Composite Materials for Aerospace Application

Composite materials are created and applied to take

advantage of the high strength and/or stiffness of fibers.
Fibers are combined with a matrix material in order
to create a useful structure. The matrix
• Binds the fibers together
• Transfers loads to the fibers
• Protects fibers from damage
Specific matrix materials are usually selected
according to the manufacturing processes to be
used.

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 Fiber and Matrix Material Selection
Selection of materials for a composite structure requires
consideration of much more than properties in a table.
Selection of the fiber, the form in which the fiber is to be
used, and the matrix material involves many factors.
• Structural performance
– Strength
– Stiffness
• Shape
• Environmental conditions, e.g., fatigue,
temperature, humidity, corrosives
• Number to be produced

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 Fiber Materials
For many materials, much higher
strength can be achieved in fiber form
than in bulk form.
Several of these materials are
suitable for use in fiber composites.
• Glass
• Carbon
• Boron
• Aramid, e.g., Kevlar (DuPont)
• Other materials, such as SiC and Al2O3
used in metal or ceramic matrix
Let’s compare some properties of these materials.

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 Representative Fiber Properties
Fiber Density Tensile Tensile Diameter
(g/cm3) Modulus Strength (m)
(GPa) (MPa)
Glass
E-glass 2.54 72.4 3450 3-20
S-glass 2.49 85.5 4590 8-13
Carbon
AS4 1.77 241 4130 6-7
IM6 1.74 276 5130
Aramid
Kevlar 29 1.44 62 2760 12
Boron
100 m 2.61 400 3450 100
200 m 2.39 400 3450 200

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 Fiber (Pre-Preg) Forms

Tape: Unidirectional fibers

Fabric: Simple and complex weaves

that are selected depending on the
application.

Plain 5-harness satin 8-harness satin

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 Matrix Materials
• Although some fiber composite structures have been
produced with thermoplastic matrix, most to date have
utilized thermosets.
• Many lower cost composite structures have used
polyester resins.
• For higher performance requirements, such as in
aerospace applications, epoxies are most commonly
used.
• Epoxies have reasonably high modulus and strength.
• Epoxies exhibit low shrinkage on cure (good for
adhesives).
• Epoxy service temperature to 125-175ºC.

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 Potential Benefits of Thermoplastic Composites
• Thermoplastics bring to fiber composites some
advantages over thermosets:
– Fracture toughness
– Environmental resistance
– Potentially simplified joining and repair
– Faster turn over time in production
• Thermoplastics also offer the potential for lower cost
fabrication.
• However, the manufacturing processes for
thermoplastic composites are different from those for
thermoset composites and require different equipment.

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Representative Matrix Material Properties
Matrix Material Density Tensile Tensile
(g/cm3) Modulus Strength
(GPa) (MPa)
Thermosets
Epoxy @23ºC 1.2 3.12 75.8
Epoxy 1.2 1.4 26.2
@149ºC
Polyimides 1.46 120
Thermoplastic
PEEK 1.30 3.24 92
PEI 1.27 3.0 105
PPS 1.32 3.3 70
Aluminum
alloys
2024 2.7 71 240

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 Unidirectional Composite Material Coordinates

The basic element of a unidirectional composite is a thin sheet (ply).

Material axes are defined as follows:

Longitudinal direction (1) – parallel to fibers

Transverse direction (2) – perpendicular to fibers in plane
Normal direction (3) – out of plane

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 Modeling Unidirectional Composite Behavior

• Fibers are assumed to be all the same (perhaps with circular

cross section) and uniformly distributed throughout the
matrix.
• The quantity of fibers present is expressed as the fiber
volume fraction , Vf.

• The matrix volume fraction is given by Vm = 1 - Vf.

• Composite density: c = fVf + mVm.

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 Composite Modulus using
Rule of Mixtures

Longitudinal Modulus: E1 = Vf Ef + Vm Em

1 V f Vm
Transverse Modulus:  
E2 E f Em

1 V f Vm
Shear Modulus:  
G G f Gm

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 Example: Composite Modulus
Calculate the density and longitudinal modulus for a
graphite/epoxy composite material with a fiber volume
fraction of 70%.
The properties for the carbon fibers and epoxy matrix is
as follows:
Carbon Fibers:
Density = 1.77 gm/cm3
Modulus = 241 GPa

Epoxy Matrix:
Density = 1.2 gm/cm3
Modulus = 3.12 GPa

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 Unidirectional Composite Properties
Material Fiber Density Tensile Tensile Specific Specific
Vol. (g/cm3) Modulus Strength Tensile Modulus
Fract. (GPa) (MPa) Strength
Boron-Ep 0.50 2.00 204 1260 630 102
Carbon-Ep
AS/H3501 0.66 1.60 138 1447 904 86
IM6/epoxy 0.66 1.60 203 3500 2188 127
AS4/APC2 0.66 1.60 134 2130 1331 84
Kevlar 49/Ep 0.60 1.46 76 1400 959 52
E-glass/Ep 0.45 1.80 38.6 1060 589 21
4340 Steel 7.8 207 990 127 27
2014-T6 Al 2.8 72 460 164 26
Ti-6Al-4V 4.5 110 930 207 24

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 Composite Laminates
A useful structure will require that fibers be oriented in more
than one direction. A common approach to creating such a
structure is by stacking layers, or plies, to form a laminate.

Ply orientations are defined using the angle θ (1-2 axis

relative to the x-y axis).
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 Laminate Stacking Sequence Definition
• Sequence of plies (laminae) within lay-up
• Ply orientations are defined using the angle  (1-axis
relative to the x-axis).
• Individual ply angles are separated by slashes, e.g,
45/0/-45
• Plies are ordered top to bottom (positive z-direction)
• The total stacking sequence is enclosed in square
brackets
• Subscripts
– s: symmetric with respect to middle surface
– n: repeated n times
• Center layer uses overbar in symmetric lay-up with
odd number of plies.
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 Stacking Sequence Examples

0o
90 o
[(0/-30/30)2]
o
45
45 o
0o
90 o
 30 o
0o
 30 o
[0/90/45]S 0o
 30 o
 30 o

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 Stacking Sequence Examples
[±45/02/90]S 0o
90 o
 45 o
0o
 45 o 90 o
0o 45 o
0o 90 o
90 o 0o
90 o 90 o
0o 0o
0o
 45 o
 45 o 0 / 90 2 / 45 s

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 Composite Structure Manufacturing
• An engineer must understand the capabilities and
limitations of manufacturing processes to create cost-
effective designs, regardless of the materials to be used.
• In order to design any composite structure, it is essential
that the processes be understood.
• Selection of processes depends on
– the type and form of material
– the shape of the parts to be made (some shapes
cannot be made)
– the quantity to be produced
– the quality, e.g., tolerances required
– the allowable cost of manufacturing

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 Manufacturing Processes
• Manual lay-up
– Wet lay-up
– Prepreg lay-up
• Bag Molding
• Autoclave processing
• Filament winding
• Resin transfer molding
• Thermoplastic composites

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 Wet Lay-up
Wet lay-up is the simplest and most widely used process.
Layers of dry fabric are placed on a mold and resin is
brushed or sprayed on.
Advantages:
Large parts
Low tooling cost

Disadvantages:
Labor intensive
Uniformity difficult
to maintain

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 Prepreg Lay-up
Prepreg is preimpregnated fiber-reinforced material.
Fiber can be unidirectional (tape) or woven fabric.
Advantages:
High fiber volume fractions
Unidirectional material not possible with wet lay-up
Uniform fiber distribution -- higher quality
Simplified manufacturing
Disadvantages:
Labor intensive (like wet lay-up)
More expensive curing equipment
Added cost of prepreg
Thermoset prepregs have limited shelf life

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 Vacuum Bag Molding
Application of uniform pressure before curing improves
consolidation and facilitates removal of excess resin and
volatiles.
The stack of prepreg plies, built up on the tool surface, is
covered with a film of flexible, heat-resistant material.

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Vacuum Bag Molding

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 Autoclave Processing
An autoclave is a pressure vessel that permits application
of a higher pressure than a vacuum bag alone.

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 Autoclave Systems

Aircraft parts stacked in an

autoclave

Laboratory-size autoclave

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Typical Cure Cycle for Carbon/Epoxy Composite

200

160

120
Temperature (C)

80

40 Temperature
Pressure

0
0 100 200 300
Time (min)

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 Filament Winding
Filament winding wraps a continuous reinforcement of
resin-impregnated fibers onto a mandrel.
The combination of mandrel rotation and axial motion of
fiber source produce a helical pattern.

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 Filament Winding
Advantages:
Automated process – low labor cost
Capable of making large parts
Disadvantages:
Limited to axisymmetric parts
Void content may be high without the use of an
autoclave.
In winding thick parts, the process may have to be
stopped to allow partial cure of initial layers, as the
pressure of additional layers may squeeze out resin.

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Filament-Wound Products

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 Resin Transfer Molding (RTM)
In RTM, resin injected into a mold that contains a fiber
preform. The mold is heated to cure the resin.

Advantages:
High quality
Good surface finish
Large parts
Disadvantages:
Expensive mold
Limited Vf

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Vacuum Assisted Resin Transfer Molding
(VARTM)

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 Manufacturing Thermoplastic Composites
• Processes adapted from thermoset processes
• Pultrusion
• Filament winding
• Provision must be made for melting the matrix
material prior to creating shape.
• Equipment must allow for higher temperature
• Matched die forming, as used for sheet metal, is also
used for thermoplastic composites.

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Rubber Forming

With external heating,

the dies can be
maintained at a lower
temperature.

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Diaphragm Forming

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 AV-8B Harrier
Composite Wing Box

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 V-22 Osprey
Composite Primary Structure (Carbon, Glass)

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 B-2 Spirit
All Composite Skin and Much of Other Structure

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 Use of Composites in Military Aircraft

R. Martin & D. Evans, JOM, 52, 2000 pp. 24-28 38

 Commercial Transport Aircraft
The Boeing 787 has 50% of its primary structure made
of composites.

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