Acm Matsc 150308

AMIE(I) STUDY CIRCLE(REGD.
)
MATERIAL SCIENCE
A Focused Approach
Dated: 15-03-2008
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Additional Course Material

Heat Treatment Of Steel
HARDENING
Characteristics of Martensite Transformation
additional paragraph
The martensitic transformation occurs without a compositional change. The transformation is
a process of shear, that occurs without any need for diffusion. The atomic movements that
bring about the transformation are only a fraction of an interatomic distance. The shear
changes the shape of the transforming region. This results in a considerable amount of strain
energy, due to the resistance of the matrix (parent phase) to the shape change. As a result of
the strain energy factor, martensite has a plate like shape.
STRENGTHENING OF MATERIALS
Precipitation Hardening
If the precipitation occurs at normal ambient temperatures, it is called natural aging. Some
alloy systems needed to be aged at higher temperatures and the process is known as artificial
aging. Most precipitation hardened alloys are limited in their maximum service temperatures,
which may lose their strength at elevated temperatures due to over-aging.
Detailed studies has shown that the supersaturated atoms of solute tend to accumulate along
specific crystal planes. The concentration of solute atoms in these positions lowers the
concentrations in other locations, producing less supersaturation and therefore a more stable
crystal structure. At this stage, the solute atoms have not formed a phase that is wholly
distinct: a coherency of atom spacing exists across the boundary of the two structures.
Dislocation movements proceed with difficulty across these distorted regions; consequently,
the metal becomes harder and more resistant to deformation under high stresses.
Dispersion Strengthening
In dispersion strengthening, hard particles are mixed with matrix powder and consolidated
and processed by powder metallurgy techniques. Here second phase shall have very little
solubility in the matrix, even at elevated temperatures. Because there is very little solubility,
the particles resist growth or over-aging to a much greater extent than the second phase
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AMIE(I) STUDY CIRCLE(REGD.)
A Focused Approach
particles in a precipitation hardening system. Theoretically, at least, it is possible to produce
infinite number of dispersion-hardened systems by mixing finely divided metallic powders
and second phase particles (oxides, carbides, nitrides, borides, etc).
Dislocations moving through the matrix, which is either precipitation hardened or dispersion
strengthened, have two alternatives. They can either cut through the precipitate particles or
bend around and bypass them. The first alternative is possible only when the slip plane is
continuous from the matrix through the precipitate particle and when the stress to move a
dislocation in precipitate is comparable to that in matrix. Cutting of particles is easier for
small particles which can be considered as segregated solute atoms. There are many particle
properties that can dictate the ease of shearing, for example: coherency strains, stacking-fault
energy, ordered structure, modulus effect, interfacial energy, morphology and lattice friction
stress.
Cutting of particles is not possible when there is an interface or an abrupt change in
orientation. Under such instances, dislocations have to bend around them, and bypass.
ASSIGNMENT
additional problems
Q.(AMIE W2007): Differentiate between coherent and non coherent precipitation hardening.
Q. (AMIE S07, 4 marks): What is martensite? Distinguish between lath martensite and plate
martensite.
Q. (AMIE W07, 5 marks): Briefly outline the nitriding process. Discuss its importance and
advantages in steel industry.
Engineering Materials
PLAIN CARBON STEELS
Low Carbon Steel
Their microstructure consists of ferrite and pearlite, and these alloys are thus relatively soft,
ductile combined with high toughness. Hence these materials are easily machinable and
weldable. Typical applications of these alloys include: structural shapes, tin cans, automobile
body components, buildings, etc.
Medium Carbon Steel

These alloys can be heat treated to improve their strength. Usual heat treatment cycle consists
of austenitizing, quenching, and tempering at suitable conditions to acquire required
hardness. They are often used in tempered condition. As hardenability of these alloys is low,
A Focused Approach
only thin sections can be heat treated using very high quench rates. Ni, Cr and Mo alloying
additions improve their hardenability. Typical applications include: railway tracks & wheels,
gears, other machine parts which may require good combination of strength and toughness.
Cement
In the most general sense of the word, cement is a binder, a substance which sets and hardens
independently, and can bind other materials together. The name "cement" goes back to the
Romans who used the term "opus caementitium" to describe masonry which resembled
concrete and was made from crushed rock with burnt lime as binder. The volcanic ash and
pulverized brick additives which were added to the burnt lime to obtain a hydraulic binder
were later referred to as cementum, cimentum, cment and cement. Cements used in
construction are characterized as hydraulic or non-hydraulic.
The most important use of cement is the production of mortar and concrete - the bonding of
natural or artificial aggregates to form a strong building material which is durable in the face
of normal environmental effects.
Portland cement. Cement is made by heating limestone with small quantities of other
materials (such as clay) to 1450C in a kiln. The resulting hard substance, called clinker, is
then ground with a small amount of gypsum into a powder to make Ordinary Portland
Cement, the most commonly used type of cement (often referred to as OPC).
Portland cement is a basic ingredient of concrete, mortar and most non-speciality grout. The
most common use for Portland cement is in the production of concrete. Concrete is a
composite material consisting of aggregate (gravel and sand), cement, and water. As a
construction material, concrete can be cast in almost any shape desired, and once hardened,
can become a structural (load bearing) element. Portland cement may be gray or white.
COMPOSITE MATERIALS
Fibre Reinforced Composites
In fibre reinforced composite, Young modulus Yc of a composite in a direction parallel to the
fibres can be expressed as a linear function of the moduli of the fibre and the matrix, Yf and
Ym;
Yc = Vf Yf + Vm Ym
where Vf and Vm are the volume fractions of the fibre and the matrix.
Example
A tensile load of 100 N is applied to an aluminium boron composite of 1 mm2 cross sectional
area. The volume of the parallel fibres is 30%. What is the stress in the fibres, when the load
axis is
(i) parallel to the fibres and
A Focused Approach
(ii) perpendicular to the fibres?
Solution
(i) When the load is applied parallel to the fibres, the elastic strain is the same in both
the fibres and the matrix. If f and m are the stresses in the fibres and the matrix,
f
Yf = , Ym = m
f m
Since f = m, we have
Yf 440
= f = = 6.20
Ym m 71
Also 0.3f + 0.7 m = 100 N
100 0.3f
or m = = 143 0.43f
0.7
f
Then = 6.20
143 0.43f
f = 242 N mm 2 (= 242 MN m 2 )
(ii) When the load is applied perpendicular to the fibres, the stress in the fibre and the
matrix is the same, i.e. 100 MN m-2.
Example
Glass fibres in nylon provide reinforcement. If the nylon contains 30 vol% E-glass, what
fraction of the applied stress is carried by the glass fibres? Given Eglass = 72.4 GN m-2, Enylon
= 2.75 GN m-2 Assume iso strain conditions.
Solution
Under iso strain conditions

c = m = f
m
m = = f = f
Em Ef
f E f 72.4 x109
= = = 26.32
m E m 2.75 x109
f 1 1
Fraction = = = 0.96
f + m 1 + ( m / f ) 1 + (1/ 26.32)
Almost all the load is carried by glass fibre.
A Focused Approach
Problem
A tensile load of 5000 N is applied to a plastic glass fibre composite of 100 mm2 cross
sectional area, with 25% volume% of glass fibre. Calculate the cross sectional area of the
plastic alone (without reinforcement) to withstand the same load with the same elastic
deformation. Given Yplastic = 0.35 GN m-2 and Yfibre = 70 GN m-2.
Answer: 5075 mm2
Problem
Calculate the Youngs modulus of a composite containing 60 vol% of glass fibre (Y = 70 GN

m-2) in a matrix of epoxy resin (Y = 3 GN m-2) under iso stress conditions.
Answer: 7.0 GN m-2
Example
An SAE 1060 steel wire ( 1mm in diameter) is coated with copper (combined diameter 2 mm).
The yield strength of the steel is 280 MPa; that of copper is 140 MPa. (a) If this composite is
loaded in tension(longitudinal tensile load), which metal will yield first? (b) How much load,
F, can the composite carry in tension without plastic deformation? (c) What is Youngs
modulus for the composite? Given Est = 205 GPa; ECu = 110 GPa
Solution

A st = (0.001)2 = 0.8 x106 m 2
4

A st = (0.002) 2 0.8 x106 m 2 = 2.4 x106 m 2
4
Est = 205 GPa; ECu = 110 GPa
The elastic strain must be equal in the two metals.

= st = cu =
E st E cu
st = cu (205000 MPa /110000 MPa) = 1.86s cu
(a) With a 1.86 stress ratio, the steel is stressed 260 MPa when the copper is stressed 140
MPa. Therefore, the copper yields first.
(b) Ftotal = Fcu + Fst
= (140 x106 N / m 2 )(2.4 x106 m 2 ) + (260 x106 N / m 2 )(0.8 x106 m 2 )

= 540 N
(c) For Youngs modulus
A Focused Approach
E = (fE)st + (fE)cu where f is volume fraction.
= 0.25(205000 MPa) + 0.75(110, 000) MPa

= 130,000MPa
Example
Formulate a mixture rule for Youngs modulus of a composite, when the stress is applied
perpendicular ( ) to the grain of the composite.
Solution
With transverse loading

1 = = 2
1
E = = =
1f1 + 2 f 2 (f1 / E1 + f 2 / E 2 )
1
= f1 / E1 + f 2 / E 2
E
Problem
A fibre reinforced polystyrene contains 75 wt% of borosilicate glass fibre oriented in a

parallel fashion. Estimate the Youngs modulus of the composite in the longitudinal direction
of the fibres. Given
Property Borosilicate Polysterene
E (GNm-2) 65 2.6
Sp. gravity 2.4 1.05
Answer: 38 GNm-2
ASSIGNMENT
Q. (AMIE W07, 10 marks): Distinguish between the following (any two): (i) cement and
concrete (ii) glass and ceramics (iii) nano fillers and whiskers
Q. (AMIE S07, 4 marks): What are nanomaterials? How does these differ from conventional
materials?
Q.(AMIE S07, 4 marks): A unidirectional continuous glass fiber reinforced epoxy resin
composite contains 60 vol% of e-glass fibres. The modulus of elasticity of glass fiber and
hardened epoxy is 72.4 and 3.1 GPa, respectively. Calculate the (i) modulus of elasticity and
(ii) fraction of load carried by the fiber for this composite under iso strain condition assuming
the rule of mixture hold good.
Q.(AMIE W07, 5 marks): Glass fibres (diameter = 20 m) provide longitudinal
reinforcement for nylon subjected to tensile loading. If the volume fraction of the glass fibre
A Focused Approach
used is 0.45, what fraction load will it carry? If the average stress in the composite is 14 MPa,
what will be the amount of stress in glass? Youngs modulus of glass fiber and nylon are
70,000 MPa and 2800 MPa respectively.
Phase Transformations
ASSIGNMENT
additional problems
Q.(AMIE S07, 4 marks): Discuss the differences in the microstructure of 0.5 and 1.1 weight
% plain carbon steel in annealed condition with the help of properly levelled schematic
drawings.
Q.(AMIE S07, 6 marks): Draw and properly level the TTT diagram of an eutectoid plain
carbon steel. State its utility and limitations. Define critical cooling rates.
Q. (AMIE W07, 20 marks): Plain carbon steel containing 0.6% carbon, is heated 250C above
the upper critical temperature and heat treated separately as follows:
(a) quenched in cold water
(b) slowly cools in the furnace
(c) quenched in water and reheated at 2500C
(d) quenched in water and reheated at 6000C
Describe the structure/morphology at room temperature which will be thus formed in each
case with the help of appropriate diagrams. Explain the generalized properties (physical) of
each form and justify the treatment you will prefer for making cutting tools and shock
resistant engineering components.
Mechanical Properties
FRACTURE OF MATERIALS
Stress Concentration
A stress concentration (often called stress raisers or stress risers) is a location in an object
where stress is concentrated. An object is strongest when force is evenly distributed over its
area, so a reduction in area, e.g. caused by a crack, results in a localized increase in stress. A
material can fail, via a propagating crack, when a concentrated stress exceeds the material's
theoretical cohesive strength. The real fracture strength of a material is always lower than the
theoretical value because most materials contain small cracks that concentrate stress.
Causes The sharp corner at the brick has acted as a stress concentrator within the concrete
causing it to crack Geometric discontinuities cause an object to experience a local increase in
the intensity of a stress field. The examples of shapes that cause these concentrations are:
A Focused Approach
cracks, sharp corners, holes and, changes in the cross-sectional area of the object. High local
stresses can cause the object to fail more quickly than if it wasn't there. Engineers must
design the geometry to minimize stress concentrations.
Concentration factor The maximum stress felt near a crack occurs in the area of lowest
radius of curvature. In an elliptical crack of length 2a and width 2b, under an applied external
stress , the stress at the ends of the major axes is given by:
a
max = 2

where is the radius of curvature of the crack tip. A stress concentration factor is the ratio
of the highest stress (max) to a reference stress () of the gross cross-section. As the radius of
curvature approaches zero, the maximum stress approaches infinity. Note that the stress
concentration factor is a function of the geometry of a crack, and not of its size. These factors
can be found in typical engineering reference materials to predict the stresses that could
otherwise not be analyzed using strength of materials approaches. This is not to be confused
with 'Stress Intensity Factor'.
Fracture Toughness
Fracture always starts at some point of stress concentration, which may be adjacent to a rivet
hole, along a keyway of a shaft etc. In each of these cases, the stress is concentrated because
the load can not be uniformly distributed across the full area. Now for a crack, stress intensity
is greatest at the tip. The intensity increases in proportion to the nominal stress s (after
correction for true area), and the square root of the cracks depth c. More specifically
K1 = Ys c
where K1 is the stress intensity factor. The term Y provides a correction for the thickness to
width ratio of the material. With the sc relationship, the unit of stress intensity factor is
MPa.m.
With more intense stresses or with deeper cracks, the stress intensity becomes sufficient for
the fracture to progress spontaneously
Example
A steel has a yield strength Sy of 1100 MPa, an ultimate strength, Su of 1200 MPa, and a
fracture toughness K1c of 90m. (a) A plate has a 2 mm edge crack. Will it fail by fracturing
before it fails by yielding? (b) What are the deepest tolerable cracks that may be present
without fracturing before yielding? Assume Y = 1.1.
Solution
(a) s = (90MPa. m) /(1.1 0.002m) = 1030 MPa
A Focused Approach
This stress of 1030 MPa to cause fracture is less than Sy; so this steel will fracture
before it yields.
2
(90MPa. m)
(b) c =
(1100MPa)(1.1)
c = 0.0017 m
Problem
A steel with K1c value of 186 MPam also has a yield strength of 800 MPa. How deep will a
crack be before the steel is subject to a fracture as a mode of failure? Take Y as 1.1.
Answer: 14 mm
ASSIGNMENT
Mechanical Properties of Materials
Q. (AMIE S07, 4 marks): What is creep? Draw a standard creep curve and explain its
different sections.
Fracture of Materials
Q. (AMIE S07, 4 marks): A reaction bonded silicon nitride ceramic has a strength of 300
MPa and a fracture toughness of 3.6MPam. What is the largest size internal crack that this
material can support without fracturing? Take Y as 1.
Q. (AMIE S07, 5 marks): Discuss Griffith theory of brittle fracture and derive the concerned
equation for plane stress condition.
Q. (AMIE W07, 6 marks): Differentiate among stress concentration, stress intensity factor
and fracture toughness.
Testing of Metals
Q. A Brinell hardness test is performed on a steel using a 10 mm indenter with a load of 3000
kg. A 3.2 mm impression is measured on the surface of the steel. Calculate the BHN.
Answer: 363 kg/mm2
Q. (AMIE S07, 5 marks): Brinell indentation is taken in a steel sample using 10 mm tungsten
carbide ball at 500 kgf load. Calculate the Brinell hardness value of the steel sample, if the
average diameter of indention is 2.5 mm.
A Focused Approach
Crystal Structure, Defects in Solids and Diffusion in

Solids
CRYSTAL STRUCTURE
ISOMERISM
Isomers are molecules that have the same molecular formula, but have a different
arrangement of the atoms in space. That excludes any different arrangements which are
simply due to the molecule rotating as a whole, or rotating about particular bonds.
For example, both of the following are the same molecule. They are not isomers. Both are
butane.
There are also endless other possible ways that this molecule could twist itself. There is
completely free rotation around all the carbon-carbon single bonds.
Chain isomerism
These isomers arise because of the possibility of branching in carbon chains. For example,
there are two isomers of butane, C4H10. In one of them, the carbon atoms lie in a "straight
chain" whereas in the other the chain is branched.
Defects in Solids
Screw Dislocation
The elastic strain energy E per unit length of a dislocation of Burgers vector b is
approximately given by
E = b 2 / 2
where is the shear modulus of the crystal.
A Focused Approach
Example
Compute the line energy of dislocations in BCC iron. The Burgers vector in iron is of the
1/2<111> type. The shear modulus of iron is 80.2 GN/m2. Lattice parameter is 2.87 A.
Solution
From the given lattice parameter, we obtain magnitude of the Burgers vector b = 2.873/2 =
2.49 A.
The line energy of the dislocation from
E = b 2 / 2
= 80.2 x 109 x 2.492 x 10-20/2 = 2.49 x 10-9 Jm-1
DIFFUSION IN SOLIDS
Ficks Second Law Time Dependence
The solution of Ficks second law is
x
c(x, t) = A Berf
2 Dt
where A and B are constants to be determined from the initial and boundary conditions of a
particular problem.
Example
At 9500 C, a 0.8% carbon steel is getting decarburized for a duration of 4 hr in an

atmosphere equivalent to 0% carbon at the surface of the steel. Determine the minimum
depth upto which post machining is to be done, if the carbon content at the surface after
machining should not below 0.6%.Given: Diffusivity of C in Fe at 9500C D = 1.38 x 10-11
m2/s, if erf(z) = 0.75 then z = 0.81.
Solution
c2 = 0.8%
cs = 0%
c(x) = 0.6%
t = 4 x 3600 = 14400 s
D = 1.38 x 10-11 m2/s
x=?
x
We know c(x, t) = A Berf
2 Dt
A Focused Approach
x
erf = 0.75
2 Dt
From given value of erf in question
x
= 0.81
2 Dt
x = - 7.22 x 10-4 m
The depth upto which machining is required is 0.75 mm.
Problem
To produce a p-type semiconductor, the third column element boron is doped in pure silicon.
The doping is done through a B2O3 vapour phase of partial pressure equal to 1.5 Nm-2. This
atmosphere is equivalent to a surface concentration of 3 x 1026 boron atoms per m3.
Calculate the time required to get a boron content of 1023 atoms per m3 at a depth of 2 m.
The doping temperature is 11000C and DB in Si at this temperature is 4 x 10-17 m2/s. if erf(z) =
0.99967 then z = 2.55.
Answer: 3845 s
KIRKENDALL EFFECT
In a binary solution of A and B, the rates at which A and B diffuse are not necessarily equal.
Usually, the lower melting component diffuses much faster than the other. This leads to
certain interesting effects as first observed by Kirkendall.
Inert markers (thin rods of a high melting point substance which is insoluble in the diffusion
matrix) are placed at the weld joint of the couple, prior to the diffusion anneal. These markers
are found to shift during the anneal in the same direction as the slower moving species. The
extent of this shift is found to be proportional to the square root of the diffusion time. This
kind of movement indicates that the net mass flow due to the difference in diffusivities is
being compensated by a bulk flow of matter in the opposite direction within the diffusion
zone. That is, lattice planes are created on one side of the diffusion zone, while they are
destroyed on the other side, and the resulting bulk flow carries the markers along. Notice that
the bulk flow occurs relative to the ends of the diffusion couple. It is quite a different
phenomenon from the diffusion process itself. In many cases, porosity is observed on the
lower-melting component side, indicating that the bulk flow does not fully compensate for
the difference in diffusivities of the two species.
The following analogy of gaseous inter diffusion aids in the understanding of the Kirkendall
effect. Let hydrogen and argon at the same pressure be kept in two chambers interconnected
through a tube. A frictionless piston in the tube separates the gases. On opening an orifice in
the piston, the gases interdiffuse. The lighter hydrogen will diffuse faster, resulting in a
pressure difference that will tend to shift the piston in the same direction as the slower
diffusing argon is moving.
A Focused Approach
ASSIGNMENT
Crystal Structure
Q. (AMIE S07, 4 marks): Calculate and compare the atomic packing factors of the FCC and
BCC unit cells.
Q. (AMIE W07, 5 marks): Differentiate between polymorphism and isomerism. Explain with
suitable examples.
Defects in Solids
Q. (AMIE W07, 5 marks): The lattice parameter of a material, having FCC structure, is 0.396
nm. Determine the length of the Burgers vector along <110> direction.
Diffusion
Q. (AMIE S07, 5 marks): Consider the gas carburizing of a gear of 1020 steel at 9270C.
Calculate the time (in minutes) necessary to increase the carbon content to 0.40 wt% at 0.50
mm below the surface. Assume that the carbon content at the surface is 0.90 wt% and that the
steel has a nominal carbon content of 0.20 wt%. Given: Diffusivity of C in Fe at 9270C =
1.28 x 10-11 m2/s, if erf (z) = 0.7143 then z = 0.755.
Q. (AMIE S07, 3 marks): Briefly discuss Kirkendall effect with an example.
Defects in Solids
Q. (AMIE S07, 4 marks): State the Hume-Rothery rules for substitutional solid solution
formation.
Q. (AMIE S07, 4 marks): Differentiate between edge dislocation and screw dislocation with
neat sketches.
Deformation of Metals
ASSIGNMENT
Q. (AMIE S07, 5 marks): Discuss (i) climb (ii) cross slip (iii) twin
Q. (AMIE S07, 4 marks): What is critical resolved shear stress?
Phase Transformations and Diagrams

Eutectoid, hypo eutectoid and hypereutectoid
Example
How much proeutectoid ferrite is there in a slowly cooled 0.6% steel? How much eutectoid
ferrite is there in the same steel?
A Focused Approach
Solution
Applying lever rule between 0.0 and 0.8% carbon with fulcrum at 0.6% carbon
fpro = (0.8 0.6)/(0.8 0.0) = 0.25
fpearlite = 1.0 0.25 = 0.75
The fraction of ferrite in a eutectoid steel = 0.88
feut in this steel = 0.75 x 0.88 = 0.66
Problem
What is the fraction of proeutectoid cementite in (i) 1.4% C (ii) 1.0 % C and (iii) 0.7% C
steels?
Answer: (i) 0.10 (ii) 0.034 (iii) 0
ASSIGNMENT
Q. (AMIE S07, 4 marks): State phase rule and define its different terms.
Q. (AMIE S07, 4 marks): What is invariant reaction? Mention different invariant reactions
present in Fe-Fe3C diagram.
Q. (AMIE S07, 5 marks): Calculate the amount of (i) proeutectoid phase (ii) total ferrite and
(iii) pearlite in the microstructure of slowly cooled 0.3 wt% C steel at temperature just below
eutectoid temperature.
Ceramic Materials
APPLICATION OF CERAMICS
Glasses
Commercial Glasses
Metallic glass. To scientists, a glass is any material that can be cooled from a liquid
to a solid without crystallizing. Most metals do crystallize as they cool, arranging
their atoms into a highly regular spatial pattern called a lattice. But if crystallization
does not occur, and the atoms settle into a nearly random arrangement, the final form
is a metallic glass. Window glass possesses this same random atomic arrangement,
although it is not metallic. Unlike window panes, metallic glasses are not transparent,
yet their unusual atomic structure gives them distinctive mechanical and magnetic
properties. Unlike window glass, metallic glass is not brittle. Many traditional metals
are relatively easy to "deform," or bend permanently out of shape, because their
crystal lattices are riddled with defects. A metallic glass, in contrast, will spring back
to its original shape much more readily. Because they lack crystal defects, iron-based
metallic glasses are very efficient magnetic materials. And like window glass and
A Focused Approach
plastic, metallic glass softens as it is heated, making it easy to mold into a final shape.
In manufacturing, properties like these can have great appeal. But making a metallic
glass in thick, bulk form is not easy because most metals rush to crystalize as they
cool. To make a glass, the metal must harden before the crystal lattice has a chance to
form. To create a glass from a pure metal, such as copper or nickel, one would have to
cool it at about 1 trillion degrees Celsius per second. In the 1950s, however,
metallurgists learned how to slow the crystallization by mixing certain metals, such as
nickel and zirconium. When thin layers of such alloys were cooled at 1 million
degrees Celsius per second, they formed a metallic glass. Because of the rapid cooling
requirement, this material could only be made as a thin ribbon, a wire or a powder.
More recently, however, scientists have created about a dozen metallic glasses in bulk
form--bars, for example--by mixing four or five elements that possess atoms of
varying sizes. That makes it tougher for the mixture to form crystal lattices. One of
these new metallic glass alloys is being used commercially to make powerful golf
club heads. The properties of bulk metallic glasses -- their high strength-to-weight
ratios, high hardness, excellent wear properties, good forming and shaping qualities,
and their unusual magnetic properties as well -- hold promise for many important
applications. Ritchie's group is pursuing a wide range of measurements, including
electrochemical studies by team member and graduate student Valeska Schroeder
Strengthening of Glass. The rate of cooling directly affects the strength of glass. The regular
process of cooling - or annealing - float glass results in a slow rate. Stronger glass can be
produced by changing the rate of cooling. Two types of stronger glass are:
Heat-Strengthened Glass
Tempered Glass
Heat-strengthened glass is cooled at a rate faster than regular annealed glass. Tempered glass,
in turn, is cooled at a faster rate than heat strengthened glass. Another way to strengthen glass
is to use more than one lite of glass in the application. Laminated glass consists of two or
more lites of glass, joined by a layer of plastic.
In many modern buildings, the glass must be as strong as possible. Three basic reasons to
strengthen glass are to:
Increase Wind Load
Increase Impact Resistance
Combat Thermal Stress
Heat-strengthened glass is made by heating annealed glass uniformly, then cooling it at a
slower rate than tempered glass.
Characteristics include:
Is about twice as strong as regular annealed glass of the same size and thickness.
A Focused Approach
Is more resistant to wind loading and impacts than regular annealed glass though less
resistant than tempered glass.
Fractures into large, jagged pieces, similar to annealed glass.
Heat-strengthened glass is generally used in high-rise buildings to help the glass resist
thermal stress. It is also used in the making of spandrel glass. Spandrel glass is obscure glass
that is used in non-vision areas. Because heat-strengthened glass fractures into large jagged
pieces, it does not qualify as a safety glazing material. All building codes require safety
glazing for shower doors, commercial doors and store fronts for safety purposes.
Glass gains considerable strength from tempering. A lite of tempered glass is about four
times stronger than a lite of annealed glass of the same size and thickness. Characteristics
include:
The only characteristic of the annealed glass affected by tempering is its bending or tensile
strength:
Tempering increases the tensile strength of glass.
This makes tempered glass better able to resist the forces caused by heat, wind and
impact
Tempering does not change:
The color, chemical composition, or light transmission characteristics of the annealed
glass.
Its compression strength (the ability of the glass to resist crushing forces)
The rate at which the glass conducts and transmits heat.
The rate at which the glass expands when heated.
The stiffness of the glass.
The main reasons to use tempered glass are:
Tempered glass, when broken, is designed to shatter into cube-shaped particles. It
therefore qualifies as a safety glazing material.
Tempered glass offers greater strength against deflection, and thus, better resistance to
the force of wind, than heat-strengthened glass. It is more effective if placed within a
well-designed, overall glazing system.
Tempering increases the ability of glass to survive the impact of objects that may
strike the building. When tempered glass does break, it shatters into small cubes,
reducing the likelihood of serious injury on impact.
Tempering increases a lite's edge strength. Thus tempered glass is specified when
designers anticipate high thermal stresses.
Tempered glass is made by heating annealed glass uniformly. The glass can be from 1/8" to
3/4" thick. The annealed glass is then cooled rapidly by blowing air uniformly onto both
A Focused Approach
surfaces at the same time. This is known as air quenching. Rapid cooling increases the
compression forces on the surface and the tension forces inside the glass. Two processes are
used to temper glass:
Vertical tempering
Horizontal tempering
In vertical tempering tongs are used to suspend the glass from its top edge. It moves
vertically through the furnace in this manner. In horizontal tempering the glass moves
through the furnace on stainless steel or ceramic rollers. Of the two processes, horizontal
tempering is the more common. Tempered glass is identified by a permanent label, called the
bug, which is placed into the corner of each tempered lite. Tempered glass cannot be cut,
drilled or edged. These processes must be performed on the glass before tempering.
Laminated glass, sometimes called "lami," is made by placing a layer of polyvinyl butyral
(PVB) between two or more glass lites. The PVB can be clear or tinted and commonly varies
in thickness from .015" to .090", but it can be as thick as .120" for special applications. The
entire unit is then fused under heat and pressure in a special oven called an autoclave. The
laminating process can be performed on clear, tinted, reflective, heat-strengthened or
tempered glass. Characteristics include:
When laminated glass breaks, the glass particles adhere to the PVB and do not fly or fall.
Certain combinations of glass and PVB thicknesses qualify as safety glazing materials under
the health and safety standards set by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI). For
example, laminated glass with a .030 PVB layer sandwiched between two pieces of two-
millimeter annealed glass meets the minimum requirement for safety glazing.
Applications-In addition to safety glazing, laminated glass has many specialty applications,
including sound reduction and security.
ASSIGNMENT
Q. (AMIE S07, 4 marks): Why are ceramics brittle, while metals are ductile? Explain under
what condition a ductile metal can become brittle.
Q. (AMIE S07, 3 marks): Explain why ceramic material is usually bad conductor.
Q. (AMIE S07, 4 marks): What is metallic glass? Give two unique properties of metallic
glass explaining the causes.
Q. (AMIE W07, 8 marks): What are the different methods of strengthening of glass? Discuss
their relative merits and demerits.
Electronic Properties of Materials

SUPERCONDUCTIVITY
A Focused Approach
In a conventional superconductor, also known as a Type I superconductor, the electronic
fluid cannot be resolved into individual electrons. Instead, it consists of bound pairs of
electrons known as Cooper pairs. This pairing is caused by an attractive force between
electrons from the exchange of phonons. Due to quantum mechanics, the energy spectrum of
this Cooper pair fluid possesses an energy gap, meaning there is a minimum amount of
energy E that must be supplied in order to excite the fluid. Therefore, if E is larger than
the thermal energy of the lattice, given by kT, where k is Boltzmann's constant and T is the
temperature, the fluid will not be scattered by the lattice. The Cooper pair fluid is thus a
superfluid, meaning it can flow without energy dissipation.
In a class of superconductors known as Type II superconductors, including all known high-
temperature superconductors, an extremely small amount of resistivity appears at
temperatures not too far below the nominal superconducting transition when an electrical
current is applied in conjunction with a strong magnetic field, which may be caused by the
electrical current. This is due to the motion of vortices in the electronic superfluid, which
dissipates some of the energy carried by the current. If the current is sufficiently small, the
vortices are stationary, and the resistivity vanishes. The resistance due to this effect is tiny
compared with that of non-superconducting materials, but must be taken into account in
sensitive experiments. However, as the temperature decreases far enough below the nominal
superconducting transition, these vortices can become frozen into a disordered but stationary
phase known as a "vortex glass". Below this vortex glass transition temperature, the
resistance of the material becomes truly zero.
In superconducting materials, the characteristics of superconductivity appear when the
temperature T is lowered below a critical temperature Tc. The value of this critical
temperature varies from material to material. Conventional superconductors usually have
critical temperatures ranging from around 20 K (Kelvin) to less than 1 K. Solid mercury, for
example, has a critical temperature of 4.2 K.
Application of superconductivity
Superconducting magnets are some of the most powerful electromagnets known. They are
used in MRI and NMR machines and the beam-steering magnets used in particle accelerators.
They can also be used for magnetic separation, where weakly magnetic particles are extracted
from a background of less or non-magnetic particles, as in the pigment industries.
Superconductors have also been used to make digital circuits (e.g. based on the Rapid Single
Flux Quantum technology) and RF and microwave filters for mobile phone base stations.
Superconductors are used to build Josephson junctions which are the building blocks of
SQUIDs (superconducting quantum interference devices), the most sensitive magnetometers
known. Series of Josephson devices are used to define the SI volt. Depending on the
particular mode of operation, a Josephson junction can be used as photon detector or as
mixer. The large resistance change at the transition from the normal- to the superconducting
state is used to build thermometers in cryogenic micro-calorimeter photon detectors.
A Focused Approach
Other early markets are arising where the relative efficiency, size and weight advantages of
devices based on HTS outweigh the additional costs involved.
Promising future applications include high-performance transformers, power storage
devices, electric power transmission, electric motors (e.g. for vehicle propulsion, as in
vactrains or maglev trains), magnetic levitation devices, and Fault Current Limiters. However
superconductivity is sensitive to moving magnetic fields so applications that use alternating
current (e.g. transformers) will be more difficult to develop than those that rely upon direct
current.
ASSIGNMENT
Q.(AMIE S07, 4 marks): What is superconductor? Give an example of superconductor and
mention its advantages.
Q. (AMIE S07, 4 marks): Define (i) magnetic permeability (ii) magnetic susceptibility (iii)
ferromagnetism (iv) diamagnetism
Q. (AMIE S07, 4 marks): Differentiate between intrinsic semiconductor and extrinsic
semiconductor.
Q. (AMIE W07, 8 marks): Schematically draw loop diagrams for hard and soft magnetic
materials adnd outline the differences in their magnetic behaviours.
Polymers
PLASTICS
Classification of Plastics
Thermoplastic Plastics
Polybutylene Terephthalate (PBT). Polybutylene Terephthalate (PBT) is a
crystalline, high molecular weight polymer that has an excellent balance of properties
and processing characteristics. Because the material crystallizes rapidly, mold cycles
are short and molding temperatures can be lower than for many engineering plastics.
This thermoplastic polyester has very good dimensional stability. It also exhibits high
heat resistance, chemical resistance and good electricals. In general, PBT materials
exhibit higher tensile, flexural and dielectric strengths and faster, more economical
molding characteristics than many thermosets.
In some areas, PBT is replacing other crystalline thermoplastics such as
polypropylene, nylon and acetal because of the need for improved performance.
PBT can compete with many amorphous engineering materials such as polysulfone
and polycarbonate.
A Focused Approach
PBT's have excellent resistance to a broad range of chemicals at room temperature,
including aliphatic hydrocarbons, gasoline, carbon tetrachloride, perchloroethylene,
oils, fats, alcohols, glycols, esters, ethers and dilute acids and bases. They are attacked
by strong bases.
Compared to non-reinforced resin, glass-reinforced PBT exhibits a two-to threefold
increase in tensile, flexural and compressive strengths and moduli. The reinforced
resins exhibit good resistance to oxidation in hot air, comparable to that of nylon 6 or
nylon 6/6. Water absorption values are relatively low.
Advantages
1. Low water absorption
2. Moldability
3. Strength
Limitations
1. Affected by boiling water
2. Maximum use temperature is 300 degrees F (149 degrees C)
3. Chemical resistance
STRESS STRAIN CURVES FOR POLYMERS
Most materials fall into three basic categories of stretching behavior: elastic stretching,
viscous stretching, and plastic stretching. The below figure Figures A and B show typical
stress vs. strain curves and material behaviors for each category.
(a)
A Focused Approach
(b)
To illustrate these behaviors, an elastic material, like a rubber band, tends to retain a
memory of its original shape as stress (force) is applied. If the force is removed, the article
will return to its original shape. A viscous material such as tar or taffy, on the other hand,
has virtually no memory and is permanently deformed when force is applied. As additional
force is applied, the material will become thinner and break at its weakest point, as depicted
in Figure B. PET falls into a third stretching category, plastic. A typical stretching sequence
for PET is shown in Figure below.
Stress strain curve for PET

As force is applied to the material, there is a region where very little stretching occurs (A).
Here PET behaves somewhat like an elastic material: if it is stretched only a small amount
and released, it will shrink back to its original size. If stretching continues past the yield point
(B), the material will start to stretch and become thinner, causing permanent deformation.
This is followed by a region of continued stretching, where the amount of force remains
constant (C). Once the material has been stretched past its natural stretch ratio (NSR) (D), a
dramatic increase in force is required for additional stretching to occur. This is known as the
strain hardening region (E). It is here that the highly desired increases in physical properties
are maximized. Therefore, it is critical that the natural stretch ratio be surpassed slightly
during the stretch blow molding process.
SHAPE MEMORY EFFECT

The unique ability of shape memory alloys to be severely deformed and then returned to their
original shape simply by heating them, is called shape memory effect.
A Focused Approach
The shape memory effect is observed when the temperature of a piece of shape memory alloy
is cooled to below the temperature Mf. At this stage the alloy is completely composed of
Martensite which can be easily deformed. After distorting the SMA the original shape can be
recovered simply by heating the wire above the temperature Af. The heat transferred to the
wire is the power driving the molecular rearrangement of the alloy, similar to heat melting ice
into water, but the alloy remains solid. The deformed Martensite is now transformed to the
cubic Austenite phase, which is configured in the original shape of the wire.
The Shape memory effect is currently being implemented in:
Coffepots
The space shuttle
Thermostats
Vascular Stents
Hydraulic Fittings (for Airplanes)
SUPERELASTICITY
Pseudo-elasticity occurs in shape memory alloys when the alloy is completely composed of
Austenite (temperature is greater than Af). Unlike the shape memory effect, pseudo-elasticity
A Focused Approach
occurs without a change in temperature. The load on the shape memory alloy is increased
until the Austenite becomes transformed into Martensite simply due to the loading; this
process is shown in Figure 5. The loading is absorbed by the softer Martensite, but as soon as
the loading is decreased the Martensite begins to transform back to Austenite since the
temperature of the wire is still above Af, and the wire springs back to its original shape.
Superelastic alloys belong to the larger family of shape memory alloys. When mechanically
loaded, a superelastic alloy deforms reversibly to very high strains - up to 10% - by the
creation of a stress-induced phase. When the load is removed, the new phase becomes
unstable and the material regains its original shape. Unlike shape-memory alloys, no change
in temperature is needed for the alloy to recover its initial shape.
Superelastic devices take advantage of their large, reversible deformation and include
antennas, eyeglass frames, and biomedical stents.
Nickel Titanium is an example of an alloy exhibiting superelasticity.
Some examples of applications in which pseudo-elasticity is used are:
Eyeglass Frames
Bra Underwires
Medical Tools
Cellular Phone Antennae
Orthodontic Arches
CREEP OF POLYMERS
Creep can occur in polymers and metals which are considered viscoelastic materials. When a
polymeric material is subjected to an abrupt force, the response can be modeled using the
Kelvin-Voigt Model. In this model, the material is represented by a Hookean spring and a
Newtonian dashpot in parallel.
A Focused Approach
Applied stress (a) and induced strain (b) as functions of time over an extended period
for a viscoelastic material.
Applied stress (a) and induced strain (b) as functions of time over a short period for a
viscoelastic material.
When subjected to a step constant stress, viscoelastic materials experience a time-dependent
increase in strain. This phenomenon is known as viscoelastic creep.
A Focused Approach
At a time t0, a viscoelastic material is loaded with a constant stress that is maintained for a
sufficiently long time period. The material responds to the stress with a strain that increases
until the material ultimately fails.
When the stress is maintained for a shorter time period, the material undergoes an initial
strain until a time t1, after which the strain immediately decreases (discontinuity) then
gradually decreases at times t > t1 to a residual strain.
Additionally, the molecular weight of the polymer of interest is known to affect its creep
behavior. The effect of increasing molecular weight tends to promote secondary bonding
between polymer chains and thus make the polymer more creep resistant. Similarly, aromatic
polymers are even more creep resistant due to the added stiffness from the rings. Both
molecular weight and aromatic rings add to polymers' thermal stability, increasing the creep
resistance of a polymer.
Both polymers and metals can creep. Polymers experience significant creep at all
temperatures above ~-200C, however there are three main differences between polymetric
and metallic creep. Metallic creep:
is not linearly viscoelastic
is not recoverable
only significant at high temperatures
ASSIGNMENT
Q. (AMIE S07, 5 marks): Differentiate between thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers
giving examples of both.
Q. (AMIE S07, 4 marks): Define : plastic, elastomer, monomer, copolymer
Q. (AMIE W07, 10 marks): With the help of a typical stress strain curve for polyethylene
terephthalate (PET), explain its behaviour on application of load. Highlight the regions and
points of interest to a materials engineers. Justify why polybutylene terephthalate is preferred
over PET for making engineering parts.
Q. (AMIE W07, 6 marks): Distinguish between shape memory effect and superelasticity.
Q. (AMIE W07, 3 marks): Can you explain creep behaviour of polymers?

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AMIE(I) STUDY CIRCLE(REGD.

Additional Course Material

Medium Carbon Steel

Also 0.3f + 0.7 m = 100 N

Under iso strain conditions

Almost all the load is carried by glass fibre.

Calculate the Youngs modulus of a composite containing 60 vol% of glass fibre (Y = 70 GN

st = cu (205000 MPa /110000 MPa) = 1.86s cu

= (140 x106 N / m 2 )(2.4 x106 m 2 ) + (260 x106 N / m 2 )(0.8 x106 m 2 )

= 0.25(205000 MPa) + 0.75(110, 000) MPa

With transverse loading

A fibre reinforced polystyrene contains 75 wt% of borosilicate glass fibre oriented in a

(a) s = (90MPa. m) /(1.1 0.002m) = 1030 MPa

Crystal Structure, Defects in Solids and Diffusion in

where is the shear modulus of the crystal.

At 9500 C, a 0.8% carbon steel is getting decarburized for a duration of 4 hr in an

Phase Transformations and Diagrams

Electronic Properties of Materials

Stress strain curve for PET

SHAPE MEMORY EFFECT

The Shape memory effect is currently being implemented in:

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