,000 dollars for the year 1987). The positive coefficient on the interaction variables in

the before tax profit/ta regression can reflect a higher bank franchise value in wealthier

countries. The coefficients for the equity/tat-1 variable and the interaction with per capita

GDP together indicate how the equity/assets ratio affects the bank variables in countries

with different income levels. For a country with a per capita GDP of $10,000, for instance,

the point estimate of the effect of the equity/tat-1 variable on before tax profit/ta is 0.067

(or 0.047 + 10x0.002).

Next, there is a negative and significant coefficient on the non-interest earning

assets/ta variable in the net interest margin equation, but there is no significant

relationship for the before tax profit/ta equation. Note that the sign on the non-interest

earning assets/ta variable interacted with per capita GDP is negative in both the net

interest margin and the before tax profit/ta specifications. Apparently, in wealthier

9
The lagging is to correct for the fact that profits - if not paid out in dividends - have a contemporaneous

17
countries the presence of non-interest earning assets depresses net interest income and

profitability more than in poorer countries. By contrast, the sign on loan/ta variable is

positive in the net interest margin equation and negative in the before tax profit/ta

equation. However, the coefficient of the variable interacted with GDP in the profit

equation is positive, indicating that at higher income levels bankslending activities tend to

be more profitable.

On the liability side, customer and short-term funding consists of demand deposits,

savings deposits and time deposits. On average, this type of customer funding may carry a

low interest cost, but it is costly in terms of the required branching network. In Table 4,

we see that this liability category does not significantly affect the net interest variable,

while in Table 5 there is some evidence that it lowers bank profitability.

Differences in overhead may also capture differences in bank business and product

mix, as well as the variation in the range and quality of services. The overhead to assets

ratio variable, overhead/ta, has an estimated coefficient of 0.173 in the net interest

margin regression, which suggests that about a sixth of a banks overhead cost is passed

on to its depositors and lenders. The interaction of the overhead/ta variable with per

capita GDP also enters with a positive coefficient, indicating there is a larger share of

overhead passed on to financial customers in wealthier countries. This may reflect more

competitive conditions in developed country banking markets than in the developing

countries. In the before tax profit/ta regression the interaction of the overhead/ta variable

with per capita GDP enters negatively indicating that higher overheads eat into bank

profits.

impact on bank equity.

18
 The foreign ownership variable equals one, if at least 50 percent of the banks

stock is in foreign hands and it is zero otherwise. In both Tables 4 and 5, the foreign

ownership variable has a positive coefficient, while its interaction with per capita GDP has

a negative coefficient. This suggests that foreign banks realize relatively high net interest

margins and profitability in relatively poor countries. This may reflect that foreign banks

are frequently exempt from unfavorable domestic banking regulations, and may apply

superior banking techniques. Note that the point estimate of the foreign ownership effect

in the net interest margin equation for a wealthy country with a per capita GDP of

$20,000, however, is negative at -0.016 (i.e., 0.004 - 20x0.001), as is the effect on

profitability at -0.015 (i.e., 0.005 - 20x0.001). Foreign bankstechnological and

efficiency advantages in developed countries may be insignificant, while there they do face

informational disadvantages. This can explain that on net foreign banks in developed

countries are relatively unprofitable.

Next, we turn to the macro indicators in the regressions. First, per capita GDP has

no significant impact on realized net interest margins, while this variable enters with a

positive coefficient in the profitability equation. The per capita GDP is a general index of

economic development, and thus it reflects differences in banking technology, the mix of

banking opportunities, and any aspects of banking regulations omitted from the

regression. Growth, defined as the growth rate of per capita real GDP, is insignificant in

both spread and profit regressions. The percentage change in the GDP deflator, or

inflation, is estimated to increase the net interest margin and bank profitability, although

significance of the coefficients in the profitability regressions is low. This may reflect that

banks obtain higher earnings from float, or the delays in crediting customer accounts, in an

19
inflationary environment. With inflation, bank costs generally also rise. A larger number of

transactions may lead to higher labor costs, and as shown by Hanson and Rocha (1986, p.

40), result in a higher bank branch per capita ratio. On net, however, the regression results

suggest that the impact of inflation on profitability, while not very significant, is positive

throughout.

The real interest rate is constructed using the short-term government debt yield,

and where not available, other short term market rates. The real interest variable enters

the net interest margin and before tax profit/ta regressions positively in Table 4 and Table

5, while this variable interacted with per capita GDP has a significantly negative coefficient

in Table 4. Thus there is some evidence that real interest rises do not increase spreads as

much in developed countries, perhaps because there deposit rates are not tied down by

deposit rate ceilings as real interest rates rise.

4.2 Taxation variables

Banks are subject to direct taxation through corporate income tax and other taxes;

and they are subject to indirect taxation through reserve requirements. Reserve

requirements are an implicit tax on banks if, as is usual, official reserves are remunerated

at less-than-market rates. The corporate income tax and the reserve tax differ in important

respects. First, the corporate income tax, in principle at least, can be targeted at pure

profit. Corporate income tax, to the extent it is a profit tax, is relatively undistorting.10 The

reserve tax, by its very nature, is a tax proportional to the volume of deposit taking, and

therefore is a distorting tax. From a welfare perspective, the corporate income tax thus

20
appears to be superior to the reserve tax. A second important difference is that the

severity of the reserve tax depends on the opportunity cost of holding reserves. This may

depend on financial market conditions as much as on any tax code. Related to this second

condition, reserve requirements are also an instrument of monetary policy.

As far as we know, no previous empirical research on the incidence of the

corporate income tax on the banking sector exists. In contrast, several studies have

considered the impact of reserve requirements on bank profitability. Several studies, in

particular, exist on how Federal Reserve Membership of U.S. commercial banks in the

1970s affected their profitability (see Rose and Rose (1979), and Gilbert and Rasche

(1980)). Fed membership subjected banks to generally higher reserve requirements. The

studies in this area generally support the notion that non-member banks were more

profitable than member banks (with similar characteristics) as they held relatively little

cash. Competition among member and non-member banks in the same market appears to

have prevented member banks from passing their higher reserve cost on to their

customers. In related work, Kolari, Mahajan, and Saunders (1988) have studied the impact

of announcements of reserve requirement changes on bank stock prices using an event

study methodology.11

Since detailed information on the reserve regulation of all our countries is not

available, we use a proxy to capture bank reserves. The reserves variable in the

regressions is a bank-specific variable computed as the aggregate reserves/deposit ratio of

10
In practice, however, the corporate income tax may not be a pure profit tax if complete expensing of
costs is not allowed.
11
Huizinga (1996), and Eijffinger, Huizinga and Lemmen (1996) examine how nonresident withholding
taxes affect interest rates, while Fabozzi and Thurston (1986) examine how differences in reserve
requirements are priced into money market instruments.

21
the banking system (as in Table 3) times the ratio of the banks customer and short-term

funding to its total assets. Customer and short-term funding, consisting of demand

deposits, saving deposits, time deposits here proxy for reservable deposits. The reserves

variable thus is an approximation of actual bank reserves that reflects differences in

reserve requirement rules.

In Tables 4 and 5, the reserves variable enters the regressions negatively. The

regression coefficients in the net interest margin equations of Table 4 reflect two effects

(i) less-than-market remuneration, and (ii) the impact on the banks lending and deposit

rates. The impact of the first effect is expected to be negative since under-remunerated

reserves lower a banks net interest income and profitability. The impact of the second

effect could either be zero, in which case the bank bears the full cost of higher reserves, or

positive, indicating that the cost of reserves is passed on to bank customers in terms of

higher interest margins. From the before tax profit/ta regressions in Table 5, we see that

the reserves variable negatively affects bank profitability. This suggests that the second or

pass-through effect is either non-existent, or not large enough to off-set the first or direct

effect. Abstracting from any pass-through, the coefficient on the reserves variable in either

the net interest margin or the before tax profit/ta can also be interpreted as a banks

opportunity cost of holding reserves. The reserves variable interacted with per capita GDP

enters the net interest margin and before tax profit/ta regressions positively. This positive

interaction term may reflect that the opportunity cost of holding reserves is higher in

wealthier countries.

We capture the explicit taxes the banks pay with the variable tax rate, which is

measured by a banks tax bill divided by its pre-tax profits. This variable has a significantly

22
positive impact on interest margins and profitability. The tax rate variable interacted with

per capita GDP is negative and significant in both regressions. These results suggest that

both the net interest margin and profitability increase with tax rates, but less so in richer

countries. These result suggest that the corporate income tax is passed through to bank

customers to some degree.

To calculate the extent of this pass-through, we use the estimated coefficients on

the tax rate variable and its interaction with per capita GDP. Let the pass-through be

defined as the increase in pre-tax profits, bp, following a one unit increase in the corporate

tax bill, tax, or bp/tax. Next, note that (bp/)/A = , where is the tax rate, A are

assets, and is estimated at 0.022 - 0.0004*per capita GDP. Further tax/ = (bp/) +

bp, as tax = bp. It now follows that bp/tax = /( + before tax profit/ta). This

expression can be evaluated using mean values of , before tax profit/ta, and per capita

GDP separately for countries in each of four income groups (low income, lower middle

income, upper middle income, and high income), where per capita GDP is the international

average for 1995. The calculations suggest that the pass-through coefficient, bp/tax,

equals 1.01, 0.72, 1.00, and 1.21 for countries in the four income groups, respectively.12

Essentially, these results suggest that there is a complete pass-through of the corporate

income tax to bank customers. Thus there is no support for the notion that the corporate

income tax is a nondistorting tax on bank profits. Generally, the corporate income tax is a

source-based tax on domestically employed capital resources. A complete pass-through of

this tax is consistent with the assumption that international investors demand a net-of-tax

12
For the low income countries, before tax profit/ta and have mean values of 0.016 and 0.225 for all
banks, while the average GDP per capita is $426 for the countries in this group in 1995. The calculations

23
return on capital invested in a particular country independent of the countrys source-

based taxes.

4.3 Deposit insurance

Several studies have previously examined the impact of deposit insurance using

international data. Demirg-Kunt and Detragiache (1997) find that the existence of an

explicit deposit insurance is positively associated with the probability of banking crises.

Barth, Nolle and Rice (1997), however, find that no significant impact of deposit

insurance on banksreturn on equity for a sample of 142 banks in 1993. Boyle, and Stover

(1997) estimate that deposit insurance lowers the deposit rate by 25 basis points using

aggregate deposit interest rate data for 13 OECD countries during the 1985-1990 period.

These authors discuss that in principle deposit insurance has a theoretically ambiguous

effect on interest margins. On the one hand, the deposit rate for insured deposits should

decrease given the insurance protection. On the other hand, mispriced deposit insurance

provides banks with an incentive to engage in more risky lending strategies to increase the

contingent pay-out from the deposit insurance agency.13 This moral hazard problem and

the associated risks can lead bank creditors to demand a higher interest rate. Also, for a

given risk deposit insurance may lead banks to lend money more cheaply than they

otherwise would, depressing net interest margins and profitability. Even banks that do not

reflect that in higher income countries the mean value of before tax profit/ta is lower, while the value of
changes little.
13
Brewer and Mondschean (1994) offer empirical support for the nation that deposit insurance creates
incentives for banks to engage in risky asset acquisition by examining the junk bond holdings of U.S.
banks, while Demirgu-Kunt and Huizinga (1993) argue that deposit insurance is an important
determinant of bank stock prices during the international debt crisis period of the 1980s.

24
engage in risky lending strategies themselves may experience a downward effect on

interest margins on account of bank competition.

The deposit insurance variable equals one if there exists an explicit deposit

insurance regime. For various countries, it varies with time reflecting changes in the

deposit insurance regime during the sample period. The results suggest that an explicit

deposit insurance scheme lowers net interest margins.14 While the impact on bank profits

is also negative, this result is not significant. The negative effect on profits may not be

significant due the offsetting impact of mispriced subsidies in actual deposit insurance

schemes. These results suggest that explicit deposit insurance regimes do not produce

higher bank profitability and margins, perhaps due to design and implementation problems.

4.4 Financial structure variables

In column 4 of Tables 4 and 5 we include two sets of financial market or structure

variables. First, we include the market concentration ratio, number of banks and the banks

total assets, as indicators of market structure and scale effects. Various authors, such as

Gilbert (1984), Berger (1995), and Goldberg and Rai (1996), have pointed out that such

variables may proxy for market power as well as for differences in bank efficiency. No

attempt is made here to distinguish between the corresponding market power and efficient

structure hypotheses.

The second set of variables are financial structure variables in the sense that they

measure the importance of bank and stock market finance - relative to GDP and to each

14
Deposit insurance may affect margins and profits also through its effect on financial structure by
encouraging new entry and making operation of small banks feasible. However, when we include
financial structure variables in the regression the results do not change.

25
other. Reasons why these variables matter may also hinge on market power arguments. A

high bank credit-to-GDP ratio, for instance, may reflect a high demand for banking

services fueling competition among banks. Secondly, these variables can reflect any

complementarity or substitutability between bank and stock market finance. The Miller-

Modigliani theorem states that debt and equity finance are purely substitutes in the

absence of taxes and bankruptcy costs. In practice, however, debt and equity finance may

also be complementary, as modeled in Boyd and Smith (1996). Demirg -Kunt and

Maksimovic (1996) provide empirical evidence that shows that ability to attract equity

capital may also enhance firmsborrowing capacity, especially in underdeveloped financial

markets. In this setting, easier equity finance may increase rather than reduce the demand

for debt finance reflecting that these sources of finance are complements.

Turning to the first set of market concentration/scale variables, we see that the

bank concentration ratio, has a significant and positive impact on bank profitability, while

bank size, as proxied by total assets, has a significant and positive impact on interest

margins only. The number of banks variable has no significant impact on either interest

margins or profits.

The second set of financial structure variables have a more significant effect on

bank margins as opposed to bank profits. This may indicate that these variables have a

greater impact on banksloan and deposit customers compared to other clients. Bank/gdp

ratio has a significantly negative impact on margins and profits, probably reflecting more

intense bank competition in well-developed financial systems. This effect is smaller in

richer countries which already have relatively developed banking sectors. The stock

market capitalization to GDP, or mcap/gdp, ratio enters the net interest margin equation

26
positively, which suggests that a larger stock market per se enables banks to obtain higher

interest margins. This may be due to the complementarity effect between debt and equity

financing discussed above. As stock markets develop, improved information availability

increases the potential pool of borrowers, making it easier for banks to identify and

monitor them. This increases the volume of business for banks, making higher margins

possible. In the regression, the stock market capitalization to banking assets ratio, or

mcap/bank, enters the interest margin equation negatively. This suggests that a larger

stock market relative to the banking sector lowers bank margins, reflecting substitution

possibilities between debt and equity. For both stock market development indicators, the

interaction with per capita GDP enters the interest margin equation with an opposite

effect. This suggests that any stock market development impact on interest margins is

muted in wealthier countries.

4.5 Legal and institutional indicators

The final columns in Tables 4 and 5 report regressions that include a variety of

legal and institutional indicators. First, the contract enforcement dummy, ranging from 1

to 4, measures the degree to which contractual agreements are honored and not subject to

language and mentality differences. A higher value means greater contract enforcement. In

both the net interest margin and before tax profit/ta regressions, the contract enforcement

variable has a negative and significant sign. Lower contract enforcement may in fact

prompt banks to require higher interest margins and investors to require higher

profitability to compensate for the additional risk. In both regressions, the contract

27
enforcement variable interacted with per capita GDP enters positively, suggesting a muted

effect of this variable in wealthier countries.

The law and order index, ranging from 0 to 6, captures the extent to which the

legal system works well in adjucating disputes. From Table 4, we see that a higher value

of the law and order index is significantly associated with lower interest margins. The

reason may again be that the an effective legal system reduces the required risk premia on

bank lending. For this variable, the interaction with per capita GDP enters the equation

negatively, however. Finally, the corruption index, ranging from 0 to 6, reflects a lack of

corruption in government. Specifically, a higher score indicates that government officials

are less likely to take bribes. The results of Table 4 now indicate that cleaner government

(or a higher value for the corruption index) is associated with lower realized interest

spreads, and this less so in wealthier countries. Again, banks may require a lower risk

premium on their investments in countries which has an environment relatively free of

corruption. Overall, the regressions indicate that the underlying legal and institutional

variables are important in explaining cross-country variation in interest spreads and bank

profitability. For two of the three variables, the interaction with per capita GDP has a

coefficient of opposite sign, suggesting muted effects of institutional differences in

wealthier countries.

6. Conclusions

Banking systems around the world differ widely in size and operation. Across

countries, commercial banks have to deal with different macroeconomic environments,

different explicit and implicit tax policies, deposit insurance regimes, financial market

28
conditions, and legal and institutional realities. Using a comprehensive cross-country data

set with bank-level data, this paper analyzes how bank characteristics and the overall

banking environment affect the functioning of banks, as reflected in interest margins and

bank profitability.

In this paper we confirm some findings in earlier research, for instance a positive

relationship between capitalization and profitability, and a negative relationship between

reserves and profitability. Other important determinants of bank margins and profitability,

such as ownership, corporate taxation, financial structure and the legal and institutional

setting have not been considered in the literature.

The paper finds that foreign ownership is associated with higher interest margins

and bank profitability, especially in developing countries. Similarly, several institutional

factors, such as indices of credit rights, law and order and corruption, and differences in

financial structure, have more pronounced effects on interest margins and bank

profitability in developing countries than in developed countries. These results may reflect

the relatively closed nature of banking markets in developing countries. Coupled with

earlier empirical evidence that a weak institutional environment makes banking crises more

likely (Demirguc-Kunt and Detragiache, 1997), these results suggest that returns to

improving underlying institutions are indeed high.

Reserves also have a more pronounced impact on margins and profitability in

developing countries than in developed countries. This latter result may simply reflect the

relatively high opportunity cost of holding reserves in poorer and more inflationary

countries.

29
 The corporate income tax appears to be passed on fully to bank customers, in

developing and developed countries alike. This finding is consistent with the notion that

bank stock investors require net-of-company-tax returns independent of the level of

company taxation. It also implies that the corporate income tax on banks is likely to

distort the underlying saving and investment decisions, with possibly negative implications

for economic growth. These considerations have to weigh heavily in considering the

merits of the corporate income tax on banks as part of the overall tax system.

On the other hand, we find that official reserves depress bank profits. Prima facie

this suggests that reserve requirements are a better instrument to tax bank profits than the

corporate income tax. Note that the implicit reserve tax in many countries, however, is

much more variable than the corporate income tax. The level of banking investment and

activity therefore is unlikely to be adjusted to each and every change in the implicit reserve

tax. Variability in the reserve tax therefore can go a long way towards explaining the

responsiveness of bank profits to this tax. These issues are further pursued in Demirg -

Kunt and Huizinga (1997).

Several other topics remain for further study. Countries worldwide differ

considerably in the extent of foreign ownership of their banking systems. An interesting

issue is how the entry by foreign banks affects the operation of domestic banking firms. In

principle, foreign entry can affect the pricing by domestic firms, and force them to reduce

their operating costs and to remain competitive. Both of these effects determine whether

the entry of foreign firms is overall welfare improving. We address the impact of foreign

entry in Claessens, Demirg -Kunt and Huizinga (1997).

30
 As a related issue, it is interesting to consider what determines foreign bank entry.

Foreign bank entry, and foreign direct investment generally, may well be driven by the

different (worldwide) taxation of domestic and foreign firms rather than simply by

countriescomparative advantage in providing financial services.

We have found some evidence that government regulations, such as the design of

deposit insurance schemes have an impact on bank margins. It would be interesting to

analyze this issue further by taking into account differences in design features. We intend

to return to these issues in future work.

31
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34
 Appendix

Variable Definitions and Sources

Bank Characteristics

Net interest margin - interest income minus interest expense over total assets.

Net profit/ta - before tax profits over total assets.

Equity/ta - book value of equity (assets minus liabilities) over total assets

Loan/ta - total loans over total assets

Non-interest earning assets/ta - cash, non-interest earning deposits at other banks, and other non-interest
earning assets over total assets

Customer & short term funding/ta - all short term and long term deposits plus other non-deposit short
term funding over total assets

Overhead/ta - personnel expenses and some other non-interest expenses over total assets

Foreign ownership dummy - dummy equals one if a bank has at least 50 percent foreign ownership and
zero otherwise.

All bank level variables are obtained from BankScope data base of IBCA.

Macro Indicators

Gdp/cap - real GDP per capita in constant 1987 US$.

Growth - annual growth rate of real GDP.

Iinflation - the annual inflation from the GDP deflator.

Real interest - the nominal interest rate minus rate of inflation. Where available, nominal rate is the rate
on short term government securities. Otherwise, a rate changed by the Central Bank to domestic banks
such as the discount rate is used. If that is not available, then the commercial bank deposit interest rate is
used.

Interest rate data are from the IMF, International Financial Statistics. Other macro data are from World
Bank National Accounts.

Taxation

Reserves - reserves of the banking system (IFS line 20) over deposits of the banking system (IFS line
24+25) multiplied by customer & short term funding/ta (as defined above) for each bank.

Tax rate - total taxes paid divided by before tax profits for each bank, obtained from Bankscope.

35
Deposit Insurance

Deposit insurance dummy - takes the value one if there is an explicit deposit insurance scheme in place and zero
otherwise. Compiled from Kyei (1995) and Talley and Mas (1990).

Financial Structure

Bank/gdp - total assets of the deposit money banks divided by GDP. Obtained from IMF, International
Financial Statistics. Bank is the summation of IFS lines 22a through 22f.

Mcap/gdp - stock market capitalization divided by GDP. Stock market data are from IFCs Emerging
Market Data Base.

Mcap/bank - stock market capitalization divided by total assets of the deposit money banks. Sources of the
components are given above.

No. of banks - number of banks with complete data in a given year in the BankScope data base.

Concentration - the ratio of largest three bank assets to total banking assets in a given year, obtained from
the Bank scope data base.

Total assets ($) - total assets of each bank in a given year in US$, obtained from the Bankscope data base.

Legal and Institutional Indicators

Contract enforcement index - produced by Business Environmental Risk Intelligence (BERI), this index
measures the relative degree to which contractual agreements are honored and complications presented
by language and mentality differences. It is scored 1-4, with higher scores for greater enforceability.

law & order index - produced by International Country Risk rating agency, this index reflects the degree
to which the citizens of a country are willing to accept the established institutions to make and implement
laws and adjudicate disputes. It is scored 0-6 with higher scores indicating sound political institutions and
a strong court system. Lower scores indicate a tradition of depending on physical force or illegal means to
settle claims.

corruption index - produced by International Country Risk rating agency, this index reflects the degree of
corruption in government. It is scored 0-6. Lower scores indicate high government officials are likely to
demand special payments and illegal payments are generally expected throughout lower levels of
government in the form of bribes connected with import and exports licences, exchange controls, tax
assessment, police protection, or loans.

36
 Figure 1 : Interest and Non-interest Income: 1988-1995

12

10

non-interest income
6
net interest margin

0
Industrial Middle East and Asia Africa Latin America Transitional
Economies North Africa Economies

37
 Figure 2 : Income Decomposition: 1988-1995

12

10

net profit
tax
6 loan loss provisions
overhead

0
Industrial Middle East and Asia Africa Latin America Transitional
Economies North Africa Economies

38