Chenming Hu Ch1 Slides

Chapter 1 Electrons and Holes
in Semiconductors
1.1 Silicon Crystal Structure
Unit cell of silicon crystal is

cubic.
Each Si atom has 4 nearest

neighbors, as the diamond
structure. [C or diamond
and Ge are the same]
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 1-1
Silicon Wafers and Crystal Planes
The standard notation

z z z
for crystal planes is

y y y based on the cubic
x x
unit cell.
(100) x (011) (111)
Silicon wafers are

usually cut along the
(100) plane with a flat
or notch to help orient
Si (111) plane the wafer during IC
fabrication.
1.2 Bond Model of Electrons and Holes
Silicon crystal in
a two-dimensional
representation.
1.1 eV
When an electron breaks loose and becomes a conduction

electron, a hole is also created.
Dopants in Silicon
As (or P), a Group V element, introduces conduction electrons and creates

N-type silicon, and is called a donor.
B, a Group III element, introduces holes and creates P-type silicon,
m0 q4
and is called an acceptor. Hydrogen: E = = 13.6 eV
Donors and acceptors are known ion
80 h
2 2
as dopants. Dopant ionization
GaAs, III-V Compound Semiconductors, and Their Dopants
Si replace small Ga as a donor,

Ge replace As as an acceptor.
GaAs has the same crystal structure as Si.
GaAs, GaP, GaN are III-V compound semiconductors, important for
optoelectronics (LED, laser, 4.13 or high speed device 6.3.2).
Wich group of elements are candidates for donors? acceptors?
S, Se replace As as donor, group II (Zn) replaces Ga as acceptor.
1.3 Energy Band Model
Energy states of Si atom (a) expand into energy bands of Si crystal (b).
The lower bands are filled and higher bands are empty in a semiconductor.
The highest filled band is the valence band.
The lowest empty band is the conduction band .
1.3.1 Energy Band Diagram
Energy band diagram shows the bottom edge of conduction band,

Ec , and top edge of valence band, Ev .
Ec and Ev are separated by the band gap energy, Eg .
Measuring the Band Gap Energy by Light Absorption
Eg can be determined from the minimum energy (h) of

photons that are absorbed by the semiconductor.
Bandgap energies of selected semiconductors
1.3.2 Donor and Acceptor in the Band Model
Ionization energy of selected donors and acceptors in silicon
1.4 Semiconductors, Insulators, and Conductors
Totally filled bands and totally empty bands do not allow

current flow. (Just as there is no motion of liquid in a
. totally empty bottle.)
totally filled or
Metal conduction band is half-filled.
Semiconductors have lower Eg 's than insulators and can be
doped.
1.5 Electrons and Holes
Both electrons and holes tend to seek their lowest

energy positions.
Electrons tend to fall in the energy band diagram.
Holes float up like bubbles in water,. electrons as water drops.
1.5.1 Effective Mass
The electron wave function is the solution of the three
dimensional Schrodinger wave equation
2
2 + V ( r ) =
2m 0
The solution is of the form exp( k r)
k = wave vector = 2/electron wavelength
For each k, there is a corresponding E.
q d 2 E F
accelerati on = 2 2
=
dk m
2
effective mass 2
d E / dk 2
1.5.1 Effective Mass
In an electric field, E, an electron or a hole accelerates.
electrons
holes
Electron and hole effective masses
1.5.2 How to Measure the Effective Mass
Cyclotron Resonance Technique
Centripetal force = Lorentzian force
mn v 2
= qvB
r
fcr is the Cyclotron resonance frequency.
qBr
v= It is independent of v and r.
mn Electrons strongly absorb microwaves of
v qB
f cr = = that frequency. (MW, 2.54 GHz)
2r 2mn By varying B until a peak in absorption fcr,
mn can be found.
1.6 Density of States
number of states in E 1
Dc ( E ) 3
E volume eV cm
8mn 2mn (E Ec )
Dc ( E )
h3
8m p 2m p (Ev E ) Derived in Appendix I
Dv ( E ) 3
h
1.7 Thermal Equilibrium and the Fermi Function
1.7.1 An Analogy for Thermal Equilibrium
There is a certain probability for the electrons in the

conduction band to occupy high-energy states under
the agitation of thermal energy.
Appendix II. Probability of a State at E being Occupied
There are g1 states at E1, g2 states at
E2 There are N electrons, which
constantly shift among all the states
but the average electron energy is
fixed at 3kT/2.
There are many ways to distribute
N among n1, n2, n3.and satisfy the
3kT/2 condition.
The equilibrium distribution is the distribution that
maximizes the number of combinations of placing n1 in g1
slots, n2 in g2 slots. :
ni/gi =
EF is a constant determined by the condition n i =N

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu)
1.7.2 Fermi FunctionThe Probability of an Energy State
Being Occupied by an Electron
1 Ef is called the Fermi energy or
f (E) = ( E E f ) / kT the Fermi level.
1+ e
Boltzmann approximation:
E
(
EE f ) kT
f (E) e
(
EE f ) kT f (E) e E E f >> kT
Ef + 3kT
Ef + 2kT
( )
E
f
E f E kT E E f << kT
f (E) 1 e
Ef + kT
Ef
Ef kT
Ef 2kT There is only one Fermi
Ef 3kT
( )
E f E kT
level in a system at thermal
f (E) 1 e
f(E) equilibrium
0.5 1
1.8 Electron and Hole Concentrations
1.8.1 Derivation of n and p from D(E) and f(E)
top of conduction band
n= f ( E ) Dc ( E )dE
Ec
8mn 2mn ( ) kT

EE f
n= E Ec e dE
h3 Ec
8mn 2mn (Ec E f ) kT E Ec ( E Ec ) kT

=
h 3
e 0
E E c e d ( E Ec)
Electron and Hole Concentrations
Nc is called the effective
( Ec E f ) / kT
n = Nce density of states (of the
conduction band) .
2mn kT
32
It is as if all the energy states in the
N c 2 conduction band effectively squeezed

2
h into a single energy level, Ec, which can
hold Nc electrons ( cm-3) and the
probability that an energy states at EC is
( E f Ev ) / kT
p = Nve occupied.
2m p kT
32 Nv is called the effective
N v 2 2 density of states of the
h valence band.
Remember: the closer Ef moves up to E c , the larger n is;
the closer Ef moves down to Ev , the larger p is.
For Si, Nc = 2.8 x1019 cm-3 and Nv = 1.04 x1019 cm-3 .
Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 1-21

Figure 1.20 Schematic band diagram, density of states, FermiDirac distribution, and carrier distributions
versus energy.

1.8.2 The Fermi Level and Carrier Concentrations
Where is Ef for n =1017 cm-3? And for p = 1014 cm-3?
( Ec E f ) / kT
Solution: (a) n = N c e
( )
Ec E f = kT ln (N c n ) = 0.026 ln 2.8 1019 / 1017 = 0.146 eV
(b) For p = 1014cm-3, from Eq.(1.8.8),

(
E f Ev = kT ln ( N v p ) = 0.026 ln 1.04 1019 / 1014 = 0.31 eV )
1.8.2 The Fermi Level and Carrier Concentrations
( Ec E f ) / kT
n = Nce
E f = Ec kT ln ( N c n )
1.8.3 The np Product and the Intrinsic Carrier Concentration
( Ec E f ) / kT ( E f Ev ) / kT
Multiply n = N c e and p = Nve
( Ec Ev ) / kT E g / kT
np = N c N v e = Nc Nve
Indep. of EF
np = ni
2
Doped or un-doped
E g / 2 kT
ni = N c N v e
In an intrinsic (undoped) semiconductor, n = p = ni .

ni is the intrinsic carrier concentration, ~1010 cm-3 for Si.
EXAMPLE: Carrier Concentrations
Question: What is the hole concentration in an N-type semiconductor
with 1015 cm-3 of donors?
Solution: n = 1015 cm-3.

2
ni 10 20 cm -3
p= 15 3 = 105 cm -3
n 10 cm
After increasing T by 60C, n remains the same at 1015 cm-3 while p

E / kT
increases by about a factor of 2300 because ni 2 e g .
Question: What is n if p = 1017cm-3 in a P-type silicon wafer?
Solution: ni
2
10 20 cm -3
n= 17 3 = 103 cm -3
p 10 cm
1.9 General Theory of n and p
EXAMPLE: Complete ionization of the dopant atoms
Nd = 1017 cm-3. What fraction of the donors are not ionized?
Solution: First assume that all the donors are ionized.
n = N d = 1017 cm 3 E f = Ec 146meV
45meV 146 meV
Ed Ec
Ef
Ev
1 1
Probability of not = = 0.04
1 ( E E ) / kT 1
being ionized 1+ e d f 1 + e((14645) meV ) / 26 meV
2 2
Therefore, it is reasonable to assume complete ionization, i.e., n = Nd .
1.9 General Theory of n and p
Charge neutrality: n + Na = p + Nd
np = ni
2
1/ 2
N a N d N a N d 2
p= + + ni
2
2 2
1/ 2
N d N a N d N a 2
n= + + ni
2
2 2
1.9 General Theory of on n and p
I. N d N a >> ni (i.e., N-type) n = Nd Na
p = ni n
2
If N d >> N a , n = Nd p = ni N d
2
and
II. N a N d >> ni (i.e., P-type) p = Na Nd

n = ni
2
p
n = ni N a
2
If N a >> N d , p = Na and
EXAMPLE: Dopant Compensation
What are n and p in Si with (a) Nd = 61016 cm-3 and Na = 21016 cm-3
and (b) additional 61016 cm-3 of Na?
n = 41016 cm-3
(a) n = N d N a = 4 1016 cm 3 ++++++
......
Nd = 61016 cm-3
p = ni / n = 10 20 / 4 1016 = 2.5 103 cm 3
2
16 -3
. . . .N.a.=. .210
. . . cm
(b) Na = 21016 + 61016 = 81016 cm-3 > Nd

3 ......
p = N a N d = 8 10 6 10 = 2 10 cm
16 16 16 ++++++
Nd = 61016 cm-3
n = ni / p = 10 20 / 2 1016 = 5 103 cm 3
2
Na = 81016 cm-3
-------- ......
p = 21016 cm-3
1.10 Carrier Concentrations at Extremely High
and Low Temperatures
( Ec E f ) / kT
intrinsic regime n = Nce
E g / 2 kT
Slope = e E f = Ec kT ln ( N c n )
ln n
n = Nd
freeze-out regime
EF may rise above Ed
Slope = e
( Ec Ed ) / 2 kT non-ionized
1/T
High Room temp Cryogenic temp
temp
E g / 2 kT
high T: n = p = ni = Nc Nv e
1/ 2
low T: n =
N c N d ( Ec Ed ) / 2 kT
2 e

Infrared Detector Based on Freeze-out
To image the black-body radiation emitted by tumors
requires a photodetector that responds to hs around 0.1 eV.
In doped Si operating in the freeze-out mode, conduction
electrons are created when the infrared photons provide the
energy to ionized the donor atoms.
electron
photon Ec
Ed
Ev
1.11 Chapter Summary
Energy band diagram. Acceptor. Donor. mn, mp.

Fermi function. Ef .
( Ec E f ) / kT
n = Nce
( E f Ev ) / kT
p = Nve
n = Nd Na
p = Na Nd
np = ni
2

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What are the main components of a semiconductor crystal structure?

What are the main components of a semiconductor crystal structure?

How does doping a semiconductor create an excess or deficiency of charge carriers?

How does doping a semiconductor create an excess or deficiency of charge carriers?

Chapter 1 Electrons and Holes

Unit cell of silicon crystal is

Each Si atom has 4 nearest

The standard notation

for crystal planes is

Silicon wafers are

When an electron breaks loose and becomes a conduction

As (or P), a Group V element, introduces conduction electrons and creates

as dopants. Dopant ionization

Si replace small Ga as a donor,

Energy band diagram shows the bottom edge of conduction band,

Eg can be determined from the minimum energy (h) of

Ionization energy of selected donors and acceptors in silicon

Totally filled bands and totally empty bands do not allow

Both electrons and holes tend to seek their lowest

In an electric field, E, an electron or a hole accelerates.

Electron and hole effective masses

Cyclotron Resonance Technique

Centripetal force = Lorentzian force

There is a certain probability for the electrons in the

EF is a constant determined by the condition n i =N

8mn 2mn (Ec E f ) kT E Ec ( E Ec ) kT

Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 1-21

Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 1-22

(b) For p = 1014cm-3, from Eq.(1.8.8),

In an intrinsic (undoped) semiconductor, n = p = ni .

Solution: n = 1015 cm-3.

After increasing T by 60C, n remains the same at 1015 cm-3 while p

II. N a N d >> ni (i.e., P-type) p = Na Nd

(b) Na = 21016 + 61016 = 81016 cm-3 > Nd

Energy band diagram. Acceptor. Donor. mn, mp.

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