MODULE Carbohydrate Metabolism

Biochemistry

3
Notes
CARBOHYDRATE
METABOLISM

3.1 INTRODUCTION
All living cells require energy to carry out various cellular activities. This energy
is stored in the chemical bonds of organic molecules (e.g. carbohydrates, fats,
proteins) that we eat as food. These organic molecules are broken down by
enzymatic reactions in cells to generate energy in the form of adenosine
triphosphate (ATP). The ATP generated by these pathways in cells is used to
drive fundamental cellular processes. The food we consume is mainly comprised
of proteins, polysaccharides (carbohydrates) and fats. These are first broken
down into smaller units: proteins into amino acids, polysaccharides into sugars,
and fats into fatty acids and glycerol. This process of digestion occurs outside
the cell. The amino acids, simple sugars and fatty acids then enter the cell and
undergo oxidation by glycolysis (in the cytosol) and the citric acid cycle (in the
mitochondria) to generate ATP (from ADP and Pi).

OBJECTIVES
After reading this lesson you will be able to
z describe glycolysis, Citric Acid Cycle

z explain Glycogenesis and Glycogenolysis

z describe the Hormonal regulation of blood sugar level

3.2 GLYCOLYSIS (EMBDEN-MEYERHOF PATHWAY)

Definition
In glycolysis pathway glucose is converted to pyruvate (aerobic condition) or
lactate (anaerobic condition), along with production of a small quantity of energy.

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Site of reaction: All the reaction steps take place in the cytoplasm. Biochemistry

Importance of the glycolysis pathway:

z It is the only pathway that is taking place in all the cells of the body.
z Glycolysis is the only source of energy in erythrocytes.
z In strenuous exercise, when muscle tissue lacks enough oxygen, anaerobic
glycolysis forms the major source of energy for muscles.
Notes
z The glycolytic pathway may be considered as the preliminary step before
complete oxidation.
z The glycolytic pathway provides carbon skeletons for synthesis of non-
essential amino acids as well as glycerol part of fat.
z Most of the reactions are reversible.

Steps of glycolytic pathway

1. Glucose is phosphorylated to glucose -6-phosphate. The enzyme is
hexokinase, which splits ATP into ADP and the Pi is added on to the glucose.
The energy released by hydrolysis of ATP is utilised for the forward reaction.
Hexokinase is the key glycolytic enzyme and the reaction is irreversible.
2. Glucose-6-phosphate is isomerised to fructose-6-phosphate by
phosphohexose isomerase.
3. Fructose-6-phosphate is further phosphorylated to fructose-1,6-bisphosphate.
The enzyme is phosphofructokinase, it is an important key enzyme and the
reaction is irreversible.
4. Fructose-1, 6-bisphosphate is cleaved into two 3 carbon atoms; one
glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate and another molecule of dihydroxyacetone
phosphate. The enzyme is aldolase. Dihydroxyacetone phosphate is
isomerised to glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate by the enzyme phophotriose
isomerase.
5. Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate is dehydrogenated and simultaneously
phosphorylated to 1,3-bis-phosphoglycerate with the help of NAD+. The
enzyme is glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase.
6. 1, 3-bis-phosphoglycerate is converted to 3-phosphoglycerate by the enzyme
1, 3-bis-phosphoglycerate kinase. Here one molecule of ATP is formed and
this reaction is an example for Substrate level phosphorylation.
7. 3-phosphoglycerate is isomerised to 2-phosphoglycerate by shifting the
phosphate group from 3 rd to 2 nd carbon atom. The enzyme is
phosphoglucomutase.
8. 2-phosphoglycerate is converted to phosphoenol pyruvate by the enzyme
enolase. One water molecule is removed. A high energy phosphate bond
is produced. This enzyme requires Mg++and inhibited by fluoride.
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Biochemistry 9. Phosphoenol pyruvate is dephosphorylated to pyruvate, by pyruvate kinase.

One molecule of ATP is generated. This step is irreversible.
10. In anaerobic condition pyruvate is reduced to lactate by lactate
dehydrogenase.In aerobic conditions pyruvate enters citric acid cycle for
complete oxidation. The lactate from anaerobic cycle enters coris cycle.
Glucose ATP
Locks glucose
Notes Hexokinase in cell
ADP
Glucose-6-phosphate
Phosphoglucose Frees up
isomerase carbon 1
Fructose-6-phosphate
ATP
Adds phosphate to
Phosphofructokinase
prepare for cleavage
ADP
Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate
Aldolase Cleavage
Dihydroxyacetone Glyceraldehyde-
phosphate Triose phosphate isomerase 3-phosphate
makes single product Pi + NAD
+

Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate Activates
dehydrogenase phosphate
+
NADH + H
1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate
ADP
First ATP Phosphoglycerate
of glycolysis kinase ATP
3-Phospogiycerate
Moves
Phosphoglyceromutase
phosphate
2-phospoglycerate
Activates
Enolase phosphate

Phosphoenolpyruvate
ADP
Second ATP Pyruvate kinase NAD
of glycolysis NADH
ATP
CO2 Pyruvate Lactate
aerobic Lactate dehydrogenase
metabolism anaerobic metabolism
Fig. 3.1

Energy yield from glycolysis

Aerobic conditions
Number of ATPs gained per glucose molecule is 8 ATPs
Anaerobic conditions
Number of ATPs gained per glucose molecule is 2 ATPs

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Biochemistry
3.3 CITRIC ACID CYCLE: (KREBS CYCLE)
Under aerobic conditions the end product of glycolysis is pyruvic acid. The next
step is the formation of acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl CoA) - this step is technically
not a part of the citric acid cycle, but is shown on the diagram on the top left.
Acetyl CoA, whether from glycolysis or the fatty acid spiral, is the initiator of
the citric acid cycle. In carbohydrate metabolism, acetyl CoA is the link between
glycolysis and the citric acid cycle. The initiating step of the citric acid cycle Notes
occurs when a four carbon compound (oxaloacetic acid) condenses with acetyl
CoA (2 carbons) to form citric acid (6 carbons).
The whole purpose of a turn of the citric acid cycle is to produce two carbon
dioxide molecules. This general oxidation reaction is accompanied by the loss
of hydrogen and electrons at four specific places. These oxidations are connected
to the electron transport chain where many ATP are produced.

Step 1
The acetic acid subunit of acetyl CoA is combined with oxaloacetate to form
a molecule of citrate. The acetyl coenzyme A acts only as a transporter of acetic
acid from one enzyme to another. After Step 1, the coenzyme is released by
hydrolysis so that it may combine with another acetic acid molecule to begin
the Krebs cycle again.

Step 2
The citric acid molecule undergoes an isomerization. A hydroxyl group and a
hydrogen molecule are removed from the citrate structure in the form of water.
The two carbons form a double bond until the water molecule is added back.
Only now, the hydroxyl group and hydrogen molecule are reversed with respect
to the original structure of the citrate molecule. Thus, isocitrate is formed.

Step 3
In this step, the isocitrate molecule is oxidized by a NAD molecule. The NAD
molecule is reduced by the hydrogen atom and the hydroxyl group. The NAD
binds with a hydrogen atom and carries off the other hydrogen atom leaving a
carbonyl group. This structure is very unstable, so a molecule of CO2 is released
creating alpha-ketoglutarate.

Step 4
In this step, coenzyme A, returns to oxidize the alpha-ketoglutarate molecule.
A molecule of NAD is reduced again to form NADH and leaves with another
hydrogen. This instability causes a carbonyl group to be released as carbon

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Biochemistry dioxide and a thioester bond is formed in its place between the former alpha-
ketoglutarate and coenzyme A to create a molecule of succinyl-coenzyme
A complex.

Step 5
A water molecule sheds its hydrogen atoms to coenzyme A. Then, a free-floating
phosphate group displaces coenzyme A and forms a bond with the succinyl
Notes complex. The phosphate is then transferred to a molecule of GDP to produce
an energy molecule of GTP. It leaves behind a molecule of succinate.

Step 6
In this step, succinate is oxidized by a molecule of FAD (Flavin adenine
dinucleotide). The FAD removes two hydrogen atoms from the succinate and
forces a double bond to form between the two carbon atoms, thus
creating fumarate.

Step 7
An enzyme adds water to the fumarate molecule to form malate. The malate
is created by adding one hydrogen atom to a carbon atom and then adding a
hydroxyl group to a carbon next to a terminal carbonyl group.

Step 8
In this final step, the malate molecule is oxidized by a NAD molecule. The
carbon that carried the hydroxyl group is now converted into a carbonyl group.
The end product is oxaloacetate which can then combine with acetyl-coenzyme
A and begin the Krebs cycle all over again.

Summary of Krebs Cycle

In summary, three major events occur during the Krebs cycle. One GTP
(guanosine triphosphate) is produced which eventually donates a phosphate
group to ADP to form one ATP; three molecules of NAD are reduced; and one
molecule of FAD is reduced. Although one molecule of GTP leads to the
production of one ATP, the production of the reduced NAD and FAD are far more
significant in the cells energy-generating process. This is because NADH and
FADH2 donate their electrons to an electron transport system that generates large
amounts of energy by forming many molecules of ATP.

Yield of ATP
At this point the yield of ATP is 4 moles per mole of Glucose as it passes through
the Krebs cycle.

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z This is not much more than the 2 moles which would have been produced Biochemistry
from glycolysis.
z However, NADH and FADH2 are energy rich molecules
z Their oxidation is highly exergonic and is coupled with the production of
ATP from ADP
z Oxidation of 1 mole NADH produces 3 moles ATP
Notes
z Oxidation of 1 mole FADH2 produces 2 moles ATP
z Thus total ATP yield = (10 3) + (2 2) + 4 = 38 moles ATP per mole
Glucose

Fig. 3.2: Glycogenesis and Glycogenolysis

Biosynthesis of Glycogen
The goal of glycolysis, glycogenolysis, and the citric acid cycle is to conserve
energy as ATP from the catabolism of carbohydrates. If the cells have sufficient
supplies of ATP, then these pathways and cycles are inhibited. Under these
conditions of excess ATP, the liver will attempt to convert a variety of excess
molecules into glucose and/or glycogen.

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Biochemistry Glycogenesis
Glycogenesis is the formation of glycogen from glucose. Glycogen is synthesized
depending on the demand for glucose and ATP (energy). If both are present in
relatively high amounts, then the excess of insulin promotes the glucose
conversion into glycogen for storage in liver and muscle cells.
In the synthesis of glycogen, one ATP is required per glucose incorporated into
Notes the polymeric branched structure of glycogen. actually, glucose-6-phosphate is
the cross-roads compound. Glucose-6-phosphate is synthesized directly from
glucose or as the end product of gluconeogenesis.

Glucose
Hexokinase (in muscle)
Glucokinase (in liver)
Glucose 6-phosphate
Phosphoglucomutase
Glucose1-phosphate
UDP- glucose pyrophosphatase
UDP-glucose
Glycogen synthase
a(14) glucosyl units
Branching enzyme

Glycogen
[a(14) and a (16) glucosyl units]

Fig. 3.3: Steps of glycogensis

Glycogenolysis
In glycogenolysis, glycogen stored in the liver and muscles, is converted first to
glucose-1- phosphate and then into glucose-6-phosphate. Two hormones which
control glycogenolysis are a peptide, glucagon from the pancreas and epinephrine
from the adrenal glands.
Glucagon is released from the pancreas in response to low blood glucose and
epinephrine is released in response to a threat or stress. Both hormones act upon
enzymes to stimulate glycogen phosphorylase to begin glycogenolysis and
inhibit glycogen synthetase (to stop glycogenesis).
Glycogen is a highly branched polymeric structure containing glucose as the
basic monomer. First individual glucose molecules are hydrolyzed from the
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chain, followed by the addition of a phosphate group at C-1. In the next step the Biochemistry
phosphate is moved to the C-6 position to give glucose 6-phosphate, a cross road
compound.
Glucose-6-phosphate is the first step of the glycolysis pathway if glycogen is the
carbohydrate source and further energy is needed. If energy is not immediately
needed, the glucose-6-phosphate is converted to glucose for distribution in the
blood to various cells such as brain cells. Notes

Glycogen

Glycogen phosphorylase
a(a4)a(14)-glucan transferase
Amylo-a(16)-glucosidase

Glucose 1-phosphate

Phosphoglucomutase

Glucose 6-phosphate In muscle

Glucose 6-phosphatase

Glucose In liver

Fig. 3.4: Steps of glycogenolysis

Gluconeogenesis
Gluconeogenesis is a metabolic pathway that results in the generation
of glucose from non-carbohydrate carbon substrates such as pyruvate,
lactate, glycerol, and glucogenic amino acids.

The vast majority of gluconeogenesis takes place in the liver and, to a smaller
extent, in the cortex of kidneys. This process occurs during periods
of fasting, starvation, or intense exercise and is highly endergonic.
Gluconeogenesis is often associated with ketosis.

Entering the pathway

Several non-carbohydrate carbon substrates can enter the gluconeogenesis
pathway. One common substrate is lactic acid, formed during anaerobic
respiration in skeletal muscle. Lactate is transported back to the liver where it
is converted into pyruvate by the Cori cycle using the enzyme lactate

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Biochemistry dehydrogenase. Pyruvate, the first designated substrate of the gluconeogenic

pathway, can then be used to generate glucose. All citric acid cycle intermediates,
through conversion to oxaloacetate, amino acids other than lysine or leucine,
and glycerol can also function as substrates for gluconeogenesis. Amino acids
must have their amino group removed by transamination or deamination before
entering the cycle directly (as pyruvate or oxaloacetate), or indirectly via the
citric acid cycle.
Notes

Fig. 3.5

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Fatty acids cannot be converted into glucose in animals, the exception being odd- Biochemistry
chain fatty acids which yield propionyl CoA, a precursor forsuccinyl CoA. In
plants, specifically in seedlings, the glyoxylate cycle can be used to convert fatty
acids (acetate) into the primary carbon source of the organism. The glyoxylate
cycle produces four-carbon dicarboxylic acids that can enter gluconeogenesis.
Glycerol, which is a part of alltriacylglycerols, can also be used in gluconeogenesis.
In organisms in which glycerol is derived from glucose (e.g., humans and other
mammals), glycerol is sometimes not considered a true gluconeogenic substrate, Notes
as it cannot be used to generate new glucose.
Gluconeogenesis is a pathway consisting of eleven enzyme-catalyzed reactions.
The pathway can begin in the mitochondria or cytoplasm, depending on the
substrate being used. Many of the reactions are reversible steps found in
glycolysis.
Gluconeogenesis begins in the mitochondria with the formation of oxaloacetate
through carboxylation of pyruvate at the expense of one molecule of ATP. This
reaction is catalyzed by pyruvate carboxylase, which is stimulated by high levels
of acetyl-CoA(when fatty acid oxidation is high in the liver) and inhibited by
high levels of ADP.
Oxaloacetate must then be reduced into malate using NADH in order to be
transported out of the mitochondria.
In the cytoplasm, malate is oxidized to oxaloacetate using NAD+, where the
remaining steps of gluconeogenesis occur. Oxaloacetate is then decarboxylated
and phosphorylated to produce phosphoenolpyruvate by phosphoenolpyruvate
carboxykinase. One molecule of GTP is hydrolyzed to GDP in the course of this
reaction.
The next steps in the reaction are the same as reversed glycolysis. However,
fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase converts fructose-1,6-bisphosphate to fructose-6-
phosphate. The purpose of this reaction is to overcome the large negative G.
Glucose-6-phosphate is formed from fructose-6-phosphate by phospho gluco-
isomerase. Glucose-6-phosphate can then be used for glucose generation or in
other metabolic pathways. Free glucose is not generated automatically because
glucose, unlike glucose-6-phosphate, tends to freely diffuse out of the cell.
The final reaction of gluconeogenesis, the formation of glucose, is carried out
in the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum. Glucose-6-phosphate is hydrolyzed
by glucose-6-phosphatase to produce glucose. Glucose is then shuttled into the
cytosol by glucose transporters located in the membrane of the endoplasmic
reticulum.

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Biochemistry Regulation
While most steps in gluconeogenesis are the reverse of those found inglycolysis,
three regulated and strongly exergonic reactions are replaced with more
kinetically favorable reactions. Hexokinase/glucokinase, phosphofructokinase,
and pyruvate kinase enzymes of glycolysis are replaced with glucose-6-
phosphatase, fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase, and PEP carboxykinase. This system
Notes of reciprocal control allow glycolysis and gluconeogenesis to inhibit each other
and prevent the formation of afutile cycle.

The majority of the enzymes responsible for gluconeogenesis are found in

the cytoplasm; the exceptions are mitochondrial pyruvate carboxylase, and, in
animals, phosphoenol-pyruvate carboxykinase. The latter exists as an isozyme
located in both the mitochondrion and the cytosol. As there is no known
mechanism to transport phosphoenolpyruvate from the mitochondrion into the
cytosol, the cytosolic enzyme is believed to be the isozyme important for
gluconeogenesis. The rate of gluconeogenesis is ultimately controlled by the
action of a key enzyme, fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase, which is also regulated
through signal ransduction bycAMP and its phosphorylation.

Most factors that regulate the activity of the gluconeogenesis pathway do so by

inhibiting the activity or expression of key enzymes. However, both acetyl
CoA and citrate activate gluconeogenesis enzymes (pyruvate carboxylase and
fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase, respectively). Due to the reciprocal control of the
cycle, acetyl-CoA and citrate also have inhibitory roles in the activity of pyruvate
kinase.

Insulin and Glucagon: Control of Blood Glucose

One of the most important and tightly regulated responses in the human body
is the concentration of blood glucose (blood sugar). Glucose is the major
breakdown product of cellular metabolism. As such, it is required both as an
energy source and as a source of carbon for making organic molecules. Blood
glucose concentrations are regulated by negative feedback pathways that are
modulated by two separate hormones: insulin and glucagon. Both of these
hormones are produced in special cells called islet cells, or islets of Langerhans
are found in clusters throughout the pancreas. Islet cells make up a very small
percentage of the pancreas (about 1-2%); the remainder of the organ is an
exocrine gland producing digestive enzymes and bicarbonate ion. This tiny
number of endocrine cells is exceedingly important. Each islet contains two
kinds of cells: alpha cells, which produce glucagon, and beta cells, which
produce insulin.

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Insulin vs. Glucagon Biochemistry

Normally, blood glucose concentrations in human blood should range between

70-110 milligrams (mg/ml). Insulin and glucagon operate in an antagonistic
(opposing) manner. The result is a precise control of blood glucose levels within
this range.

The insulin pathway is activated when blood glucose levels are too high. High
blood glucose levels (e.g., occurring after the stomach has digested a food high Notes
in sugar) stimulate beta cells in the pancreas to release insulin. Insulin causes
an increased uptake of glucose from the blood; promotes conversion of glucose
into triglycerides in the liver, fat and muscle cells; and increases the cellular rate
of glycolysis breaking glucose into smaller components that can be used for
synthesis of other compounds.

The glucagon pathway is activated when blood glucose levels are too low. Low
blood glucose levels (e.g., due to exercise combined with not eating for several
hours) stimulate the alpha cells in the pancreas to produce glucagon. Glucagon
causes the liver to convert stored glycogen into glucose, then release the glucose
into the blood (a process called glycogenolysis). The two hormones, insulin and
glucagon, each regulate the other. A decrease in insulin (as well as low glucose
levels) stimulates the secretion of glucagon, while an increase in insulin (as well
as an increase in blood glucose) suppresses glucagon secretion. This results in
a continuous cycle, with insulin and glucagon constantly monitoring blood
glucose levels and regulating their secretion to maintain these levels as nearly
constant as possible.

The main function of insulin is removal of excess blood glucose. Because all
cells use glucose as an energy source and as a raw material for making other
organic compounds, all cells except brain cells are targets for insulin. Since the
function of glucagon is opposite that of insulin, it stimulates the addition of
glucose to the bloodstream. Thus, it targets cells with high concentrations of
energy stored as glycogen, including the liver and skeletal muscles. It also
stimulates glucose production from fats, so adipose tissue cells are another target
of glucagon.

Lactose intolerance
Lactose intolerance is a common digestive problem where the body is unable
to digest lactose, a type of sugar mainly found in milk and dairy products. The
body digests lactose by using an enzyme called lactase to break down lactose
into two simpler sugars called glucose and galactose, which can then be easily
absorbed into the bloodstream. Enzymes are proteins that cause chemical
reactions to occur.

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Biochemistry In cases of lactose intolerance, the body does not produce enough of the lactase
enzyme so lactose stays in the digestive system, where it is fermented by bacteria
(in the same way that yeast is fermented to produce beer). Its this fermentation
process that causes the symptoms associated with lactose intolerance.

Levels of lactase often fall as people grow older and some health conditions can
also reduce the production of lactase.
Notes

Symptoms of lactose intolerance include

z a bloated stomach
z flatulence (wind)
z diarrhoea

Treating lactose intolerance

Limiting intake of food and drink containing lactose is the main treatment for
lactose intolerance.
Depending on a persons levels of intolerance, they may also require additional
calcium and vitamin D supplements to keep the bones strong and healthy.
Advice from a dietitian may sometimes be helpful in determining the best diet
for a person.
Lactase substitutes are also available. These are drops that you can add to your
meals or drinks to improve your digestion of lactose.

Diabetes Mellitus
Diabetes mellitus (often referred to simply as diabetes) is a group of metabolic
diseases characterized by high blood glucose levels. The term comes from two
Greek words: diabetes comes from a verb that means to pass through and
refers to the frequent, copious urination that is a characteristic of the disease;
the word meli is Greek for honey so the term mellitus refers to the
presence of high levels of glucose (sugar) in the blood. In addition to urination,
other classic symptoms of diabetes are increased thirst and hunger. The
diabetics blood contains more glucose than can be taken up by the cells so this
excess glusose is therefore released in the urine (a diagnostic characteristic of
diabetes is sugar in the urine). The presence of sugar results in more water being
drawn into the urine to balance the osmotic pressure, leading to copious
urination.

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Biochemistry

INTEXT QUESTIONS 3.1

1. In glycolysis pathway glucose is aerobically converted to .................. and
anaerobically ..................
2. All the reaction steps take place in ..................
3. Glycolysis is the only source of energy in .................. cells Notes
4. Number of ATPs gained per glucose molecule in Aerobic conditions of
glycolysis is ..................
5. Number of ATPs gained per glucose molecule in Anaerobic conditions of
glycolysis is ..................
6. Krebs Cycle yield .................. ATP per mole Glucose

WHAT HAVE YOU LEARNT

z In glycolysis pathway glucose is converted to pyruvate in aerobic condition
or lactate in anaerobic condition. All the reaction steps take place in the
cytoplasm.
z Glycolysis is the only pathway that is taking place in all the cells of the
body and is the only source of energy in erythrocytes.
z In Glycolyis, Aerobic conditions yields 8 ATPs and in Anaerobic conditions
yields 2 ATPs per glucose molecule
z Citric acid cycle produces two carbon dioxide molecules. And oxidations
are connected to the electron transport chain where many ATP are produced.
z A total of 38 moles ATP per mole Glucose is yielded in Krebs Cycle
z Glycogenesis is the formation of glycogen from glucose. Glycogen is
synthesized depending on the demand for glucose and ATP (energy).
z In glycogenolysis, glycogen stored in the liver and muscles, is converted
first to glucose-1- phosphate and then into glucose-6-phosphate.
z Two hormones which control glycogenolysis are a peptide, glucagon from
the pancreas and epinephrine from the adrenal glands.
z Gluconeogenesis is a metabolic pathway that results in the generation
of glucose from non-carbohydrate carbon substrates such as pyruvate, lactate,
glycerol, and glucogenic amino acids.
z Blood glucose concentrations in human blood should range between 70-110
milligrams per milliliter (mg/mL). Insulin and glucagon operate in an
antagonistic (opposing) manner.

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Biochemistry

TERMINAL QUESTIONS
1. Explain glycolysis
2. Explain krebs cycle
3. Explain glycogenesis
Notes 4. What is the hormone control of blood sugar

ANSWERS TO INTEXT QUESTIONS

3.1
1. Pyruvate & Lactate
2. Cytoplasm
3. Erythrocytes
4. 8 ATPs
5. 2 ATPs
6. 38 moles

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