International Journal of Computer Applications (0975 8887)

Volume 77 No.11, September 2013

Programmable Logic Controllers

Richa Netto Aditya Bagri

Thadomal Shahani Engineering College, Mumbai Thadomal Shahani Engineering College, Mumbai
University University
Bandra, Mumbai - 400050 Bandra, Mumbai - 400050
Maharashtra, India Maharashtra, India

ABSTRACT timing, counting, and arithmetic to control, through digital or

The analysis carried out in this technical paper highlights the analog input/output modules, various types of machines or
concepts, working, advantages and practical applications of processes.[1]
programmable logic controllers, along with a comparison with Programmable Logic Controllers are hardware and software
other control systems. A PLC aids in automation of a process engineered microcomputers, used to provide industrial control
by monitoring inputs and controlling outputs after making a operations. A PLC audits inputs, makes decisions according to
decision on the basis of its program. It is commonly used for its program, and uses these decisions to administer outputs to
controlling many mechanical movements of heavy machinery automate a process or machine. The PLC is proficient in
and to control the voltage and frequency of power supplies. various tasks, including storage of instructions pertaining to
PLCs offer an array of advantages over other control systems, sequencing, timing, counting, arithmetic, data manipulation
and have hence evolved as an important controller in and communication with the objective of controlling
industries these days owing to its large number of machines and processes.
applications.
3. BASIC COMPONENTS OF A PLC
General Terms The basic components of a PLC are as follows:
Control Systems

Keywords
Automation, Ladder Logic, SCADA, Control Loop, Scan
Cycle, EEPROM Power Supply
1. INTRODUCTION Signals Signals to
In the past, humans were the main methods for controlling a from
Memory solenoids,
system. Over the years, control engineering has evolved to
sensors, motors
include electricity in control systems. Previously,
switches CPU etc.
electromechanical relay based control systems were used. Input Output
These systems obviated the use of switches for power on and etc
power off actions. Elementary logic control decisions are
predominantly undertaken by relays.
The advancement of economical computers has brought about
a modern revolution, the Programmable Logic Controller Programming Device
(PLC). The PLC has its origins around the 1970s in the
automation and motor manufacturing industries.
Figure 1: Block diagram of a PLC
2. DESCRIPTION
Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs), also referred to as 3.1 I/O Modules
programmable controllers, are a classification in computers. It I/O modules physically connect to field devices. Since there
is a device that performs discrete or continuous control logic are different types of input and output devices, the process
in process plant or factory environments. PLCs are used in determines the type of input or output module selected, digital
commercial and industrial applications. They have become or analog.
popular since their inception in a wide variety of operations Inputs give the controller real-time status of variables in the
from boiler control to robot control. form of real world signals. These variables can be analog,
The Allen-Bradley Company (Rockwell Automation) coined register or discrete. Typical analog inputs can be from
the term Programmable Logic Controllers as well as the thermocouples, RTDs, flow, pressure, and temperature
corresponding acronym PLC. Both of these are therefore transmitters. These inputs are transmitted over the I/O bus to
registered trademarks of the company. The National Electrical the central processor unit after being converted into digital
Manufacturers Association (NEMA) defines a programmable data. The input module is entrusted with the operation of
logic controller as: converting electrical signals flowing in from input field
devices like push buttons to electrical signals that the PLC can
A digitally operating electronic apparatus which uses a understand.[2] Examples of input modules include limit
programmable memory for the internal storage of instructions switches, proximity switches and push buttons.
for implementing specific functions such as logic, sequencing,

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 International Journal of Computer Applications (0975 8887)
Volume 77 No.11, September 2013

The working of a processor is as follows: The signal to the

input modules is transmitted by the machine or process input
elements. The input modules then generate a logic signal that
is sent to the CPU. When it receives instructions from the
memory and the feedback on the status of the I/O devices, the
CPU produces commands for the output devices. These
commands control the devices on a machine or a process.[4]
Typical loads to be controlled are devices such as solenoid
valves, indicator lamps, relay coils and motor starters.

3.3 Power Supply

PLCs and their constituting modules are equipped with power
generated from a power supply. The power supply converts
power line voltages into those required by the solid-state
components. It may be integral or separately mounted which
Figure 2: Input Module provides the isolation necessary to protect solid-state
components from high-voltage line spikes. The power supply
The output module converts the signals containing
also provides the heat dissipation required for the plant floor
instructions of the desired status of outputs into real world
operation. It drives the Central Processor Unit, I/O logic
outputs after they have been transmitted over the I/O bus to
signals, memory unit and some peripheral devices.[5] The
the module. There are three categories of outputs: discrete,
expansion of I/O has lead to increased power requirement of
register and analog. Information flowing out from the PLC is
some PLCs. Hence, they are furnished with additional power
again converted into electrical signals that can be interpreted
supplies.
by the output field devices, by the output module. Examples
of these output devices are motor starters or hydraulic 3.4 Memory Unit
solenoid valves. The memory unit of a PLC is the registry where the programs
are stored. The fundamental unit of memory is the word.
Words are made up of bits. A bit is a single piece of data. It
contains information on only two states (ON/OFF or
YES/NO). Longer words contain more information within.
Programs are combination of words that produce control
logic.
Memory can be volatile or non-volatile. Volatile memory is
undesirable as is results in loss of data when power is
removed. Battery backup is usually a feature of volatile
memory systems. On the other hand, power outages do not
result in change of state of the non-volatile memory.
Therefore, it is administered in cases where it is expected that
the transportation time to the job site will be long or extended
power outages will be frequent.
Figure 3: Output Module
Memory is of three types: Read Only Memory (ROM),
3.2 Processor Read/Write Memory (R/W) and Random-Access Memory
The processor is the intellect behind the PLC. It is similar in (RAM).[6] Another type of memory is the electrically alterable
construction to the microprocessor used in personal programmable read only memory (EAPROM).
computers. The Central Processor Unit (CPU) performs tasks
such as self-diagnostics, memory management, data handling 3.5 Network Interface
execution, scanning, peripheral and external device PLCs are capable of communicating with other devices like
communications, resource sharing, program execution and I/O computers running programming software, a terminal that lets
bus traffic control.[3] an operator enter commands into the PLC, or an I/O that is
located in a remote location from the PLC. This
Execution of various logic and sequencing functions is carried communication is carried out through a network interface.
out by the CPU, which operates on the PLC inputs to There are two ways in which the network interface can be a
determine the appropriate output signals. Operations such as part of the PLC: it can be built directly into the PLC or it can
adding, subtracting, multiplying, dividing and comparing are appear as a plug on the front of the PLC.[7]
performed by the Arithmetic Logic Unit which is usually a
part of the CPU (but sometimes it is separate). 3.6 Programming Units
Programming units form an interface between the requirement
of the programmer and the understanding of the PLC. In the
course of program development, system initialisation and
troubleshooting, the programmer provides for an interface
between the PLC and the user. This programming device is
used to code and insert into memory the instructions that are
to be performed during the scan.
Figure 4: Central Processing Unit

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 International Journal of Computer Applications (0975 8887)
Volume 77 No.11, September 2013

Programming devices vary greatly in size, ranging from small

units that are hand-held to large, astute CRT-based units with
the ability to document, compute I/O status and work in both
online as well as offline modes.[8] A personal computer is the
CHECK INPUT STATUS
most commonly used programming device.
PLCs are configured using the software that runs on personal EXECUTE PROGRAM
computers. Different products may require different
programming software. Software allows programs to be
written in several different languages and allows users to
create, edit, document, store and troubleshoot programs. UPDATE OUTPUT STATUS

4. PROGRAMMING A PLC
PLCs are programmed in two ways. One is to directly connect
the PLC to a computer and the other is to make use of a Figure 5: Scan Cycle
programming panel. Logical commands are used to program Control circuits have been conventionally described using
the PLC in both scenarios. The panels used in programming a ladder diagrams. Ladder diagrams consist of rungs; each one
PLC differ greatly in their intricacies, ranging from simple of these is a program statement. A program statement is
keypads to hand-held computers with a screen for graphics. basically a condition, or a set of conditions (input). Each one
The programming software is operated on computers with of these conditions has an action (output) associated with
graphics, simulators, diagnostics and auditing. After the them that is executed if the condition is satisfied. Elementary
software programmer develops the program, it is tested and logic operators like AND, OR and NOT are used to perform
then sent to the PLC. This can be done using magnetic tapes, logical operations required by the PLC. They combine the
compact disks, and communication links. However, the most instructions in the program statement (present on a PLC rung)
common method for the transfer of a program to the PLC is thus making the result of each run either true or false (1 or
by using a chip to which the program is written, commonly 0).[10]
known as an EEPROM. After this, the chip is plugged into the
PLC. The memory can be erased by exposure to UV light and The instructions entered using a programming device
reused but it cannot be overwritten.[6] determine what action will be performed by the PLC for a
particular input. A device acting as an operator interface
The PROGRAM mode of the processor is used when the displays process information and provides for the addition of
program has to be entered into the PLC. The instructions are new process parameters to increase or decrease level of
entered sequentially, one at a time with the help of the control.
programming device. The controller is made to work in the
RUN state (or operating cycle) when the program has to be 6. COMPARISON OF PLCs WITH
carried out. As a consequence of each operating cycle, the
controller reviews the status of the input devices, executes the
OTHER CONTROL SYSTEMS
program that has been entered and alters the outputs PLCs are predominantly used in industrial processes where
accordingly. the development and maintenance costs of the automation
system exceeds the total cost of automation and where it
5. WORKING OF A PLC might be necessary to alter the system during its operational
The main components of a PLC are input modules, a Central life, examples of these include motion and positioning control.
Processing Unit (CPU), and output modules. A variety of Also, they cater to applications where the system required is
digital or analog signals are accepted from various field highly customized. However, PLCs lack the capability
devices by the input module. They are then converted into a requisite of highly complex algorithmic processes, like in the
logic signal that the CPU can use. The program instructions chemical industry.
stored in the memory form the basis upon which the CPU Different techniques entailing the use of microcontrollers,
makes decisions. These decisions eventually result in relay systems, minicomputers, solid-state controls, digital
execution of the control instructions as required by the logic control systems and electronic continuous control
program. Control instructions from the CPU are converted systems, among many others, are preferred for high volume or
into a digital or analog signal by the output module. This simple fixed automation tasks.
signal can be used to control various field devices. A PLC
works by scrutinizing a program, instruction by instruction, Relays can construct complicated control systems by linking
continuously. This process is also known as scanning. One an array of logic components. On the other hand, a typical
scan time is defined as the time taken to complete the three relay system has hundreds of switching contacts, presenting
steps. The control loop is a continuous cycle of the PLC the design engineer with a daunting task especially when the
reading inputs, solving the ladder logic, and then changing the control function of a panel has to be changed, eventually
outputs.[9] resulting in complete re-wiring of the system. They do not
provide the troubleshooting exibility offered by modern
programmable control systems. Relays also take up more
space and require regular maintenance.[11] In addition, the
high cost, low speed and lack of reliability has resulted in the
replacement of relay systems by modern substitutes. Relays
remain optimal for reconstruction of small control signals to
higher current or higher voltage driving signals. This explains
their comprehensive usage as output devices for other control
systems.

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Table 1: Comparison of PLCs with other Control System[3]

Parameters Relays Solid-State Microprocessor Minicomputer Digital Logic PLCs

Controls

Hardware cost Low Equal Low High Average (can be Depends

high in small on number
quantities) of controls
Versatility Low Low Yes Yes Yes
Troubleshooting and Poor Poor Poor Poor Poor if ICs are Good
maintainability soldered
Computer No No Yes Yes Yes Yes
compatible

Arithmetic capability No No Yes Yes Yes Yes

Programming cost (Wiring) (Wiring) High High High Low Low
High
Reusable No No Yes Yes Yes
Space required Largest Large Small Ok Fairly compact Small
Operating speed Slow Faster than Fairly fast Fairly fast Fairly fast Fast
electro-
mechanical
relays

PLCs have a logic called PID (proportional, integral, makes it possible to condense more functions into smaller and
derivative) controller. Usually, PLCs are constructed with less expensive packages. The cost of a PLC is recovered in a
very less analog loops; processes that require a large number short period, hence making it highly economical.
of loops are based on distributed control system (DCS). With
time, as the power of the PLC increases, the gap between When changes are made to the program circuit or sequence
applications of PLCs and DCSs has lessened greatly.[12] design or when a programming fault has to be revised in the
ladder diagram, the necessary amendments can be made easily
Digital Logic Control Systems use logic gates to process by just typing it in using a keyboard. This results in faster, and
information (exclusively encompassing binary signals). Logic at the same time, convenient troubleshooting.
gates run at much higher speeds, cause lesser power
consumption and occupy considerably lesser space than a If the need arises, an instantaneous printout of the original
corresponding relay circuit. Nonetheless, they are incapable of PLC circuit can be made available effortlessly, hence making
switching to higher power driving signals. documentation very efficient. The PLC prints out the actual
circuit in operation at a given moment.[7] There is no need to
Operational amplifiers, a part of Electronic Continuous look for the blueprint of the circuit in remote files. Due to
Control Systems involve the performance of mathematical their solid-state nature, PLCs are extremely compact and
operations like integration, differentiation, etc. They were much more reliable when compared with hardwired
utilized in the field of continuous control and lead to the controllers. Ergo, the costs of maintaining PLC based control
simplification of complex control functions with discrete systems are low.[13]
electronic systems. Largely built on linear integrated circuits,
analog control is efficient with high speed. The fine-tuning of A PLC can form networks to communicate with other devices
such systems during designing coupled with their fixed nature like controllers. They can be correlated to perform operations
continues to cause hindrances. such as supervisory control, data gathering, monitoring
devices and process parameters, and downloading and
A design based on microcontrollers is pertinent in systems uploading of programs. PLCs consume only 10% of the power
where hundreds or thousands of units are to be produced consumed by an equivalent relay logic controller and hence
where the end-user would not have to alter the control and the also save energy.
development costs are large. They can be a part of sequence
and continuous control systems. Both microprocessors and 8. DISADVANTAGES
microcontrollers simplify connection requirements due to The stop button is employed to disconnect a circuit in relay
their small size, making them easily locatable at the point of system; the system stops if the power fails. The PLC can be
final control. programmed to perform this function; although, in certain
programs, to stop a device, one may have to apply an input
7. ADVANTAGES voltage. Being fail-safe is not one of the features of this
To implement changes in control logic of a PLC no rewiring system.
is required which saves considerable time. PLCs can carry out
complex functions such as generation of time relays, counting, Some applications are single-function applications. It does not
comparing, arithmetic operations, etc. Increased technology pay to use a PLC that includes multiple programming
capabilities if they are not needed. One of the conspicuous

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 International Journal of Computer Applications (0975 8887)
Volume 77 No.11, September 2013

features of PLC that is reprogramming would not be required 11. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

since their operational sequence is very rarely altered.[7] This technical paper has been done under the support and
In a process, the environment may experience high heat, guidance of Mr. G.K. Dey, Manager (Engineering Services,
vibration, and direct contact with electrical appliances within Instrumentation) at Godrej Industries Limited.
the PLC. Such events continuously disrupt the performance of
the PLC. In addition, professional expertise is required to 12. REFERENCES
replace the previously used control system employing relay [1] W. Bolton, Programmable Logic Controllers, Fifth
ladder by a PLC computer concept as the technology is Edition, Newnes, 2009.
comparatively new. [2] Clarence T. Jones, Programmable Logic Controllers:
The Complete Guide to the Technology, Patrick-Turner,
9. APPLICATIONS 1996.
PLC is used as a widespread controller that has numerous
applications. With the program installed in its memory, it [3] W.N. Clare, G. T. Kaplan, D. R. Saldon, A. C.
provides the user with a simple method of changing, Wiktorowicz, R. A. Gilbert, C. W. Wendt, Process
extending and optimizing control processes. In a PLC, input Control and Optimization Volume II.
signals are interconnected in accordance with a specified
[4] James A. Rehg, Glenn J. Sartori, Programmable Logic
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Controllers, Prentice Hall Higher Education, 2009.
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repetitive and monotonous, it requires careful attention of the [7] Dr. D. J. Jackson, Programmable Logic Controllers
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generation, fabrication and refining. Infrastructure processes and Ladder Logic, April 2008.
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water collection and treatment, oil and gas pipelines, electric Relay Ladder Logic, IEEE Control Systems, First IEEE
power transmission and distribution, wind farms, civil defence Conference on Control Applications, September 1992.
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[11] Gregory K. McMillan, Douglas M. Considine (ed),
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stage air conditioning system, speed control of DC motor and [12] Sanjeev Gupta, S C Sharma, Selection and Application
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10. CONCLUSION 64, April 2005, pp. 249-255.
The requirement for higher quality and reliability in control
techniques has stemmed from a constant demand for better [13] Prof. Jose A. Rodriguez Mondejar, Programmable
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for relays, various math and logic manipulations were [15] Vishal Kumar Alok, Ajay Goel, To study the different
gradually added to the PLC along with the incorporation of industrial applications of PLC through ladder diagrams,
smaller cases, faster CPUs, networking and various Internet National Institute of Technology Rourkela, May 2011.
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vital to a great extent of automation processes. New values
make an addition to their potential incessantly.

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