Prepared by: SIR SAIFUL MR

Lecturer Civil Engineering Department

Polytechnic Malaysia

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 A junction, when discussed in the context of
transport, is a location where traffic can
change between different routes,
directions, or sometimes modes, of travel
The word "junction" derives from Latin
iunctus, past participle of iungere, to join.
The word "junction" in this context may also
refer to:
The general locality of a given interchange
A specific interchange on a major road,
e.g. motorway.

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 There are many types of different
junction for road transport and rail
transport (including metro and rapid
transit systems). If many of these are
contained in a small area, and where
passengers can change from one
transport mode to the other in them, it is
said to be a transport hub.

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 A road junction is a location where
vehicular traffic going in different
directions can proceed in a controlled
manner designed to minimize accidents.
In some cases, vehicles can change
between different routes or directions of
travel.
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 However, with the 20th century advent
of road traffic, roads became much
busier and junctions became clogged
with vehicles unable to cross each
other's paths. In modern practice,
bypasses and ring roads are used to
keep through traffic out of major
population centre's.

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 Interchanges are junctions where roads pass above or
below one another, preventing a single point of conflict by
utilising grade separation and slip roads. The terms
motorway junction and highway junction typically refer to
this layout.
Intersections do not use grade separation (they are at-
grade) and roads cross directly. Forms of these junction
types include Roundabouts and traffic circles, priority
junctions, and junctions controlled by traffic lights or signals.

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 In some countries that have right-hand traffic, a
right turn on red is permitted at traffic lights in order
to reduce waiting times. It can be implemented
either by allowing the vehicles to turn right by using
the give way rule, or by providing a separate lane
connecting the two perpendicular roads and
avoiding the junction entirely.

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 In the field of road transport, an
interchange is a road junction that
typically uses grade separation, and one
or more ramps, to permit traffic on at
least one highway to pass through the
junction without directly crossing any
other traffic stream.

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 It differs from a standard intersection, at
which roads cross at grade.
Interchanges are almost always used
when at least one of the roads is a
limited-access divided highway
(expressway or freeway), though they
may occasionally be used at junctions
between two surface streets.

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 A complete interchange has enough ramps to
provide access from any direction of any road
in the junction to any direction of any other
road in the junction. Complete interchanges
typically use four to eight dedicated ramps to
connect various directions of travel, but can
require more depending on the interchange
type and the connectivity offered.

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 For example, if a highway interchanged with a
highway containing a collector/express system,
additional ramps could be used to strictly link the
interchanging highway with the collector and
express lanes respectively. For highways with high
occupancy vehicle/HOV lanes, ramps can be
used to service these carriageways directly,
thereby increasing the number of ramps used

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 A cloverleaf interchange is typically a
two-level, four-way interchange
whereby all right turns are handled by
loop ramps (left turns if traveling on
the left).
To go left, vehicles first cross over or
under the targeted route, then bear
right onto a sharply curved ramp that
loops roughly 270 degrees, merging
onto the interchanging road from the
right (from the left if traveling on the
left), and crossing the route just
departed.
The major advantage of cloverleafs is
that they require only one bridge,
which makes such junctions
inexpensive as long as land is plentiful.
A major shortcoming of cloverleafs,
however, is weaving (see definition
above), and the subsequent low-
capacity of this design.

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 Cloverleafs also require considerable
land consumption, hence they
appear mostly in the United States,
Canada (mainly parclos, or partial
cloverleaf interchanges), Germany,
and the Netherlands. In Germany,
the standard design is to separate all
turning traffic into a parallel
carriageway so that the extra road
space can help minimize the
problem of weaving. Collector and
distributor roads are similar, but are
usually separated from the main
carriageway by a divider, such as a
guard rail or Jersey barrier.
Cloverleafs are more often found
along older highways, in rural areas,
and within cities with low population
densities.

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 A stack interchange is a four-way
interchange whereby left turns
are handled by semi-directional
flyover/under ramps. To go left
(right in countries with left-hand
drive), vehicles first turn slightly
right (on a right-turn off-ramp) to
exit, then complete the turn via a
ramp which crosses both
highways, eventually merging
with the right-turn on-ramp traffic
from the opposite quadrant of
the interchange. A stack
interchange, then, has two pairs
of left-turning ramps, of which
can be stacked in various
configurations above or below
the two interchanging highways.

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 Stacks do not suffer from the
problem of weaving but require
massive construction work for
their flyovers. A standard stack
interchange includes roads on
four levels. This is not only
expensive but also creates an
eyesore among local residents,
leading to considerable NIMBY
(Not In My Back Yard) opposition.
Large stacks with multiple levels
are often colloquially described
as Mixmasters or spaghetti bowls
due to their complex
appearance, being compared
to boiled spaghetti.

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 In the late 1960s, partial
cloverleaf interchange (parclo)
designs modified for freeway
traffic emerged, eventually
leading to the cloverstack
interchange. Its ramps are longer
to allow for higher ramp speeds,
and loop ramp radii are made
larger as well. The large loop
ramps eliminate the need for a
fourth, and sometimes a third
level in a typical stack
interchange, as only two
directions of travel use
flyover/under ramps.

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 Cloverstacks are cheaper to build
than stack interchanges and are
less of an eyesore for local
residents. By using the loop ramps
in opposite quadrants, weaving is
also eliminated. However,
cloverstacks require a lot of land
to construct and the loop ramps
are not as efficient as
flyover/under ramps in terms of
traffic flow. The cloverstack
design is becoming more and
more popular, and is commonly
used to upgrade cloverleaf
interchanges to increase their
capacity and eliminate weaving.

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 A further alternative found
often in the United Kingdom
is called a roundabout
interchange. This is a normal
roundabout except one
(two-level) or both (three-
level) mainlines pass under
or over the whole thing. The
ramps of the interchanging
highways meet at a
roundabout or rotary on a
separated level above,
below, or in the middle of the
two highways.

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 Roundabout interchanges are much more
economical in use of materials and land than
other interchange designs, as the junction
does not normally require more than three
bridges to be constructed. However, their
capacity is limited when compared to other
interchanges and can become congested
easily with high traffic volumes.
A variation of this interchange has been
proposed by a Ukrainian engineer Viktor
Petruk. The claimed advantages of this type
of interchange are: low number of conflict
points, short car paths on the circle, and
relatively small overall size that allows it to be
used in dense urban environment.
Unfamiliarity of clockwise traffic flows on
roundabouts is its most frequently cited
drawback.

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 Trumpet interchanges
have been used where
one highway terminates
at another highway.
These involve at least one
loop ramp connecting
traffic either entering or
leaving the terminating
expressway with the far
lanes of the continuous
highway.

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 These interchanges are useful for
highways as well as toll roads, as they
concentrate all entering and exiting
traffic into a single stretch of roadway,
where toll booths can be installed. A
double-trumpet interchange version
can be found where a toll road meets
another toll road or a free highway.
Trumpet interchanges are named as
such due to their resemblance to
trumpets. The bell of a trumpet can
be seen where the terminating
highway begins to interchange with
the continuous highway, and the
resemblance to the tubing is seen
along the connecting loop ramps.

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 A half-clover interchange is essentially half a
cloverleaf interchange, constructed to
connect in just three directions instead of
four. These are rarely used due to the traffic
weaving that they cause and the large
amount of land that they consume, but they
can be built in areas where the connecting
ramp along the loop of a trumpet
interchange is not feasible due to building
developments or physical limitations. Half-
clovers are designed to be readily
upgraded to full cloverleafs if the
terminating highway is ever extended past
the through highway. A notable example of
a half-clover interchange is with M-47 and
U.S. Route 10 near Midland, Michigan, since
M-47 was the relic of a scrapped plan to
extend a freeway further north. Interstate 75
to its east near Bay City, Michigan, a more
important destination, made this highway
unnecessary.

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 diamond interchange is an
interchange involving four
ramps where they enter and
leave the freeway at a small
angle and meet the non-
freeway at almost right angles.
These ramps at the non-
freeway can be controlled
through stop signs, traffic
signals, or turn ramps. Diamond
interchanges are inexpensive
to build and require little land
but are prone to congestion
and accidents if there is high
traffic.

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 An intersection is the location where two or more roads meet or
cross each other.

An essential part of highway networks and low speed than

approaches.

Sometimes vehicles even must even stop.

Therefore, these are critical points of highway networks as

regards capacity, level of service and safety.

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An intersection serves to:
disperse traffic
reduce accidents
change the direction of traffic
give right of ways
control speed

Intersections needs simple signing, reflecting what the design

expect driver to do.
A signing must provide the correct information at an adequate
time and place.
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 At an intersection a vehicle transfers from the route on which it
is traveling to another route,

and, crossing any other traffic streams which flow between it

and its destination.

To perform this maneuver, a vehicle may diverge with, merge

with, or cross the paths of other vehicles.

Diverging: Turning to the right or left at an intersection.

It also includes a mutual divergence from the earlier direction,

by all road users and multiple diverging paths.

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The types of diverging:

Right diverging Left diverging

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Mutual diverging Multiple diverging
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Merging:

This is done after a road user leaves/diverges from a stream of

traffic.
The road user may merge with another stream either from the
right, left, mutually or in multiple.

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The types of merging:

Right merging Left merging

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Mutual merging Multiple merging
Crossing:

The road user may have to cross the paths of vehicles in all
the intervening flows that come in between his points of
entry and exit from the intersection.
If the angle between the road user and the flow across is
considerably lower than 90, it is an opposed crossing.
If the directions of both flows are apparently in the same
direction with an included angle much smaller than 90, it is
an oblique crossing.

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Right crosing Left crosing

Oblique crossing Opposed crossing

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 In the merging, diverging and crossing maneuvers mentioned
above, there is a potential conflict between two or more road
users.
Three types of conflicts are;

Merging conflict Diverging conflict

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Crossing conflict
The number of potential conflict points at an intersection
depends on:

the number of approaches to the intersection

the number of lanes on each approach
the type of signal control
the extent of channelisation
the movements permitted

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 Priority control of traffic at junctions is one of the most widely used
ways of resolving the conflict between merging and crossing
vehicles.
Utilizes the Give Way and Stop signs
Priority control is used at unsignalized at-grade intersections.
Involves a major road and a minor road.
Sometimes called Major-Minor Junctions.
The major road is assigned a permanent priority of traffic
movement over that of the other roads.
The minor road is where vehicles have to give way to vehicles on
the major road.
The Stop and Give Way signs are positioned atCSMR
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approach. 9/28/2016
Example:
Two roads, Jalan Hussein and Jalan Jalan Onn (U4)
Volume = 400 veh/hr
Onn cross each other at grade.
Jalan Hussein has road standard U3 B
while Jalan Onn has road standard
U4.
A

The traffic volume of Jalan Hussein

(U3) is 300 veh/hr, while the traffic
volume of Jalan Onn (U4) is 400
veh/ hr.
Jalan Hussein (U3)
Volume = 300 veh/hr

If priority control is to be employed at this junction, which road should

be the major and which should be the minor? CSMR 41
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Three types of Priority intersection
Simple Junctions
Ghost Island Junctions
Junctions With Single Lane Dualling

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SIMPLE JUNCTIONS

used for T-junctions and staggered

junctions.
without physical or painted islands.
without channelising islands.
appropriate for most accesses and
minor junctions on single
carriageway roads.
for new construction, they are
recommended when design flow on
the minor road is not expected to
have a two-way AADT exceeding
approximately 300 veh/hr CSMR 43
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GHOST ISLAND JUNCTIONS
have a painted hatched island
in the middle of single
carriageway roads which
provide a diverging lane and a
waiting space for right-turning
vehicles from the major road
into the minor road.
right-turners from the minor road
to the major road are also
assisted.
very effective in improving
safety
additional construction cost is Ghost Island
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small 9/28/2016
JUNCTIONS WITH SINGLE LANE DUALLING

achieved by the use of a physical island in the middle of

the major single carriageway road.
this provides an offside diverging lane for right-turn major
road vehicles.
provides a safe waiting area for right-turners on both the
major and minor roads.
an important safety aspect is the provision of only one
through lane in each direction to prevent overtaking and
reduce speed in the vicinity of the junction.
this layout is not appropriate for crossroads
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Figure of Single Lane Dualling
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An at-grade intersection is the location where two or more roads
meet or cross each other at the same level.

Types of at-grade intersection:

Crossroads Intersection
T-Intersection (Shepherds
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Types of at-grade intersection:

Staggered Junction

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T-Junction Skew Junction

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 Transformation from a Y to
A roundabouts
a T- intersection

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Intersection (split roundabout) Y - Junction

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Three type as below:
Unchannelised and Unflared
Flared
Channelised

Unchannelised and Unflared Intersections

normally adequate where minor roads meet

in urban areas, many local streets intersections remain
unchannelised for economic reasons
in such cases, traffic is controlled by signals or regulatory
signs such as Stop and Give Way signs, on the minor
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Flared Intersections

a flared intersection is a simple unchannelised

intersection with additional through lanes or auxiliary
lanes such as speed-change or right turn lanes

speed-change lanes allow left or right-turning vehicles

to reduce or increase speed when leaving or entering
the through road without adversely affecting the speed
of the through traffic

right-turn lanes permit through vehicles to pass on the

left side of another vehicle waiting to complete a right
turn at an intersection

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 Flare
A Flared Staggered Intersections CSMR 54
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Channelised Intersections

a channelised intersection is one where paths of travel for

various movements are separated and delineated.

raised traffic islands, raised markers and painted markings

can be used for channelisation.

a roundabout is a channelised intersection where traffic

moves clockwise around a central island.

The layout of the intersection should be adequately

illuminated by street lighting or defined by pavement
reflectors, signing, etc.

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An at-grade intersection is the location where two or more roads

Raised traffic islands

used in channelisation

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A Channelised Intersection 9/28/2016
 a grade separated intersection is the location where two
or more roads (traffic streams) meet or cross each other at
different levels.

at-grade intersection can be eliminated by the use of

grade separation structures that permit the cross flow of
traffic at different levels without interruption.

the advantage of such separation is the freedom from

cross interference with resultant saving of time and
increase in safety for traffic movements

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A grade separations may be warranted;

as part of an express highway system design to carry

volumes of traffic to eliminate bottlenecks.

to prevent accidents.

where the topography is such that the other types of

design are not feasible.

where the volumes to be catered for would require the

design of an intersection at grade of unreasonable size.

where the road user benefit of reducing delays at an at-

grade intersection exceeds the cost of improvement.
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an interchange is a grade
separation in which vehicles
mobing in one direction of
flow may transfer by the use
of connecting roadways
(which are called ramps)

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There are many types and forms of interchanges and ramp
layouts.

These general forms may be classified into four main types:

T and Y interchange
Diamond interchange
Partial and full cloverleafs
Directional interchange

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 At-grade intersections present drivers with several points of conflict
with other vehicles

The aims of intersection design is to:

improve traffic flow
reduce the likelihood of accidents.

The principal factors influencing the design of an

intersection are;
Traffics
Topography and Environment.
Economics
Human Factors CSMR 61
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 Factor Influencing at-Grade Intersection Design

at-grade intersections present drivers with several points of

conflict with other vehicles.

the aims of intersection design is to:

- improve traffic flow.
- reduce the likelihood of accidents.

The principal factors influencing the design of an intersection

are;
Traffics
Topography and Environment.
Economics
Human Factors
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 Factor Influencing at-Grade Intersection Design

Traffic

an intersection should
accommodate with comfort and
safety at design peak traffic
volume.

the needs of commercial

vehicles should be considered.

consideration should also be

given to operating speeds and
turning path requirements, the
type of traffic control, the needs
of pedestrians and buses, and
safety aspects.
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 Factor Influencing at-Grade Intersection Design

Topography And Environment

The location and design of an intersection

will be affected including:

the alignment and grade of the

approach roads.
the need to provide for drainage.
the extent of interference with
public utilities.
proper access
the presence of local features,
both man-made and natural
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 Factor Influencing at-Grade Intersection Design

Economics

variation to existing
intersections should be
justified by commensurate
benefits to traffic

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 Factor Influencing at-Grade Intersection Design

Human Factors

Driver characteristics should be considered, i.e.

drivers tend to act according to habit.
drivers tend to follow natural paths of movement.
drivers may become confused when surprised.

These factors make it essential that a driver:

is made aware of the presence of an intersection.
is aware of the vehicles within and approaching the
intersection.
has confidence in the course required to negotiate the
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intersection correctly and safely. 9/28/2016
 Human
Vehicle
Road
Driver
Roadway
3% 27% 57 %
93%
34%
3%
1% 6%

2%
Vehicle
12%
Source : Treat (1980)
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Three aspects;
Driver
Driver training
Blood alcohol limits
Speed limits
Driver license restrictions
Road -the only one the traffic engineer has control
over
Design
Maintenance
operational
Vehicle
Vehicle design has improved
Air bags
Better tires

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Factors Present in Crashes which Result
in Fatalities:
Single Vehicle Run-Off-Road - 38 %
Speeding Related - 30 %
Intersections - 23 %
Pedestrian and Bicyclist - 13 %

(Source: 1999 FARS data)

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 Crashworthy Devices

Removing Roadside Hazards

Improved Rumble Strips

Visibility

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 Safety Features for
Pedestrians and Bicyclists

Variable
Speed Limits

Intersection Design &

Enforcement
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Intersection Design Considerations
for Pedestrians

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 Principles of Intersection Design
Important that operational characteristics of capacity and delay is
satisfied, safety is a prime consideration intersection design.

Safe intersection design is based on the following principles:

reduction of the number of points of conflict.
minimisation of the area of conflict.
separation of points of conflict.
giving preference to major movements.
control of speed.
definition of paths to be followed.

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Conflicts

The number of conflict points can be reduced by

prohibiting certain traffic movements.

Conflict points can be separated by channelisation

or by staggering four-way intersections.

Intersections should be separated by at least three

seconds of travel time so that drivers are faced with only
one decision at a time (this is approximately equivalent to
V meters where V is speed in kph)

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 ???

Channelization is separation or regulation of conflicting

traffic movements into definite paths of travel by traffic
islands or pavement markings to facilitate the safe and
orderly movement of both vehicles and pedestrians

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Traffic conflicts occur where the path of
traffic movement crosses.

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One weaving movement does not change lanes

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Two Lane Undivided Street

Side Street

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Two Lane Undivided Street

Side Street

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 Reduced conflicts from 32 to 4
Note: Add 4 conflicts to each for four lane roadways

40 conflicts with
Four Lane on
major street

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 Two lane roadway with raised median (left turn egress only
from intersection or driveway)

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Two lane roadway with raised median (left turn egress only from
intersection or driveway)

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 Two lane roadway with raised median (left turn ingress only
into driveway)

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 Two lane roadway with raised median (left turn ingress only into
intersection or driveway)

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 Limit the number of conflict points

Remove turning vehicles from through traffic lanes

Reduce conflicting volumes

Improve roadway operations

Pedestrian safety

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Area of Conflicts

where roads cross at an acute or the opposing legs of an

intersection are offset, excessive conflict area may result.

in general, large areas of pavement within intersection

permit dangerous vehicle maneuvres and should be
eliminated.

channelisation and realignment can reduce conflict area.

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Area of Conflicts

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 Area of Conflicts
preference should be given to the major traffic movements to
allow them a direct free flowing alignment.

drivers who have traveled for long, uninterrupted distances at

high speed will be slow to react to a sudden change in
alignment or to the entry of a high speed vehicle in a minor
road.

minor movements should be clearly subordinated to major or

high speed movements by design, signing or speed control.

adequate warning on minor approaches should be provided.

when traffic streams cross without merging and weaving, the

crossing should be made at or near right angles (70 - 90)
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 Area of Conflicts

if traffic signal control is to be incorporated into the design, the

crossing angle may be substantially modified to conform to existing
physical conditions.

this principle:
reduces the conflict area
reduces the time of crossing a conflicting traffic stream
provides the most favourable condition for drivers to judge
relative positions and relative speeds of vehicles

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Area of Conflicts

Control of Minor Movement

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 Control of Speed

The operating speed of traffic through an intersection depends on:

alignment
environment
traffic volume and composition
extent and type of traffic control devices, and to a lesse
extent :

- the number of points of conflicts

- the number of possible maneuvres
- the relative speed of the maneuvres

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 Control of Speed
crossing maneuvres that produce high potential relative speeds
should be made approximately at right angles to minimise driver
estimation errors.

in such cases, it is usually necessary to reduce approach speeds

by the use of alignment design (e.g. roundabouts) or control
devices (signs and signals) so that actual relative speeds are
low.

weaving, merging and diverging maneuvres should be

designed for a low relative speed.

under these conditions, drivers will accept smaller gaps in the

traffic stream, thereby improving safety, reducing delays and
increasing capacity.
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Methods of Attaining Low Relative Speed

Low relative speed conditions at an intersection may be obtained

by:

providing traffic islands, separate turning lanes and refuge

areas.

providing speed change lanes.

installing traffic control devices.

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 BASIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES FOR SAFE LAYOUTS OF
AT-GRADE INTERSECTIONS

1. Minimise the carriageway area where conflict can occur

traffic island channelisation can be used to constrain the
turning.
vehicles to reduce the size of potential conflict area.

2. Separate/Reduce points of conflicts

use auxiliary diverging lanes to separate multiple
maneuvres.
use two separated (staggered) intersections instead of a
single more complicated one.

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 BASIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES FOR SAFE LAYOUTS OF
AT-GRADE INTERSECTIONS

3. Traffic streams should merge/diverge at flat angles and cross at

right angles.

weaving, merging and diverging maneuvres should always be

carried out at low relative speeds.
provide long speed-change lanes with flat intersecting angles
(merging angles of between 10 to 15 degrees are optimum).
the crossing of time and distance is reduced by driver which
minor roads should meet major roads at close to 90 degrees
and estimate the traffic speed.

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 BASIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES FOR SAFE LAYOUTS OF
AT-GRADE INTERSECTIONS

4. Encourage low vehicle speeds on the approaches to right-

angle intersections

vehicles on the minor approach should stop easily and give

way to through traffic on the major.

low approach speeds can be achieved by:

bending traffic substantially prior to the intersection.
traffic channelisation.
curb extensions/road narrowing at the intersection
openings.

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 BASIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES FOR SAFE LAYOUTS OF
AT-GRADE INTERSECTIONS

5. Decelerating or stopping vehicles should be removed from the

through traffic stream;
to reduce the number and severity of rear-end collisions
right turn traffic can be separated from through traffic by
providing right-turn lanes with proper channelisation

6. Favour high-priority traffic movements;

the operating characteristics and layout should
deliberately favour high-priority (major) movements.
this would generally improve intersection capacity and
safety.

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 BASIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES FOR SAFE LAYOUTS OF
AT-GRADE INTERSECTIONS

7. Discourage undesirable traffic movements;

traffic islands and corner radii can be used to discourage
motorists from taking undesirable travel paths and
encourage them to take defined ones

8. Provide refuge for vulnerable road users;

properly sited and well designed traffic islands can provide
refuge for pedestrians

9. Provide reference markers for road users

drivers should be provided with appropriate references at
intersections which indicate where they should stop.
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 BASIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES FOR SAFE LAYOUTS OF
AT-GRADE INTERSECTIONS

10. Control access in the vicinity of an intersection;

driveways within the immediate vicinity of the intersection
should be avoided.
if driveways already exist, and closure is not possible for
practical reasons, then channelisation techniques should be
employed to prevent entering vehicles from crossing the
traffic flow (vehicles entering the intersection from a
driveway should always merge with the nearside traffic
stream).

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 BASIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES FOR SAFE LAYOUTS OF
AT-GRADE INTERSECTIONS

11. Provide good safe locations for the installation of traffic control
devices:
traffic signs and signals should be properly located so that it
does not pose as obstructions to traffic, and can be seen be
road users

12. Provide advance warning of change:

advance signings that warns of intersections ahead should
be provided on:
- minor roads leading to controlled intersections
- all roads where visibility is restricted
- high-speed roads
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 BASIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES FOR SAFE LAYOUTS OF
AT-GRADE INTERSECTIONS

13. Illuminate intersections where possible

priority for lighting at night should be given to:

- intersections with heavy pedestrian flows and/or with heavy
vehicular flows.
- roundabouts.
- intersections where raised channelisation islands intrude on
what might be considered the natural path of vehicles.

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 General Characteristics of Traffic Islands

Traffic islands, along with appropriate markings, play a crucial role

in an organized flow of traffic at at-grade intersections.

The functions of traffic islands are as follows:

to separate conflicts
to control the angle of conflicts
to reduce excessive pavement areas
to regulate traffic flow in the intersection area
to make arrangements to favour a predominant turning
movement.
to protect pedestrians
to protect and store turning and crossing vehicles
to provide space for installation of traffic control devices

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 General Characteristics of Traffic Islands
These islands can be formed by using raised curbs, pavement
markings, or the pavement edges.

(i) Curbed Traffic Islands.

A curbed island usually is formed by
the construction of a generally curb
that delineates the area of the island.
Curbs are generally classified as
mountable or barrier.
Mountable curbs are constructed with
their faces inclined at an angle of 45
degrees or less so that vehicles may
mount them without difficulty if
necessary. CSMR 104
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 General Characteristics of Traffic Islands

The faces of barrier curbs are usually

vertical. It should be noted, however,
that because of glare, curbed islands
may be difficult to see at night, which
makes it necessary that intersections
with curbed islands have fixed-
source lighting.

Curbed islands are used mainly in

urban highways, where approach
speed is not excessively high and
pedestrian relatively high.

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 General Characteristics of Traffic Islands

Traffic Islands Formed by Pavement Markings.

This type of island is sometime referred to as a flushed island

because it is flush with the pavement.

Flushed islands arc formed by pavement markings that delineate

the area of the island. Markers include paint, thermoplastic
striping, and raised retroreflective markers.

Flushed island are preferred over curbed islands at intersections

where approach speeds are relatively high, pedestrian traffic is
low, and signals or sign mountings are not located on the island.

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 General Characteristics of Traffic Islands
Island Formed by Pavement Edges.
These islands are usually unpaved and are used mainly at
rural intersections where there is space for large intersection
curves.

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TRAFFIC-CONTROL SIGNALS

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 INTRODUCTION TO TRAFFIC SIGNALS

Traffic-control signals are primarily used to control vehicular

and pedestrian movements.

It is a device that directs traffic to stop and permits traffic to

proceed.

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 INTRODUCTION TO TRAFFIC SIGNALS

Objective of Traffic Signals ;

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 ADVANTAGES OF TRAFFIC SIGNAL CONTROL

Provides orderly movement of traffic through an intersection.

Minimizes the number of conflicting movements.
Increases the traffic handling capacity of an intersection.
Provides a means of interrupting heavy vehicles to allow other
traffic to enter or cross.
When coordinated, it can provide for nearly continuous
movement of traffic at a desired speed along a given route.
Promotes driver confidence by assigning right of way

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 DISADVANTAGES OF TRAFFIC SIGNAL CONTROL

During off-peak hours, may increase total intersection delay.

May cause accidents such as rear-end collisions involving

motorists who are reckless or unaware of change in signals.

Can interrupt progressive flow of traffic on a route, causing

delay and stopping.

When improperly located, causes unnecessary delay and

promotes disrespect for this type of control.

When improperly timed, causes excessive delay, increased

driver irritation and disrespect to this type of control

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TRAFFIC SIGNAL

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 FIXED / PRE-TIMED SIGNALS

These signals are set to repeat a cycle of sequence and phase of

the cycle at regular time intervals.

The cycle time and length of individual phases are pre-

determined and constant.

Designed for peak time traffic requirements. However, during off-

peak hours, delays may occur due to lower traffic volumes and
yet cycle time and phase times remain unchanged.

Nowadays, signal timing does not have to be same throughout

the day, because with modern technology, it is possible to store
several timing plans (a.m. period, p.m. period, peak period, off-
peak period) in the memory and apply them at different times of
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 FIXED / PRE-TIMED SIGNALS

Advantages

Facilitates coordination with adjacent signals.

Reliability is improved as operation is not dependent on

proper functioning of detectors.

More acceptable where large pedestrian volumes are

present as push-button traffic signals for pedestrians can
cause confusion.

Less expensive and simpler in maintenance.

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 TRAFFIC ACTUATED SIGNALS

These signals are designed so that the phase and cycle can be
changed according to traffic demand.

A traffic policeman observes the flow of traffic and operates

these signals suitably.

Alternatively, in traffic actuated mode of operation, the duration

of individual green periods could be automatically adjusted in
accordance with the changing of traffic volumes.

Requires a sensor loop that is sealed in a saw-slot below the

pavement surface. A sensor electronics and controller is installed
in the curbside equipment. When a vehicle traverses over the
loop, a signal is sent to the controller, which either holds the
green for the vehicle or else brings it at the earliest
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 TRAFFIC ACTUATED SIGNALS

Advantages

Delay is minimized at isolated intersections where irregular

fluctuations of traffic volumes occur.

Maximum efficiency is achieved at complex intersections

where multiphase control is required.

Interruptions of the major street flow are minimized to the time

actually required by the crossing pedestrians and vehicles.

Priority can be given to public transport vehicles.

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 TRAFFIC SIGNAL TIMING (BASIC TERMINOLOGY)
Approach A lane or group of lanes through which traffic enters the intersection
Cycle One complete sequence (for all approaches) of signal indications (green, amber,
red)
Cycle time The total time for the signal to complete one sequence of signal indication
Interval A period of time during which all signal indications remain constant
Change The amber plus red intervals that provide for clearance of the intersection before
interval conflicting traffic movements are released
Green time The time within a cycle in which an approach has the green indication
Lost time Time during which the intersection is not effectively used by any approach
Effective The time that is effectively available to the permitted traffic movements.
green It is the equivalent time during which the actual flow can be maintained at the
saturation flow level.
Taken to be the green time plus the change interval minus the lost time for the
approach
Effective red The time during which a given traffic movement is effectively not permitted to move.
It is the cycle length minus the effective green time.

Saturation The maximum flow that could pass through an intersection, from a given approach if
flow that approach were allocated all of the cycle time as effective green with no lost
time.
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Lane capacity The maximum flow that can pass through an intersection9/28/2016
under prevailing roadway
and traffic conditions, given the effective green time allocated to the approach.
It is the saturation flow multiplied by the ratio of effective green to cycle length.
 TRAFFIC SIGNAL TIMING (BASIC TERMINOLOGY)

Signal timing The operating characteristics of the signal with the parameters
being cycle length and the effective green and red times
allocated to the intersection approach

Pre-timed Signal A signal whose signal timing is fixed over specified time
periods and does not change in response to traffic flow
variation

Traffic phase A part of the cycle time allocated to any traffic movement or any
combination of traffic movements receiving the right of way.
Any change in the right of way marks the beginning of a new
phase.

Intergreen period The time between the end of the green period of the phase
losing the right of way and the beginning of the green period of
the phase gaining the right of way.
Thus, it includes amber time plus any all-red time between the
two green periods. CSMR 119
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TRAFFIC SIGNAL TIMING: DESIGN PRINCIPLES

(1) DETERMINATION OF SATURATION FLOW, S

Saturation flow (S) is the maximum flow that can cross the stop line
of an approach where there is a continuous green indication and
a continuous queue of vehicles on the approach.
S , is expressed in passenger car unit per hour (pcu/hr).
Where there is no on-street parking,
i) where effective approach width, W 5.5 m
S = 525 x W
ii) where effective approach width, W < 5.5 m, S can be
obtained from the following table:

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(2) DETERMINATION OF Y

y=q/S

where q = actual flow on a traffic-signal approach in pcu/hr.

S = saturation flow for the approach in pcu/hr.
The y value for a single phase is the highest y value from the
approaches in the phase.
For the whole junction, Y = yi
where yi = is the highest y value from the approaches within
phase I
The Y value is a measure of occupancy of the intersection.
Preferably Y 0.85

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If Y > 0.85, it is suggested that the geometric design and the layout
of the intersection or the number of lanes be improved.

Conversion of veh/hr to pcu/hr is made using the table below:

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 Lane group North South East West
Car 280 245 580 690
Flow
Motorbike 150 112 150 100
(pcu/hr)
Bus 50 40 47 40
Heavy vehicle 60 58 49 60

Saturation flow,S (pcu/hr) 3160 3160 1970 1970

Table 1 below show peak hour-volumes and saturation flow for

a major intersection on an expressway Table 1
Given data Assume:
Car = 1.00 pcu Amber time,a = 3 sec
Bus = 2.25 pcu Lost time,l = 2 sec
Heavy vehicle = 1.75 pcu integrated period,I = 4 sec
Motorbike = 0.33 pcu

From data given,determine:

optimum cycle for both phases
the actual green time for each phase
the time diagram for each phase
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 1
2.
3..
4..

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