Geology of India and Burma by M S Krishnan PDF

GEOLOGY
OF
INDIA AND BURMA
BY
M. S. KRISHNAN
M.A., PH.D., A.R.C.S., D.I.C., M.A.I.:M.E.
GEOLOGICAL SUR.VEY OF INDIA
THE MADRAS LAW JOURNAL OFFICE

MADRAS
1949
Co/tPtight by 1111 Author
PRINTED AT
THE IlADRAS lAW JOURNAl. p . . .

IIY LAP<llU, MADRAS
1949.
UNIVERSITY OF A.)RICU~ TlJn ,L SC:"NCES

UNIVERSITY lIBRARV. UANuAlO"E
Accession No _g_~2.6"
Ddte .. _., . _..................
Pl{EFACE.
The first edition of the official Manual of the
Geology of India by Medlicott and Blanford appeared
in 1879 and a second edition by R. D. Oldham was
published in 1893. They were out of print by IglO or
thereabouts. Students of geology were, however, fortu-
nate in the publication, by Mr. D. N. Wadia, of his
excellent book 'Geology of India' in I gIg, and the
subsequent editions. For about a quarter of a century
it has been the only book available on the subject. A
new book on Indian Stratigraphy needs therefore no
apology to make its appearance, especially at a time
when the subject is attracting the attention of an increas-
ing number of students and the educated public alike.
I have endeavoured to include all the most import-
ant and useful information up to the time of going to Press
subject to the limitations set by the size and standard of
this book. But, as my official duties have kept me away
from Calcutta since the latter part of 1941, I have not
had the advantage of the unrivalled library facilities
available at Calcutta at the time of the final revision of
the manuscript.
From the time I began the manuscript, I have
received constant encouragement from Dr. Cyril S. Fox,
Director of the Geological Survey of India, who found
time, amidst his manifold duties, to read it through.
I am indebted to him for many useful suggestions,
for permission to make use of the Geological Survey
publications for illustrations, and for obtaining for me
the sanction of the Government of India to publish the
book. It is a pleasure to acknowledge the valuable
help I have received from my colleagues Messrs. N. K. N.
Aiyangar and M. S. Venkataraman at all times during
iv GEOLOGY OF lNDIA AND 1}uRMA.
the preparation of the manuscript and during its publi.

cation. To Dr. K. Jacob I am grateful for assistance
and helpful criticism in conn~ction with the chapter
on the Gondwana System and in the preparation of the
plates illustrating that chapter.
Several difficulties cropped up soon after the
manuscript was handed over to the Madras Law Journal
Press for publication. My warmest thanks are due to
the management and staff of the Press for surmounting
the difficulties and sUl.cessfully bringing out the book in
spite of the unprecedented conditions created by the
war, and for the courtesy shown to me at all times.
M. S. KRISHNAN.
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I.
PAGES.
INTRODUCTION AND PHYSICJ\L GEOLOGY 1-45

The Chit.f divisions of India and their physiographic,
stratigraphic and structural features. Climate. Pen-
insular mountains-Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats,
Vindhya mountains, Assam and Aravalli ranges.
Extra-Penmsular Ranges-arcuate dispositIon; Tibe-
tan, Karakoram, Kailas, Ladakh and Zanskar Ranges;
HImalayas proper j Baluchistan and Burma arcs.
Glaciers, snow-line, dimensIOns, recession. Rivers,
Peninsular and Himalayan; Indus, Ganges and
Brahmaputra systems; Rivers of Burma. Geological
action of flvers. Lakes-Prnimular, Extra-Peninsu-
lar and Burmese. Earthquakes. Volcanoes. Mud
volcanoes.
CHAPTER II.
STRUCTURE AND TECTONICS OF INDIA
Peninsula: Regional strikes-Aravalli, Dharwarian,
Eastern Ghats, Mahanadi and Satpura; Cuddapah
basms; Faults; Western and eastern coasts. Extra-
Prnimula' Himalayas-four parallel zones;. the
Kashmir, Simla, Garhwal, Nepal and Sikkim Hima-
layas. Burma: Arakan, Central and Eastern belts;
the Bay of Bengal; the Andaman and other ridges;
Igneous belts of Burma; Orogemc periods. Trend
lines in the north-western arc-Hazara, N.W. Fron-
tier, Baluchistan; Mekran coast and the Arabian Sea.
Potwar and Assam Plateaux. Origin of the Hima.
layas and the Gangetic Plains; Geodetic observations
and Isostatic anom~lies.
CHAPTER III.
GENERAL REVIEW OF INDIAN STRATIGRAPHY 82-93
Principles of Stratigraphy: Lithology, fossil content,
facies, order of superposition, conformability, distur-
bances. Standard scale of FormatIOns and Stages.

VI GEOLOGY OF INDIA AND BURMA.
PAGEL
General review of Indian Stratigraphy. Geological
formations of Indw and their dIffel ent [dcies.
CHAPTER IV.
TilE ARCHAEAN GROUP-PENINSULA
Introduction The terms Archaean, AlgonkIan, Dhar

warIan and Gneis~i(' complt-x. Distribution. Mysore
and Southern Bombay-Dh,lrwars, Champion gneiss,
Peninsular gneiss, Charnockite, Closcpet and Belial y
granite. Hyderabad-Dharwars, Grey and Pmk
gneIsses Nellore-Dharv. ars, Carnatic gneiss, grani-
tOid gneIss and Mlca-pegmatItes. Southern Madras
-Ferrugmous rocks and gneisses, Alkali rocks, Ultra-
basic rocks. Ceylon. Metamorphism of the South
Indian Archaeans. Eastern Gh.lts-Gneisses, Khoncl-
ahtles, Charnockttes, Koduntes, etc. Jeypore-Bastar-
Chanda. Sambalpur. Sonakhan beds. R,upur-
Drug. Bilaspur-Balaghat-Cllilpi and Sonawani
series. Nagpur-Bhandara-Sakoli series. Nagpur-
Chhmdwara-Sausar series. Bengal. Singhbhum-
Iron ore series, Ultra-basic rocks, Gneisses, Kolhan
senes. Gangpur State-Gangpur series. Son valley.
Jubbulpore Bundelkhand. Rajputana-Gneissic
complex, Bundelkhand gneiss, Aravallis, Raialos.
Assam-Gneisses, Shillong series, Greenstones and
Granite. Correlation of the Peninsular Archaeans-
CrIteria for correlation; ~uggcsted equivalents.
CHAPTER V.
THE ARCHAEAN GRoup-ExTRA-PENINSULA
North-western Hunalaya-Salkhala series, gneisses,
Dogra Slates. Spiti-Vaikrita and Haimanta systems.
Simla-Garhwal-J utogh and Chail series. Nepal-
Slkklm-Dalmg and Darjeeling s('rics. Bhutan and
Eastern Hlmalaya-Buxa senes. Burma-Myitkyina,
Mogok tract, Shan States, Te'nnasserim ; Correlation
of the Burmese Archaeans
CHAPTER VI.
MINERAL RICHES OF THE ARCHAEANS
Gold, Copper, Chromite, Iron, Manganese, Lead, Tin,
Tungst~n, Nickd, Cobalt, Titanium, Molybdenum,
CONTENTS. "
Vl,
PAGES.
ColumbiurnwTantalum, Mica, Asbestos, Apatite,
Corundum, Garnl't, Graphite, Magnesite, Sillimanite,
Kyanite, Steatite and Talc, Gemstones, Building and
Ornamental Iltones
CHAPTER VII.
THE CUDDAPAH SYSTEM 17 1- 186
General. ConstitutlOn. Absf"nce of fossils. Divisions.
Distribution. Cuddapah basin of Madras. Kaladgi
series. Pakhal series. Penganga beds. Bijawar
series. Delhi system. Gwalior system. Economic
mineral deposits.
CHAPTER VIII.
THE VINDHYAN SYSTEM 18 7- 19 8 -
General. Semri, Kaimur, Rewa and Bhander series.
Kurnoo} system. Bhlma and Sullavai series. Mineral
dl"posits.
CHAPTER IX.
THE PALAEOZOIC GROUP: CAMBRIAN TO CARBONIFEROUS ' 99-!240
Cambrian system-Salt Range, Kashmir, Spiti, Burma.
Ordovician and Silurian systems-Spiti, Kashmir,
Garhwal-Kumaon, Hazara, Burma. Devonian sys-
tem-Splti, Kashmir, Chitral, Burma. Unfossili-
ferous Palreozoics-Kashmir, Hazara, Simla-Garh-
wal. Correlation.
CHAPTER X.
THE GONDWANA SYSTEM
Introduction. Nomenclature and Extent. Two-fold

division. Talchir senes. Umana marine bed. Da-
muda series-Barakar, Barren Measures and Rani-
ganj; Motur stage; Kamthi beds; Pali, Himgir, Bi-
jori and Almod beds. Panchet series-Mangli and
Deoli beds; Parsora stage. Mahadeva series-Pach-
maThl stage, Malen and Tiki beds; Denwa and Bagra
stages. RaJrnahal series-Rajmahal, Kota and Chi-
kiala stages. J abalpur senes-Chaugan and J abalpur
stages. CQastal develQpment-Kathiawar, Cutch,
...
vw GEOLOGY OF INDIA AND BURMA
PAGES.
Orissa, Godavari, Ongole, Madras, Trichinopoly,

Ceylon. Igneous rocks. Features of Gondwana
areas. Climate amI sedimentation. World distribu-
tIOn of the Gondwana system. Permo-CarbonIferous
floras. Structurt" of the Gondwana basins. Palit'o-
geography. Mmt"ral deposits. Gondwana Coalfidds ;
Ramganj and JharJa fields.
CHAPTER XI.
THE UFPER CARBONIFEROUS AND PERMIAN SYSTE\{S 299-326
Upper Palreozoic unconformity. Spiti. Hundes. Mt.
Everest region. Kashmir-Panjal volcanics, Agglo-
meratic slates, Gangamopteris beds, Zewan beds.
Salt Range--Boulder-bed, Olive series, Speckled
sandstones, Productus lime tone. Faunal characters
and evolution. Sub-Himalaya-Kashmir-Hazara
Slmla-Garhwal.
CHAPTER XII.
THE TRIASSIC SYSTEM 327-363
General. Spiti. Pamkhanda. Byans. Johar. Kash-
mir. Sikkim. Review of Himalayan Trias. Salt
Range. Hazara. Attock. Baluchistan. Burma.
Fauna of the Triassic.
CHAPTER XIII.
THE JURASSIC SYSTEM
General. Spiti. Nlti Pass and Shalshal cliffs. Byans.
Garhwal. Kashmir. Hazara. Attock. Salt Range.
Bannu. Samana Range. Baluchistan. Rajputana.
Cutch. Madras Coast. Burma.
CHAPTER XIV.
THE CRETACEOUS SYSTEM 387-4 1 7
General. Extra-Peninsula-Spiti, Johar, Kumaon and
Tibet; Kashmir; Hazara; Attock; Samana Range;
Chitral ; Baluchistan-Sind; Salt Range. Peninsular
areas-Bombay; Cutch; Narbada valley; Trichi-
nopolv; Vnddhachalam-Pondicherry; Rajamahen-
dri. Assam. Burm.l. Igneous rocks.
CONTENTS.
.
IX
PAGES
CHAPTER XV.
THE DECCAN TRAPS
General. Distribution and extent. Structural features.
Dykes and sills. Petrology and petrography. Che-
mical characters. Alteration and weathering. Lameta
series. Infra-trappeans. Inter-trappeans. Age of
the Deccan Traps. Mineral deposits.
CHAPTER XVI.
THE TERTIARY GROUP
General. Break-up of the Gondwanaland. Elevation

of the Himalayas. Fluviatile and marine facies.
Distnbution-Smd and Baluchistan; Salt Range;
Potwar Plateau; Jammu and the Punjab; Assam;
Burma; Eastern coast; Travancore ; Western India
and Rajputana.
CHAPTER XVII.
THE EOCENE SYSTEM
General. Distribution-Sind and Baluchistan: Rani-
kot, Laki and Kirthar series; Salt Range; Kohat
district; Samana Range; Potwar Plateau; Hazara;
Kashmir; Sub-Himalaya of Simla; Northern Hima-
laya and Tibet; Assam; Burma; Rajputana ; Cutch ;
Gujarat; Pondicherry; Rajamahendri.
CHAPTER XVIII.
THE OLIGOCENE AND LOWER MIOCENE SYSTEMS 477-492
General. Sind and Baluchistan (calcareous facies)-
Nari and Gaj series. Baluchistan (flysch facies)-
Khojak shales and Hinglaj sandstones. North-eastern
Baluchistan-Bugti beds. Potwar Plateau and Jam-
mu-Fatehjang zone and the Murree series. Simla
Himalaya-Dagshai and Kasauli beds. Assam-Barail
and Surma series. Burma-Pegu series. Mineral
deposIts-Petroleum. Igneous rocks. Peninsular
areas-Cutch, Kathiawar, GUJarat, Ratnagiri, Ban-
pada beds, Durgapur beds, Rajamahendri sandstones,
Conjeevaram gravels, Cuddalore sandstones, QUllon
and Warkilli (Varkala) beds. Ceylon.
B
x GEOLOGY or INDIA 'AND BURMA.
PAGES
CHAPTER XIX.
MIDDLE MIOCENE TO LOWER PLEISTOCENE 493-506
Introduction. Siwalik system-Distribution; Consti-
tution; Conditions of deposition; Climdtic condi-
tions ; Organic remains; Divlsions-Kamli,ll, Chinji,
Nagri, Dhok Pathan, Tdtrot, Pinjor and Bouldel
conglomerate stages. Correlation. Sind-Manch-
har series. Mekran. Cutch and Kathiwar. Kari-
kal beds. Assam-Tipam and Dihing series. Burma
-Irrawaddy series.
CHAPTER XX.
THE PLEISTOCENE SYSTEM 50 7-534
The Pleistocenf' Ie e age. Bain boulder-bed. EI ratics
of the Potwar Pldteau. Karewa formation. Potwar
silt. Upper Sutlej alluvium. N'lrbada. alluvium.
Godavari and Kistna alluvIUm. Madras. Irrawad-
dy alluvium. Indo-Gangetic alluvium-General,
origin of the depressIOn, depth and nature of deposits.
Coastal deposits-Eastern coast; Chllka Lake; Mala-
bar coast; Gujarat; Kathiawar-Porbandar stone;
Rann of Cutch ; Mekran eoa,t. Aeolian and other
deposits-Loess; Desert sands; Daman slopes; Bha-
bar and Terai; Cave deposits. Recent deposits-
Coastal dunes; River allUVia. Soils. Changes in
the coastal tract. Laterite-Characters and compo-
sition; Pl'lmary and Detrital; DistributIOn; Age;
Origin; Uses.
INDEX 535-544
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
PLATES.
PLATE. PAGE.
1. 'Cambrian fossils 216
II. Ordovician and Silunan fossils 223
III. Devonian fossIls. 228
IV. Lower Gondw,ma plant fosstls I 249
V. Lower Gondwana plant fossIls II 25 1
VI. Lower Gondwana plant fossils III 254
VII. Upper Gondwana plant fossils I 261
VIII. Upper Gondwana plant fossils II 266
IX. Upper Gondwana plant fossIls III 26 7
X. Upper Gondwana plant fossils IV 27 0
XI. Permocarboniferous fossils 301
XII. Permian fossils I 3 15
XIII. Permian fos~ils II 3 19
XIV. TriassIc fossils I 33 1
XV. Triassic fossil .. II 335
XVI. Triassic fossils III 34 1
XVII. Jurassic fossils I 367
XVIII. Jurassic fossils II 375
XIX. Cretaceous fossils I 402
XX. Cretaceous fo&sIls II 406
XXI. Cretaceous and Early TertIary fossils 411
XXII. Lower Tertiary Fossils 456
TEXT~FIGURES.
FIGURE.
I. Schematic representation of the geological succession in
different parts of the Salt Range 200
2. SectIon across the Nilawan ravine 206
3 SectiOn across the Dandot scarp 209
4 Section on the ParahiO River, Spih 21 3
5 Section across the Lidar valley anticline 23 2
6. Sec-tion through the Naubug valley and the Margan Pass .. 307
7 SectiOn across the Makrach valley, Salt Range 3 11
8. Generalised section near Lllang, Spit! 328
9 Section N.W. of Kalapani, Byans 344
10. Section of the Triassic rocks near Pastannah, Kashmir 349
1I. Section in the Chichali Pass, Trans-Indus region 372
xii GEOLOGY OF INDIA AND BURMA.
PAGE.
I~. Section through the Bakh Ravine, Salt Range 459
13. Section across the Pir Pa~al from Tatakuti to Nilnag 509
14. Section through the Narbada Pleistocene 513
TABLES.
(. Length of important Glaciers 18
2. The Geological GIOUpS and Systems 84
3. The Standard FormatIOns ,md Stages 85
4. Geological Formations of India 88
5. General geological successIOn in different parts of India
and Burma 91
6. Archaean Succession in Mysore 99
7. Dharwarian succession in the Shimoga belt 101
General sequence of rocks in South Indian Archaeans II~
8. Archaean succession in the Bastar State 114
The Chilpi Ghat Series 116
The Sonawani Senes 117
Geological sequence in the Sakoli tract liB
9. The Sausar Series 119
Archaeans of South Singhbhum 1:2 1
10. Archaean succession in Singhbhum 125
II. The Gangpur Series 128
12. Pre-Vmdhyan formations of Rajputana 133
13. Rough correlation of the Peninsular Archaeans 144
The Cuddapah System 17 1
Succession 10 the Delhi synclinorium 180
14. The Delhi System 183
The Vindhyan System 18 7
15 The Semn Series 188
The Klamur Series 19 0
Upper Vindhyans of Central India 19 1
The Kumool System 193
The Bhima Senes 194
The Cambnans of the Salt Range 199
The Hlmanta System of Splti 212
Upper Haimantas on the Parahio River 214-
16. Lower Palaeozoics of Spiti :n9
The OrdovIcian-Silurian of the Shan States !221
The Kanawar System of Splti 23 0
The Jaunsar Series 235
17 Rough correlation of the Palaeozoic strata. . 23 6
18. Correlation of the Gondwana strata 247
LIST OF TABLES.
...
:XUl
PAGE.
19. The Gondwana System and its foreign equivalents 279

20. Coal classification (Indian CO.J.l Gradmg Board) 29 0
Gondwanas in the RaniganJ coalfield 29 2
Geological succession in the Mt. Everest region 30 4-
Upper Palaeozoic succession in KashmIr 310
21. Permian of the Salt Range 3I 4
The Krol Series 32 4
22. Tnas of Spiti 32 9
23. Triassic secti.on in Painkhanda 3'39
24' Trias of Byans 343
25. Tnas of Kashmir 347
26. Correlation of the Triassic rocks of the HUl1alaya 35 2
27. Trias of the Salt Range 355
Geological succeSSlOn in the Attock dIstrict, Punjab 357
28. .J ura~SlC succession in Spiti 36 5
\:19. Jurassic succeSSIon in the Sheik Budin Hills.. 373
30. Jurassic succession in Cutch 377
31. SectlOn of the Jurassic in the Jumara dome, Cutch 379
JuraSSIC rocks in Jalsalmer, Rajputana 380
32. The Kampa System of TIbet 39 I
33. Mesozoic succession 111 Baluchistan 395
The Bagh Beds 39B
34. Cretaceous succession in Trichinopoly 4 01
35. Cretaceous rocks of the Pondicherry area 4 10
36. ChemIcal coml)osltion of the Deccan Traps 426
The Lameta Beds 42 7
37. Tertiary succession m Sind and Baluchistan 441
38. Tertiaries of the Salt Range 442
39. Tertianes of the Potwar region 442
40. Tertlanes of the Jammu State 443
41. Tertiary succession in Assam 444
42. Tertiary succeSSiOn in Burma 445
Tertianes m Kathiawar and Cutch 44 6
43. Correlation of the Tertiary formations 45 0
The Lakt Senes 453
44. Foramimfera of the Eocene of Western India 45 8
Eocene of the Salt Range 458
44-A. Eocene Forammlfera of the Salt Range 4 63
The Chharat Sene!> 4 65
45. Eocene succession m Kampa Dzong 4 68
The Jamtia Series 468

XIV GEOLOGY OF INDIA AND BURMA.
PAGE.
Eocene in the Khasi and Jaintia HIlls 469

The Barail Series 470
Eocene rocks of Upper Burma 472
Oligo-Miocene rocks of Assam 483
46. The Pegu Senes (G.S.I.) 485
47. The Pegu Series (B.O.C) 487
48. The Siwalik Succession (N.W. India) 497
49. Correlation of the Siwalik strata 501
Miocene of Assam 504
50. CorreIa tion of the Narbada and N. W. India Pleis tocene .. 5I5
MAPS.
FACING
PAGE.
I. The Mountain Arcs of Southern Asia. . I [

II. Himalayan and Central Asian Ranges (after Burrard). . 12
III. Strike directions in the Archaean rocks of the Peninsula 47
IV. Dharwars of South India 103
V. The CUddapah Basin, Mcldr<ls 175
VI. Gondwana Coalfields of India 288
VII. The RanigaIlJ Coalfield 294
VIII. The Jharia Coalfield 295
IX. Malla Johar and adjoining parts of Hundes 345
X. Jurassic Rocks of Cutch and Kathiawar 382
XI. Cretaceous Rocks of Trichinopoly 400
XII. Kashmir Himalaya 497
ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE TEXT.
Bull. Bulletin.
C.S.!. Geological Survey of India.
J. or JOUT. Journal.
l.A.S.B. Journal of the A~latlC Society of Bengal.
Mem. MemOlrs (G.S.I.)
M. G. D. Mysore Geological Department.
Op. fit. Work cited (I e., the pubhcdtlOn mentioned before th('
particular refer~nce).
Q;J.G. 'i. Quarterly Journal of the Geological SocietYI London.
Q.7.G M MS. Quarterly Journal, Geological Mining and Metal-
lurgical SOCIety of India.
P.ll. Ind. Palaeontologla IndiLd (G.S.1.).
Rec. Records (G.8.!.).
Rep. Reports.
Sc. or SCI. Science (and allied words).
SeT. Series (N.S. New Sene~).
T.M.C.I. Transactions, Mining and Geological Institute ofIndia.
A few other abbreViations are used which should be easy (0
decipher as they are commonly used in scientific works.
In aU the references, the numerals refer, in order, to the volume
)
page or pages, and year of pubhcatlOn.

ERRATA
Page Line For Read

I7 In IS
154
162 26 sibnite stibnite
180 33 arkos arkose
199 30 clerly clearly
224 6 Nyungbaw Nyaungbaw
229 29 Fenestropora Fenestrapora
23 1 16 Ortholhetes OrthotheffJ
33 l~B1iardi gerardi
" 2b Ahtyrzs Athyns
234
'.235 I Dobra Dogra
242 7 Dinosurs Dinosaurs
269 16 Godawari Godavari
8 Halahza Halobia
336
29 suerhus superbus
356
393 ]5 Terahratula Terebratula
9 Gasropods Gastropods
40 7
Hiniyur Niniyur
40 9
437 2 b 60
Acquitanian Aquitanian
483 35
Carbula Corbula
486 25
498 HyaeneluTUs HyainailouTos

5 Griffids Giraffids
" 17 Eratics Erratics
508
CHAPTER I.
INTRODUCTION AND PHYSICAL GEOLOGY.
The Divisions of India.-A physical map of India.
"hows strikingl) that the country can be divided into
three well-marked regions each having distinguishing
characters of its own. The first is the Peninsula or Penin-
sular Shield (' shield' being a term used for geologically
very old and stable pal ts of the crust) lying to the south
of the plains of the Indus and Ganges river systems. The
second division comprises these Indo-gangetic alluvial plains
stretching across northern India from Assam and Bengal
on the east, through Bihar and United Provinces, to the
Punjab and Sind on the west. The third is the Extra-
Jmlinsula, the mountainous region formed of the mighty
Himalayan ranges and their extensions into Baluchi.,tan
on the one hand dnd Burma on the other.
These three divisions exhibit marked contra5t in
physical features, stratigraphy and structure.
Physiographically the Peninsula is an ancient plateau
exposed for long ages to denudation and approaching
peneplanation. Its mountains are of the relict type, i.e.,
they represent the survival of the harder masses of rocks
which have escaped weathering and removal; they are
thus not directly attributable to their structure. Its rivers
have, for the most part, a comparatively flat country
with low gradients to traverse, and have built up shallow
and broad valleys. The Extra-Peninsula, on the other
hand, is a region of tectonic or folded and overthrust
mountain chains, of geologically very recent origin. Its
rivers are youthful and are actively eroding their beds
in their precipitous courses and carving out deep and
steep~sided gorges. The Indo-gangetic plains are broad,
monotonous, level expanses built up by recent alluvium
through which many rivers flow sluggishly towards the
seas.
GEOLOGY 01-' IND~ AND BURMA [CHAP.
Stra.tigraphically the Peninsula i!l a 'shield' area

composed of geologically ancient rocks of diverse origin,
most of which have undergone crushing and metamor-
phism. OYei these ancient rocks lie a few basins of pre-
Camhtian and later sediments and extensive sheets of
horizontally bedded lavas of the Deccan trap formation
The Mesozoic and Tertiary sediments are found mainly
along the coastal regions. The Extra-Peninsula, though
containing some very old rocks, is predominantly a region
in which the sediments, laid down in a vast geosyncline
continuously from the Cambrian to early Tertiary, have
been ridged up and folded. They thus show enormous
thicknesses of sedimentary rocks representing practically
the whole geological column, which have been com-
pressed and ridged up into dry land only since early
or middle Tertiary times. The core of the mountains
is composed of granitic intrusions of presumabl) Tertiary
age. The southern fringe, bordering on the plains,
consists of fresh-water and estuarine deposits of Mio-
Pliocene age derived largely from the rising Himalayas.
The gangetic plains are built up of layers of sands, clays
and occasional organic debris (peat-beds, etc.) of geo-
logically very recent date (Pleistocene and Recent),
filling up a deep depression between the two other units.
Structurally, the Peninsula represents a stable block
of the earth's crust which has remained quiescent (i.e.,
unaffected by mountain building movements), since
practically the close of the Archaean era. The later
changes have been of the nature of normal and block
faulting which have let down parts of it bounded by
tensional cracks or faults. Along its coasts, there have
been marine transgressions which have laid down sedi-
mental" beds of Gondwana, Cretaceous or Tertiary ages,
but not of great magnitude. In contrast with this, the
Extra-Peninsula has recently undergone earth movC"ments
of stupendous magnitude. Its strata are marked by
complex folds, reverse faults, overtJuusts and Ilappe~ of
IJ INTRODUCTION AND PHYSICAL GEOLOGY. 3
great dimensions. There is reason to believe that these
movements are still in progress, though feeble, for this
region is still unstable and is frequently visited by earth-
quakes of varying intensities. The Gangetic plains owe
their origin to a sag in the crust, probably formt'd con-
temporaneously with the uplift of the Himalayas. This
sag or depression has since been filled up by sediments
derived from both sides, and especially from the lofty
chains of the Himalayas which arc actively being eroded
by the many rivers traversing them. The little gt'ological
interest which these plains hold is confined to its rich soils
and to the history of its river systems; indeed, the allu-
vium effectively conceals the solid geology of its floor, a
knowledge of which would be highly interesting. These
alluvial plains are, however, of absorbing interest in
human history, being thickly populated, and the scene
of many important developments and events in the
cultural and social history of Hindustan.
CLIMATE.
India and Burma together have an area of over
1,830,000 sq. miles, Burma alone occupying 26 1,000 sq.
miles. India stretches between N. latitudes 8 and 37
and E. longitudes 61 0 and 97, Burma extending further
east to a little beyond 100. From Cape Comorin to the
north of Kashmir the distance is about 2,000 miles, this
being exceeded by the distance between the western
border of Baluchistan and eastern border of Burma by
'lome 400 miles.
Within its extensive domain, India presents a variet)
of climatic conditions, but the dominant feature is the
tropical monsoon. A part of the country, that beyond
the latitude of Calcutta, lies to the north of the Tropic of
Cancer. The interior of the country, owing to its inland
or continental nature, is subject to extremes. The moun-
tain barrier of the Himalayas plays an important part not
only in influencing th~ distribution of rain in Northern
4 GEOLOGY OF INDJ,o\ AND BURMA [CHAP,
India, but also in preventing this region from experien-

cing the cold winters characterising the tel ritories to their
north.
The south-west monsoon reigns from the end of May
to December, the earlier half being the general rainy
~eason The latter half marks the ' retreating monsoon'
during which some parts of the eastern coast, particularly
the Madras coast, receive some rain. The north-east
monsoon is active during the cold weather but the wind<;
are dry before they blow over the Bay of Bengal.
During the cold weather (December to February)
the temperature reaches a minimum, especially in th('
Punjab and the north-west which show mean temperature"

below 55 F. In Upper India there is a region of high
pressure from which winds radiate to the south and south-
east. North-east winds are experienced in Bengal and
these pick up moisture from the Bay of Bengal and preci-
pitate it on the Madras coast and Ceylon. Some cyclo-
nic storms are also experienced in N. W. India during
this period but these are due to winds travelling east-
wards from the Mediterranean.
During the succeeding months of March to May,
the temperature rises steadily to a maximum, the interior
-of the country registering 110 to 120F. in early May.
Strong winds blow from the north-west down the Ganges
valley, familiarly known as 'norwesters.' Though, during
this period, there is a low pressure region in Northern
India, there is no flow of moisture bearing winds from
the Indian Ocean as there is obstruction to such a flow
in the intervening low pressure equatorial belt. It I"
only towards the end of May that this latter is wiped out
.and the south-west winds establish themselves.
The south-west monsoon strikes the Malabar and
Arakan coasts and is deflected northwards by the hills
present along these coasts. The Deccan plateau falls in
the rain-shadow and hence receives only a small amount
-of rain which diminishes steadily from west to east. The
I] INTRODUCTION AND PHYSICAL GEOLOGY. 5
Western Ghats receive over 100 inches of rain during
the monsoon whereas the 'shadow' region gets only
25 inches or less. The winds sweeping up through the
Bay of Bengal strike the Arakan and Assam hills, the latter
forcing the winds up to an altitude of some 5,000 feet
when all their moisture content is precipltated as rain.
The neighbourhood of Cherrapunji is known to receive
the highest ramfall in the world, amounting to over 400
inches per annum. Part of the monsoon winds is deflected
lip the Ganges valley to as far as western Punjab, bringing
rain to these regions between the middle of June and
the end of August. There is of course more rain along
and near the Himalayan foothills than away from them
and hence Southern Punjab and Rajputana are frgion"
of low rainfall
A broad and rather irregular belt of low rainfall
(20-30 inches) stretches from the interior of Madra'i in a
northerly direction through Bomba), and Central India
to the Punjab. But South-western Punjab, western
Rajputana, Sind and Baluchistan constitute a region of
very low rainfall (up to IO inches per annum) and enclose
the tract known as the Thar which is a semi-desert.
The latter part of the south-west monsoon season
is marked by a gradual rise of pressure in Northern India
which has the effect of obstructing and relatively pushing
back the monsoon current. The winds therefore appear
to ' retreat' and precipitate the moisture content along
the east coast of Madras, during October and November.
This is in fact the chief rainy season of thls part of India.
The north-east monsoon begins to be effective only at a
later period but actually contributes less rain than the
retreating south-west monsoon.
PHYSICAL GEOLOGY.
MOUNTAII,IlS.
Peninsular India.-The chief mountain systems of
the Peninsula are the Eastern and Western Ghats, the
GEOLOGY OF INDIA AND BURMA. [CHAP.
6
Satpura and the Vindhya mountains ,lOd the Assam
ranges.
The wstern Ghats.-These form a well-marked
feature along the western coast of India from Cape Comorin
to t)le Tapti va't'tey. 'tnt: son'l.\)e'r'f) na\~ )~ \:.~w;:,\\\\\\~u \),
gneisses and charnockites whereas the northern half is
predominantly made up of Deccan traps. The gneisses
and charnockites form rugged and irregular ranges varying
in height frojll 2,000 to 6,000 feet, but with a few peaks
rising still higher. In Travancore they are called the
Anaimalai and Cardamom hills, while the Palni hills are
also to be considered as their easterly branch. In Malabar
there is a lar~e gap or pass in the mountains, called the
Palghat gap, which has served as the main line of com-
munication between the coastal strip and the eastern
districts.
Just soudl of Mysore, the Western and Eastern Ghats
meet, forming a knot of hills known as the Nilgiri moun-
tains which attain the highest altitude of any peninsular
ranges. The well-known peak of Doddabetta (8,640 feet)
is the highest, but there are several lesser peaks over 6,000
feet high in this region. The Nilgiris are formed of the
charnockites (hypersthene-granulites) which give rise to
rolling, though somewhat rugged, topography, without
steep escarpments or knife-like ridges which characterise
the Himalayas. This is a consequence of the type of
rocks, since these granitoid, igneous and metamorphic
rocks generally produce rounded hills and gently sloping
valleys. The Western Ghats continue northwards through
the western rJlargin of the Mysore plateau and Coorg.
The Ghats of Mysore and Southern Bombay are called
the Sahyadris, the Sanskri t name by which they are
described in tpe Hindu epic Ramayana. Further north
the gneisses are replaced by the traps which form flat-
topped and step-like hills from Belgaum to Gujarat. It is
the step-like Clppearance, due to the weathering of the
horizontal layers of the traps, which has given th(' name
, Ghats' to the hills.
It is an interesting fact that, though the Western
Ghats are quite close to the Arabian Sea, they form the
watershed of the peninsula. The coastal strip to their
west is only 20 to 30 miles broad and the westerly slopes
.are often much steeper than the easterly ones. The
Western Ghats are exposed to the full vehemence of the
south-west monsoon as they lie somewhat slantwise aeross
the path of the monsoomc winds. Hence they receiv("
over 100 inches of rain per annum. '
Eastern Ghats. -The Eastern Ghats are a series of
more or less detached hill ranges from near Balasore in
Orissa to :Nellore, and thence south-westward through
Arcot and Salem to the Nilgiris. They comprise the
'Eastern Ghats' proper of Orissa, the hills of the Northern
Circars of :rvladras, ~allamalai'i, Nagari hills, Javadi hills,
Shevaroys and the Nilgiris. They are much less in
altitude than the Western Ghats, the average being about
2,000 feet. They are composed of various Archaean and
Purana formations, such as the khondalites, charnockites,
gneisses and granites, and also the Dharwarian and
Cuddapah rocks. They receive less rain than the Western
Ghats in comequence of which their forests are compara-
tively less dense. They have no geological or topogra-
phical continuity, so that they are really a series of
detached hills of the relict type.
The Satpura Mountains.-The Satpura Mountains
consist of a series of parallel ridges between the N arbada
and Tapti, extending from Rajpipla in Bombay through
Central IndIa, the northern part of the Central Provinces
and part of Bihar ')outh of the Ganges In the western
portion they are composed mainly of the Deccan trap;
further east they comprise, in succession, the Mahadeva
or Pachmarhi hills of Gondwana formations, the Maikal
range of the Amarkantak area of Deccan traps and
Archaeans, and the hills of Sirguja, Ranchi, Hazaribagh
g GEOLOGY OF INDIA AND BURMA. [CHAP
and Monghyr. They have a general E.N.E.-W.S.W.

trend. The heights of the various units vary greatly.
The peaks in the Mahadeva hill are as much as 4,000
feet in altitute (the highest peak in Pachmarhi hills being
4,3 80 feet) while the Amarkantak peak is 3,490 feet.
The Satpuras form the main watershed of the Peninsula
east of the Aravallis. The Narbada and the Son rise on
the northern slopes from the central region while the
Tapti, Wardha, Wainganga, Mahanadi, Brahmani, etc.~
drain their southern slopes.
Vindhya Mountains.-Thc Vindhyas comprise the
ranges to the north of the Narbada river, extending from
Indore thruugh Bhopal and Baghelkhand, the eastern
portion in Baghelkhand being known as the Kaimur
Range. The Vindhyas are really scarps of the plateau
. region composed of rock formations of the Vindhyan
system VIZ., the Kaimur, Rewa and Bhander sandstones.
These hills have an elevation of 2,000 to 4,000 feet.
Assam Ranges.-These comprise the Garo, Khasi and
Jaintia hills, which are collectively known as the Assam
or Shillong plateau and which are bordered along the
southern edge, which forms a scarp, by a fringe of Tertiary
rocks. Their general trend is E.N.E.---W.S.\V. (to N.E.
-S.W.). They form an elevated tract between the
Brahmaputra valley on the north and the Eastern Bengal
plains on the south. Their continuation to the north-
east is called the Mikir hills. The Assam ranges have an
average elevation of 4,000 to 5,000 feet and are composed
mostly of Archaean gneisses, granites and the Shillong
series of rocks. They are all well forested and the south-
ern portion receives the heaviest rainfall in the world_
Chcrrapunji in the Khasi hills is famous as receiving
over 400 inches of rain per annum, as already mentioned.
The Aravalli Ranges.-The Aravallis form a marked
feature across Rajputana and extend from the plains of
Gujarat north-eastwards to Delhi, a distance of over 400
miles. Though they apparently terminate at the two-
extremities noted above, they may probably have for-
merly extended northward into Garhwal and southward
into South India and the Laccadives. For, if we examine
the Aravalli formations in Rajputana, it will be noticed
that they tend to splay out towards the south and their
natural continuation would appear to be in Mysore as
well as in the submerged ridge no", forming the Lacca-
dives.
The Aravallis constitute one of the fInest examples pf
<l true tectonic range. They existed as high mountains~
probably rivalling the Himalayas of the present day, at
the close of the Archaean era. The original uplift, mainly
a compressional movement, was of pre-Vindhyan but
post-Delhi age, while a later uplift occurred in post-
Vindhyan, probably Mesozoic times. The latter was
probably a block-uplift (horst) as suggested by Sir Lewis
Fermor in his paper on the Aravalli mountains (Rec.
G.S.I., LXII, 391-409, 1930). They have thus remained
as a mountain system throughout the greater part of the
earth's history. They form the major watershed in
Northern India separating the drainage of the Bay of
Bengal from that of the Arabian sea. Their highest
peaks at the present day reach to over 4,000 feet alti-
tude. The Aravalli ranges consist mainly of highly folded
and metamorphosed rocks of the Delhi and Aravalli
systems, which form a great synclinorium. The main
ridges are made up of quartzites and they divide the
Vindhyan formations into two regions of rather different
facies.
EXTRA-PENINSULAR RANGES.
Arcuate Disposition.-The mountains surrounding
the Peninsula on the north, north-west and north-east are,
as mentioned already, tectonic ranges and have been
formed at a late geological age, i.e., during the Middle
and Upper Tertiary. Their curvilinear disposition is very
striking, all of them consisting of circular arcs with their
2
10 GEOLOGY OF INDIA AND- BURMA. [CHAP.
('onvexity turned towards the Peninsula, i.t'., towards the

rigid crust against which they appear to have been thrust.
Of these, the Himalyan and the Burmese arn are of
immense radius. The Himalayas extend with a smooth
sweep from Assam to Kashmir, for a length of about
1,500 miles. The north-western arm however consists of
arcs of smaller radii which succeed one another at short
intervals. The three main arcs here are the Hazara
mountains with the Samana range and Safed Koh; the
Sulaiman ranges which terminate near Quetta; and tht'
- system compo<;ed of the Bugti hills, and the Kirthar
and Mckran ranges.
The Himalayan d.re is followed northwards by a
'iuccession of ranges across the great Tibetan table-land,
their courses being more or less parallel to the Himalaya,
but the curvature of the arcs gradually decreasing north-
wards. Thus it will be seen that the Aling Kangri range,
the Karakoram and the Kun Lun become progressively
straighter, the last being practically a str.light mountain
system. In thc case of the north-western ranges, th<-
transition from the strongly curved outer ranges to the
slightly curved inner ones is more rapid and distinct than
in the Himalaya as will be clearly seen, for instance, in the
-case of the Sulaiman and its associated ranges. The
cunvexity of the arcs is in all cases towards the rigid mass
of the Peninsular shield and indicates the apparent
direction of thrust.
Tibet.- The Tibetan plateau has an average altitude
of 16,000 feet. To its north-west is the Pamir plateau
(12,000 feet) which connects up with the Tien Shan
plateau further north. The Tibetan plateau is no",
generally covered to a large extent by alluvium and loess.
It has a large number of lakes which were formerly much
more extensive and probably connected with some system
of drainage. Now however, they are mostly brackish and
are, together with the whole region, becoming desiccated,
<:onsequent upon the rise of the Himalavas which have
I] INTRODUCTION AND PHYSICAL GEOLOGY. II
GEOLOGY OF INDIA AND BuRMA . [CHAP,
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J] INTRODUCTION AND PHY~ICAL GEOLOGY.
efIectively shut off the moisture-bearing winds from the

Indian Ocean.
Karakoram.---The Karakoram range forms, so to say,
the back-bone of the Tibetan region and is continuous
with the Hindukush range to its west. The Karakoram
carries the peaks K 2 (28,250 feet), Gasherl;>rum (26,47 0
feet), Masherbrum (25,660 feet), etc South of the Kara-
koram is a range of snow-clad mountains named Aling
Kangri. How far to the east they extend is not known.
Between Aling Kangri and the Kailas Range lies the
Trans-Himalaya of Sven Hedin, the grea.t Scandinavian
explorer to whose explorations in Tibet we owe a great
deal of our knowledge. This Trans-Himalaya region is
the real watershed between the northerly drainage flowing
into Tibet and the southerly drainage destined for the
Indian Ocean.
Kailas and Ladakh Ranges.-Some distance south
of the Trans-Himalaya is the Kailas Range, the latter
being parallel to, and some 50 miles north of, the Ladakh
Range. About 19 miles north of the sacred Manasarowar
lake, the Kailas Range contains a cluster of peaks of which
the chief is Mount Kailas (22,028 feet). South of the
Kailas range comes the Ladakh Range which takes its
name from the province of Ladakh in Tibet. This range,
which can be followed from Baltistan to Eastern Tibet,
forms the watershed between the latter and Nepal. To
the west, it probably merges into the Haramosh Range
on which the peak Rakaposhi (25,550 feet) is situated.
The highest peak of the Ladakh Range is Gurla
Mandhata (25,355 feet). There are several gaps in the
L,tdakh Range; one of them is traversed by the Sutlej ;
a second, some 15 miles wide, is seen south-west of Mana-
sarowar; the third and largest is a gap 65 miles wide,
north of Chomo Lhari, which is drained by the Nyang,
a tributary of the Tsang-po. The Indus river is inextrica-
bly connected with this range for it first flows on the
northern side of the range for 120 miles from its source)
GEOLOGY OF INDIA AND lluRMA. [CHAP.
then crosses it to the south near Thangra, flowing

W.N.W. for nearl} 300 miles along the southern flank;
the river again cuts across the rang<' northward just before
it is joined by thc Shyok river.
The Zanskar Range. --This is really a northerly
branch of the Himalaya lyiug between the Ladakh Range
on the north and the Great Himalaya on the south. A
good part of this range is unexplored territory. Its best
known peak is Kamet (25,477 feet). The range is
traversed by the Dras and the Zanskar rivers. There
are several passes over this range, some of the well known
ones being Dharma (18,000 feet), Kingri Bingri (18,000
teet), Shalshal (16,200 feet) and Niti (16,500 feet).
The Himalayas proper.-The Himalayas can be divid-
ed longitudinally into four zones, parallel to each other : -
I. The Szwalik Zone of foot-hills, 5 to 30 miles wide,
whose altitude rarely exceeds 3,000 feet. This region
is generally covered "ith a damp and unhealthy forest.
The I ainfaJl "aries bet. cen 50 inches in the west to 100
inches in the east.
2. The Lesser Himalayas, a zone 40 to 50 miles wide,
of an average altitude of about 10,000 (eet. Thi~ consist<;
of parallel ranges in the Nepal and Punjab region but of
scattered mountains in Kumaon. In this are found rem
nants of the fringes of the old Gondwanaland. The zone
between 5,000 and 8,000 feet is covered by evergreen and
oak forests and that between 8,000 to 12,000 feet by
coniferous forests. In the lower slopes are found chir
(Pinus longifolia), deodar (Cedrus deodara) and the blue pine
(PinuJ Excelsa), whereas above 8,000 feet are found birch,
spruce and silver fir.
3. The C,eat Himalq_:vas or Central Himalayas, com-
prising the zone of high snow-capped peaks which are
about 80 or go miles from the edge of the plains. This
zone shows both sedimentary and old metamorphosed
rocks which have been intruded by large masses of
granite, probably of different ages. This consists of a
11 J:-. (ROm C;TION AND PHY,,>WAL GEOLOGY.
lower, alpine, .lone up to 16,000 feet and an upper, snow-

bound zone usuaJl y above 15,000 to 17,000 feet. The
alpine zone contains rhododendrons, trees with crook-
ed and twisted stems, thick shrubs and grass.
4. The Trans-Himalaya1l Zone, about 25 miles in
wIdth, containing the valleys of the rivcrs rising behind
the Great Himalayas. These river basins are about 14,000
[eet above the sea level and consist of rock" of the geosyn-
dinal or Tibetan facie ...
In the Darjeeling-Nepal legion, the Himalayas
have an E.--W. trend. To the ea<;t, the ranges have an
E.N.E. or N.E. course, while to the west they first have
a west-north-westerly course and then a north-westerly
course. The main range throws off minor range'> (aU
on the convex side, except in one case) which first proceed
in the original direction of the main range at the point of
branching hut gradually swing parallel to the mam
rnn~. tLS! ~VW ~
REGIONAL DESCRIPTION OF THE HIMALAYAS.

The Himalayas have also been divided by Sir Sidney
Burrard into four transverse regions, vi<.., the Assam,
Nepal, Kumaon and Punjab Himalayas.
The Assam Himalaya is the portion between the peak
Namcha Barwa (25,445 feet) in the Mishmi country,
situated where the Tsang-po makes a bend to cut across
the mountains, and the Tista river, and is 450 miles
long. The Kula Kangri group of peaks (24,784 feet)
and Chomo Lhari (23,997 feet) occur in this portion.
The Himalayas are known to continue beyond Namcha
Barwa but though that portion of the country is little
known, geological and structural observations indicate
that they makc a very sharp bend and turn southward
to traverse through Burma. The Assam Himalaya rises
very rapidly fi'om the plains, the foothills region being
narrow and the Sub-Himal ____ mparatively lower than
in other parts. ~ po.. s'""
t:~~~~
16 GEOLOGY OF INDIA AND BURMA. [CHAP.
The Nepal Himalaya (500 miles long) is the portion

between the Tista on the east and the Kali on the west
and has on it the peaks ofKanchenJunga (28,J46 feet),
Everest (29,002 feet), Makalu (27,790 feet), Annapurna
(26,49 2 feet), Gosainthan (26,291 feet) and Dhaulagiri
(26,795 feet). The range throws off a northerly branch
near Dhaulagiri.
The Kumaon Himalaya (200 miles long) is limited
by the Sutlej rivcr on the west. The best known peaks
here are Nanda Devi (25,645 feet), Badrinath (23,190
feet), Kedarnath (22,77 0 feet), Trisul (23,360 feet), Mana
(23,862 feet), Gangotri (21,700 feet), and Jaonli (21,760
feet). The southerly bifurcation here becomes the Dhau-
ladhar Range. It is in this region that the Bhagirathi
river takes its source in the Gangotri glacier.
The Punjab Himalaya (350 miles) is the portion
between the Sutlej and the Indus. The Sutl~j cuts across
the Himalaya where it exhibits a curvature. . A southerly
branch, the Pir Panjal, is given off near this. The
northerly main range carries few peaks exceeding 20,000
feet. The Zoji-La (pass) over this is only 1 1,300 feet
high. The northern slopes of the range are bare and
show high plains with lakes, while the southern slopes
are rugged and forest-clad. The Punjab Himalaya is not
-cut across by any river. Topographically it culminates
in the Indus valley just beyond Nanga Parbat (26,620
feet), but geologically and structurally its takes a sharp
'Southerly bend and, traversing Hazara, apparently merges
into the Safed Koh range of Afghanistan.
The Baluchistan Arc.-The ranges corresponding
to the Himalayas and the foothills are to be found in
the Black Mountains of Hazara, the Kala Chitta and
Margala hills, the Salt Range, the Sulaiman Range, Bugti
and Mari hills, Kirthar Range and the Mekran Ranges,
these again sweeping westwards into the mountains of
South Iran.
I] INTRODUCTION AND PHYSICAL GEOLOGY.
The Burmese Arc.-The Himalayas behave similarly

at their eastern extremity. The outer zone is continued
into the Patkoi, Naga and Lushai hills and the Arakan
Yomas, and further on into the Andamans, Nicobars and
the Dutch East Indies. Parallel to this curve are several
other ranges in Burma and the Chinese frontier. The
Central Himalayan Zone apparently extends into the
Myitkyina region, the Shan States and Tenasserim, con-
tinuing further down into the Malay Peninsula.
GLACIERS.
Snow line and limit of Glaciers.-The 'snow line'
or the lowest limit of perpetual snow and ice is at differ-
ent altitudes in different parts of the Himalayas and asso-
ciated ranges. In the Assam Himalaya the snow line is
at about 14,500 feet or higher, whereas in the Kashmir
Himala ya it varies from 17,000 to Ig,ooo feet. This is
probably due to the scantiness of moisture in the region
of the North-western Himalaya and Tibet. It is an inter-
esting fact that in all the ranges north of the main Hima-
layas, the snow line is at a higher elevation on the
southern than on the northern slopes, because the sun's
rays affect the southern slopes more than the northern.
But the reverse is the case in the Great Himalayas since
the southern slope receives much greater precipitation
than the northern and is also steeper, the slope helping
the gliding down of the ice quickly to low levels. The
glaciers also descend to lower levels in the Punjab Hima-
laya than in the Assam Himalaya; this is due partly to
the lower latitude and greater condensation of atmos-
pheric moisture as rain (rather than snow) in the
Assam Himalaya.
The glaciers are now confined to the higher ranges.
The more important ones are valley-glaciers flowing
through longitudinal valleys, and having large dimen-
sions. The hanging glaciers along short transverse valleys
3
GEOLOGY Of INDIA AND BURMA. [CHAP.
are less important and more affected by variations of tem-

perature, seasonal snowfall, etc.
The following glaciers may be mentioned as im-
portant :-
TABLI!. I.--LENGTH OF IMPORTANT GLACIERS.
---- Length
Name Locahon.
I---
mIles
Fedchenko Trans-Alai 48
Slachen ..
..
Karakoram 45
Inylchek Tien Shan 44
KOIbf 3'
Hispar "
"
Karakoram 38
Blafo " 37
Balloro 36
Batura " 36
Rlmo Punjab Himalaya 25
Punmah '7
Rupal 10
"
Dlamlr
Sonapam
Gangotn .. "
Kumaon
.'" 7
7
16
Milam " 10
Kos .. 7
Kedarnath "
Zemu Nep~l
"
Ie
Kanchenjunga 10
The glaciers of the Himalayas and Central Asia have

been studied by the Geological Survey of India as well as
by many explorers among whom may be mentioned
Montgomerie, Conway, Longstaff, De Filippi, Visser,
Dainelli and others.
Many of the Himalayan glaciers are much smaller
than those listed above, being generally 2 to 4 miles
long. In the largest glaciers the thickness of ice amounts
to hundreds of feet, e.g., Fedchenko 1,800 feet; Zemu
600 feet; Baltoro 400 feet. The hanging and transverse
valley glaciers are small and have a more rapid move-
ment than the 101lgitudinal valley glaciers. The daily
movement varies from I inch to 3 feet or rarely higher,
depending on the topography.
Recession.-The Himalayan glaciers are definitely
receding gradually. In many of them large amounts of
moraine material cover the ice near the snout. During
the summer they melt and the water escapes through
crevasses forming englacial streams issuing out of tunnel-
like caves.
The Himalayan rivers are to a large extent fed by
glaciers. They also receive affiuents from streams
traversing the Sub-Himalayan region. The larger,
snow-fed rivers are often full during the summer because
of the water contributerl by melting snow and ice.
The present glaciers are mere remnants of the
extensive glaciation of the Pleistocene period when very
large areas of the mountainous tract must have been
covered by snow and ice. Terminal moraines are found
at as low altitudes as 6,000 feet in the region of the
Lesser Himalayas. These and other glacial features such
as fluvioglacial deposits and filled-up glacial lakes
suggest that the Pleistocene glacia tion was very
widespread in the Himalayas and extended to very low
altitudes.
RIVERS.
The rivers of India can be divided into the
Peninsular and Himalayan rivers, each group having
fairly distinct characters.
Peninsalar Rivers.-- The chief rivers of the Peninsula
are the Subarnarckha, Brahmani, l\1ahanadi, Godavari,
Kistna, Penner, Ponnaiyar and Cauvery, and also the
west-ward flowing N arbada and Tapti. On the northern
border of the Peninsula the Chambal, Betwa and Son
arc important rivers. The Peninsular rivers have all
reached the mature stage of development since their
courses are well graded and the valleys broad. They
are therefore tending to rearh their base leuel of erosion.
Their lower reaches are broad shallow valleys through
which t~ey meander, and the larger ones have well~
developed deltas. In the upper courses of many of these
rivers, however, there are cascades and wateifalls which
point to some uplift of the Western Ghats which

probably occurred at the time of the disruption of
the Gondwanaland in Tertiary times. There is evidence
in support of the uplift of the western margin of the
Peninsula in the occurrence of Miocene rocks near
Quilon, early Tertiary rocks near Surat and Broach
and Pleistocene beach deposits in Kathiawar.
The Peninsular rivers all rise in the Western Ghats
quite close to the Arabian Sea, the only two large rivers
with westerly courses being the Narbada and Tapti. This
remarkable behaviour of the Peninsular drainage is
attribut.lblc to the fact that the present Western Ghats,
or possibly even the part of the Aravallis now found
as a submerged ridge off the western coast of India,
represent an ancient watershed. The country to the
west of the Western Ghats was, at an earlier geological
epoch, probably quite as extensive as that to its east,
but foundered beneath the waters of the Arabian Sea
soon. after the eruption of the Deccan trap lavas, by
faulting along the present western coast.
Waterfalls.-There are numerous waterfalls in the
Western Ghats, many of them small, only 20 or
go feet high and generally found in the courses of the
westerly flowing streams. TheJog Falls (Gersoppa) on
the Sharavati river on the borders of Mysore and
Bombay comprise four magnificent falls called Raja,
Rocket, Roarer and Dame Blanche arranged on a curve
and having a sheer drop of 850 feet. The Sivasamudram
falls on the Cauvery, about 300 feet high, are well
known since they were among the first falls in India to
be harnessed for power. The Pykara falls in the
Nilgiris are a series of cascades which have recently
been utilised for hydro-electric power. The Gokak falls
(180 feet) on the Gokak river are near Belgaum. The
Yerma falls near Mahabaleshwar have a drop of
600 feet.
The rivers flowing westwards from the Western

Ghats are all torrential and short and have built no
deltas. Moreover, apparently they have not been in
existence for a long enough period since the uplift of
the Western Ghats to be able to build up deltaic flats.
The eastern coast however has been in exi')tence more
or less in its present form since the Jurassic period,
but there were marine incursions in the Cretaceous
and in the Middle Tertiary; for we find a fringe of
Jurassic and later sediments along parts of the eastern
coast.
The Narbada and the Tapti are unique in flowing
westwards. But there is evidence that their courses are
determined by fault lines, as will be particularly noticeable
from the extraordinary straightness of the middle portion
of the course of the Narbada. There arc some falls in the
course of these rivers, the Dhurandhar falls near Jubbul-
pore being well known. The Narbada flows through a
rock basin of Pleistocene and recent alluvium and there
is evidence in its lower course that it flowed formerly
towards the south-west in Kandesh and was joined by the
Tapti. Since then, however, the two rivers have separated
in their lower courses. The absence of an extensive delta
at their mouths is probably due to the force of the south-
west monsoon which carries away the sediments brought
by them into the Gulf of Cambay.
Along the northern border of the Peninsula there are
several rivers which flow from the Vinrlhyas and Satpuras.
Of these the Chambal flows through Gwalior into the
Jumna near Etawah; the Betwa flows through Bhopal and
Bundelkhand into the J umna near Hamirpur; the Son
rises from the Amarkantak plateau and flows south of the
Kaimur range and joins the Ganges near Patna. This
northerly drainage from the Peninsula was, during
the Mesozoic and the early Tertiary period, very
. prominent and contributed much sediment to the
northerly sea.
22 GEOLOGY OF INDIA AND BURMA. [CHAP,
HIMALA VAN RIVERS.

Between the Indus in Hazara and the North-West
Frontier Province and the Brahmaputra in Upper Assam,
the Himalayas give rise to over 20 important rivers.
Bevond the Himalayan region, the Indus is joined by. the
Kabul river and the Kurram river in the N.-W.F.P.,
whereas the Brahmaputra is joined by the Luhit and
Dibang rivers in the north-eastern corner of India.
The major Himalayan rivers are all snow-fed and
rise in the glaciers of the Great Himalaya or in the Trans-
Himalayan region. Later they join together to form the
three mighty systems---the Indus, Ganges, and Brahma-
putra. The fact that the chief watershed is beyond the
line of great peaks is generally cited as evidence in
favour of the drainage being antecedent, or having been in
existence before the main phase of upheaval of the Hima-
layas occurred. The courses of the rivers, where they
cross the high range, are at right angles to the latter,
i.e., they have a radial disposition with reference to the
Himalayan arc.
Several of the important rivers have cut deep gorges,
which are stupendous chasms with pt'rpendicular walls,
the river bed being often some thousands of feet below the
top of the range on either side. Some attribute this to
the erosive power of the streams downward as the moun-
tains rose upward. Others think that they represent big
fissures or fault-lines which confined the streams to their
course, as for instance the Alaknanda which traverses a
fault. Others again think that some of these may have
been formed by the bursting of dammed up bodies of
water in the Himalayan valleys, the escape of the waters
bringing about the formation of waterfalls and subse-
quently gorges.
There are several cases of the recession of the heads
of streams in the mountains by the action both of the
streams and the glaciers which feed them. This head
erosion has, in some cases, led to the source going to the
I] INTRODUCTION AND PJIY~ICAL GEOLOG'r.
northern slopes of the Great Himalaya and capturing the

drainage of other streams. An excellent example of river
capture or piracy is furnished by the Kosi whose tributary
the Arun drains the northern slopes of the Great Hima-
laya of Nepal region. Other examples are found in the
Indus and Ganges systems. Rivers have also inherited
the valleys of glaciers in many cases; the tributary streams
in these cases are often found in hanging valleys, the
junction being marked by cascades or waterfalls. The
hanging tributary valleys may be sometimes a few hundred
feet above the valleys of the main streams.
THE INDUS SYSTEM.
Indus (Sansknt: Sindhu).-The River Indus is the

western-most of the Himalayan rivers, and its sanskrit
name, which also means 'the ocean,' is probably in
allusion to its appearance in flood time in its course
through the plains of the Punjab and Sind, the latter
province being named after the river. It is one of the
mightiest rivers of the world, draining the mountain
slopes of many famous peaks-Aling Kangri, Tirich Mir,
Gasherbrum, Masherbrum, K 2, Rakaposhi, Nanga
Parbat, Takht-i-sulaiman, etc., and flowing through the
countries of a great variety of peoples and having as its
tributaries a galaxy of great rivers. The sources of the
Indus are in Tibet near Mount Kailas, where there are
two tributaries, the northern one Singi Kampa draining
the slopes of Aling Kangri, and the southern one Gartang
ehu flowing by Gartok.
It flows along the inner flank of the Ladakh range
for 180 miles, cuts across it southwards near Thangra
and flows along the southern flank of the same range
and again cuts through that range to the north near
Skardu. Further west it bends around the Nanga Parbat
and finally flows southward towards the plains. Its chief
tributaries in the mountains are the Zanskar, Dras, Shyok,
Shigar, Gilgit and Kabul rivers.
GEOLOGY OF INDIA AI'lD BURMA. [CHAP.
Jhelum (Sanskrit: Vitasta).-One of the sources of

the Jhelum is at Seshanag at the head of the Lidar tribu-
tary. The river passes through the W ular Lake of
Kashmir and after Baramula cuts across the Pir Panjal
range, making a marked bend near Muzaffarabad and
finally flowing southward. The chief tributaries are the
Sind, Kishenganga and Kunhar rivers.
Chenab \Sanskrit : Asikni).-Its two tributaries at the
source, the Chandra and the Bhaga, join together and
form the Chandrabhaga near Tandi, which then flows in
a north-westerly direction for about 100 miles. Then the
river flows through Chamba cutting a gorge through the
Pir Panjal ncar Kishtwar in Kashmir. It enters the plains
at Akhnur near Jammu.
Ravi (Sans/ail: Iravati) is the smallest of the Punjab
rivers, rising in a mountain knot in the Lesser Himalaya
and draining the southern slopes of the Pir Panjal and
the northern slopes of the Dhauladhar range. It leaves
the Bangahal basin through an inaccessible gorge witlI
perpendicular walls and flows through Chamba State and
the Dhauladhar range. Lahore is situated on this river.
In its course of 130 miles in the mountains, it drops
15,000 feet in altitude.
Beas (Sanskrit: Vipasa) rises in the Pir Panjal near
the source of the Ravi. It cuts through the Dhauladhar
range and flows through Kulu, Mandi and Kangra.
Sutlej (Sanskrit: Satadru) is remarkable in that it has
no tributaries of importance and is confined, in the
Himalayan region, to a narrow trough 20 miles wide
between the basins of the Beas and the Giri (Jumna).
It rises beyond the Great Himalayas in the lake Rakas
Tal which is supposed to be connected underground with
lake Manasarowar. Numerous glaciers of Ganglung
Gangri, Kailas, Kamet and Riwo Phargyul flow into the
river. It flows north-westward in the plateau of the
Province ofNgari Khorsam \ r 5,000 feet altitude) through
a thick mass of soft sediments, The river and its several
tributaries have cut deep canyons through these sediments,

the beds often lying 1,000 feet or more below the surface,
this being due to the aridity of the region.
Near Shipki the river passes through a narro\\- gorge,
10,000 feet in altitude, in the Zanskar range within 4~
miles of the peak ofRiwo Phargyul (22,210 feet). Ten
miles below Shipki the right bank of the Sutlej rises as a
sheer perpendicular wall 7,000 feet high. Its main tri-
butary is the Spiti river which flows in a deep bed below
the level of the alluvial terraces. The Sutlej becomes a
torrential river from Its confluence with the Spiti to the
plains. It crosses the Dhauladhar range near Rampur
through a narrow gorge and is deflected in its course by
the Siwalik ranges. The deflection by the Siwalik ridges
and the narrowness of its trough between the basins of the
Beas and Giri, and the higher altitude of this trough as
compared with those on both sides, probabI), point to
this river being younger in age Lhan several others.
The Sutlej is believed to have flowed straight out
through Patiala and Bikaner to the sea but deflected
westwards a few centuries ago by the advancing deserts
of Rajputana.
THE GANGES SYSTEM.
The Jumna (Sanskrit: Yamuna) rises in the region of

Jumnotri or Bandarpunch (20,720 feet). Behind the
Mussoorie hills, the Jumna is joined by the Tons river
which drains the area between Bandarpunch and Chor
peak. The river then cuts across the Mussoorie hills and
a little further down is joined by the Giri river which
drains the area between Simla and the Chor peak. On
leaving the hills it turns eastwards to join the Ganges at
Prayag (Allahabad) but is said to have flowed straight out
to the Arabian Sea in former days. A small river, known
as the Saraswati and thought to be the remnant of the
Saraswati river of the Vedic times, still flows in the plains
some 20 miles west of the Jumna, near Thaneswar, and
is lost in the Rajputana desert.
4
UAS LIBRARY GKVK
1I111111I111 11I11 III~ 11II1 11111111

29264
GEOLOGY OF INDIA AND ,BURMA. [CHAP.
Ganges (Sanskrit: Ganga).-Thc many tributaries of

the Ganges drain the area between Bandarpunch and
N anda Devi, some of them rising well beyond the Great
Himalayan range. The feeders of the Ganges have been
thoroughly explored by ancient Aryan explorers long
before the Christian era and many of the sources are
places of pilgrimage for the Hindus.
The two main tributary rivers arc the Alaknanda
and the Bhagirathi. The feeders of the Alaknanda are
the Dh~uli rising in theZanskar range and coming through
the Niti pass and the Vishnuganga rising on Mt. Kamet
near the Mana pass. These two join at Joshimath
(Vishnuprayag). Between Nanda Devi and Badrinath is
the gorge of the Alaknanda through the main range.
The Pindar river, coming from Nanda Devi and East
Trisul, flows westward and joins the Alaknanda at Karna-
prayag, and a little further west is the junction with the
Mandakini just to the south of Badrinath and Kedarnath.
This junction is the Rudraprayag. The junction of the
Pindar with the Nandakna on the western slope ofTrisul
is Nandaprayag.
The main western tributary, the Bhagirathi, rises
in the Gangotri glacier behind Kedarnath at a point
called Gaumukh (13,000 feet high). The Jahnavi, the
westernmost of the system, rises some distance north of
the main range and joins the Bhagirathi 7 miles below
the sacred Gangotri shrine, which lies 18 miles below
Gaumukh. The Bhagirathi, after its confluence with the
Jahnavi, cuts through the Central range between Bandar-
punch (20,720 feet) and Srikanta (20,[20 feet), the river
bed beirlg 13,000 feet below the level of the peaks. The
Bhagirathi gorge is just a slit-like opening in the rocks
with practically vertical sides.
The Alaknanda and Bhagirathi join together at
Deoprayag (Devaprayag) north of the Mussoorie range
and issue through a defile in this range.
J] INTRODUCTION AND PHYSICAL GEOLOGY.
Kali.-This river rises in the Milam glacier (12 miles

long) at the head of the Gori Ganga, and the Lipu Lekh
and other sources, all -a little east of Nanda Devi. The
eastern border of this basin is formed by the Api Nampa
peaks (23,399 feet). The three main affluents, the Kali,
Lissar (the lower part of which i<; the Dharma) and the
Gori have parallel S.S.E. course<; in their upper reaches,
and all risc beyond the Great Himalaya. Bctween the
Dharma and the Gori is the Peak Takachull (22,661
feet). Thc Salju (Sarayu) flows south-eastwards in a line
with the Pindar tributary of the Ganges further west.
Ramganga drains the southern face of the Lesser
Himalayas of Kumaon between the Ganges and Kali
basins. Its principal tributary is the Kosila which how-
ever joins the Ramganga only in the plains.
Karnali.---This river has the name Kauriala in the
outer hills and Gogra in the plaim. Its north-we<;tern
sources reach a little north and west of Gurla Mandhata
(25,355 feet) and just south of Manasarowar. In this
region its basin is quite close to that of the Sutlej.
After flowing southeast for some distance it breaks through
the main line of peaks and flows S.S.W. It has a
remarkable hair-pin bend at latitude 28 0 40': longitude
8 1 0 30'. It is joined from the ,vest by the Seti river
rising just east of the peak Api and after another sharp
bend it flows eastward and is joined by the Bheri. The
Karnali in its upper course drains the whole of the
Trans-Himalayan watershed, 200 miles long, between
Gur1a Mandhata and Diji pass, by two affiuents, one flow-
in~ E.S.E. and the other W.N.W. to meet in the middle.
Gandak (Sanskrit: Sadanira) is known in Nepal as
the Saligrami because it brings down large quantities
of Saligrams (ammonite fossils) and in the outer hills as
the N arayani. It drains the area between Dhaulagiri
and Gosainthan. Its chief tributaries have cut through
the Great Himalaya. The western tributary, the Kali
Gandak, rises in the trough between it and the Ladakh
range, traverses the Muktinath plateau and flows between

Dhaulagiri and Annapurna-I peaks. The eastern ones
are the Marsyandi, the Buri Gandak and Trisulganga.
Just north of the Mahabharat range they all flow east-
west and unite belare breaking through that range.
Kosi (Sanj'krit: Kousika) drains the area between
Gosainthan and Kanchenjunga. Its tributaries are the
Indravati, Bhote Kosi, Tamba Kosi, and Dudh Kosi.
These four drain the crest of the Great Himalaya bet-
ween Gosainthan and Everest (with Gaurisankar in the
middle) and join together to form the Sun Kosi which
flows parallel to the Mahabharat Lekh. The Bhote Kosi
and Tamba Kosi have cut back some distance through
the Central ridge. To the east of these are the Arun
and the Tamur Kosi, the latter draining the western
slopes of Kanchenjunga. The Arun is remarkable for it
drains the trough north of the crest between Gosainthan
and Kanchcnjunga and has cut a great gorge through
the main range east of Everest and Makalu. The Arun
is call('d Phung Chu in Tibet. These join the Sun Kosi
and the combined river br('aks through the Mahabharat
range.
THE BRAHMAPUTRA SYSTEM.
Tista (Sa1lskrit: Trisrota or Trishna) is the major

river of Sikkim and rises east of Kanchenjunga. It flows
east of Darjeeling into the plains where it is known to
have changed its course several times.
Bhutan rivers.-Between Chomo Lhari and the
Kula Kangri peaks are three independent rivers, the
Amo Chu, Raidak and Sankosh, all of which flow into
the plains indepcndently and join thc Brahmaputra.
Ma.nas.-Thc Manas riscs to thc north and east
of the Kula Kangri peaks and is composed of several
affiuents. The Lhobrak affluent rises on the north-west
slopes of Kula Kangri and cuts through the main range
by an impassable gorge.
Subansiri.-The sources of the Subansiri of Upper

Assam are not well known. I t probably drains both the
northern and southern slopes of the main range and
traverses it by gorges. I t divides the Miri hills from the
Abor hills in the outer Himalaya.
Brahmaputra.-The Tsang-po rises near the sources
of the Sutlej and the Karnali near Manasarowar at a
height of 16,000 feet. Its channel in Tibet is said to
be rather shallow and navigable, lying in the trough
between the Great Himalaya and the Ladakh range.
Several of its feeders on both sides flow in an opposite
(i.e., westerly) direction to meet it, so that some authorities
hold that this river originally flowed westwards. The
Tsang-po portion, that between the source and its sharp
turn around Namcha Barwa, is about 1,000 miles long.
Its course across the Himalaya from Namcha Barwa
southward is called the Dihang, and after it emerges
into the plains it is called the Brahmaputra.
In t~e Sadiya frontier tract, the Brahmaputra is
joined by the Dibang coming from the north-east and
by the Luhit (or Zayul) which comes from the east and
drains a large area between Assam and Burma.
RECENT CHANGES IN INDIAN RIVERS.

Indus.-In Rajputana, the Punjab and Sind, the
desert is continuously encroaching on the river valleys.
The ancient centres of civilisation like Harappa and
Mohenjo Daro must have been located near large
rivers but now lie buried beneath sands probably as
a result of repeated floods. In the Lower Indus valley
and the delta many prosperous cities have been flooded
out and destroyed.
It is known that formerly the Sutlej and Jumna
flowed out through Rajputana. The lost river, the Saras-
wati of Hindu tradition, was probably the river which
occupied the bed of what is now So tar or Ghaggar
flowing past the neighbourhood of Nahan. The Jumna
used to flow westward from Kamal north of Delhi.

Both these combined together ncar Suratgarh in Northern
Bikaner and formed the Hakra which flowed south-west-
ward straight to sea, i.e., into the Rann of Cutch. The
Sind portion of this river was probably the present dry
bed of the East Nara.
The Sutlej was also a separate river, flowing indepen.
dently of the Indus in the early years of the Christian era.
Whether it flowed into the Ghaggar is not known. But
it now joins the Beas. Its old channel is said to be still
recognisable between Sirsa and Umarkot.
The Rajputana desert is of very recent origin. The
Rann of Cutch must have formerly extended northwards
and Rajputana must have been a wooded and fertile land
two or three thousand years ago.
Ganges-Brahmaputra.-Barely 200 years ago, the
Ganges and Brahmaputra were separate rivers, 150 miles
apart. Then the Brahmaputra flowed east of the Madhu~
pur jungle and joined the Meghna east of Dacca. The
Ganges flowed through Gour, Nadia and Chinsurah.
There was a third river (? Tista) which apparently
flowed down to the south between the above two.
Pataliputra, a great city of the Ganges valley for
nearly 1,000 years till the fifth century A.D., is said to have
been located near the junction of five great rivers-the
Ganges, Sone, Ghogra, Gandak and Punpun. It was
destroyed and buried by floods and now lies under the
city of Patna.
Gour was a great city at the head of the Ganges
delta between the fifth and sixteenth centuries. The
formation of a swamp around the city caused a great
epidemic in the year 1575 and a large part of the popula-
tion perished.
The Brahmaputra changed its course from east of the
Madhupur jungle to the one west of the jungle only
about a century and a half ago. The Tista formerly used
to flow into the Ganges but now joins the Brahmaputra.
I] INTRODUCTION Al'\J) PHYSICAL GEOLOGY.
RIVERS OF BURMA.
The chief rivers of Burma are the Irrawaddy,
Chindwin, Sittang and Salween.
The Irrawaddy rises in Upper Burma about 29 N.
latitude and has a drainage basin of 160,000 square miles.
Yet it is an immense river when in flood. Its two tribu-
taries are Nmai Hka and Mali Hka whose confluence is
about 60 miles above Myitkyina. There are three narrow
portions or defiles along the course, the first below Sinbo,
the second below Bhamo, and the third near Thabeitkyin
near the Ruby Mir.es district. The river is however
navigable up to Bhamo. It flows through Mandalay and
then Pakokku where it is joined by the Chindwin. Below
this junction is the dry belt of Burma and the course runs
through sandstone ('ountry amidst its own older terraces.
It is thought that the river entered the sea near Prome
about a third of a million years ago, i.e., at the end of the
Tertiary era, and that the delta below Prome has been
built up since.
The river system is of Tertiary age, the lower portion
being of post-Pegu age. Its chief tributaries are the
Nam-tu and Chindwin. The Nam-tu is the chief river of
the Northern Shan States, rising within a short distance of
the course of the Salween in latitude 23 20' N. Its
course south ofMeng-tat is through a deep narrow valley.
It is joined first by the Namma and further down by the
Namhsin. The course, after being joined by the latter
river, is through a deep gorge (Gogteik gorge) where a
succession of rapids and pools is seen, and in which the
stream may be 2,000 feet below the top of the hills at the
sides. After receiving the waters of the Nam-Hka and
Nam-panshe, it leaves the hills about 14 miles to the
south-east of Mandalay. The course of the river is entirely
in the Plateau Limestone. There is abundant evidence
that this river has captured its tributaries by head erosion.
The Chindwin river rises at latitude 25 40' N. and
longitude 97 E. first flowing northwards and then north-
GEOLOGY OF INDI'_ ~ND BURMA. [CHAP.
westward through the Hukawng valley and turning

southward. In the Hukawng valley its tributaries are
the Taron and Tawan Hka. It then flows through a
rocky gorge and joins the Irrawaddy near Pakokku. The
U ru river which flows through the jade mines tract is
also a tributary of the Chindwin. It is interesting to
note that the Lower Irrawaddy is the direct continuation
of the valley of the Chindwin and that the former inherit-
ed this portion from the latter.
The Sittang rises in the Yamethin district and flows
north for some distance before taking on its southerly
course. There appears to be some support for the view
that this river course was formerly that of the Lower
Irrawaddy. As the greater part of the course is a low
plain, the river meanders a good deal.
The Salween rises in the Tibetan mountains to the
west of the head-waters of the Mekong and Yang-tse-
Kiang all of which have parallel courses there in proximity
to each other. The Salween is a wild river, for its course
through the Shan States is marked by gorges. In the
early part of its course it runs parallel to the Irrawaddy
and the Mekong. It receives several tributaries in
Yunnan and in the Shan States. The river seems to
traverse Archa:an and Pala:ozoic rocks throughout its
course. It joins the sea through two branches, one to
the west of Moulmein and the other several miles south
of Moulmt"in.
The narrowness of the drainage basin of the Salween
is noteworthy. It is probable that some of its tributaries
have been captured by the other parallel rivers. Through-
out its course, this river shows extraordinary vitality which
has helped to carve its deep gorges.
GEOLOGICAL ACTION OF THE RIVERS.
The Peninsular rivers are entirely rain-fed so that
they are full only during and immediately after the south-
west monsoon, i.e., from June to October. They are
fairly active in their upper reaches where they generally
flow over a rocky bed and actively erode the bed and
banks. They have built deltas near their mouths where
they deposit the load pf silt carried from above. The
delta regions are frequently liable to floods where the
distributaries are silted up and are not kept in trim for
carrying away the surplus waters. The deltas of the
Godavari, Kistna, Mahanadi and Cauvery are rich agri-
cultural tracts and they are gradually reclaiming land
from the sea as is proved by the fact that places which
were used as ports for sailing ships a few centuries ago
are now some distance inland. The N arbada and Tapti
have, however, not built up extensive deltas, the reason
being that their deposits are moved away by sea-currents
especially with the aid of the monsoon winds.
Compared to the Peninsular rivers, the three main
Himalayan river systems are mighty giants. The Indus
carries to the sea an average of about a million tons of silt
per day, the Ganges a little less and the Brahmaputra a
little more. The Irrawaddy has been estimated to
transport about two-third million tons of silt per day.
The Himalayan rivers are fed both by rain and snow, by
rain during June to September and by snow during the
warmer half of the year. In their courses through the
mountains they have good gradients and carry much
coarse materials including pebbles and boulders, brought
in by glaciers and also torn off from the beds and banks.
Much of the coarse material is deposited near their
debouchure into the plains. They carry enormous quanti-
ties of fine sand and silt in their course through the plains,
derived from the Himalayas as well as from the higher
peninsular up-lands. The aggrading action is confined
mostly to the lower reaches of the rivers and the deltas.
The Himalayan rivers are liable to big floods not only
in the upper mountainous part of their courses, but also
in the deltas. In the hills, barriers are often formed across
the channels by the deposition of rocky matter or by
5
34 GEOLOGY OF INDIA A~D BURMA. [CHAP.
landslides of hills which dam up large amounts of water

until the barrier is burst when the pressure of the upstream
side is able to overcome the obstacle. Such dams are
known to have impounded huge bodies of water, several
square miles in extent and hundreds of feet deep, in
mountain valle) s. Instances of disastrous floods of this
characteI have been recorded in the case of the larger
rivers-Indus (1841, 1858 ), Shyok (1924, 1930), Sutlej
(1819), Alaknanda (1893), etc.
The floods in the lower reaches are brought about by
exceptional rainfall in a short period of time when the
river channel is unable to cope with the enormous run-off
and spills over the banks, flooding the whole countryside
with a huge sheet of water. With the steady deforestation
of the river basin, percolation through the soil is diminished
and run-off increases, establishing conditions favourable
for floods. Such floods are of so frequent occurrence in
various parts of India that special mention of individual
floods is scarcely necessary.
LAKES.
Peninsula.
For a country of the dimensions of India, lakes are of
infrequent occurrence and are of no great importance in
the drainage system.
In the Peninsula there arc a few lakes which represent
natural depressions in the surface or obstructed drainage
courses. The Malabar Coast contains several bodies of
sea water more or less cut off from the sea by bars or spits.
Similar in origin are the Pulicat lake near Madras and
the Chilka lake on the Ganjam Coast.
Ponds of various dimensions, all of which have been
artificially dammed up for water supply and irrigation are
found all over the Peninsula but they are of no interest to
geologists.
Rajputana Lakes.-There are three or four salt lakes
in Rajputana typified by the Sambhar lake. They repre-
sent depressions in an arid country, receiving inland
drainage, the outlet having been obliterated by advancing
desert sands. The saline character of the Sambhar lake
is not only due to excessive evaporation but also to the
particles of salt and saline mud blown into Rajputana
from the Rann of Cutch by the monsoon winds, as pointed
out by Holland and Christie (Rec. 38, 154-186, 1909). This
windborne saline matter is dissolved by the scanty rain-
fall and concentrated in the lakes. From experimental
data, Holland and Christie have calculated the amount
of salt brought into Rajputana along a front 300 km.
broad and 100 metres high, during the four hot weather
months as about 130,000 tons. The Sambhar lake when
, flooded' during the monsoon is a shallow sheet of water
covering an area of go square miles. Most of this is
evaporated during the dry months and the saline efflores-
cence in the bed is collected and purified. The mud
of the lake bed is known to be highly saline for a depth
of several feet from the surface.
Dhands.-There are several small alkaline lakes in
Sind, called 'Dhands,' occurring in depressions amidst
sand hills. Their waters contain different sodium salts.
Lonar Lake.-A great circular depression amidst the
Deccan traps of the Buldana district in Berar is occupied
by a shallow lake. It is about a mile in diameter and
nearly 300 feet deep below the level of the surrounding
country. In the hot weather the water in the lake-practi-
cally disappears and yields encrustations of sodium
carbonate (urao) with some sodium chloride. The mud
at the bottom is also heavily impregnated with salt.
This circular depression is either a crater-lake or
more probably represents a subsidence of a tract along
circular fractures due to the emptying of lava and gases
below, at a late stage of the Deccan trap activity.
The Kallar Kahar on the northern slopes of the
Salt Range in Jhelum district, the Khabaki Kabr, Khotaka
Kahar, Son-Sakesar and Jatar kahar in the Shahpur district
are all saline lakes apparently of tectonic origin.
EXTRA- PENINSUl A.
Tibet.--The Tibetan basin amidst the high moun-
tains of Asia contains a large number of lakes of which the
largest is the Issik Kol (2,000 square miles) in the Tien
Shan area, while the largest in Tibet is Koko Nor (1,630
square miles). The Tibetan and Tarim b3sins are now
areas of inland drainage. The Tsaidam depression in
Tibet is a dry lake basin having an area of 12,000 square
miles at an elevation of 9,000 feet. It is now really a salt
desert. It is thought that many of the Tibetan lakes have
been formed by obstruction to river valleys by moraine
material or in some cases possibly by earth movements.
The desiccation dates from the time of conversion of the
Tethys into a mountainous region. Lake terraces are
often found in Tibet some hundreds of feet above the
present water level.
The Tibetan region is now completely cut off on all
sides from moisture-bearing winds so that its interior is
becoming steadily arid. In the mountains on its borders,
however, rise the great rivers of Eastern and Southern
Asia.
In southern Tibet are the Manasarowar (200 square
miles) Rakas Tal (140 square miles) and Gunchu (40
square. miles); in south-eastern Tibet, south of the
Tsangpo, are Yam drok (340 square miles), Trigu (51
square miles) and others. In the Himalayas there are
many lakes of comparatively small dimensions, such as
Khewan Tal, Naini Tal, Bhim Tal, Wular, Dal, Tso
Morari, etc. The Himalayan lakes are probably attri-
butable to different causes such as the damming up of the
valleys by moraines or tributary streams, scooping out of
part of the basin by glaciers, or the rise of parts of the river
bed. Some of the Kumaon lakes are said to be due to the
subsidence of the floor by the solution of underlying rock.
The Wular lake through which the Jhelum flows and the
Dallakc ncar Sri nagar, in Kashmir, are remnants of much
larger lakes formed by the deposition of alluvial dams
across their outlets. Of perhaps similar nature is the
Manchhar lake near Sehwan in Sind, which is shallow
and attains an area of 200 square miles during the mon-
soon. The lakes in Baluchistan and Mekran exhibit the
characters of bodies of water in arid and desiccating
regIons.
LAKES IN BURMA.
As in India, there are very few lakes of importance
in Burma. These include the Indawgyi and Indaw in the
Katha and Myitkyina district::" some crater lakes in the
Chindwin district, and ponds of various sizes in the
alluvial area.
The Indawgyi lake in Myitkyina is 16 miles long and
7 miles broad with a superficial area of about 80 square
miles. It has an outiet to the north in the Indaw stream,
and occupies a depression amidst the hills which may be of
tectonic origin. The Indaw lake in Katha district is
probably also of tectonic origin.
The Inle rake in Shan States lies at an altitude of
3,000 feet between two ranges of hills. It has considerably
silted up in historic times, as have several other lakes in
the Shan plateau. It is 14 miles long and 4 miles broad
but even when full is only about 20 feet deep. In the dry
season the depth is on an average 7 feet, and the bottom is
overgrown with weeds. Its margin is marshy and full of
vegetation. Its origin is attributed to the sinking of land
by the solution of limestone below the bed. Several other
areas in the Shan States, now covered with thick alluvial
deposits, point to the fact that they were all once lakes.
In the dry zone of Burma, particularly in the Sagaing
and Shwebo di<;tricts, there are several saline lakes, all of
small extent and a few which could yield brme for the
manufacture of common salt, sodium sulphate, etc., during

the dry season.
There are some 7 or 8 craters or hollows formed by
volcanic explosion along both sides of the Chindwin river
near Shwezaye. Some of these contain permanent water,
while others are dry and may be cultivated for part of the
year. In the Twindaung crater, two miles N. E. of
Shwezaye, the water-level is over 300 feet below the rim
of the crater and the water is said to be about 70 feet deep.
The Taungbyauk crater is half a mile in diameter and
200 feet deep, and the bottom is only p:utly covered with
water derived from springs at the sides. The Twin lake
is the southern-most of the group. The crater is three-
quarters of a mile in diameter, 150 feet deep and has a
shallow lake at the bottom, the body of water being about
half a mile across.
In Lower Burma the lakes J.re mainly depressions in
the alluvium, or obstructed drainage channels. The Daga
lake in Bassein is an elliptical lake 2} miles long, I mile
wide and 20 to 45 feet deep. It is considered to be an un-
filled bend of the Irrawaddy river. The Imma (Engma)
lake in Prome and the Htoo and Doora lakes in Henzada
occupy abandoned courses of the rivers. These attain
their largest extent during the rains and' become mere
marshes in the dry weather. There are several other,
similar, but less important lakes in the delta region of the
Burmese rivers.
EARTHQUAKES.
Earthquakes occur in regions of marked instability,
such as orogenic zones. Such a region, par excellence, is the
zone of the Himalayan and connected arcs around
India's northern borders, which have been, during the
Tertiary times, folded, faulted and overthrust. The in-
stability appears to be greatest in the Tertiary belt and at
the junction of the Tertiaries with the older rocks, for
this belt h.. yet to attain complete equilibrium. It is
I] INTRODUCTION AND PHYSICAl (;EOLOGY. 39
also interesting to note that seismicity is marked where
wedge-like masses of the old rocks have opposed the
advance of the folds towards the shield area. Such areas
are the syntaxial bends of the arcs in the north-east
beyond the Sadiya region on the Chinese border; in
the north-west in the Kashmir-Gilgit-Pamir region;
near Quetta; near the northern end of the Sulaiman
Mountains in Waziristan.
The Assam plateau is of the nature of a block uplifted
between two opposing movements, one from the north
from the Himalayas and the other from the east and south-
east from the Patkoi and Naga hills. The southern border
of this block is marked by the composite Haflong-Disang
fault along which the Tura Range region has been over-
thrust southwards and the Patkoi region overthrust north-
westwards, the intervening portion being a normal fault
or a fold. The northern border is also apparently faulted.
In addition there is a series of well-marked cross-faults
trending in a N.-S. direction which have cut up the
plateau into slices arranged en echelon. These various
faults are the loci of seismic disturbances at the present
day.
The .Indo-Gangetic alluvial tract is one of occasional
seismIclty. As it is a depression filled up by soft unconsoli-
dated alluvium it suffers from excessive vibrations set up by
every strong earthquake on its borders. Secondly, it is
not unlikely that its floor, which represents a sag in the
crust of the earth, is fractured and movements are taking
place therein. Though we do not know the structure of
the alluvial tract in detail, the Bihar earthquake of 1934
and the Cutch earthquake of 1819 had their foci in the
alluvial tract, and the Bihar earthquake has been attributed
to possible movement connected with fractures in the
floor of the valley beneath Motihari and Monghyr.
The Peninsular block is a region of comparative
stability, as may be expected from its great geological
antiquity. But it is known to be cut up by a large number
of faults resulting from tension in the crust. The earth-

quake shocks experienced in the Peninsula are generally
quite feeble. Sometimes when severe earthquakes occur
in northern India, sympathetic shocks are felt ill some
places in the Peninsula; for example the Bihar earthquake
of 15th January, 1934, gave rise to a minor shock on the
south-west coast at the same time. The reason for this
sympathetic behaviour between these is, however, obscure.
For a recent discussion of the structure of India with
reference to seismic phenomena, the reader is referred to
W.D. West's address to the Geology section of the twenty-
fourth Indian Science Congress. A good summary of an
earlier date is to be found in the monograph by Count
Montessus de Ballore in the Memoirs of the Geological
Survey of India (Vol. 35) and a descriptive catalogue of
early earthquakes by Dr. T. Oldham in the same series
(Vol. 19)' Individual earthqlllkes of recent times are
described in memoirs and papers published by the Geolo-
gical Survey of India of which a selection will be found
in the bibliography at the end of the Chapter.
VOLCANOES.
Though Tertiary volcanism has been fairly wide-
spread in the Himalayas, Burma and Baluchistan, recent
volcanic activity is known only in the Barren Island and
Narcondam in the Burmese arc and in the Nushki desert
in Baluchistan.
Barren Island has the shape of a cone which is sur-
rounded by an encircling ring of a former crater. It
occupies an area of a little over 3 square miles and the ridge
is 600 to I, I 00 feet high, the central cone rising to 1,0 I 5
feet above sea-level. The lava-flows consist mainly of
basalt and augite-andesite, with intercalations of ash and
pyroclastic materials. It was seen in actual eruption in
1789, 1795 and 1803; since then it has been dormant.
Narcondam (Naraka-Kundam) on the same align-
ment, is apparently an extinct volcano, which was probably
active in the Pleistocent'. I ts crater has been worn down

and its lavas are hornblende-andesites and dacites.
Barren Island and Na.rcondam are the crests of a
deeply submerged ridge lying east of and parallel to the
Arakan-Andaman-Sumatra arc. This ridge is bordered
by deep troughs on both sides.
Further north in the Central belt of Burma there is
evidence of Pliocene and Pleistocene activity in Mount
Popa, Shwebo, Mandalay and Lower Chindwin districts,
Jade Mines area and South Yunnam. It is not known
whether any of these were active during historic times.
At the other end of India, in the Baluchistan desert,
is the Koh-i-Sultan which is also an extinct volcano.
Further along the same alignment is the Koh-i-Taftan in
Iran which is said to be still active. The lavas are of
andesitic type and intercalated with ash-beds. The
Solfataras of Koh-i-Suhan deposit sulphur as do those in
the Barren Island.
MUD VOLCANOES.
Mud volcanoes are not volcanoes in the true sense but
are merely accumulations of mud in the form of crater and
cone due to the eruptive power of hydrocarbon gases in
petroliferous strata They vary in size from small mounds
to hillocks 30 or 40 feet high, and rarely much larger.
Some have the shape of basins with a central vent while
others are like volcanic cones. They usually erupt soft
liquid mud gently, but in rare cases rather violent eruptions
of thick mud and fragments of rocks are known. Mud vol-
canoes seem to be more active during the rains, perhaps
because rain-water helps to soften the mud and thus lessens
the pressure on the imprisoned gases. A small difference
in temperature between the atmosphere and erupted mud is
sometimes recorded. This may be due merely to the
depth from which the mud comes or to oxidation of the
hydrocarbons escaping to the surface. The ordinary
temperatures observed are between 85 and 100 F.
6
GEOLOGY OF INDIA AND BURMA. rCHAP.
Mud volcanoes occur in Burma on either side of the
Arakan Yoma. The eastern group comprises those in
Minbu, Prome and Henzada districts and the western
group those on the Arakan coast and especially in the
Ramri and Cheduba and other islands and near Cape
Negrais. They grade from basins on the one hand to cones
on the other, the type being apparently controlled by the
viscosity of the mud and the energy of eruption. In the
basin type the gas escapes as bubbles from a muddy pool,
which may have various degrees of permanence. The
type which produces cones eject~ thick mud and the
ejection of gas is much more forceful than in the other type.
The cones are often perfect miniatures of volcanic cones,
and attain heights of 40 or 50 feet. Parasitic cones, craters,
mud flows, explosions, intermittent activity, rumbling
sounds, etc., are all phenomena which have parallels in
true volcanism.
In the Arakan group, the mud volcano~ of Ramri are
the best known. The diameter of the cones varies widely,
up to 200 or 250 yards. The eruptions consist of methane
and other hydrocarbon gas, petroleum, saline matter
(sodium chloride and sodium and calcium sulphates), mud
and fragments of rock from the strata underlying the
locality. The more violent eruptions tend to be periodical
as in the case of geysers. The gases evolved sometimes
burn spontaneously. The Cheduba eruption of January
21St, 1904, had a duration of 45 minutes and is said to
have been the most violent known in recent times. Sub-
marine eruptions of the same type are known along the
Arakan coast, these occasionally producing mud banks.
Mud volcanoes are known to erupt at times of earth-
quakes if they happen to be in the affected zone. The
disturbance in the crust producing earthquakes should
naturally be expected to favour the eruption of gases in mud
volcanoes.
In and around the oil fields of Burma there are mud
volcanoes, which are undoubtedly related to the occur-
11 INTRODUCTION AND PHYSWAJ_ GEOLOGY. 43
rence of petroliferous strata, and occur on the anticlinal
structures. In some of the oil fields, fissures in the sand-
stones are noticed to have been filled with day. These
fissure-fillings are of all dimensions, with thickness ranging
up to about 10 inches, and running in all directions. These
are to be explained as due to the liquid mud forced out
from beneath, filling up joints and fractures in the domi-
nant sandstone strata of the oil fields.
Mud volcanoes arc also seen at the other end of the
Himalayan mountain arcs, in the Mekran coast of Balu-
chistan. The region being dry, the cones attain much
greater heights (200 to 250 feet) than in Burma, where
they tend to be destroyed by rain.
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY.
GENrRAI REfEkEN( L~
Medhcott, H B. ,lnd Blanfold, W T. Manual of the Geology of India,

.} Vols Calcutta, [879-1887
Oldham, R.D. Manual of the Grology of India (Second edition)
Calcutta, 1893.
Wadla, D.N. Geology of India for studrnts. Loncon, '939.
Fox, C.S. PhYSIcal geography for IndIan students. London, 1938.
Holland, T l;;I. Geology of IndIa (Imperial Gazetteer of India,
Vol. I, Ch 2), 1904
Chhibber, H.L Geology of Burma. London, '934.
Vredenburg, E. Summary orthe Geologv ofIndia. Calcutta, 1910.
Burrard, S G., Hayden, H.H. and Ht'ron, A.M. Geography and
geology of the Himalaya MountaIns and TIbet (2nd edition)
Dehra Dun, 1932
GLACIERS.
Grinlinton,].L. GlaCiers of the Dhauli ,md Lissar valleys. Rec 14,

28 9-335, 19 14.
Grinlinton, J 1. Former glaciatIOn of the E Lidal valley. Mem 49,
Pt 2, 1928.
Hayden, H H. et at. Notes on certaIn glaciers In KashmIr, Lahaul
and Kumaon Rec. 35, 123-148, 1907.
La Touche, T.D. Notes on certaIn glaCler~ in Sikkim. Rec. 40,
52-62, 1909.
RIVERS.
Medlicott, H.B. Sketch of the Geology of the N.W. Provinces (now

U.P.) Ret. 6, 9-17, 1873.
Carless, T.G. Memoir to accompany the survey of the delta of the
Indus. Jour. Roy. Geog. Soc. 8, 328-366, 1838.
Cunningham, A. Memorandum on the Irawadi River. Jour As.
Soc. Beng. 29, 175-183, 1860.
Cunningham, A. Ancient geography of India. London, 1871.
Ferguson, J. Delta of the Ganges. Q.J.G.S. (London) 19, 321-354,
1863.
Krishnan, M.S. and Aiy("ngar, N K.N. Did the Indobrahm or
Siwalik river eXist;> Rec. 75, paper 6, 1940.
Oldham, C.F. The Saraswati and th(" lost river of the Indian d("sert.
Jour. Roy. As. Soc. N.S. 25, 49-76, 1893.
Oldham, C.F. Notes on the lost river of the Indian desert. Cal.
Rev. 59, 1-2 7, 1874.
Oldham, R.D. On probable changes In the geography of the Punjab
and its rivers. J. A. S.B. 55, 322-343, 1886.
Pascoe, E.H. The early history of the Indus, Ganges dnd the
Brahmaputra. QJ.G.S. (London) 75, 13B- 1 55, 19 19.
Pilgrim, G.E. Suggestions concerning the history of the drainage
of Northern India, arising out of a study of the SIwalik Boulder
Conglomerate. J.A.S.B., N.S IS, 81-101, 1919.
Rennell, J. An account of the Ganges .ind Burrampooter Rivers.
PhIL. Trans. Roy. Soc. (London) 71,87-114., 1781.
Rennell, J. Memoir of a map of Hindoostan. London, 1788 (3rd
edn. 17l)3)'
--Physical geography of Bengal, from maps and writings of
Major J. Rennell. Calcutta (Bengal Govt.) 1926.
LAKES
Holland, T.H. and Christie, W.A.K. Origin of the salt d"posits of
Rajputana. Rec.38,154-186, Igog.
La Touche, T.D. Lakes of the Salt Range, Punjab, Rec. 40, 36-51,
19 0 9.
La Touche, T. D. Geology of the Lonar Lake. Ret". 4', 266-285,
19 10 .
EARTHQUAKES, VOLCANOES, MUD VOLCANOES

Auden, J.B. and Gho~h, A.M.N. PrehmlDary account of the earth-
quake of 15th January, 1934, in BIhar and Nepal. Rec. 68,
177- 2 39, 1935
Ballore, M. De. SeIsmic phenomena in British India and their
connection with geology. Mem. 35, Pt. 3, 1904
I] INTRODUCTION AND PHYSICAL GEOLGY. 45
Brown,J.C. Burma earthquakes of May, 1912. Mem p, Pt. I, 19 14.
Brown, J.C. The Pyu earthquake of 3rd and 4th December, 1930.
Mem. 62, Pt. I, 1933.
Brown, JC. et aI. Pegu earthquake of May 5th, 1930. Rte. 65.
221- 27, 193 2.
Gee, E.R. Dhubri earthquake of 3rd July, 1930 Mem, 65, Pt I,
1934
Ht:ron, A.M. BaluchlStan earthquake of 2 1St October, 1909 Rec41,
22-35, 19 1 1.
Mlddlrffilss, C S. Kangra earthquake of 4th April, 1905. Mem3 8,
19 10 .
Oldham, R.D. Assam earthquake of 12th June, 1897. Mem. 29,
1900 .
Oldham, R.D. Cutch earthquake of 16thJune, 1819, with a revisIOn
of the Great Earthquake of 12th June, 1897. Mem. 46, Pt,2,
1926 .
Oldham, T. Catalogue of IndIan earthquakes from the earliest times
to the end of AD. 1869 Mem. 19, Pl. 3, 1883.
Stuart, M. Srimangal earthquake of 8th July, 1918. Mem. 46,
Pt. I, 1920
West W D. Baluchistan earthquakes of August 25th and 27th, 1931.
Mem 67, Pt. I, 1934.
West, W.D. BaluchIstan earthquake of May 31st, 1935. Rec. 69,
2 03- 240, 1936
West, W.D. Presidential address to the sectIOn of Geology, 24th
(Hyderabad) session of the Indian Science Congress. Proc.
Ind. SCI. Congr., 1937.
Hobday, JR. and Mallet, F.R. Volcanoes of Barren Island and
Narcondam. Mem. !n, Pt 4, 1885
Brown, j.C. Mud Volcanoes of the Arakan coast, Rec.37, 264-279,
1909.
Brown, JC Submanne mud eruptions of the Arakan coast. Rec.56,
250-256, 19 26 .
Mallet, FR. Mud volcanoes of Ramn and Cheduba. Rec. 11,
188-2 0 7, 18 78 ; 12,70-7 2 , 1879 j 14, 196- 197, 1881 ; IS, 141-142,
1882 ; 18, 124-125, 1885.
Noetling, F. Occurrence of petroleum in Burma and its technical
explOItation. Mem 27, 35-49, 80-85, 1897.
Pascoe, E.H. The 011 fields of Burma. Mem. 40, 211-215, 19u~.
--The Bihar-Nepal Earthquake of 1934. Mem 73, 1939.
CHAPTER II.
STR UCTURE AND TECTONICS OF INDIA.
PENINSULA.
In this chapter are described the general structural
features of India which will explain to some extent the
present configuration of the country. For understanding
the discussion, a knowledge of the stratigraphical geology
of India is essential, but it is thought that a preliminary
reading of this chapter at the commencement will be
useful, for the structure and geological history are inti-
mately connected with each other.
As already mentioned, the Peninsula consists largely
of Archrean formations, parts of which are covered over
by the Deccan trap lavas, Cuddapah and Vindhyan basins
and faulted blocks of the Gondwanas. The Archreans,
on examination in a broad way, are found to reveal
certain general regional strikes over large stretches of
country as explained below:-
The Aravalli sbike has a N.E.-S.W. trend which
can be seen over the whole of the region from Delhi to
- Gujarat, across Rajputana. This strike continues into
parts of the Sub-Himalayan zone of Tehri-Garhwal. In
the south, towards Gujarat, this strike splays out, the
western part pointing straight to the Gulf of Cam bay and
the eastern part gradually changing to N.-S. and then
N.N.W.-S.S.E. It will be noticed that the latter trend is
characteristic of the Dharwarian rocks of Mysore, Hydera-
bad and Southern Bombay as will be referred to later.
It is a noteworthy fact that there is a ridge underneath
the sands and alluvium of the Punjab, trending north-west
from Delhi. Evidence of its presence is furnished by the
Kirana and Sangla hills, and by geodetic evidence of
, upwarp' along this region. Whether this is connected
with the Aravallis or whether it has something to do with
the earth movements which lifted up the Himalaya and
IIJ STRUCTURE AND TECTONICS OF INDIA. 47
formed a parallel sag in the Punjab plains is, however,
a debatable and speculative question.
The several bands of Dharwarian rocks in Southern
Bombay (Dharwar and Belgaum districts) and adjacent
parts of Mysore and Hyderabad form deep synclinal basins
whose axes and the strike of foliation trend N.N.W.-
S.S.E. This Dharwarian trend extends to at least as far
south as Mysore city.
MAP III.
In the southernmost part of the Peninsula the strike

seems to spread out and is referable to three main direc-
tions, viz., N.N.W.-S.S.E. in the Western Ghats; N.W.-
S.E. (to W.N.W.-E.S.E.) in Madura and Tinnevelly

which apparently continues into Ceylon; and E.N.E.-
W.S.W. (to N.E.-S.W.) in Salem and Arcot, which very
probably continues towards Madras and the Eastern
Ghats.
The Eastem Ghats strike (N.E.-S.W.) is seen all over
the Eastern Ghats region from near Bezwada in Madras
to Balasore in Orissa. Parts of Hyderabad also show this
strike while the crescentic basin of the Cuddapah rocks
in the Madras Presidency has been influenced and more
or less moulded on this structure. This same strike is
conspicuously displayed in the Khasi and Jaintia hills
of the Assam plateau and in the Mikir hills of Upper
Assam.
The strike in the Western part of the Assam plateau
may be the continuation of the Satpura strike of Bihar.
In the Bastar and Orissa region, particularly for
instance in the lower Mahanadi valley up to Sambalpur,
the trend is N.W.-S.E., the Mahanadi stlike. How much
of this region follows the grain of the Eastern Ghats and
how much that of the Mahanadi, is not known as large
tracts still remain to be surveyed.
Over the whole of the region from near the Rajmahal
Hills on the east through the Chota Nagpur plateau and
Balaghat to Chhindwara, a distinct strike persists which is
called the Satpura strike. Southwards, this extends to
Singhbhum and Gangpur; the southern parts of these
and the adjoining Orissa States show, however, the Eastern
Ghats and Mahanadi strikes. A similar interference of
three regional strikes with the same general directions is
also seen in the Bhandara region of the Central Provinces,
according to Mr. D. S. Bhattacharjee.
One interesting feature may be emphasised in this
connection. The Aravalli and Eastern Ghats strikes
exhibit a rough parallelism; so also the Dharwarian and
Mahanadi strikes; these two sets are more or less perpendi-
cular to each other. The Satpura strike is quite distinct
IIJ STRUCTURE AND TECTONICS OF INDIA 49
from these. This reticulate structure is perhaps a factor
which may account for the great stability of the Peninsula,
as pointed out by Col. E. A. Glennie in another connection.
Further, it is noteworthy that the ranges which these
trends characterise form the edges of the Peninsular mass
beyond which are sunken areas filled either by ocean waters
or by thick alluvium.
Cuddapah Basins.--Lying over the Arch~an mass
are basins of Cuddapah and Vindhyan rocks referable
mainly to the Pre-Cambrian, and perhaps partly to the
Cambrian. The Cuddapah basin in Madras is crescentic
in outline, the convexity facing the west or northwest and
the greatest disturbance of tht> rocks being found along its
eastern margin. The Cuddapah basin of Bastar and
Chhattisgarh is similar but the structure is not so well
seen because it has been split up into separate areas with
Arch~ans intervening between them.
The great basin of Vindhyans around Bundelkhand,
occupying the Son valley and parts of Eastern Rajputana
and Central India, has a complicated structure, its western
margin being marked by a great thrust zone in which the
older rocks are brought against the youngest Vindhyans,
the direction of the thrust being from north-west to south-
east. The southern and eastern portions, however, seem
to have been thrust from the south-west or south.
It is not known when the post-Vindhyan movements
took place. They may be Palreozoic and probably
connected with the Hercynian movements, which also
initiated geosynclinal marine sedimentation in the Tibetan
Zone of the Himalaya.
Faults.-The north-eastern part of the Peninsula has,
since then, been subjected to block faulting. The coal
fields of the Damodar-Son valley, the Mahanadi valley,
Chhattisgarh, and the Godavari valley are all bounded
by faults whIch have helped to preserve the Gondwana
strata. There are several faults which traverse the
Peninsula, in addition to those which are found in and
7
around the coal fields. It is now well recognised that the

western coast of India has been formed by faulting.
Along this coast, [rom Ratnagiri to north of Bombay there
is a series of hot springs arranged along a straight line which
strongly suggests that they are situated on a line of fracture.
Additional evidence is afforded by the Deccan traps which
are several thousand feet thick near the Bombay coast and
gradually thin down eastwards. It is thought that their
abrupt stoppage at the Bombay coast is due to the breaking
off of the portion of land which originally lay to the west
of Bombay. The age of this faulting is post-Deccan trap
and may be as late as Pliocene at which time a fault
developed also along the Mekran coast of Baluchistan.
We3tern OOa,3t. -There seems to have been some
irregularity in the region of the Gulf of Cam bay for we find
Cretaceous and Eocene strata in the region of the Narbada
valley. This may have been an arm of the Arabian Sea
stretching into this area from Sind and southern Rajputana
through northern Gujrat, which were occupied by a sea
in the Upper Mesozoic and Tertiary. There must have
been a considerable gap here in the Aravallis, for there is
evidence of the continuation of the same range further
south into the Arabian Sea, though this is now submerged.
There is evidence that this region has been raised in very
recent geological times. The continental shelf on the
western coast is generally about 100 fathoms deep, but it
luddenly slopes down to 1,000 or I, 100 fathoms, which is
the depth of the trough lying between the coast and the
ridge, part of which forms the Laccadives. The continental
shelf, even more than the coast line, is remarkably straight
from Cape Comorin to the mouths of the Indus.
Laccadives and Maldives.-There is evidence that
the Aravalli'i continue, after the gap in Gujarat, into the
ridge found alongside the western coast. In the gulf of
Cambay is the Direction Bank which is continuous south-
ward with the Angria and Adas Banks west of Goa, which
form the connecting link. The Laccadives lie west of the
II] STRUCTURE AND TECTONICS OF INDIA
Malabar Coast and rise from a depth of about 1,100

fathoms. At the southern end of thi., ridge there is a curva-
ture pointing to the cast. This ridge apparently dies down,
a deep channel intervening betwem the Laccadives and
Maldives at about latItude 8 N. The Maldives rise as a
ridge from the sea bottom with the same direction but
slightly to the east of the Laccadive alignment. There is
another gap at about latitude 2 S., after which rises the
Chagos Archipe'ago
The eastern slopes of the Laccadive and Maldive
ridges are steeper than the \\-estern, so that this slope may
indicate a fault similar to the 'Boundary Fault' of
Rajputana. But whereas the trough on the east is 1,100
fathoms deep, the floor on the west rapidly deepens to
about 2,000 fathoms. It we assume that the oeean floor
on both sides of this ridge was originally level with the
western coast of India, then the subsidence due to the
Tertiary faulting should have a minimum value of 6,000 to
7,000 feet. This, it will be seen, will bring the ridge to a
height of 3,000 to 7,000 feet above sea level which fits in
well with the idea that the ridge originally formed the
watershed in the existing land mass.
Eastern Coast.- The continental shelf broadens at
Cape Comorin and includes the island of Ceylon, with
however an indentation pointing towards the Gulf of
Manar. The eastern coast is irregulal, for there have
been marine tl ansgrcssions and regressions since the
J urassie, the chief transgressions being of Upper Gondwana
(Jurassic), Cenomanian and Miocene ages. The present
configuration of the Bay of Bengal dates roughly from the
Jurassic whereas the Arabian Sea coast i~ definitely of
post-Deccan trap age and possibly as late as Miocene or
Pliocene.
EXTRA-PENINSULA.
Himalayas.
It has already been mentioned that t4e Extra-Penin-
sula is characterised by arcuate disposition of the
GEOLOGY OF INDIA AND BURMA. rCHAP.
mountains. The convexity of the arcs is in every case

turned towards the stable and comparatively rigid block
of the Peninsula. The areas now occupied by these moun-
tain arcs were once large basms of sedimentation, of geosyn-
clinal dimensions. These have been intensely folded and
corrugated and overthrust, large slices having been some-
times carried forward for long distances. Such masses
are called nappes. Because of the overthrusts, nappes and
recumbent folds, the beds generally seem to dip towards
the interior (i.e., the direction from which the thrusts are
thought to have acted).
Four para.llel Zones.-The four zones into which
the Himalayas can be divided, l:iz., (I) the foot-hills zone,
(2) the Lesser Himalaya or Sub-Himalayan zone, (3) the
Central or Great Himalaya and (4) the Trans-Himalaya or
Tibetan zone, have each certain distinguishing geological
features. The foot-hills zone consists of Tertiary sedi-
ments including Eocene, Murree and Siwalik strata. Of
these, only the Siwaliks seem to be persistent throughout
the length of the Himalayas, except for two or three small
gaps. The Murrees arc apparently absent east of Dehra
Dun whereas the Eocene seems to be unknown east of
Naini Tal, and even there ver~ thin. The Siwaliks are
sometimes folded, faulted and even overthrust. This zone
is often separated from the inner zone by the 'Main
Boundary Fault.'
The Lesser Himalayas contain various stratigraphical
units ranging in age from Pre-Cambrian to Tertiary, and
intrusive igneous rocks of different types. The rocks are
generally of the peninsular facies-i.e., large thickness of
unfossiliferous slates and quartzites, Gondwanas and
Mesozoic rocks. It is only in Kashmir that the Tibetan
marine facies transgresses into this zone. This zone is
highly complicated in structure, since two or more over~
thrusts and nappes have been deciphered, and recumbent
folds and inverted sequences are common.
II] STRUCTURE AND TECTONICS OF INDIA. 53
The Central Himalayan Zone consists of rocks of the
Lesser Himalayas together with much gneissic and granitic
rocks of different ages.
The Trans-Himalayan or Tibetan zone shows a
complete sequence of marine fossiliferous strata formed
ir. a geosyncline, ranging in age from the Cambrian to the
Eocene. There are, however, certain well-marked strati-
graphical gaps such as the one at the base of the Permian
(which is probably to he attributed to the Hercynian
disturbance); and the Callovian unconformity which is
overlain by the Spiti Shales (Upper Jurassic) in Western
Himalaya, and by Neocomian beds in the Baluchistan area.
These two types of succession are found along two conti-
guous and parallel zones in Hazara, the strikes coinciding
with the later fold axes. It seems that in the Himalayan
area the structure of the older (Pre-Cambrian and Purana)
rocks has influenced the later <;tructures imposed on them
during the Tertiary era.
The trend lil1es of the Himalaya are seen as far north
as the Karakoram-Hindu Kush system of mountains.
This leads to the plausibili ty of the hypothesis of the
Karakoram mountains being of the same age as the Hima-
layas. It is however held by Trinkler and De Terral that
the Karakoram sy~tem is of Hercynian age and thus
related to the Kun Lun and Tien Shan ranges which are
included in the ' Altaidcs ' by E. Suess in his great work
'Das Antlitz der Erde.' The core of the Karakoram
mountains consists of granitic rocks. De Terra attributes
the present features of these mountains to later faulting
and movements.
Recent work in the Himalayas has been concentrated
in the Kashmir-Hazara, Simla and Garhwal areas. These
areas have not yet been mapped continuously. There is a
very large gap in the Nepal region, while the Darjee1ing
1 Gcologlschc Forsrhung('n In Wf'~lhchen Kun Lun und Karakoram Himalaya,
193 2
54 GEOLOGV OF INDIA AND BURMA. (CHAP.
,uea has been mapped only in a general way. Short

descriptions follow.
KASHMIR HIMALAYA.
In the Kashmir area D.N. Wadia 1 has recognis~d
three tectonic elements :-
I. A northward projecting wedge of the Gondwana
foreland covered by Murree sediments.
2. An Autochthonous ';:'Orle consisting of sediments of
various ages ranging from Carboniferous to Eocene, and
often highly folded and inverted, which has been over-
thrust (Murree thrust) against the foreland.
3. A Nappe zone of two successive nappes WhICh is
thrust over the other two. These nappes include rocks of
the Salkhala series (Prc-Cambrian) and Dogra Slates with
infolded synclines of Palccozoic and Triassi{ rocks which
fon~titutc areas such as the Kashmir basin and the Shamsh
Abari mountains. The thrusts have been called Pa11:Jttl
thrusts.
4. Beyond these is the Central Himalayan zone
wherein lie the ' roots' of the nappes intruded by granite
of presumably different ages, the latest being distinctly
Tertiary. Patches of the Tibetan marine zone of scdi.
mentaries, Pal~ozoic and Mesozoic in age, arc found in
this zone.
SIMLA HIMALAYA.
U. E. Pilgrim and w.n. West have mapped the
Simla neighbourhood and published the results in Memoirs
of the Geological Survey of India, volume 53. This work
has been continued since by West. Here the younger and
older Tertiaries are separated by a ' boundary fault.' The
Tertiaries are separated from the Pre-Tertiary, autoch-
thonous, Krol belt rocks by the A'01 thrust which appa-
rently corresponds to the Murree thrust of Kashmir. This
I pr"SI,It'ntlal I\ddress, Geology section, 1 v.cnty-fifth Indian Snenr.. Congns~.
Iq'iEl.
II] STRUCTllRf \" I) TECTONICS INDIA. 55
thrust zone IS itself fold,"d <md highly (( '"lpressed and can
be folIowed for a long distance to the ~outh-cast where it
even overlaps the Tertiaries near Nahan. Beyond the
Krol belt is the zone of nappes, containing Pre-Cambrian
J utogh and Chail series, 'v\ ith the ]utogh and Giri thrusts-
which correspond to the Panjal thrusts. To the north
is the great Ghail thrust which exposes a tectonic' window'
of Shali limestone, Madhan States and Tertiaries near the
ShaH peak. 1 The trace of the Chail thrust marks a great
discordance as, in following it north-east and north across
the Sutlej, the Tertiaries gradually disappear and the
Chails rest on the Shali limestone. Granitic intrusives
are found both in the nappe zone and further north.
GARHWAL HIMALAYA. 2
Here also there is the outer Siwalik zone separated
by a reversed fault (Main Boulldary Fault) from the
autochthonous zone consisting of Simla Slates overlain by
Nummulitics and younger Tertiary rocks. This unit is
seen in a series of "windows" along anticlines formed after
the thrusting had taken place. The Tertiaries of the
autochthonous unit are overlain by the Krolllappe consisting
of a thick (20,000 feet) succession of rocks ranging in age
from Pre-Cambrian to Tertiary. The Krol thrust is con-
tinuous with the Giri thrust of the Simla region and has
been followed eastwards to beyond Naini Tal. Thr
Garhwal nappe overlies the rocks of the Krol nappe and
consists of Pre-Cambrian schists and older Pal<eozoics which
are distinctly more metamorphosed that the rocks on which
they lie. At the base of the main Himalayan range
occur the schists of the Garhwal nappe. There is an
important overthrust here, under which are found rocks
of the Barahat series in a 'window.' This overthrust
has been traced from Dutatoli to Tehri and has been
recognised nrar Almora. Beyond these is the Central
1 W.n West, The Shah Wmdow, Rec C.S I LXXIV, 1!:I39.
J B. Auden. The Ct'ology of the Krol Belt, Rec C S I. LXVII, 19'11,
Himalayan zone with its granitic intrusives and crystallint

!lchists.
NEPAL HIMALAYA.
In the foot-hill zone the Upper Siwaliks are separated
from the Nahans by a thrust fault. The Nahans are
separated from the Pre-Tertiaries by the so-called ' Main
Boundary Fault.' The Pre-Tertiaries overlie the Nahans
and consist of Krols, some fossiliferous Lower Pala'ozoics
and Gondwanas, together with schistose rocks. The
. Main Boundary Fault' passes north of Sanotar and
Udaipur Garhi and probably continues through Dharan
Bazar to Tindharia in the Daljeeling area. This Pre-
Tertiary belt is separated from the Da~jeding gneisses and
Daling schists by another thrust. In this area the schistose
'~alings seem to pass upward into the gneissose Darjeelings
and the two may represent merely different metamorphit
facies of the same formations. 1
SIKl<..IM HIMALA VA. 2

The Siwalik zone is narrow and shows two gaps,
occupied by Gondwanas and Dalings which belong to the
autochthonous zone the latter being comparatively nar-
rower than further west. Darjeeling, Dating and Buxa
rocks are thrust over the autochthollous belt; the nappe
lOne is extensive and may contain more than one impor-
tant thrust. Kanchenjunga lies in this nappe zone
whereas Mt. Everest lies on the margin between the
Central Himalayan and Tibetan zones containing meta-
morphosed sediments intruded by granite. The peak of
Mt. Everest consists of metamorphosed PermoCarboni~
ferous limestone while the northern flank" show sediments
of Permian to Jurassic age.
Little is known of the geology and structure of the
Eastern Himalayas but there is every probability that they
I J B. AuJen. Travers('~ in the HImalaya, Ret G S I LXIX., pp 116.1.1-7, ICJ%
Ii. R Wager, 'E\crc,t. l!t:n,' PP 'lJ2-336, 1934.
are similarly constituted. There is a fringe of Siwaliks in
the outer hills, and Gondwanas and various metamor-
phosed rocks further in. The E.-W. strike of the Darjeeling
area gradually becomes N.E.-S.W. in the region of the
Brahmaputra and beyond. In the extreme north-east of
As~am N.W.-S.E. strikes are known, apparently where
the structure turns round with a sharp bend to the south
and becomes the Burmese arc.
BURMA.
It \Vas formerly thought, more on geographical rather
than geological grounds, that the Himalayas of Assam
continued north-eastward into China. Geological evi-
dence, however, shows that there must be a sharp bend of
the formations of the Himalayas to the south into Burma.
The analogy between the BUl mese and Baluchistan arcs
would also lend support to this conclusion.
In the north-easternmost cornet of Assam and beyond
there is a series of close-set parallel ranges, composed of
crystalline schists and igneous intrusives. The Central
Himalayan zone apparently continues through this into
the Mishmi hills and then southward into the Shan plateau,
the Sittang valley and Tenasserim
THE ARAKAN BELT.
There are three parallel N .-S. belts in Burma, viz., the

Arakan Belt, the Central or Tertiary belt and the Shan-
Tenasserim belt. The Arakan Yomas and their extension
northward through the Manipul and Patkoi hills consist
of a series of rocks called the 'Axial group' including
Cretaceous and Pre-Cretaceous rocks' which form a highly
folded geo-anticline. The Cretaceous rocks of the Arakan
belt are similar to those of Baluchi~tan rather than to the
Assam Cretaceous. The rocks continue southwards as a
well-marked arcuate ridge comprising the Andamans
and Nicobars, and Sumatra and Java further south.
They were probably uplifted during the early Eocene
u
period into a long narrow island ridge in the Arakan area
which served to separate the basins of Tertiary deposition
on either side.
The Tertiaries of Assam to the west of this important
divide include strata up to the Pontian age. The earlier,
i.e., Cretaceous and Eocene, rocks are found along the
southern border of the Assam plateau. The BaraiJ,
Surma and Tipam series of Oligo-Miocene age are the
equivalents of the Murrees and Pegus; the Dihing series
represents the Siwaliks and the Irrawaddians. Within
this Tertiary area occurs the Haflong-Disang thrust fault
trending N.E.-S.W. in Upper Assam and gradually
changing its direction to E.-W. along the southern part of
the Assam plateau. The strike of the Tertiary rocks is in
general N.E.-S.W. in north-eastern Assam. But N.W.-
S.E. strikes are known in the extreme north-east which
accord well with the belief of the existence of a sharp
syntaxial bend in this region.
THE CENTRAL BELT.

The Arakan belt is fringed on its east by Eocene rocks
and is also faulted against the rocks of the Central or
Tertiary zone. This Central zone consists mainly of
Pegus and Irrawaddies, exposed in the Pegu Yomas and
the hills further north, which have been folded and up-
lifted by compression at the end of the Pegu times and also
later. To one of the ridges on the border of the Arakan
and Tertiary belts must be assigned the Barren Island
and Narcondam which represent peaks on a submerged
ridge in the Andaman Sea. This belt now contains the
chief rivers of Burma, at least the gIeater part of their
courses.
THE EASTERN BELT.
The eastern belt, comprising the Shan Plateau and

the Tenasserim Yomas, continues northwards into the
region of tangled mountains north of Burma. It consists of
II] ~TRlJCTURI. AND TECTON I [NDIA 59
Archre,:Ul, Palreozolc and Mesozoic Illt h.., mtruded exten-
sively by granitic rocks. This belt i<; highly folded and
marked off from the Tertiary belt by overthrust faults.
The junction zone between the two i~ well known to be
'ieismic. Th(' western margin of the Shan plateau is
generally a \vell-marked scarp. Followed southward, the
plateau gives place to the mountain) idges of Tenasserim
which continue into the Malay Peninsula. This part of
the belt is characterised by granite containing deposits of
tin and tungsten. The Shan-Tenasserim belt was also
finally up!ifted probably in late Cretaceous or early Eocene
times, for the youngest rocks involved in the earth move-
ments are Cretaceous in age. It is evident that this belt
corresponds to the Central and Sub-Himalayan zones in
orogenic history, though they may not agree in the details
of their stratigraphical history.
THF BAY OF BENGAL.
As cllready pointed out, the Bay of Bengal began to

have its present configuration from about the Upper
Jurassic. It had a gulf extending into Assam and Burma
in J urassie and Cretaceous times. The eastern portion
became separated into an Assam gulf and a Burma gul r
in Upper Cretaceous or early Eocene times by the forma-
tion of a great north to south ridge now seen as the Arakan
mountains, with their continuation into Upper Assam on
the one hand and into the Andamans, Nicobars, Sumatra,
Java, etc., on the other. The western coast of this ridge
(of Andamans and Nicobars) deepen<; westwards gra-
dually, though rapidly, to about 2,000 fathoms. Barren
Island and N arcondam arc separated from the main
ridge by a deep irregular valley but east of the volcanic
islands the sea deepens abruptly to 1,500 to 2,000 fathoms.
The basin of the Andaman sea has a straight eastern
margin and a very irregular western margin and its
deepest part (2,100 fathoms) lies a little east of Kar
Nicobar.l The Gulf of Martaban is less than 100 fathoms
deep, the 100 fathom line running E.-W. slightly to the
north of Narcondam. The eastern side is a gradual slope
from the Tenasserim Coast to the trough bordering on
the Barren Island-Narcondam sub-ridge. The continua-
tion of the Andaman ridge is in the mountainous region
of the southern edge of Sumatra and Java whereas the
Barren Island-Narcondam ridge will continue into the
northern margin of the same mountain belt, as will be seen
from the position of Krakatoa in the Sunda Strait. The
configuration and topography of the Andaman Sea would
suggest that the Andaman ridge system is faulted certainly
on its eastern side, and possibly on its western side. The
faulting down of the Andaman Sea is probably of Pliocene
'age. The very gradual westerly slope of the Tenasserim
Coast would suggest that there is no det"p nlUIting here
though there may be thrusts with low dipping thrust
planes.
The Sunda Sea (north of the Dutch East Indies) was
formed in post-Pliocene times, and the sea level first sank
in the Pleistocene (during the glaciation) and later rose
(during the post-glacial time).
Thcf(~ are two parallel ridges west of the Andaman
ridge. The first one is a submerged line of peaks west of
the Andaman ridge, continuing into the Nias and the
]\fentawai islands. The second is separated from this by
a deep trough (the Investigator Deep) and is called
Carpenter's ridg'e, which has also been recognised south
of Sumatra and Java.
Igneous Belts of Burma.-H. L. Chhibber dbtin-
guishes five, igneous belts in Burma (Geology of Burma,
London, 1934, p. 286 fr.) :-
(I) The Arakan Yoma continuing into the Anda-
mans, Nicobars, Sumatra and Java. In this are serpen
tines of Cretaceous age.
1 R B.S Sewell, Geographic and Oceanographic Resean hes In Indian water.'
--I. Gt"ograph\' of the Andaman Ba\in J,/nll Aflllt S'oc. Bengal, IX, No I, 1925
II] STRUCTURE AND TECTONICS OF INDIA. 6t
(2) The fold-belt of the Pegu Yoma mcludll1g the

Jade-Mines area, Wuntho area in Katha, Lower Chmdwin,
Shinmadaung, Mount Popa, Prome and Tharrawaddy
districts and the recent volcanoes of Barren Island and
Narcondam. These are of Tertiary, mainly Upper Ter-
tiarv, volcanic rocks.
(3) The lavas and dolerites of Kabwet, Mandalay
and Shwebo districts and the rhyolites of Thaton district.
This belt is along the edge of the Shan plateau.
(4) An older (Pal.t-ozoic) line of igneous rocks in the
Shan plateau, which includes the Lagwe Pass in the
north-east of Burma, Bardwin area and perhaps the outer
islands of the Mergui Archipelago.
(5) A younger line of volcanoes connected with the
folding of the Shan plateau zone, and containing the
volcanoes of Teng Yueh in Yunnan, Loi Han Hun in
Northern Shan States and some in the Mergui Archipelago.
All the above mentioned are prominent zones of
warping and often of fracture and faulting and are
therefore of significance in the structure of Burma.
Orogenic periods in Burma.-Burma was apparently
subjected to an early Palreozoic orogeny involving the
Chaung Magyi and Mergui sediments and older rocks.
These were again depressed beneath the sea. The Arakan
area and the Shan-Tenasserim belt seem to have been
compressed and raised up about the end of the Cretaceous,
accompanied by intrusions of peridotites, gabbros, etc.,
along the Andaman-Arakan Yoma belt 'which continues
northward into the Manipur hills, the Hukawng valley
and the Jade Mines area. To the same period of igneous
activity may be attributed some of the granites of the
main Burma-Malay arc.
The next upheaval is dated between the Eocene and
Miocene. Since undoubtedly the orogenic history of the
Himalayan and connected arcs is intimately related, this
may perhaps be put down to the upheaval at the close of
the Eocene. This was accompanied by some ignequs
GEOLOGY OF INDIA AND BURMA. ICHAP.
activity as in the Kamalllg area of the MYltkyina district

and the Wuntho area of the Katha district.
An important upheaval and folding occurred at the
close of the Pegu epoch, which corresponds to the close of
the Murree epoch in India. This raised up the Pegus of
the Central Tertiary belt of Burma and was also accom-
panied by some igneous activity in the Kabwet, Mount
Popa and other areas.
The next period of orogenesis was at the close of thl:"
Irrawaddian pel ioel which lifted up the central basin
almost entirely. Igneous activity accompanying this dia-
strophism is to be found in the Central belt (Jade Mines
area, Lower Chindwin, Mount Popa, Mandalay, Shwebo)
and also Teng YUf'h in Yunnan and in Loi Han Hun in
the Northern Shan States.
The orogenic activity has persisted down to sub-recent
times. The Pleistocene gravels have been folded and
tilted in the Irrawaddy valley and further north. The
volcanoes of the Central belt of Burma have apparently
been active in Pleistocene and sub-recent times, because
of these crustal disturbances. There are also evidences
of raised beaches on the Arakan coast.
TREND LINES IN THE NORTH-WESTERN ARC.

The geological formations of the main Himalayan
arc bend round to the south at the western extremity
of the Himalaya near Nanga Parbat, just as they do at
the eastern extremity some distance beyond the peak
of Namcha Barwa. The Himalayan trend in Kashmir,
east of the sharp bend (syntaxis), is N.W.-S.E. but when
followed through beyond the syntaxis, it exhibits a broad
curve, the trend changing from N.-S. through N E.-S.W.
to E.-W. in the Hazara mountains The Siwalik zone
of Jammu and the Murree zone to its north can be fol-
lowed in the Potwar plateau. The Upper l\iesozoic
and Eocene zone of Hazara forms an inner belt which
can be followed westward into the Samana Range.
II] STRUCTURE AND TECTONICS OF INDIA.
Further to the intel ior is a slate zone with Pal~ozoic

rocks and then a crystalline zone with ancient slates and
schists and granitic intrusives which latter are apparently
continued westward into the Safed Koh. The southern
and south-eastern edge of this group is the faulted thrust
scarp of the Salt Range which exposes a sequence com-
prising variom strata from the Cambrian to Eocene,
and which is covered on top and on its northern slope" by
the Siwaliks underlain by the Murrees.
This remarkable syntaxis is due to the north-westerly
projection of a wedge of the old Peninsula across Kashmir.
It is however covered by Siwalik and Murree sediments.
The influence of this wedge is seen not only in the moulding
of the Himalayan system around it, but also further north
in the Karakoram-Hindu Kush system and up to tht
mountain knot of the Pamir plateau. The structure is
highly constricted at the bend and spreads out in sheaf-
like fashion on both sides and away from the bend. West
of the Punjab Salt Range and in the Region of the Kurram
river basin, there is another sharp bend of the formations
from an E.-W. direction to a N.-S. (or N.N.E.-S.S.W.)
direction. Though this region has not been mapped,
there is little doubt of the presence of another wedge here.
The formations then continue into the Sulaiman Range
and Bugti hills, with another very sharp loop near Quetta.
The southerly trend of the Sulaiman range becomes wester-
ly in the Dera Bugti area and north-westerly when followed
further towards Quetta. Near Quetta they turn again
sharply southward, continuing into the Kirthar ranges.
The sheaf-like arrangement is excellently displayed in a
geological map of this' area, for the constricted formations
around Quetta spread out and occupy a large area in
Baluchistan, Mekran and Southern Sind. The above
mentioned structure is due to another wedge of the Penin-
sula projecting into the region of Jacobabad-Sibi-Quetta,
though the basement is entirely covered by the alluvium
of the Indus.
GEOLOGY 01' INDIA AND BURMA rCHAP.
Hazara and North-West Frontier Province.-As

mt'ntioned in the previous paragraphs, the different wnes
of the Punjab-Himalaya can be followed into this region.
Here also the older rocks of the interior zones are thrust
over the younger rocks of the outer zones facing the Indian
Peninsula. Thus the" scaly" or " imbdcate " structure
of the Himalayas is repeated here also.
There is an interesting fact to be noticed here. In
Hazara, the geosynclinal facies of Mesozoic and Eocene
rocks of the Tibetan zone appears and lies in Juxta-position
with the Calcareous facies of Baluchistan comprising rocks
of Jurassic, Upper Cretaceous and Eocene age, including
the well-marked Callovian unconformity. There is a
sharp line of junction between these two facies, the Tibe-
tan facies appearing to the north-west of the junction and
the Calcareous facies to its south-east. The Tibetan facies
comprises rocks of the Spiti Shales type, while the Baluchis-
tan facies shows Neocomian limestones and flysch-like
shales and sandstones of the Giumal type. In the Transi-
tion zone are Upper Cretaceous rocks which are absent in
Baluchistan but well known in Kashmir.
Further in, there is a vast development of Attock
Slates with intercalations of limestones. The latter some-
times resemble the pisolitic limestones of the Vindhyans
of Tirhowan in Bundelkhand. The Attock Slates are
overlain in places by the Infra-Trias with boulder-bed,
",Ulubtones and shales at the bottom and limestones at the
top. This slate zone is succeeded by the crystalline zone
comprising schists, gneisses and granites as in the Central
Himalayan zone. The Safed Koh proper represent main-
ly the crystalline zone, while the .mountains of Tirah
show the Jurassic, Upper Cretaceous and Eocene rocks
of the Calcareous zone. The Slate zone may probably
be present in the unmapped regions lying between the
Sam ana Range and the Safed Koh.
Baluchistan.-The Baluchistan ranges show three
zones :-The outermost, bordering on India, is the Calc a-
reous zone consisting mainly of rocks of Liassic to Oligocene

age ; the second or middle zone consists mainly of the
, flysch' facies of rocks of Oligocene age ; the third or
inner zone comprises rocks of various ages from Arch~an
to Tertiary, including intrusives and constituting the desert
regions of Baluchistan and part of Afghanistan.
The Calcareous zone consists of a succession of folds
with the anticlines having their steeper limbs on the side
of India. The anticlines are also found standing out as
ndges and forming all the higher peaks, e. g., Takht-i-
Sulaiman (11,070 feet), Kaliphat (I 1,44C feet) north of the
Harnai valley, and Takatu (11,390 feet) and Chehiltan
( 10,880 feet) near Quetta. The Kirthar range consists
of Eocene and Oligocene limestones. The Siwaliks occur
in the synclines and also on the outer border where they
attain considerable thickness.
The flysch zone consists of more closely folded rocks.
It includes the mountains of the Zhob valley, the Toba
plateau, the Khwaja Amran and Sarlat range, the western
border of Sarawan,Jhalawan and Las Bela, and the greater
part of the Mekran province, and consists of monotonous
folded sandstones and shales of greenish colour known as
the Khojak shales forming close-set parallel ridges. They
are mostly of Oligocene age. Near the Mekran Coast
they consist of friable clays overlain by white sandstones
constituting the peninsula of Ormara and the Hinglaj
mountains, the sandstone group being probably of Miocene
age. In the Mekran region it is usually the synclines
which form the hills, probably because it receives more
rain than the arid region of Baluchistan where much of
the Calcareous zone is found. The sandstones form grand
hills in the Mekran region. Mud volcanoes are sometimes
found in the crest of anticlines which are often formed of
shales and clays.
The inner zone comprises rocks of different ages. The
ridges here are separated by desert plains, the edges of the
9
ridges being often thrust planes. Both intrusive rocks and

volcanics occur in this zone.
Mekran Coast.-The Baluchistan ranges are con-
tinued westward into Iran not only through land but also
through the submerged region of the Arabian Sea for
some distance from the coast. This strip adjoining the
Mekran coast is streaked with a series of straight parallel
ridges. There is a gradual deepening to about I,Boo
fathoms at which depth there is a wide level floor which
narrows towards Karachi, and broadens towards the Gulf
of Oman. The submerged ridges are 2,500 to 3,000
feet high above the adjacent troughs. The ridges of
the Zagros mountain system are at a distance of some
60 miles from the Mckran coast and their tops risc to
wIthin 3,000 feet. of (beneath) the sea-level.
The Kirthar range, which reaches the sea at Cape
Monze, apparently continues in a south-west direction
underneath the waters as a double ridge. The northern
ridge is the Murray ridge which has a N.E.-S.w. trend
in the eastern portion and gradually turns southwards
further west. The highest peak in the ridge which occurs
about the middle region is only 480 fathoms below
the sea level. The {loor to its north is 1,750 fathoms
deep, while the gully to its east is 2,100 fathoms deep.
When followed to the south-west, the latter shallows to
1,600 fathoms and after a few miles is continued by a
wider gully 2,000 fathoms deep.
South of the Murray ridge is another more or less
parallel ridge, about 1 distant from it. A peak on this,
which is only 440 fathoms deep, appears at 20 20' N. and
64 E. The general depth of the greater part of the ridge
is about 1,500 fathoms and this can be traced as far as
200 N. and 61 E. It is not known where the continuation
of these ridges is to be looked for on the Arabian Coast
or elsewhere but it is not unlikely that the region may be
near Ras Madraka, for the south-eastern coast of Arabia
is known to contain Cretaceous and Eocene rocks.
III STRUCTURE AND TE ( "Ies OF INDIA.
Since the Kirthar range CUll tains rocks of the N ari and
Gaj series (Miocene) it must have been raised up in post-
Gaj age and faulted down at a still later date, perhaps in
the Pliocene. The Mekran coast of Baluchistan is there-
fore of Pliocene age as pointed out by Blanford. Whether
the western coast of the Indian Peninsula is also of the
same age IS difficult to decide, but it seems probable that
faulting took place in the MIOcene or somewhat earlier
for there are marine deposits of Miocene age on the
Travancore coast.
THE ARABIAN SEA.

The East coast of Africa from Cape Guardafui to
Mombasa is faulted. From Socotra runs the Carlsbere-
ridge south-eastward to the Eq uator and then seems to turn
!o>ollthward to Rodriguez. This forms a grand arc convex
to the cast, comprising parallel ridges. One of the
palallel ridges of the Carlsberg system may probably run
on to join the Chagos Archipelago. Parallel and concen-
tric to this ridge system is another on which are situated
the Seychelles, Saya de Malha, Nazareth Bank and Mauri-
tius. To the interior of this lies the island of Madagascar
which is separated from the African mainland by a shallow
sea. Sewell and Wiseman opine that there is a great
similarity between the floor of the Arabian Sea and the
Rift valley region of Africa, and that the two form a mirror
.mage of each other along the meridian 50. G.M. Lees
however thinks it possible that the ridges in the Arabian
Sea may indicate folded mountains. The Gulf of Aden
shows a series of -parallel ridges which join Arabia and
Africa slantwise and have a N.E.-S.W. direction. In all
cases these ridges are steep on the south-east side.
THE POTWAR AND THE ASSAM PLA'rEAUX.

The two spectacular bends of the geological forma.
tions and structures at either end of the Himalayas are,
as already mentioned, due to the presence of wedges of the
68 GEOLOGY OF INDIA AND BURMA. [CHAt'.
Peninsular mass, one projecting north-west into Kashmir

and the other northcast into Upper Assam. In both
cases the ancient rocks are partly or entirely covered by
the Tertiaries. The general direction of pressure in the
Himalayan area is from north to south, but in the Baluchis-
tan and Burma arcs it is from the west and east respectively.
But whereas the Burma arc takes a broad sweep with only
a slight concavity in the Arakan coast, the Baluchistan arc
shows the presence of two prominent north-westerly
projections or wedges in the region of Jacobabad and of
Dera Ismail Khan which have split it up into three well
marked festoons. The Dera Ismail Khan wedge is indeed
double, one directed north-west from this place and the
other parallel to it through Mianwali. But for these
projections, the Baluchistan arc should also have been a
single broad arc from Nanga Parbat to Karachi.
The Arakan range in the east has its counterpart in
the Sulaiman-Kirthar range on the west. The Central
belt of Burma Tertiaries is represented in the Baluchistan
arc by the Mekran belt, the southern part of both these
having foundered beneath the sea. Other structural and
geological parallelism will be evident on examining the
geological maps of both the regions.
The two regions of the Peninsula bordering the
two ends of the Himalayas are of particular interest
because of their structure and stratigraphy. At the
western end is the Potwar plateau and the Salt Range,
while at the eastern end is the Assam plateau and Mikir
hills.
The Potwar plateau is structurally -a folded synclinal
trough (Soan syncline) lying between the Hazara moun-
tains and the Salt Range, and occupying an area ISO miles
long and 60 miles broad, the axial direction being E.N.E.-
W.S.W. To its north this basin is closely folded into
isoclines and recumbent folds in the Kala Chitta and
Margala hills, apparently thrust from the north-west. In
the basin itself are some subsidiary open folds and strike
faults hading to the north. It has an average elevation of

1,500 feet and exposes sandstones and clays of Murree and
Siwalik ages but the basin probably includes also Mesozoic
and Palaeozoic rocks, the whole resting on an ancient
foundation which is a westerly continuation of the Rajpu -
tana massif.
The Salt Range consitutes the southern border of the
Potwar plateau and has a general P..W. trend, turning
north-west at its western end. The southern flank is a
well marked escarpment overlooking the alluvial plains
of the Jhelum while the northern gradually and gently
grades into the Potwar plateau. Over a substratum of
Cambrian rocks, there are rocks of all ages ranging from
Carboniferous to Pliocene. The PreEocene beds are
exposed on the scarp, those from Permian to Eocene being
composed of limestones in the main. The highest point
in the range is the Sakesar peak (5,010 feet). The
plateau portion of the range shows Eocene limestones
almost continuously throughout its length, but the Pro-
ductus limestone is also sometimes seen especially in
the southeast. In the Permian-Cretaceous sequence, the
oldest beds commence in the east and the succession
becomes more and more complete when followed west
wards.
The calcareous plateau, which attains its greatest
development in the Central part of the Salt Range, con-
sists of nearly horizontal rocks and shows "everal lakes
which are generally saltish, the salinity in some instances
being connected with salt springs on lines of faulting .
. Deep glens intersect this plateau.
Along the northern border of the calcareous plateau
Lower Siwalik rocks dip rather steeply (30 to 50) beneath
the Potwar plateau where again the dips become gentle.
This northern border constitutes a watershed between the
northerly and southerly drainage. North of Sakesar, the
drainage flows into the Vihi (or Wahi) river which flows
around and cuts across the Salt Range between the
Chidru and Tredian hills through a narrow and deep

cleft known as the Bakh ravine. The remainder of the
drainage flows main!) into the Soan river which joins the
Indus .\ short distance above Kalabagh, the Indus cutting
through the Salt Range at Kalabagh. The southerly
drainage, flowing through a number of channels is generally
lost in the plains, before reaching the Jhelum. The slopes
leading to the Potwar plateau and a large part of the
Potwar plateau itself are intersected by deep, labyrinthine,
narrow and often vertical sided ravines, attributable to the
joints in the Siwalik sandstones. This type of country is
known as ' Kuddera.'
The Salt Range proper (i.e., the portion east of the
Indus) shows a [,wlted flexure, the sequence being inverted
in places. The N.W.-S.E. strike near the Indus becomes
E.-W. in the central part and N .. E.-S.W. in the eastern
part. The fault zone in the east also breaks up into
parallel lines of fracture producing three parallel ridges.
In the western portion the structure is that of close-set
anticlines and synclines more or less fractured by over-
thrusts. The range crosses the Indus at Kalabagh and
continues into the Surghar range. To the north of the
latter is the Kohat region whIch is slmilar in stratigraphy
and structure to the Punjab salt Range though the overfold
and thrust are less pronounced and the southern limb
frequently visible. The broad Siwalik zone of the Potwar
is constricted in the Kohat region but apparently expands
further west, being however hidden and covered over by
alluvium or Pleistocene formations in the Bannu plain.
The Kohat anticlines do not expose any rocks older than
the Eocene, the intervening areas being occupied by
M urree beds.
The Surghar range constitutes an overfold divided
into two ridges by denudation. The northern one is the
Shingarh range or Green Mountain, so called from the
greenish colour of the Siwaliks constituting them, while the
southern is the Chich ali or Surghar range consisting of
Eocene and Mesozoic rocks and reproducing many of the

features of the Salt Range proper. These ridges are over
20 miles long east to west from the Indus, and then turn
sharply south forming the Maidan range which is cut across
by the Kurram river. To the south of this river, the strike
gradually veers round to the west and an anticline of
Siwalik rocks is seen forming the Marwat range (or Nila
Roh) up to the Sheikh Budin hills in which Mesozoic
rocks are exposed for a short distance. These continue
north-west under the name Bhattani ridge which finally
turn southwards to join the Siwaliks of the Sulaiman
range.
To the south-east of, and parallel to, the M arwat range
is a ridge known as the Khasor range in which also Siwa-
liks and pre-Tertiary rocks are exposed. The pre-Tertiary
rocks, best seen near Saiduwali, consist of maroon sand-
stones, shale .. , dolomites and gypseous rocks (all probably
Cambrian), Talchir boulder-bed, Speckled sandstone, and
Mesozoics so that much of the succession of the Salt Range
is reproduced here.
Tht Potwar-Bannu area is really an outpost of the
Himalaya but it is evidently underlain by a corner of the
Peninsula which has produced the syntaxial bends on
either side of this area, as mentioned before.
The Assam wedge in the north-eastern corner of
India is the counterpart of the Potwar and the Punjab
wedge and plays much the same role with regard to the
structure of the north-eastern tract. It includes the
Shlllong plateau and the Mikir hills separated by a stretch
of alluvium through which the Kopili river flows. This
area consists of gneisses and schists (Shillong series) and
, granitic intrusives and is thus a part of the Peninsula which
here apparently extends further to the north-east under
the alluvium of the Brahmaputra. The southern flank of
the Shillong plateau shows Upper Cretaceous and Tertiary
rocks, the latter being extensively developrd in the Patkoi,
Naga, Barail, Manipur, Lushai and Arakan ranges.
The regional strike over the greater part of Assam

is N.E.-S.W. but in the Western part of the Shillong
Plate an E.-W. strikes are seen. In the extreme corner of
Upper Assam, in the Mishmi hills, the strike is N.W.-S.E.
which shows that the Himalayan formations turn here
and continue to the south.
The southern border of the Shillong plateau shows
Upper Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks overthrust by older
formations. Followed eastwards, this fault (the Haflong-
Disang fault) becomes a monocline, whose southern limb
dips steeply into the plains of the Surma valley. Further
east this fault has a north-easterly trend, but the overthrust
is from the opposite direction, i.e., from the Patkoi and
Naga hills.
The Assam wedge is therefore a block of ancient rocks
between two opposing thrusts, one directed southward
from the Himalaya and the other north-westward from the
Patkoi-Naga hills. Because of these opposing forces, this
wedge has been cut up by transverse faults which run
approximately N.-S., all with a westerly down-throw,
According to Dr. C.S. Fox 1 the fault blocks have been
arranged en echelon, each block having been shifted slightly
south of the one to its west. The northern border of the
Shillong plateau also shows a fault and it is supposed that
the Brahmaputra valley in Upper Assam lies in a ' ramp
valley' or a sag in the crust.
The southern border of the plateau thus shows a
resemblance to the southern border of the Potwar plateau
(i.e., Salt Range). Though there is a general structural
similarity, the stratigraphy is different which tends to
obscure the parallelism.
ORIGIN OF THE HIMALAYAS AND THE GANGETIC PLAINS.

It is generally assumed, following the ideas of Eduard
Suess, that the Gondwanaland (i.e., the Peninsular mass)
remained passive while the country to its north was thrust
1 Rec. G S.l., LXXII, pp. 91-92, 1937
against and over its edges. Along its borders, fragments of
Gondwanaland have been broken off and carried along
the thrusts. Fragments of Gondwanaland are recognisable
in parts of the Sub-Himalayan zone, including Peninsular
facies of rocks such as Cuddapahs, Vindhyans and Gond-
wanas. The Aravalli strike is, for instance, seen continued
into some parts of Garhwal while the Satpura or Eastern
Ghats strike has been noted in parts of the Eastern Hima-
laya. The main mass cf the overriding rocks are the soft
sediments formed in the seas surrounding Northern India.
To the front of the thrust region is the ' fore-deep', or a
sa~ in the crust, obviously formed by a slight buckling
down of the crust in obedience to the pressure exerted on
the edges of the Peninsular mass.
There is, however, one anomaly to be explained in this
conception of Central Asia moving towards India. The
Pacific Coast of Asia also shows convex arcs of Tettiary
age facing the ocean, which would mean that Central
Asia moved towards the east at the same time as it moved
southwards. P. Lake!, who has discussed this question,
points out the difficulty of explaining how a single mass.
could move in different directions at the same time and
suggests that the Pacific region and the Indian region have
been underthrust towards Asia, which is a plausible
explanation. Moreover, Central Asia is a region of great
excess of matter which could only be explained as due to
compression towards it. The Baluchistan arc and the
Himalayan arc appear as if they were compressing the
area of N.W. India intervening between them. Burrard
points out that, if this were the case, an excess of mass
should be found in this region (N.W. Punjab), but the
reverse is the case. The explanation would seem to be
that the mountains are being pushed back by the borders.
of the Peninsula, rather than the reverse.
1 Geogr. Jour, 7B, p. 149, 1931.
10
74- GEOLOGY OF INDIA AND BURMA. [CHAP.
It would appear therefore that, relatively speaking,

the Indian shield has been moving northward by under~
thrusting, allowing the comparatively soft sediments in the
basin around the northern border to glide over it and to
adjust themselves to some extent to the shape of the
ancient mass. It is this adjustment which now gives the
appearance of an easterly movement of the Baluchistan
arC and westerly movement of the Burma arc. According
to this explanation, India should have moved northward
(or northeastward, since that is the general direction
perpendicular to the Himalayan arc) a considerable
distance, pushing back all the while the sediments deposit-
ed in the northern sea. The borders of the comparatively
rigid mass of the Peninsula have apparently suffered a
downward buckling or warp at the same time, forming the
, fore.deep' bordering the Indian side of the mountain
arcs, which has since been filled up by thick sediments.
Befare following up this line of thought further, it would
be well to examine the evidence obtained by geodetic
observations in India.
Geodetic observations.-The making of accurate
maps necessitates the fundamental ac;;sumption of a
standard form of spheroid for the shape of the earth. This
would be given by the sea-level surface if we imagine that
surface to be continued through the continental masses as
well. This sea-level surface (computed mean sea-level
from tidal observations), would give the 'geoid' which is
an oblate spheroid. The Survey of India has used,
for this purpose, a spheroid (usually called Everest's
spheroid) 1 whose equatorial semi-axis is 6,377.3 kilometres
with an ellipticity 2 of 1/300'8. The modern value is
however very slightly different, the major semi-axis being
6,378.4 kilometres and the ellipticity 1/295.
I H J Couchman, Progress of Geodesy In IndIa. Proc Nat .lead SCI. lndlll III,
p 23, 1937
a-b
ElhptJclty=- where a and h are the equatollal and polar semi-axes
a
re~pectJvely.
11] STRUCTURE AND TECTONICS OF INDIA. 75
If we have a homogeneous sphere it will have the same
force of gravity at every point on its surface, l.e., the
geopotential will be the same at every point. But the
geopotential will vary according to height (l.e., vertical
distance from the level surface of reference) and also
according to variation in the distribution of matter. Any
extra mass as that which forms a plateau or mountain will
give an extra value of gravity over it which can be measured.
As a general rule 1 we can state that if we have a thickness
of I km. of rock of average density 2.5 per unit area (I
square cm.) it increases the gravity by 0.105 cm./sec. 2
This extra thickness of I km. therefore gives roughly
an extra value of 100 milligals (1 milligal=o.ool cm./sec. 2).
There is another type of effect. This extra mass
po~sesses gravitative attraction, which will be seen as a
deflection, from the vertical, of a plumb-line placed at the
side of the mass. This deflection, when measured, can
give us a measure of the mass which produces it.
The attraction due to gravity is, as we have se{'n,
dependent on the height above the spheroid at which the
measurements are taken. It will be different and smaller
if we could take it mfree air at the same height (i.e., allow
for the fact that the place of observation is some distance
above the geoid surface and so from the centre of the
earth). This gives the' free air' value. We can calculate
this from the observed gravity by allowing for the height
above the mean sea-level. The difference is the ' free air
anomaly.'
It is an observational fact that most mountains
produce much less disturbance on gravity than what we
should expect if they were merely added matter of standard
density. This anomalous difference is called the' Bouguer
anomaly.'
1H Jeffreys, Earthquakes and Moulltaill~. London, 1935, Chapter, III
a-b
2 ElhptlClly=- where a and b are the equatorial and polar semi-axes
a
respectively
GEOLOGY OF INDIA AND BURMA. [CHAP~
Isostasy.-I t is also known that gravity does not vary

in accordance with the height of solid matter above sea-
level or depth below sea-level. In the Alps, for instance, the
observed gravity is something like 100 milligals less than
what would be the normal. In the' deep' off the coast of
California we should expect gravity anomalies of-300
milligals if the 4-mile depth meant merely replacing
normal rock by water. Hut in many parts of the oceans
the anomalies are systematically positive. These observa-
tions prove that, in and below mountains, there is matter
of lower density than normal,and in ocean basins there is
matter of higher density. Thus Nature seems to try to com-
pensate the visible inequalities cf matter by density, so
that excess of matter is compensated for by lack of density
and defect of matter by an excess of density. This relation-
ship between mass and density is called Isostasy. The sub-
terranean variation of mass is called compensation; if
there is too much, it is over-compensation, and if too little
under-compensation. If our calculated value of gravity
is also corrected for the disturbance due to any type of
assumed compensation, we get the isostatic anomaly. The
fre6air anomaly gives us the earth's external gravitational
field. The Bouguer anomaly gives us the sum total of all
the information about the distribution of density. Isostatic
anomaly is only of interest to test any particular theory of
compensation.
It is an interesting fact that it was in India that the
theory of mountain compensation was first propounded
by Archdeacon Pratt of Calcutta,. an eminent mathe-
matician to whom Sir Andrew Waugh (Surveyor General
of India) referred certain gravitational anomalies for
solution. When the deflections of the plumb line were
measured at some localities near t.he foot of the Himalayas,
it was found that the observed deflection was much less
than the result obtained by calculation from the visible
excess of matter of the Himalayas. At Dehra Dun the
~alculated and observed deflections are 86 seconds of arc
and 36 seconds of arc respectively; at Murree they are 45
seconds and 12 seconds respectively.
According to one view of isostasy adopted by Hayford
and Bowie of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey,
different vertical sections or blocks of the crust may be
thought of as being completely compensated at a certain
uniform depth, called the depth of compensation. This can
be illustrated by an experiment in which blocks of various
substances, of equal cross section and of equal weight, are
resting on a heavy liquid, say mercury. Here they all
sink to the same depth but rise to varioU3 heights above
the liquid in jnverse rela60n to density. On the Hayford
principle, the depth of compensation in the earth's crust
is generally taken as 60 miles below sea-level. According
to another interpretation, blocks of one substance
having the same cross section but different weights can be
thought of as resting on mercury. Here they sink to various
depths and also hav!' their top surface at various heights.
The latter view, allowing for variations in the depths
of compensation of different segments of the earth's crust,
is perhaps more in consonance with the evidence of
seismology. Below a mountain range, the surface of
contact between the lighter upper layer and the heavier
bottom layer would be at a lower level than elsewhere.
Under a low plain, the lower heavy layer of the crust
would reach up to a comparatively higher level than
under a mountain. Under an ocean floor, the lower
heavy layer will rise still nearer to the surface of the
crust.
Both the views, however, agree that there is a natural
tendency for compensation of mass against density.
On the whole, the second view (favourd by Heiskanen
and others) seems to give better agreement with the obser_
ved values of gravity in addition to agreeing with seismolo-
logical evidence. It is also to be noted that the under-
ground compensation is more likely to be ~pread out over
GEOLOGY OF INDIA AND BURMA. [CHAP,
a larger area than that indicated by the surface in-

equality. Heiskanen's estimate of the depth of compen-
sation is about 40 km.
It is well known that continental masses are built up,
to a lalge extent, of granite. Granite and large masses of
sediments also form the mountain ranges of Tertiary age.
In contrast with this, heavier rocks like basalt are found in
regions which have been rent by tensional cracks. The
ocean basins are also supposed to have basic rocks at
shallow depths. These facts and suppositions are in
accord with the principles of isostasy.
This theory can also be used to explain partially the
conditions observed in the Himalayas and the Gangetic
plains. The Himalayas are bUllt up of huge masses of
sediments estimated to have an aggregate thickness of over
30,000 feet, with a granitic core in places. The plains
bordering these are deep troughs filled with alluvium,
which are al;o to some extent compensated. There are,
however, large anomalies which could not be explained
by isostasy. It happens that there is a great deal more
agreement between the theory and the actuality in the
U.S.A. than in India. The gravity data in India show
that there is a major belt of high gravity running through
Sambalpur-Jubbulpore-Jodhpur called' Burrard's Hidden
Range' which is explained by the geodesists of the Survey
of India as a region in which heavy sub-crustal rocks have
risen fairly close to the surface. A parallel hidden trough
exists under a zone connecting Belgaum-Bellary-Nellore.
Glennie's Explanation.-Several local anomalies are
also found throughout India, to explain which, Col. E.A.
Glennie of the Survey of India has advanced his hypothesis
of crustal u'orp. After allowing for isostatic compensation
and the major features of the Hidden Range and Trough,
the residual anomalies are explained by certain postulated
up warps and downwarps in which the sub-crustal dense
layer is considered to rise towards, and recede from, the
surface. This seems to give a satisfactory explanation of
the anomalies.
Col. Glennie's deductions are described and figured in the
successive Geodetic Reports of the Survey of India.
The major upwarps are, according to Col. Glennie : -
(I) From the laccadives along the western coast and
the Al avallis to Dehra Dun.
(2) Along the eastern coast of Ceylon, Madras and
Orissa.
(3) Shillong Plateau and the southern border of the
Gangetic alluvium and from Delhi to the eastern end of
the Salt Range.
(4) Karachi to the Sulaiman Range.
Minor lines include the belt of Dharwarian rocks of
Mysore, from the mouth of the Kistna to Chhindwara in
the Cen tral Provinces, and between and parallel to the
Narbada and the Tapti.
The major downwarps are : -
(I) The Maldives and along the Western Ghats
up to the Tapti.
(2) Ceylon, and the Cuddapah basins of Madras
and Bastar-Chhattisgarh.
(3) The Vindhyan basin of Gwalior.
(4) The Ganges valley and Upper Punjab plains.
(5) The Indus valley down to the junction with the
Sutlej and straight on to the Rann of Cutch.
In the Peninsula, the fair coincidence of the upwarps
with the compressed synclinals of Dharwarian age and
that of some of the downwarps with the Cuddapah and
Vindhyan basins is quite interesting. It is also rather
remarkable that the Himalayas, the Gangetic trough and
the Hidden Range and Trough exhibit parallel disposition.
If the Gangetic trough has been formed by the buckling
down of the Peninsula a little behind where its edges are
overthrust by the Himalayas, it is an interesting speculation
whether the Hidden Range and Trough cannot also be
attributed to the same movements. The sub-crust under
80 GEOLOGY OF INDIA AND BURMA.
the comparatively rigid crust of the Peninsula may be

expected to accommodate itself in this way to the stupen-
dous stresses set up by the opposition of the Peninsula and
the Tethyan sediments. It will be noticed that these
structures (Hidden Range and Trough) have appatently
no connection whatever with any previous structural lines
and traverse India across the whole range of geological
formations. This indicates that this feature is later than
the other major geological and geographical features of
India and the parallelism with the trend of the Himalaya
is apparently significant.
Auden, J.B. Geology of the Krol belt. Rec. 67, Pt. 4, 1934.
Auden, J.B. Structure of the HImalayas In Garhwal. Rec 71, 407-
433, 1936 .
Burrard, S.G. Origin of the Himalaya Mountams-a consIderation
of the geodetic eVIdence. Surv. of Ind. Prqf. Paper, 12, 1912.
Burrard, S.G. (Presidential address to the IndIan Science Congress).
Proc. As. Soc. Beng. N.S. 12 (2), 1916.
Burrard, S.G. Origin of the gangetic trough, commonly called the
Himalayan fore-deep. Proc. Roy. Soc. (London) 9I-A, 220-238,
19 1 5.
Burrard, S.G. Attraction of the Himalaya Mountains on the plumb
line. Surv. of Ind., Prof. Paper 5, 19 0 1.
Burrard, S.G., Hayden, H.H. and Heron, A.M. Geography and
Geology of the Himalaya Mountams and TIbet. (2nd edition).
Dehra Dun. 1932.
Crosthwaite, H.L. Investigation of the theory of Isostasy in India.
SUrD. of Ind., Prqf. Paper 13, 19 12
Couchman, H.J. Progress of Geodesy in India. Proc. Nat. Inst.
Sci. Ind. III, 1937.
Du Toit, A.L. Our wandering continents. London, 1937.
Glennie, EA. GraVIty anomalIes and the structure of the earth's
crust. Surv. of Ind. Prqf. Paper 27, 1932.
Hayden, H.H. Relationship of the Himalaya to the Indo-gangetIc
plam and the Indian Peninsula. Rec. 43, 13 8- 157, 1913.
Knshnan, M.S. The Structure of India. Ind. Geogr. Jour. XVIII,
137- 1 55, 1943
-Oldham, R.D. Structure of the Himalayas and the Gangetic plain.
Mem. 42, (2), 19 17.
11J STRUCTURE AND TECTONICS OF INDIA. 81
Oldham, R.D. Support of the Mountains of Central Asia. lUc. 49,
117-'35, 1918.
Oldham, R.D. The geological interpretation of some recent geodetic
investigations. Rec. 55, 78-94, 1923.
Sewell, R.B.S. Geographic and oceanographic researches in Indian
waters. Mem As. Soc. Beng. IX, Parts 1-8, 1925-1938, 10.
Wadia, D.N. SyntaxIs of the N.W. Himalayas-their rocks, tectonics
and orogeny. Rec. 65, r89-220, 1932.
Wadia, D.N. Structure of the Himalaya and the North Indian fore-
land. Proc. 25th Ind SCI. Congress, 1938, Pt. II, p. 91-118.
Wadia, D.N. The making of India. Proc. Ind. Sci. Congo 29th
session, Baroda (Presidential Address). Part H, 3-23, 1942.
Pilgrim, G.E. and West, W.D. Structure and correlation of the Simla
rocks. Mem. 53, 1928.
West, W.D. Structure of the Shali window. Rec. 74, 133- 163, 1939.
Wiseman, J.n.H. and Sewell, R.B.S. The floor of the Arabian Sea.
Geol. Mag. 74, 21 9- 2 30, 1937; 75, 143- 1 44, 239- 240 , 1938 .
--Geodetic Reports (annual). Survey of India, Dehra Dun.
--John Murray Expedition, Scientific Reports, I, 1936.
11
CHAPTER Ill.
GENERAL REVIEW OF INDIAN STRATIGRAPHY.
Stratigraphical or historical geology has, as its aim,
the description and classification of rocks with a view to
arranging them in the order in which they were laid down
on the surface of the earth. Of the three great groups of
rocks-sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic-only the
sedimentary rocks are easily amenable to such an arrange-
ment, since they have been deposited bed by bed and
contain the remains of organisms which flourished while
they were formed. The lithological characters of the units
or formations and their fossil contents have been invaluable
for determining the chronology of the materials of the
earth's crust, as will be explained below.
Lithology.-The lithological characters of the dif-
ferent groups of rocks are persistent through their thickness
and over the area in which they are exposed, though there
may be minor variations from bed to bed. Each litho-
logical type comprises a number of individual beds having
more or less the same characters and is spoken of as a
formation and given a local or specific name to distinguish
it from a similar formation of a different age or belonging
to another ,Hea. We have thus the Barakar sandstone,
Kamthi sandstone, Bhander sandstone; the Attock
slate and Cumbum slate; the Daonella limestone and
Megalodon limestone, etc. The lithology is often of help
in correlation as in the case of the Spiti shales of various
parts of the Himalayas or the Purple sandstone of the Salt
Range and the similar Upper Vindhyan sandstone of
Central India.
Fossil content.-Each formation has not only dis-
tinct petrological characters but also encloses a fossil
assemblage which is characteristic and different from that
GENERAL REVIEW OF INDIAN STRATIGRAPHY. 83
of the underlying and overlying formations. Animal and
vegetable organisms of each particular geological age bear
special characters not found in those of other ages. Though
some species are long-lived and have a long range in time,
there are others which have a very short range, and each
assemblage contains a mixture of many different species
I an d groups of animals. Some species, for example of
graptolites and ammonites, are so highly specialised in
morphological characters and so restricted in range of
time that they arc highly valuable indicators of very
small sub-divisions of geological time.
Fossil assemblages of the same age are not necessarily
identical, for the species in them will depend on the
conditions of environment. If the environment was the
same or simIlar, the species may be identical or closely
allied, as in the case of marine fauna; if different, as tn the
case of estuarine and lacustrine deposits, the elements of
the fauna will be different but will show the same stage of
evolution or development in respect of each other and in
comparison with the parallel faunas of another age. The
conditions which control sedimentation and life give rise,
therefore, to different facies, such as the deep sea, coastal,
estuarine, fluviatile, etc.; and also, depending on lithology,
to shale, limestone or sandstone facies. Hence, in com-
paring the faunas or floras of two areas, the lithological
as well as environmental facies will have to be fully
taken into account.
Order of superposition.-Every geological formation
rests 011 another and is superposed by a third. The
formation at the bottom is naturally older than the one
at the top, and when we deal with several, the upper ones
are successively younger than those below. This sequence
is the same wherever the same formations are met with.
If the formations have been laid down continuously,
each of them grades perfectly into the succeeding one.
They are then said to be conformable. The gradation is
not only lithological but also faunistic. It often happens
however that) owing to local upheavals, some formations
are locally missing. In this case, the transition from the
underlying to the overlying beds will be abrupt, such a
break in continuity being called an unconformity. The
unconformity is marked by a change in rock type, by the
different disposition of the overlying beds, by the inter-
vention of a horizon of conglomerate containing pebbles
from the underlying formation, and by other features.
The overlying formation may spread over and transgress
the limits of the lower one, thereby showing the pheno-
menon of overlap. Or, there may be regressive overlap
or gap. Yet these phenomena do not affect the order of
superposition of the strata.
The earth's crust is the scene of constant changes and
the rocks are affected by them in various ways. They may
be tUted, folded, and faulted. They may be intruded by
igneous rocks, or metamorphosed as a result of earth
movements. The final result of these changes, as seen
at the present day, is often very complex but the geologist
should observe all the facts carefully and unravel the
history of the formations after weighing all the available
evidence.
TABLE 2-THE GEOLOGICAL SYSTEMS.
Groups. Systems.
~
Recent
Quaternary Pleistocene
Phocene
Tertiary or Kainozoic or J MIOcene
Cenozoic . ") Oligocene
Eocene
Cretaceous
Secondary or Mesozoic Jurassic
Triassic
Permian
Carboniferous
Primary or PabeozOlc
J Devonian
., I Silurian
OrdOVician
Cambrian
Pre-Cambrian
Arch!ean or Azoic ., { Archrean
III] GENERAL REVIEW OF INDIAN STRATIGRAPHY. 85
TABLE g-THE STANDARD FORMATIONS AND STAGES.

Recent Present day alluvium
Pleistocene Younger alluvium
{ Older alluvium
rVillefranchian (Arno beds)
, Astian
Pliocene .. i Plaisancian
lPontian
(Sarmatian
l
Torlonian}V' d b '
Miocene Helvehan In 0 oman
Burdigalian
Aquitanian
Chattian
Oligocene Rupelian (Stampian)
{ Lattorfian (Sannoisian)
Ludian
Bartonian
}P'naboman
.
Auver~ian
Eocene Lutetian (Parisian)
Ypresian (Cuisian)}Lond"lDian
S pamaclan
Thanetian .
Montian
Danian
Mrestrrchtian
Campanian
Santonian
Senonian Coniacian Chalk
{ (Emschcrian)
Cretaceous Turonian
Cenomanian J
Albian (Gault & Upper Greensand)
Aptian (Lower Greensand)
Barremian }
1
Hauterivlan}N
., .
eocomlan Wealden.
V a 1anglman
Tithoman (Purbeck)
Port landian
'
Knumend- {BOnOnian
JurassIc
f glan lIavrian
Sequanian (Lusitanian)
Oxfordian {~~~~~~:
White Jura
or MaIm
lCallOVIan
Bathonian
Bajocian
Aa'lenian "J
Brown Jura
or Dogger.
(Toarcian
B : Charmouthian }Black Jura.
Jurassic ~ ~ Sinemurian
l Hettangian
I Carm~
Rh~ti('
Nork TuvaHc Keuper
TriassIc " {Julie
} Muschel-
l
LadInIC
Vlrgloric (Anisic) kalk
Werfenic (Scythian) Bunter
Thuringian Zechstem
Permian " Saxonian (Punjabian) } Rotlie-
{ Artinskian gendes
Stephanian UraHan } Pennsyl-
We8tphalian") vanian
Carbonifel'Om ,. >- Moscovian
{ N,mnll ian J } Mississi-
DinantIaIl Culm pian.
(Famennian
l Frasnicln
Devonian J Givetian
l
, '~ F.ifelian
Coblentzian
Gedinnian
(Downton (Downtonian)
- Silurian J Ludlow (Clunian)
, " Wenlock (Salopl<ln)
LLlandovery (Valentldn)
Bala (Caradonan)
Ordovician " Llandeilo (Llandeilian)
{ Aremg (Llanvirman)
potsdamian (Olenus)
Cambrian , Acadian (Paradoxide~)
{ Ceorgian (Olcnellus)
After careful study, the geological formations have

been arranged into a few major groups. These are
shown in Table 2 in the order of increasing antiquity.
The latter terms in these groups indicate the stage of
development of the organisms. The Azoic is either
entirely devoid of organisms or contains only traces of the
most primitive life; the Pal~ozoic contains the remains
of ancient animals and plants, and so on to Recent times.
The major groups are divided into Systems; each
System into Series; each Series into Stages; each Stage
into Zones. Corresponding to these divisions of forma-

tions there are divisions of geological time, as shown below:
Formations. TIme.
Group (e.g. Mesozoic) Era.
System (e.g. Triassic) Epoch.
Series (e.g. Upper Triassic) .. Period.
Stage (e.g. Cc.lrnic) Age
Zone (e.g. Tropltes subbullatus)
As the geological formations were first studied in
Western Europe, the names of formations in the European
region are now universally used as standards of reference
to facilitate the correlation and comparison of formations
of all parts of the world. Table 3 gives the names of the
chief divisions in usage, and many of them will be fre- .
quently referred to in the following pages.
GENERAL REVIEW OF INDIAN STRATIGRAPHY.
Before commencing the description of the stratigra-

phical units of India, a general summary might prove
useful so that the subject can be viewed in the roughest
outline.
More than half of the Peninsula is occupied by the
Archrean rocks, including schistose rocks which are
generally referred to as the Dharwarian group. The
Cuddapah, Vindhyan and Gondwana systems and the
Deccan Traps occupy the rest of the area, except parts of
the coastal regions. In the Extra-Peninsula, marine sedi-
mentary systems predominate, though parts of the sub-
Himalaya and the main axis of the Himalaya are occupied
by ancient metamorphic rocks and intrusive igneous rocks.
A full succession of fossiliferous sedimentary systems,
extending from the Cambrian to Eocene, is met with on
the Tibetan side of the Himalaya, while the southern or
Sub-Himalayan zone contains a different facies which is
practically unfossiliferous. These two facies are, however,
found in juxtaposition in Kashmir.
Beyond the sharp syntaxial bend of the North-western

Himalaya near the Nanga Parbat, the Hazara area shows
unfossiliferous Pala-ozoics and fossiliferous later formations;
but further south, the Baluchistan arc is built up mainly
of post-Carboniferous systems which sweep down in a
broad arc to the Mekran region where the Tertiaries
predJminate. To the cast and south of the north-eastern
Syntaxis of Assam, in the Burmes(' are, Tertiary rocks
form a broad zone with a core of Upper Mesozoic rocks
which constitute the Arakan Yomas. To their east is the
Shan-Tenasserim belt of pre-Tertiary rocks which cor-
responds roughly to the Himalayan belt.
The major stratigraphical divisions of India are
shown in Table 4 together with their standard European
equivalents, these being arranged, as usual, in the order
of increasing antiquity.
TABLE 4-GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS OF INDIA.
Recent Recent alluvia.

Pleistocene Older alluvia and Pleistocene.
Mlo-Pliocene Siwalik and Irrawaddy systems.
Oligo-Miocene Murree and Pegu systems.
Eocene Ranikot-Laki-Klrthar-Chharat series.
Cretaceo-Eocene Deccan Trap and Inter-trappeans.
(Upper Cretaceous of South India,
Cretaceous .. ~ As~am, Narbada valley;
I Giumal and Chikkim series (Himalaya)
Jurassic
SPiti shales 1
.. Upper Kioto Lime- Gondwana sys-
{ stone i,. tern (Lower
Triassic .. LIIang system 1f Cretaceous to
Permian .. Kuhng system Upper Car-
Carboniferous " Lipak and Po series) boniferous.)
'Devonian Muth quartzite
Silurian Silurian
Ordovician Ordovician
Cambrian CambTian }". dh yan &ystem.
Algonkian D ogra an d SIlllIa Cv Inuddapa h system.
saI t es
Salkhala, Jutogh }Dharwar system
Archrean ..{ and Chail series etc. and gneisses.
In 1904, in an article in the Imperial Gazetteer of
India, Sir T. H. Holland proposed a new classification of
the Indian strata in which the Cuddapah and Vindhyan
systems were grouped together under the name of Purana
group, corresponding to the Algonkian of America. The
strata from the base of the Cambrian to Middle Carboni-
ferous were put together under the Dravidian group. At the
top of this group and below the Talchir boulder bed
there is a well marked and universal unconformity. All
the rocks from the Talchir boulder beds upwards were
placed under the Aryan group which therefore includes
everything from the Upper Carboniferous to the Pleisto-
cene. Of these, only the term ' Purana ' is sometimes used
in geological writings and the other two have not gained
any currency.
The main divisions enumerated in the Table above
have representatives in different areas, varying in facies,
lithology and succession. Besides deep-sea and coastal
marine, we have also estuarine, fluviatile and continental
facies of different ages. It is fairly easy to correlate the
marine systems of the Extra-peninsula with those of the
coastal regions of the Peninsula because of the contained
fauna. But in the case of the fluviatile and continental
deposits, the faunas are of local distribution and have
special characters for which there are few helpful parallels
in other parts of the world. Their age can be settled
with confidence if they are in some way connected with
marine beds or if the age of any similar formatiollj in
other parts of the world is known.
There are several stratigraphical problems in this
sub-continent which await solution. The regional peculi-
arities of strata have necessitated the growth of a consider-
able number of local names which have only a limited
application. Moreover, geological work was originally
done in a series of detached areas which have compelled
the adoption of local nomenclature. As these areas were
connected up by the mapping of the intervening tracts,
some of the local formation names have become superfluous.
But, in a large number of cases, even though the general
12
go GEOLOGY OF INDIA AND BURMA. [CHAP,
equivalence or homo taxis could be recognised, the local

nomenclature persists because of the lack of identity of
characters or of complete parallelism.
By far the greater part of India has been mapped in
a general way but there are still some blanks in Orissa,
in the Central Provinces, parts of Assam and in the Hima-
laya. These arc gradually being fil1ed up while several of
the more important areas have been undergoing revision.
Hence the stratigraphic information available on different
parts of the country is of varying degrces of modernity,
detail and precision. Among the best known areas at
present are Mysore, the Cuddapah basin of Madras,
Chota Nagpur, the Nagpur-Chhindwara art"a of the
Central Provinces, Rajputana, Salt Range, Kashmir, the
Sub-Himalaya of Simla-Garhwal and parts of the Tertiary
belt of Burma.
A generalised picture of the geological succession in
different areas is presented in Table 5 which may be useful
for reference purposes. Further details about individual
areas will be found in the relevant chapters in 'A-hich each
geological system is described in detail.
i
o
go GEOLOUY OF INDIA AND BURMA. rCHAP.
equivalence or homotaxis could be recognised, the local
nomenclature persists because of the lack of identity of
characters or of complete parallelism.
By far the greater part of India has been mapped in
a gt"neral way but there are still some blanks in Orissa,
in the Central Provinces, parts of Assam and in the Hima-
laya. These are gradually being filled up while several of
the more important areas have been undergoing revision.
Hence the stratigraphic information available on different
parts of the country is of varying degrees of modernity,
detail and precision. Among the best known arcas at
present are Mysore, the Cuddapah basin of Madras,
Chota Nagpur, the Nagpur-Chhindwara area of the
Central Provinces, Rajputana, Salt Range, Kashmir, the
Sub-Himalaya of Simla-Garhwal and parts of the Tertiary
belt of Burma.
A generalised picture of the geological succession in
different areas is presented in Table 5 which may be useful
for reference purposes. Further details about individual
areas will be found in the relevant chapters in which each
geolo~ical system is described in detail.
Ill] GENERAL REVIF,W OF INDIAN STRATIGRAPHY, 91
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[II] GENERAL lUvmw OF INDIAN STRATIGRAPHY. 93
.....
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CHAPTER IV.
THE ARCHAEAN GROUP-PENINSULA.
INTRODUCTION.
The term Archflan was introduced by J. D. DanaI in

1872 to designate the formations older than the Cambrian.
In America it is now restricted to the highly metamor-
phosed schistose, gneissic and granitic rocks, while the
term Algonkian includes undoubted original sediments
lying below the base of the Cambrians. In India, the
formations below the Eparchrean (epi-archrean) uncon-
formity, i.e., the unconformity at the base of the Cuddapah
system and its equivalents, have been included under the
Archrean by Sir T.H. Holland,2 with which view Sir
L.L. Fermor 3 agrees. Within the Archreans are included
certain sedimentary rocks or mixtures of sediments and
igneous rocks, these being generally separated into the
Lower Transitio1l System in order to differentiate them from
the Upper Transition systems which appear above the
Eparchrean unconformity. The Lower Transition rocks
which occur in compressed and partly buried synclinoria
in South India were included by R. Bruce Foote 4 in his
Dharwar System, named after the District of Dharwar in
Southern Bombay. This term has since acquired a
wider significance than that given by Foote through the
work of several geologists among whom are W. King,
J. M. Maclaren and L. L. Fermor, so that it is now often
used as a general term for similar formations in other parts
of India. Though objections have recently been raised'
to such a general usage, the term has become so well
lAmer. Journ SCI 3, p. 253, 1872.
Tram. Min Geol. In,t. India, I, p. 47, 1907.
a Mem. G.S I., XXXVII, p. 236-238, 1909.
.Rec. G S.I. XIx.. p. 98, 1886.
THE ARCHAEAN GROUP -PENINSULA. 95
entrenched in Indian geological nomenclature that it is
scarcely possible to discard it. Used in this broad sense,
it serves to designate the schistose Archreans ulder than the
Eparchrean unconformity and to indicate the approximate
homotaxial relationship of these formations in various
parts of India.
The Archa:an rocks are unfossiliferous as they were
formed at a time when the conditions for the existence of
life were unfavourable. For this reason they are referred
to as the Azoic group. We find however that, at the
beginning of the Cambrian, a rich fauna appears all over
the world. This leads us to infer that there was a long
period of evolution when very primitive organisms such
as skeleton-less soft-bodied animals and plants of the type
of alga: flourished. It is unlikely that such organisms
could have left any recognisable impressions or relics, and
that they could have survived the repeated and intense
changes to which the earth's crust was subjected in
Archrean times.
The Archreans form the basement or foundation of
all the sedimentary systems. Because of this and their
complex constitution, they are referred to as the basement
C
complex', 'gneissic complex' or 'fundamental gneiss.'

The areas in which they occur are called' shields' because
of their great resistance to later earth movements which
have left them practically unaffected. It was at one time
believed that some of the Archrean gneisses represented
the primordial or first crust formed on a cooling globe.
We now know that the Archreans have been affected by
at least three, if not more, periods of diastrophism and
large scale igneous activity. Though some undoubtedly
very ancient gneisses do underlie the oldest schistose
members of sedimentary origin, they are so complex in
nature and must have had so varied a history that they
could scarcely be regarded as representing the original
crust.
From what has been said above, it will be appalent

that the division of the Archrean group into an Archrean
System and a Dhan\ar System should not be carried to
the extent of describing each as a separate unit, since the
two .lre very closely a~sociated J.nd since the granite .. and
gneisses may merely represent certain horizons within the
schistose members. Hence the formations are described
regionally in the following pages.
DISTRIBUTION.
The Archreans occupy about two-thirds of Peninsular
India and the greater part of the island of Ceylon which is
but a fragment of the former, llOW separated by a shallow
strait. They stretch continuously from Capr Comorin
to the Central Provinces and Bihar and continue apparent-
ly underneath the Ganges aHuvium into the Assam'
plateau; the Mysore area is also presumably connected
with that of Glljarat and Rajputana beneath the Deccan
Traps. This vast stretch includes parts of the Provinces
of Madras, Orissa, Bihar, Assam and the States of Tra-
vancore, Mysore, Hyderabad, Western India and Raj-
putana.
In the Extra-peninsular at ca the Arch<eans are found
in the Lesser Himalaya and also in the Shan States-
Tenasserim belt of Burma.
M YSORE--SOUTHERN BOMBAY.
This constitutes the type region of the Dharwar system
studied by R. Bruce Foote in the eighteen-eighties. Since
then a considerable amount of work has been done by the
geologists of the Mysore Geological Department. This
region (including the adjoining part of Hyderabad State)
is occupied by gneisses and granites which are traversed
by a number of bands of schistose rocks, these being
named after the places lying on them:
1. Castle rock.
2. Dharwar-Shimoga.
3. Gadag Dambal (Chitaldrug) -Seringapatam.
4
IV] THE ARCHAEAN GROUl>-PENINSULA. 97
4 Sandur-Copper mountain.
5 Bellary-Kushtagi.
6. Penner-Huggari.
7. Maski-Hatti.
8. Bomanhal.
9. Kolar.
10 Raichur.
1 I. Gadwal.
Besides these there are several sIlIall strips scattered over
this and the neighbouring regions. These are all thought
to be remnants of a great formatic)h which formerly covered
a large part of Southern India and which have escaped
denudation because they form synclinal strips folded in
with tht" gneisst's. The larger ones are evidently closely
folded synclinoria in which some members are repeated
by folding. For example, Bruc~ Foote noted about 36
beds across a section in the Sandur band which he believed
to form a simple syncline with an overturned easterly limb;
since the total thickness, on this interpretation, would
amount to G miles, It is very likely that this is a synclinori-
um in which some part of the section is repeated by folding.
The Dharwarian rocks have a regional strike of
N.N.W.-S.S.E. which becomes N.-S. at the southern end
of Mysore and even veers to a N.E.-S.W. direction.
The Archrean succession of Mysore was described
by W.F. Smeeth in 1915. Thi!) has since been revised
by B. Rama Rao, the latest ideas being given in Bulletin
17 of the ~lysore Geological Department. These two
classifications are given in Table 6 for comparison. It
may be added that Rama Rao's ideas conform in a large
measure to those of geologists working in other parts of
India.
In Smeeth's classification, the Dharwars, the oldest
formations in Mysore, were held to be entirely of igneous
origin and divided into a lower Hornblendic division and
an upper Chloritic division. Thi:, lithological classification
has been found defective for it depends more on the
regional metamorphic grade than on the age and strati-
13
98 GEOLOGY OF INDIA ANJ) BURMA. [CHAP.
graphical Iclationships of the constituent members. In

the northern parts of the State, where the Dharwars form
wide bands, the chloritic types predominate in the green-
stones, while normal limestones, argillites and quartzites
are also seen. In the central region, arnphibolites begin
to develop while the sedimentary types become schistose,
recrystalliscrl and silicified. The southern tract contains
only comp.uatively small lenses and stringers amidst the
gneisses and they are conspicuously hornblcndic, coarsely
recrystallised, granulitic and fresh-looking because of the
higher grade of metamorphism. Here the af!~illaceous
sediments have been reconstituted into schists and granu-
lites with garnet, staurolite, kyanite, etc., while the
ferruginous quartzites are dominantly magnetitic.
Formerly, all the Dharwarian types were regarded
as of igneous origin; the conglomerates as autoclastic
and derived from fclsites and porphyries; the h~matite
quartzites as altered and silicified amphibole rocks and
so on. This view has changed in recent years and a
considerable part of the Dharwars is now shown to be of
_se.dimentary_ <.?~ig~~. The c_onglo~erates and grits are
found to ~~hibit ripple-marks and current-bedding. The
b~ndc( ferruginous rocks arc recognised as original sedi-
ments with alternating bands of cherty or chalcedonic
silica and iron-rich jasper or h~matite, the nature of the
iron oxide having been determined by the degree of
metamorphism. The limestones and calc~granulites, which
were regarded as products of met'asomatism of igneous
rocks, are in part at least sedimentary. Some of the conglo-
merates which were first described as autoclastic, i.e., as
pseudo-conglomerates whose structures were produced by
shearing and rolling, are now regarded as sedimentary in
origin. There are, of course, metamorphosed igneous
rocks such as amphibolites, amphibole-schists, talc-tremo-
lite-schists, serpentines, sheared porphyries, felsites, etc.
Amongst the mixed types are various gneisses containing
IV) THE ARCHAEAN GROUP-PENINSULA.
99
I
z....
biotite, hornblende and garnet, pyroxene-bearing granu-

lltes and calc-granulites.
Rama Rao has divided the Mysore occurrences into
five geographical groups from west to east. The western-
most contains mainly hornblendic schists and thin bands
of ha-matite-quartzites. The west-central group, compris-
ing the Shimoga and Bababudan belts, shows a fairly full
succession, banded ferruginous rocks and manganiferous
rocks occurring in force in the Bababudan hills. The
central group, comprising the Chitaldrug, Chiknayakan-
halli and N agamangala belts, shows much igneous material
and also banded ferruginous rocks and limestones. The
east-central group includes various small occurrences in
which both regional and thermal metamorphic effects are
discernible which have produced several interesting rock
types-q uartz-magneti te-gran uli tes, garnetiferous q uartz-
ites, garnet-quartz-pyroxene-granulites, sillimanite-cordie-
rite-gneisses, sillimani te-q uartzi tes, cordieri te-hypersthene
gneisses, cordicrite-mica gneisses, cummingtonite-schists,
pyroxene-gneisses, etc. The easternmost is the Kolar
schist-belt which is of great economic importance because
of the rich gold-bearing vein quartz in it. It is 40 miles
long and 4 miles broad at its widest and is composed of
hornblendic rocks believed to be of igneous origin, with a
band of autoclastic conglomerate at its eastern border.
According to Rama Rao, the Shimoga schist-belt in
the west-central area exposes one of the best developed
sections of Dharwars. Typical current-bedding and ripple
marks, indicating undoubted features of sedimentary ori-
gin, have been found at several places in this belt in recent
years. The oldest rocks are basic volcanics overlain by
rhyolitic flows and tuffs and intruded by sills of felsite and
porphyry. With these are intercalated bands of chert and
halleftinta. They are succeeded by thick beds of conglo-
merate containing pebbles of felsite, quartz-porphyry and
quartzite. Above these are micaceous quartzites showing
current-bedding in the upper layers. These are the earliest
IV] THE ARCHAEAN GROUP-PENINSULA. lor
undoubted sediments iu the Dharwars. The quartzites
are succeeded by slaty schists, limestones and banded
ferruginous quartzites, intruded by' bosc;es of granite-
porphyry. This series is followed by a bed of conglomer-
ate indicating a period of uplift and denudation. Further
sedimentation laid down a series of silts and ferruginous
quart 7 itr<; above these rocks. The succession in the
Shimoga belt, as worked out from several sections, is
shown in Table 7.
TABLE 7-DHARWARIAN SUCCESSION IN THE SHIMOGA BELT.
(After B. Rama Rao, Mysore Ceoi. Dept. Bull. 17, p. 36).

(e) Ferruginous quartzites and cherty fer~
ruginous slates with thin intercalatlOns of
argillitic layers and probably of ash beds.
(Ram-prints and sun-cracks in some
sectiOns).
(d) FrIable ferruginous silts and micaceous
ferruginous grIts intercalated with thin
Upper Dharwars band~ of lImestone towards the top Basic
(Su1ekere series) horn hlcndic Sills.
ec) Argdh tic and calcareous silts and fine
grained quartzites with mmute grains of
opalestent quartz.
(b) Quartzites.
(a) Jandunatti and Kaldurg.l conglomerates
containmg pebbles of granitic rocks, ferru-
ginous quartzite~, schists, etc.
Granite-porphyry masses of Rangandurga, Balekal and probably

granites of Honnali, Shimoga and adjacent parts.
(e) Banded hccmatite-quartzites (Chandl'
gudda outcrops).
(d) Limestones, dolomites and siliceous
limestones.
Middle Dharwars (c) Phyllitic and chloritic schists, grey or
(Hosur series) greenish.
(b) Sericitic gnts and quartzites with coarse
grams of opalescent quartz.
(a) Conglomerates (showing pebbles of
, quartzites' and quartz-porphyries), fel~
pathic grits and greywackes.
t02 GEOLOGY OF INDIA AND BURMA, [CHAP,
((c) Sills of quartz-porphyry, felsIte and other

types of acid intmsives and theIr schistose
Lower Dharwars
I phases.
(b) Acid and Intermediate flows-rhyolites,
keratophyres, etc., with intercalated tuffs
and ash-beds now seen as dark grey or
(Igneous Complex) . . 1 bluish argllhtlc layers and beds, altered
I in places into compact homstones in
contact wIth (c).
l
(a) Compact greenstone and greenstone-
schists, micaceous or calcIferous chlorite-
schIsts, etc. (BaSIC and intermedIate lava
flows probably with admixed ash bed~.)
Before leaving the Dharwars it may be mentioned
that there are amongst them certain special rock types,
usually occupying small areas. Among these are in-
cluded:
(I) SAKARSAl'lITE SERIES developed dS lenses amid!>! I.(II( IW'~
near Sakarsanhalli, Kolar dIstrict, and consistmg of calc-granulltt"s,
hornblende-granulites, '1illimanite quanzites, manganiferous lime-
stones and cummingtoOlte schists.
(2) BANDITE SERIES near Bandlhalh, Bangalore dIstrict, com-
prising garnetiferous hornblende-granulites, conherite-sillimanite
gneisses, quartz-magnetIte granulites, etc.
(3) KODAMITE SERIES seen around Kodamhalli, Bangalore
district, and consisting of cordiente-biotite gneisses with silhmanite and
gamet, gametiferous quartzites, quartz-magnetite-pyroxene granulites,
etc.
(4) BlDALOTJ SERIES named after Bidaloti near Koratgere,
Tumur district, and including diopside-granulites, cordierite-
hypersthene-rock, sillimanite-quartzites and quartz-magnetite
granulites.
The stratigraphical relationships of these rocks are far
from clear. They appear, however, to be mainly of sedi-
mentary origin and resemble in some measure the rocks
found in the Sausar series of the Central Provinc('s which
are referred by Fermor to a lower division of the Dharwan.
The Dharwars appear to rest on gneisses and granites
and it seems certain that their base has been stoped out
by igneous intrusions of a later age. I t doubtful if any
I'
original Arch~an basement still remains as such under

the schistose rocks.
\[,\1' 1\'
rUE DIIARW.RS llP Mum [NOlA To Faa p, IOJ
I .... IOtct~n Trip"

UIIlllIIlIIiKvrn,," & Shim...
_ Upp" Cudd'p.h
I5iiSCudd,p," 'riP'
~ Lower CudddPdh
~;::J Closep" 9"'''''
ffilIfmI C/ldrnc;cklff
o Dhlfwlrlin.
IV] THE ARCHAEAN GROUP --PENIN<;ULA.
Champion gneiss.-Succeeding the Dharwars is the

Champion gneiss which is a sheared, grey, micaceous
gneIss whose type area is the eastern edge of the Kolar
schist belt. It contains blebs of opalescent, grey-coloured
quartz. Some other types like keratophyres, rhyolites,
quartz-porphyries and some? granites, which also contain
the same opalescent quartz, are included with the Champ-
ion gneiss group, but it is not always easy to distinguish
some of them from the types belonging to the Peninsular
gneiss group. It appears desirable to restrict the use of
the name Champion gneiss to the stocks and bosses of
granite and granite-porphyry which are older than the
Peninsular gneiss.
Peninsular gneiss.-This is the most widespread
group of rocks in Mysore and in many parts of Southern
India. They consist of a very heterogeneous mixture of
different types of gramtes intrusive into the schistose rocks
after the latter were folded, crumpled and metamorphosed.
They include granites, granodiorites, gneissic granites and
banded or composite gneisses, the granitic constituents of
which show distinct signs of intrusion. The banded
gneisses consist of white bands of quartz-felspar alternating
with dark bands containing hornblende, biotite and minor
accessories. The gneissic types are due to the intensive
granitisation of older schistose rocks and show streaky and
contorted bands some of which are granitoid to porphyritic
and others granulitic. The granitic group ranges in
composition from granite, through granodiorite to adamel-
lite, augite-diorite, monzonite, etc., and contains inclusions
of hornblendic rocks. To what extent they represent
intrusives of different ages it is difficult to say, but their
very complex nature is unquestionable since they include
composite gneisses, migmatites, granitised older crystalline
rocks and true granites with their aplitic and quartz veiq
systems.
Charnockites.- The next younger group of r?ck~~)~
the Charnockite series whose characters seem to !lD:ow that
they are igneous in origin, and which were originally
named the 'Mountain gneiss' or 'Nilgiri gneiss' by
W. King as they constitute the Nilgiris and other hills in
South rndia. They comprise a whole series of rocks'
ranging in composition from acid to ultrabasic, the
intermediate (syeno-dioritic) type being the most common.
The acid type was called charnockite by Sir Thomas H.
Holland (after Job Charnock, the founder of Calcutta,
whose tombstone is made of this rock) and the name was
extended to cover the whole series.
The rocks are all characterised by the presence of the
ortho-rhombic pyroxene hypersthene. They are bluish
grey to dark grey in colour, granitoid and massive. The
acid and intermediate members contain bluish-grey, waxy
looking quartz with a greyish to brownish turbidity, con-
taining acicular inclusions of rutile, and perthitic micro-
cline (less frequently orthoclase) and plagioclase. Garnet is
fairly common while zircon, magnetite and ilmenite are
the usual accessories. The chief ferromagnesian mineral
is enstatite-hypersthene, but augite and hornblende are
also found, while biotite is not common. The basic
varieties are noritic and rich in hypersthene. The ultra-
basic ones are pyroxenites and hypersthenites which occur
as lenses and segregated patches. Some related acid
varieties rich in garnet are classed under leptynites. The
density of the types varies from 2.67 (acid, with 75 per
cent. silica) to 3.37 (very basic, with 52 per cent. silica).
The charnockites include porphyritic types in which
large crystals of orthoclase or microcline are developed.
In parts of the Eastern Ghats there are evidences of the
action of later magmatic solutions producing albitisation
and myrmekitisation. The felspars are usually rnicro-per-
thitic, and quartz may show graphic intergrowth with
felspar. The hypersthene is pleochroic and is often highly
schillerized. Augite, often titaniferous, is fairly common
while hornblende, though frequently present, is distinctly
subordinate in quantity.
IVl THE ARCHAEAN GROUP-PENINSULA. IDS
The charnockltes are widely distributed in Peninsular

India and in the Island of Ceylon which is geologically a
part of it. They enter largely into the constitution of the
south-western part of Ceylon and the mountains of South
India including the Nilgiris, Palnis, Shevaroys, Anaimalais
and Cardamom hills; and parts of the Eastern Ghats from
north of Nellore to the Mahanadi valley.
Sir T. H. Holland adduced evidence to show that
they have the characters of plutonic igneous rocks. They
give out tongues, apophyses and veins into the surrounding
masses and have sometimes produced mineralogical chan-
ges at their contact with other rocks. They show the
phenomena of segregation and differentiation. F.L. Still-
well, who found similar rocks in the Antarctic region
near Australia thought that the characters are to be
ascribed to high grade or plutonic metamorphism at
high temperatures and pressures. The chief minerals of
the charnockite,> are devoid of the hydroxyl molecule and
indicate high pressure conditions and it is therefore likely
that they were formed as comparatively 'dry' magmas
originating under kata-zone (hypo-zone) conditions.
Pyroxene granulites similar to or identical wth the
charnockites have been found in other areas under specially
severe metamorphic conditions, e.g., Central Provinces,
Bastar State, Bamra State and Mogok tract in Burma.
P. K. Ghosh has described rocks from Bastar State identical
in characters with charnockites which he regards as due
to the metamorphism of calc-granulites intruded into,
and hybridised by, granitic rocks. Vredenburg suggested
in 1918 that the charnockites might represent highly
metamorphosed representatives of the Dharwars. The
trend of opinion at present seems to be that the charnockites
are products of plutonic metamorphism showing some of
the characters of intrusive rocks.
B. Rama Rao has described the charnockitic and
quasi-charnockitic rocks of Mysore as having been formed
by different ways from pre-existing rocks under varying
14
106 GEOLOGY OF INDIA AND EURMA. [CHAP,
conditions. These include recrystallised siliceous, argilla-

ceous and ferruginous sediments which have become
granulites with hypersthene; dykes and sheets of norites
and basic rocks, the original amphiboles having been
mostly converted to pyroxene; magnesia- and iron-rich
rocks silicified by acid and intermediate igneous rocks.
In most cases there is no clear evidence of any intrusive
relationships of these 'charnockites' ; indeed they seem
to be older than the Peninsular gneisses, according to this
authority.
Closepet Granites.-These form a well marked
band about IO miles wide running north to south through
Closepet and Channapatna. A few other granites in the
State (e.g., Chitaldrug, Hosdurga, Arsikcre and Chamundi
granites) are also probably of the same age. They are
coarse-grained, porphyritic, grey to pink biotite-granites
containing inclusions of various types of older schists and
granulites. Some of the inclusions have been granitised
and modified in composition to diorites. The granites
are occasionally foliated in the marginal portions, while
the adjacent rocks are in many cases contract-altered. A
series of porphyries, felsites and other differentiates tra-
verse the Closepet granites. . .
This same type of granite has been described as Bellary
gneiss, Hosur gneiss and Balaghat gneiss outside Mysore
in Southern India. The Dome gneiss of Bihar and the
Bundelkhand gneiss of Bundelkhand and Rajputana are
also similar though' the last is regarded as pre-Aravalli
(pre-Dharwar) in age by A.M. Heron. For this type, in
South India, the general term' Bellary gneiss' hOas been
suggested by L.L. Fermor.
HYDERABAD.
The Dharwars are well displayed in the south-western
parts of Hyderabad State. A few outlying bands are seen
further east in Karimnagar and Warangal districts. They
consist, as in Mysore,ofhornblende-, talc-, chlorite- and
IV] THE ARCHAEAN GROUP- PENINSULA.
mica-schillts, quartzites, ferruginous quartzites, etc., having

the same (N.N.W.-S.S.E.) direction of strike. The r~st
of the COUntl y is occupied by gneisses of which there are
twa typeSI a Crf')! glleisf and a Pilll.: glleiss. The Grey gneiss,
which corresponds to the Peninsular gneiss, is conspicuouSly
banded, the light bands containing quartz and felspar and
the dark bands containing mica and hornblende. The
Pink gneiss is granitoid, though occasionally gneic;sic, al)d
intrusive into the Dharwars and into the Grey gneiss, al)d
. therefore referable to the Bellary gneiss. It consists of
quartz, microcline, orthoclase, acid plagioclase, some horn-
blende, mica and epidote. Phases of the Pink gneiss are
red sycnitic rocks and porphyritic pink granites. They
are cut up by later felsite and porphyry dykes. Gold-
bearing quartz veins occur in shear zones in the schistose
Dharwars and near the margin of the Dharwars and
gneIsses.
EASTERN MADRAS.
W. King distinguished four types of gneisses in the
N cHore region, two being schistose and two massive. The
schistose gneisses are referable to the Dharwarian and
include quartz-, mica-, hornblende- and talc-schists, and
quartz-ma.gnetite rocks, while the massive gneisses inclu<if'
a grey, sometimes porphyritic, gneis~ and a red granitoid
gneiss. The grey gneiss is banded and very variable in
composition and contains streaks and bands of mica-
ceous gneisses and charnockites; it is also called by King
the Carnatic gneiss, and belongs undoubtedly to the Penin-
sular gneiss group. The red gneiss is mainly granitic and
corresponds to the Bellary gneiss and Closepet granite. The
granitic glleisses and granites are associated with pcgmatites
and quartz veins and are often quite rich in fluorine-bearing
minerals, especially fluorite, apatite and topaz. The
north-western portion of the Dharwarian belt is practically
devoid of pegmatite intrusions but the south-eastern por-
tion is rich in them including numerous lenses and veit}s
contammg workable deposits of muscovite mica. The

Dharwarian rocks have here the same strike-(N.N.W.
or N.W.) as in Hyderabad and Mysore.
SOUTHERN MADRAS.
In the districts of Coimbatore, Salem and Arcot which
lie to the south-east of Mysorc, there are several synclinal
strips of Dharwars amidst the Peninsular gneisses, char-
norkites and granites. Ferruginous quartz-schists (hrema-
tite and magnetite-schists with quartz) are particularly'
abundant in Salem and form several hills of rather low
grade iron ores. The strike direction of the gneisses in
this region is N.E-.S.W.
In Southern Mysorc the Dharwars thin down and are
shredded out by intrusive rocks, and only the lower and
middle divisions are present in a highly metamorphosed
form. These continue into Malabar and are represented
by mica-gneisses, garnetiferous gneisses, quartz-schists,
quartz-hrematite- and quartz-magnetite-schists. Further
south there are Peninsular gneisses and massive granitoid
rocks which latter may be the same as the Bellary gneiss.
It is known that in the southernmost districts of the Penin-
sula there are quartz-schists, crystalline limestones, garneti-
ferous mica-gneisses and schists, biotite-cordierite-gneisses
etc. which are referable to the Dharwars ; there are also
the Peninsular gneisses, charnockites and granites.
The areas above described contain a few interesting
types of rocks. Alkali rocks including nepheline-, augite-
and corundum-syenites occur in the Sivamalai in Coimba-
tore district. Anorthosite and anorthite-corundum rocks
occur at Sithampundi in Salem to which special interest
attaches as this anorthite was originally described by
Count de Bournon in 1802 under the name Indianite.
In the same area there are also pyroxene-chromite and
pyroxene-chromite-corundum rocks, the pyroxene being
largely altered to amphibole. Lenses of orthoclase-corun-
dum rocks occur at Palakod and other places in the
IV] THE ARCHAEAN GROUP-PENINSULA. 109
Salem district in a biotite-hypersthene granulitic gneiss.

Olivine-rocks, in which magnesite is developed, are found
in several places in Salem and M ysore, the best known
being the "Chalk Hills" and the surrounding tract
near the foot of the Shevaroys a few miles from Salem
town. The ultra basic rock is highly altered and replaced
by abundant veins of magnesite.
CEYLON.
The hland of Ceylon is geologically continuous with

the adjacent part of Southern India. Physiographically it
consists of three peneplains, the lowest forming the general
plain coulltry, the highest the mountainous uplands
and the middle one a unit of intermediate altitude.
According to Dr. D. N. Wadia,1. the two upper units are
the result of uplift of fault blocks. The intermediate
peneplain is considereu to be post-] urassic while the
upper one may be of latc Tertiary age. Dr. Wadia
has also recognised similar units in Southern India.
Ceylon is built up of Arch~an rocks except for a narrow
coastal strip in the north-western part where Miocene
rocks occur. A belt of khonda.lites and charnockites forms
a central synclinorium and traverses the island from north
to south separating the southeastern area of the Bintenne
gneiss from the north-western area of Wanni gneisses.
The regional strike of the rocks is N.-S. in the northern
part, N.E.-S.W. in the north-east and east and N.N.W.-
S.S.E. to N.W.-S.E. in the southern and south-western
part. The disposition of the khondalites suggests that i
is a southerly continuation of the Eastern Ghats of north-
eastern Madras while the southern portion of the island
is a continuation of the rocks of Travancore and the
southernmost districts of Madr~s. The trend of the rocks
follows the configuration of the coast especially III the
south-west, south and south-east of the island.
1 Wadia, D.N , The three superposed peneplains of Ceylon. Ret Dept. M,n.
Cev/on, Prof Paper I, 25-32, 1943.
110 GEOLOGY OF INDIA AND BURMA. rCHAP.
The sequence of rOGk formations, as deduced by.J,S.
Coates, is shown below :--
5. Younger PegmatItes and basIC dykes.
4. WiWJJl ,l,'"nejss of northern and north-westt"rn CeyJon.
3. Charnockites.
2. Khond,lhtes and associated rocks.
I. Bintellllt" gnt"lss (biotite-gneiss).
Bintenne Gneiss.-This is well developed in the
south-east extending from the sea to a line drawn from
Batticola through Badulla to Hambantota. It is a banded
gneiss consisting of alternating white and dark bands, the
former composed of quartz and felspar and the latter rich
in biotite. Granulites, garnetiferous gneisses, crystalline
dolomites and porphyritic granitic gneisses are closely
associated with the banded types. The Bintenne gneiss is
found to dip invariably under the Khondalites and is
thought to form the basement on which the Archrean
sediments (which have since been converted into Khondal-
ites) were laid down. But the descriptions rather suggest
that these rocks arc the equivalents of the Peninsular
gneiss group and thus to a large extent younger than the
Oharwars of which the khondalites (quartz,sjlJimanite-
garnet-gneisses with graph~te and sometimes febpar) would
seem to form a part.
Khondalites.-These garnet-sillimanite-schists occu-
py the central hilly portion of Ceylon around N uwara
.Eliya and are found in a belt extending to Trincomalee.
They are often banded and contain appreciable amounts of
micro-perthite and microcline. They are associated with
hornblende-gneiss, calc-gneiss, corundum sillimanite rock,
quartzites and some marbles. These rocks are regarded
as metamorphosed sediments, as in India.
Oharnockites.-Rocks having some resemblance to
the South Indian charnockites occur mainly in the south-
west of Ceylon though smaller exposures may also be seen
in other areas, especially in a band running N.E.-S.W.
through the centre of the island. They are rather rich in
micaceous types and interbanded with garnetiferous
IV] THE ARCHAEAN GROUP- PENINSULA. III
leptynite, while microcline is rare or absent, and calcite

is frequently present.
Wanni Gneisses.-Thcse rocks are to be seen in a belt
running N.E.-S.W. from a short distance north of Colombo
to Trincomalec. They occupy the north-western third of
the island except the coastal strip between Puttalam and
Elephant Pass which is covered by Miocene rocks. They
include both granites and gneisses, the latter especially
towards their borders. The principal type is apparently
to be correlated with the Bcllary gneiss of Southern
India.
The gneIsses as well as the khondalites are intruded
profusely by veins of granite and pegmatite. But it is
only the khondalites that contain useful mineral deposits-
e.g. graphite, phlogopite, sillimanite, apatite. The white
pegmatite intrusives contain several interesting minerals
among which thorianite, thorite, fergusonite, monazite,
zircon xenotimc, columbite- tantalite, etc. may be men-
tioned. The felspars in some of the pegmatites have
given rise to moonstone.
The latest rocks of the igneous and metamorphic suite
are dykes of dolerite and lenses and dykes of ultra basic
rocks.
The Archrean geology of Ceylon bears much resem-
blance to that of the Eastern Ghats region, Travancore
and the adjoining parts of Madras. It may, in fact 1 be
regarded as a continuation of India southward, the con-
tinuity being interrupted by the sea encroaching on and
covering the shallow intervening portion.
METAMORPHISM OF THE SOUTH INDIAN DHARWARS.

It has already been noticed that there is progressive
metamorphism as we follow the Dharwars from Southern
Bombay to Southern Mysore. The metamorphism is
mainly of the ~i-grade in __!30l!lbay while it is of the m~so
grade in Central Mysore and of the hypo-grade in Southern
Mysore- where pyroxenes, garnets;-cor-alerite and -sil!i=-
-~- ~ -------~--
manite have been developed. The metamorphism is
mainly regional, though locally the effects of igneous con-
tacts are observable.
Detailed knowledge of the rocks in most of the areas
except Mysore is lacking, as the regional mapping of South
India was done before the petrographic microscope came
into general use in this country. It is however known that
the Dharwars include bOql epi-and meso-grade rocks in
Nellore where garnet, kyanite and staurolite bearing
schists are found. In the southern districts of Madras
there are tremolite and pyroxene bearing crystalline
limestones and different types of schists including garneti-
ferous ones.
The following general seq uenee of rocks in South
Indian Arclueans may be taken as established (Mem.
G.S.I. LXX, (2), p. 110) : -
5 Bellary gneiss (Closepet granite, etc.)
4- Charnockites
3. Peninsular gneiss
2. Champion gnebs
(Upper Dharwars (sediments with some ferruginous rocks)

J iMlddle Dharwar~ (sediments With important fen ugmous
. quartzites and ilOn mes).
Lower Dharwars (mamlv metamorphosed igneous rocks).
EASTERN GHATS.
The Eastern Ghats region between Hezwada and
Cuttack, which attains the greatest width in the Ganjam
tract, is composed of ridges trending in a N.E.-S.W. direc-
tion which is also the regional strike of the rocks. The
hills are made up of gneisses, charnockites and khondalites
(quartz-garnet-sillimanite-graphite schists occasionally with
felspar). To their west lies a great basin of Cuddapah
rocks which is highly disturbed and faulted on its eastern
side, and which might have originally extended further
to the east. The folding and uplift of the Eastern Ghats
in post-Cuddapah times has been responsible for the

removal, by denudation, of the Cuddapah rocks which
might have covered them at one time.
The Eastern Ghats is a region of high grade metamor-
phism as evidenced by the abundance of garnet and
sillimanite. The charnockite shows intrusive relationship
towards the khondalitc and has itself undergone post-
magmatic changes such as albitisation and myrmckitisation
as described by H. Crookshank. There are, in parts of
this area, some metamorphosed manganiferous rocks which
have formed hybrid mixtures with igneous rocks. The
kodurites, as these have been called by Ferrnor, consist
of spessartite-andradite (contracted to spandite), orthoclase,
apatite and manganec;e-pyroxene in varying proportions.
Associated with these rocks there are also crystalline lime-
stones, cordierite-gneisses, sapphirine-bcaring rocks, nephe-
line-syenites, etc.
The khondalites are para-schists, the varieties rich in
felc;par being probably attributable to admixture with
granitic material. On weathering, they give rise to
laterite and bauxite. Fermor believes that the khondalites
were metamorphosed under deepseated (i.e, katamorphic
or hypomorphic) conditions but owe their present position
to regional uplift and that the western margin of the Ghats
must be a faulted zone. Crookshank states that this post-
ulated fault is not identifiable, but it is not improbable that
it is obscured by intrusions of granite and charnockite.
It is interesting to note that the Eastern Ghats have
a strike parallel to that of the Aravallis in Rajputana, and
that the same strike is found in the Shillong plateau of
Assam which is directly in line with the trend of Eastern
Ghats.
J EYPORE-BASTAR-CHANDA.
The structure, and to certain extent also the litho-
logy, of Southern India is continued beyond the faulted
trough of the Godavari valley into the districts and States
15
of the eastern and southern parts of the Central Provinces.

The Dharwarian strike persists over a large part of this
area in the Archreans. A considerable tract here is
occupied by the rocks of the younger Cuddapah system
which must formerly have covered the whole of the region
now marked by a series of detached patches of the same
rocks. The eastern margin of the Cuddapah basin is
faulted against the Archreans. There is little doubt that
the main period of folding and faulting of this region was
of post-Cuddapah and pre-Gondwana age. The southern
part of this region is occupied by gneissic granites and mica-
schists, quartz-schists, hornblende-schists and other types.
There are also granites which occupy the eastern part of
Chanda and probably the western part of Bastar and
Khairagarh. Granites, banded and foliated gneisses, and
mica-, hornblende- and talc-schists occupy the region
from eastern Bastar to Sambalpur. West of the Eastern
Ghats, the general strike of foliation is N.W.-S.E. though
traces of the effects of the Eastern Ghats strike are dis-
cernible in places.
The recent work of H. Crookshank and P.K. Ghosh
has established the presence of sedimentary series of Dhar-
warian affinities here, the rocks being classified as shown
below.
TABLE 8-ARCHAEAN SUCCESSION IN BASTAR STATE.
Intrusive rocks . . Pegmatites, dolerites and basalts;

Granites, injection-gneisses, aplites, char-
nockltes.
Kopayi stage .. Quartzites
Bailadila I ron - 0 r e Calc-schists, amphibolites, zOlSlte-quartz-
series. granulites. Banded ferruginous quartz-
1t1's and grun1'ntt' and magnetite-
quartz-schISts.
Bengpal series .. Andalusite-gneiss, anthophyllite-cordierite-
gneiss, bi )tite- and garnetiferous schists.
Pendulner stage Quartzites with intercalations of andalusite-
- and cordierite-gneiss.
IV] THE ARCHAEAN GROUP-PENINSULA.
A large part of the above succession is of sedimentary

origin. The ferruginous quartzites resemble those of
Singhbhum and adjoining Orissa States and may be of the
same age. By metamorphism they have been converted
into magnetite and grunerite bearing schists. The
andalusite and cordierite bearing rocks represent alumin-
ous s('diments metamorphosed by pressure and by the
effect of granitic intrusives. The granites have to some
extent been modified in composition by differentiation and
assimilation of sedimentary rocks. According to P.K.
Ghosll, the charnockites (pyroxene-granulites) of Bastar
owe their ofigin to hybridism between granites and calc-
schists.
SAMBALPUR.
In Sambalpur, in the Mahanadi drainage, there are

biotite- and hornblende-gneisses, schists and granites. The
town of Sambalpur is situated on a ridge of quartzite
and quartz-schist of Dharwarian aspect.
To the west and north of the Sambalpur area there is
a group of rocks, typically developed in the Sonakhan hills
and called the Sonakhan beds 1 by F.H. Smith, strikingly
similar to the Chilpi Ghat and Sakoli series. They are
steep-dipping, highly crushed and schistose rocks which
pass under the CUddapahs to the north. They comprise
quartzites, conglomerates, slates, phyllites, hornfelses,
quartz-magnetite-schists, garnetiferous gneiss, etc. The
regional strike of foliation is N.E.-S.W. There are also
interbedded traps and hornblende-schists, and intrusive
basic dykes of a comparatively late age. These schistose
rocks are intruded by a coarse porphyritic pink granite
with a little biotite and hornblende. The granite and the
schistose series of rocks are overlaid by horizontal or gently
dipping Cuddapahs consisting of quartzites, shales and
limestones, and occupying a large area in Chhattisgarh. 2
1 General Report of the G.S.I. for 1898-99, pp. 39-42, 1899.
I Th(" Ralpur-Bllaspur-Raigarh area I' called Chhattisgarh.
II6 GEOLOGY OF INDIA AND BURMA. [CHAP.
RAIPUR-DRUG.
Immediately to the south and south-west of the
Cuddapah basin of Raipur there is a large tract occupied
by granites. Dharwarian rocks occur in the adjoining
parts of Kanker and Bastar States, their strike being N.W.-
S.E. The rock types include quartzites, phyllites, mica-
schists and banded ha:matite-quartzites (e.g., those of the
Dhalli-Rajhara ridges). These schistose rocks in the
Drug district are overlain by volcanic agglomerates and
epidiorites and intruded by granites which occasionally
show quartz-porphyries along their margin.
BILASPUR-BALAGHAT.
The Dharwarian rocks north and north-west of the
Chhattisgarh Cuddapah basin have been designated the
Chilpi beds by W. King and the Chilpi Ghat series by R.C.
Burton. The rocks wedge in at the eastern end between
the Cuddapahs and granitic gneisses but expand westwards
into two strips, the northern one going into N agpur and
Chhindwara and the southern one into Nagpur and
Bhandara.
The rocks of the Chilpi Ghat series strike roughly N.E.
and have a straight northern margiu and a sinuous and
irregular southern margin. They comprise quartzites,
felspathic grits, shales and slates with intercalations of
trap. The basal conglomerate contains pebbles of rocks
which appear to have been originally sedimentary. The
following is the succession according to Burton.
Phyllites, serIcite-schIsts and Feet.
felspathic tuffs ..
Blue slates and slaty quartz-
{ ites .. 10-1800
Chilpi Ghat series Phyllites . 35 00 -5000
Manganese-ore ..
l
0-50
Phyllites and jasperoid
quartzites .. 200
Basal conglomerates and grits o-goo
The Chilpi Ghat series rests on a group of rocks which
includes composite gneisses, mica-schists, quartzites, epi-
dotic gneisses, hornblende-schists, etc., which represent
IV] THE ARCHAEAN GROUP-PENINSULA. I J7
older rocks intruded into and shredded out by younger

granites.
In northern Balaghat there is another group of Dhar-
warian rocks to which Burton has given the name of
Sonawani series. The sequence of beds in this is as follows:
rPhyllitic schists and quartz-muscovite-
I schists.
j Fel~pathic quartzites.
Sonawani series 'I Quartz-muscovite-schists.
eale-gneiss and crystalline limestone with
l manganese-ore. (Base not seen).
The Sonawani series is supposed to represent an older
series than the Chilpi Ghats. It may be noted that each
of these contains a manganese-ore horizon.
Fermar has critically reviewed the reports of King and
Burton and given the following section at Chilpi Ghat,
based on King's descriptions:-
(Top)
Greenstone~.
Dark green clay-slates weathering buff With subordinate
daystoncs and hard sandstones.
Green and white speckled gnts and slates.
Coarse conglomerate.
Massive slaty beds and grits.
Slaty quartzose rocks.
Massive traps and trappoids.
L (Bottom)
In this interpretation there are no conglomerates at
the base but they are assigned a position about the middle
of the series. They contain pebbles of quartzites, red
silicified gneiss, red jasper, tourmaline-quartz rock, etc.,
some of which are distinctly older in age than the Chilpis.
The traps may be younger than, and intrusive into, the
Chilpis. The Chilpi Ghat series is separated from the
overlying Cuddapahs by a well-marked unconformity.
In this region there are three groups of granitic rocks.
The oldest are fine-grained schistose biotite-gneisses;
the next one is a streaky augen-gneiss; the youngest is a
granite called the Amla granite.
There are uncertainties regarding the relationship
between the Sonawani series and the Chilpi Ghat series.
lIS GEOLOGY OF INDIA AND BURMA. [CUAP.
At present, however, the general succession of rocks of this

region may be given as below:
'j. Granite.
+ PorphYrItic and augen gnt'l~s.
'I. Schistose biotlte-gn('i~s,
'.l.. Chilpi Ghat seri(."s.
Sonawani series.
NAGPUR-BHANDARA.
The Chilpi rocks continue westwards and bifurcate,
the southern strip occupying parts of the Nagpur and
Bhandara districts, and the northern strip going into
Chhindwara. There is no distinct stratigraphical un-
conformity between the rocks of these two areas, which
are called the Sakoli (southern) series and Sausar (northern)
series respectively. It appears likely that the Sakoli series
may be an upward continuation of the Sausar series since
there is not much lithological resemblance between the
two, even allowing for the different metamorphic grades.
The rocks of the northern belt dip to the S.S.E. and those
of the southern to the N.N.W., while the middle or axial
region may be a zone of faulting. The southern belt
(Sakoli series) contains chlorite and sericite schists and
hcematitic iron ore of a low grade of metamorphism,
in contrast with the northern b(']t (Sausar series) which is
characterised by calc-granulites, marbles, garnetiferous
schists and manganese-silicates.
The sequence in the Sakoli tract is as follows:
Quartz-dolen te
Tourmaline-muscovite granite and pegmatite
rSak~h
Crushed albite-microchne-qudrtzite
Phyllite and slate.
I Hrematite-seriClte-quartzlte.
~ senes. ~I Chlorite-muscovIte schist wIth chlontOld
Sausar ' epldote-chlOl ite-schist, ja<;pilitc, phyl-
series. l hte, chlorItlc-hornblende-schlst.
l
Amphibolitf' dnJ l-{arnet-amphIl)olite.
DolomItes, crystallmf' IlTnestones, calciphyre
and chlorIte-tremolite-schlst.
Microcli nc-m uscovi te-quartzi te,
IV] THE ARCHAEAN GROUP-PENINSULA. P9
The lower part of this succession seems to contain
recognisable equivalents of the Sausars ; the amphibolites
may be referred to the Sitapar stage, the dolomites, etc.
to the Bichua stage and the muscovite-quartzites to the
Chorbaoli stage, all these stages being parts of the Sausar
series (see below). The upper part constitutes the Sakoli
series, the rocks of which sometimes show evidences of
regressive metamorphism such as the conversion of silli-
manite to muscovite, ann garnet and biotite to chlorite.
Local patches contain sillimanite, kyanite and dumortierite,
which are attributed by S.K. Chatterjee to the effects of
hydrothermd metamorphism.
NAGPVR-CHHJNDWARA.
As one passes from the Chilpi Ghat area (Balaghat

district) to the west (Chhindwara district) one notices that
calcareous rocks gradudlly attain importance while the
phyllites give place to schists of a higher grade of met~
morphism. Indeed, it becomes difficult to separate th~
original sediments from igneous materials in the western
tract. The difference in the lithological and metamorphic
facies makes it almost impossible to correlate the rocks of
the two tracts.
TABLE 9- THE SAVSAR SERIES.
Stage. Rock Types.
(N) Sapghota Garnet-anthophyllIte-schIsts, chlorite-schists,

rnagneti te-q uartz-rocks.
(C) SItdpar Hornblende-schIsts, garnet-arnphlbolItes, py-
roxeOltes.
(C) Bichua PURE FACIES: White dolomite marbles wIth
serpentme, spinel, chondrodIte, trerno-
lite, diopsIde, forsterite
IMPURE FACIES' DlOpsidItes, dlOpside-quartz-
Ites, actinolIte-schists with wollastonite,
grossularite, tremolite and anthophyllite.
(N) J unawani Tabloid muscovite-biotite-schists.
(N) Chorbaoli Felspathic muscovite-quartz-schists and

quartzites (sometimes with muscovite
dnd mj(roclme).
(N) Mansar Schistose mic.lceous gneisses and muscovite-
biotite-~lllimanite-schists, with gondltes
and manganese-ort' bodies; also somt'
garnet-quartzite~
(C) Lohangi Rink calcite marbles and calclphyre~, black
m.mganiferous marbles, piedmontite-
men bles cmd some manganese-ores.
tC) Utf'kata Banded calc-granulites, sometimes scapolitic.
(N) Kadblkhera Magnetlte-biotlte-granuhtes.
Note -It is unct"rtam whether the Sapghota ~tage I~ a separatt" entity hut It
apparently contams more ferruginous matter than other stage~. though by volume
(extent and thickness) It IS rather unimportant
The regional strike is E.S.E. east of the Maikal range;
it becomes E.N.E. and N.E. in the Balaghat district, and
N.N.W. in the Sausar area of the Chhindwara district.
The Dharwars of the Nagpur-Chhindwara region,
called the Sausar seIies, have been studied in considerable
detail by Fermor, Bhattacharjee and West. The suc-
cession deciphered here is shown in Table 9. (Mem.
G.S.I., LXX (2), p. 270, 1940), the letters (N) and (C)
indicating respectively the districts of Nag pur and Chhind-
wara in which the stages are well developed.
There are no conglomerates at the base of the Sausar
series and it is not known whether there are any rocks
older than and underlying these. Three series of ortho-
gneisses younger than the Sausars have been recognised,
Vt~.-
3. Later granite and pegmatite, mcludmg the Amla gramte.

2. Streaky gneisses derived by the intrusion of aplitic mate-
rial mto (I) and into the schistose members of the
Sausar series.
J. Granodiontic bIOtite-gneIsses, porphyntlc clnd augen
gneisses.
The relationship between the Sausars and Chilpis is very
obscure. The Chilpis may be regard~d as either younger
than the Sausar series or as a lateral variation of facies.
In the former case, the manganiferous rocks of Balaghat
IV] THE ARCHAEAN GROUP-PENINSULA. .l2J
and Ukua, which occur in the Chilpis, should be regarded

as a much younger horizon than the Mansar stage. The
absence of calcareous rocks in the Chilpis deprives us of a
useful aid in correlation. In Fermor's opinion, the
Chilpis may represent the upper portion of the Sausars
and may even include beds higher in sequence than any
found in the latter.
BFNGAL.
The Midnapur area of Bengal is contiguous with

Dhalbhum (Eastern Singhbhum) and contains gneisses
and schists !oimilar to those found in the latter. The
gneissic rocks are of the type formerly known as the Bengal
gneiss, closely akin to the Peninsular gneiss of South India.
A few miles to the south of the Raniganj coalfield
there is exposed an interesting group of rocks comprising
anorthosites, labradorite-pyroxene rocks, anorthosite-gab-
bro, norite, grano-diorite, granite and pegmatite. The
anorthosite forms masses and dykes, the largest of which
occupies an area 20 mIles in length and 6 miles in width.
The igneous suite is intrusic.re into the Dharwarian schists
and is thought to be derived from the differentiation
of a single magma, the anorthosite being regarded as a
product of crystal settling. These rocks have been studied
in some detail by S.C. Chatterjee.
SINGHBHUM.
Singhbhum in Southern Bihar is one of the regions
which has been mapped in detail in recent years and
information about which is of modern character. The
rocks show two facies, an unmetamorphosed one in the
south and a metamorphosed one in the north, separated
by a major thrust zone.
This thrust zone extends from Porahat in western
Singhbhum through Chakradharpur, Amda, Rakha Mines,
Mushaboni and Sunrgi into Mayurbhanj State, over a
distance of 100 miles. It has an E.-W. course in the
16
GEOLOGY OF INDIft.. AND BURMA. [CHAP.
western part and turns to the S.E. in the eastern part.

The thrust zone marks the overfolded limb of a geanticline.
Two lesser zones of thrust arc found further north, one
along the northern border of the Dalma lavas in Southern
Manbhum and Midnapur, and the other still further
north along the boundary of the granitic and schistose
rocks. The three zones are parallel to each other and to
the Satpura strike which prevails over Southern Bihar and
parts of the Central Provinces. They converge in the
neighbourhood of Goilkera (between Manoharpur and
Chakradharpur) as a result of which the rocks are seen to
be tightly folded.
South of the main thrust zone, the rocks are little
metamorphosed, though affected by the disturbance of
the Eastern Ghats movements. They have been thrown
into folds whose axes are parallel to N.E.-S.W. (or N.N.E.-
S.S.W.) which is the general trend of the Eastern Ghats.
Since the rocks to the north of thG thrust zone have becn
found to belong to the same series as to its south, and
since the former frequently show relics of earth movements
earlier than the Satpura disturbance, it may be inferred
that the Eastern Ghats movements were earlier than
the Satpura ones. H. C. Jones recognised the following
successIon 111 the Archreans of Southern Singhbhum.
Newer Dolerite
Granite
Ultra basic rocks.
Basic lavas
( Upper shales.
J Banded hrematite-quartzites.
Iron-ore series I Lower Shales.
Purple and grey limestones (local).
l Basal conglomerate and sandstone.
Older Metamorphics-Quartzites, quartz-,

mica-, hornblende- and chlorite-schists.
IV] THE ARCHAEAN GROUP-PENINSULA. 12 3
The Older Metamorphic Series consists of a group

of metamorphic rocks including hornblende-schists, quartz-
ites, quartz-schists, micaceous and chloritic schists which
have been highly folded and eroded before the deposition
of the Iron-ore Series. They are found as a series of small
exposures isolated by the Singhbhum granite. Jones
states that there is a profound unconformity between them
and the overlying Iron-ore series, and that the base of the
l'ltter is marked by conglomerates and sandstones. These
are overlain by purple, somewhat phyllitic, shales and
beds of banded ha:matite-quartzites. The ~hales contain
some deposits of manganese-ore, mainly pyrolusite, derived
from the shales themselves by a process of concentration
by meteoric waters. They are worked in the Koira
valley in Keonjhar, South of Jamda. The hrematite-
quartzites, which have a thickness of well over 1000 ft.,
form prominent ridges capped by beds of very high grade
hrematite. They arc composed of alternating layers of
cherty silica, jasper and ha:matite, the individual layers
varying in colour from white, through grey and brown to
nearly black. These layers are from a tenth to a quarter of an
inch in thickness but may sometimes be much thicker. They
are intricately folded and contorted, the minor structures
being apparently attributable to local adjustments during
replacement and slumping. The iron-ore is thought to
have been derived from the enrichment of the hrematite-
quartzites through solution and replacement of the silica
by ferric oxide, though other modes of origin are attri-
buted to some of the small and unimportant ore-bodieS
of Northern and Eastern Singhbhum.
There are some basic lavas in South Singhbhum which
appear to be younger than the Iron-ore series. In North
Singhbhum, however, the top of the Iron-ore series shows
intercalations of contemporaneous lava flows, tuffs, and
agglomerates which are known as the Dalma traps. The
Iron-one series is intruded into by ultrabasic rocks-
peridotites, saxonites and dunites-which have largely
been serpentinised. Some of these occurrences near

Chaibasa contain workable lodes of chromite. To a
later date belongs the Singhbhum granite which is tra-
versed by innumerable dykes of Newer Dolerite.
To the north of the main thrust-zone, in North
Singhbhum, the Iron-ore series forms a geanticline com-
posed of mica-, hornblende- and chlorite-schists. The
schists contain garnet, staurolite and kyanite, the last
forming large deposits in Lapsa Buru and other places in
Singhbhum and along the same zone in Mayurbhanj.
Banded hrematite-quartzites are unimportant in North
Singhbhum, being represented mainly by phyllitic rocks.
The geanticline shows, just to its north, a syncline ofDalma
traps which are silicified to some extent in the basal
portion and also include sheared talcose and chloritic rocks.
North and north-west of these Dharwarian rocks there
occurs a large spread of granite and gneiss-the Chota
Nagpur granite-gneiss. It is conspicuously gneissose and
banded especially in the vicinity of the schists and has
assimilated the latter to an appreciable extent. Intru-
sions of soda-granite with granophyric structure (Arkasani
granophyre) are seen along the main shear zone and also
along the northern border of the geanticline.
J. A. Dunn has recently re-mapped part of the Iron-
ore s.eries of South Singhbhum and re-interpreted the
succession (Rec. 74-, p. 28,1939 ; Mem. 62, Pt. 3, 1940; and
Mem. 69, Pt. 2, 194-2). He now considers the Older
Metamorphics as part of the Iron-ore series. The conglo-
merates and sandstones are found to be younger than the
Iron-ore series and are now assigned to the basal portion
of a new Kolhan series in which are included the limestones
and some of the shales. The Kolhan series is said to be
quite undisturbed near the border of the granite but
highly disturbed further west and north-west. The
Kolhan series is correlated with the Dhanjori stage of
Eastern Singhbhum. The basic lavas of South Singh-
bhum and Keonjhar are regarded as pre-Singhbhum
IV] THR ARCHAEAN GROUP-PENINSULA.
granite in age. The new succession is compared below

with the one originally adopted by Jones.
TABLE IO-ARCHAEAN SUCCESSION IN SINGHBHUM.
~outh Smghbhum East Smghbhum.
Jones (1934) I Dunn (1919) Dunn (1942)
Newer DolerIte ~ewer Dolente Newer Dolente

Smghbhum ~ramte Kolhan senes Kolhan sefle~
Iron-ore series I ron-orc senes DhanJon sandstones and Dalma
lavas
Older Metamorphlcs (?) Iron-ort' series.
In Eastern Singhbhum (Dhalbhum) the Iron-ore

series is unconformably overlain by the Dhanjori stage of
quartzites, sandstones and conglomerates, followed by
lavas and phyllites occurring to the south of the main
shear zone. The Iron-ore series contains ferruginous
phyllites and poor iron-ores in Dhalbhum but good deposits
occur in Mayurbhanj in the Gorumahisani, Sulaipat and
Badampahar hills. The ferruginous rocks have been
altered in places to grunerite bearing rocks, mainly
perhaps by contact metamorphism. The Iron-ore series
is intruded by dolerite, gabbro, picrite and anorthosite,
which are often found altered to epidiorites, talc-schists,
talc~chlorite-schists, tremolite-schists (with asbestos), etc.,
and contain lenses of titaniferous and vanadiferous
magnetites. A few small occurrences of these magnetites
are found around Dublabera in Dhalbhum, but larger ones
are said to occur within the Mayurbhanj State, especially
near the Simlipal hills.
Intrusive in to the Iron-ore series there are : (I) ultra-
basic rocks (2) Chota Nagpur granite and gneiss (3)
Singhbhum granite (4) Arkasani soda-granite and grano-
phyre and (5) Newer dolerite. These are briefly described
below.
The Ultrabasic rocks are found as a series of lenses

in South and East Singhbhum and in Mayurbhanj. Some
occurtences a few miles S.W. and W.S.W. of Chaibasa
comprise peridotites, dunites and saxonites which have
been partly scrpentinised and silicified, and contain veins
of chromite up to a foot thick. These have been affected
by folding and are therefore regarded as older than the
Singhbhum granite which is unaffected. A few exposures
of similar rocks, found in the Bonai State south-west of
Singhbhum, are probably post-granite in age. As already
mentioned, the occurrences in Dhalbhum and Mayurbhanj
include dolerite, gabbro, pyroxenites and anorthosites.
Tremolite and talc rocks have been derived from some of
them, while in a few places they contain titaniferous and
vanadiferous magnetites.
The Chota Nagpur granite-gneiss 1 occupies an
immense tract to the north of the Dharwarian rocks of
Singhbhum and Gangpur. The northern belt of this
extends from Sandlal Parganas through Hazaribagh
to' Palamau and the southern One from Bankura to
Ranchi and Jashpur and further west. It is distinctly
intrusive into the Iron-ore series and assumes a banded
and composite aspect near the margins of the schistose
rocks. It is generally coarse and porphyritic and contains
quartz, microcline, orthoclase, oligoclase, biotite, a little
apatite (and occasionally some green hornblende in
Singhbhum). Tourmaline is frequently seen but especially
abundant in the pegmatitic phase as in Southern Ranchi.
In parts of Manbhum, Ranchi and Hazaribagh, it weathers
into tors and is called the Dome gneiss. The composite
form of the rock used to be referred to as Bengal Gneiss in
earlier geological literature. It resembles the Peninsular
Gneiss to a great extent. Its later phases are pegmatites,
aplites and quartz veins, the last being often auriferous in
1 Chota Nagpur IS a term apphed to the regIOn compnsmg the Singhbhum and
~anchl dlStncts and Gangpur and adjacent States. It is also the name of a Com.
missioner's diviSIOn whICh mcludes the Ranchl, Hazanbagh, Palamau, SmghbhU)Jl
and Manbhum distncti. '
lV] THE ARCHAEAN GROUP-PENINSULA.
Chota Nagpur. The pegmatites of Gay a, Hazaribagh and

Monghyr contain important deposits of muscovite mica
(the 'ruby mica' of commerce, so named because of its
warm orangish red colour) and also pitchblende, monazite,
columbite-tantalite, triplite, cassiterite, etc.
The Singhbhum granite occupies large areas in Singh-
bhum, Mayurbhanj, Keonjhar, Bonai, Bamra, Sambal-
pur, etc. It is a calc-alkali granite probably related to the
Chota Nagpur granite or it may be later; in composition
it varies from a potash granite to granodiorite and contains
orthoclase, microcline, acid plagioclase, biotIte and some
hornblende. It is generally granitoid in texture but
occasionally becomes streaky when associated with schistose
rocks.
The Arkasani soda-granite is seen in Kharsawan and
Seraikela in Singhbhum, mainly along the major zone of
thrust. The chief type is a granophyre with inter-growth
of quartz and felspar, grading into a :::oda-granite. The
granite around Chakradharpur in Singhbhum is probably
a modified form resulting from contamination by schistose
rocks. It seems to be slightly earlier than the Singhbhum
granite in age.
The Newer Dolerite is the latest intrusive, appearing
as dykes in the Singhbhum granite. The dykes have a
major direction of N.N.E.-S.S.W. and a subsidiary one of
N.N.W.-S.S.E. The dykes vary in width from a few feet
to as much as 600 or 700 yards, and can often be seen
standing out in the granite country as low ridges for miles.
The rock is a dolerite or quartz-dolerite with granophyric
structure. The thicker dykes are gabbroid or noritic.
Dykes of augite-granophyre are also known among them,
but these may be somewhat older.
GANGPUR.
To the west of the Singhbhum district, in Gangpur

State, there is an anticlinorium (or geanticline) which has
an E.N.E.-W.S. W. axial direction. The structure is
closed towards the east but is obscured by granitic intrusives

to the west. The strike becomes W.N.W.-E.S.E. in
western Gangpur, apparently due to the influence of the
Dharwar strike which persists along the Mahanadi and
Brahmani valleys just {O the south of this region.
The anticlinorium shows the following succession of
rocks, deciphered by M. S. Krishnan, and named the
Gangpur senes. (Table I I).
TABLE I I -THE GANGPUR SERIES.

Iron-ore series Phyllites, slates and lavas.
Raghunathpali conglomerate, with a shear
zone.
r
Phyllites and mica-schIsts.
U ppcr carbonaceous phyllites.
Gangpur series ..
j
CalcitiC marbles.
Dolomitic marbles
Mica-schists and phyllites.
Lower carbonaceous quartzites and phyllites.
Gondites with associated phyllites (Base not
seen).
There is a general increase in the grade of metamor-
phism when the rocks are followed fi'om the Singhbhum
border on the east to the centre of the anticlinorium and
towards the west. It may, however, be noted that some of
the rocks, which have phyllitic appearance and characters,
are really products of retrogressive metamorphism, con-
taining reli~s of garnet, staurolite, biotite, etc. The
Satpura strike (E.N.E.-W.S.W.) is found to be super-
imposed on an earlier, presumably Dharwarian, strike
which is prominent south of this area.
The oldest rocks are gondites, found in the central or
axial region of the anticlinorium. They contain, besides
quartz-spessartite rocks, also those with rhodonite, blan-
fordite, winchite, etc., associated with workable bodies of
manganese-ore. They are succeeded by carbonaceous
quartzites and phyllites, dolomitic and calcitic marbles
and carbonaceous phyllites, these being intercalated with
phyllites and mica-schists. The carbonaceous phyllites
form fairly good slates in certain places while the marbles
IVl THE ARCHAEAN GROUP-PENINSULA. 129
contain very large reserves of limestone and dolomite

which are now being used as fluxes in the iron-smelting
furnaces of Bengal and Bihar. Large quantities of the
limestone are also burnt into quick-lime, well known in
the Calcutta market as Bisra lime, named after Bisra which
is a railway station ncar the eastern border of Gangpur
State. At the top of the succession is a shear zone
in which the Raghunathpali conglomerate is involved.
It is a sedimentary conglomerate which has suffered intense
shearing as a result of which an autoclastic character is
imposed on it. The overlying beds are phyllites and mica-
schists bdonging to some part of the Iron-ore series. The
Gangpur series is intruded by basic sills (presumably of
Dalma traps), and by bosses of the Chota N agpur granite-
gneiss.
The Gangpur series is deduced to be older than the
Iron-ore series since it forms an anticlinorium surrounded
by the Iron-ore series; the lithology is different; and the
basic igneous rocks which occur as flows in the latter form
sills and occasional dykes intrusive into the former.
Disrrgarding the Older Metamorphic Series, there
are two groups of rocks in the Dharwars of Chota Nagpur
-the Gangpur series characterised by manganiferous
rocks and marbles, and the Iron-ore series containing iron-
ores. These two show close affinities with the Sausar
and Sakoli series of the Central Provinces respectively.
THE SON VALLEY AND ADJOINING AREAS.

North and north-west of Ranchi and Hazaribagh,
schistose rocks are found in the Mirzapur district in the
drainage basin of the Son river which is a tributary of the
Ganges. Mallet found two series in this area, separated
by an unconformity. The lower division, called the Agori
stage, includes slates, chloritic schis.ts, schistose quartzites,
jaspers, thin limestones and basic igneous rocks. There
are also some slates and porcellanoids which are thought
to constitute the upper division. No marbles or gonditic
17
rocks seem to have been found amongst these rocks. The
sequence would therefore seem to be the equivalent of
the Iron-ore series. It is intruded by gneissic granite
which is evidently the same as the Chota Nagpur granite-
gneISS.
In parts of the Gaya and Hazaribagh districts there
are various types of schistose rocks-biotite-schists, silli-
manite-gneisses, calc-granulites and epidiorites-which
have been extensively granitised by the Dome gneiss
intrUSIVe into them. The Dome gneiss is here contami-
nated by the absorption of schists and is characterised by
the presence of quartz, oligoclase, biotite and occasional
hornblende, with fluorite as an important accessory. In
this and other respects it resembles the granitic rocks of the
Nellore region.
Further east, in the Rajgir, Kharakpur, Gidhaur,
Shaikpura and other hills, there are quartzites, crush
conglomerates, jaspery quartzites, slates, phyllites and mica-
schists, having a general E.-W. or E.N.E.-W.S.W. strike.
The quartzites are generally the most prominent members
and form scarps. The schistose rocks have been highly
disturbed and have an irregular boundary with the
gneisses which are intrusive into them.
jUBBULPORE.
The rocks of the Son Valley are practically continuous
with those in the Jubbulpore region of the Central Pro-
vinces. Here they comprise phyllites, mica-schists, calcitic
and dolomitic marbles, banded feI ruginous rocks associated
with manganese and iron-ores, with sills of altered basic
igneous rocks. The iron-ores and manganiferous iron-
ores have been investigated by Prof. Henry Louis and
by P. N. Bose. They. are not of high grade but have
supported a local indigenous industry. In the neighbour-
hood of Sleernanabad, the schistose rocks are traversed
by veins containing copper-ores.
The above series of rocks was first referred to the

Bijawar series (Cuddapah System) by C. A. Hacket and
dividf'd into four stages, named respectively the Majhauli,
Bhitri, Lora and Chandcrdip groups (from below upwards),
but these are not definite stratigraphic units. The marbles
occur in the lower beds and the iron-ores in the upper
beds. The rocks bear an extraordinary resemblance
to the Dharwan of Singhbhum and Gangpur and have
been shown by Fermor to belong to the Dharwar system.
(Mem. G. S. I. XXXVII, p. 805, 1909.)
BUNDELKHAND.
The Archreans of Bundelkhand are separated from

those of the Central Provinces, Bihar and Rajputana by
the Vindhyans and Deccan traps.
The greater part of Bundelkhand is occupied by the
Bundelkhand gneiss. It is really a massive granite with
rare and obscure banding or foliation, so that the term
, gneiss' is rather a misnomer as applied to the typical
rock. I t has the same characters here as in Rajputana
(see below) and comprises fine to coarse grained as well as
occasional porphyritic varietie". The mineral consti-
tuents are quartz, pink orthoclase, hornblende, and the
micas. It forms a flat undulating country, to the south-
west of which occur the' Transition rocks' and Vindhyans
which form a hilly country. The schistose rocks in the
south include hornblendic, chloritic and talcose schists,
but mica-schists seem to be practically absent. Where
occasional foliation is developed in the Bundelkhand
gneiss, it has a general E.N.E. direction.
The Bundelkhand gneiss is traversed by pegmatite
veins and well marked quartz reefs of varying dimensions.
These quarts reef." form a characteristic feature of the
landscape in Lower Bundelkhand and trend in a N.E. or
N.N.E. direction. They are up to 100 yards wide and
can be traced for long distances. In some places they
form dams across the courses of streams. They consist
of bluish white quartz associated sometimes with a little

serpentinous material.
There are also numerous trap dykes traversing the
gneiss, their general trend being N.N.W. or N.W. These
are also fairly prominent, though not as much as the
quartz reefs. In contrast with the quartz reefs which
show the effects of some crushing, the trap dykes are free
from disturbance or metamorphism.
RAJPUTANA.
Much attention has been bestowed on Rajputana by
the Geological Survey of India during the last two decades.
The geological mapping of this large tract has recently
been brought to a conclusion by the combined work of
C. S. Middlemiss, A. M. Heron, B. C. Gupta, A.L.
Coulson, P. K. Ghosh and others. Geological descrip-
tions of parts of the country have appeared in several
monographs while an excellent summary of its pre-
Vindhyan geology has recently been published by Heron
(Trans. Nat. Inst. Sci. I, No.2, 1935).
The characteristic feature of the country is the
Aravalli mountain system which, though originally formed
in the Pre-Cambrian and rejuvenated in post-Vindhyan
times, still survives as prominent ranges striking northeast
from Gujarat to near Delhi. The Central part of the
Aravalli ranges is occupied by a synclinorium formed
by the Delhi system of rocks. The main formations of
Pre-Vindhyan age found in Rajputana are as below:
5. Malani suite of igneous rocks.
4. Delhi system.
3. Raialo series.
IV] TilE ARCHAEAN GROUP-PENINSULA. 133
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2. Aravalli system.
I. The Banded Gneissic Complex and Bundelkhand Gneiss.
. The succession of rocks of Pre-Vinuhyall age of
~ajputana, as given by Heron, is reproduced iri Tabl~ 12.
Of these, the Delhi system is now regarded as probably
equivalent to the Cuddapahs, so that only the older
formations will be described here.
. The Bundelkhand Gneiss.-In its typical form, the
Bundclkhand gneiss is a pink to reddish, medium grained,
pon-foliated, non-porphyritic granite. The chief minerals
~re quartz, orthoclase, subordinate microciine, and some
ferromagnesian minerals. The quartz has a violetish
opalescence while the felspars are usually somewhat
~ltered. The rather sparsely occurring ferromagn~sian
minerals-biotite and green hornblende-are mOI'e oIl less
~ltered to epidote and calcite. Veins of pegmatite! are
infrequent but those of microgranite and aplite; are
~ommon. Here, as in Bundelkhand, the rock is trav~rsed
J:>y prominent quartz reefs and numerous dolerite dykes.
There is little doubt that the Bundelkhand gneiss of
)Rajputana is identical with that of Bundelkhand, though
~he two are separated by over 250 miles of younger rocks.
, Towards the west, near the junction of Berach and
Bagan rivers, the Bundelkhand gneiss gradually becomes
well foliated and grey coloured, with knots of quartz! and
felspar and small quantities of sericite and chlorite. The
gradation is probably due to metamorphism.
Over a very large part of its exposure this formation
is more a granite than a gneiss and resembles the younger
granites (Bellary gneiss, Closepet granite, Dome gneiss,
etc.) rather than the gneisses of the other Archrean areas
of Peninsular India. Dr. Heron states, however, that
there is a small but distinct' erosion unconformity' bet-
ween them and the Aravalli schists which are the equi-
valents of the Dharwars, and hence regards them as older
than the Aravallis.
IV] THE ARCHAEAN GROUP ~ PENINSULA. 135
The Banded Gneissic Complex.-The rocks belong-
ing to this group consist of alternating bands of biotite-
gneiss and granite. Biotite- and chlorite-schists, which
may represent early sediments, are found as constituents
of these in Southern Mewar. In places they grade into
a granite-gneiss or even into an unfoliated granite. They
contain also some hornblende-schists and epidiorites,
representing altered basic igneous rocks. The gneissic
complex is traversed by pegmatite and aplite veins appa-
rently derived from granitic rocks of different ages.
Banded gneisses also occur in Central and North
Mewar and in Ajmer, comprising dark-coloured schists
and garnetiferous granulites intruded by biotite-granite.
Another type of gneiss which may belong to the same
group occurs west of the synclinorium and consists of a
fine-grained and somewhat foliated porphyritic granite.
There is, according to Heron, a distinct' erosion un-
conformity' between the Gneis,ic C(Jmplex and the over-
lying Aravallis. The Gneissic Complex is nowhere exposed
in juxtaposition to the Bundelkhand gneiss, so that the
relationship between these two is not known.
The Aravalli system.-The Aravalli system is domi-
nantly argillaceous in composition and of great thickness.
The rocks show increasing metamorphism as they are
followed from east to west.
The basal beds, which rest on Bundelkhand gneiss or
the Gneissic Complex, are arkose and gritty quartzites.
Above these come shales and phyllites with which are
associated some altered basic volcanics in places. Impure
argillaceous and ferruginous limestones occur in two facies,
one being a lenticular ferruginous limestone as in Bundi
and Mewar and the other a black massive limestone as
near Udaipur city. In some plac("s there are quartzites
instead of limestones. The whole series of rocks is well
foliated and injected iit-par-lit by granitic rock, resulting
in composite gneisses.
An unmetamorphosed facies of the Aravallis occurs

in Eastern Mewar. This has been named the Binota .rhalt.r
east of the Great Boundary Fault of Rajputana and
consists of low-dipping, brown and olive shales with
ferruginous and clay concretions. To the east, the Binota
shales are succeeded by the Jiran sandstones, Vindhyans
or the Deccan trap. To the west of the Boundary Fault,
the Aravallis are represented by steep-dipping slates and
impure limestones intruded by dolerite. Followed west..
wards, these shales become first distinctly slaty or phyllitic
and later schistose, with the development of staurolite,
garnet and kyanite.
The youngest members of the Aravallis are the reddish
sandstones and quartzites seen near Ranthambhor and
Sawai l\1adhopur in Jaipur State. The unmetamorphosed
Aravallis of Chitor can be follo\\ cd north-eastwards along
the strike through Bundi State into South-eastern Jaipur,
where they are as~ociated with the Ranthambhor quartz-
ites. These rocks have resemblance to the shales of the
Gwalior Series but there seems to be no doubt that they
are of Aravalli age.
The Gwalior series of GwaJior city and neighbour-
hood are separated from the Aravallis by a belt of
Vindhyans having a width of about 80 miles and resemble
the unmetamorphosed Aravallis. Though they lie dis-
tinctly to the east of the continuation of the strike of
the AravaBis, it is not improbable that they J cally belong
to the Aravalli system.
Near the :Mewar-Partabgarh border, there are
several exposures of an amygdaloid, associated with
ferruginous sandstones' and cherts and overlaid by the
Khardeola grits. These last consist of conglomerates, grits,
greywackes and slates intercalated with slates of Aravalli
aspect. There may be a slight unconformity between
the Aravallis and these rocks.
The Aravallis have now been continuously mapped
from Rajputana into Gujarat where they were first des-
cribed as the Champaner series. The identity of the Champa-

ners with the Aravallis has now been definitely established.
[n Gujarat they contain manganese ores.
The Aravallis have been intruded by fine-grained
aplo-granite which is found as bosses and also as lit-par-lit
intrusives, e.g., near Udaipur, continuing thence into
Dungarpur. There are also ultrabasic rocks, now seen
as talc-chlorite-serpentine rocks. Other rocks, including
granite, epidiorite and po<;t-Delhi dolerite, are also met
with, but these are less important than the ones mentioned
above.
Intrusive into the Aravallis are the alkali-syenites of
Kishengarh State. They comprise elreolite-and sodalite-
syenites and pegmatites of the same type, the latter
showing very coarse, light blue sodalite and felspar. The
sodalite has often a fine carmine colour when freshly
broken but this fades away on exposure to light. The
colour fades more slowly in diffused light.
Raialo series.-The Raialo series overlies the Ara-
vallis and is overlaid by the Delhi system, the junctions in
both cases being unconformable. They consist of white
limestones, about 2,000 feet thick, and thin basal sandstone
and conglomerate. The limestones often rest directly
on the older rocks without the intervention of the basal
sandstones, and are found in widely separated localities
such as Jodhpur and Eastern a,nd Central Mewar.
The typical Raialo limestone is medium grained,
saccharoidal and dolomitic in composition. Near Nath-
dwara, Rajnagar and Kankroli it is a white dolomite
excellent for ornamental purposes and is overlain by
garnetiferous biotite-schists, Other exposures are found
in the hills of Eastern Mewar. Its equivalent in South:..
east Mewar is the Bhagwanpura limestone, it fine-grained
rock which runs parallel to the Boundary Fault from
Chitor southwards.
The celebrated Makrana marble of Jodhpur is a
calcite-marble correlated with the Raialos, though it is on
18
the north-western side of the Aravallis. The common

variety is white, with pale greyish cloudy patches, but
there are also white, pink and blue-grey varieties. It is -
continued to the south-west where it is a rather impure
saccharoidal calcitic iimestone containing diopside and
other calc-silicates. The Makrana marble has been used
in many famous buildings in Northern India, including
the Taj Mahal at Agra and the Victoria Memorial at
Calcutta.
ASSAM.
The Assam plateau lies along the continuation of the

Archa-ans of Bihar but is separated from the latter by the
Ganges-Brahmaputra valley. The plateau comprises the
Garo, Khasi and J aintia hills and to its north-east is the
detached area of the Mikir hills.
The Arch<eans are represented here by gneisses,
schists and granites, having a general N.E.-S.W. direction
of strike of foliation, i.e., parallel to and more or less along
the continuation of the Eastern Ghats of Orissa. There is
naturally much local variation, and in parts of the Garo
hills the Satpura strike may be seen.
Extensive tracts of the ancient rocks are found in the
Khasi and Jaintia hills. The oldest seem to be banded,
composite, biotite-granite-gneisses. The granitic consti-
tuent is sometimes porphyritic and sometimes fine grained
and aplitic, and consists of quartz, microperthite, some
microcline, oligoclase and biotite, with garnet, apatite,
zircon and rare' sphene as accessories. The gneisses are
associated with garnet-quartzites with or without silli-
manite. In the area west of Shillong, there are horn-
blende-biotite-gneisses and biotite-cordierite gneisses with
N.E.-S. W. strike of foliation.
The gneissic complex is apparently overlain by the
Shillong series which is regarded as younger. The Shillong
series is mainly of sedimentary origin and is the equivalent
of the Dharwars. It is composed of quartzites, conglo-
merates, phyllites, sericite-, chlorite-, mica- and horn-

blende-schists, with occasional carbonaceous slates and
banded ferruginous rocks. Some of the schists are
garnetiferous. The assemblage bears some resemblance
to the Iron-ore series of Chota Nagpur and to the Dhar-
warian rocks in general. Similar rocks are exposed in
the Simsang valley in the Garo hills and also in parts of
the Mikir hills.
The Shillong series wa~ first intruded by the Khasi
greenstoner-epidiorites, amphibolites and amphibole-schists
,-which have been folded up wit~ them and ,!-re therefore
presumably of Archrean age. It shows some gradation
towards gneisses near the junctioJ;1 with granitic rocks.
Distinctly of a later age is the Mylliem granite which forms
bosses and also thin interfoliar veins in the schists. It is a
pink, homogeneous, fairly coarse biotite-granite containing
porphyritic pink microcline, orthoclase, some acid plagio-
clase, biotite and hornblende, with apatite, zircon,
magnetite and sphene as accessories. Over most of its
area the granite is fairly massive and non-foliated but is
occasionally streaky and may show xenoliths of quartzite
and basic segregations. A grey granite also occurs in these
areas which is thought to be a variety of the Mylliem
granite.
In the granite and gneisses are found certain lenses
and patches of intermediate to basic pyroxene-granulites
which greatly resemble the charnockites. This should
cause no surprise since similar occurrences, thought to be
metamorphosed mixed rocks, have been found in recent
years in Mysore, Bastar, and other areas.
The granite, and to some extent the gneisl,es, are
traversed by dykes of dolerite; in the more southern areas
there are flows of the same rock which are frequently
vesicular and amygdaloidal, with intercalated ash-beds.
These are the Sylhet traps, which are pre-Upper Cretaceous
in age and resemble the Rajmahal and D~<:can traps. The
rock is a dolerite or basalt, sometimes with olivine which

is generally more or less serpentinised.
CORRELATION OF THE PENINSULAR

ARCHAEANS.
The study of the Archrean rocks is beset with many
difficulties which do not crop up in the case of the later
sedimentary systems. There is, in the Archceans, a com-
plete absence of fossils which are of invaluable help in
determining the geological age. They include a great
variety of formations, both igneous and sedimentary, but
the original characters have been obliterated by repeated
changes. Metamorphism has produced not only minera-
logical and structural changes but has also removed or
introduced materials resulting in marked changes in
compOSItion. In addition to the effects of temperature
and pressure, there are also those of igneous contact,
magmatic stoping, assimilation and hybridism. The
cumulative effect of these factors is the production of a
bewildering variety of petrological types with complex
characters which must necessarily be confusing and diffi-
cult to unravel. It is common experience that similar
rock types may originate from very diverse original mate-
rials and that quite dissimilar types may be evolved from
one type of original rock.
Intensive work has been, and is being, done in various
parts of the world to solve the difficulties confronting the
study of these ancient formations. Though notable
progress has been made during the present century, a
great deal still remains to be done, especially in the
physical and chemical problems involved.
In the correlation of sedimentary formations it is
usual to rely on the lithology, stratigraphical superposition
and fossil contents for purposes of age determination and
correlation, since one or more of these is always available
for settling questions of inter-relationship of strata. These
criteria are, however, either absent or comparatively of
little help in the case of Pre-Cambrian formations, and

especially of metamorphic complexes, for they are devoid
of fossils, their lithology is transformed by metamorphism
and their stratigraphical relationships confused by intricate
folding, disturbance and dislocation.
Nevertheless, these and other criteria have to be used
in connection with these ancient rocks. Sir L.L. F ermor
has discussed this question in the introductory part of his
memoir on the 'Ancient schistose formations of Penin-
sular India' (Mem. C.S.!. LXX, Pt. I, p. 9-25) under
the following heads : -
1. Stratigraphical sequence and contmuity.
2. Structural relatIOnship, e.g., presence of unconformities
and relationship to periods of folding.
::I. RelatIonship to igneous intrusions.
4. Associated ore-deposits of epigenetic origin.
5. LIthologIcal compositIOn.
6. Chemical composItton.
7. Grade of metamorphism.
8 Uranium-lead and thorIum-lead ratios.
These criterIa may now be briefly examined.
I. The stratIgraphical sequence worked out 10 detail in one
area may prove very helpful in an adjacent one where the lithological
units and grade of metamorphism are similar. Local variatiom
are, however, to be taken mto account.
2. The sequence may be made complex by folding, shearmg,
and overthrust phenomena. Inverted and incomplete sequences are
common and foldmg may sometimes be so complex that only repeated
and close study may finally help to solve the questiOn of mter-relatiOn-
ship of the strata. Unconformities which separate two groups of
strata are usually marked by conglomerates, but these latter are often
crushed and schisted, some of the adjacent rocks also becoming
mvolved 10 the crushmg. Structural features are of great Importance
in the study of these rocks smce these mIght prove helpful when other
critena fall.
3. Several periods of mtrusion of granitic and basic rocks are
recogmsed in the Archreans If the sequence of igneous actIOn is once
satisfactorily established, It Will be possible to observe the effects of
successive intrusions on the assocIated formations and deduce the
age of the latter. At least three granitic intrusions are inferred to
have taken place at difft'"rent time~ during the Archrean era in India,
but the igneous history IS different in different areas and our know-
ledge of this aspect of the subject is still scanty and far from satisfactory.
4. Ore formatIOn is often related to igneous activity and a

knowledge of the history of ore-deposits can be of much help in
stratigraphical problems.
5 & 6. Lithological and chemical composition of the compo-
nent parts of a succession are valuable cnteria in determming parallel-
ism in stratigraphical sequences. But it should he reahsed that,
even if the beds ale contmuous over large areas, they are hable to
l,lteral variation. Metamorphism and changes effected by Igneous
emanations mdY alter the character of the beds within short distanct'"s.
Yet, certain types of peculiar compositIOn, found m Widely separated
areas, may serve as useful indicators of particular horizons. Though
such evidence may not he entirely dependable may itself, it might
prove important if used in conjunction with other evidences.
7. The effects of metamorphism of different grades, under
varymg conditions of load, compressIOn and tempelature, are now
well recognised. The effects can be of very varied types even III a
single, more or less contmuous, area. For purpose!. of correlation, the
intt"nslty or grade of mt'tamorphlsm and the local metamorphic
history Will have' to be c,lIt'fully studied, 111 con.lunc tion with other
factors.
S. The present century has seen the development of radio-
activity \\ hich hd!. had a very profound mfluence on fundamental
physical concepts. Since radioactive disintegration of certain ele-
mt'nts proceeds at definite rates and results in definite end-products,
tht'"st' measurable quantities can be used for detelmmmg the time
that has elapsed smce thest' materials were formed in the crust. As
lead and hdium art' the final products orthe radioactive disintegration
of uranium and thorium, the careful quantitative determination of
lead and helium and their ratio to the parent elements can yield data
as to their age. There are, ho\\ever, several uncertain factors mvolved
-the degree ofweathenng and alterdtIon, accession or loss of material
by replacement, the presence of isotopes, etc. In usmg the helium
method, the uncertainties are even greater as we do not know what
influence the phYSical properties, structure, texture, enVironment, etc.,
of the sample, and the mode of collectIOn and preparatIOn thereof,
have on the preservation of the helium evolved. In spite of the
difficulties, however, useful results have been got, though the data
are yet very scanty.
CORRELATION.
The above-mentioned criteria can be applied with
success in limited areas wherein the rock series are more or
less continuous. Uncertainties come in when correlation
is sought to be made between detached or distant areas.
The schistose or Dharwarian rocks are now recognised
as the oldest Archreans in most of the areas. The oldest
Dharwars are probably of igneous origin, the sedimentary
material gradually increasing in the younger strata. In
Rajputana, however, the Banded Gneissic Complex and
the Bundelkhand gneiss arc regarded as older than the
Aravallis.
In several areas a part of the Dharwars is characterised
by the association of crystalline limestones and manganese-
bearing rocks, and another part by banded ferruginous
rocks and iron ores. These associations can be used as
criteria for purposes of correlation, on the assumption that
at a certain period of the earth's history these special types
of sediments were deposited. The manganese-bearing
and marble rocks belong to an older series than the iron-
ore-bearing rocks.
The manganese-marble association is seen in the
Sausar series, Gangpur series, the Champaners of Gujarat,
part of the Aravallis, the lower portion of the Jubbulpore
rocks, the Eastern Ghats rocks with kodurites and marbles,
and a few small exposures in M ysore like the Sakarsanite
and Bandite series. Thes~ may be regarded as forming
the lower division of the Dharwarian.
Banded ferruginous rocks and iron-ores characterise
the Iron-ore series of Chota Nagpur and Bastar, the
Sakoli series, the Chilpi Ghat series, the Dharwars of the
type area, the Shillong series, the Middle Dharwars of
Mysore, the rocks of Salem, the upper portion of the
sequence in Jubbulpore, etc. In some areas they are
associated with manganiferous sediments, the manganese-
ore segregated from which is usually ferruginous and
constitutes lateritoid deposits. These different groups may
GEOLOGY OF INDIA AND BURMA.
~
o
B
..,
s t:l.
t.a
::90.
o
('.
".
:J-
!l
.c:
~
.~
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<II
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therefore be put together III an uppel division of the
Dharwarian system.
The Raialos form an upper division above the Ara-
vallis, and may be considered the equivalents of the ' Upper
Dharwars' of Mysore. The newly separated Kolhan
series of Singhbhum may be their equivalent or may be
even of Cuddapah age.
The Dharwarian system invariably includes basic
rocks which have been folded with them and metamor-
phosed. Two or more periods of granitic intrusion are
recognised, the latest grarute being generally non-foliated
and hence latcr than the main diastrophism. The earlier
gneissic granites include the Peninsular gneiss, the Bengal
gneiss, the Banded gneissic complex of Rajputana, etc.
The later granite is represented by the Closepet granite,
the Bellary, Hosur and Arcot gnei!>ses, the Dome gneiss,
the Singhbhum granite, the Amla granite and Mylliem
granite.
The complexity of the Archxans prevents us from
attemptmg anything more than the above broad indication
of correlation. Much detailed and intensive work will
have to be accomplished before an acceptable scheme of
detailed correlation becomes possible. Table 13 gives
the general equi~alcnts as suggested in the above discussion.
19
CHAPTER V.
THE ARCHAEAN GROUP-EXTRA-PENINSULA.
Pre-Cambrian "formations occur throughout the length
of the Himalaya but only a few regions have so far been
studied- Kashmir-Hazara, Simla-Garhwal, Sikkim-
Bhutan and parts of Burma. Information on other parts
is either very meagre or wanting.
There is also a special difficulty in dealing with this
region, vi~., that there is not always sufficiently detailed
information for separating the Archccan and Algonkian
formations. We have therefore to deal with all the Pre-
Cambrian rocks of the Himalayas here though it may not
be logical to consider thl' Algonkians before dealing with
the Cuddapah and Vindhyan systems of the Peninsula.
A considerable amount of work has been accomplished
in the Himalayas in recent years by D.N. Wadia, W.D.
West and J.B. Auden and by the participants in the several
Himalayan expeditions.
NORTH-WEST HIMALAYA.
Pre-Cambrian rocks are developed in this region in
Chi las, Gilgit, Baltistan, Northern Kashmir, Ladakh and
Zanskar and continue through Kumaon into Nepal and
Sikkim. In Kashmir and Hazara they are called the
Salkhala series and comprise slates, phyllites, quartzites,
mica-schists, carbonaceous and graphitic schists, crystalline
limestones, dolomites and biotite-gneisses. They are
highly folded and compressed and have been involved in
the movements which brought the Himalaya mountains
into being. The Salkhalas are well seen in the Nanga
Parbat and in the mountains north of the Kishenganga,
where they are highly metamorphosed and subjected to
regional granitisation. As is to be expected, the grade of
THE ARCHAEAN GRoup--ExTRA-PENINSULA. '47
metamorphism varies from place to place, some of the
slates in the less affected areas being scarcely distinguish-
able from the Dogra slates of a later (Purana) age.
The Salkhalas are associated with a gneissic complex,
parts of the constituents of which might possibly be older.
The gnCl<;ses include granulites and biotite-gneisses con-
taining quartz, orthoclase, acid plagioclase and biotite,
sometimes with porphyritic structure and prominent
gneissic banding. There are also some hornblendic
gneisses in the complex. The bands of the gneisses com-
prise schists of variolls descriptions-biotitic, muscovitic,
hornblendic, talcose and chloritic. The gneissic rocks are
well displayed in the region of the Zanskar range and to
its north. Exposures are also seen in the Dhauladhar
range, Pir Panjal, and other areas.
The Salkhalas are, according to D.N. Wadia, com-
parable to, and probably homotaxial with, the Jutogh
series of the Simla area. Much of the intervening area
remains yet to be mapped.
The Salkhalas and the gneisses are traversed by later
igneous intrusives including gabbro, pyroxenite, dolerite,
hornblende-granite, tourmaline-granite and pegmatite.
The' Central Gneiss' of the Himalaya is apparently a
mixture of rocks of vanous ages, mainly of granitic com-
position, some being early Tertiary and some pre-Tertiary.
The hornblende-granite is presumably of Tertiary age as
it is seen to be intrusive into Cretaceous rocks at the head
of the Burzil valley.
The Salkhalas and the gneisses are succeeded by the
Dogra slates which are mainly argillaceous with minor
layers of quartzites, quartzitic slates and flags They are
unfossiliferous and are overlain by the fossiliferous Cam-
brians of Kashmir. Since they form a thick series, their
range in age is not known, but they would appear to
extend downward from Lower Cambrian to Pre-Cambrian
and may be the equivalents of the Vindhyans and possibly
also part of the Cuddapahs.
The Dogra slates are also found in the Pir Panjal and
parts of the Kishenganga valley (Muzaffarabad district).
Similar rocks are present in Hazara and in the Attock
district of the Punjab where they are called the Attock
Slates.
SPITI.
In Hundes and the valley of the Spiti river, north of
the main Himalaya of Kangra, there are highly folded
mica-schists, slates and phyllites, only the synclinals being
preserved from denudation. This group of rocks has been
called the Vaiknta system and considered as equivalent to
the Dharwar system. Griesbach applied the term to the
schistose members which are said to overlie a group of
gneissic rocks.
The Vaikritas are succeeded by the Haimanta system
consisting of quartzites, conglomerates, shales and slates
and occupying the region between the Vaikritas on the
one hand and the Silurian rocks on the other. Later work
by H.H. Hayden has shown that the Haimantas are
mainly Cambrian in age. Though the lower portion
is unfossiliferous, Hayden preferred to include the whole
of the Haimantas in the Cambrian.
SIMLA-GARHWAL.
The Sub-Himalayas of the Simla-Garhwal area con-

tain rocks similar to those of Kashmir, designated the
Jutogh and Chail series. The Jutogh series resembles the
Salkhalas and contains slates, carbonaceous slates, schists
and marbles, while the Chails are mainly quartzites, lime-
stones and schistose slates. They are separated from each
other by a thrust zone and both lie on younger rocks, the
Simla Slates, which are little-metamorphosed slates bearing
a great resemblance to the Dogra and Attock slates. The
structures are so complex in the Simla region that it is not
unlikely that the Jutoghs and Chails may be merely parts
orthe same series. These formations are intruded by the
VJ THE ARCHAEAN GRoup-ExTRA-PENINSULA. 149
Chor gramte, typically exposed in the Chor mountain.
The granite has produced some metamorphism on the
adjacent rocks.
ln the Northern part of the Chakrata area, the
Jutoghs are not represented, but the Chails are well deve-
loped, containing slates, schistose grits, quartzites and
limestones. The Chails rest, with the intervention of a
thrust, on the Deoban limestone or the Mandhali series
which are probably of Lower Paheozoic age.
The Archrean rocks of GarhwaI--schists, granulites,
slates, etc.-have been traced up to Vishnuprayag,
Badrinath and Mana. In some areas in Garhwal, these
ancient rocks have the same strike as the Aravallis of
Rajputana and lie more or less on the continuation of their
strike.
N EP AL-SIKKIM.
The Archreans are here reprt:sented by the Dating and
Dm:;eeling series The Daling series is a schistose group ;
it grades through a transition zone into the dominantly
gneissic Darjeeling series.
The Dalings are typically slates and phyllites in the
lower part and sericitic and chloritic phyllites in the
upper part. The Dalings of Sikkim contain lodes of
copper-ore in some places. In the transition zone the
phyllites carry porphyroblasts of chlorite and biotite with
occasional zones containing tiny garnets. These pass
into garnet-biotite-schists, granulites and schists containing
staurolite, kyanite and sillimanite. These schistose rocks
are interbanded with granite-gneiss. In Northern Sikkim
and adjacent parts of Nepal, there are also such rock types
as marbles, calciphyres, quartzites and pyroxene-granulites
amidst the gneisses.
Since the Dalings practically always underlie the
DarJeelings and show a different grade of metamorphism,
the two were formerly considered to be distinc~ series
separated by a hypothetical thrust zone. J .B. Auden
GEOLOGY OF INDIA AND BURMA, [CHAP,
regards the presence of a thrust zone improbable (Rec.

G.S.I. LXIX, p. 123-167, 1935). The Darjeclings seem
to be merely the granite-injected and highly metamor-
phosed upper part of the Dalings. Auden has also suggest-
ed that the granitic rocks of Dutatoli and Lansdowne in
Garhwal may be the same as the granitic constituent oftpe
Darjt'elings, and that a similar granite has given risc,
by disintegration, to the felspathic sandstones of the
Middle Siwaliks of the Darjeeling-N epal foot-hills.
BHUTAN AND EASTERN HIMALAYA.

In the Buxa Duars of Bhutan, lying to the east of the
Darjee1ing area, a group of rocks containing dolomitic
limestones and quartzites was called the Buxa Jeries, and
correlated with the Simla slates. Recent work indicates
that they contain slates, phyllites, quartzites, mica-schists,
talc-schists, limestones, dolomites, banded ferruginous
rocks and chlorite-quartz-magnetite-schists. Th.ey are
said to resemble the Dharwarian rocks of Chota Nagpur
but may contain representatives of the Cuddapahs also.
The whole series is thrust over Lower Gondwana rocks,
parts of which undoubtedly are the equivalents of the
Barakars with coal seams.
Argillaceous schists and gneisses are known III the
Aka hills, these having been correlated with the Darjeelings
by La Touche Godwin-Austen found similar rocks in the
Daphla hills. The Abor hills near the Sadiya frontier
tract contain quartzites, phyllites, slates, mica-schists,
limestones and dolomites, according to ].C. Brown. The
Mishmi hills show a large variety of schistose and gneissic
rocks including quartzites, mica-schists, chlorite-schists,
amphibolites, granulites and kyanite and garnet bearing
rocks. A.M.N. Ghosh has recorded that these are asso-
ciated with composite gneisses, intrusive granites and
pegmatites. The rocks therefore correspond to the Dalings
and Darjeelings. The Miju hills and the Daphabhum
VJ THE ARCHAEAN GROUP-ExTRA~PENINSULA.
similarly show quartzites, limestones, schists, garnetiferous

gneisses, etc.
The Himalayan Archceans have not been studied in
as much detail as some of the Peninsular Archreans, but a
rough indication of the correlation may be given here.
The Salkhalas of Kashmir-Hazara, the Jutoghs and Chails
of the Simla region, the Dalings and Darjeelings of Nepal-
Sikkim, the Buxa series of Bhutan and the gneisses and
r,chists of the Assam Himalaya seem to be generally the
equivalents of the Dharwanan rocks of the Peninsula.
In addition to the folding, metamorphism and igneous
intrusions suffered by the Himalayan rocks in Archrean
times, they have been subjected to the mountain-building
movements of Tertiary times, being thereby sheared,
overthrust and often inverted. They present therefore
extremely complicated structures which can be unravelled
only by prolonged and careful study.
BURMA.
The western part of Burma consists of comparatively
young strata ranging in age from Cretaceous to Tertiary.
The older rocks-Archreans, Palreozoic and Mesozoic-
occur in the belt which includes the Shan Plateau on the
north and Tenasserim in the south, to which we shall now
direct our attention
MYITKYINA.
The northern end of this is the Myitkyina region
where the occurrence of ortho-gneisses and schists of
Archrean age is known. They extend northwards into
the adjoining parts of China.
MOGOK STONE TRACT.
The Mogok tract, which lies between the Irrawaddy

and the Shan Plateau some distance north of Mandalay,
is an exceedingly interesting area since it contains a variety
of rock types and yields several gemstones. The crystalline
GBOLOGY OF INDIA AND BURMA. [CHAP.
complex here, called the Mogok JerieJ, consists of a group

of gneisses and schists of mixed origin--biotite-gneisses,
cordierite-gneisses, garnet-biotite-granulites, garnet-silli- -
manite-schists, crystalline limestones, calciphyres, calc"
granulites, quartzites, pryoxene-scapolite-gneisses, etc. The
garnet-sillimanite-schists resemble the khondalites of the
Eastern Ghats. There is a gradation from the crystalline
limestones to calciphyres and calc-granulites, and these
are interbanded and occur also as inclusions in the later
intrusives. They are folded with the gneisses and have a
general strike of E. 30 N. and very steep dips. The
minerals in the calciphyres and calc-granulites are calcite,
dolomite, spinel, diopside, phlogopite, forsterite, scapolite,
sphene and graphite. At their contact with acid intrusives
are found rocks containing diopside, felspar, nepheline
and calcite. The excess alumina in the intrusive and in
the calcareous rocks has crystalised out as ruby, sapphire
or ordinary corundum The quartzites of this region
apparently represent arenaceous bands associated with
the calcareous sediments.
The sedimentary and metamorphic series are intruded
by syenites and granites and by a series of minor intrusions
including basic and ultra basic rocks. The syenites are
found mainly as sheets and lenses and have been involved
in the folding of the region. They consist of dominant
orthoclase and microperthite with moonstone schiller,
some quartz, aegirine, hypersthene or titanaugite. Iron-
ore, zircon and apatite are the chief accessories. There
are also alkali rocks in close association with the lime-
stones; indeed, the alkali rocks seem to be absent away
from the calcareous rocks. This lends support to the
view that the alkali rocks and syenites are products of
desilication of a granite by the limestone, in accordance
with Daly's hypothesis of origin of alkali rocks. But,
as the syenites are disturbed and folded, they may represent
an earlier phase of granitic intrusion than the Kabaing
granite. The Kabaing granite and associated pegmatites,
V] THE ARCHAEAN GRoup-Ex'rRA-PENINSULA. 153
are unaffected by the folding, the former often containing
inclusions of limestones and other rocks in its peripheral
portions. The Kabaing granite consists of abundant
felspar, quartz, biotite and minor accessories, the ff'lspan,
being frequently partly kaolinised.
Closely associated with the calcareous rocks there are
also hornblende-augite rocks, amphibole-pyroxene-felspar
rocks, hornblende-nepheline and crgirine-nepheline rocks
and different types of nepheline syenites, which occur as
dykes and sills. There are also ultrabasic types including
peridotites, picrites, norit~s and garnet-pyroxene rocks
resembling eclogites. Amongst these minor groups of
intrusives are rocks closely resembling intermediate and
basic chamockites of India.
A large variety of gemstones is found in this region,
of which the ruby is the best known. Ruby mining has
been carried on here for many years and still continues.
The other gemstones are sapphire, colourless corundum,
spinel, scapolite, apatite, nepheline, garnet, peridot, lapis
lazuli, zircon, topaz, tourmaline, beryl (aquamarine),
rock crystal, amethyst and moonstone.
The rock types of this area bear the impress of high
grade metamorphism and have a typical Archrean aspect.
All recent workers agree that the crystalline limestones
and associated schists are metamorphosed sedimentaries.
Amongst the gneissic complex of this region there are, of
course, igneous constituents of different ages. Some of
the basic and ultrabasic intrusives and the Kabaing
granite represent later intrusives.
Dr. L. A. N. Iyer who mapped a large part of the
area, and Sir L. L. Fermor appear to regard all the
Mogok rocks as of Archrean age. But Dr. E. L. G. Clegg
has suggested (Mem. G. S. I., 74, Pt. I, p. 9, 1941), that
some of the rocks, and especially the limestones, may be
of a later age. The Mogok limestones are said to be
continuous with those further north and the limestones in
20
154 GEOLOGY OF INDIA AND BURMA. rCHAp.
the second defile of the Irrawaddy have been proved

to be as young as the Cretaceous.
SHAN fh ATES.
Between Mogok dnd the fossiliferous formations of
the Northern Shan States there is an extensive area of the
Archrean rocks, well developed in the Tawng-Peng State
and called the Taung Peng System by La Touche. This
includes the biotite-schists of Mong Long, the Chaung
Magyi series and the Bawdwin volcanic series. Of these
only the Mong Long schists are probably definitely refer-
able to the Archrean. The biotite-schists are intruded by
granites containing tourmaline and garnet and traversed
by veins of quartz.
THE CHAUNG MAGYI SERIES overlies the Mong Long
schists with a transitional zone. It consists of slaty shales,
phyllites, quartzites, graywackes and also carbonaceous
slates. The series in dominantly argillaceous and
non-calcareous and is developed in the hilly parts of the
Shan Plateau, extending into the Southern Shan States
and the Yamethin district on the one hand and into
Northern Shan States and Yunnan on the other. The
Chaung Magyis are intruded by granite bosses and basic
dykes, the former having produced contact alterations
in the argillaceous rocks.
TENASSERIM.
THE MERGU! SERIEs.-In the Mergui, Tavoy and
Amherst districts of Lower Burma there is developed a
group of rocks called the Mergui serieJ. It includes quartz-
ites, conglomerates, limestones, argillites, greywackes and
agglomerates, the argillites being sometimes carbonaceous,
and also the most important by volume. The greywackes
and agglomerates are next in importance and apparently
represent pyroclastics. Dark and white, fine-grained to
saccharoidal limestones occur sparingly. The series is
V] THJ<. ARCHAFAN GRoup-ExTRA-PENINSULA.
intruded by granite which has produced contact metamor-

phism, with the development of hornstones and r;chists
containing biotite, andalusite, sillimanite, garnet, etc. The
lOcks have a N.N.W.-S.S.E. strike parallel to the general
trend of the mountains. They are much disturbed and
folded and are overlam by the Moulmein limestone
which is regarded as of Permo-Carboniferous age.
The age of the Mergui series is in doubt, some taking
It to be Pre-Cambnan and other,> Upper Pahl"ozoic. In
support of the latter view is the fact that the Moulmein
limestone lies conformably over them in some places. The
McrgUl rocks are, however, entirely unfossiliferous.
Another series of rocks, called the Taungnyo lerzes,
occurs in the same region and contains similar rock types.
This series is said to overlie the Mergui series, but it is
not always possible to dIstinguish the two and map them
sepalately. They may both be of the same age.
CORRELATION OF THE BURMESE ROCKS

The Chaung Magyis are Pre-Cambrian in age, as
they are overlain by the Bawdwin volcanics which intervene
between them and the graptolite-bearing Ordovician
strata. In the present state of our knowledge It is not
ppssible to say whether they are Dharwarian or Purana
or both. They are unfossiliferous and have suffered
regional and contact metamorphism
There is even greater uncertainty about the Merguis.
They are also unfossiliferous and much disturbed and may
be of any age older than the Permo-Carboniferous. If
they are Palreozoic in age, we can find their parallel amidst
the rocks of the Sub-Himalayan region.
The gneisses and crystalline limestones of the Mogok
tract have a typical Archrean aspect. A suggestion has
however been made that the limestones may belong to the
Plateau Limestone age or later but this can be proved
only by connecting up this area with the neighbouring
tracts by continuous mapping.
CHAPTER VI.
MINERAL RICHES OF THE ARCHAEANS.
The Dharwarian rocks and the associated gneisses
constitute the most important mineral-bearing formations
of India. They contain a large variety of useful metallic
ores, industrial minerals and rocks such as the iron-ores
of Bihar, Orissa, Central Provinces and South India; the
gold of Mysore, Hyderabad, Chota Nagpur; the copper-
ores of Nellore, Bihar and Sikkim; the chromite of Bihar
and Mysore; the many non-metallic minerals used as
abrasives, refractories, pigments, ceramic materials, gems,
building and ornamental stones, etc. The occurrences of
the chief minerals will be briefly described in the following
paragraphs.
GOLl).
Amongst the several bands of Dharwarian rocks of

South India the more easterly bands of Mysore and
Hyderabad contain gold deposits of importance, though
old \\'orkings have been found in all the important bands.
The gold occurs in quartz veins, the best values being
associated with the bluish quartz The veins occur in
shear lones in the schists and at and near the junction of
the schists and gneisses. The veins seem to be of different
ages as some are crushed and sheared and others unaffected.
The ore is of hypothermal (high temperature hydrothermal)
origin the gold being associated with arsenopyrite, pyrrho-
tite and pyrite. The wall rocks are often sericitised and
chloritised by the ore-forming liquids. In Mysore it is
believed that the gold quartz veins are related to the
granitic constituent of the Champion gneiss.
The Kolar schist belt, which is 30 miles long and 3 to
4- miles broad, is composed of hornblendic rocks, ferrugi-
nous quartzites, gneisses and granites with a zone of
MINERAL RICHES OF 'fHE ARCHAEANS. 157
autoclastic conglomerate along the eastern border. The
structure of the belt is synclinal. The Champion lode is
gold-bearing throughout its length of 5 miles and varies
in width from a few inches to 15 feet or morc, with an
average width of around 4 feet. In places it is composed
of thin parallel veins or veined schists. It strikes nearly
N.-S. parallel to the schistosity of the hornblende-schists
and dips, near the surface, at 45 0 - 55 () towards the west,
gradually steepening at lower levels and becoming nearly
vertical at depths of 7,000 feel or more. The lode contains
numerous ore-shoots and barren patches and intercalations
of mica- and amphibole-schists.
There are now four mines ill the Kolar Gold Field-
The Mysorc, Champion Reef, Ooregum and Nundydroog ;
a fifth, the Balaghat mine, went into liqui~ation in 1932.
All the mines are now actively working at depths of
over 8,000 feet vertically dOWil from the surface, .the
temperature at these depths being around 1250 to 1300 F.
The ore-shoots continue undIminished in richness and
wilI presumauly continue to as great a depth as mdY be
possible to mine. The average tenor of the ore is 10
penny-weights per ton and it is easily treated by blanketing,
amalgamation and cyanidation. The present production
averages a third of a million ounces per year and the total
value of gold produced in this field since the commence-
ment of operations in 1892 to 1940 is about 9 0 ,000,000
of which 25,000,000 ha"e been distributed as dividends.
Mining has been done also in the Maski band in
Raichur district (Hyderabad) in the Gadag band in
Dharwar distri"t and Sangli State and in other bands in
the Anantapur district (Madras). Gold-quartz veins
occur in Wynad in Malabar, where there was considerable
activity a little before the close of the last century. In
many places in Chota Nagpur, Bihar, etc., there are auri-
ferous veins, and though gold washing is done even at the
present day in the streams draining these areas, no veins
have yet been located which are rich enough to support

a modern mining enterprise.
COPPER.
Copper ores are found only in a few localities-e.g., the

Singhbhum district in Bihar, Nellore in Madras and in
Sikkim.
Ores composed mainly of chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite and
pentlandite occur in Singhbhum in the main overthrust
zone in the Iron-ore series, extending from Duarapuram,
through Kharsawan and Seraikela States, to Bhairagora,
a distance of 80 miles. They are thought to he related
genetically to the sheared soda-granite in which they
occur. The adjacent country rocks like epidiorite and
quartzite also contain a few lodes. The ores have been
worked at Mosaboni, Matigara and Rakha Mines, but
exploitation is now confined to Mosaboni where they
contain about 4 per cent. copper and a little nickel. They
are smelted at Maubhandar near Ghatsila where refined
copper and brass are regularly produced. At Bhotang,
Dikchu and other places in Sikkim, copper orcs are found
in the Daling series intruded by the Sikkim granitic gneiss.
The ore consists of pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, galena and
blende with small quantities of the sulphides of bismuth
and antimony. The ore-bearing areas are in difficult
mountainous country, though the lodes are known to
contain 3 to 7 per cent. copper and are workable.
Copper ores occur near Sleemanabad in Jubbulpore
district in Dharwarian schists as veins cor1't:aining chalco-
pyrite, tetrahedrite, galena, barytes and calcite. Oxidised
ores are found near Garimanipenta in the Nellore district,
Madras, but these have not been prospected in detail.
Old workings for copper exist inJaipur State in Rajputana,
in the Hazaribagh district of Bihar and in some places in
Nepal.
VI) MINERALS RICHES OF THE AaCHAENS. 159
CHROMITE.
Chromite is found in association with ultra basic rocks
traversing the Dharwars in M ysore, Salem, and Singhbhum.
The occurrences in Salem are small and sporadic but
those of Mysore and Singhbhum are worked and yield a
steady output. In Singhbhum they occur at and around
Jojohatu near Chaibasa as lenses and veins in peridotites,
saxonites and dunites. The best occurrences in Mysore
are in the N uggihalli schist belt in the Hassan district and
between Mysore and Nanjdngud, in altered ultrabasic
rocks. I n recent years, some veins and pockets found in
ultra basic rocks in the Kondapalle hills in the Kistna
district, Manras, have yielded a small output.
IRON-OU:.
High grade ha:matite ores derived from the replace-
ment of banded ha:matite-quartzites occur in several areas
of Dharwarian rocks. Rich ant! extensive deposits con-
taining over 60 per cent. iron occur in a series of ridges in
South Smghbhum, Mayurbhanj, Keonjhar, Bonai, Bastar,
Chanda, Drug, Mysore, and in i:b::::::1 g . ' '&62' of
Goa. The metamorphism of similar formations has
produced quartz-magnetite schists in Mysore, Salem and
Trichinopoly, the magnetite being to some extent associated
with ha:matite. The deposits of Bihar, Orissa and Central
Provinces contain not less than 8,000 million tons of high
grade hrematite and at least as much ore of lesser grade.
Indeed, one authority has estimated that they contain as
much as 20,000 million tons of are of different grades. The
ore reserves in South India are also large and must run
into a few thousand million tons. The magnetite-
quartzites are rather of low grade but ~hould be amenable
to magnetic concentration.
Most of these ore-bodies are of original c;edimentary
origin, though a few unimportant ones in North Singhbhum
are regarded as replacements of schists and phyllites by
Iron.
MANGANESE-ORE.
Manganese-ores occur in India in three types of

deposits, viz., in association with gondites and kodurites
and as lateritoid ores.
Gondite is a rock composed essentially of quartz and
spessartite with varying amounts ofjmanganese-pyroxenes,
amphiboles, etc. It is believed to have been produced
by the metamorphism of manganiferous sediments,
the impure portions forming silicates and the pure ones
such primary ores as psiiomelane, braunite, hollandite,
sitaparite and vredenburgite (a mixture of hausmanite
and jacobsite). The gonditic type of deposits is found in
Bombay and Central India (Narukot, Jhabua) Central
Provinces (Chhindwara, Nagpur, Bhandara, Balaghat)
and further east (Gangpur State). This group contains
the best quality ores and has large reserves.
The second type is associated with kodurite, a hybrid
rock consisting of fclspar, spessartite-andradite (contracted
to spandite), rhodonite, quartz and apatite. It is deve-
loped in .the Ganjam and Vizagapatam districts on the
eastern coast of India and is usually highly phosphoric.
The composition of the rock varies very widely and ranges
from acid to ultrabasic, the latter including garnet-rock
and pyroxenite. This group of rocks was originally des-
cribed by Fermor 1 as an igneous suite characterised by
spandite but his view was later revised. 2 The original
view was also criticised by the American petrologist
Whitman Cross. 3 In the altered condition, these rocks
consist of litho-marge, ochres and wad. The ore-bodies
in them are irregular but occasionally attain large dimen-
sions as at Garbham and Kodur. The ores consist
mainly of psilomelane with some pyrolusite, braunite, and
1 Rec. G.S I. xxxv, P 22, 1907, Mnn G S I, XXXVII, Chap. XII, XIII,
Ig 0 9
Rec G S I, XLVI, P 102, 1915
joum. &,,1., XXII, p. 791-805. 1914
VI] MINERAL RICHES OF THE ARCHAEANS.
mangan-magnetite, and are high in iroll and phosphorus

and low in silica.
The lateritoid deposits have resulted from the surface
alteration of manganiferous Dharwarian rocks such as
phyllites, schists and ferruginous quartzites. The ore'i
contain appreciable quantities of iron and vary from
manganese to iron ores through every gradation, the
minerals present being pyrolusite, pSllomelane, wad and
also limonite and earthy h<ematite. Such deposits occur
in Sandur State (Bellary), Mysore, North Kanara,
Jubbulpore, Keonjhar, etc.
LEAD-ORE.
Deposits of lead-ore occur in Mewar and Jaipur

States in Rajputana and in several places in Bihar as veins
of galena associated with some sulphides. None of these
has, however, proved important enough to be worked
on a commercial scale. The leadzinc ores of Zawar in
Mt'war have been investigated recently by the Geological
Survey ofIndia but the results have not yet been published.
TIN AND TUNGSTEN ORES.
A small deposit of tins tone and wolfram occurs at

Chakkarbandah in the Hazaribagh district and two other
small wolfram deposits have been worked in Bihar and
the Central Provinces. Numerous important occurrences
are found in the rocks of Burma, particularly in. the
Mergui and Tavoy districts. They are associated with
arsenopyrite, molybdenite and bismuthinite. The granites
which have given rise to them are probably of Mesozoic
age so that these ores should properly be assigned to that
age though the host rocks may in many cases be Archrean.
NICKEL AND COBALT.

The presence of nickel in the copper ores of Bihar has
already been mentioned. Cobalt ores (cobaltite and
danaite) are disseminated in the Aravalli schists and
j;ll
slates at Khetri in L Rajputana. These are used in a small

way for the manufacture of the sulphate and for making
a blue enamel employed in jewellery. Cobalt and nickel
ores are known to occur in Nepal but no published details
are available regarding them.
TITANIUM.
Titaniferous magnetite is fairly common in several
of the magnetite occurrences in various parts of India.
Ilmenite is found as veins or lenses in the mica-pegma-
tites of Bihar, and with wolfram at Degana near Kishen-
garh in Rajputana. The most important source of
ilmenite is, however, the coastal sands of Travancore and
Cape Comorin, these having been derived from the gneis-
sic rocks and concentrated by the action of sea waves.
Similar, but smaller, deposits occur along parts of the
coasts of Malabar, Tinnevelly, Tanjore and Vizagapatam
in the province of Madras. A large tonnage of ilmenite
is nowadays annually exported from Travancore to
England and the United States.
OTHER METALLIC ORU.

Molybdenite.-There is occasionally a small pro-
duction of molybdenite from Tavoy. The mineral is
known to occur in the Paini hills, in the Godavari district,
Chota Nagpur and Kishengarh State but no useful
deposit has so far come to light.
Stibnite.-The antimony sulphide, sibnite, occurs
in gneisses near the Shigri glacier in Lahaul. The
deposit is said to be extensive enough for regular production
but the locality is very inaccessible. The stibnite contains
some gold and is associated with galena and blende.
Several small deposits of stibnite have been recorded
in Southern Shan States and Amherst district, Burma, in
the Jhelum district, Punjab, in the J ubbulpore district
and Mysore State. The Burmese deposits are found,
however, in post-Archrean rocks.
VIl MINEAL RICHES OF THE ARCHAEANS.
Arsenic sulphides.-Minerals of arsenic occur spora-

dically in the mica belt of Hazaribagh and near Darjeeling.
(The orpiment mines of Chitral occur in calcareous shales
and marbles in close association with a basic intrusive.
The deposits are of (?) Mesozoic age).
Oolumbite-Tantalite.-These minerals are found
in Archrean pematites in the Singar Zemindari of Gaya,
at Pananoa hill in Monghyr, and in Trichinopoly dis-
trict.
Vanadium.---Vanadiferous magnetite occurs associat-
ed with ultra basic intrusives of Dhalbhum and Mayur-
bhanj. The deposits in Mayurbhanj are said to be of
large, size but have not yet been properly investigated.
Uranium.-Pitchblende and uranium-ochre have been
recorded as occurring in the pegmatites of Gaya though
no workable deposits have been discovered.
NON-METALLIC MINERI\LS.
Mica.-The chief muscovite occurrences are those

of the mica belt of Bihar in Gaya, Hazaribagh and
Monghyr districts, of Nellore, -Salem, and Nilgids in
Madras and of Ajmer in Rajputana. The Bihar mica
belt is 60 miles long and 12 miles wide, the chief mining
centres being Kodarma and Giridih. The' ruby mica'
produced here is of the best quality and is much in demand
for use In the electrical industry.
The N eHore mica belt occurs between latitudes 14 0
and 15 N. in a strip of country 8 to 10 miles wide. The
muscovite is generally of a pale greenish colour though
light ruby mica also occurs sparingly in a part of the
area. Several other granitic areas in the Peninsula show
pegmatites but in most of them the mica is not sufficiently
well developed nor flawless to be workable.
Phlogopite occurs in a few places in Travancore, parti-
cularly near Punalur and Neyyur, in ultrabasic rocks. Small
quantities have been won from these deposits and exported.
GEOLOGY OF INOlA AND BURMA. [CHAP.
Asbestos.-Tremolite asbestos occurs in the Dharwars
in various parts of India-Hassan and Bangalore in
Mysore, Salem district ;,n Madras, Seraikcla State in
Singhbhum, Bhandara in C.P., Idar State and Ajmer-
Merwara.
Apatite.-Apatite-magnetite rock occurs at several
places along the main shear zone of Singhbhum, where it
has been worked during the last two decades. The
pegmatites of Hazaribagh and N eHore and the kodurite
rocks of Ganjam and Vizagapatam contain apatite
which might be amenable to concentration.
Corundum.-This mineral occurs in several places
and has been worked and used as an abrasive. It is
found in the syenitic rocks of Coimbatore, S. Kanara and
Salem, and in anorthosites in Salem; with sillimanite in
Rewa, Bhandara and Khasi hills, and in alkali-syenites
in Kashmir.
Garnet.-Garnet which can be crushed and used as
an abrasive is of wide distribution in many of the gameti-
ferous schists of Dharwarian age, and almost every Arch-
cean tract in India is capable of yielding some quantity
of this mineral.
Graphite.-Workablc, though not large, deposits of
graphite occur in the khondalites or gneisses of Kalahandi
and Patna States of Orissa, in the Godavari, Vizagapatam
and Tinnevelly districts of Madras, in Travancore State
and in the Warangal district of Hyderabad State.
Magnesite.-The ultra basic rocks of Salem and
Mysore have in some places been altered to magnesite.
The best known occurrences are those of the Chalk Hills
near Salem and of the Mysore district in Mysore, these
bt'ing under active exploitation.
Sillimanite and Kyanite.-Sillimani te is a constitu-
ent of certain Archrean gneisses and schists. Workable
deposits, apparently the only ones so far known in the world,
occur associated with the Shillong series of the Assam pla-
teau, especially in the Sona Pahar and in Nongstoin State.
VI] MINERAL RICHES OF THE ARCHAEANS.
Sillimanite-corundum rocks are found at Pipra in Rewa

State and in the Bhandara district of the Central Provinces.
Sillimanite is an important constituent of the khondalitcs
of the Eastern Ghats and of certain gnt'isses in the Coim~
batore district of Madra~.
Kyanite is rather more widespread than sillimanite,
being found in gneisses and in kyanite~quartz-rocks.
The best known deposits occur along the main shear zone
in the Iron-ore series of Dhalbhum and Mayurbhanj, the
one at Lapsa Buru in Kharsawan having provided thou-
sands of tons for export.
Steatite and Talc-schist.-These arc widely distri-
buted in the Arch~an terrane and good deposits of steatite
are occasionally found, as in Jubbulpore, in Jaipur State
and in several places in South India.
Gem stones.-A large number and variety of precious
and semiprecious stones arc found in the Archreans.
Amongst them are: Ruby, sapphire, spinel, garnet,
scapolite, lapis lazuli, olivine, tourmaline, zircon, topaz,
moonstone from the Mogok tract; sapphire from Kash-
mir ; aquamarine from Rajputana, Madras and Kashmir;
chrysoberyl from Coimbatore in Madras and Kishengarh
in Rajputana; garnet from Jaipur. Mewar and other
states in Rajputana; tourmaline from the Shan States,
Nepal and Kashmir.
Building and ornamental stones.-- The Archrean
gneisses and granites form an inexhaustible source of
excellent building stones. The porphyritic and gneissic
granites such as the Bellary gneiss, Arcot gneiss, Chota
N agpur gneiss, etc., yield durable and good building stones.
The banded gneisses and charnockites are also excellent,
many of these having been used in the building of temples
and public edifices in Southern India. The temples of
Seven Pagodas ncar Madras are hewn out of charnockites,
while those of Madura, Trichinopoly and other places
are built of the gneissic granites.
Many of the crystalline limestomes in the Dharwarians
arc rocks of high decorative value. The Makrana marble
has been used in the construction of the Taj Mahal and
other buildings in Northern India. Several of the white-,
grey and coloured marbles in Rajputana, Baroda, Central
Provinces and Madras have occasionally been used for
building purposes. There are also numerous occurrences
of slates, quartzites and schistose flagstones which serve
the local needs for construction. A beautiful green) fine-
grained ornamental stone is thc fuchsite-quartzite worked
in Mysore, its fine green colour being due to the presence
of the chrome-mica fuchsitc.
Sl'.LECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Adams, F.D. The Geology of Ceylon Canadian JOUI. Res. 1, 467-486,
192 9.
Ball, V. Geology of the Mahanadi basm. Rec. 10,167-185, 1877.
Brown, J.e and Heron, A.M Geology and are deposits of Tavoy.
Mem. 44 (2), 1923.
Chatterjee, S.c. AnorthOSites of Bengal Calcutta Univ. Press,
1937
Coates, J.S. Geology of Ceylon. Ceylon JOtll Sc, B. 19 (2), 101-187,
1935
Coulson, A.L. Geology of Sirohi State, RaJputana, Mem 63 (I),
1933
Crookshank, H. Western margin of the Eastern Ghats 10 Southern
Jeypore, Rec. 73, 398-434, 1938
Dunn, J.A Geology of Northern Singhbhum Mem. 54, 1929.
Dunn, J.A Stratigraphy of South Singhbhum Mem. 63 (3), 1940.
Dunn, J.A. and Dey, A.K. The geology and petrology of Eastern
Singhbhum and surrounding areas. Mem. 69 (2), 1942.
I'ermor, L.L. The manganese ore deposits of India. MeTll 37, 1909.
Fermor, L.L. The age of the Aravalli Range Rec 62, 391-4oq,
1930.
Fermor, L.L An attempt at correlatIOn of the ",ncient ~chistO'!e
rocks of Peninsular India. Mem 70, 1930-.
Foot.t:, R.B. Dharwar system, the chief aUrIferous senes In South
India. Ree. 21, 40-56, 1888 ; Ree. 22, 17-39, 188g.
VI] MINERALS RICHES OF THE ARCHAEANS.
Foote, R.B. Geology of the Southern Mahratta country. Mtm. 12,

,876
Foote, R.B. Geology of the Sellary district. Mem. 25, 189~.
Footf', R.B. Geology of Madura and Tinnevelly districts. Mem.
20 (,), ,883
Ghosh, P.K Charnockite serif's of Bast.il State. Ret. 76, paper 1.1,
'94'
Griesbarh, C L. Geology of the Central Himalayas. Mem.23, 18gl.
Gupta, B.C. Geology of Central Mewar Mem. 66 (2), 1934.
Gupta, B.C and Mukerjee, P.N. Geology of Gujarat and S. Raj.
putana. Ret. 73, ,64-25, '938
Hayden, H.H. Gcology of Spiti. Mem. 36 (I), '94.
Heron, A.M. Gf'ology of N.B Rajputana. Mem. 45 (]), 19'7.
Heron, A.M Soda rocks of Kishengarh Rec.56, 179'97, ]924.
Heron, A.M. Synopsis of the pl'e-Vmdhyan geology of Rajputana.
Trans. Nat. Inst. SCt., 1 (2), 1935.
Heron, A M. Geology of South-eastern Mewar, Rajputana. Mem.
68 (I), '936.
Holland, T.H The charnocklte senes Mem 28 (2), 1900.
Holland, T H The SlVamaidl series of elreobte syemtes and corun-
dum syenites. Mem 30 (3), '901.
Iyengar, P Sampat The acid rocks of Mysore. M.G.D. Bull. 9,
'920
Iyer, L A.N Gramtlc mtrusions dnd ,l~sociated rocks in Ranchi and
Smghbhum Rec 65, 490-533, 1932.
Jones, H.C Iron ores of Bihar and Orissa. Mem. 63 (2), 1934-.
King, W. and Foote, R B. Geology of Trichmopoly, Salem, etc.
Mem. 4 (2), 1864
King, W. The gneiss and transition rocks of Nellore. Mem. 16 (2),
1880.
King, W. Sketch of the progress of geologIcal work III the Chattisgarh
diviSIOn of the C.P. Rec. 18, 169-200, 1885.
Kmg, W Geology of Travancore Stdte. Rec. 15, 87-92, 1882. ,
Krishnan, M.S. Dharwars of Chota Nagpur, etc Proc 22nd Ind.
Sci. Cong 1935 (Address to the Geology ~ectIOn).
Krishnan, M.S. Geology of Gangpur State Mem. 71, 1937
Mallet, F.R. Geology of Darjeelin~ and Western Duars. Mem. 11,
(I), 1874.
Pilgnm, G E. and West, W D Tht' structure dud correlation of
the Simla rocks. Mem 53, 1928
Pilgrim, G.E. Geology ofa pOltion of Bhutan. Rec 34,22-30 '906_
Rao, B. Rama. Recent investigatIOns on the Archrean co~ple'x of
Mysore Proc. lnd SCI Congo 1936, p. 215.244.
Rao, H Rama, The Charnocklte locks of Mysore. M.G.D. Bull. 18,

[945
Rao, B Rama The Archrean complex of Mysore. M.G.D. Bull. 17.
1940
Rao, 1\1.B. Rall1dchandl'H. Petrograph~ of hornhlende schjst~, KnI,lr.
AI.G.D. Bull 16, 1937.
Rao, M.B Ramachandra and Rao, K. Sripada. Origm and correla-
tion of the metamorphIc rocks of Sakarsallhalli area. M.G.D.
Bull. 14, 1<)34
Rau, S. Sethurama. The geology of MergUl. Mem. 65 (I), 1930.
Smeeth, W F Outlines of the geology of Mysore M.G.D. Bull,
6, 1916.
StIllwell, F. L. The mt'tamorphic rocks of Adelle L,lIId. Australuzn
Antarctic g"pedition, 1911-14. Sci. Rep. A, III (I), 1918.
Vrendenburg, E.W. ConSIderations regarding a possible relationship
bet\\een the charnockites and the Dharwars. lA.S.B., N.S.15,
4:~3-448, 19 18.
Washmgton, H.S. The charnockite series A.J.S. 41, 323-337, 191b.
MINERAL RESOURCES.
(ThlS is a gemral IlSt of papers on mineral deposds irmpective of thlir
Jeological age.)
----,Quinquennial Review of Mineral Production: Rec. 39,
19 10 ; 46 , 19 15; 52, 19 21 ; 57, 1925; 64, 1930 ; 70 , 1936 .
----Several bulletins in the series "Bulletins ofIndian Indus-
tries and Labour." Government Press, Delhi.
----Several bulletins appearing in the Records of the Geo-
logical Survey of India, Vol. 76, since 1941
Barber, CT. Tht' natural gas re~ources of Burma. Mem. 66, Pt. I,
1935
Bose, P N. M"ngdnt:~(."-Iron and manganest' ores of Jubbulpore.
Rec. 21. 71-8g, ,888; Rtc. 22, 216-226, 1889.
Bose, P.N. Mineral rt'sources of Mayurbhanj State. Rec 31, Pt. 3,
'90 4.
Brown, j.e. Geolog) and ore depoSits of the Bawdwin mmes.
Rec. 48, 122- 1 55, 19I7
Brown, J C Cassiterite deposits of Tavoy. Rec. 4t), 23-33, 1918.
Brown, J.C A geographical classification of th(" mineral deposits of
Burma Rec 56, 65-108, 1924.
Brown,j.C. "India's Mineral Wealth." Oxford Univ. Press, 1936.
Brown, j.C. and Heron, A.M Tungsten and tin in Burma. Rec.
50, rOI-121, 1919.
VI] MINERAL RICHES OF THE ARCHAEANS. 169
Chhlbber, H L "Mmel,ll Re!>our(.e~ of BUlma." Macmillan,

London, 1934.
Chnstle, W A.K. Note on the salt deposits of Cis-Indus Salt Range.
Ref. 44, 24 1- 2h 4, IC)14.
Clegg, E.L.G A not(' on the Bawdwin mmes. Rtc. 75, pdper 13,
'94 1
Clegg, E.L G MInf'ral Rt'~oure~ of Burma. Government PreSb,
Rangoon, 1939
Cotter, G. de P. Sanni ~ulphur mine Ret. 50, 13-138, 19'9
Cotter, O. de P Oil shaJe~ of Eastt'rn Amherst. Rec 55, 273-311,
192 4
Coulson, A.L. Barytes In the Ceded dl~tncts of Madras Mem. 6.,
Pt. " '933.
Coulson, A.L Asbestos in the Ceded dIstricts of Madras. Mem. 64,
Pt. 2, 1934
Coulson, A.L. Mineral resources of the N.W. Frontler ProvInce.
Rec. 75, Paper 2, 1940.
Dunn, J.A. Aluminous refractory minerals-Kyanite, Sillimimte
and COlundum Mem. 52, Pt 2, '929.
Dunn, J.A. Mmeral dt"poMt'> of Eastern Singhbhum. Mem 69
IC)37
Dunn, .T A Mmeral resourcc~ of the BIhar ProvInce. Mem. 78,
'941.
Dunn, J .A., and others. The EconomIc Geology of OnSSd.
Government Press, Cuttack, 1943.
Fermor, L.L Manganese ore deposits of India. Mem. 37, 1909.
Fermor, L.L. Mmeral resources of Bihar and Orissa Rec 58,
239-319, 19 21
Fox, C.S Bauxite and alummom latente occurrences of India.
Mem. 49, Pt. I, 1923.
Fox, C.S The Jharia Coalfield Mem. 56, 1930.
Fox, C.S Natural history of Indian Coal. Mem 57, 1931
Fox, C S Lower Gondwana Coalfields of India Mem. 59,1934'
Gee, E R Gcology and cotll rcsurces of Ramganj coalfield Mem.
61, 1932.
Gee, E.R Economic geology of Northern PunJab. T.M GIl., 33,
Pt. 3, 1937
Hatch, F.H. The Kolar gold field. Mem 33, Pt. I, 1900.
Hayden, H H. and Hatch, F H Gold fields of Wamad. Mem. 33,
Pt 2, '901
Heron, A.M Antimony depmlts of Thabyu, Amherst Dt. R('c. 61,
34-43, 1931.
22
Ht"ron, A.M. Mmt"ral re!>oul("s of RaJPut,1Il.1 T.M.G.!.!. 29,1935.

Holl.\Od, T.H. Iron ore~ .md ITOn tndmtri("~ of Salem. Rec. 25.
135-158, 1892.
Holland, T.H CorundulII (;overnnlf'nt 01 Jndi,1 PI(""q, Cakutta.
18<)8.
Holland, T.H. Mica deposit!> of India. Mrm 34, PI 2, 1902.
,Jones, H.C. Antimony deposits of S. Shan States. Rfc. 53, 44-50,
1921 .
jone!., H.C. Iron ores of Bihar and Orissa. Mem. 63, Pt. !l, '934.
Krishnan, MS. Mineral resources of Central Provill< cs and Reral.
R~(. 74, 386-429, 1939.
La fouche, T.D. Bibliography of Indian Geology, Pal t I-B (mtneral
index). Government of India Press, Calcutt... 1918.
MIddlemiss, C S. Ultra-basic rocks and derived mmer,t1s of the
Chalk HIlls ,md otht"T locahtlcs, Salem. ReL 29, 31-38, 1896.
MIddlemiss, C.S. Corundum localities in Salem and Coimbatorf'
Rec 29, 39-50, 1896; Rec. 30, 118, 1897.
Mirza, K. 1\hner,,1 resources of Hyderabad State. Hyd Geol. Surl1ty,
1937
Pascoe, E.H. Oilfields of Burma. Mem 40, Pt I, 1909.
Pascoe, E.H. Petroleum occurrences of Assam and Bengal. Mem.
40, Pt. 2, 1914.
Pascoe, E H. Petroleum in the Pun:.)ab and N.W. Frontier Provinct'.
Mem. 40, Pt. :1, 1920.
Smeeth, W F. and Sampat Iyengar, P. Mmeral Resoul'ces 01
Mysore. M.G D. Bull, 7, 1916.
Stuart, M. Potash salts of the Punjab Salt Rangt' and Kohat.
Rec. 50, 28-56, 1919.
Swaminathan, V.S. Mineral resources ot Madras. T M.G.!.!.,
215, 81- 1 75, 1930.
Tipper, G.H. MonaZite sands of Travancorl". Rec. 44, 186-195,
19 1 4.
~en, A.M. ReView of the mmeral productIon of My~ore from 19 1 5
to 1929 (with map). M.G.D. Bull, 11, 1931.
CHAPTER VII.
THE CUDDAPAH (KADAPA) SYSTEM.
GENERAL.
As already remarked, the close of the Dharwarian
era was marked by an intense play of orogenic forces which
folded lip the previously formed rocks, and by intru-
sions of granitic rocks on a large scale. Then followed a
period of denudation which produced a profound dis-
cordance which is known as the Eparchrean unconformity.
Later orogenic activity has affected the rocks of the
Cuddapah and Vindhyan systems which correspond
roughly with the Algonkian and Cambrian, but its effects
were comparatively feebler than those of the earlier
actlvltIes. Of these two systems, however, the Cuddapahs
have been more affected than the Vindhyans.
In the Cuddapah and Vindhyan times, the Peninsula
had already attained a great deal of stability and the seas
in which the sediments were laid down were apparently
restricted in extent. The major outcrops are semicircular
or crescentic, along the convex side of which the rocks dip
gently, while on the concave side they are characterised
by high dips and close folds and sometimes by even
overthrusts. The compressive forces must therefore have
been directed from the concave sides. There is also some
evidence to show that the sediments were derived to a
large extent from lofty mountains which lay in proximity
to the concave sides.
CONSTITUTION.
The Cuddapah rocks are found lying on the denuded
and upturned edges of earlier formations-Dharwars and
Gneisses. They comprise shales, limestones, quartzites,
sandstones, conglomerates, banded jaspers, etc. The
shales are finely laminated while the limestones are bedded
but not crystalline as those of the Dharwars. The rocks

are metamorphosed only to a very low degree, producing
slaty and phyllitic types and not schists.
ABSENCE OF FOSSILS.
Though some of the shales of the Cuddapahs are of

ideal constitution for the preservation of fossils, it is
remarkable that so far they have yielded no fossils. The
limestones may probably have been chemical precipitates.
The absence of fossils may be attributed to the fact that
the animals living in that period had no hard skeletons.
In view of the fact that algre and similar primitive forms
have been discovered in some Pre-Cambrian rocks in
North America, it is not unlikely that similar evidences of
life may be available in the rocks of the Cuddapah Sys-
tem.*
DIVISIONS OF TilE SYSTEM.
The Cuddapahs are divisible into two main divisions,

the lower one being associated with volcanic rocks and
their hypabyssal equivalents. The two divisions are
separat"ed by a well-marked unconformity. The Upper
Cuddapahs are less altered and disturbed than the Lower
and resemble the overlying Vindhyans in some measure.
The maximum thickness of the whole system exceeds
20,000 ft., indicating geosynclinal conditions of deposition.
DISTRIBUTION.
The Cuddapah system derives its name from the
district in the Madras Presidency where it is well developed.
The Cuddapah and Kurnool rocks here form a broad
crescent-shaped outcrop whose concave border is on the
east where the folded strata form the Velikonda range
which forms part of the Eastern Ghats. Between here
--------
Mr. M R. Srmiva'a Rao has reported the discovery of the pre~ence of algal
structUre<! In hme~tone< of Cuddapah age from near Ravalacheruvu. Anantapur
district. r'urrrnt ~, 12. :207-:208. 1943
VII] THE CUDDAPAH SYSTEM.
If3
and the large basin in Chhattisgarh there are small out-
crops in Jeypore and Bastar. The Chhattisgarh area and
the smaller outcrops in Eastern India appear to have
constituted one large basin which has been separated into
several parts by folding, faulting and denudation. Here
also the concave and highly disturbed eastern margin is
clearly seen. Another large basin, consisting mainly of
Vindhyans, occurs in Eastern Rajputana, continuing
underneath the Deccan trap of Central India into the
Son-Narbada valley. In Rajputana this has been thrust
from the north-west whereas in Central India the
direction of compression IS from the south-west to
north-east.
MADRAS AREA.
The Cuddapah system was first studied by W. King
in the Cuddapah and adjoining districts of the Madras
Presidency (Mem. Ceol. Suro. Ind. VIII, 1872). According
to him the stratigraphical succession of this system is as
follows : -
KURNOOL SYSTEM.
(Smallam quartzltt"s.
Kistna Series (2,000 Ft.) ~ Koldmnala sldtes.
llrlakonda quartzites.
Cumbum slates.
Nallamalai Snies (3,400 Ft.) { Bairenkonda quartzites.
Cheyair (Cheyyeru) Seril"s Pullam pet (Tadpatri) slates.

( 10,500 Ft.) { Nagan (Puhvendla) quartzlte~.
Papaghm Series (4,500 Ft.) Vempalle slates and limestones.

{ Gulcheru quartzites
ARCHAEANS.
The lowest series is named after the Papaghni river,

a tributary of the Penner. It consists of two divisions,
Vempalle. IS the correct spelling used on modem maps for the place winch
Kmg ~pelt a~ Valmpalh
the lower Gulcheru (Guvvalacheruvu) stage consisting of
conglomerates, sandstones, grits and occasional shales
which rest unconformably on an Archrean basement. The
Vempalle stage conformably overlies the Gulcherus and
includes shales, slates and limestones which arc partly
dolomitic. The limestones contain variously coloured
bands of chalcedony. Intruded into the Vempallcs,
particularly in the upper beds, are persistent sills of dolerite
and basalt. This stage is of considerable economic impor-
tance, since deposits of barytes and asbestos are found more
or less at the junction of these traps with the dolomitic
limestones. These basic intrusives also invade the Cheyair
series and are thought to be roughly contemporaneous
with the Nallamalai series and distinctly older than the
K istna series.
The Cheyair (Cheyyeru) series takes its name from
the Cheyyeru river. It is well developed in the two areas
traversed respectively by the Cheyyeru and Penner rivers
and separated by a strip of the Kurnoo} system. In the
northern (Penner) area the lower beds are called the-
Pulivendla stage after the town of the same name. It
l:omprises sandstones, quartzites, conglomerates, grits and
flags. The pebbles of the conglomerates are to some extent
derived from the chert bands of the Vempalles. The
corresponding beds of the southern area (Cheyyeru valley)
are called Nagari quartzites, prominently exposed in the
Nagari hills north-west of Madras.
The upper beds in the Penner area are called Tadpatri
slates which conformably overlie the Pulivendlas. They
are dominantly slaty shales, while limestones with chert,
bands and trap sills are also to be found. In the southern
area the same beds are known as Pullampet slates and
limestones.
The N allamalai series, which occupies the largest
area of any of the divisions of the Cuddapahs, takes its
name from the Nallamalai hills and is particularly well
VII1 THE CUDDAPAH SYSTEM. 175
developed in the eastern part of the Cuddapah basin.
The lower beds are the Bairenkonda qllartzites which rest
with a slight unconformity on the cheyairs. In the
ijallamalai hills they are highly folded and contorted
MAP V
'THE CUDDAPAH BASIN.

MADRAS
and form prominent ridges. The softer Cumbum slates

lie in the synclinal folds between these ridges. These
comprise slates and shales of varying shades of colour and
degrees of hardness and interbedded bands of quartzite
and limestone. The slates are often highly folt:led and
metamorphosed to phyllitic types. The limestones are

grey in colour, finely crystalline and often micaceous or
talcose. It is of interest to note that lead ores are found
in these limestones near Nandialampet north ofCuddapah ..
The uppermost group, called the Kistna series, is
found in the plateau region traversed by the Kistna river
and is unconformable with the underlying N allamalai
series. The lower beds, the Irlakonda quartzites, form
the plateau on the western side. The Kolamnala shales
forming the middle stage are found in the area traversed
by the stream of that name. Overlying these are the
Srisailam quartzites forming the plateau on the north and
east and named after the well known Srisailam temple
on the Kistna flver.
KALADGl SERIES.
Between Kaladgi and Belgaum in the Southern
Mahratta country, the Upper Cuddapahs are represented
by the Kaladgi series divisible into two groups. The
lower group consists of basal conglomerates, sandstones
and quartzites followed by siliceous limestones, hornstones,
shales and again by thick beds of limestones and shales.
The latter beds are exposed near Kaladgi where the lime-
stones are varicoloured and capable of yielding beautiful
marbles. The lower Kaladgis have an aggregate thick-
ness of 8,000 to I 1,000 ft.
The Upper Kaladgis, consisting of quartzites, conglo-
merates, shales, limestones and hematite-schists, are
about 3,500 ft. thick, the hematite-schists being sometimes
rich enough to be used as iron-ore. The Upper Kaladgis
are of restricted distribution, being found in synclinal folds
in the north-eastern part of the area, the axis of folding
having a trend of W.N.W.-E.S.E. They are overlain by
the Deccan trap amidst which they sometimes appear as
inliers.
The Kaladgis are now known to be intruded by
granitic and basic rocks in a few places. Dr. L. A. N.
VIIJ THE C\JOOAPA H SYSTEM.
Iyer has discovered that the granites have altered the

Kaladgis to typical biotite-and garnet-bearing granulites
.and mica-schists in the 'Contact zone in the Ratnagiri
district. They may therefore be really of upper Dhar-
warian age. This region also contains dolerite, gabbro,
picrite and ~erpentine-chromite rock as intrusions, mainly
m the rocko; of Archrean age.
PAKHAL SERIES.
Along the Godavari 'Valley and north of the Kistna

river, there occur certain rocks which Dr. King described
under the name of Pakhal Series (A1em ..\TIll, p. 209,
1880). They show slates with interbedded sandstones and
limestones forming t~~ lower part (Pakhal division), and
an arenaceous succession forming the upper part (Albaka
division), the total thickness being c. . timatcd at 7,500 ft.
These \vere regarded by King I'> the equivalents of the
Upper Cuddapahs. Recent work by the Hyderabad
'Geological Survey shows that the Pakhals include phyllites,
,crystalline limestones and banded ferruginous rocks re-
calling, according to Dr. C. Mahadevan, parts of the
Archcean succession in Singhbhum and Gangpur, but not
typical Cuddapah rocks. The Pakhals "ill therefore have
,to be relegated to the Dharwarian.
PENGANGA BEDS.
Rocks similar to the Cuddapahs, comprising a lower

limestone group and an upper shaly group, have been
described as occurring in the Upper Pranhita valley to
the west of the Wardha valley coalfield. The limestones
-contain bands of ribbon jasper.
Patches of Cuddapah rocks are found in the Jeypore-
Bastar region where they overlie gneissic rocks and com-
prise quartzites, limestones, shales and phyllites. The
,eastern and south-eastern boundaries are highly disturbed
.and folded, whereas the western ,boundaries are com para-
23
GEOLOGY OF INDIA AND BURMA. [CHAt'.
tively little affected but irregular, showing that the latter

represent more or less original deposition.
In'the Chhattisgarh area of the Central Provinces ..l
large area is occupied by Cuddapah rocks, comprising a
lower arenaceous division (quartzitic sandstones with
conglomerates at the base) and an upper limestone and
shale dh-ision_ They include the Raipur limestone and
the Chandarpur sandstone, but there is some doubt whether
these might not belong to the Vindhyans.
BIJAWAR SERIES.
This series, first recognised in the Bijawar State in

BUlldelkhand (Central India) occurs in a series of outcrop'"
extending from Bundelkhand" to the south of the Narbada
and ha<; a thickness of less than 800 ft. in the type area
(H.B ..Medlicott: .Hem. II, p. 35, 1860). Qualtzites and
sandstones, sometimes conglomeratic, form the basal beds
resting on gneisses. Siliceous limestones and hornston(;-
breccia are found with the qULlrtzitcs. These are irregu-
larly distributed and are of less than 200 ft. thickness_
The'ie are ovel1aid by ferruginous sandstone containing
pockets of hem..ltite. The rocks are either horizontal or
have a low south-easterly dip, though in a few places in
the south they have been subjected to crushing.
The Bijawars are associated with lavas, tuffs, silh and
dykes of basic composition with micro-pegmatitic patches,
but there are also olivine-bearing rocks. The dykes of
the BUawar igneous suite are supposed to be the parent
rocks of the diamonds found in the conglomerates of the
Vindhyan and Kurnool system" They may thus corres-
pond to the' diamond pipes' of South Africa, though, so
far as known, none of the basic rocks has the composition
of kimberlite. An investigation into the que<;tion of the
original source of the diamonds is highly desirable.
!\. similar sllccession of rocks is found in the Dhar
Forest, Jubbulpore and Rewa on the one hand and in
the Son valley of Bihar on the other.
The succession in J ubbulpore consists of phyllites,

mica~schl~ts, calcitic and dolomitic marbles, banded ferru-
ginous quartzites with \'~hich are associated iron and
manganese orc'i, and basic sill~ (and flows ?), the whole
assemblage bearing a remark.tble similarity to the Iron-ore
Series and part of the Gangpur Series of Chota X agpur.
There is little doubt that the'ic 'Bijawars' are to be
assigned the same age as the Smghbhum-Gangpur rocks,
i.e .. Dharwarian. (Mem. XXXVII, pp. B03-B06, 1909).
The same remarks app)) to the . Bijawars' of the
Narbada and Son valleys, whose easternmost e)l.tension is
found in the Rajgir, Kharakpur and Sheikhpura hills in
the Gaya and Monghyr districts. They compri'ie sand-
stones and conglomerates, slates, limestones, jasper and
porcellanoid beds, chlorite-schists and ba'iic lavas. In
the Mirzapur district, Mallet regarded these (Mem. VII,
Art. I, pp. 22-23, IB7I) as comprising t\~o series separated
b)' an unconformity. At the contact \\ ith intrmive
granitic rocks, the mica-"chists and phyllites have been
converted into composite gneisses, \\hile the basic rocks
have been epidioritised. Subsequent examination has
shown that these 'Bijawars' are also to be classed with
the Dharwar'i. (Mem. LXII, Pt. II, p. 145, (footnote I,
1933)
THE DELHI SYSTEM.

This system extends over a large part of Eastern
Rajputana, from near Delhi to Idar, but is best de\ eloped
in the main Rajputana synclinorium of Ajmer-Merwara
and western Mewar. This synclinorium can be connected
with the occurrences in Alwar and Jaipur States through
a series of small ridges of quartzite and arkO'ie-cong!onw-
rate. In Ajmer-Merwara there are two sy nclines sepa-
rated by a tongue of pre-Aravalli gneisses, the junction
zone on both sides~ofthis tongue being marked by shearing.
The western syncline is much intruded by the Erinpura
granite and epidiorite. The t\VO synclines coalesce to the
south, in Jodhpur and Mewar. Here, for a distance of
some 40 miles, the synclinorium is only six miles wide.
Further south it widens and is also evidently burried
deeper, enabling higher zones to appear in the Central
core.
The Delhi system unconformably overlies the Raialo
series and is in turn overlain unconformably by the Lower
Vindhyans. It is probably to be correlated with the
Cuddapah system, but it differs from the latter in having
been subjected to great orogenic disturbances. Rajputana
-seems to have been a region which experienced intense
-diastrophism in post-Delhi time<; when other regions in
India, containing the <;upposed equivalents of the Delhis,
were quiescent.
The succession in the main synclinorium is shown
below:
(5' BlOtitic hmestones (Calc-gneiss
1 and Calciphyres.
4, C.tlcareous shales and impure
1
Ajabgarh Series (5,000 Ft.)
limestont's (Calc-schist).
3. Phyllites ,md biotite-schists.
2. Quartzites.
Alwar Series ((0,000 Ft.) { I. Arkose,gritsandconglomerates.
The above succession is well seen in the main syncli-

norium. In Alwar State the Alwar Series contains also the
Kushalgarh limestone (1,500 ft. thick), and the Hornstone
breccia (small but variable thickness) which are absent in
the main synclinorium and in Jaipur. The Alwar series
is well developed in the northern and southern parts of the
synclinorium, almost disappearing in the middle. Its
basal beds always show close affinities with, and evidence
of derivation from, the rocks on which they lie, the older
gneisses giving rise to arkos and grit, and phyllites giving
rise to fine-grained quartzites.
In the Ajabgarh series, the biotite-schists are much
intruded by veins and lit-par-lit-sheets of aplitic material.
The calc-schists are thin-bedded impure limestones, slabby
in character, which have been profusely intruded by
VII] THE CUDDAPAH SYSTEM. 181
pegmatite and aplite in contrast with the talc-gneisses

which are coarser and roughly banded and generally
more resistant to weathering and which show less intrusive
material.
The Delhi system is comparatively little metamor-
phosed and of small thickness in Eastern Mewar, and is
believed to be represented by the Sawa grits and shales and
by the ]ilOll sandstones. The former are found to the west
of the Main Boundary Fault and the latter to its east.
The Sawa grits are coarse white sandstones and conglo-
merates showing ripple marks and current bedding. The
upper portion is a white or pale grey shale containing
bands of white chert. When followed southwards, the
Sa~a grits seem to pass into the Jiran sandstones though
the two types in their own type areas have not much
resemblance to each other. The Jiran sandstone is a
quartzite resembling the Kaimur sandstone and has been
called 'Delhi quartzite' by Hacket. It is typically a
hard, compact, grey quartzite frequently stained with
purple. It is covered on the north by the Lower Vindh-
yans and on the east by the Deccan trap.
The Delhi system is intruded by the Erinpura granite
which shows a great deal of variety in its form and texture
and is seen over a large area west of the Aravalli range.
It is often coarse and porphyritic and as,',ociated with aplite
and pegmatite veins. The Idar granite, including its
granitic, microgranitic and granophyric phases, is the
equivalent of the Erinpura granite in southern Rajputana.
Effusive phases of these are rare, in contrast with the
Jalor (with hornblende and biotite) and Szwana (with
hornblende) granites which have their volcanic phase in the
Malani rhyolites, tuffs and porphyries. These latter
may be grouped together as the Malani suite rif igneous
rocks which occupy a tract of country 150 miles long
(E.-W.) and 120 miles broad (N.-S.) in Jodhpur State and
the neighbourhood. The Malani rhyolites, a" they are
called, include felsites, devitrified lavas and glassy rhyolites.
GEOLOGY OF INDIA AND BURMA. rCHAr.
intercalated with acid tuffs and pyroclastic breccias. They

:are found for a long distance northwest of Jodhpur
-extending into the Punjab as far as the Sangla hills. They
include also some porphyritic representatives. The Malani
suite, including the plutonic phases-the Jalor and Siwana
'granites-- -is intrusive into the Drlhis, and is later than the
Etinpura granite. The rocks are found lying undisturbed
-over the Aravallis but show a very marked unconformity
with the overlying Upper Vindhyans. Hence their age is
post.Delhi and may be Lower Vindhyan.
The granitic rocks were preceded by basic rocks, now
'Seen as epidiorites and amphibolites, particularly on the
north""estern flank of the synclinorium. Ultrabasic rocks
.are also found intruded into the Delhis, but altered to talc
.and chlorite schists such as those of Beawar, and talc-
serpentine rocks with magnesite veins found to the south
{)f Ajrner.
The el~olitr and sodalite syenites and syenite-
pegmatite are thought to be pre Delhi in age. In the
Sirohi State there is a small occurrence of a group of
igneous rocks, with interesting differentiates, comprising
.alkali-syenites, gabbro, dolerite, pyroxenite and picrite,
which are clearly later than the Erinpura granite but
.earlier than the rocks of the Malani suite of Western
Rajputana.
The general succession of the Delhi system in Raj-
putana is given in the following table (after A.M.
Heron).
VII] THE CuDDAPAH SYSTEM.
TABLE 14.-THE DELHI SYSTEM..
I
Main SynCbnO-, Chllor and Nim-
Jodhpur. flum Mewar & bah ra Jalpur. Alw",r.
Ajrnrr-Mf"l"Wara. e
Vmdhyans of
W. RaJPulana.
Malani Jgneou. Lower Vmdhyans.
~uite
'Calc gncI~' ) Ajabgarh Ajabgarh

'Calc-schISh' ). Benes. sefll"S.
P~ylht!"a and :
J t~ Horn.tonr
blotlte'schlsts ~
(Delhi system. breCCIa
not present). .2 "" Kusbalgarh
... a Jiran Alwar llrne~lon!'.
shales und- serieJ. Alwar
QuartZJtes 1 and stones ~rk~
ArkO'ie-grit, f grits.
Raialo series tRaialO Series Raialo Ralalo

(Makran. mar- !l('J'ieq. series.
bin).
GWALIOR SYSTEM.
Around Gwalior city there is a group of rocks sepa

rated from the Aravallis by a strip of country 80 miles wide
.and occupied by Vindhyan rocks. They have a great
deal of resemblance to the unmetamorphosed portion of
the Aravallis as found near Hindaun and with the shales
.and jaspers of Ranthambhor in Jaipur State.
The Gwaliors have been divided into a lower Par
series and an upper Aforar series by C. A. Hacket (Ru.
III, p. 34, l87 0 ). The Par series, comprising quartzitic
sandstones and shales, rest upon the Bundelkhand gneiss
-And are practically horizontal and undisturbed. The
Morar series comprise shales, limestones, horns tones,
ribbon-jasper and contemporaneous basic lavas of andesitic
or basaltic composition.
The correlation of the Gwaliors is a matter of great
.difficulty. They lie on the Bundelkhand gneiss and are
,practically unaltered sedimentaries. Though they re-
GEOLOGV OF INDIA Mil'> BtJRMA. [CRAP.
semble the unmetamorphosed Aravallis itt lithology, they
8re probably of Cuddapah age, since they have a hori-
zontal disposition and are un.\ltered. Their immullity to
metamorphism and disturbance 'may, howe'ver, be due
to their, isolation from the mai~ area of orogenic activity
I
in Rajputana. ,
, I
ECONOMIC l\h~a.RALS.
I
Tht~ Cuddapah system is :not :as i~'portant as the

Dharwarian in the variety and 1rio:nness of its mineral
wealth. But it contains a:few Ptdducts \vhic4 are of sotp.~
importance. I .. :
,,' ! "
Slate is qua1Tied at Kuna :f~om a few bands in the

Delhi System. {;ood sa~dstone5 ;are. .a.Jso. available from
the same system and are :quarridd in the AlwCJ.r State.
There are itpporta9t dep?~ts of lim'estonc and sl~t'~
amongst the Cu~dapah rocks. : The slates of Markapur
on the Nellore-Kurnool border, belonging to the Nalla-
malai series, are quarried and useq as school slates and
paving slates. The limestones' and dolomites found in
this system are not much used, except locally as building
stones. The banded Jaspers {Bija,\'ar) 'Und cherts are
excellent decorative stones which have been used in inlaid
work in some famous buildings, sllch as the Taj l\Iahal.
Steatite has been worked at Muddavaram in the
Kurnool district and near Tadpatri in the Anantapur
district. Talc schists derived from ;ultrabasic rocks intru-
sive'into the Delhi System are .found near Beawar and
Ajmer in Rajputana.
:Barite (barytes) occurs as fissure veins and replace ..
lUent veins in the limestones of -the, Vempalle stage neat'
their contact with basic sills. or in the sills themselves.
The basic sills are of post-Cheyair age. The most impor.-
tant deposits occur near Pulivendl.l and Kotapalle
in the' Cuddapah district, Nerijatnupalle and Mut<;sukota
in the Anantapur district and at Balapalapalle and other
places i'n the Kumool district,. The Alwar quartzites
of the Delhi System contain fissure veins of barite at

Sainpuri and Bhakhera near Alwar.
The Vempalle limestones also contain deposit'> of
chr)sotile asbestos at the junction of the dolomitic lime-
stone with a basic sill; such deposits are seen near Raju-
palem, Brahmanapalle and Ling-ala in the Pulivendla
taluk of the Cuddapah district.
The Cuddapahs do not contain metalliferous deposits
of importance. Iron ore deposits of comparatively small
dimensions occur in several places and they have been
drawn upon formerly for local smelting ill primitiVe
furnaces. At Jangamrajupilli and a few other places in
Cuddapah and Kumool, there are argentiferous lead ore
deposits but they seem to be of little economic importanct;.
The Delhi System in Rajputana contains smpe small
deposits of. coppel, nickel and cohalt orcs whi~h wer~
formerly worked in a small way.
An illtaesting stone, but not of any economic impor-
tance, i . . the flexible sandstone of Kaliana in .lind State,
Rajputana. It IS a sanclstone out of which the original
felspathic matter has been removed, leaving an inter-
locking mass of sand grains which allow of a slight hinged
movement. Slabs of this material, even if only a few
inches in length, exhibit this property.
(CUDD,\P,\H Al\D VINDHY \N SYSTEMS)
Anden. J.B. Vmdh)an !>edlmentatJOn m the Son valley, Mlrldpur
District. Melli. 62 (2), 1933
Chapman, F. Pnmitlve fosstls, prob.lbly atrematou<, and l1eo-
trernatous brachIOpoda. Rec. 69, 109-120, 1936
Foote, R.B. Geolog} of Southern Mahrcltta countr). AInu. 12, 18 76 .
Heron, A.M. Geology of N E. Rdjputdna. Mem. 45 (I), 19 17.
Heron, A.M. Vindhyam of Western RaJputana. Rec 65. 457-489,
193 2 .
Heron, AJvI. Gwahor and Vmdhyan s}~tems in S.E. RaJPutana.
Mem. 45 (2), 1922.
24
r86 GEOLOGY OF INDIA AND BURMA.
King, W. Kadapah and Kurnool formations in the ~ladras Pr('~i

dener. Mem. 8, 1872.
Lake, P. Basic rruptive rocks of th(" Cuddapah area. Rec. 28, .1159-
261, 18go.
Mallet, F .R. Vindhyan series as exhibited in tht' North-western and
Central Provinces of India. Mem. 7 (I), 1869.
Medlicott, H.B. Vindhyan rocks and their associates in Bundelkhand.
Aftm. 2 (I), 1859 .
. Oldham, R.D. Flexible sandstone or itacohlmlte. Rec. 22, 51-55,
1889.
..oldham, R.D. Geology of the Son valley in Rewah State and parts
of JubLulpore and Mirzapur. Mem. 31 (I), Ig01.
Salmi, M.R. Ftrmoria minima: a r("vised classification of the organic
rernams from the Vindhyans. Ret. 89, 458-468, 1936.
Vredenburg, E. Geology of the State of Panna with reference to the
diamond bearing drposits. Rec. 33, 1161-314. 1906.
Vredenburg, E. Sugg("stions for the dassificatlOn of the Vindhyall
system. RIC. 33, 255-260, I gOO.
Bajpai, M.P. The Gwalior traps. Jour. Geo!., XLIII, 61-75, 1935.
CHAPTER VIII.
THE VINDHYAN SYSTEM.
The Cuddapahs were succeeded by the rocks of the

Vindhyan system after a time interval marked by earth
movements and erosion. The Cuddapahs were then
folded and metamorphosed to some extent though the
intensity of the forces at play was much feebler than
that which acted at the close' of the Dhar\'.flrian era.
The system derives its name from the great Vindhya
Mountains, a part of which is found to form the promi-
nent range ufsandstones to the north of the Narbada "alley,
particularly in Bundelkhand and Malwa. It occupies a
large basin extending from Dehri-on-Son to Gwalior and
Hoshangabad and from Chitorgarh to Agra, except for a
part of Bundelkhand. Oldham estimates the area of the
exposure" as about 40,000 square miles with a further
25,000 square miles lying underneath the Deccan trap.
Over the greater part of the area, only the upper
portion of the Vindhyans is developed, usually resting on
the Cuddapahs or older rocks with a very pronounced
unconformity. In the Son valley, where the Lower
Vindhyans are well developed, an unconformity is seen
between them and the upper divisions. The Vindhyans
are distinctly less disturbed than the Cuddapahs but the
lines of disturbance tend to be common in both. Within
the Vindhyan system itself there are distinct unconformities,
often marked by conglomerates, separating the different
series.
The Vindhyans are, like the Cuddapahs, unfossili-
ferous. In recent years however, the Suket Shales have
yielded small discoid impressions considered to be organic
remains and assigned to the genus Fermoria related to the
primitive brachiopod Aerothele. There is, however, a
difference of opinion as to whether they are inorganic or
GEOLOGY OF INDIA AND BURMA. [CHA~_
organic, and if the latter, whether they are plant or

animal remains. 1
The Vindhyans ~onsist of four main series, named as
follows : -
Feet.
(Bhander Series - m'linly ar("r1aceous and
calcareous 1,50C)
Uppt"r .. iLKaimur
Re\\ a Series
Sf'ries
mainly aIcnaceou~
mainly ar('naceou~
500- 1 ,000
500- 1 ,30
wwer Semti Series mainly calcareous 1,000-3,000'
SEMRI SERIES.
From Sasaram westwards to the watershed between
the Son and the Narbada, the Lower Vindhyans are
exposed underneath the prominent scarp of Kaimur
quartzites for a length of some 240 miles. Here the
maximum width of this series is about 16 miles, but further
east it narrows down to a width ofless than 2 miles. This.
is the type area of the ,semri series.
The lowermost beds of this series, in the Son valley,
called the Basal Stage, are 2,000 ft. thick and consist of
basal conglomerates and the Kajrahat limestone beds.
They are followed by shales and sandstones which have
been silicified and converted to porcellanites (the Porcella-
nite Sta,ge) attaining a thickness of about 300 ft. The
.ltluilljua stage overlying this is about 600 ft. thick and
consists of olive shales, fawn limestone and glauconitic
sandstones which show ripple marks and other characters
pointing to shallow water and sub-aerial deposition.
Above this comes the Rohtas stage, 400 to 700 ft. thick,
consi"ting of alternating beds of limestones and shales
which support a flourishing lime and cement industry.
The limestone varies in quality from bed to bed, much of
it being of high grade and containing over 80 per cent.
calcium carbonate, less than 3 per cent. magnesium
carbonate and about 10 per cent. silica. In the upper
1 Chapman, F Rec G.S.I, LXIX p JOg-1lI0, 1935.
"abni, M.R , Ih,J, P 458
VIII] THE VINDHYAN SYSTEM. 18g
part there arc large stone nodules in shales, while still
further up siliceous limestones occur.
The Semri series is intruded by dykes of dolerite and
basalt in a few places in the Son valley. The basic rock
contains both augite and rhombic pyroxene, zoned
plagioclase, ilmenite and pyrite, with patches of micro-
graphic quartz and felspar and occasional glass.
The Semri series is found also in the Karauli State
of Rajputana where the Aravalli phyllites are overlain
by sandstone.;; and conglomerates and these in turn by the
Tiroha" limestone. Above the Tirohan limestOne is a zone
of breccia (Tirohan breccia) which is due to the removal of
lime by solution from the beds and the consequent collapse.
An unconformity intervenes between these and the over-
lying Kaimurs. The Tirohan limestone is apparently the
equivalent of the Rohtas limestone and both are underlain
by beds containing glauconite.
On the southern side of the Vindhyan tract, in the
Chitor-Jhalrapatan area, shales of probable Aravalli age
are overlain successively by grits and conglomerates,
Nimbahera shales, Nimbahera limestones and Suket
shales, the thickness of this group of Vindhyan beds being
about 1,000 ft.
TABLE I5.-THE SEMRI SERIES AND ITS EQ.UIVALENTS.
Son Valley. Karauli. Chitor.
Rohtas
Stage.
! Alternating Iime- ! TJrohan breccia
I stones and shales ( Tlrohan hme"tone. IrU"""h.....
Nlmbahera lime-
stone.
[Glauconite beds.
Khem)ua Fawn hmeston... Glaucomte-beanng Nimbahera shales.
Stage. lOhve shales. beds.
Porcellamte j Porcellamte. and
Stagt. I sJilClfied rocks. ! Sandston('~ and con- { Grits and Conglo-
I glomerates. merates.
Basal { Kajrahat hmestone
Stage. Basal conglomerate
KAIMUR SERIES.
In the Son valley the Kaimur series contains two bands.

of quartzite in the lower division which may be gritty and
even conglomeratic and shows current bedding. The
lower quartzite passes upwards into flagstones and shales
showing ripple-marks and sun-cracks, and these into thin
bedded micaceous and carbonaceous shales with sideritic
bands. Interbed~ed with these arc banded and jointed
porcellanites, fragments of which are found in the next
succeeding gritty bed called the Susnal hlfccia. This
breccia is undoubtedly of epi-clastic origin and marks a
break in sedimentation, though the base of the Kaimurs
ill to be put at the base of the lo,"",er quartzite.
The Susnai breccia is overlain by the upper silicified
quat tzite (Lower Kaimur) with maIked current and lenti-
cular bedding and ripple-marks, which forms a very
conspicuous scarp, 40 ft. high, in the Son valley. Above
this are other quartzites and also sandstones and mud-
stones which show extensive repla~ement bv iron and
have characteristics of shallow water deposits. These
pass upwards into the Bijaigarll shales which are carbona-
ceous, pyritiferolls and micaceolls and generally bleached
or yellow in colour. Lenticles of bright coal (vitrain) are
found in these and some beds are fairly rich in carbona-
ceous rna tter.
The Upper Kairnurs, overlying the Bijaigarh shales,
consist of greenish flagstones and sandy siltstones (generally
showing currentbedding and ripple-marks) which crop
out along the Kaimur scarp and are exemplified in the
:Mangesar hill. The green material apparently includcs
chamosite, chlorite and green mica. Above these are the
Dhandraul qUallziles which are white to purplish in colour.
The Upper Kaimurll have a thickneqs varying from 500
to r ,000 ft.
In Bundelkhand the Kaimurs show a basal conglo~
merate containing pebbles of jasper, the main formation
VIII] THE VINDHYAN SYSTJ.o:M.
being a fine-grained quartzite of greyish or brownish colour-

with conspicuous current-bedding.
J Up~'
Dhandraul quartzite.
{ Scarp sandstone and conglomerate.
Kaimur
Seriel> (BIJalgarh shale!>.
l Lower Upper quartzjte~.

J
"\ Sumai breccia
l Lower quartzites and l>hales
REWA SERIES.
The Kaimurs are succeeded by the Rewa series

composed of somewhat coarser sandstones than those of
the Kaimurs, and current-bedded flagstones. The two
series are separated by a zone of diamond-bearing conglo-
merate. The divisions recognised in Central India in
the Rewa and the overlying Bhander series are as below : -
Bhander Sertes
r upper Bhander sandc;tone.
Sirbu shales
Lower Bhander sandstone.
l Bh,mder limestone (Nagode).

Ganurgarh shale.
-Dtamond-beanng conglomerate-
rUpper Rewa sandstone.
, Jhiri shales.
Rewa Seriec;
i'Lower Rewa sandstone
l P,mna shales.
-Diamond-bearing conglomerate-
Kaimur Series
The existence, in Bundelkhand, of the Lower Rewa
sandstones and Panna shales is questioned by Vredenburg
who states that the diamond-bearing conglomerate occurs
at the base of the Jhiri shales. In Gwalior, however,
there are two shale bands separated by a sandstone,
between the Kaimurs and the main Rewa sandstone.
BHANDER SERIES.
The uppermost division of the Vindhyans is the
Bhander series, which is separated from the Rewa series
by a horizon of diamond-bearing conglomerate. The
GEOLOGY OF INDfA AND BURMA. [CHAP.
Bhander sandstones are fine-grained and soft, usually of a
red colour with white specks. When light-coloured they
often show red streaks. They are fairly thick-bedded and -
yield large blocks which arc used in building. The
Upper Bhandcrs frequently show ripple-marks. The
Bhander limestone is of variable thicknc~s and quality,
passing from a good limestone to a calcareous shale.
In some parts of Rajputana the Bhanders show veins
and thin beds of gypsum intercalated with the sandstones
and shales. This and the prevalence of red tints con-
stitute the evidence of deposition under arid conditions.
In the great Vindhyan basin the sandstones and
quartzites form a series of well-marked scarps while the
intervening strata being soft, give rise to sloping talus. The
chief members persist over large areas with faid) uniform
-characters. Taken as a whole, the structure of the
Vindhyan area is that of a basin, the sandstones forming
plateaux. Over the greater part of the area the beds are
nearly horizontal, but they show evidence of disturbance
near the north-west and south-east margins. In the Dhar
Forest and near Jhalrapatan, the Vindhyans are folded
and show steep dips.
The Vindhyans are thickeo;t in the southern and
south-western areas. The Upper Vindhyans are I I ,000 ft.
thick in the south-west, 4,500 ft. in the north-west and
about 4,000 ft. in Bundi State. The Lower Yindhyans
.are either thin or absent in the north-west, the Kaimurs
overlapping them and coming to rest directly on the
'gneisses or the Bijawars.
The margins of the Vindhyan basin show a good
-development of sandstones, while the shales are best
developed in the centre and east, passing gradually laterally
into sandstone. The prevalence of current-bedding and
ripple-marks in the strata is indicative of shal10w water
.origin; while the red sandstones, of the Kaimurs and
Bhanders for example, probably indicate semi-arid and
. continental conditions.
VIII] THE VINDHYAN SYSTEM. 193
The Vindhyans have been deposited on peneplaned
older rocks and there al e evidences of semi-contempora-
neous earth movements. Int he Son-Narhada valley the
<compression seems to have come from the south or south-
west, while in the area between Chitor and Hoshangabad
the compressive forces have acted from the 'iouth-west and
west. In Rajputana they have been affected by over-
thrusts from the west, with the development of the Main
Boundary Fault which has a throw of some 5,000 ft. and
which brings the undisturbed Bhanders against the hIghly
folded Aravallis. This fault can be traced for a distance
of about 500 miles, part of it cOInciding with the course of
the Chambal river. There are, however, some strips and
outliers of Vindhyans to the west of this fault, e.g., the
Kaimurs from Bundi to Indargarh.
The Vindhyans of Rajputana are invaded by the
Malani group of acid igneous rocks, which include the
Jalor and Siwana granites, granophyres, porphyries and
the Malani rhyolites. These acid rocks are cut by
later basic dykes which arc probably of the same age as
those found intruding into the Semris of the Son valley.
KURNOOL (KARNUL) SY~TEM.
The Cuddapah basin in the Madras province contains

two areas of younger rocks resting unconformably on the
Cuddapahs-one in the Kundair valley stretching up to
the Kistna, and the other in the Palnad tract. This
younger group of rocks, constituting the Kurnool system,
has a thickness of about 1,200 ft. and has been affected on
the eastern margin by the same disturbances which acted
on the Cuddapahs. This system is regarded fiS the
equivalent of the lower Vindhyans.
The Kurnools have been sub-divided into four groups,
composed mainly of Hmestones with subordinate shales
and sandstones.
2')
GEOLOGY OF INDIA AND BUR.MA. [CHA.P.
Sellt" Stage,
N,uldval shale~
{ KOIlkuntla limestone,
Piulldcled qUaI tJ:itt'~
Pamam .. { Pl.-Iteau qUArllitt's.
Auk ~h.tles.
J .unmalm.ldugu { Narjl limestone.
B.lnv;,mapalh . Rall!(anap.tlh ,.wdstones.
The Banganapallis are rather coarse sandstones of"

grey and brown colours, sometime shaly, felspathic or
ferruginous. They contain abundant small pebbles of
quartz, jasper, chert and slate, derived mostly from the
Cheyair series. They are the' main source of diamonds
in the Kurnool formations. Some of the exposures
have been extensively worked for diamonds, which industry
was active in this region till about a century ago.
The lower beds of the Jammalamadugu series consist
of limestones-the Narji limestones-of various colours,
especially blue-grey, buff and fawn. They are about 400
ft. thick at Narji where the rock is much quarried for
building purposes, They are succeeded by the Auk
shales, of buff and purplish colours. The Paniam series,
developed around Paniam (Panem) and Undutla, com-
prises sandstones and quartzites. The topmost series,
named after the Kundair since it occupies the valley of
that river, has a thickness of 500 to 600 ft. The lower third
of this is a compact fine-grained limestone (Koilkuntla)
while the upper part consists of impure limestones and
calcareous shales named after the small town of Nandral.
The above divit.ioIlS, though well developed in the
Kundair valley, arc not all easily lecognised in the Palnad
area. Limestones arc prominent in the latter, and below
the limestones is a diamond-bearing conglomerate.
BJUMA Sk-RIES.
~amed after the Bhima river, a tributary of the-
Kistna, this series is developed in the Gulbarga District
VIII] THE VINDH~ AN SYSTEM.
of Hyderabad State and in the Bijapur District of Bombay.

It occupies an area of roughly 2,000 sq. miles, lying
over the Archccan formations.
The rocks are divided into a lower and an upper
series by W. King and R. B. Foote, but recent work
by the Hyderabad Geological Survey (based on informa-
tion kindly supplied by Dr. C. Mahadevan) shows that a
threefold division is preferablt' :
Upper (300 ft.) Black, blue, huff ..Ind purplt' shales \\Ith
local sand~ton("' at the bottom and
flag~y hmestone~ at the top.
MIddle (500 ft.) Creamy, gre), bluISh ..Ind hllff hme,tonel>
and flaggy limestones.
Lower (350 ft.) ~and~tones and !o{reen and purple ~hales.
The bottom beds <ire conglomeratic
\\hile the topm()~t hed~ are often
calcareous.
The lower Bhimas <lre sandstones and shales, laid

down in a gradually deepening sea. The middle divi-
sion, consisting mainly of limestones, was deposited in
deeper waters, probably as chemical sediments. At this
period the basin of deposition attained its greatest extent
and width, for some of the beds overlap the earlier Bhimas
and lie directly on the gnei'is. The upper division points
to the contraction and shallowing of the basin, the deposits
being mainly shales.
The eastern and sGuthern part!. contain only the
lower and middle divisions while the upper division is
found in the north and west. The deposits are nearly
horizontal or low-dipping over large areas but show
high dips and evidence of disturbance in the neighbour-
hood of some faults and at the junction with the Deccan
traps.
The Bhimas are devoid of fossils, though the consti-
tuent beds are well suited to the preservation of organic
remains. The Kaladgis (which are refelable to the
Cuddapahs) lie to their west but nowhere in contC' ct with
them. The lithology, horizontal disposition and unmeta.

morphosed nature of the Bhimas point to their being the
equivalents or the Kurnool formations.
SULLAVAI SERIES.
There is a group of rocks called the Sullavai series in
the (~odavari valley consisting of slates, quartzites, sand-
stones and conglomerates. They arc well exposed near
Sullavai and in the Dewalmari hills, where the quartzites
recall the appearance of the Pinnacled quartzites of the
Kurnools. They have a thickness of 1,200 to 1,600 ft.,
.and overlie the Pakhals unconformably.
CORRELATION OF THE VINDHYANS.

The Vindhyans are developed in two areas: one
-comprises the Vindhyans of Rajputana and Central India
which are continued in the south of Bundclkhand and
Bihar. The lower part of the system contains some
marine deposits, including limestones, while the upper
part consists of deposits of a semi-arid climate represented
mainly by red sandstones and shales with which gypsum
is occasionally associated. The other is the CUddapah
basin in the Madras Presidency where the Kurnool system
is developed; this comprises marine sediments which are
regarded as the equivalents of the Lower Vindhyans. The
Vindhyans of both the regions are devoid of identifiable
fossil remains, though some of the strata are eminently
fitted fot the preservation of fossils.
The Cambrian formations of the Salt Range, especi-
ally the' Purple Sandstones,' bear a striking resemblance
to the Upper Vindhyans of Central India as pointed
out by Dr. C. S. Fox (Rec. G. S. I. LXI, p. 173, 1929)
and to some strata in the Cambrian Hormuz series of
Iran. It is not possible to consider the formations in
these different areas as anything more than rough cqui-
v~lents in geological age, though they are strikingly
similar in Hthological characters.
VIII] THE VINDHY AN SYSTEM.
Deposits of about the .,ame age are to be found in the

unfossiliferous ancient sediments of the Extra-Peninsula
which are generally assigned to the late Pre-Cambrian.
These are the Attock slates, Hazara slates, Simla slates,.
Jaunsar series, part of the Haimanta System of Spiti and
part of the Buxa seric') of Bhutan. Probably even the
Chaung Magyis and the Mergui serie<; may, in part,
belong- to the same age.
ECONOMIC l\lI:.IERAL DEPOSITS.

Diamond.-For many centuries past, diamonds have
been won from the Vindhyan and Kurnool formations.
They are found as pebbles in the Bangacapalli group of
the Kurnools and in the conglomerates <;eparating the
different series of the Upper Vindhyans in the Panna State
of the Central India, a') ai')o jU'it outside the Cuddapah
basin in Sambalpur in Orissa. The original source of th<
diamonds which came to be deposited in the conglomerate,
is not known, though it is thought that they may have
been derived from certain volcanic necks. The volcani(
neck at Wajra Karur, which bears a superficial resemblance
to the kimberlite ' pipes' of South Africa, shows no real
similarity on close examination.
Limestone.-The limestones of the Vindhyans are
amongst the most important sources of raw materials for
the lime and cement industry-e.g., in the Son valley in
Bihar and U. P., in Rewa, in Jubbulpore and in the
Bhima valley.
The Narji limestone5 of the Guntur and Kurnool
districts are capable of yielding excellent building stoneS
.and ornamental stones. The flagstones quarried near
Yerraguntla (Cuddapah district), near Betamcherla
(Kurnool district) and other places, popularly known in
the Madras Presidency as ' Cuddappah slabs' are widely
used as paving stones, fence stones, steps and table-tops.
According to King's map, these' slabs' are derived from
the Jammalmadugu and Kundair formations of the
I g8 GEOLOGY OF INDIA AND BURMA.
Kurnools. They are easily split into slabs half an inch or

more in thickness and up to 6 ft. by 4 ft. in size. Tht"y are
calcareous slates capable of taking a fairly good polish.
The Auk shales contain some good fire-clays and ochres,
as near Betamcherla.
Building and decorative stones.-Some of the
limestones of the Lower Vindhyan and Lower Bhander
~tages show spherulitic structures, the concentric shells
of which display different colours. Beautiful stone~ of this
kind, found at Sabalgarh near Gwalior, have been used
in the inlaid decorations in the buildings of Agra. Some
of the buildings of Chitorgarh have been built of Nimba-
hera limestones. The limestones of the Palnad region
(Guntur district), particularly the Narji limestones, arc
excellent building and ornamental stones, some varietifs
with deep red <1 nd green colours being quite attracti\ (
These limestones have been used in the Buddhist sculptuH
of Amaravati on the Kistna river.
The Vindhyan sandstones have been extensively used
from ancient times for architectural purposes because of
their fine and uniform grain, pleasing colours and the
ease with which they can be Vtorked, dressed and carved.
The Buddhist stu pas of Sarnath, Barhut and Sanchi;
Emperor Akbar's city of Fatehpur Sikri ncar Agra and the
great Moghal buildings at Agra, Delhi, and Lahore,
including the famous masjids at Delhi and Agra; the
palaces and forts at Chunar, Agra, Jodhpur and other
places; the modern administrative offices of the Govern-
ment of India at New Delhi-have all used Vindhyan
sandstone in their construction. The stones are used in a
variety of ways-flagstones for flooring and roofing, ..
window sills, pillars, fence posts, telegraph poles, mIlestones
and so on.
CHAPTER IX.
THE PALAEOZOIC GROUP: CAMBRIAN TO

CARBONIFEROUS.
THE CAMBRIAN SYSTEM.

Fossiliferous marine Palreozoic rocks are practically
absent from the Peninsula (except for the small patch of
Lower Permian age near Umaria, and possibly the Suket
Shales orUpper Vindhyan age) but they arc well represent-
ed in parts of the Extra-Peninsula and Burma. The
Cambrian System, which is the earliest of the Paheozoic
systems, is met with in three areas, viz., the Salt Range,
Kashmir and Spiti, where it is represented by richly
fossiliferous beds.
THE SALT RANqE.
The most easily accessible area in which the Cambrians

are exposed is the Punjab Salt Range where a good succes-
sion of the strata is met with. Before proceeding with the
.description of the strata themselves, a short description of
this important region is given.
General description.-The Salt Range is essentially
a plateau-like topographical feature lying between the
meridians 71 E. and 74 E. It trends roughly E-W.
except between Mt. Sakesar and the Indus where it is
N.-W.-S.E. Both the northern and southern slopes form
parts of flexures. The northern slope shows strata with
moderate northerly dips and merges into the Potwar
plateau which lies between the Salt Range and the Kala
Chitta hills. The southern slope is an overfold, thrust
towards the south; it forms therefore a series of escarp-
ments which rise abruptly from the plains and in \vhich
the strata are clerly exposed. Several ravines cut across
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IX] TItE PALAEOZOIC GROUP.
the range at different places, revealing excellent transverse

sections for study.
The oldest beds exposed are of Cambrian age which
appear to include thick salt and gypsum beds. Upon
them rest marine strata ranging in age from Upper Carbo-
niferous to Eocene, the succession becoming more complete
as one proceeds from east to west. The upper part of
the scarp is composed of either the Permian or Eocene
limestone. The Eocene strata, when followed across
the range northwards are overlain successively by the
Murrees and the Siwaliks.
At the eastern extremity near the Jhelum river, the
Eocene beds rest directly on the Cambrian. The Olive
Series of Upper Carboniferous age appears as a thin bed
a few miles to the west and becomes gradually thicker
further westward. The glacial Boulder-beds and Speckled
sandstones are first ~een near Khewra while further west,
in the ~ilawan ravine, about 45 miles from the eastern
end, Productus beds make their appearance. The lat-
ter two gradually thicken in a ",esterly direction. The
places which have given the~r names to the stages ot
the Productus Limestone occur at different distances west
of Nila", an. The Productus Limestone attains its full
development near Kundghat (25 miles west of Nilawan
ravine) ",here also the Triassic beds make their appearance
between the Permian and Eocene. A little further west,
near Amb, Jurassic strata are to be seen.
This gradual thickening of marine strata and the
fuller succession in the west provide an indication that the
sea gradually retreated westward during deposition and
that it wall deep in the west.
The range takes a sudden bend to the south-\\'ec;t,
beyond the Indus. The strata are generally well developed
and thick in the TI ans-Indus extension of the Salt Range.
The Cambrian comprises the following series of
strata:
Salt Pseudomorph R"d to purple and greenish shales with

Shales (450 ft.) casts or p,t'udomorphs of cubic salt
crystal,.
Magnesian Sandstonr-s .. "dl brdded neam-wloured dolomitic
(1l50 ft.) sandston" or arr-na.ceolls dolomite
~eobolus heds (100 ft.) .. Fossiliferous grey shales, slIghtly mica-
ceous, characterised by the presr-nce
of the' brachiopod .Veobolus.
Purple sandstone (450 ft.) Fine gralnt'd purple loandstones ,\ith
shales at the base.
Salt [lleLrl (1500 ft.) Bright red calcareous ela) 01 marl \\ith
much ~alt and gypsum.
SALT MARL.
Nature and distributioD.-Apparently the oldest
beds of the Cambrian succession in the Salt Range are the
Salt Marls (also known as the Saline Series). They form
.a practically unstratified mass of fine-grained marl,
-conspicuously red to dull purple or maroon in colour, and
-contain disseminated grains of sodium chloride, gypsum
and carbonates of calcium and magnesium. Though no
bedded structure is noticeable at the surface, sections in
the mines sometimes show bedding and contortions of the
layers. It is soft and homogeneous and does not contain
coarse materials like sand and pebbles. Occasionally,
there are green and grey blotches in the marl, these being
generally streaky and kneaded out. There are also
strings and lenticles of gypsum and dolomite in the marl,
and the two may show a transition from one to the other.
The outer portion of the dolomite has then a honey-combed
structure which grades outwards into pumiceous structure
and into canals and later into reticular patches in which
the spaces of the reticules arc filled by gypsum. At
Khewra and in the ~ilawan ravine the marl shows a band
of bitiminous shale and also patches of a highly altered
purplish trap. This trap may, in places, have a thickness
-of over 10 feet.
IX] THE PALAEOZOIC GROUP.
In the Eastern Salt Range the marl shows roughly

three divisions or stages. The lower division, having a
thickness of several hundred feet, is composed of marls,
gypsum, bituminous shale and some dolomite; the middle
Dne, with a thickness of at least 600 ft., shows thick beds of
rock salt; the upper division, about 200 ft. thick, sho~s
massive gypsum, bituminous shales and some ftaggy
dolomite. The middle and upper divisions are particularly
well seen in the Trans-Indus region of Kohat.
The Salt ~larl is best developed at Khewra where it
~ttains a thickness of some 500 ft., tht' lower half of \\ hich
constitute!; beds of pure rock salt v.-hich is colourless to
pale pink. The occasional impure earthy bands in the
salt are locally called kallm. The upper half contains
numerous intercalations of kallar, gypsum, and sulphates
and chlorides of alkalis and alkaline earths. The gypsum
forms lenses and bed~ in and above thr marl, and in some
place,> (e. g., Mari, Kalabagh, Sardi, Khusak, Katta and
Saiduwali) contains excellent small bi-pyramidal crystals
of quartz. These crystals have been shown to contain
inclusions of anhydrite from which it may be inferred
either that much of the gypsum was originally anhydrite
or that the included gypsum was converted to anhydrite
during the crystallisatIOn of the quartz.
Gypsum.- The gypsum is generally nearly pure,
though it might show a gradation to limestone and
dolomite. It is compact and massive to saccharoidal, white
to grey, dark bluish grey or sometimes pink. Plates of
selenite are occasionally found while the cores of the
nodular masses may contain anhydrite.
Salt.-The beds of rock salt are often mas<;ive and
may sometimes attain a thickness of 100 ft. The salt is
pink to white in colour with rare grey blotches, the lamincc
showing different degrees of opacity. In places some
layers may be translucent or even transparent. 'Where
there are alternating bands of different shades of colour,
a stratiform appearance is produced, though the bands
GEOLOGY OF INDIA AND BORMA. [CHAP,
may really be lenticular in shape. Contortions of beds

are sometimes seen in the salt and kallar but these are not
so complicated nor so minutely folded as the layers in
gypsum. Potash and magnesia salts-sylvite (KC1),.
kieserite (Mg SOt-Hz 0) and langbeinite (K.! Mg;? (S04)3)
are also sometimes associated with the kallaI'.
The rock salt is worked at a number of places along
the southern face of the Salt Range-Khewra, Warcha,
Kalabagh, etc.-the best known mines being those at
Khewra (Mayo mines). In these mines there are 4 or 5
beds of salt with an aggregate thickness of over 200 ft.
In the Kohat region also there are salt beds which show
evidence of disturbance and faulting. Here the salt is
more grey than red, due perhaps to very small amounts of
bituminous matter, and massive salt beds stand Ollt as
hills in this practically rainless region.
Origin of the Saline Series. - The salt marl showS"
great complexity of ~tructurc, f()lding and disturbance.
These peculiarities were explained by Oldham as having
resulted from the metamorphism of some pre-existing rock
by the action of acid vapours. Dolomite, limestone and
shale are believed to have been attacked by va pours and
solutions of sulphuric acid and hydrochloric acid, giving
ri<;e to a marl containing remnants of the calcareolls rocks
together with the gypsum and common salt produced in
the process. C. S. Middlemiss, following up an idea
originally <;uggested by Dr. Fleming, and realising the
great tectonic disturbance to which the saline series has
been su~jected, suggested that it was probably of the
nature of a hypogene intrusive. E. H. Pascoe thought
that the series was of sedimentary origin and of Tertiary
age, and that its anomalous position below the Cambrian
beds of the Eastern Salt Range was due to thrust pheno-
mena. The overthrust hypothe~s was first propounded
by Koken and Noetling and supported by Zuber, Holland
and others. W. A. K. Christie was of the opinion that
the salim' series was similar in all respects to the sedi-
mentary "Ialt beds in other parts of the world and that

the marl belonged to the last phase of desiccation of an
inland sea basin, preceded by deposition of some potash
salts. The well known plasticity of salt under pressure
was held to be responsible for the obliteration of the
bedded character. D. N. Wadia and 1. M. Davies
have shown, from stratigraphical and palreontological
evidence, that the massive gypsum of the Kohat region
is, at least in part, del ived from the gypsification of the
Laki (Eocene) lImestone. It may therefore be con-
ceded that the Saline series is of sedimentary origin and
that its structure is the result of intense tectonic dis-
turbancp to which it was subjected during the Tertiary
era.
Age of the Saline Series. -The Salt Marl is general-
ly found just under the Purple Sandstones in the eastern
part of the Salt Range but this is not always the case. The
junction of these two formatIOns shows always a brecciated
appearance, the top of the marl being often full of frag-
ments of the overlying sandstone. The marl occupies the
cores of folds and flexures or shear zones near Amb,
Dandot and other places. In the Amb glen, the marl
underlies the boulder bed (of Talchir age) and below it are
Permian strata in an inverted condition. It has apparently
been squeezed into this position here. In some other
places the marl appears over the Speckled Sandstone,
while between Dandot and the Makrach valley it trans-
gresses on to the Nummulitic strata. At KaBar Kahar
and Vasnal in the plateau part of lhe Range, inliers of the
marl can be seen amidst Tertiary strata. The disturbance
is rather less pronounced in the Trans-Indus region. At
Kalabagh on the Indus the Salt Marl is folded and occupies
a position between the Nummulitics and the 'Orange
Series' of presumably Siwalik age. The overfolded and
faulted anticlines in the Kohat area often show, on the
southern side, thrust faults marked by the presence of
saliferous rocks. Here the series appears to be part of the
GEOLOGY OF INDIA AND BUR.MA. [CHAP ..
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IX] THE PALAf.OZOIC GR.OUP.
Eocene succe!'sion, since the upper Ranikot limestone is.

transformed into gypsum underlain by Salt Marl and
overlain by the Laki beds. At Daud Khel, the Eocene
Sakesar limestone is seen to pass laterally into gypsum
which directly overlies the Salt Marl. This gypsum looks
very similar to that associated with the Salt Marl in other
places in the Salt Range, and according to E. R. Gee,
the limestone-gypsum_transition occurs within the space
of a few hundred yards. Some carbonised plant fragments
including leaves of dicotyledons, have been observed in the
marl near Katha, while some dolomitic bands within the
massive gypsum of the Kohat region have yielded fish
remains referable to a Tertiary age. The occurrence of
the Saline Series below the Cambrian in the Eastern Salt
Range, and in the Eocene of the Kohat area in the Trans-
Indus region, both apparently in conformable positions,
has led to the view, expressed by Wynne and other early
observers, that it may be different ages in the two areas.
As the great complexity of the structures in the Cis-Indus
region was realised, it was suggested that the infra-
Cambrian posItion was not normal but due to thrusting
and squeezing. On this latter view, Pascoe, Wadia, and
Davies have advocated that the Salt Marl is all of Eocene
age in both the regiom.
In a contribution to this controversy, C. S. Fox
showed, a few years ago, that there were certain clear
sections in the Cis-Indus Salt Range where the Saline
Series lies below the Cambrian succession without much
visible sign of disturbance. E. R. Gee, who remapped
the whole of the Salt Range within the last decade, came
to the conclusion that it is of the nature of a nappe which
came into existence in late Eocene and Oligocene times
by the overriding of the Saline Series southward by pre-
Eocene rocks, this involving a bodily movement of the
strata for a distance of some 20 miles. He found also
evidence for latc Tertiary and sub-Recent movements
which have further complicated the structure. Since the
Lommencement of his work in 19 2 7, Mr. Gee consistently

advocated an Eocene age for the Saline Series of both the
regions, but recently he has revised his opinion and now
supports a Cambrian (of Pre-Cambrian) age for that of
the Punjab Salt Range.
It would appear, therefore, that thi'S controversial
question is far from settled, even after the revised and
detailed mapping of the last decade. Interpretations
differ as to whether the Eastern Salt Range occurrences
are in their normal position or not. The fact that Gee i'S
now supporting the older view (Cambrian or Pre-Cambrian
age) may be taken as indicating that the case for the
normal interpretation of the structures is quite strong.
It is known that there are salt deposits of various ages in
different parts of the world -e.g., Tertiary in the Gulf
coast region of the U.S.A., Triassic in England, Permian
in Germany and Cambrian in Iran. The suggestion of a
Cambrian age has, therefore, no improbability attached
to it. Nevertheless it is intriguing that salt deposits of
two very different ages should have been deposited in
these two d.reas (Salt Range and Trans-Indus region)
which now lie so close to each other. *
PuRPLE SANDSTONE.
It has already been mentioned that the Salt Marl is
-generally overlain, in many places in the Eastern Salt
Range, by the Purple Sandstones. These are fine-grained
sandstones, dull red to purple in colour, showing current-
bedding, ripple-marks and other evidences of deposition
in shallow water and in a rather arid climate. The lower
beds are shaly and are sometimes called Maroon Shalt's.
The Purple Sandstones are entirely unfossiliferous and
.can be seen as far west as Chidru. Lithologically they
On thIS question :.ee the tIl 0 symposia on the Age of the .'>aline St'nes held
under the ampic~s or the In-han Acari!"mv of SCIences and National o\rademv of
'Sciences and pubhshed n 194'i and 1946 in the Proceedmg<; of the "'ational
Academy of SClenct"~.
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210 GEOLOGY OF iNDIA AND BURMA. [CHAP. -
have a great resemblance to the Bhander or Rewa Sand-

stone of the Vindhyan System with which they can
probably be correlated. Their junction with the Salt
Marl is generally disturbed and fragments of sandstone
are often found embedded in the marl.
N EOBOLUS BEDS.
The Purple Sandstones are overlain by dark grey
shales containing intercalations of dolomite, this stage
being called the Neobolus Beds from the fact of their con-
taining the primitive brachiopod Neobolus (N. warthi,
N. wynnei, etc.). They are 20 to 200 ft. thick and arr
particularly well exposed in the Khusak hill not far from
Khewra. Other fossils in these shales are:-
Trilobites: Ptyehoparza neMm, P. sakesarensis, Redllehia noetlmgz,
Chlltid,llia plana; Conocephalus warth,; Brachiopods: Lmgula warthi,
Li"gullUa wannieeki, Mohergla graTlIllata, Dlmnolepis granulala, OrthlS
warthi, Pteropod: Hyolithes wynnel
The fossil assemblage indicates a Middle Cambrian
age, mainly the lower part thereof.
MAGNESIAN SANDSTONES.
The succeeding Magnesian Sandstones are promi-
nently displayed in the scarps of the Eastern Salt Range.
They are mainly cream coloured dolomitic sandstones or
arenaceous dolomites and flags, sometimes showing fine
lamination and thin shale bands of green to dark colour.
They show fucoid and annelid markings and contain the
Cambrian gastropod named Stenotheca.
SALT PSEUDOMORPH SHALES.

Succeeding the Magnesian Sandstones conformably
there are bright red to variegated shales with laminated
sandstone layers. The shales contain cubic pseudomorphs
or casts which represent replacement of salt crystals by
clay on the shores of an enclosed basin. The crystalline
form of the salt crystals is shared by both the upper and
IX] THE PALAEOZOIC GROUP. 211
lower surfaces of each bedding plane. Excellent sections

of this zone may be seen near Pidh, Dandot, Nilawan
ravine, etc.
Parts of the Cambrian succession are seen also in the
Mari-Indus and Kalabagh area where the Salt Marl
occurs with gypsum. The southern part of the Khasor
range, especially a little to the northwest of Saiduwali in
Dera Ismail Khan district, shows a thick-sequence (400 ft.)
consisting of Purple Sandstone, Baggy dolomite, bitumin-
nous shale, greenish grey shale and massive white to pink
gypsum. It is not known how much of this is Cambrian
and how much post-Cambrian, but at least the lower
part is piesumably Cambrian.
The Salt Range Cambrians are succeeded directly
by the glacial boulder bed of Talchir age just as in the
case of the Vindhyans of the Peninsula. The rough
parallelism which exists between the Vindhyans and the
Salt Range Cambrians would suggest that the latter
bordered on the Peninsula in the Cambrian (and late
Pre-Cambrian) times.
KASHMIR.
In the Baramula district, north of the Kashmir valley,

a good Palreozoic sequence is found, including Cambrian
strata. In the Hundwara basin the Dogra Slates (Pre-
Cambrian to early Cambrian) are conformably succeeded
by clay slates, greywackes and quartzites which contain
Annelid tracks and some badly preserved organic remains,
which may be of Lower Cambrian age. They pass
upwards into thick-bedded blue-grey clays, arenaceous
shales and thin-bedded limestones containing identifiable
fossils in places. The fauna is peculiarly rich in tri-
lobites :
Trilobltes. Agnostu~ sp., Conocoryphe frangtengens!s, T('nklnella kash-
mlTZca, Mzcrodlscus sp., Anomocare hundwarensls, Solenopleura lydekken.
Brachiopods Acrothele aff. subsidua, Obolus kashmlricus, Lingulilia
sp., Botsford,a cf. coelata.
GEOl.Of:V OF INDIA AND BURMA.
Also ptf'J(lpod .. \ Hyohthf<) and cv~tici~ (Encystltes).
The affinities of the species indicate a Middle to

Upper Cambrian age, the resemblance being more to
<;imilar beds in Iran, Indo-China and North America
than to tllO.<;e in the Salt Range and Central Himalayas.
SPITI.
In the Spiti valley, beyond the crystalline axis of the

Kangra .lfimalaya, there is exposed a great geosynclinal
basin with its axisN.W.-S.E. inwhichacompletesuccession
of fossiliferous strata from the Cambrian to Eocene is to be
found. The Cambrian strata, comprising the Himanta
System, arc found on the south-western flanks of the basin,
lying over the Vaikrita System of Pre-Cambrian age.
The Haimanta System consists of three main divisions :
Fret.
( Upper - Grey and glCCli mica-
I ceou~ quartz I te~, dun slates,
I shales dnd light grey dolomite. . 120U
Middle -- Bnght red and black
Haimanta System ~I slates With some quartzites . 100U
I Lower - Dark slates and qUdrtz-
I ites (highly folded) which pro-
I bably include Pre-Cambrian
l strata 2000-3000
IX] Tat PALAEOZQIC Ga.ouP.
The beds are particularly well exposed in the valley

of the Parahio river which is a tributary of the Spiti river.
The lower and middle divisions are unfossi 1iferom, but
the upper (see details below) contains Middle to Upper

Cambrian fossils in several horizons. In Hayden's opinion
all the three divisions shoulci be included under the
Cambrian.
Parahio Rwer section oj Upper HaimantaJ.
LIthology. Thickness.
in feet.
J9. Congl()meratr
18. Quartzites and sIliceous shales 50
17. Grey dolomite weathering brownish red 20
16. Flaggy sandstone, quartzite and siliceous slate 40
15. Grey dolomite weathering brownish red go
Lj.. Siliceous slates wIth grey qu,trtlite bands and thm
beds of pink dolomitf' 250
"'13' Dark slhceous slates wIth fldgmentary fo~~t1~ 10
12. SIlIceous slates cmd ftaggy quartzites 30
'" J 1. Siliceous and argillaceous slates with tnlobltes 6
10. Gr("y slaty quartzite capped by thin dolomite 50
.9. Slates, siliceous above and argillaceous below, with
trilobites ')0
8 Dark grey quartzite 60
"'7 Pmk shaly dolomitic limestone, with trilobites 12
.6 Calcareou~ quartzIte with Lingulella and trIlobItes,
underlain by a n,lTrOW band of limestone ,md slate~
with trilobites 10
5. Grey mICaceous quartzIte with th1l1 bands of mlca-
~ehists. 150
'" 4. Slates altenMtmg with llJ.lrow b.Hlds of limestone,
WIth Lingulella and trilobit("~ 10
3. Slate, chiefly siliceous, and qUcl.rtl.l((' 150
"'2. Dark slatt" with tlllobjte~ 30
"'f. R('d and glt'ell slaty q1tartzite WIth fossll!. m tht' upper-
most beds 250
lISS
Fossils are found only in the zones marked with an

asterisk. The fauna is rich in trilobites of which Orycto-
cepkalu:i and Ptychoparia are particularly well represented.
Most of the trilobite species are not known elsewhere,
but,there is a good resemblance to the fauna of western
IXl THE PALAEOZOIC GR.OUP. 2 15
N. America though not to that of Europe. The fossili-

. ferous beds range in age from Middle to Upper Cambrian
and the fossils include:
Trilohite'l AgtlOstUI ,pl/iensis, Microdlscu~ grlesbach&, Redluh&a
noetlingr, Oryctacephalus salten, Ptychoparia spititnsis, P.
stracm)'J', P. consoeialis, Conocephalitts memor, Anomocare
conjunctiva, Olenus halmantensis.
Brachiopods . Nisusia depJaenslS, Lmgulella haimantensis, L. lpitiensis
Acrotreia parahzoensis, Oboiella cr. crassa, Acrothel,
pr(stans
Echmoderm~ EOfystitu ~p Pteropod HyolrtheJ
The Haimantas are well developed also in the Kumaon
and Garhwal Himalayas, in the mountains north of Kulu
and in Lahau).
BURMA.
No fossiliferous Cambrian rocks have so far been

dis~overed in Burma, but part of the Chaung Magyis of
the Shan States, the Mergui series of Mergui and also
some volcanic rocks may probably belong to this age.
THE BAWDWIN VOLCANICS.
In the neighbourhood of Bawdwin (23 0 6' : 97 18')
in the Tawngpeng Statt> near the China border, the Chaung
Magyis are overlain by the Pangyun beds, consisting of
quartzites, grits, sandstones and shales and some rhyolitic
grits. These grade perfectly into the Bawdwin volcanic
$eries and have a general N.W.-S.E. strike. They are
composed dominantly of tuffs and subordinate rhyolites
containing clear grains of quartz and having a brown or
chocolate colour. They are seen to have suffered much
crushing and at the surface are soft and light grey owing
to decomposition. The rhyolites and tuffs are probably
the effusive phase of the Tawngpeng granite which is
exposed at a distance of five miles west of the volcanics.
The Bawdwin lead-zine-silver ore-body occupies
a prominent fault and shear zone (the Bawdwin fault)
which is over 8000 ft. long and 500 ft. wide in which
211) G1:.0LOGY OF INDIA AND BURMA. [CHAP,
the tufts and rhyolites hJ.ve been leplaced by Pb-Zn-Ag

ore. All gradatiom can be found from solid ore through
partly replaced tufts to unrcpdlccd vo1canic rocks. The
PLATE 1
C\\1BIUAro... rO" .... II ....
1:'{PLA;>i\IIOI'o Ut PlAn
J. Gonocephailtes wartlll (head ~hleld) (2) 2 Hyohilies wYllnet (b, ltansverse
,eCtlon) (3/2), 3. Orth, warth, (1/2). 4. Lal..hmrna ltnguloldes (2),
'i. 6. Neobolus warthi (2). 7. Ntobolu, wynnel (2) S Shl<.ophohs rugosa (4).
q. IJISClnoiepls granuillta (3) 10. Lin~ula wart," (~), (r. Ohollls fcashmiwus
(1/2). 12. Botifordza cf roelala (3/2). 11. COIlneorypht re)llneta (1/2). '4.
Corworypl!, franl{ttn~tnsis (r/2). 15. Hlmdwarella perronata (2/3), 16. ToMlnella
IXl THE PALAEOZOIC GROUP.
ore is mainly a fine gramed mixture of argentiferous

galena and sphalerite with some chalcopyrite, often
showmg sigm of considerable crushing. The ore-body
is lens-shaped and about 3000 [t. long and of varying
width. It is cut up by two faults, the Yunnan fault in
tht' north and the Hsenwi fault in the south, into three
..ections; the northern section, called the Shan lode has
.m average width of 20 ft.; the central section, the China-
man lodr has an average WIdth of 50 ft. but is in places
'40 ft.; the southern section, called the Meingtha lode
1S 20 tt. wide. The ore-body as a whole strikes N.N W.
and dIps towards the west, with a northerly pitch. The
hanging wall is well defined while the foot-wall is often
indefinite and grades into the country rock. The core of
the ore-body is a solid mass of ore, while the margins con-
tain increasing proportions of country rock. There
are also some subsidiary lodes in the neighbourhood which
are called the Chin, Burma and Kachin lodes.
The shan lode contains rather high silver, low ZlI1C
<lOci some copper in the higher levels. The zinc and lead
increase in the lower levels. The original ore reserves
were estimated at over 20 million tons.
The Chinaman lode contains about 20 per cent. zinc
at the higher levels, this decreasing to 9 per cent. at the
bottom. Lead is more or less steady at about 25 per cent.,
but the silver content decreases from 31 oz. (to the ton) in
the upper levels to 14 oz. in the lower levels.
The Meingtha lode is similar to the Chinaman lode
in the upper levels, but with lower Ph-Zn and higher
l.aJitmlru:a (cranldlum) (2/3) 17. Do (pygldlUm) (2(3). 18. Anomocart

hundwamue (1/3) 19 Plychop(ma dadapurtllfis (2/3). 20 Mobergla' granulata
(2/3) 21 Hoiftrla (RedllChla) noetlin1:1 (~/3\. 22. PtycilopaTia "chterl (2/3)
13. Lm/(ultllu wallntecki (6) 24 Pseudotheea waageni (3/2) 25. MlcrodLfcus
grie5bachl (head shield) (6). 26. Do (pygldlUm) (6). 27. Anomocare
conjunrll1'a (2) 28 LIngula halmantensLf (3) 29 Oryctocephalus saltm (4).
30. NlsuslIJ depsatnslS (3)' 31. Acrotrela parahwenslS (4). 32. Arrothele praestans
(3). 33 Olenul haimanlttlSfS (2). 34, PtychopaTlQ maa/Jenlls (2) 35. P.
~trachtyt (2).
28
copper. In the lower levels it is high in copper with little

Pb-Zn, but containing some nickel and cobalt. The
original reserves in the Chinaman lode were about 7
million tons and in the Meingtha lode about 1.6 million
tons. The average ores of the different lodes have thro
following assay values :
Stiver Lead Zmc COp~J
ozJton pt'r cent. per cent per cent
Shan lOde 17 8 ~1.5 10 '1 ~.O9
Chmaman lode !I!.I 25 0 16.1 040

Meingtha lode 13 0 15 ~ 90 I.Q7
Gent-fal average 19. 1 22.' 13 8 105
The ore reserves in the mines at the beginning of

1940 were about 3.5 million tons, the annual production
being around 400,000 to 500,000 (ons.
The minerals identified in the ores by Dr J. A. Dunn
are: pyrite, arsenopyrite, lollingite, gersdorffite, sphalerite,
chalcopyrite, cubanite, tetrahedritc, galena, bournonite,
boulangerite, pyrargyrite, ankerite, calcite, quartz, and
senclte. The ore assemblage points to mesothermal
conditions of deposition. In the oxidation zone were
found anglesite, cerussite, pryromorphite, calamine, mala-
chite, azurite, massicot, goslarite and brochantite. The
mineralisation is probably connected with the Tawngpeng
granite and is accompanied by widespread silicification
and sericitisation of the country rock.
The Tawngpeng granite is the plutonic equivalent
of the Bawdwin volcanics. It is found in the State of the
same name and also in the Mong Tung State in South
Hsenwi. It is a biotite-granite containing no tourmaline.
Of about the same age are the siliceous tuffs containing
J C Brown' Geology and ore deposits of Bawdwm mines. Rec}/J 121'1,8,
Iq l 7
A B. Colquhoun. Trail> Am,r Inst A/ill E'lg, 69, :;Ill, 1923
M H Lowman: Op cit 56, IBI, 1917,
A B. Coktuhoun' Mmlng Ma~. 44, 329-333 , 45, 23-26, June and July, 1931
J. A. Dunn: A microscopIC study of the BawdwlD ores Ret ,/2, 333-359, 1937.
E L G. Clegg A note on the Bawdwin mme~, Dunna. Rtc. 75. paper 13, 1941
IXl THE PALAEOZOIC GROUp.
angular quartz fragments in a fine-grained chloritie

groundmass, which occur near the Lagwe Pass on the
RlIfma-China frontier.
Many of the islands of the Mergui Archipelago show
granite, porphyry, rhyolite and agglomerate. The pro-
ducts of this volcanism have been deposited with the sedi-
ments of the Mergui series. There are also some felsites
and amphibolised basic rocks which are intrusive into
the Merguis and may be semi-contemporaneous with them'.
THE ORDOVICIAN AND SILURIAN SYSTEMS.
SPITI.
As alreddy remarked, the Spiti area shows a full
succession of Palreozoic rocks. The Cambrian formations
described already are overlaid by a thick series of shallow
water deposits consisting of conglomerates, quartzites and
grits and these in turn by shales and limestones, this whole
succession being referable to the Ordovician and Silurian.
The lower, arenaceous part is about 1500 ft. thick while
the upper calcareous and argillaceous strata have a thick-
ness of 500 to 600 ft.
TABLE 16.-LoWER PALAEO..lOIC SUCCESSION IN SPITl.
Upper SilUrIan Muth quart.tlte.
'8, Grey sdlceou!> limestone weatherIng rrd .. 80 n

7 Grey lImestones. weatht'rtng brown, WIth
Stlurlan brown and red marls . 7 0 It.
6. Crey ('oral lunestone . 50 ft.
Ji Shaly limestone with braLhlopo<is, ~a~lro
pods and corals 30 ft
---?-- 4. Hard ~rey delonutlc limestone . 40 flo
Ordovician 'J Dark grey limestone WIth cystids 40 ft.
2 Dark foehd hmestone WIth trilobites anr!
brachIopods 1100 ft.
I. Shaly and fla'l''l"Y sandstone WIth plants
and Orthls . 150 ft.
O. FlagRY quartzIte. and SIliceous slaales
pa.smg down mto red quartzites with
(onl(lomerates at base (Ullfo","lhferous) . 1')00 fl
Upper (and partly Middle)
Cambnan Shale, slates. quartnte&, etc l!looft
LOWcr- CambrIin-- - - -~IRed a~d Black slates-and qu-ar~ites I-ooo-ft
Dark slates and quartzItes 2000-
3~ft.
GEOLOGY OF INDIA AND BURMA. rCHAP
PI artIcally all the beds in the above succession con-
lellllfossils. Bed No.2 is particularly rich in trilobites and
brachiopods and is referable to Caradocian age. The
beds above it contain rystids and brachiopods which
indicate a transition from Ordovician to Silurian. The
siliceous limestone (Bcd No.8) below the unfossiliferous
Muth Quartzite shows }i'avosttes, Pentamerus, and other
fossils on weathered surfaces and is of early Wenlock age,
the Upper Silurian being part of the Muth quartzite,
The fossils in the two systems arc mentioned below :-
ORDOVIcIAN FosSll.s
Trilobites AsapJryus emodl var. mdamenlls, lllamus brachlo-
nzsCUS, 1. punctu/osus, Calymene TlivalH, Chelruruf
millS.
Brachiopod'! Orthzs (Dlno/thls) thakzl, Da/manfUa tf.ltudlflalla,
uptaena rhomboldallS, L trachealis, Strophomena
chamerops, ReJinesquma unlblella, R alanea, R.
muthensrs, Plectambumtes h,malensts, Chrzsttanta nux.
Lamelhbranchs Ptennea thanamC1lJls" LophospJTa himalmns, L.
& Gastropods pagoda, Belle/op/IOTI ganesa, Can radel/a aft obllqua
C('phalopods Orthoceras kemas, ('.yltouras centrzjllgum, Gonioceras
d anceps.
Bryozoa Ptilo/Jora, Phyllopullna, Pttlodactya
Actmozo<l Streptelasma aff cormculum, Hellol,tfJ t/fIJallp(l1ata.
Pteropods Tentaculites.
SILURIAN FOSSILS
Trilobites Encn'nurU:l aff pUlletatUJ, Galymene &p
Brachiopods Orthls (Plcctorthls) Jp,tiensls, Da/manella basabJ,
Orthis calli'gramma, up/aena rhombOldallS, Orthothelts
aR'. pecten, Pentamerus (/blongus.
LamellI branchs Palaeonedo cf victonae
Gastropods Euomphallis cf triquetrUJ
Cephalopods Orthoee/os cf. annulatum.
Actinozoa Lindstroemia sp., Zaplzrentls :.p., PrQPora himalaica,
Favosites spltlensis, Halysltes walltchi, H. catenlltana
var. kanaurensis
In the Ordovician, the brachiopods are abundant and

trilobites comparatively much less common and mollusca
rare. The Silurian fauna is rich in corals with remarkable
IX] rHf, PALAEOZOIC GROUP. 2~1
American affinities. Though the faunas of the two

systems have local characters, they show much more
affinity to those of North America than Northern Europe.
KASHMIR.
Ordovician. -The Ordovician is present in parts of
Kashmir though the exposures have not yielded good
fossils. In the Lidar valley it may underlie the fossiliferous
Silurian exposed along the flanks of an anticline in which
a complete silurian to Triassic succession is found. A
similar anticline is found also in the Basmai area in the
Sind valley. At Trehgam and its neighbourhood, on the
northern limit of the Shamsh Abari syncline, there are
greywackes, slates, and limestones which contain some
fragmentary fossils.
Silurian.-The Lidar valley fold clearly exposes
Silurian rocks, composed of arenaceous shales and impure
limestones. The fossils include orthirls, strophomellids,
corals and fragmentary crinoids, which indicate a Silurian
age. The 'Shamsh Abari syncline also contains fossili-
ferous Silurian slates and greywackes but the fossils are
all crushed and obliterated. Elsewhere in Kashmir, the
Cambrian strata are overlain by the Muth Quartzites of
Upper Silurian to Devonian age, or by the Agglomeratic
Slates or Panjal Trap of Middle Carboniferous or later age.
GARHWAL-KuMAON AND HAZARA.
Ordovician and Silurian rocks are known to exist in
Garhwal-Kumaon south-east of Spiti. In Hazara, to the
west of Kashmir, there are apparently no Lower Palreozoic
rocks since the Dogra slates (which are Pre-Cambrian to
Cambrian) are succeeded by a boulder bed which is
regarded as the representative of Talchir boulder bed.
BURMA.
The Shan States of Burma contain well developed
Ordovician and Silurian Systems. The Tawngpeng
system (Pre-Cambrian to early Cambrian) is overlaid by
sandstones, shales and limestones which are sub-divided
as shown below : -
Nyaungbaw limestone.
Hwe-Maung purple shale!!.
Upper NaungkangYI stagt".
Lower Naungkangyi stagt"
Ngwetaung sandstone.
Of these the middle three divisions are well developed.
the other two being local.
The Lower Naungkangyi Stage.-This is seen in a
series of exposures on the Shan Plateau and consists of
marls and limestones. Good sections are to be observed
in the Gokteik gorge and in the valley of the Nam Pangyum.
Amongst the fossils of this stage are : -
Brachiopod~ Or/his Irravad,ca, O. subcrateroldes, Leptaena ledeten-
SIS,Rtifinesquma ,mbrex, R. subdeltoidfa, Schu:.otreta,
Plectambomtes qumquecostata.
Tnlobite~ Calymene birmanica, Chflrurus drallidicus. Asaphus,
Phacops.
Cystlds and Artistorystif dagon, and ~everal speCies of Hello-
Crinoids cnnus and Caryocrinus.
BI yozoa Dlplotrypa sedavensis, Plrylloporllla onental,J.
The fossil assemblage shows affinities with that of the
Lower Ordovician of the Baltic region of Europe, and very
little with that of Spiti in which the important elements
are trilobites and cystids.
The Upper Naungkangyi Stage.-This has a wide
distribution in the Shan States and shows two facies-a
shaly facies west of Lashio and a calcareous shaly one east
of the same place. The western outcrops are about 1000
ft. thick and show evidences of crushing and compression.
Th e chief fossil organisms in them are : -
Brachiopods Lmgula cf. attenuata, DalmaneUa testudmarza var.
shanenstS, Orthls caillgramma, Strophomena sp., Raft-
nesquma subdeltoidea, Porambonites sinuatus, Plectam-
bomtes sericea.
Trilobites Agnostus cf. glabratus, Calymene birmanica, [liaenus
lilutnSls, Chelrurus submttis, Phacops dagon, Pilomera
insangensis.
CrinOids Heliocrinus, Caryocrinus.
Bryozoa Diplotrypa palinensis, Phylloporina, CnaT1UJpora.
PLATE II.
ORDOVICIAN AND SILURIAN FOSSILS.
~
'(II~n!I"
, . / " , t. \
, 1/ il
EXPLANATION OF PLATE II
I. reoJmella conslgnata (3/2) 2 OrthlJ (Dalmandld) emanelpata (3/2)
3. O. hehoenflS (2). 4 Anomocare hundwarense ('1/2) 'i TOllkmella KashmlrlCa
(2) 6 Conocoryphe jrangtengtnsts (3/2) 7. OrthlS marhaumenslS (2) 8 Lin-
pia exurnata (5/2) 9 Ogygttes brrmalllCU, (2/3) 10 Hyolrlhes cllVet (2), II H
loc;:;yt (2) 12 Tentaculrter elegalls (2) 13,14 ActdllSPIS shanen-us (3). Phacops
(Pterygometopur) dagon (2) 16 Illamus ltlUeT1SIS (3/2) 17. OrthoctTllS commu.
tatum (1/3). 18 AnstocystlSdagoll (1/3) 19 HtllOCTltIUf qualus (1/3) 20. Cary.
ocrmus avellana (1/3). 21 OrthlS call1grllmma (I) 22 PlectambomteJ quzllqueCOJ.
tata (3/2). ~3 Rafillesqullla I1Ibrex (2/3)' 24 OrthlS Jtrach~YI (2/3) 25 ,1/ypa
"tleUlans (2/3) 26 PteTlllea AonghsaerlSls (1/3) 27. Trrllleeia uneala (2/3). 28.
RafiMsqUtna umbrella (2/3) 29 Leptoena tracheallS (2) 30 PleclambolllltJ hlmalenslS
(3{2). 3 1 Ptmnea thanamensls (2/3). 32. Liosptra emodl (2). 33 Calymerv IlIvalts
(2) .34 OrthlS (Dalmanella) basalts (3/2) 35 Halysllts walllChl (2/3) 36.
F(JIJDSltes SJnhtnsIS (2 f3)
CEO LOGY OF INDIA AND BURMA. [CHAP,
The purple calcareous shales in the eastern area are

also roughly of the same age as the Upper Naungkangyis as
evidenced by their fossil content.
Brachlopod~ Dalmantlla <;p, Plectambomlff rfTIrea, Orthis tfstud/-
nana, 0 sJbcralero.des
Nyungbaw Limestone.-Thrse limestones over1ie
the Naungkangyis and contain Camarocnnus asiaticus and
other fossils which indicate that they are also Ordovician
In age.
SOUTHERN SHAN STATES.
The Ordovician is developed also in the Southern

Shan States where it is represented by the Mawson series,
Orthoceras beds and Pindaya beds.
Mawson series.-In the eastern part of the Mawson
highlands and further south, there are calcareous shales
and limestones containing Orthoceras, Actinoceras, Oxygites,
Pliomera, Orthis, Cyrtolites, Helicotoma, etc. These beds are
of Ordovician age and contain the lead deposits of Mawson
described by Dr. J. Coggin Brown (Ret. C.S.I., LXV,
394-433, 1930 ).
Orthoceras beds and Pindaya beds.-On the western
limb of the Mawson anticline, there occur purple argilla-
ceous limestones and shales containing crinoid stems and
species of Orthoceras, Diplograptus and Monograptus. The
Orthoceras beds are definitely of Middle Ordovician age
and their equivalents are known in Yunnan, South Man-
churia and in the Baltic region.
Bands of calcareous shales, slates and thin limestones
occur in the Pindaya range, bordered by Permo-Carboni-
ferous limestones. The enclosed fauna has close relation-
ships with that of the Naungkangyi beds, and includes
cystids, trilobites, brachiopods, etc., among which may be
mentioned:
Orth,s cf. ,rravadzea, Ptychoglyptus shanensis, TeQsinella consignata,
Chnstzama cf. tenUlClncta, Rhrnidictya cf. nitrdula, Faoos.tes ; Caryocn
nus ; Illaenus ; Dtctyonema
Several of the fossils are in a bad state of preservation.

The Silurian of Burma has the following sub-divjsions :
Zebmgyi b~ds
Namshim sandstones and marl~
Pangsha-pye Graptolite hed~.
The Graptolite beds are found near Hsipaw and other

places in the N am-tu valley and in the Loi-lem range east
of Lashio, overlying the upper Naungkangyis. Just
beneath the Graptolite-bearing bands there is a bed con-
taining trilobites. The Graptolite beds arc composed of
white shales of about 50 ft. thickness, containing abundant
graptolites and other fossils indicating a Llandovery age:
Graptolites Dlplograplus modeslus, D veslCulous, Clzmacograptuf
medzus, C. tornqulstl, C. redangularzs, Monograptus
(OnCmnUf, M. gre.garlUs, M. tmulr, Raslntts pere-
grmus, Cyrtograptus sp
Brachiopods Dalmanella elegantul/J, Daimanella manSUYI, Stropheo-
dllllla, nil mahonz, S. feddem.
Tl'llobttes Phacops (Da/mamlef) haslingJl, AlldaJjJls Jlianenszs.
Ostracod~ Be_yrzchw ~p
The Namshim (Namhsim) beds, of the same age as the

Wenlock beds of England, contain two divisions, the lower
consisting of sandstones of varying degrees of coarseness
and containing several trilobites and brachiopods. The
former include Calymene blumenbachi, Encrinurus konghsaensis,
Cheirurus cf. bimucronatus, Phacops (Dalmanites) longicaudatus,
etc. The upper Namshim stage is marly in composition
and sometimes rests directly on the Naungkangyis. These
marls contain a rich fauna:
Bryozoa Fenestella sp
TrIlobItes Enmnurus konghsaensls, Ca~ymene blumenbachl (CheJr-
urU.l b!mucronatus.
Brachiopods Lingula lewlSt, Orth,s rustlca, Or/h,s blloba, Da/manella

elegantula, Leptaena rhombo!dalzs, Strophomena
corrugata, Pentamerus cf. oblongus, Atrypa retlcuians.
The Zebingyi stage comprises limestones and shales

containing numerous fossils which show affinities to Upper
Silurian and Lower Devonian of Europe, especially of the
Mediterranean region. On the whole, the Devonian
affinities are strong.
Graptolites Monograptus dubius and other species.
Trilobltes Phacops (Dalmamtes) swtnhoei, P. shanensls.
Brachiopods Atrypa marginalis, A. subglobularrs, Stropheodonla
comllans, Menstzna sp.
Cephalopods . Orthoceras afr. commutatum and other species.
Also abundant Tentaculttes (pteropod) and severallamelhbranchs.
The Burmese Silurian has strong affinities with the
Silurian of Northern Europe and England and is quite
unlike the Himalayan strata of the same age. The
Burmese fauna is rich in graptolites which appear to be
absent from the Himalaya, while the corals which are
common in the latter are scarce in the former. The
connection of the Himalayan fauna with the American
on the one hand, and the close affinities of the Burmese
fauna with the Baltic on the other, would show that
effective barriers existed between the two groups in
Lower Palcrozoic times.
THE DEVONIAN SYSTEM.

The Devonian system is developed in the areas in
which the Lower Palreozoics occur-i.e., in Spiti, Kashmir
and Burma, and also in Chitral to the north-west of
Kashmir.
SPITI.
A group of hard, white, unfossiliferous quartzites con-
formably overlies the Silurian rocks containing Pentamerus
oblongus and other fossils of early Wenlock age and is
overlaid by fossiliferous Lower Carboniferous rocks. The
quartzites are 500 ft. thick and are known as the Muth
Quartzites. They afe mainly Devonian in age but the
lower part is Upper Silurian.
The Muth Quartzites are found also in Kumaon-

Garhwal where they have the same characters as in the
type area.
In Upper Spiti and Kanaur, there are dark fissile
limestones containing abundant Orthothetes (0. crenistria)
and other brachiopods such as Atrypa aspera, Sli ophalosia,
etc. These are Middle to Upper Devonian in age.
In Byans, near the Nepal border,-Devonian fossils have
been found in some dark limestones near Tera Gadh camp.
These include: Atrypa reticularis, A. aspera, Pentamerus, cf.
sublinguifer, Camarophoria, cf. phillipsi, Rhynchonella (Wilsonia)
cf. omega, Orthis aff. bistriata; and also the cephalopod
Orthoceras and the coral Faosites.
KASHMIR.
Devonian strata are found overlying the Silurian in
die Lidar valley and in the Shamsh Abari syncline.
They are hard white quartzites having a thickness of up
to 2000 ft. They are lithologically similar to the Muth
Quartzites of the type area and are unfossiliferous.
CHITRAL.
In the State of Chitral on the Afghan frontier,
Devonian rocks are well developed and comprise thick
limestones which are underlain by quartzites, sandstones
and conglomerates. These latter are unfossiliferous and
apparently represent older Pahcozoic rocks. The Devo-
nian rocks, which are generally brought into juxtaposition
with conglomerates of much younger age by a great
fault, comprise beds of limestone with corals and brachio-
pods. The fossils include :
Tnlobites Proetus chltTa/enszs.
Brachiopods .. .Spzrzjer aff przmaevus, S. cf. robustuJ, Athyrzs, cf. subcon
centnca, Pentamerus szeben, Orthls cf. praecursor var.
sulcata, species of Productella and Dalmanella,
Stropheodonta phtlhpst, Orthothetts hlpponyx, Chonetes
alf. embryo, Chonetes McMahOn!
Gastropods Loxonema, Euomphalus, Pleurotomana.
Actinozoa Se... eral species of Cyathophyllum.
Also crinOid stems and Fenestella.
PLATE III.
DEVONIAN FOSSIL'"
1. Cyathophyllum caespltosum (4) 2. Zaphrentts corntcula (2/3) 3. Caic,oia

,alUla/ina (2/3). 4 Hellolllls mterstmetus (1/2) OJ HexacnnlJS pyriformIS (3/2).
IX] THE PALAEOZIC GROUP.
BURMA.
Plateau Limestone.-In the Federated Shan States

the Silurian locks are succeeded by the Plateau Limestones
which occupy a large area. They are mainly of dolomitic
composition, but argillaceous and arenaceous intercala-
tions are known in places. The typical Plateau Limestone
is a hard, light grey, fine-grained and granular rock which
has been crushed and is traversed by thin veins of calcite
It contains a few traces of fossils including cordIs and
for aminifera.
The Plateau Limestone extends in age from Devonian
to Lower Permian. The brecciated nature and paucity
of fossils do not permit of the separation of beds belonging
to different ages. The total thickness is about gooo ft.
It was probably a limestone, later dolomitised to a large
extent. The lower part of the Plateau Limestone contains
two fossiliferous patches, V1Z., Padaukpin Limestone and
Wetwin Shales which have yielded Devonian fossils.
Padaukpin Limestone.--This is exposed in small area
near Padaukpin situated at a distance of a mile from
Wet win railway station, and contains a rich assemblage
of fossils:
Actinozoa Cyathophyllum blrmamcum, Pachypora ret!culata, Zaph-
Tentls, cormcula, Endophyllum acanthlcum, l-yst1phyllum
crtstatum, Calceola sandalzna, Favosltes goldjusst, Alveo'
lrna ramosa, A. suborblcutans, Helwhles wterst!nctus'
Bryozoa FIStulipora temptstwa, Selenopora coelcbs, Fcnestella
arthrzt!ca, Hem ! trypa znversa, Po{ypora populata,
Fenestropora Isolata.
6. H SPInOSUS (stem) (1) 7 Fenestt:lla po/y/Jorata (3/2) 8 Hemltrypa oculata

(3/2) q Polypora populata (3/2) 10 Stropheodonta InterstnallS (2/3) II' S
subtetragona (2) 12 Orthothete< umbraculum (1/2) 13 OrthlS stnalula (1/2).
14 P."tamCTIJ.I (Gypldula) breVirlStm (2/3) 15 Rhynchonella subsignata (2/3)
,6 Sfm1[,r padau!..pmenslS (2/3) 17. Conocardlum rhenanum (2/3). 18 Euom'
phalur radlatus ('3/2) 19 Choneler subcancellala ~/2) 20 ]anela blrmanlCa (2/3).
21 Pachypora /Jolymorpha (2/3) 22 Cyathophyllum (Thamnophyllum) multizonatum
(tranversf' s("ctlOn) (I) 23 Productus fallax var. chltralenslS (2/3) 24. .-4&hyrrs
clntraletulS (:.1/3) 25 Splrlfer murclzusomanuj (1/3) 26 Camaroto"hra baltalems (2/3).
Crinoids Cupressocrinus cf. crassus, HexacTlnus aft'. elongalus,

Taxocrinus.
Brachiopods Ltplaena rhombOldabs, Strophtodonta illlmtriailf, Ortho-
the/us umbraculum, Chonetes minula, Orthis striatula,
AthyrIS concentrica, Pentamerus (GYPldula) hremrostris,
Atrypa reticularis, Spirijer padaukpinensis, Rhyn-
chonella spp.
Trilobite~ Phacops latifrons, P (Dalmanites) punctatus.
Wetwin Shales.-The Wetwin Shales, which are
yellow to buff and mottled, are exposed near Wetwin,
12 miles east of Maymyo and within a mile of the exposure
of Padukpin limestone. No direct relationship could be
established between these two neighbouring exposures,
but the fauna of the Wetwin Shales indicates that it is
slightly younger than that of Padaukpin, while there is also
a difference in facies. The fossils include:
Bryozoa Fenes/~lla polyporata, var. wetwwcnsls
Brachiopods Lingula cf. punctata, AthyrIS cf spiriferoIdes, Chonetes
subcancellala.
I.amellibranchs. Nucula wetwlnensls, Jalleta hirmamca, Palaeoneilo sp.
Gastropods Bellerophon shanensls, B. admirandus.
This fauna indicates the Eifelian stage of the Middle
Devonian. It is rich in lamellibranchs and gastropods
whereas the Padukpin fauna is rich in corals. The
difference of the two is to be attributed to the physical
environment and conditions, the Wetwin Shales being
apparently lagoonal deposits. Beds of similar age are
known to be present in several regions in Southern Asia
such as Armenia, Iran, Yunnan and Indo-China.
THE CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM.

SPITI.
The Muth Quartzites of Devonian age constitute a

conspicuous horizon in the Himalayan area. They are
overlain in Spiti by a series of limestones, shales and
quartzites, called the Kanawar System, which is subdivided
as follows : -
IX] TAE PALAEOZOIC GROUP.
Po Series (Fenestella shales

( (2000 ft.) ~ThabO stage: quartzites and shales
Kanawar I with plants.
System i Lipak Series
I (2000 ft.) .{ Lim('~tones and shales with Syrrngo-
l L thyrls cuspldata, Productus, etc.
Lipak Series.-N amed after the Lipak river, and
well exposed near the junction of that river with the
Sutlej, this series consists mainly of limestones and quartz-
ites with subordinate shales. The limestones are generally
hard, dark grey and contain thin siliceous bands. The
lower portion contains some corals and brachiopods which
have proved difficult to extract from the rocks. In the
upper part of the series there are thin shales and limestones
which have yielded good fossils among which are:
Brachiopods .. Productus cora, P. semzretlculatus, Chonetes hardrensis,
Syringothyrzs cuspidata, Ortholhetes sp., Derbyia cf.
rmilis, SpirzJer kashmmensis, Strophomena analoga,
Rettcularta lWlata, Athyrts roystt, A. subttltta.
Trilobltt" Philltpsta cf clifford!.
Lamelhbranchs. Conocardium, AVlculopecten, etc.
Pteropod Conularta quadrlsulcata
The fossils show that they are of Lower Carboniferous
age.
Po Series.-The Po Series, which overlies the lipak
Series, has two subdivisions. The lower portion, called
the Thabo stage, contains the plant fossils Rhacopteris ovata
and Sphenopteridium furcillatum which are regarded as
Lower Carboniferous. The upper portion, known as
Fenestella shales, because of the richness in some horizons
of the bryozoa called Penestella, is of Upper Carboniferous
age and contains the following fossils : -
Brachiopods Productus scabnculus, P undatus, Dzelasma sp ,Spirz~
gera cf. genardt, Spmfer lnangularts, Retlcularta lmeala.
The Po Series is succeeded by a conglomerate which
contains pebbles and boulders of the underlying formations
and represents a stratigraphical break which, however, is
only of a short duration here, as compared with other
areas.
KASHMIR,
Syringothyris Limest.one.-- In the Palreozoic anticline

of the Lidal valley in Kashmir, the Muth Quartzites are
overlain conformably by thin-bedded limestones called
the S) ringothyris Limestones. They are well exposed at
Eishmakum and Kotsu, south-cast of Srinagar, and appa-
rently extend further out but dre covered by the younger
Panjal trap and dlluvium. Beds of the same age are
found also near Banihal in the Pir Panjal where they
attain a thickness of 3000 ft. The strata derive their name
from the Brachiopod S)'l mgothyTlJ wspidata which character-
ises them and which show also that they are to be correlated
with the Lipak Series of Spiti.
Fenestella. Sha.les. -The SYI ingothyris Limestones
are followed by a thickness of 2000 ft. of quartzites and
shales the latter being often calcareous. They are
exposed in the Lidar valley and near Banihal.
The lowest beds of these are unfossiliferous but above
them come shales full of Fenestella and also brachiopods,
corals, etc. The upper beds are mainly quartzites with
shale intercalations. The more important fossils in the
Fenestella shales are:
Polyzoa Fenestella and Plotorete/Jora (HI/pia.
Tnlobite Phrllrpsta sp
Br(\c1uopods Productus cora, P. Jcabllcu/uJ, P undatuJ, P. sprtrensrs,
/}/JtrijI'T lydekkerz, S. trzan,t:"larts, S. varuna, Stropha-
iosla, Auiofteges, etc.
Lamellibranch~ Al'lculopecten, ModlOla, Pecten, ('te.
Kohu Hill H,hmalc ...,

l t
'ett
.....
Nt.
FI'; .) -SECTION AeROs" THE LlDAR VALLEY ANTIGI.lNE, KASHMIR.

(ArnR C S. 1!IDl>LFMli<;. Rtc 40.)
IX] THE PALAEOZOIC GROUP. 233
The Fenestella Shales are in several places conform-
ably associated with volcanic agglomerates which are
semi-contemporaneous with them. Their exact age is
somewhat uncertain because of the special characters of
its fauna, but it must be somewhere in the Middle or
Upper Carboniferous.
CHITRAL.
The Devonian rocks are followed conformably by

Carboniferous strata in Chitrdl, comprising the Chitral
slates and Sarikol shales. Amongst them are beds con-
taining Fusulina and Bellereophon.
BURMA.
Northern Shan States.

The upper part of the Plateau Limestone is oLCarbo-
niferous to a Permian age, but as mentioned already, it has
not been found possible to subdivide the formation in a
satisfactory manner. The lower Plateau Limestone, which
is dolomitic, passes up by perfect gradation into the finely
crystalline, grey or blue-grey, calcitic Upper Plateau
Limestone. This formation occurs in a number of hills
and ridges and contains Fusulina elongata and some usually
ill-preserved corals and brachiopods in places. Amongst
the fossils whIch have been identified are:
Foraminifera FUfultna elongata
Anthozoa Lonsdalela indica, ,Syrmgopora ~p., ,eaphrentis, sp.
Bryozoa Fencstella cf. perelegans, Hexagonella rflmosa, Polypora,
cf. ornata
Tnlobite PhlLllPSla, sp.
Brachiopods SPmjer strlatus, S.fasczger, Martlma dlSpar, Retlcuiarza,
llneata, Sptrtfertna cristata, SPmgera roym, Spingerella,
derbYI, &hlzophorza IndIca, Oldhamzna sp, PToductus
cora, P. C)!lzndTlcus, P. gratwsus, Chonetes grandlcosta,
Dlelasma biplex. Camarophorla sp., Notothyns sImplex,
MargmifeTa sp.
Cephalopoda . Xenaspis carbonarla.
Lamellibranchs. Pseudornonotis, Pecten, Schlzodus.
Gastropods PleurotornoTla, Murch,soma, Halopella, Nm/opsls.
3'::>
The fauna is Permo-Carboniferous and shows some

relationship to the Lower and Middle Productus Lime-
stone of the Salt Range. It is interesting to note that thf'
barrier which existed between the Himalayan and Shan
areas in the earlier Palreozoic had broken down during
the Upper Palreozoic so that there could be intermigration
of faunas.
Southern Shan States.

The Upper Plateau Limestone is found also in the
Southern Shan Stltes near Taunggyi where it has the same
characters as in the north. A fossiliferous locality on the
Taunggyi-Loilem road yielded abundant bryozoa but only
a few brachiopods. The fauna found includes Fusulina,
corals, Productus and Lyttonia which indicate Carboniferous
to Permian age.
TENASSERIM.
The Moulmein limestone beds with associated sands

and clays are about 600 ft. thick and are found overlying
the Mergui series near Moulmein. They are exposed in
the Thampra hill and the hills to its south, and also in
the islands of the Mergui Archipelago. They have yielded
fossils from north-west of Tharabwin which indicate an
Upper Carboniferous age.
Foramimfera Schwagertna oldhaml.
Anthozoa Lonsdaleza saltnaria, Lzthostrotlon sp
BrachIOpods Sptrtfer sp. Productus sumatrensls, Ahtym sp
Gastropods Bellerophon sp., Murchlsonia sp.
UNFOSSILIFEROUS PALAEOZOIC STRATA.
KASHMIR- HAZARA.
-
Tanawal Series.-A formation of cQnsiderable thick-
ness, composed of phyllites, quartzites, quartz-schists and
conglomerates, occurs in a number of places in western
Kashmir and Hazara. The rocks are more or less meta-
IX] THE PALAEOZOIC GROUP. ~35
morphosed and folded up with the Dobra Slate series.

The quartzites, however, appear to be silicified Infra-Trias
limestones or perhaps the equivalents of the Muth Quartz-
ites. They are entirely unfossiliferous. In the Pir Panjal,
members of this series have been observed to pass laterally
into the Agglomeratic Slates. Hence, though their age
is not known with certainty, they may represent a part
of the gap between the Cambrian and Upper Carbo-
niferous. The Tanawal series is overlain by the ,Tanakki
conglomerate which is now regarded as the equivalent
of the Talchir boulder bed and the Blaini boulder bed.
SIMLA-GARHWAL.
Jaunsar series.-In the SimlaGarhwal regIOn the

Palreozoic is probably represented by the Jaunsar series,
which is an unfossiliferous asselffiblage of slates, sandstones
and quartzites, resting on the Simla Slate series. The
Jaunsars of Garhwal are divided as below:
r NAGTHAT-Purple and green 'phyllites qUdrtzltes,

sandstones and conglomerates.
Jaunsar Series~ CHANDPuR-PhylIites, schists, banded quartZItes,
r tuffs and lavas.
"MANDHALJ-Limestones, slates,' phyllites, gnts and
l boulder bed. '
The Nagthats bear much resemblance to the Tanawals

of Hazara, and the Chandpurs to part of the Dalings.
Further east in Garhwal, the Chandpurs fest on the
Barahat series, consisting of quartzites, limestones and some
lavas, which may be the equivalents of the Nagthats,
since the line of separation is a thrust fault.
The Jaunsars have been affected in some places by
tectonic disturbances of pre.Krol (i.e., pre-Permian) age,
as a result of which they have acquired the Aravalli
strike direction. It is apparent that the rocks of Rajputana
and of Garhwal have been affected by the same post-
Vindyan tectonic movement.
TABLE 11.-ROUGH CORRELATION OF ~ALAEOZOIC ~TRATA,
p
-_._---------------- o~
Pemmu Ia, I~'I t Ran~e, Hazara, SlmlaGarn.
Oil wal TenD3l!ellffi Khm'Ir S~IIl, Burma 0~ a! II
__~------________~~___----------- 0
<
Penman Talchir Doul. Boulder ~ed, ITanilli congl()t 813101 Boulder Moulmeln Izewan DeW ProouctUl ~~eI 0
de! 001, merate 001, llmeltone \(Panjal trap) ~
U~~r Car Ag~lomeratic ~Iomeratt, Up~r Plateau ~
iJoOlferou! I Slate, Limestone. Z
________ ~ __ ~ __ ~ __ I
~J--
~
~
>
]Awer Car fenotella ~o !erie!, >
iJoDiferou! l I !halel, ~
, t I Synngothry~ Llpai !me!
1 I I Llmeston~, ~
J)evofilan TaoawalSeri~ aunsarSenes Me~Ul~ene! Muili Quart MuthQuartute !.oller Plateau d
I I I lite. LUlle!lone ~
I WIlli "elll1n ~
I j I !hale! ana ~
1 l l Padau~ptn
ltmestone.
Mutn Quart. Muili Quartzltl ZeDID~ri oo:ls. ~

ute In part. In part ~llu. ~amlhlm !and 0
Sllullan nan ltones ~
Graptolite ~! >
~
I
IX] THE PALAEOZOIC GROUP. ~37
It may be mentioned here that the Mergui series of
Tenasserim in Burma may be of Palceozoic age and very
roughly the equivalent of the Tanawal and Jaunsar series.
Their position with reference to the gneisses and granites
is also mainly towards the Peninsula, corresponding to
the sub-Himalayan region of India.
It will be convenient at this stage to review the salient
points in the Palreozoic (pre-Upper Carboniferous) strati-
graphy of the Indian region. The Vindhyans of the
Peninsula contain a few obscure fossils which may indicate
a Cambrian age, but there are undoubted Cambrian
fossils in the Salt Range in strata which bear some litho-
logical resemblance to the Vindhyans. There are no
strata between the Vindhyans and the Talchir boulder
beds of Upper Carboniferous age.
The Sub-Himalayan region formed a basin in which
unfossiliferous sediments were laid down: the Dogra-
Attock slates and Tanawals of Hazara and Kashmir, the
Simla Slates and Jaunsars of Simla-Garhwal and possibly
parts of the Daling and Buxa series of Eastern Himalaya,
though the last may be Dharwarian or Pre-Cambrian in
age. To the same or related sedimentary basin probably
belongs the Merguiseries of Tenasserim which in tectonics,
unfossilifcrous nature and age resembles the sub-Himalayan
rocks.
The third region, lying now beyond the Himalayan
axis, contains fossiliferous sediments, which have been
studied in Hazara, Chitral, Kashmir, Spiti, Garhwal-
Kumaon and the Ev~rest region and Sikkim. To this
zone belongs the Shan States area. The seas of the
Himalayan and Shan areas of deposition were however
unconnected in pre-Carboniferous times since the fuanas
of the two are distinct and show affinities only in Permo-
Carboniferous times. The Himalayan Palceozoics have
mainly American affinities while those of the Shan area
have close relationship with western and north-western
Europe. The stupendous compression and distortion
which the Himalayan, Baluchistan and Burmese arcs

have undergone prevent us from having any clear idea as
to their geography in the Palreozoic times.
The Palreozoic stratigraphy of the different areas is
shown in a tabular form in Table 17.
Fox, C.S. Contribution to the geology of the Punjab Salt Range.

Rec. 61, 147-179, 1928.
Gee, E.R Saline SerJes of N. W. In:iia, Curro Set. II, 4 60 -4-63, 1934-
Gnesbach, C.L. Geology of Central Himalayas. Mem. 23, 1891.
Hayden, H. H. Geology of Spiti. Mem. j6 (1), 1904.
LaTouche, T. D. Geology of N. Shan States. Mem. 39 (2), 1913.
Middlemiss, C S. Geology of Salt Range with a reconsidered theory of
ongm and age of the salt marl. Rec.24, 19-41, 1891
Stuart, M. Potash salts of Salt Range and Kohat. Ret. 50, 28-56,
19 19.
Stuart, M. Ongin and history of the rock salt deposits of Punjab
and Kohat. Rec50 , 57-99, 19 19,
West, W.O. Some recent advances in Indian Geology. (Salt
Range). Curro Sci. Ill, 412-416, 1934.
W('st, W. D. Saline Series in the Salt Range. First symposium
Proc. Nat. Acad. Set. Indzo, XIV (6) 1944; Second symposium.
op. cit. XVI (2-4), 1946.
Wynne, A.B. Geology of the Salt Range in the Punjab. Mem. 14,
18 78 .
Wynne, A.B. Trans-Indus extension of the Salt Range. Mem. 17 (2),
1880.
FOSSILS.
Redhch, K. Cambnan fauna of the Salt Range. Pal. Ind. N.S. I (I)
1899.
Reed, F.R.C. Cambrian fossils of Spiti. Pal. lnd Ser. XV, Vol. VII
(I), 1910.
Reed, F .R.C. Ordovician and Silurian fossils of the Central Himala-
yas. Pal. Ind. Ser XV, Vol. VII (2), 1912; N.S. VI (I), 1915.
Reed, F.R.C. Cambrian and Ordovician fossils from Kashmir.
Pal. Ind. N.S. XXI (2), 1934.
Reed, F.R.C. Lower Pala:ozolc fossils of N. Shan States. Pal. End.
N. S. II (3), 1906.
Reed, F.R.C. Ordovician and Silurian fossils of N. Shan States.
Pal. Ind. N.S. VI (I), '9'5.
Reed, F.R.C. Lower Palreozoic fauna of S. Shan States Pal. Ind.
N. S. XXI (3), 193 6 .
Reed, F .R.C. Devoman faunas of N. Shan States. Pal. Ind N.S.
II (5), 1906 .
Reed, F.R.C. DevonIan fossils from Chitral and the Pamirs. Pal.
Ind. N. S. VI (!2), 19!2!2.
CHAPTER X.
THE GONDWANA SYSTEM.

INTRODUCTORY.
After the deposition of the Vindhyan rocks and their

uplift into land, there was a great hiatus in the strati-
graphical history of the Peninsula. At the end of the
Pal~ozoic Era, i.e., towards the Upper Carboniferous, a
new series of changes took place over the surface of the
globe, which brought about a redistribution of the land
and sea and which was also responsible for the mountain-
building movements called the Hercynian. At this time
there existed a great Southern Continent or a series of land
masses which were connected closely enough to permit of
the free distribution of terrestrial fauna and flora. This
southern continent included India, parts of the Malay
Archipelago, Australia, South America, South Africa and
Madagascar, which were probably at that time very close
together. This southern continent, called Gondwana-
land, shows evidence of the prevalence of the same climatic
conditions and the same type of deposits. The sedimen-
tary era initiated at this time began with a glacial climate
for we find the deposits commencing with a ~lacial boulder-
bed which has been recognised in all the above-mentioned
lands. The bulk of the deposits which followed the glacial
conditions was laid down as a thick series of fluviatile or
lacustrine deposits with intercalated plant remains which
now form coal seams. The basins of deposition must
have been shallow and generally sinking, with frequent
oscillations of level, for we find each cycle of deposition
starting with coarse sandstones and proceeding through
shales to coal seams. The plant remains embedded in
these sediments have close affinities in all the lands men-
tioned, and comprise Glossopteris, Gangamopteris, Neurop-
31
teridium, etc. This floral assemblage, called the GlOSfOP-
leris flQra, is very characteristic of the deposits of the lower
part of this system. The amphibian and reptilian fauna
of this era are strikingly similar and point to unrestricted
intermigration. For instance, according to Prof. Von
Huene, there is an extraordinary resemblance between the
Dinosurs of the Central Provinces in India and those of
Madagascar, Brazil, Uruguay and Argentina. This sou-
thern Gondwana continent seems to have persisted through
the greater part of the Mesozoic era and was broken up
probably at the end of the Cretaceous, either by the
sinking of certain connecting areas or by the drifting
apart of the component parts. The close faunal and
floral affinities of the Gondwana strata in India and
AfIica, for instance, are reflected in their present day
distribution and relationship.
NOMENCLATURE AND EXTENT.
The name Gondwana was introduced by H.B. MedIi-

cott in IS72 in a manuscript report, but appeared for the
first time in print in a paper by O. Feistmantel published
in 1876 {Rec. IX, Pt. 2, p. 28). It is oerived from the
Gond kingdom of the Central Provinces where these for-
mations were studied by Medlicott, but has also been ex-
tended to the large continent which existed in the upper-
most Palreozoic and in Mesozoic times in the Southern
Hemisphere.
The rocks forming this Gondwana system are of
fluviatile or lacustrine nature and were deposited in a
series of large river or lake basins which gradually sank
along trough-faults amidst the ancient rocks. It is to this
faulting that we owe the preservation of the Gondwana
strata with their rich coal seams.
Distribution.- The Gondwana rocks are mainly deve-
loped along two sides of a great triangular area, the third
side of which is formed by the northern part of the east
coast of the Peninsula, i.. e., from the Godavari valley to the
Xl THE GONDWANA SYSTEM. 243
Rajmahal hills. The northern side of this corresponds
roughly to the Damodar, SOIl and Narbada valleys,
trending nearly E.-W., while the south-western side runs
along the Godavari valley with a N. W.-S.E. trend. In the
interior of this triangle is a subsidiary belt along the
Mahanadi valley. In these long and narrow tracts, the
Gondwana rocks are found in a series of faulted troughs.
Other groups of exposures are found along the Himalayan
foot-hills of Nepal, Bhutan and Assam, and also in Kashmir
and Afghanistan. Further, Gondwana rocks are seen in
a series of detached outcrops along the east coast of India,
between Cuttack and Cape Comorin, in the Rajmahal
hills, Central Provinces, Rewa, Kathiwar, Cutch, Punjab
Salt Range and Sheikh Budin hills, and also in Ceylon.
Two-fold division of the Gondwanas.-The Gond-
wana system is divided into two major divisions based
mainly on pal~ontological evidence. This two-fold classi.
, fication is the one adopted by the Geological Survey of
India and has been strongly supported by C.S. Fox in
his recent monographs on the coalfields of India. The line
of division is taken as above the Panchet series, the lower
portion being characterised by the Glossopteris flora and
the upper by the Ptilophyllum (Rajmahal) flora.
A tripartite classification was suggested by Feismantel
and followed by E. Vredenburg in his Summary of the
Geology of India (1910, p. 50), where Lower, Middle and
Upper Gondwanas are shown as equivalent to the
Permian, Triassic and Jurassic systems of Europe. A
factor, apparently in support of this, is the intervention of
arid continental deposits containing Triassic reptiles and
amphibians in the middle portion of the Gondwanas,
the beds above and below this group indicating humid and
normal conditions. Moreover, the base of the Panchet
series corresponds to the base of the Trias. Though these
factors make the tripartite division plausible, the evidence
of the flora is entirely in favour of a two-fold division.
Though the details of the stratigraphy of the different
Gondwana areas in India differ to some extent, it is
clear that the Glossopteris flora practically dies out in the
Panchets and is replaced completely by a more advanced
one known as the Ptilophyllum or Rajmahal flora.
Sub-divisions of the Gondwanas.-The Lower as well
as the Upper Gondwanas consist of three series each. In
the ascending order they are the Talchir, Damuda (Damo-
dar) and Panchet series in the lower division, and the
Mahadeva, Rajmahal and ]abalpur (Jubbulpore) series in
the upper division. Each series consists of stages which
have received different names in the different areas where
they are developed. Table 18 shows at a glance the
correlation of these stages and their position in the standard
stratigraphical scale.
TALCHIR SERIES.
The lowest series of this system is named after the
coalfield and the State of Talcher (Talchir) in Orissa,
where it was first studied. Its lowest member is a boulder-
bed, which is succeeded by shales and sandstones. The
boulder-bed forms a conspicuous and characteristic datum
line in the geology of the Peninsula, and is in general 50
to 100 feet thick. Its equivalents are found in the Salt
Range, Kashmir-Hazara (Tanakki boulder-bed), Garhwal
(Mandhali beds) and in Simla (Blaini boulder-bed).
The boulder-bed consists of an unsorted mixture of
boulders, pebbles, fragments and clay, the boulders often
showing facets and strire of glacial origin. In most of the
peninsular occurrences there is evidence, according to
C.S. Fox, of this bed being to some extent are-sorted
glacial deposit, whereas in the Salt Range the ice sheets
seem to have deposited the moraine materials directly
in a shallow sea. The Salt Range occurrence contains
boulders and pebbles of granite, Malani rhyolite, etc.,
which have apparently been derived from the region of the
Kirana hills about 50 miles to the south and also from
some parts of Rajputana. The other boulder-beds have
X] THE GONDWANA SYSTEM. 245
not been studied in detail so that the sources of the con-
stituent materials are not definitely known.
Shales and Sandstones.-The Talchir boulder-bed is
overlain by shales and these in turn by sandstones, the
total thickness of these being 500 to 800 feet. The shales
are greenish in colour and usually break up into thin
pencil-Hke or prismatic fragments, for which reason they
arc often called " ned dIe-shales. ' The shales are arenace-
ous, micaceous or calcareous, and sometimes grade into
sandstones which are also generally greenish or greenish
brown in colour. The sandstones generally contain grains
of undecomposed felspar which also furnish evidence of
very cold conditions of deposition. The shales and sand-
stones may be intercalated with each other but the latter
are more common in the upper part, indicating a general
coarsening of the sediments as deposition went on. In the
uppet part of the Talchirs, however, the glacial conditions
seem to have given place to milder climate as evidenced
by the presence of fossil plants.
Distribution.-The Talchir beds are found in most of
the Lower Gondwana areas of the Peninsula in the
faulted troughs, and also sometimes as outliers on the
gneisses of the neighbouring regions. It is thought that
the deposition of a series of moraines in the early Talchir
age was responsible for the formation a series of more or
less connected lakes which received the sediments of the
succeeding (Damuda) age.
Talchir fossils.-The plant fossils of the Talchirs occur
only in the upper part and show an assemblage which is
fairly distinct from that of the Damuda (Damodar) stage,
but closely allied to that of the immediately succeeding
Karharbari beds which arc well represented in the
Giridih coalfield. The important localities of Talchir fossils
are Karaon (Deoghur Coalfield), Rikba (Karanpura),
Latihar (Auranga), Nawadih (Hutar), Behia-Baragaon
TABLE 18 CORRELATION
[Non - Thr Lowf'r and Upper Gondwana~

.'
Gondwan,1 SUlI-
~tandard "' al~ Damodar RaJrnah.tl Mahanadl Satpurl.
divisions vall~y
valleys
Cretatrous Lower
~{urnla
(Upper ~ Jabalpur
...., Bansa beds Jabalput
,
JurasSl{ ~ Middle ~ (Kola Chaugan
I
l Lower J lRaJrnahdl Rajmahal RaJmahdl, Athgarh sst
"Ith traps
(Rh,dIC ~ (Maleri DubraJpur Tiki Bagrd
I "I Denwa
t ,,'
.:=1
I Kellil~1 ~ 1 Suprd- Pachmarhl
I ::>. LPachmarhi Panthet (Maha
Trla8SH {
I Durgapur? deva)
I
I MUSlhd- Clllchana
I kalk Panora *
I ~ ~ ~ ,~
lBUlltrr ] {panchet Panlhet Almod

Il.
( UpJ>I'r
I
r Ralll~'II1J Ralllgal1J Hlmllir BIJOfl
I I Pall
I 1
I I Barren Barr~1l Motul
Permian { Middle I
measures m~asur~
I
I (Ironstone
I ~~ ,h)
;1 I
i S
lLower '" I
Cil
llhrakar Barakar Barakar Barakar Barakar
Karharbari Karharbari
!:: fRikba
Carbom.[ Upper
ferous l
i
~ TalchIr Talchir Talchir Taldllr Talchir
[-0 lBould!"r-
bed
IBoulder-bed Boulder- j Boulder-
bed
bed
Accordmg to Prof. B. Salmi, Dr. Cotter'. Itst of fossils contained a mixturf

XJ THE GONDWANA SYSTEM. 247
OF THE GONDWANA STRATA.
aTf ~eparat(ld by a wavy line.]
East Coast
Godavan Cutch and
valley Salt Range.
Godavari GunluT Madras
( Nr-QComlan
UIllJa Portlandian
Chlklala Tlrupatl PavotJur ISatyavedll Katrol { Klmm~ridgilll
Colalhan
Raghavallu- Vcmavaram { Oxfordian
Kotd S'Ttcrumbu- Chan Callov,an
ram ur
Patcham Hathoman
Lla~
Golaptlh Budavada
Maler,
Rhaehc
CnnOidal Kcupa
dolomltr
_ Bivalve beds Muschdkal.

........ ~
Mangh (Chlntal- Crratlte beds Bunter
Kllmfhl
1Sann.lom,
pudi
Chldru 'I
Thurmglan
lahbl
Kundghal j
Kalabagh
Virgal } Saxonian
Barakar Kalta Artinlkilln

Arnb
Eurydesma & Sakmanan

Conu[ana
beds
Il uu lder-bed
I
Boulder-bed I Urahan
trom two hOriZOns. Thes~ fossl[s n("cd a critical S\Uqy.

18 miles north-east of Anukpur (Sohagpur), Goraia
(south of Pali in Rewa) and Kuppa (Sonada).
At Rikba and other places the following fossils have
been found :-
Ptendospt'rmre GlVlSoPt~Tls indica, G. commums, G. sp, Ganga-
lIIoptertS cyrloptermdes var. major, C. cyclopterOides,
G angust!lollO, G. bunadlca, Vetebraria indica
(which IS now believed to be the rhizome of
Glossoptens) .
Cordaltaks NoeggerathlOpslJ hlSloPI
Inccrtre SamalopSlS sp. (~eed~.)
In the Panjab Salt Range area the Talchir boulder-
bed is represented by the boulder-bed above the Salt
Pseudomorph zone. Within a few feet of the base of
the boulder-bed Gondwana fossil plants and spores have
been discovered. From near Kathwai, from the shales
immediately overlying the boulder-bed, several types of
spores and cuticles have been discovered. The following
fossils were also obtained from the same lbcality, about
25 ft. above the boulder-bed.
EqUl~('t,de~ Schu:.oneura sp
Flhcalcs? .. (tlethoptens sp
Ptendosperm:r ., Glossoptms communis, G. zndlca, Gangpmoplerls
bUTladlca, Vertebrana mdtea, .N'oeggerathiopsls
(Cordattes) sp.
Incerta: Ottokana kat~wazens!s, Samaropns emargznata.
Cordalcarpus sahmi.
The Bla.ni boulde~-bed of the Simla Hills, the Tanakki
boulder-bed of Kashmir-Hazara and the Mandhali beds
of Tehri"'Garhwal are also considered to be their equiva-
lents. The location of these may be taken as indicating
the proximity of northern shore-line of Gondwanaland.
UMARIA MARINE BED.
An interesting discovery of recent years, by K. P.

Sinor, is the occurrence of a highly fossiliferous marine
band, about loft. thick, in a railway cutting west of
Umaria. This band unconformably overlies the Talchir
PLATE IV.
LOWER GONDWANA PLANTS I.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE IV.

I. Plrytiolheca indica. 2. Schi::;oru:ura gondwanmsis. 3, 4. Neuropttridiwn validum.
5 Sphenopteris polymorpha. 6. Cladoplzltbi.1 roylei.
boulder-bed but passes upwards without arry visible break

into the overlying Barakar rocks. It contains fout hori-
~f2
zons packed with fossils, comprising only a few genera-

Productus, Spirifer, Reticularia and a few small gastropods,
the first of these being the most common. The fauna
shows, according to Cowper Reed, an admixture of
characters of Carboniferous and Permian age but the
species are all new, with highly individual characters.
From the nature of the fauna it is thought that this area was
connected with the sea of the Salt Range and that the
age of the beds more or less corresponds to the Karharbari
stage of Giridih and to the Eurydesma and Conularia
beds of Salt Range and the Gangamopteris beds of
Kashmir. The animal remains in these are:-
Brachiopod~ Productus umanenJls (abundant), P rewahensls,
Sprifer narsarhmsls, Retleulana barakarensls,
AthyrIS aff. protea
Gastropods Pleurotomana umariensis. Also fish r("mains and
crinOId sterns
DAMUDA (DAMODAR) SERIES.

This series, which according to Dr. C. S. Fox has the
importance of a sub-system, includes four stages, viz.,
Karharbari, Barakar, Barren Measures and Raniganj.
It takes its name from the Damodar river (a tributary of
the Hooghly river) which flows through the Raniganj,
Jharia and Bokaro fields, and is the most extensive and
best developed sub-division of the Gondwana system.
Karharbari Stage.-Above the Talchir series there is
a distinct unconformity which is succeeded by the Karhar-
bari beds in the Giridih coalfield, the name being derived
from a village in that area. Here it forms the lower
portion of the coal-bearing Barakar rocks and is separated
from typical Barakars by a thickness of barren sandstone.
Though forming a distinct stage as decided on palceo-
botanical evidence, this is more allied to the overlying
Barakars than to the T alchirs.
This stage consists of pebbly grits and sandstones
which attain a thickness of 200-400 ft. and contain
X] THE GONDWANA SYSTEM.
PLATE V.
LOWER GONDWANA PLANTS I I.
,.
EXPLANATION OF PLATt; V.
I. Sphmophy/lulII speciosum. 2. NoeggtTalhiopsis his/opi. 3. PalaeOlitiaria kur{i.
t Gangamopteris ~yclopteroides. ;i. Vtltbraria indica.
intercalated coal seams two of which are important and

are being worked. I t has been recognised in the Karan-
pura, Hutar, Daltonganj, Umaria, Mohpani and Shahpur
fields.
The fossils found in tllis stage are . -
Equisetales Sch,zoneura gondwanensls, Sward,.
Pteridospermre Glossopteris ITldlCa, G. dectplens, G. longlCaulu,
Gangamoptens cycloptmodes, var. major, G.
angustifoila, G. burzadlca, Vetebrarza zndrca,
Gondwanrdlum (Neuroptmdlum) valldum.
Cordaitales NOIggerathwpsls hlslopi, N. stoilczkana, N. wlllttiana.
Coniferales Burwdw (VoltZla) sewardl, Moranocladus (Arau-
cantes) oldhami.
Incertre Caillptmdlum sp, Ottokarla bengalensis, Arberia
andlca, Samara/HIs mllltTl, S. ramganjensis,
Cordmcarpus ,nd,cus.
The Gangamopteris beds at Khunmu and Nagmarg
in Kashmir contain the amphibian Archegosaurus ornatus,
Lysipterygium deterrai, and the ganoid fishes Amblypterus
kashmirellsis and A. .I_Ymmetricus and also the following
plants : -
Ptendospermre Glossoptms indIca, Gangamoptms kashmmnsis,
Vetebrana zndICa.
Corddltalcs NoeggerathlOpsis hlSlopl.
Ginkgoales? Psygmophyllum haydem.
BARAKAR STAGE.
The name is derived from the Barakar flver which

cuts across this stage in the Raniganj coalfield. It consists
of a thickness of 2,000 feet of white to fawn coloured
sandstones and grits with occasional conglomerates and
beds of shale. The sandstones often contain more or less
decomposed felspars. Because of their uneven hardness,
the sandstones weather with a rough surface and produce
pot-holes in stream-beds. This stage contains much
carbonaceous matter in the form of streaks, lenticles
and seams of coal. In the Jharia coal-field, the Barakars
include at least 24 seams of coal, each more than 4- feet in
X] THE GONDWANA SYSTEM. ~53
thickness, and it has been calculated that over 200 feet

of coal are present in the total thickness of 2,000 feet of
strata.
This is the chief coal.bearing stage in practically all .
the Lower Gondwana areas of India, including Darjeeling,
Buxa Duars and Abor hills. In the last mentioned place
the base of the Barakars show intercalations of marine
beds containing anthracolithic fauna. In all the areas
where the Barakars are exposed, it is seen that sandstones
with false-bedding, shales and coal-seams appear in this
order and are repeated 'Over and over again. The
sandstones sometimes contain trunks of trees. The
Barakar seems are best developed in the Jharia coal-field,
those in other fields being generally less thick and less
important. Occasionally, however, very thick seams occur
such as the Kargali seam of Bokaro and the Korba seam
of the Hasdo valley each of which is about 100 feet thick.
In many cases the coal bearing strata are associated with
beds of fire-clay.
The Barakars seem to have been laid down in a
series of large shallow lakes some of which were probably
connected by streams. The coal appears to be due to the
accumulation of large amounts of debris of terrestrial
plants accumulated under quiescent and stagnant con-
ditions. Though coal is so abundant in some areas,
plant fossils are found only in some localities, and animal
fossils seem to be completely absent.
Among the more important fossil plants in the Barakars are:
Equistales Scku:oneura gondwanensls, S. wardl, Phyllotkeca
gnesbachl.
Sphenoph yllales Sphenophyllum speclOsum.
Pteridospermre Glossoptens indica, Glossopteris communis, C. amp/a,
G retifera, Gangamopterzs cyclopteroldes (only
III the lower beds), Sphenopteris polymorpha.
Cycadophyta Ta!nwptms dano!Oldes, T Jeddem, Pseudoctenu

balli.
Cordaitales Noggerathiopsts hlslopi, N. whlttlana, Dadoxylon
InJ,cum.
PLATE VI.
LOWER GONDWANA PLANTS III.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE VI.

I. Glossopuris declpitru. 2. Glossoptms indica and G. anpstifolia. 3. Glou.
ptlTis reli/lTa. 4. Glossopteris browniana. 5. BurUl4ia .!IlAiardi.
Ginkgoales? RhlptdOpslS gtnkgotdes.

Incertr Barakana dtchotoma, Dlctyopttridum sporiftrum,
Cordauarpu.r cf corda,
BARREN MEASURES (IRONSTONE SHALES).
The Barren Measures, which intervene between the

Barakar and Raniganj stages in the Jharia coal-field, are
about 2,000 feet thick and are entirely barren of coal-
seams. They consist mostly of sandstones, which are
somewhat less arenaceous than the Barakar type, and are
represented in the Raniganj coal-field by the Ironstone
lhales whose thickness is about 1,400 feet. They consist
generally of carbonaceous shales with clay-ironstone
nodules which are sideritic at depth, but when oxidised
at and near the surface become limonitic. These are in
places rich enough to form workable iron ore, and for-
merly the nodules used to be collected at the surface
or in shallow pits for use in the blast furnaces of the
Bengal Iron Co. (since amalgamated with the Indian
Iron & Steel Co.) situated at Kulti. The ironstone
contains about 35-40 per cent. ircm. The Barren Measures
are seen in the Jharia-Karanpura field but when followed
in the coal-fields further west, they merge more or less
into the overlying Raniganj series which are also barren
of coal seams in these western fields.
The fossil plant~ found in he Barren Measures are:
Lycopodiales Bothrodendron sp.
Pteridosperm:r GlossoptertS mdlca, G amp/a, Gangamoptens cyclop-
lero I des
Cordaitales Noeggerathwpsts hlSlopt
Motur Stage.-In the Satpura area the Barren Mea-
sures seem to be represented by the Motur stage which is
also devoid of coal. This consists of white sandstones
with intercalated layers of red, yellow and carbonaceous
shales as in the Pench valley. In the Tawa valley of the
'Betul district, the Moturs do not contain red clays but
show brownish and greenish sandstones and buff to greenish
buff clays which ale often calcareous. In south Rewa
the beds occurring between the Barakars and the Pali and
Daigaon beds (Raniganj age) are apparently to be referred
to the Barren Measures.
RANIGANJ STAGE.
This is typically developed in the Raniganj coal-field

where it attains a thickness of over 3,000 feet. It is of
about the same thickness in the Satpura area where it is
known as the Bijori stage, but is thinner in the Jharia
coal-field. In the type area it consists of sandstones,
shales and coal-seams, the sandstones being definitely
finer grained than those of the Barakar series. Valuable
coal-seams occur in these only in the Raniganj coal-field.
The coal is higher in volatiles and moisture than the
Barakar coal, but 'there are certain seams, like the Disher-
garh, Poniati and Sanctoria seams, which are excellent,
long-flame, steam coals.
Fossil wood (Dadoxylon) has been found in the upper
part of this stage both in the Raniganj and Jharia fields
and in the Motur beds of the Pench and Tawa valleys.
TYPical fOSSils of the Raniganj stage are -
Equisetales Schl:;,oneura gondwanensls, Phyllotheca indica.
Sphenophyllales Sphenophyllum speciosum.
Flhcales? Alethopteris royln.
Pteridospermre ClossopteTls indica, C. communis, C. browniana,
C. retifera, C. angustifolta, C. stricta, G.
tortuosa, C. formosa, C. divergens, C. conspzcua,
Gangamoptens whztizana, Vertebrarza indica,
Sphenopterzs hughesl, S polymorpha, Pecopteris
phegopteroldes.
Cycadophyta TtEnloptms danttOldes, T feddem.
Cordaitales NoeggerathlOpsis hlSlopl.
Ginkgoales 1 RhlPldopsls densznervis.
Coniferales Burzadta (Volt;:.ta) sewardl.
Incertre Palaeovlttana kurd, Belemnoptens wood-masoniana,
Dictyopterzdium sportiferum, [Actinopteris] benga-
lensis, SamaropstS raniganjensis.
The Raniganj stage is represented by the Bijori stage
in the Satpuras; by the Kamthi beds of Nagpur and the
Wardha valley in Chanda; the Pali beds in South Rewah ;
the Himgir beds in the Mahanadi and Brahmani valleys ;
the Almod beds occurring just south of the Pachmarhi
scarp; and the Chintalpudi sandstones of the Godavari
valley.
The Kamthi beds (named after Kamptee near
Nagpur) comprise red argillaceous sandstones and conglo-
merates with interstratified shales. They extend down into
the Wardha-Godavari valley where it is difficult to separate
them from the lithologically similar Upper Gondwanas,
and where this facies of rocks may include both Raniganj
and Panchet stages. Their lithology has led to the con-
fusion of correlating them with the Pachmarhi sandstones
and the Supra-Panchets. The fossils found in the Kamthis
are :-Equisetales: Phyllotheca indica; Pteridospermre:
Glossopteris indica, G. communis, G. browniana, G. stricta,
G. ampla, Gangamopteris hughesi, Vertebraria indica; Cycado-
phyta: Tamiopterzs cf. macclellandi, T. danaeoides, T.
feddeni ; Cordaitales: Nteggerathiopsis hislopi.
The Pali beds (named after Pali near Birsinghpur
railway station on the Katni-Bilaspur line) consist of
coarse felspathic sandstones associated with ferruginous
and argillaceous bands, the latter yielding plant fossils of
Raniganj age.
The Himgir beds of the Raigarh-Himgir coal-field are
composed of red sandstones and shales of Kamthi facies
which overlie the Barakars unconformably. They con-
tain a Raniganj flora which includes :-Equisetales :
Schizoneura gondwanensis ; Pteridospermce: Glossopteris indica,
C. browniana, G. angustiJolia, G. communis, Vertebraria indica,
Pecopteris lindleyana, and Sphenopteris polymorpha.
The Bijori beds in the Chhindwara district, which
comprise sandstones, micaceous flags and shales which
are sometimes carbonaceous, have been found to contain
33
remains of the labyrinthodont Gondwanosaurus hijoriensis
and the following plant fossils :-Equisetales: Schizoneura
gondwanensis; Sphenophyllales: Sphenophyllum speciosum;
Pteridospermce: Glossopteris communis, G. damudica, G.
angustifolia, G. retifera, Gangamopteris sp., Vertehraria indica;
Incertce: Samaropsis cf. parvula.
The Almod beds were originally referred to the
Panchet by H. B. Medlicott, but are classified with the
Bijoris by H. Crookshank.
THE PANCHET SERIES.

The Panchet series succeeds the Raniganj stage with
a slight unconformity and sometimes overlaps on to the
Barakars. The rocks of this series, which have a total
thickness of 1,500 to 2,000 feet, rest upon the Raniganj
stage of the Raniganj coal-field and constitute the Panchet
hill which is a prominent landmark. They comprise
greenish, buff and brownish sandstones and shales in the
lower part, and greyish, micaceous and felspathic sand-
stones and shales in the upper part. The sandstones are
often false-bedded and contain no coal-seams or carbona-
ceous matter. They are not known in the Jharia coal-
field, but their equivalents are found in Bokaro and
Auranga. The Almod beds in the Pachmarhi area may
probably be of Panchet age in large part. The Mangli
beds of the Wardha valley, composed offine red and yellow
sandstones and grits which are sometimes used as orna-
mental building stones and are more or less similar in
appearance to the beds of Kamthi, are also referable to
the Panchets on fossil evidence, since they contain Brachyops
laticeps (a labyrinthodont) and Estheria. The lower part
of the Panchet beds is found near Maitur, northwest of
Asansol, where plant fossils (Glossopteris, Schizoneura, etc.)
are found, with close Damodar affinities, and also Pecopteris
concinna and Cyclopteris pachyrachis. A slightly higher
horizon near Deoli, called the Deoli beds (also in the
X] THE GONDWANA SYSTEM. ~59
Raniganj field on the Damodar river) has yielded the

following fossils :-
Lahyrinthoclonts ., Conioglyptus iongirostns, C. huxieyi, Glyptognathus
jragills, Pachygoma zncurvata, Pachygnathus orien-
tale.
Reptiles Di~ynodoTlorientalis, Epicampodon indicus.
Crustacea ., EstheTla mangltensis.
The Parsora Stage.-This stage is named after the

deserted village of Parsora north of Pali in South Rewa.
These beds consist of medium grained sandstone with
micaceous and ferruginous bands. They overlie the Pali
beds (of Raniganj age) with the intervention of several
hundred feet of unfossiliferous strata. Some of the ferru-
ginous bands contain fossil plants which have a distinctly
younger aspect than the Damuda flora. Glossopteris
appears to be absent but Noeggerathiopsis (Cordaites)
hislopi and a few other forms persist. Danaeopsis (Thinn-
jeldza) hughesi and Thinrifeldia odontopteroides are abund-
ant, which indicate a Triassic aspect. The beds of
Chicharia (this village being 6 or 7 miles north of Parsora),
which may be either of the same horizon or somewhat
younger, contain Thinrifeldia sahnii which is referred to the
Lower Triassic by Seward (Rec. 66, pp. 235-243). The
age of the Parsora and Chicharia beds is still a moot
question, but it may be said that it is somewhere between
the Raniganj and Maleri stages.
MAHADEV A SERIES.
PACHMARHI STAGE.
This senes is named after the Mahadeva hills on

which is situated the celebrated Mahadeva temple near
Pachmarhi, which latter place has given the name to the
stage which forms its lower part. The upper portion
includes both the Denwa and Bagra stages.
The Pachmarhi stage forms the magnificent scarp

above which the town of Pachmarhi is situated, and
attains a thickness of about 2,500 feet. It is of the nature
of a huge lenticular mass of sandstone between the
Denwa and Bijori beds, and consists of red and buff sand-
stones with some red clays near the base and top. There
are layers of hrematitic clay and platy veins of hard dense
ferruginous matter which, on weathering, resemble broken
pieces of pottery. The Pachmarhi and other stages of the
Mahadevas are entirely devoid of carbonaceous matter,
though the clayey layers sometimes show leaf impressions.
The sandstones are generally somewhat coarse grained
and tinted in various shades of red because of the dissemi-
nated ferric iron. Some of the Pachmarhi sandstones
are of good quality for building and have been used at
Pachmarhi, Warora and other places.
In the Damodar valley the Mahadeva series is known
by the vague term Supra-Panchet which may also include
the Durgapur beds of the Raniga~ field. In the Rajmahal
hills it is represented by the Dubrajpur sandstone.
MALERI (MARWELI) STAGE.
This stage, named after the village of Marweli near

the Tandur coal-field in Asifabad district of Hyderabad
State, consists of red clays and subordinate sandstones
which are often calcareous. Here it rests on the Kamthis
and is followed by the Kota beds seen near Sironcha.
Reptilian and fish remains and coprolites have been got
from the red clay beds.
The same stage (called Tiki beds) is developed in
South Rewa at and around Tiki near Beohari where also
it has the same lithological characters as at Marweli. The
vertebrate fossils found here include : -
Labyrmthodonts Metoposaunds.
Reptiles .. Hyperodapedon (Paradapedon) huxley!, 'Parada-
pedon zndicus, Belodon, Parasuchus.
Saurischia .. Coelurosauria, Sauropodomorpha cf. massospondylus.
Thecodont Brachysuchus maleriensis.

Fishes Ceratodus hunterianus, C. hislopianus, C. virapa.
PLATE VII.
UPPER GONDWANA PLANTS I.
EXPI.ANATIOS OF PLATE VII.

I. Spherwpteris? hislopi. 2. MarCltticp#S mamcarpa. 3. Glejch(lIites gl~ich.
tlloides. 4. ft;lophyllum lUulifo{ium.
The reptilian fossils indicate an Upper Triassic age

for these beds. There are also some fresh-water unionids
and large trunks of fossil wood.
DENWA AND BAGRA STAGES.
These two correspond roughly to the Maleri stage.

The Denwa stage conformably overlies the Pachmarhis
and consists of about 1,200 feet of pale brownish or
greenish yellow, bright, mottled red clays with subordi-
nate bands of white and yellow sandstones which are
often calcareous. When followed southwards, the Denwa
clays and the overlying Jabalpur stage pass under the
Deccan trap and then emerge as thinner beds in the
Pench valley. The Denwas contain remains of Mastodon-
saurus indicus (allied to Capitosaurus and Metopias) and some
obscure plant remains. The labyrinthodont remams
point to Upper Triassic or Rh~tic age.
THE BAGRA STAGE.
This stage consists of pebble-beds and conglomerates

with red jasper in a matrix of red sandy clay, and lies
unconformably on the Archreans or on Lower Gondwanas.
Followed southwards, the Bagras pass laterally into the
Denwas so that they may be considered as shore-line
deposits partly equivalent to, and partly younger than, the
Denwas. The sandstones of the Tamia scarp lying above
the Denwas, though lithologically similar to the Pachmarhis,
are considered to be part of the Upper Denwa beds.
RAJMAHAL SERIES.
RAJMAHAL' STAGE.
In the type area of the Rajmahal hills in Bengal this

series consists of 1,500-2,000 feet of basaltic lava flows
with intercalated carbonaceous shales and clays, some of
these being porcellanoid. The total thickness of the sedi-
mentary beds is only 100 feet. The inter-trappean sedi-
ments in the lower four or five flows contain plant remains,

fossil wood and unionids. The more important plant
fossils are :-
Equhetales Equisetltes raJmahalenrzs.
Lycopodlales Lycopodltes granl1s, Lycoxylon sp.
Filicales MaraltlOpsis macrocarpa, Gleichenztes gleichenoides,
Cladophlebis dentlculata, Comoptens hymeno-
phyllOides, SphenopteTIs hislopl, PecopterIs lobata,
Protocyathea rajmahalense.
Pteridosperm;e ? Da1lll?opsis rajmahalensls, Thtnnfeldla, sp.
Cycadophyta Ptzloph).[[um acutifollum, P. cutchense, Oto;:;amltes
bengalensis, Dictyo;;;armtes falcatus, D. indlcus,
Taemopteris lata, T. spatulata, T. mustEfol1a,
T. mOrr!su, T. ovata, T. crassmerms, Nzlssoma
(Pterophyllum) prmceps, N. raJmahalenszs, N.
morriszana, N. medlzcottlana, N. bindrabunensis,
N fissa
Coniferales Elalocladus (Palissya) conferta, Retinosporites
(Pallssya) indica, Pagiophyllum peregrinum,
Brachyphyllum expansum.
Ca ytoniales Sagenoptms bhambhami.
Gymnospermous
stems and cones. , Nzpanioxylon guptaz, Pentoxylon sa/mn, .Nlpamo-
strobus sahnn, Ontheodendron jlorzm, Masculo-
strobus rajmahalensis, SakrlStrobus sahnlz, Carno-
conites sp.
Incertre Rajmahalia paradoxa, Podo;;;amites lanceolatus.
The Rajmahals were regarded as Liassic by Feist-
mantel but Halle thinks they are middle Jurassic, while
Du Toit suggests that the base of the series may extend
down into the Rhretic. Prof. Sahni is of the opinion
that none of the Rajmahal plants indicate a younger age
than Upper Jurassic.
KOTA STAGE.
In the Pranhita-Godavari valley the Kota stage,

named after Kota which is 5 miles north of Sironcha,
which is about 2,000 feet thick, occurs above the Maleri
beds probably with an unconformity. The constituent

strata are mostly sandstones and grits of light to brown
colour, with red clay bands and a few limestone beds.
They sometimes contain carbonaceous clays and thin coal-
seams.
Plant fossils have been found ncar Gangapur and
Anaram : -
Cycadophyta PlIlophyllum acutifoltum, TtI!nioptms spatulata.
ConifeJ ales Elatocladus (Paltssya) Jabalpurensis, E. conferta,
E (Taxlles) tenerrima, RelinospoTlles indIca,
AraucaTlles culchensis.
The Crustacean Estheria and also ganoid fish remains
are found in a limestone exposure near Kota : -
Lepidotus deccanensis, L. brflliceps, L. longiceps, Tetragonolepls oldhami,
Dapedeus egertoni.
CHIKIALA STAGE.
This is named after a village some 10 miles north of

Kota and consists of brown and buff sandstone, generally
ferruginous, and some conglomerates, the thickness being
500 feet. It does not contain shale beds and the basal
conglomerate seems to indicate an unconformity, though
the junction between Kota and Chikiala is always covered
by alluvium. Some unimportant coal beds are occa-
sionally present in the Chikiala sandstones.
JABALPUR (jUBBULPORE) SERIES.

This series is divided into two stages, the lower called
Chaugan stage and the upper Jabalpur stage. They consist
of white and light coloured clays and massive soft sand-
stones. Some of the shales are carbonaceous, and such
of the coal seams as occur (for example in the Hard and
Morand rivers in the Satpura region) are not of economic
importance. Plant fossils occur in both the stages, the
Chaugan stage fossils reseIl).bling those of Kota. The
two stages contain the following fossils ;-
Fossils of the Chaugan stage :-

Pteridospermre ? Thmrifeldia sp.
Cycadophyta Dictyo;:.amltes indicus, Tamiopteris spatulala, T.
crassmerVlS, Anomo;:.amites cf. nilssoma, Nils-
sonia prinseps, N. orientalis, N. rajmahalensis.
Coniferales PagIOphyllum dWarlcatum.
Fossils of the Jabalpur stage : -
Filicales Gleichemtes gleichenoides, Cladophlebis medlieot-
tlana, Eboracea lobifolta.
Cycadophyta Pttlophyllum acutifollUm, Oto;:_amites hlslopi,
WilliamSOnia ind,ca.
Coniferales Elatocladus Jabalpurensls, E. plana, BracJryph;,llum
expansum, PagIOphyllum cf. peregrinum, Retlnos-
porttes mdlca, Araucrites cutchensis, A macro-
pterus, A. latifoltus.
Ginkgoales? Gtnkgoites lobata, Phnenicopsis sp.
Incertre Podo;:.amltes lanceolatus.
THE COASTAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE

GONDWANAS.
Kathiawar.-In Dhrangadhra and Wadhwan in the
western part of Gujarat there is a large outcrop of nearly
horizontal sandstones occupying an area of 1,000 sq. miles.
They are, for the most part, older than the U mia beds of
Cutch and homotaxial with the Jabalpur beds. These
beds are 1,000 feet thick, the lower half being of J abalpur
age and the upper half of U mia age.
The lower beds comprise soft yellow sandstones with
white specks of kaolinised felspar, ferruginous concretions
and intercalations of carbonaceous shales and thin coal
scams. There are ferruginous shales locally enriched to
masses of hrematite. The shales contain plant fossils of
the J abalpur facies and also several common to J abalpur
and U mia stages : -
Fllicales CladophlebIs whltbyensis.
Cycadophyta Ptllophyllum cutchense.
Comferales Elatocladus Jabalpurensls, E. tenerrima, Araucarites
Incertre .. cutchenslS .
Podo;:.amltes lanceolatus.
34
PLATE VIII.
UPPER GONDWA, TA PLANTS II.
1 2.
ExPl.,A ATID OF PI.ATE VHl.

I. .Nilssonia momslana. 2. Nilssonia prj C'PS. g. Dictyo~aIT1lt(1 Jakota.
4 Oto~omite.r bellgalen.ris. 5. JaeniOpltTls spatulata.
PLATE IX.
UPPER GO:-.rOWAXA PLANTS III.
K PLA,ATIO. OF PLATE L '.

r. TtnlWptlris lata. 2. Pstudocttnis footeanum. 3. Williamsonia sewardialla.
4. Brachyphyllum rhombicum. 5. Brach phyllum mamJlare.
The upper bed con i t of gritty har h sand tones of
purple or dark colour with layel of conglomerate. This
upper division is probably equivalent to the Umia beds
of Cutch and the Tirupati sandstones.
Tht'se Gondwana beds are overlain by the Wadhwan
sandstones which are probably the equivalents of the Bagh
and Lameta beds. In the Idar State there are some sand-
stones called Himmatnagar (Ahmednagar) sandstones
from which the xerophytic ferns-Malonidium indica and
Weichselia reticulata-of Wealden age, have been obtained.
This is probably to be correlated with the Umia plant
beds of Cutch and the Barmer sandstone of Rajputana,
the latter containing some angiosperms.
Cutch.-The U mia beds, named after a village 50
miles N. W. of Bhuj in Cutch, are 3,000 feet thick and
contain plant beds underlain as well as overlain by
marine strata. The underlying Katrol stage is Kimmerid-
gian in age. The plant beds which come in the middle
division of the Umia beds are probably low down in the
Cretaceous (Barremian). These are succeeded by marine
beds of Aptian age with a rich ammonite fauna and these
in turn by the Deccan trap (see also under Marine Jurassics .
of Cutch).
The Chief plant fossils found in these are:-
Filicales Cladophlebis whitbyensis.
Cycadophyta Ptrlophyllum acutifollum, P. (utchense, Taemopteris
vlttata, Wlllwmsoma blanfordl.
Coniferales Braclz_yphyllum erpansum, Elatocladus plana, Reti-
nosporztes Indica, Araucantes culchensls, A. ma-
crop/erus.
Incertre Actinopteris sp., Pachypterls spectfica.
These beds also contain the remains of a saunan,
PleJiosaurus indica.
GONDW ANAS OF THE EAST COAST.
Orissa.-At the head of the Mahanadi delta near
Cuttack, there occur Upper Gondwana rocks called the
Athgarh beds, the exposures being to some extent obscured
by laterite and alluvium. They comprise sandstones,
grits, conglomerates and some white or reddish clays,
the last of which have yielded some fossils ;~
FiJi cales .. MarattlOpsls macrocarpa, Gletcheniles gleicnenoldes,

CladophlebIs IndIca, C. wh!tbyensls, Rhu:.o-
moptens ball! (probably the rhizome ofa fern).
Coniferales .. Retmospor!tes znd,ca.
The first four of these are Raj mahal species and there-
fore these beds are referred to that age.
About five miles west of Cuttack there are carbona-
ceous shales traversed by basalt dykes, the shales resembling
the Rajmahal inter-trappean beds.
The Athgarh sandstones have been used for building
the celebrated temples of Puri (Jagannath-mutilated in
English into Juggernaut !), Bhuvaneshwar, and Konarak
(the Sun temple), while the Buddhist caves at Kandagiri
and Udayagiri, 15 miles south of Cuttack, have been
hewn out of the same sandstones.
Godawari district.-The Upper Gondwanas are
found between Rajahmundry and Bezwada, resting un-
conformably upon the Kamthi (Chintalpudi) sandstones.
They comprise three divisions, the Golapilli sandstones below,
Raghavapuram shales in the middle and the Tirupati (Tri-
petty) sandstones above. The lower division comprises
about 350 feet of orange to brown sandstones and grits,
enclosing a flora allied to the Rajmahals. The Raghava-
puram shales which succeed them consist of 150 feet of
white and buff shales, sometimes variegated, and purplish
arenaceous shales. They contain plants as well as marine
fauna like Cephalopods and Molluscs and may be corre-
lated with the Kota Stage.
The Tirupati sandstones (about 150 feet thick)
overlie either the Golapilli sandstones or the Raghava-
puram shales. They are red to brown sandstones and
conglomerates, unfossiliferous on the Tirupati hill (23 miles
north-east of Ellore) but some outlying exposures of these
in the neighbourhood contain Trigonia and other fossils.
These may roughly be correlated with the Chikiala Stage.
The fossils found in these stages are : -
GEOLOGY OF INDIA AND BURMA. (CHAP.
PLATE X.
UPPER GONDWA, A PLANTS IV.
EXPLA 'Ano OF PI.ATf: X.

I. TaxiteJ (Elatociadus) tentrrima. r.z. Pa/issya (Elatociadus) jabalpurmsis. g.
tiraucariltS cutchensis. 4. Pagiophyllum ptrtgrinum. 5. Relmosporite indica. 6. Podo-
~ amilts lanceolatus.
Fossils of the Golapilli Stage : -

Filicales Marattiopsis macrocarpa, Cladophlebis (Altthop-
teTis) indica.
Xl THE GONDWANA SYSTEM.
Cycadophyta Ptilophyllum acutifolwm, P. cutchense, Tllniopteris

ensls, Dutyozamltes falcata, NI/ssoma (Ptero-
phyllum) morrtnana, WIlliamsonia sp.
Comferales Elatocladus (PallSSya) conferta, Retznosponlts (Palis-
sya) indIca, Araucantes macropterus.
Fossils of the Raghavapuram Stage;-
Filicales Cladophlebis (Pecopteris) reversa.
Cycadophyta Ptzlophyllum acutifolwm, ~ Pterophyllum sp , Oloza-
mItes abbrevzatus, TtEntopterzs spatulata, T.
macclellandt.
Coniferales Elalocladus (Taxi/es) lenemma.
Ginkgoales? GinAgo crassipes.
Jncert~ Pachyptms ellorensis, Podo;:.amltes lanceolatus.
Amon~~t the animal fossils found in these beds are fish scales and
several mollusca including-Ltda, Mytilus, Trzgonia znterlttvigata, Solen,
Tellma, Pecten, etc.
FosSIls of the Tirupati (Tripe tty) Stage ;-
Several fossils have been found in this stage, mostly mollusca
amongst which are ~ome ammonites and belemnites.and also Tngonia
venlricosa, T. smeel, Inoceramus, Pseudomonotis, Lima and Pecten.
Ongole Area.-In this region there are four patches

in which Upper Gondwanas are found. They are near
Kandukur, Ongole, Vemavaram and Guntur. The best
Upper Gondwana exposures are found near Budavada
24 miles N. by E. of On go Ie. The lower beds, i.e., Budavada
sandstones, are buff coloured, and are the marine equi-
c valents of the Golapilli Stage. They are succeeded by
thin-bedded, fissile, purplish, variegated shales, called the
Vemavaram shales containing an abundant flora closely
related to the Raghavapuram shales (Kota stage). Over-
lying these are the Pavalur sandstones which are brown and
red sandstones apparently unfossiliferous.
In the vicinity of Pavalur occur large blocks of sand-
stones containing marine fossils belonging to the genera
Belemnites, Cerithium, Ostrea, Rhynchonella, etc., but the stone
is dissimilar to the Pavalur sandstone and may possibly
be younger.
The Budavada sandstones have yielded the following plant fossils
(all cycads) :-Ptllophyllum acutifollum, Ttenloptens (AnglOptendlum)
spatulata, Oto;f.amltes sp. and Dlctyozamltes zndlcus.
The Vemavaram shales have yielded a fairly rich assemblage
of fossils amongst which ar~ :-
Filicales CladophlebIs (Alethoptens) indica, SphenopteTls sp.,
D,cJ..sonza sp.
Cycadophyta TtenlOpoterzs spatulata, T. ovata, Ptllophyllum
acutifollum, P. cutchense, Pterophyllum dlstans,
Zamites proximus, Dlctyozamltes Indicus.
Coniferales RetznospoTltes indIca, Brachyphyllum rajmahalmslS
Araucarites sp.
Dr. L. F. Spath examined, a few years ago, the
collections of ammonites made from near Budavada by
Foote, from Raghavapuram by King and from Raghava-
puram, Vemavaram and Budavada by L. A. N. Iyer
(Pal. Ind., N. S. IX, Mem. 2, pp. 827-829, 1933). From the
first two collections he has described Pascoeites budavadensis
and Gymnoplites simplex respectively, both being new fossils
(genera as well as species) referred to Lower Cretaceous
from their evolutionary characteristics. Dr. Iyer's col-
lections contained poorly preserved fossils in variegated
shales having a non-marine aspect and sometimes con-
taining Otozamites in association. The collection con-
sisted of mostly new genera and species and not parti-
cularly well suited for satisfactory determination.
Reviewing the collections, Dr. Spath says that the
assemblage of ammonites consisting of the following,
points to an Upper Neocomian age : -
Holcodlscus cf. perezianus, H. cf. caillaudianus, Hoplitzes cf. borowtE,
H. cf. beskidensis, H. codazzianus, Lytoceras, sp. cf. vogdtl, Pascocltes
budavadensls, P. crassus, and Gymnoplltes Simplex, etc.
The floras described by Feistmante1 from the East
Coast Gondwana strata are of Rajmahal (Jurassic) age.
However, it may be mentioned here that these floras need
a critical revision. It is also necessary to make careful
field studies and collections of both plant and animal
fossils from each fossiliferous horizon and study them in
conjunction with field data before we can assert whether
the beds are Jurassic or Cretaceous or grade from the one
into the other.
Madras. '.-There are two occurrences near Madras
which are referable to the Upper Gondwanas. The lower
stage is called after Sriperumbudur (Sripermatur) 25 miles
W.S. W. of Madras and consists of sandstones, buff shales
and clays containing marine animals and plant remains,
especially in the eastern part of the basin. The inverte-
brate fossils found here are Leda, Yoldia, Tellina, Lima,
Pecten, etc. One or two ammonites similar to those in
the Raghavapuram shale are also said to have been found
by Bruce Foote from loose boulders here, but a recent
search did not reveal any animal fossils except mollusca,
nor the boulders referred to. The plant fossils found are : -
Filicales Cladophlebis whitbyensis, C. mdica, C. reversa.
Pteridospermre ? Thmrifeldla sp.
Cycadophyta TtI!nioptms spatulata, T. macclellandl, Ptilo-
phyllum acutifollum, P. cutchense, Dlctyo;:.amltes
indicus, Otozamltes abbreviatus, 0 bunburyanus,
Pseudoctems (Pterophyllum) footeanum.
Coniferales Pagiophyllum (Pachyphyllum) peregrtnum, Brachy-
phyllum raJmahalensls, B rhomblCUs, Elatocladus
conferta, E. plana, Araucantes cutchenslS, A.
macropterus,
Ginkgoales? Ginkgo crampes.
The upper stage is found in the Sa0Javedu (Sattivedu)
beds about 35 miles N.W. of Madras, consisting of purple
mottled ferruginous sandstones and conglomerates which
contain fragmentary plant fossils. They are underlain by
the Sriperumbudur beds and therefore thought to be the
equivalents of the Tirupati stage.
Trichinopoly.-Small exposures of Upper Gond-
wana beds are also found near the U ttatur village in the
Trichinopoly district where they consist of micaceous
shales, grey sandstones and grits containing calcareous
concretions. They rest on Archrean gneisses and are
overlain by marine Cenomanian beds, and contain : -
S~
~74 GEOLOGY OF iNDlA AND nUR.MA.
Fihcdlcs Cladophlebis indICa, ? Actinopterzs.

Cycadophyta Ptilophyllum acutifollum, Otozamltes sp., Dlctyo-
zamites indlcus, Ta:moptens spatulata.
Coniferales Elatocladus conferta, Retinosporites indica, Arau-
cantes cutchensIs.
These indicate the same horizon as the Vemavaram beds.
Madura-Ramnad.-Bruce Foote mentions the find of
buff and yellow shales resembling the Upper Gondwana
shales of Uttatur and Vemavaram at Ammersanpatti
(near Moodechempatti) 10 miles north-east of Sivaganga.
Similar material was seen a mile south-east of the above
village in scrub-jungle, and also 2 miles north of Siva ganga.
No fossils were however found in them. Some boulder
beds resembling those at the base of the Upper Gondwanas
of Uttatur were also found on the high ground north-east
of Sivaganga and north-west of Seruvayal.
CEYLON.
Upper Gondwana strata, called the Tabbowa series!,
are found to occupy an area of about I square mile north
and east of the Tabbowa tank, 8 miles N.E. of Puttalam.
They consist of sandstones, conglomerates, shales and
nodular limestones. The strata are apparently faulted
into the gneiss, but generally covered by alluvium so that
their actual extent is not known. The same rocks have
recently been found 2 near Andigama some 16 miles south
of Tabbowa and are believed to continue further south.
The sandstones and shales contain plant impressions,
with occasional Carbonaceous material. The plant fossils
were examined and described by Seward and Holttum 3
in 1922 and a further collection has recently been studied
by K. Jacob" who states that the following have been
identified : -
1 E J Wayland' The JurassIc rocks of Tabbowa. Ceylon, Jour SCI. XIII, B
PI. 2, 1924-
I P Deraniyagala: Proc Ind. SCI Congm.1, 1940. Pt. 4-. p. 77
A.G Seward and R E. Holttum Jurassic plants from Ceylon. Q.J C.S.,
LXXVIII, Pt. 3, 1922
'fersonal communicatiOn.
Xl THE GONDWANA SYSTEM. 275
Filicales .. Sphenoptens sp., Comopteris sp., CladophlebIs sp.,
C. cf. brownzana, C. revena.
Cycadophyta Taemoptens spatulata, Nlissoma cf. schaumburg-
ensis.
Coniferales .. Araucantes cutchensls, Brachyphyllum mamlilare,
Elatocladus plana, E. sp, DesmlOphyllum
(' Podozamltes) sp.
Several of the species agree with those described by
Feistmantel from the East Coast Gondwanas of Madras,
which are referred to the Kota stage. Seward and Holttum
agree with this, but Dr. Jacob thinks that the age may be
slightly younger, particularly as the presence of Clado-
phlebis cf. browniana and Nilssonia schaumburgensis give the
assemblage a newer aspect \han Kota. A final decision
on the age of the Upper Gondwanas of Ceylon and
Madras must however await the results of further detailed
work.
IGNEOUS ROCKS IN THE GONDWANAS.
Dolerite and Basalt.-Most of the Gondwana coal-

fields are traversed by hypabyssal basic intrusives-
dolerites and basalts, which may be sometimes olivine-
bearing-as dykes and sills. Some of these are affected by
faults while others pass through them without interruption,
so that in general they may be regarded as later in age
than the faults. They occasionally form thick sills,
especially in Rewa and Satpura regions, usually at the
junction of dissimilar formations like shales and sandstones.'
Dykes are also known to pass into sills in the Satpura area.
These basic dykes and sills are common in the Satpura,
Son-Damodar, Assam and other fields north of the Satpura
axis and are comparatively rare in the Godavari and
Mahanadi valleys.
The intrusives of the Satpura and Rewa areas are
undoubtedly of Deccan trap age, while those of the
Damodar valley and Assam are thought to be of Rajmahal
age, though evidence on this point is not clear. In the
Rajmahal area the traps are dolerites, basalts and andesites:
GEOLOGY OF INDIA AND BURMA. [CHA!'.
very similar to the Deccan traps, and they are not younger
than Lower Oolite. The upper flows of Rajmahal may
however be of Middle Jurassic age.
MicaPeridotite.-Another type of igneous rock is
also found as dykes and sills in the fields of the Damodar
valley, Giridih and Darjeeling foothills. This is the mica-
peridotite, a lamprophyric or mica-rich ultrabasic rock
containing altered olivine, calcite (or dolomite), mica and
much apatite. Fresh and unaltered type of this rock is
rather rare even at depth, being dark grey, hard and
tough. At the surface as commonly seen, it is buff
coloured and soft, containing nests of mica. Mica-perido-
tite dykes are generally of small thickness (3 to 6 ft.) and
have a tendency to form anastomosing veins, lens-like
masses and thin flat sheets at the junction of coal seams
and sandstone or in the coal seams themselves. The rock
gives evidence of high fluidity and high temperature, as it
has destroyed, coked, or otherwise rendered the coal useless.
Alongside some of the sills the coal has been affected
and converted into a kind of coke (jhama) for a distance of
as much as 6 feet from the contact, The high fluidity of
the intrusive is evidenced by the intricate ramifications of
the veins and sheets, which may often be less than an inch
thick, traversing the cracks amidst the jhama which has
developed columnar structure. The rock seems also to
have spread out into sheets more in the lower seams than
'in the upper, in the same area, In contrast with these,
the dolerite dykes are scarcely harmful to the coal.
The mica-peridotites are seen only in the Damodar
valley and in the Himalayan region. They seem to be
nearly of the same age as the dolerites.
Features of Gondwana areas.-The Gondwana
strata, formed of alternations of sandstones and shales, show
the sandstones forming ridges and shales the valleys. But
it is usually only the Barakar, Kamthi, Mahadeva and
Upper Gondwanas which are particularly hard. The
Xl THE GoNDWANA SYSTEM.
Talchir and part of the Damuda sandstones are often too

soft to form prominent topography. Some of the best
scenery in Central Provinces is due to the fine scarps of the
Pachmarhi and Kamthi sandstones. Because of differ-
ences in hardness, the Gondwana exposures constitute
important hydrographic basins.
The Talchirs and Barakars form poor soils and
generally support only a sparse vegetation. The under-
scarps of the sandstones and the shales support good vege-
tation and may be forest-clad. The ferruginous sandstones
of the Kamthi and Mahadeva series form more or less flat-
topped hills on which a fair amount of vegetation flourishes.
Climate and Sedimentation. -The Gondwana era
was initiated by a glacial climate during which an ice-sheet
may have covered Rajputana and Central India highlands.
Glaciers appear to have flowed out towards the Salt Range
where the boulder bed contains rocks whose source was
undoubtedly Rajputana in part. The boulder beds in
other areas are also glacial materials but probably re-
worked by water action. During the Talchir period the
climate gradually warmed up as seen from the appearance
of a flora towards the top. The prevailing green tints and
the presence of unaltered felspars in the Talchir strata
point to a cold climate which prevented the oxidation of
the iron in the rocks.
The Damuda (Damodar) period was one of warm
humid climate in which a luxuriant flora flourished over
the land, and an enormous amount of vegetation drifted
into the swamps and lake basins to form the coal beds.
This marked the zenith of development of the Glossopteris
flora. Warm conditions are also evidenced by the
presence of kaolinised felspars in the sandstones. The
sandy sediments point to estuarine conditions and the
shales to lacustrine (fresh-water) conditions. The repeti-
tion of the succession-sandstone, shale, coal-points to
repeated oscillations of level of the basins of deposition,
probably in some measure through repeated sinking of the
faulted trough, or a series of tilts. In the Barakars of the
Jharia coal-field there are as many as 25 coal scams which
point to as many repetitions of the cycle of sedimentation.
While the eastern portion of the Damodar valley shows
moist conditions, as seen from the excellent development
of coal seams, there seems to have been a gradual desicca-
tion further west heralding the appearance of a dry climate.
This is seen in the red Kamthi facies of the Raniganj stage
and in the Motur-Bijori strata containing remains of
amphibians and reptiles.
The Kamthi, Panchet and Pachmarhi stages and their
equivalents, of Permo-Trias age, are deposits of an arid
climate. They are characterised by prevailing red tints
and contain remains of reptiles and amphibians.
After this there is again a return to more favourable
moist conditions. The Glossopteris flora practically died
out during the Permo-Triassic period and a new one, the
Ptilop~vllum flora, began to establish itself in the Rajmahal
times. The Rajmahal hills and the neighbourhood consti-
tuted a focus of volcanic activity and dykes and sills con-
nected with this invaded the coal-fields of the Damodar
valley and further east. The humid conditions seem to
have persisted, with slight variations, during the rest of
the Gondwana era, but the coal seams formed during this
period are of very minor importance.
World distribution of the Gondwana System.-
Rocks similar to the Gondwanas and containing very closely
related flora occur in regions now lying so far away from
each other as Australia, South Africa, South America and
Antarctica. There are the same plants, even the species
being identical, in Indian Barakar rocks as in Argentina
and New South Wales. It is therefore deduced that these
lands lay close together so that the flora could migrate
freely. Glossopteris being its most important element, the
flora is known by that name. At the same time there
were also other floras in the lands of the Northern

Hemisphere, indicating that they were separated from
the Gondwana province by effective barriers.
TABLE I g.-THE GONDWANA SYSTEM AND ITS FOREIGN

EQUIVALENTS (AFTER C. S. Fox).
INDIA SOUTH AFRICA S E. AUSTRALIA. SOlTl'H AMERICA
Gondwana Karroo system. Carbonaceous system Santa Catharina

system. system.
Umia Ultenhagr- ROlling Downs Forma-

tion
Jabalpur VolcanICS (basalt)
r"~,"d
r
Serra Geral
Kota
RaJmahal
ef
1l
Drak!"mburg
dol!"rites
rTalbrager
Art!"sian and
sertes
eruptives
with lavas
~I
Cave sand-
o ,tonf'S
Malen c:i) Rl!d Beds
Molteno Beds il
1
i Wlanamatta
stage
C
o tl
~c:
;; 1;1
beds
Iknto
RIO do Rallo
:a IHawkesbury
tr.J beds
Pachmarhi t: rUp Beaufort
,
::s -{ Mid B('aufort
I stage
Panch!"t
~ I l Narrabeen ,tag('
~ LL.
r'~'"'' v,,~
RamganJ Beaufort
"g
I
Barren Mea- ~ Dempsey senes
r r
sures (Up. Ecca
~
Barakar ] ~ Mid. Ecca l Tomaco series
I
KarharbarI lL. Ecca
Hm~
OChi
M.,,",
senes 6S stone
Umaria Mesosaurus bed '" Iraly ,hale
(manne) v Greta bed~ !l! wllh Mesosau-
~ rus bed
l
l:
Talchir
tr
JI E,,,yd~.
l'pper shale ~
~ I .
L. Marine senes
wi<' Euryd~~ S I~
0
fR'10 BonllO
~n"
.
g bed
~ -g Itarare boul-
Boulder bed Boulder bed l Glacial beds I 1-< der bed.
I
The similarity of stratigraphy persists all over Gon?
wanaland (i.e., the southern continents) through the
greater part of the Gondwana era but the distinctness
of the flora is to a large extent lost in Upper Gondwana
times. There is evidence that the southern continents
gradually drifted away in the Mesozoic era and that they
followed individual lines of development during the
Tertiary. Table 19 shows the succession in the equiva-
lents of the Gondwana system III South Africa,
Australia and Brazil.
PERMO-CARBONIFEROUS FLORAS.
The Lower Carboniferous period seems to have

supported a flora with Rhacopteris and allied plants which
had a uniform distribution over the world, since it is
found in Europe, in India (Spiti area) and in Australia.
The Hercynian revolution of the Upper Carboniferous
period seems to have separated the Gondwana continent
from the rest. Glacial conditions prevailed over the
southern continent, during which the previous flora was
almost completely destroyed, and with the amelioration
of climate, the Glossopteris flora began to flourish. In
Europe, however, the old flora continued to develop and
was represented by the familiar Coal Measure flora with
Lepidodendron, Sigillaria, etc. There is little in common
between these two floras. The Glossopteris flora is essen-
tially a cold temperate one, having few species, with a
scarcity of arboreous forms, the trees however showing
sharply marked growth rings. The European flora on
the other hand was a tropical one of the rain-forest type
rich in species and in tree-ferns, the trees being charac-
terised by indistinct growth rings.
At the same period there were two other great floral
groups. The Gzgantopteris flora flourished in China and
Western North America, this region being now split into
two by the Pacific Ocean. The Angara flora flourished
in the Angara continent comprising Siberia and the ad-
joining countries lying to the north of India, separated
by the ocean called Tethys. But since there are some
elements common between the Glossopteris and Angara

floras, there was probably a connecting archipelago through
Kashmir and the Pamir region which are known to
have been dry land during the Permo-Carboniferous.
It is an interesting fact that the Gondwana flora of Kashmir
shows better affinities with the Angara flora than does the
Gondwana flora of Peninsular India, which is of course
to be expected.
The Glossopteris and Gigantopteris floras are quite
distinct from each other though India now adjoins China
and Indo-China. The extensive changes which took
place in late Mesozoic and early Tertiary eras caused
India to drift and wedge itself into the Chinese region.
The line of separation is well marked along the Burma
Malay arc. Just as Gondwanaland now lies scattered
over the whole of the southern hemisphere, the land of
the European flora lies on both sides of the Atlantic and
the land of the Gigantopteris flora on both sides of the
Pacific. These facts are best explained by the theory of
continental drift associated with the name of Alfred
Wegener.
STRUCTURE OF THE GONDWANA BASINS.
The Gondwana rocks occupy tectonic troughs with

faulted boundaries arranged in a rough Ilnear fashion,
the magnitude of the faults along the two longer sides being
unequal. This produces a dip of the strata towards the
side with the greater throw. Thus, in the chief Gondwana
blocks in the Damodar valley, the faults run roughly east to
west and the strata' generally dip towards the mote
faulted southern boundary. In the Pranhita-Godavari
basin the prevailing strike is roughly N.W.-S.E., the general
dip being towards the more faulted boundary on the
north-east. In the Chhattisgarh-Mahanadi basin the
trend of the main fault is N.W.-S.E.; the Gondwana out-
crops of the Chhattisgarh basin lie to the north-east of
this fault, the strata dipping therefore towards the south-
36
west, while those of the Mahanadi basin are exposed on

the southern side of the fault and dip towards the north-
east. It is noteworthy that the faulting of these troughs is
parallel to the strike of foliation of the contiguous meta-
morphic terrain.
In addition to the main faults which form the boun-
daries of the troughs there are also cross or oblique faults.
The main faults seem to have been formed simultaneously
with the deposition in the basins. It is often seen that the
stages or beds which appear to be perfectly conformable
in the centre of the basins become unconformable near the
faulted boundary. It would appear that some of these
basins mark the limits of original deposition and are not
necessarily to be interpreted as faulted remnants of more
widespread ones. The sediments are generally gently
dipping except near faults or intrusions. The faults are
in most cases of the normal type but some tear- or sag-
faults have been noted, especially in the Jharia field.
Age of faults.-Most of the faults in the Damodar
valley fields are older than the intrusions of dolerite and
mica-peridotite but there is some evidence in the Rajmahal
area that the traps are affected by the faults. In the
Karanpura field there are two sets of faults some being
pre-Mahadeva and some post-Mahadeva. There are
post-Deccan Trap faults in the Satpura area where the
dykes are of Deccan trap age. Hence it may be said that
there were two main periods of faulting, one pre-Mahadeva
and the other post-Rajmahal.
. Folds.-In general much of the Gondwana area is
free from folding disturbances, though occasionally these
are to be found. In the Eastern Himalayan area, however,
the Gondwanas have been severely affected by the Ter-
tiary mountain building movements which have folded,
overthrust and even inverted them.
Thermal springs.-The faulted zones are sometimes
marked by thermal springs and silicified breccias, the
silicification being attributable to water circulating in the

fault zone.
PALAEOGEOGRAPHY OF THE GONDWANA ERA.
The similarity of the Gondwana deposits is so great

that it has been suggested by Wegener that South Africa,
Madagascar, India, Australia, Antarctica and South
America formed parts of a continent which probably lay
in the Indian Ocean around what is now South Africa.
India then lay alongside South Africa and Madagascar,
and Australia to the east of India. South America was
joined to South Africa, Argentina curving round the Cape
of Good Hope. The southern part of this continent was
Antarctica. Australia seems to have drifted apart in the
Jurassic when the Bay of Bengal more or less t00k its present
shape. India began to drift northward or north-eastward
perhaps in the late Cretaceous. The different phases of
.the Himalayan upheaval may be lookf'd upon as active
phases of this drift and underthrust of India into the
Tethyan region. South America is supposed to have
drifted westward from Africa. These drifts may have been
accompanied by the breaking off of some portions of the
crust which foundered into the under-crust. Though
there are gaps in our knowledge and certain details difficult
of explanation, yet Wegener's conception of continental
drift gives a remarkably interesting explanation of the
geology and the subsequent history of Gondwanaland. For
discussions of the various phases of this subject, the works
of Wegener, Du Toit, Fox and others may be consulted.
At the commencement of the era, in the Indian
region, there must have been two elevated regions from
which glaciers radiated. These were the Aravalli range
and the Eastern Ghats, for both of these were apparently
uplifted in post-Vindhyan times, since the Vindhyans of
Rajputana and Central India as well the Cuddapah basin
of the Chhattisgarh region have both suffered compression
and disturbance in pre-Gondwana times. Moreover
Gondwana rocks overlap the faulted Cuddapahs and
Vindhyans in the Godavari valley. From the Rajputana
highlands glaciers carried boulders to the Salt Range,
Hazara and Kashmir. The boulder beds of Eastern
India should have similarly derived their materials from
the Eastern Ghats.
A series of parallel fault zones seem also to have been
developed in pre-Gondwana times along the Gorlavari
valley and the Mahanadi valley. These, it will be noticed,
are parallel to and lie amidst ancient rocks having the same
strike as the Dharwars of South India. Another line of
faults seems to have stretched from Rewa eastwards to
Bengal, as well as W.S. W .-wards in the direction of Gujarat.
Dr. Fox has shown that the drainage in the Godavari
and Mahanadi basins was north-westward, and that in
the Damodar valley eastward. The one to the west of
Rewa may have had an outlet towards Gujarat, roughly
along the present Narbada valley. This and the Damodar
basin are roughly parallel to the Satpura strike. If such
were the case, this trough would have extended
across the southern end of the Aravallis to Kathiawar
and Cutch. To the south and west of the Deccan plateau
was the land ma!lS directly connected with Madagascar
and South Africa. Western Rajputana and Western
Punjab may have been a marine area connected to the
Salt Range and Umaria where, as we have seen, there are
Productus-bearing marine beds of Lower Permian age.
Fox has postulated, at the suggestion of Fermor (Mem.
58, Plate 10), a marine connection of the Salt Range
through the Ganges-] umna valley and Bundelkhand to
U maria. This seems difficult to accept in view of the
fact that this connection lies right across the northern
Aravallis, the Bundelkhand plateau and the Kaimur
ranges all of which remain as elevated land to this day,
and which show no traces of rocks younger than the
Vindhyans. Hence the more probable connection appears
to be through the Narbada valley, Cutch and Western

Rajputana. All this area is now covered by rocks younger
than the Lower Gondwana and there seems to be a likeli-
hood of yet finding marine Permian beds at the base of the
Barakars in the Narbada drainage region of Jubbulpore
and possibly in south-western Rajputana.
It is known that the Conularia and Eurydesma beds
of Kashmir have their counterpart in Eastern Australia
which shows that the two areas must have had direct
marine connection. Fox has suggested that this might
have been through Eastern Nepal and the present Ganges
valley (Mem. 58, Plate 10). This appears unsatisfactory
for the following reason. At this period there was a sea
right along the site of the present Hima~ayan axis, with
which the Salt Range sea was apparently connected.
Now, boulder-beds of Talchir age occur as the Tanakki
beds of Kashmir, Blaini beds of Simla, and Mandhali
beds of Garhwal. Lower Gondwana rocks occur in the
Darjeeling area and further east along the Himalayan
foot-hills. It is not known to what extent Lower Gond-
wan as are developed in the Nepal Himalayas, but since
Auden has noted Semri-like (Lower Vindhyan) rocks in
his traverses in Nepal it is clear that land existed a little
beyond the border of the present Siwalik zone. More-
over an effective barrier must have extended from Central
India through Hazaribagh to the Assam plateau which
forms the Satpura protaxis. Hence the probability of the
connection of Salt Range with Australia through the
Central Himalayan zone and the Shan area in Burma
seems to be the only possibility, remembering that Aus-
tralia at that time was not far from the Bay of Bengal
region and that there was no Assam wedge to distort
the eastern end of the Tethys.
To the east and south-east of the Eastern Ghats there
was presumably land. But what gap there was between
these and Australasia is not known. It may however be
conceded that in Damuda times there was an arm of the
GEOLOGY OF INDIA AND SURMA.
sea somewhere in the region of Northern Bay of Bengal

into which the rivers of the Damodar basin found an outlet.
The Permo-Trassic period was one of extensive land
copditions, and though the seas to the north-west, north
(? and east) of India must have contracted, shallow
arms might still have extended along the Narbada valley
and in Lower Bengal region. In the Jurassic era extensive
faulting (and perhaps some uplift) occurred along the
eastern coast of India giving this coast more or less the
present configuration. For, marine and lacustrine Jurassic
deposits occur at several places between Cuttack and
Trichinopoly. The coast line, it will be noticed, is parallel
to the strike of the rocks of the Eastern Ghats between
the Mahalladi and the Kistna, and of the Dharwarian
rocks of the Nellore-Madras region, but perpendicular to
the strike in the southern end of the Peninsula.
There was at this time a large sea occupying Kathia-
war, Cutch and Western Rajputana and continuous with
the Baluchistan and Salt Range Sea which however seems
to have been fairly distinct from the Himalayan Tethys.
For, we find one facies of rocks in the Salt Range, Cutch
and Baluchistan but a different facies in spiti, Kashmir
and in parts of Hazara. In the main Gondwana basins,
Jurassic rocks (Jabalpur series) are the latest rocks exposed.
It is probable that the lakes in these basins dried up at the
end of the Jurassic.
In Upper Jurassic times (Callovian) there was a
great retreat of the sea which continued till the sea ad-
vanced again in the Cenomanian (Cretaceous). On the
East Coast a stratigraphical gap marks this regression.
The callovian unconformity is well marked also in the
Baluchistan arc, and to some extent in the Tethyan area.
There now remains the Nepal-Kumaon Himalaya to
consider. The shape of the Vindhyan outcrops north of
the Son-Narbada valleys suggests that the Vindhyan sea
extended northwards into the Simla-Garhwal-Nepal region.
Its deposits are the Simla States and certain rocks in N epa!..
The boulder beds of Talchir age (Blaini) suggest that

in Upper Gondwana time!l the shore line was somewhere
in the Lesser Himalaya region. The post-Blaini rocks are
the Infra-Krol and Tal series which may represent any
age between Upper Carboniferous and Triassic. The
Krol limestones are undoubtedly marine and often dolo-
mitic while the Tals consist of current-bedded quartzites
which are shore line deposits, overlain by sandy limestones
with fragmentary molluscan remains. So far as known,
similar rocks have not been found in Sikkim, where we
see the Tibetan facies beyond the broad Archrean zone.
It would appear that the post-Vindhyan sea contracted
into a basin occupying parts of the Lesser Himalaya.
The practically unfossiliferous nature of the beds, amidst
which are found foetid limestones, dolomites, gypseous
limestones and pyritous shales, seems to indicate that this
sea was more or less cut off from the Tethys (the deposits
of the latter being fossiliferous) and was under conditions
somewhat similar to those existing in the present day
Black Sea where the sea-bottom is devoid of life. The
barrier between this sea and the Tethys may have been
thrown up by the Hercynian revolution. This sea pro-
bably disappeared in the Triassic or Jurassic. The history
of the area is very obscure because of the unfossiliferous
nature of the beds and the stupendous changes in the
Tertiary when the strata were jumbled up by thrusts
and nappes and intruded by igneous rocks.
ECONOMIC MINERALS IN THE GONDWANAS.
Clays.-The main importance of the Gondwana

system centres around coal, but there are also deposits
of various types of clays. The coal seams are often
associated especially in the Barakar stage with important
beds of fire-clay which are worked for the manufacture of
refractory bricks. Other types of clay available from the
Gondwana strata are useful for making bricks, pottery,
terra cotta and china-ware. Factories utilising clay of
various descriptions are situated in the Raniganj, jharia
Jubbulpore areas.
Sandstones.-The Barakar, Raniganj, Kamthi and
Pachmarhi sandstones are used locally as building material,
though they are not, in general, comparable in quality to
Vindhyan sandstones. The Ahmednagar sandstone of
Idar State has been used in the delicate tracery that adorns
the mosques of Ahmadabad. A sandstone of great
beauty and durability is the Athgarh sandstone which
has been employed in the magnificent temples of Puri,
Bhuvaneshwar and Konarak. It is fine grained and has
retained the sharpness and delicacy of carved work very
well through more than ten centuries. It is in these same
sandstones that the caves at Kandagiri, some 15 miles
south of Cuttack, have been carved out. The Tirupati
sandstones and the Satyavedu sandstones have also been
used for building purposes.
The Barakar sandstones are also, in places, suitable
for making millstones and abrasive stones. They may
occasionally also serve as sources of good quartz sand if the
impurities are small or could be easily separated.
lrone-ore.-The beds of sideritic iron-ore and their
oxidised outcrops occurring in the Ironstone shales of
the Raniganj coal-field have been worked as iron-ore for
the Barakar Iron Works and its successor the Bengal Iron
Co. Pockets of limonitic iron-ore and of ochre are also
found in the red sandstones, e.g., Kamthi and Mahadeva
age.
Coal.-By far the greater amount of coal in the
Gondwanas is found in the Damuda (Damodar) Series,
i.e., both in the Barakar and Raniganj stages, the former
stage being the more important one. Coal seams occur
also in the Kota, Chikiala, J abalpur and U mia stages
but they are of local development and generally of inferior
quality.
Coal seams are developed in practically all the areas
where the Barakar stage occurs. Raniganj stage coal is
MAP VI
THE
LOWER CON DWANA COA~fIELDS
OF INDIA.
COALFIELOS :")
X] THE GONDWANA S\,STEM.
important only in the Raniganj coalfield though occurring

in Jharia, Bokaro and a few neighbouring fields. Coal
of J abalpur age is found as rather unimportant seams
in the valley of the Hard river, and of Kota and Chikiala
age in the Godavari drainage area. Thin seams occur
also in the U mia beds of Cutch.
Coal consists of carbonised remains of vegetation
accumulated either in situ or transported by water and
deposited. Practically all Indian coal seems to be of the
latter type. Chemically it consists essentially of carbon
and hydrogen with subordinate amounts of oxygen and
nitrogen. These are combined in very complex ways.
Coal is usually banded, the bands being dull and bright.
The dull bands are composed of durain which is organic
matter mixed with extraneous mineral matter which latter
constitutes the' ash' of coal. The bright bands known
as vi/rain are much purer and are high in volatiles. There
are two other constituents also, one being clarain, a silky
or satiny looking material, and the other fusain which
looks like soft friable charcoal and soils the hands when
handled.
For ordinary commercial purposes it is necessary to
have a knowledge of the proximate composition of coal,
determined according to certain standardised empirical
procedure. In this the moisture, volatile matter, fixed
carbon and ash are determined. The calorific value,
either in British Thermal Units (per lb.) or in Calories
(Perlb. or kilogram) is also generally found, as well as the
caking tendency. The colour of ash gives an idea of the
amount of the iron present and indirectly its tendency to
clinker on grates when burnt. It is necessary also to know
the percentage of phosphorus and sulphur present, and
the form (pyritic, sulphate or organic) in which the
sulphur occurs.
The ultimate analysis determines the percentage of
elements present (O,H,C,N) and is useful in evaluating
37
~9 GEOLOGY OF INDIA AND BURMA. [CHAP.
the suitability of the coal for certain purposes, particularly

in the chemical industry.
The general characters of coal of Barakar and Rani-
ganj stages are shown below:-
Barakar. Raniganj.
Low moisture High moisture
(I to 3 per c(,Ilt.) (3 to 8 per cent. or more)
Low volatile High volatile
(20 to go per cent.) (30 to 36 per cent.)
High fixed carbon Medium fixed carbon
(56 to 65 per cent.) (50 to 60 per cent.)
Excellent steam coal, often ex- Generally poorly caking, though
cellent coking coal. some are moderately so; good
gas coal and long flame steam
coal.
The classification adopted by the Coal Grading Board
in India is used for trade purposes. The scheme in use
is shown in Table 20.
It may be said that most of the Gondwana coals are
good steam and gas coals, none being anthracitic. In the
Himalayas, however, the coal is crushed and is in conse-
quence low in moisture and volatiles, but very friable.
The best coking coals are practically confined to Jharia,
Giridih and Bokaro fields while some from the Raniganj
TABLE 20. -COAL CLASSIFICATION (INDIAN COAL

GRADING BOARD).
Grade. Low volatile High volatile.

J
Up to I I per cent. ash
Selected Up to 13 per cent. ash Over 6,800 cal.
Over 7,000 cal. Under 6 per cent mOIs-
ture
I I to 13 per cent ash
Grade I 13 to 15 per cent. ash Over 6,300 cal
Over 6,500 cal. Under 9 per cent. mois-
ture.
13 to 16 percent. ash
Crade It 15 to IB per ct'nt. ash Over 6.000 <:al.
Over 6,000 cal. Under loper cent. mois-
ture.
Grade III Inferior to the above. I Inferior to the above.
I -
field are semi-coking and can with advantage be blended

with Jharia coal to yield good coke. A part of the coal
in Giridih is exceptionally good, being very low in phos-
phorus and useful for the manufacture of ferro-alloys
like ferro-manganese.
In the Bengal and Bihar fields, where a large number
of scams lie one over the other, it is found that the lower
scams arc generally higher in fixed carbon and lower in
moisture and volatiles than the ones above, which may
be explained as due to the effect of pressure and compac-
tion. When a region is subjected to folding, as in the
Mohpani field of the Central Provinces, these efiects are
still more marked in comparison with a neighbouring
field.
GONDWANA COALFIELDS OF INDIA.
As already mentioned, the coalfields are arranged

along certain definite lines and can be divided into groups.
The names of the fields given below are those shown on
the map accompanying Dr. Fox's 'Lower Gondwana
Coalfields of India' (Mem. 59).
Himalayan area.-Abor, Miri, Daphla and Aka,
Bhutan hills, Buxa Duars and Darjeeling. These fields
are of little economic importance as they are inaccessible
and the seams folded, faulted and crushed.
North-Bengal.-Hura, Gilhuria, Chuparbhita, Pach-
wara and Brahmani. These are all small and unimpor-
tant.
Damodar valley.-The northern group includes
Kundit Kuraia, Sahajuri, Jainti, Giridih (Karharbari),
Chope, Itkhuri and Daltonganj. This is much less im-
portant than the southern group which includes Raniganj,
Jharia, Bokaro, Ramgarh, North and South Karanpura,
Auranga and Hutar.
Central Provinces (Eastern group) .-In this area
the middle divisions of the Gondwana system are well deve-
loped and the coalfields appear from beneath them and
include Tatapani, Ramkola, Singrauli, Korar, Umaria,

Johilla, Sohagpur, Sanhat and Jhilmili.
Between the extensive Sohagpur field and the nor-
thern border of the Chhattisgarh area there is a large
spread of Talchir rocks so that some of the following
appear as outliers on the Talchirs : Jhagrakhand, Kurasia,
Koreagarh, Bisrampur (Sirguja), Bansar, Lakhanpur,
Panchbhaini, Damhamunda and Sendurgarh.
Mahanadi valley.-Hasdo-Rampur (Sirguja), Kor-
ba, Mand river, Raigarh (N. and S.), Himgir, Ib river
(Rampur) and Talchir. Some of these are potentially
important.
Central Provinces (Western or Satputra).-Moh-
pani, Sonada, Shahpur, Dulhara, Patakhera, Kanhan
valley and Pench valley. Of these, Mohpani is an isolated
field lying north of the Satpuras, the others lying along
their southern border. Pench valley is being actively
exploited at the present time.
Wardha-Godavari valley.-Bandar, Warora, Wun,
Ghughus-Telwasa, Chanda, Ballarpur, Wamanpalli, Sasti-
Rajura, Antargaon, Tandur, Sandrapalli, Kamaram,
Bandala-Allapalli, Lingala, Singarf'ni, Kottagudem, Da-
marcherla, Ashwaraopeta and Bedadanuru.
In this area there is an extensive development of
Kamthi and younger rocks, the coal measures appearing
as isolated patches separated by the younger rocks. There
is every probability that several of these coalfields are
much more extensive than they appear and extend under-
neath the yuunger rocks. The possibilities of the Goda-
van valley fields are therefore probably considerable.
THE RANIGANJ COALFIELD.
This is the easternmost field in the Damodar valley

and is situated around Asansol, about 130 miles north-west
of Calcutta. It covers about 600 square miles of proved
coal-bearing area. It is surrounded on three sides by
Archrean rocks but on the east it passes beneath alluvium

and laterite where its extension is a matter of speculation.
The formations exposed in the field are shown below:
Formallon De~cription.
IMaximum
ness.
thick.
Supra-Panchets Red and grt"y saml~tones and ~hale8 . . 1,000 ft.

Panchet Micaceous yellow and grey sandstones, red
and greemsh shales 2,000 ft.
Raniganj Grl'y and grel'm~h soft fdspalhlc sand-
stones, shales and ('oal seams 3.400 ft.
Ironstone shales .. Dalk rarbonaceous shales with Ironstone
bands . 1,200 ft.
Barakar . Coar~e and medium grey and white sand.
Mones, \hales and coal seams . 2,100 ft.
T dlchir with boul Coal,e sandston .., above and greemsh
df'f bed at the shales and sandy shales below goo ft.
bas!'
The Raniganj coalfield is faulted on the south and

west, the southern boundary being a series of faults,
running en echelon, indicating a throw of 9,000 feet near the
Panchet hill. Over the greater part of the northern side,
the Gondwana boundary is one of original deposition,
modified of course by later erosion. The oldest beds are
found in the north, and are overlapped by younger beds
in a southward direction, the general dip being also
southward. Besides the boundary faults, there are also
oblique and cross faults in the field. The main dislocation
probably took place in the Jurassic. The field is traversed
by many dolerite and mica-peridotite dykes, the latter
having produced much damage to coal. The intrusives
are later than the faults and may be of Rajmahal or
Deccan trap age.
Coal.-Coal seams occur both in the Barakar and
Raniganj stages. The seams of the Barakar Series are
named as follows from below upwards :-Damagaria,
Salanpur, Kasta, Laikdih, Ramnagar, Chanch-Begunia
seams. The seams in the Raniganj stage are, from below
upwards :--Taltore, Sanctoria-Poniati, Hatinal-Koithi,
Dishergarh-Samla, Bara Dhemo-Raghunathbati. Lower
Dhadka-Nega-Jambad; Ghusik-Searsole-Upper Kajora,
294 GEOLOGY OF INDIA AND 'BURMA. [CHAP.
.........
. ..
. . . "... ....... .. . . ...
. .. . .. .. .. ... . ... .,
. ..
........
........... 4-
.........
....
}{] THE GoNDWANA SYSTEM, 295
I
CI
-'
uJ
LL.
I
..1
4
o
(.)
< ..'.,. .
. ..
ii :<1.
,. .
,. 4
4: I
:t
"'") .. .' oj.
-:.j.'.
LtJ
:I:
.:-;4 ..
I- :-;~ 1'
.0. it
01
. .':/ ..
..
.:;:.<i'

. . . .. , ...
......... , .

'
(I.
',
'.' it.. lit +
.'. .....

', ' ..
0
'. '.1"
0 I
/ +
I t
.00 ~
.
1,1
.'., ..
/.
/
I(
iii
o
Z
Upper Dhadka-Satpukhuriya, and Narsamuda-Bharat

Chak. These seams have local names in different areas-
and there are also less important intervening seams.
Of the above, the Ramnagar, Laikdih, Begunia,
Sanctoria-Poniati and Dishergarh are caking coals, but
they are not as good as Jharia coals. They might however
be used for blending with the latter. Recent estimates
of the coal reserves by the Geological Survey of India in
this field are : -
MIllion tons
Kmds of coal.
1,000 ft. depth. 2,000 ft depth.
Cokmg 82 250
Non-coking, superior
[nfenor
964-
4,63 1 . "fo60
6,
_---
Total 5,677 8,680
The above are the estimates of the quantItles still

available for exploitation. This coalfield has been worked
since about 1800 the amount raised to the end of 1937
being over 230 million tons.
J HARIA COALFIELD.
This is the most important coal~field of India, being

responsible for something like 40 per cent. of the total
Indian production, besides being the most important
storehouse of the best coking coal. It is situated about
170 miles west of Calcutta, the town of Dhanbad lying on
its north-eastern corner. The field is roughly sickle-
shaped, being about 12 miles N.-S., and 24 miles E.-W.
The total area of Gondwana rocks exposed is 175 square
miles of which Barakars occupy 84 square miles, and
Raniganj series 2 I square miles. The other strata exposed
are Talchirs and Barren Measures. The Talchirs are
found along the northern and western margins with a
maximum thickness of 800 feet, the boulder-bed being
50 feet thick. The Barakar series and the Barren Measures
have each a thickness of 2,000 feet while the Raniganj
series is 1,840 feet thick, the former exposed in the north
and east of the field. The Raniganj measures form an
elliptical outcrop in the south-western part of the field.
The Jharia coalfield is faulted against the Archreans
along the southern margin, but the strata dip inward
towards the centre of the field. Two small horsts of
gneiss are found, one in the north-eastern and the other
in the north-western part. There are also faults on the
other sides as well as cross-faults within the field, most of
them being of the ' sag-fault' type. A large number of
dykes of dolerite and mica-peridotite traverse the field.
Though coal seams OCcur in both the Barakar and
Raniganj stages, those in the Barakars are by far the most
important. This ~tage contains more than 25 seams, the
more important of which are numbered I to XVIII from
below upwards, seams X and above being of good quality.
The best seams in this field (indeed in India) are XI,
XIV, XIV-A, XV, XVII and XVIII.
The total available reserves now present in the .Jharia
field have been calculated by the Geological Survey of
India as follows : -
MillIOn tons
to 1,000 ft. to 2,000 ft.

Raniganj stage
Barakar stage
The field has been exploited since about 1895, the

amount raised up to 1938 being 370 million tons. Out of
the total reserves within 1,000 feet depth, about 800
million tons are high quality coking coal.
Cotter, G. de P. A revised classification of the Gondwanl\ system.
Rec. 4 8 , 23-32, 1917.
38
GEOLOGY OF iNDIA AND BURMA. [CHAP.
Foote, R.B. Geology of Madras. Mem. 10 (I), 1873.
Fox, C.S. The Jllaria coalfield. Mem. 56, 1930.
Fox, C.S. Natura.l history of Indian coal. Mem. 57, 1931.
Fox, C.S. The Gpndwana system and related formations. Mem. 58,
'93
Fox, C.S." Lower Gondwana coalfields of India. Mem. 59, '934.
Gee, E.R. Geology and coal resources of the Raniganj coalfield.
Mem. 61, Ig3 2 .
Holland, T.H. Highly phosphatic mica-bearing periodotites intru-
sive into the Lower Gondwana rocks of Bengal. Rec. 27, '27-14"
18 94'
King, W. Coastal region of the Godavari district. Mem. 16 (3),
1880.
FOSSILS.
Huxley, T.R. et at. Vertebrate fossils from the Panchet and Kota-
Maleri rocks; Labyrinthodonts of the Bijori group; Reptilia and
Amphibia of the Maleri-Denwa groups. Pal. Ind. Ser. IV,
Vol. I, (1-5), 186 5- 85.
Feistmantel, O. Fossil flora of the Gondwana system. Pal Ind. Ser.
II, XI, XII, Vol. I-IV, r863-1886.
Seward, A.C. Lower Gondwana plants from Golabgarh Pass,
Kashmir. Pal. Ind. N.S. IV, (3), 19 12.
Seward, A.C. and Sahni, B. Revision of Indian Gondwana plants.
Pal. Ind. N.S. VII, (I), Ig20.
Sahni, B. Revision of Indian Fossil plants-Coniferales. Pal. Ind.
N.S. Xl, 19~8-31.
Reed, F.R.C. Permo-Carboniferous marine fauna from the Umaria
coalfield. Ret. 60, 367-398, 1928.
CHAPTER XI.
UPPER CARBONIFEROUS & PERMIAN SYSTEMS
THE UPPER PALAEOZOIC UNCONFORMITY.
The Upper Carboniferous was a period of stupendous

changes on the surface of the globe, brought about by
what is known to geologists as the Hercynian revolution
It brought into existence a great central ocean which
extended, so far as we know, from China to Spain and in
which sediments were deposited continuously from the
Upper Carboniferous or Permian to the Eocene. This
ocean spread over not only the area of the present Mediter-
ranean but extended north and south beyond its present
shores. The deposits laid down in its waters are recog-
nised in the Alps, Carpathian and Caucasus mountains,
and in Asia Minor, Iran, Baluchistan, Afghanistan and
Tibet. This central ocean has been called the Tethys.
To its north lay Angaraland comprising parts of Nor-
thern Asia. To its south was a great southern conti-
nent,-Gondwanaland-which comprised India, South
Africa, South America, Australia and parts of the East
Indian Archipelago. These lands, which are now sepa-
rated by large stretches of oceanic waters, seem to have
formed a more or less continuous land mass through the
great part of the Mesozoic. This Gondwanaland was
characterisocl by fluviatile and continental deposits, laid
down apparently in faulted troughs which sank while
deposition was going on. It is in these areas that we see
the deposits of the Gondwana System which include most
of the important coal deposits of the Southern Hemisphere.
The Upper Carboniferous revolution therefore brought
about a renewal of deposition of sediments in Peninsular
India which continued up to the Lower Cretaceous. The
sea which had receded in the Middle and Upper Palreozoic
in the northern Himalayan (Tibetan) region again trans~
gressed over the land, with the birth of the Tethys. Only
in Kashmir did land conditions prevail for a time, accom~
panied by the volcanic activity which extended from the
Upper Carboniferous to well into the Triassic period. This
area perhaps acted as a land-bridge between Gond-
wanaland and Angaraland during this span of time, for
we have evidences in this region of a certain amount of
intermingling of the two characteristic floras. The
Tethyan deposits of the end of the Carboniferous times are
found to begin with a conglomerate which indicates the
cessation of lanu conditions and the commencement of a
period of sedimentary deposition.
The region of the Lesser Himalayas-Hazara, Simla
and Garhwal-was also affected by the revolution, since
here also there are relics of glacial deposits which charac-
terise the commencement of the Gondwanas in the Penin-
sula. But the deposits following this have local charact-
ters of their own, being practically unfossiliferous and show-
ing evidences of sedimentation in enclosed basins. These
basins dried up later in the Mesozoic, probably in Jurassic
or Cretaceous times.
The Upper Palreozoic unconformity in the Himalayan
area is of varying magnitude in different places. In
Spiti it is of very short duration since the Po series of
Lower to Middle Carboniferous age is followed by Per-
mian deposits including the Productus shales. In Kumaon
the Carboniferous strata are missing, the eroded surface of
the Muth Quartzite being overlaid by Permian rocks.
Parts of Kashmir show the presence of the Syringothyris
limestone or Fenestella shales under the Agglomeratic
Slates. In other places the unfossiliferous Tanawal series
are seen below the deposits of the Permo-Carboniferous.
Beyond the syntaxis, in Hazara, the Dogra slates are often
overlain, with marked unconformity, by the glacial
boulder bed called the Tanakki conglomerate. In Chitral
also there'is an unconformity at the top of the Carboni-
XI] UPPER CARBONIFEROUS AND PERMIAN SYSTE~ 301
PLATE XI.
PERMOCARBONIFEROUS FOSSILS.
GEOLOGY OF INDIA ANi> BURMA. [CHAP,
ferous, the Carboniferous strata being followed by the
InfraTrias and Trias. The Sollt Range, as already_
seen, shows a hiatus between the Salt Pseudomorph shales
and the Talchir boulder bed, the latter being followed by
the Speckled sandstone and this by a fine development
of the marine Permian.
UPPER CARBONIFEROUS AND PERMIAN

SYSTEMS.
SPITI-THE KULING SYSTEM.
The Upper Carboniferous of Spiti, as already noted,

is marked by an unconformity conglomerate. This Con-
glomerate rests on the Po series or earlier rocks and is
followed by Permian strata constituting the Kuling system.
Calcareous sandstone.-The lowest members of the
Kuling system are grits and quartzites, overlain by cal-
careous sandstones having a thickness of about 100 ft., and
containing fossils which have affinities with those of the
Middle Productus Limestones:
Produclus sp, SpzriJer jasCiger, S. nztiensis, S. marcoui, Dielasma
la/oueml, Aulosteges gIgas, ,Spmgera gerardl.
Products shales.-The calcareous sandstones are
succeeded by a group of brown or black carbonaceous and
siliceous shales called the Productus Shales which have a
thic~ness of 100 to 200 ft. and form a fairly persistent
horizon in Kashmir, Spiti, Kumaon and Nepal. They
enclose, especially in the lower part, a rich and characteris-
tic Permian fauna of the same age as the Middle and
Upper Productus beds of the Salt Range, but yet of a
different facies. About 30 ft. below the top, there is a
(1/3). 18. Fentstella aff fossula (3). 19. Proto(ttejJora ampla (6). 20. Euphnnus
urel (2/3). SII. Martlnaa dISpar (1/4)' 22. SpInier fascager (1/3)' 23. Conulana
warth' (I). 24. PlturotomanlJ nuda (2/3) 25 Bucanla warthl (2/3)' 26. San-
guuaolUes UniSOni (1/3) 27 DlSclnlSca warthl (2/3)' 28. Eurydesma globosum (1/6).
29. Eurydesma tlllptlCUm (1{4). 30. SPlriftr mtunslS (1/6). 31. Pallocorbula diffi-
"lis (1{4). 32. Sangulnoiltes kashmlTlCus (1/3). 33. Synngothyns nagmargnrslS (1/3).
34' Produ&Ius (facruotherus) pmlllxtus (1/4),
XI] UPPER CARBONIFEROUS AND PERMIAN SYSTEMS. 303
horizon having a thickness of barely I foot, from which
concretions containing cephalopods have been obtained,
this being in fact the only cephalopod yielding horizon in
the shales. Amongst the fossils of the Productus shales
are:
Brachiopod:. Productus purdoni, P. ablehi, P. gangtllcus,
SPmfer rajah, S. jasclger, Spmgera gerardI,
Margznl/era hlmalayenszs, Chonetes l!ssarensls.
Cephalopods Xenaspls carbonarra, Cyclolobus oldham I, C. krafft.,
C. haydeni.
HUNDES.
The Tibetan facies of the Permian is seen in the peaks

of Chitichun I and MalIa Sangcha where a limestone
facies prevails. These are large blocks (the exotic blocks)
which have been brought into their present position by
volcanic floods or by thrust movements. The limestone
blocks contain a rich Permian fauna comprising:
Trilobites Phllltpsia middlemim, Cheiropyge himalayensis.
Brachiopods Productus semlrtltculatus, P. chittchunensls, P. gra-
tIOSUS, P. abichi, Margznl/era typica, Lyttonia
nobilis, sprrl/er Jasetger, S. wynnei, Martlma cr.
glabra, M. eiegans, Retlculana llneata, SPITl-
gerella grandis, S. derbYI, Athyns royssII, A.
sub-expansa, Enteletes waagem, Camarophona
purdoni, Hfmlptyehzna hzmalayenis, Dzelasma
elongatum, Notothyris tnplieata, Riehthofema sp.
Cephalopods Nautzlus humcus, Xenaspu earbonaria, Cyclolobus
walkeri.
Anthozoa Amplexus coral/oides, Zaphrentis beynchi, Clisio-
phyllum sp., Lonsdalela .ndzea.
KUMAON-GARHWAL.
The Productus shale facies continues into Pain-

khanda and Byans south-east of Spiti, where some of the
fossils found in Spiti have been recognised, especially
Chonetes iissarensis, Spirifer nitiensis and several Productids.
MOUNT EVEREST REGION.
The several Everest expeditions have gathered a

considerable amount of information on the geology of
North Sikkim and the neighbourhood of Mt. Everest.
The top of Mount Everest is composed of massive, arena-
ceous limestone dipping gently towards the north and con-
tinuing laterally into North Sikkim. This is called the
Mount Everest Limestone, whose thickness must be 1000 to
2000 ft. It is well bedded and contains felspathic sandy
bands. Its age is Carboniferous in the main and possibly
Permo-Carboniferous in parr.
The Mount Everest Limestone is underlain by the
Everest Pelitic Series of 4000 ft. thickness, consisting mainly
of shaly and slaty rocks with calcareous and sandy bands.
It is injected profusely by granitic rocks. Its age is
probably Carboniferous or earlier.
The Everest Limestone is overlaid conformably by
the Lachi Series which covers a large area of north Everest
and in North Sikkim. It has an aggregate thickness of
2000 ft. and contains a lower fossiliferous limestone bed
50 ft. thick and an upper fossiliferous calcareous sandstone
(300 ft. thick) containing upper Permian fossils. It is
overlain by the Tso Lhamo Series of Triassic age.
The fossils in the Lachi series include :-
Lower Horizon Several corals mcluding Straparollus lachlensis.
Upper horizon (Calcareous sandstone)-
Bryozoa Fenestrmella internata, Gomocladta sp.
Brachiopods Spmfer (Spiriferella) rajah (numerous), spirzjer
(Neosprrifer) musakhtylensis, Marginifera hima-
[ayensls, Productus (Waagenoconcha) purdom,
Unclnunellma Jabtensls, SyringothyrIS lydekkert.
Lamellibranchs Parallellodon afr. tenulslnatum, Pleurophorus sp.,
AVlculopecten hyemalls.
Gastropod Pleurotomana afr. oTtental,s.
The succession in the Everest region is shown below :
Dark lImestones and shales (Triassic).
Tso Lhamo Series
{ Quartzites and shales (400 ft.).
XI] UPPER. CARBONIFEROUS AND PERMIAN SYSTEMS. 305
Calcareous sandstones (300 ft.) with Upper
PermIan fossils.
Lachi Series .. Pebblt' beds (600 ft.).
{ Limestones and shaks (50 ft.).
Quartzites, SlitS and shales (600 ft.).
Mt. Everest Lim'!stones{MasslVe arenaceous limestones (1000-!WOO
ft ) Carbomferous.
Slaty rocks with bands of limestone
Mt. Everest Pelitic and sandstone, IIlJected by granite
Series { (4000 ft.).
Lower calcareous {Limestones, shales, etc., extensively injected
senes by gramte.
ASSAM HIMALAYA.
Our knowledge of Assam Himalaya is very fragmen-
tary and is derived from two or three traverses in connec-
tion with military expedition<; into the mountainous
areas. The presence of Permian rocks in the Assam
Himalaya is inferred from fossiliferous pebbles and boulder~
brought down by the Subansiri river.
KASHMIR-PANJAL VOLCANIC SERIES.
The great revolution of the Upper Carboniferous age
converted a large part of Kashmir into a land area with
volcanic conditions reigning. The volcanic activity was
at first of the explosive type and contributed fragmentary
products which were deposited as agglomerates and
pyroclastics. The later activity was mainly in the form
of lava flows. It reached its climax in the early Permian;
then waning gradually, it died off finally in the Upper
Triassic. While the igneous action was prevalent in cer-
tain areas, the sea was encroaching in others, so that we
find marine sediments of Permian and Triassic ages side
by side with products of volcanism.
Distribution.-The volcanic series is extensively deve-
loped in the Pir Panjal range whence its name is derived;
to the west of the Zanskar range up to Hazara ; in Ladakh
and Baltistan; also in many areas around the .Jhelum valley.
Varying age.-The earliest manifestations of volcanism
seem to be of Middle to Upper Carboniferous age, e.g., as
39
early as the latter part of the Moscovian in the Lidar

valley and Upper Carboniferous near Nagmarg. The trap
is seen to overlap beds of various ages and its upper limits
are different in different areas. In some places it under-
lies the Gangamopteris or Zewan beds. Near Sonamarg
it is higher up in the Permian, while north and west of the
Wular lake it extends to Lower, Middle and Upper Triassic
and is intercalated with beds of the respective ages.
'I he Agglomeratic Slates.-The volcanic agglo-
merates are gritty or greywacke-like and grade frequently
into slates. They contain angular fragments of quartz,
felspar, quartz-porphyry, granite, limestone, devitrified
glass, etc. They were once regarded as of glacial origin.
But the absence in them of ice-scratched pebbles and
boulders and the presence of devitrified glass fragments
and volcanic material, have tended to support the view
that they are pyroclastic and derived from volcanic
explosions and rearranged by subaerial agencies.
The Agglomeratic slates are generally unfossiliferous
but well-preserved fossils have been obtained from them in
about half a dozen localities, the most important of which
are: (I) Near Kismar hamlet at Nagmarg where they
overlie the Silurian and are succeeded by the Panjal traps,
the upper portion being fossiliferous ; (2) in the anticline
of the Marbal valley overlying the Fenestella shales;
(3) in the Kolahoi-Basmai anticline where they overlie the
Syringothyris Limestone, the higher beds being interbedded
with the trap; (4) in the Golabgarh pass in Pir Panjal
overlying the Fenestella shales.
The fossils found the these areas are:-
Brachiopods Spinier miunsls, S. Kismari, S fasciger, Pro-
ductus cora var. lmeatus, P. scabrzcuius, P.
undatus, Dlelasma sp., Chonetes sp , Synngothyris
cuspldata, S. nagmargensls, Der~'Yia regularis,
Camarophorza dowhatensis.
Bryozoa Protoretrpora ampla, Fenestella sp.
Lamellibrancm , Lima sp., Pinna sp.
Xl] UPPER. CARBONtFEltOUS AND PERMIAN SVSTEMS.- 307
..;
z
,
\ ~!j
I
o
o
~
Panjal Trap.-The Panjal trap consists of bedded
flows of green, purple and dark colours. The lavas are-
sometimes amygdaloidal or porphyritic though compact
fine-gr.tined varieties are the most common. Interbedded
with them are pyroclastics and occasionally sedimentary
strata. The flows vary in thickness up to 20 or 30 feet and
are generally lenticular. Locally they attain an enormous
thickness, the maximum being estimated at 7000 feet in
the Uri district.
The lavas are andesitic to basaltic in composition, but ~
acid and ultrabasic varieties have also been found. The
ferromagnesian minerals and felspars are generally seen
to have been chloritised and epidotised.
Gangamopteris bed~ .-Beds containing Lower Gond-
wana plants occur intercalated with pyroclastics in several
places and are overla;in by the Panjal Traps. The follow-
ing localities are well known as yielding typical flora;
Golabgarh pass (Pir Panjal), Gulmarg, Khunmu and
Risin, Nagmarg, Bren and Marahom. Near Nagmarg on
the Wular lake, the soft arenaceous beds underlying these
plant beds contain Productus cora, P. scabriculus, Spirifer
nitiensis, Derhyia, Syringothyris cuspidata and Fenestella which
given an unmistakable indication of Uralian to Lower
Permian age of the fauna. The slaty plant beds contain
Gangamopteris kashmirensis, Glossopteris indica, Psygmophyllum
haydeni, Vertebraria; also the amphibian Archegosaurus
ornatus and the fishes Amblypterus kashmirensis and A.
symmetricus. These beds are therefore of Lower Permian
(Karharbari) age.
The Apharwat ridge near Gulmarg has yielded Ganga-
mopteris, Glossopteris, Alethopteris, Cordaites and Psygmophyllum
from beds underlying the lava flows and overlying the
Tanawal series. At Bren, near Srinagar, a Eurydesma-
bearing horizon is just below the Gangamopteris bed. At
Risin and Zewan in the Vihi district, the Gangamopteris
bed underlies fossil-bearing Permian limestone and con-
rains the amphibian Actinodon risinensis and the fish ~sipteri
gium deterrai.
The Gangamopteris beds have different positions with
reference to the volcanics-above the volcanics at Khunmu
and Golabgarh pass, below them at Nagmarg and Bren,
or intercalated with them in one or two places-and their
fossil content points to the same age as that of the Talchir
and Karharbari beds. The point of importance is that at
the Golabgarh pass and Marahom the plantbeds underlie
the Zewan beds of Middle Permian age. Their age is
therefore Upper Carboniferous to Lower Permian.
ZEWAN BEDS.
The Zewan beds take their name from Zewan, a

village in the Vi hi district. They extend also into the
Sind and Lidar valleys. At Zewan they lie on a silicified
limestone (novaculite), the basal portion being a crinoidal
limestone overlain by beds containing the bryozoa Protorete-
pora ampla. This horizon is well exposed in the Golabgarh
pass, Zewan spur, Guryal ravine, etc. and contains, besides
numerous colonies of P. ampla, Lyttonia nobilis, Spiriferina
;:_ewanensis and Derbyia sp. Above these come shales and
thin limestones, about 400 to 500 ft. thick, with a rich
Permian fauna. The Upper Permian beds are missing
at Zewan but are well seen at Barus, a short distance away.
The fauna includes:
Brachiopods Productus cora, P. IndICUS, P. splralls, P. gratlOsus,
P. abzchz, .spzrifer rajah (abundant), S mtlen-
SIS, S fasciger, Margwifera hlmalayenslS
(abundant) M. vzhiana, SPmgera gerardI, S.
subexpansa, Dlelasma latouchel, Dtelasma
hastalum, Camarophona purdom, Chonetes
IIssarensls, C. [aeVIS, SptrifeTlna CTlstata,
Lyttonia nobtlts
Bryozoa Protoretepora mnpla, Fenestella aff. fossula
Corals Amplexus, Zaphrentls.
The fauna of the Zewan beds shows that they corres-
pond to the Middle and Upper Productus Limestones of
the Salt Range and to the Chitichun Limestone.
~JO GEOLOGY OF INDIA AND BURMA. [CHAP.
The succession in Kashmir IS summarised below'
Zewan beds with Protorettpora ampla bed {Middle and UpPtt
near the base. Permian.
Gan~amopteris beds {permo.Carbonif~rous to
Av;g-lomeratic Slates with Panjal Trap Upper Carboniferous.
Fenestella shales Middle Carboniferous.
Syrmgothyris hmestone . . Lower Carboniferous.
Muth Quartzite Devonian.
THE SALT RANGE.

GLACIAL BOULDER BED.
The Lower Palreozoic of the Salt Range culminates
in the Salt Pscudomorph shales of presumably Cambrian
age. Overlying this, with the intervention of an uncon
formity, is found a boulder bed of glacial origin which
lies on one of the stages of the Cambrian succession. It is
heterogeneous in composition, being composed of a mixture
of boulders and pebbles in a matrix of fairly comminuted
rock flour. The boulders are of various sizes upto 2 ft.
or more across and consist of Malani rhyolite and crystalline
rocks from Rajputana and Southern Punjab, which are
often striated and facetted by ice action. The boulder bed
attains a maximum thickness of 200 fit. Both in constitu
tion and stratigraphical position it resembles the Talchir
boulder bed of the Peninsula. The presence in it of rocks
from Rajputana is proof that the boulders were derived
from that region and transported by glaciers in Upper
Carboniferous times.
The age of the boulder bed is indicated by the presence
of spores, leaf impressions and other remains of Lower
Gondwana plants in the beds immediately overlying it.
THE OLIVE SERIES.

EURYDESMA HORlzoN.-The Upper Palreozoic in the
eastern end of the Salt Range is represented by the Olive
Series, consisting of dark greenish, yellow and white, or
spotted sandstones and having a thickness of 150 ft.
At iu base is the boulder bed which, in certain cases,
XI] UPPER CARBONIFEROUS AND PERMIAN SYSTEMS. 31 I
may represent re-sorted and re-deposited glacial material.

Near Pidh (in the Eastern Salt Range) the sandstones
immediately overlying the boulder bed contain numerous
casts of marine bivaives belonging to the genus Eurydesma
and other fossils, viz: Eurydesma cordatum, E. hobartense,
E. pu,yabicum, E. subovatum, Pterinea cf. lata, Nueula pidhensis,
Avieulopecten sp., Astartila cf. ovalis, Cardiomorpha penguis ;
(Brachiopod) Dielasma dadanense: (Bryozoa) Fenestella fos-
sula.
FIG. 7.-SJ!.cnON ACROSS THE MAKRACH VALLEY, SALT RANGE.

(AFTER C S. MIDDLEMISS, Rec. 24).
A similar Euryde~ma-bearing zone is associated with

the' Upper carboniferous or lowermost Permian in
Kashmir. Tile fos~il contents of these two horizons show
a great deal of similarity as will be seen from the
following:
Salt Range.
Fenestella fossula F. fossula.

Dlelasma dadanense D. hdar~nse.
AVlCulopecten cunctatus A cunctatus
CardlOmorpha prngUls C. sp
Astartlla cf. ovahs A. ovahs
Eurydesma COl datum var mytiloides E cOI'datum var. myttloides.
E subobhqua E. corda tum var subquadrata.
E punJablcum E. globosum.
In New South \Vales, Australia, two Eurydesma hori-

zons arc known; the lower one with E. hobartense occurs --
just below the Gangamopteris bed and is Upper Carboni-
ferous; the upper one with E. cordaturn is assigned a
Permian age. Similar beds also occur associated with the
Dwyka conglomerate of South Africa. The Kashmir
Eur_ydesma horizon is closely allied to the Lower Permian
of the Kolyma Province in Siberia, the brachiopod fauna
of the two being related.
Conularia zone.-The boulder bed passes upwards,
in certain places, into a calcareous sandstone and black
shales containing concretions enclosing well preserved
fossils among which Conularia is the most abundant. The
Corzularia horizon is about a foot thick and a few feet above
the boulder bed and thus also slightly younger than the
Eurydesma horizon. I t is well seen near Choya Saidan
Shah, Mt. Chel, Ratuchha, etc. The fossils in this
horizon include:
Gastropods Conulana laevigata, C. wartlll, C. punjabica, C.
salaria, Pleurotomaria nuda, Bucama warthl.
Lamellibranchs Pseudomonotis sub radIalis, Sangulnolites temsom.
Vermes Slrpulltes warthl. _
BrachIOpods ;"plTlfer vesper/dlo, Martznwpsls darwinl, Chonetes
cracowensls, D,sClmsca warthl.
Near Kathwai, the Conularia beds yielded Glossopteris and
Gangamopteris impressions and the following bivalves :
Palaeomutela obionga, Palaeonodonta salaria, P. subquadrata
P. singularis. These indicate, according to Cowper Reed,
a Lower Permian horizon. The Conularia fauna is also
represented in the marine beds intercalated with Upper
Pala:ozoic glacial beds in Australia.
THE SPECKLED SANDSTONE GROUP.
Boulder-bed.-West of the Nilawan ravine, the

position of the Olive series is taken by the Speckled Sand-
stones. In their typical development they include a basal
portion comprising the Boulder-bed, a middle portion
XI] UPPER CARBONIFEROUS AND PERMIAN SYSTEMS. 3I 3
with Speckled Sandstones, and an upper portion with Laven-
der clays. The boulder bed has the same stratigraphical
position as that under the Olive series, and fine exposures
are seen near Makrach and to its west. It is seen also
near the western end of the Salt Range.
Speckled Sandstones (sensu stricto).-These are 200
to 400 feet thick and consist of reddish to brownish sand-
stone with green and purple patches. Numerous small
concretionary masses are seen on the weathered surface.
They contain thin intercalations of shales of purple,
lavender and grey colours and also gypseous bands. The
shale bands become prominent and thick in the upper
part which is spoken of as Lavender clays.
Lavender Clays.-These lavender coloured shaly
rocks and associated sandstones display current bedding,
ripple marks and other evidences of shallow deposition.
They are well seen in many places west of Nilawan and
up to the Indus, beyond which they become mamly
calcareous.
The Olive Series and the Speckled Sandstones are to
be regarded as two facies of the same strata. They seem
to be the equivalents of the Schwagerina beds of Russia
and may be referred to the Upper Uralian or the lower-
most Permian. The Eurydesma and Conularia beds are
the equivalents of the Nagmarg beds of Kashmir and the
Rikba plant beds of the Karanpura coalfield in Bihar which
are all correlated with the Sakmarian stage of Russia.
There is some difference of opinion amongst geologists
whether to include the Sakmarian in the Upper Carboni-
ferous or Lower Permian, but C. S. Fox is in favour of its
inclusion in the Carboniferous.
THE PRODUCTUS LIMESTONE SERIES.
One of the best developed normal marine Permian

areas in the world is in the Salt Range so that the Middle
Permian is often referred to by the name Panjabian, after
40
:114 GEOLOGY OF INDIA AND BURMA. [CHAP,
the Province in which the Salt Range lies. The Permian

succession met with in this area is shown in Table 21.
TABLE 2 I.-PERMIAN OF THE SALT RANGE.
I DIVlSlOn. Stage. Age.
CHIDRU (Sandstones and marl,)

JABBI (SandstonH and marls
with Cephalopods) ThurIngian
KUNDGHAT (Sandstones con- (Zechstein),
taining B,lhrophon, etc)
KALABAGH (Limestone, and Panjabian

MIDDLE or
marls with CrinOids, etc) Saxoman
200'400'
VIRC.AL (Slh<'e<)u! Limestone!)
(Rothliegendes) .
KATfA (Calcareous sandstones

LoWER and arena(eous hmestones) Artinskian.
200' AMB (Calcareous sandstone
and hmestones With Fu,ulJnat)
LAVENDER CL4,Y (;'0'-100')

SPECKL1!D SAND- SPECKLED SANDS10NE (I' 0'-300') Lower Permian
STONES l:.'Jrl,desma and Conularia to
300 '-500 ' 1>"ll,) UraHan.
BOULDER BIID (100'-200')
Amb.~The lowest beds of the Permian succeSSIOn

constitute the Amb stage which is made up of course
yellowish and greenish calcareous sandstones with a few
layers of coaly shales, well exposed in the Nilawan ravine.
Continued westwards, they become gradually more cal-
careous.
Katta.-The Katta stage forms a transition between
the Amb beds and the Middle Productus Limestones. It
contains arenaceous limestones, Fusulinids being abun-
dant in this as well as in the upper part of the preceding
Amb stage.
Middle Productus Beds.-The most important part of
the succession is the Productus Limestone proper, which
forms the crags of the outer escarpment in the Salt Range.
XI] UPPER CARBONifEROUS AND PERMIAN SYSTEMS. 315
PLATE XII.
PERMIAN FOSSILS (1).
EXPLANATION OF PLATe XII

I.Cyclolobus oldhami (1/6). 2. Amsles antlquus (1/3) 3. A. priseus (1/2)
4. XelwdlScuS carbollanus (1/4)' 5 Sageceras Immas (1/4) 6 Xenaspts carbo.
nana (1/3) 7 Starhenceras tnmUftl (1{3) 8. Gastflocer4S aff. marzanum (3/ 2 )
9. NomlSmoceras smtth" (1). 10 Branchoceras sp (3/2). I f Adnamtes (Hoff-
mamll) sp (3{2) 12 Hyatwceras aff. cummlnSI (3/2). 13. Sageceras (MedllCottra )
wynnel (1/4) 14. Euomphafus paruus (3) 15 Macrochetlus ave{{anoides (2/3).
3 16 GEOLOGY OF INDIA AND BURMA. [CHAP.
It contains dolomite in addition to limestone, but the
dolomitisation has been responsible for a good deal of _
obliteration of the enclosed fossils. The limestones are
bluish grey to grey in colour while the dolomites are
cream coloured. The limestones, which include crinoidal
and coralline ones, show fossils on the weathered surfaces,
while the intercalated marls contain abundant and easily
extractable fossils.
The Productus Limestone proper is divided into two
stages, the lower one named after Virgal and the upper
after Kalabagh.
The equivalents of these beds are found in the Chiti-
chun limestone in Northern Himalaya, in the Brachiopod
beds of the Vladimir region in Russia, and the Productus
limestone of the Timor region.
Upper Productus beds.-The Upper beds are to a
large extent arenaceous in character and consist of three
stages, Kundghat, Jabbi, and Chidru. The Kundghat
stage contains abundant fossils, especially in the upper
part, amongst which Bellerophon and Euphemus are impor-
tant. The topmost stage, the Chidru, consists of marls
and limestones which, though only 20 to 25 ft. thick,
contains abundant lamellibranchs in concretions scattered
through the formation. This indicates an important
change in faunal characters, since the earlier stages are
rich in brachiopods ; such a change may be due to a
regression and shallowing up of the sea.
16. Phaslanella aramcola (3) 17 MUTChlSoma cOIvugens (2/3), 18 Bellerophon
IOIUlSlanus (1/3)' 19. Euphemus IndlCus (2/3) 20 Stachella hifrolls (1/3). 21
Lutlna progtntlnx (1/3). 22 EnlallS htrculta (1/12) 23 Pleurophorus camplanatus
(3/2). 24. Gouldl4 pnmllva (3). 25. Macrodon gemznum (1/3) 26 Ox_ytoma
atavum(I/3). 27 Ltmafootil(1/3). 28. Pecttnjlemmgtanus(1/3) 29 Phil/lIma
mlddlemlSsl (1/3) 30. Chetrop~vge hlmalaytnsis (1/2) 31 Ftnestella /ltrti/tgans (7)
32 Phl/terl1lus comela. 33. Cyathocnnus IIIdlCUS (a, lateral VIew, b, basal, c, transverse
section of stem). 34. Lonsdaltla w)nnll 35 Lollsdaleta sallnana 36 LolLI'
dolela IIIdlCa (7). 37 Htxagollella Tamosa (b, part of surface enlarged) 38 FI"ultfta
kallatllSlJ (b, transverse sertlon) 39. ZaphrtnllS btyrtchl (b, transverse secllon).
40. Dlbunop~)llIum sp. (b, transverse sectIOn) 41 Amplexus corallo Ides (a, longl-
tudmal and b, transverse sections) 42. Produclus IlIlealus (1/4)' 43. P. grattosus
(1/4) 44 P PurdOn! (1/3). 45. Strophalosla hOfftsans (1/3).
XI] UPPER. CARBONIFEROUS AND PERMIAN SYSTEMS. 317
The Ch,dru beds pass upwards into unfossiliferous
marls and sandstones which contain some coaly matter. In
places, an erosion unconformity is indicated by the pre-
sence of a conglomerate at the top of the Chidru stage.
The Triassic beds appear above this and the passage beds
are thought to represent the Otoceras zone of Spiti.
FAUNA OF THE PRODUCTUS LIMESTONE SERIES.
The Productus Limestone is rich in fossils, both in

species and individuals. The majority are brachiopods
which are abundant in all the divisions and especially
in the Middle one. Lamellibranchs appear in large
numbers in the Upper part of the Upper Productus Lime-
stone, this division being characterised also by the presence
of a number of cephalopods. The more important fossils
of the three divisions are shown below :
LOWER PRODUCTUS Bl!.DS .
Brachiopods Productus (DICtyoclostus) splralls, Margrnifera ves-

llta, StrophaloJta tenuIsplna, Aulosteges trzmuensls,
Dtelasma trimuense, D elongatum, Hemlptychzna
(Beechena) sublaeVls, SplTtfer (Neospmfer) mar-
COUI, S. (N.) klmsan, Spmfer (Fusella) mger,
Martmza semlglobosa, AthyrIS (Cletothyrtdtna)
rOls.ry!l.
Lamellibranchs Parallellodon trzmuensls, C;ardzomorpha sublzmosa,
Anodontophora purdom.
Gastropods Bucama kattaensls, NatlCopsls sessllls.
MIDDLE PRODUCTUS BEDS.
Brachiopods Orthls mdlea, Enteletes waagem, Streptorhynchus

pelargonatus, Derbyta hemlspherzea, Kiangslella
PectmzJormls, Productus (DlCtoyoclostus) zndICUS,
P. (D.) transversalzs, P. (Lmoproductus) lmeatus,
P (Waagenoconcha) abtcht, MargznzJera typlca,
Camarophorza purdom, Terebratuloldea depressa,
Dtelasma truncatum. Oldhamwa deczptens, Ruhtho-
fema lawrenclana, Hl'mlptychrna rnjlata, Sprrifer
(Anelasma) wynnel, AthyTls (C!mthyndrna) ,
caplliata, Martlmopsis pun)ablCa, Sptrijmna
3 IB GEOLOGY OF INDIA AND BURMA. [CHAP.
(Spirijerellma) cristata, Spirigere/la grandls, S.
derb)ll.
Lam<'llibranchs Allomma waageni, Schl::;odus dubiformls, Pseudomo-
not;s waageni, AVlculopeclen regulans.
Gastropods Ple.JTotomana (Mourlonia) pU'nJablca.
Cephalopods Metacoceras golzathus, Solmochellus peregrmus,
Xenaspis carbonarza.
UPPER PRODUCTUS BEDS:
Brachiopods Schl::;ophoria juresanensis, Enleletes sulcatus, Pro-

ductuJ (Dlctyoclostus) indlcas, P. (D.) spiralls,
TschernyJchewla typlca, Produclus (Dlctyoclostus
aratus, Productus (Ll'noproductus) cora, Strophalosia
horrescens, Chonetes squamulifer, Camarophoria
superstes, Lyttoma noblbs, Hemtptychina h,ma-
layenslJ, splrijer (NeospmJcr) warchenslS,
Spmgerella grandlS, S. prae/onga.
Lamellibranchs Schl::;odus emargmatus, Solemya biarmica, Aviculo-
pecten morahensls.
Gastropods Pleurotomana (Wort/zema) durga, Bellerophon equi-
vocal,s, B. )OneSlaIl.US, NatlCopslS sessllis.
Cephalopods Foordlceras oldhami, Planeloceras poslremum, Epi-
sageceras wynnel, Waagenoceras cr. oldhaml,
Xenodlscus pllcatus.
Dr. F. R. Cowper Reed, after examining the recent
extensive collections from the Salt Range, states that
there are no grounds, based on faunal characters, for sub-
dividing the three major divisions of the Productus Lime-
stones into stages as was done by Waagen. Even on purely
lithological grounds, such a sub-division cannot be sus-
tained. Even the separation of Middle and Upper Pro-
ductus Limestone is difficult, for the brachiopod faunas are
for the most part common to the two. However, the Upper
Productus beds are more arenaceous and contain a
number of lamellibranchs and cephalopods not present in
the Middle division.
The Lower Productus beds are characterised by the
presence of Productus spiralis, Spirifer marcoui and S. niger.
The subgenus Tltniotherus of Productus, and the genus
Aulosteges appear also to be confined to them. Many of
XI] UPPER CARBONIFEROUS AND PERMIAN SYSTEMa~ 319
PLATE XIII.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE XIII.

46. Margmifera typlCa (1/3) 47. RlChthofema lawrenclana (1/4). (a, large
valve, b, sectIon of a; c, small valve). 48 Strophalotla IndICa (2{3). 49 Au/o./ege.
medllColtlanus (1/2). 50 Chonetes grandlCosta (1/4) 51. Enteletes sublaeulS (1/3).
52. Dlelasma hlpl,x (1/3). 53. Hemlptychlna hlmalayenJlS (2/3) 54. Notothyru
simplex (2{3). 55 Uncl1Iulus theobaldl (1/3) 56 Oldham lila dmpuns (1/3) (a
ventral and h, dorsal valves; c, ~Ide view) 57 SpmgereUa derbYI (1/2) 58.
S. grandlS (1/3). 59. AthyrIS subexpansa (2/3) 60 A ryosSII (2/3). 61. Rltl(u/arra
(mlata (2/3). 62 SPlrifer strlatus (I/g). 63. S. musa};heylenslS (1/3) 64.
S. marcoul (1/4)' 65 S niger (I/g). 66. S. alatus (1/3). 6,. Strtptorhynchus
pelargonatus (g/2). 68 DerbYlo grandlS (1/6). 69 DerbY'o hemlSpharl&a (1/3) 70.
StreptorllJnchuspecllniformi.! (2/3)' 71. OrthlS IndICa (2/3)'
the species found in the Lower Pr'oductus beds do not seem
to extend into the higher division.
The Middle Productus beds are very rich in brachio-
pods. The subgenela Haydenella and Cancrinella of Pro-
ductus, and also Ricllthofenia are (onfined to them. The
upper division is characterised by Tschernyschewia and
Cryptacanthia and several cephatopods.
Faunal Affinities.-The lower Productus beds have
affinities to the Agglomcl'atic Slates of Kashmir and to the
Permo-Carboniferous of Western At'.stralia. The Middle
and Upper divisions correspond to the Chitichun limestone
and the Zewan beds of Kashrnir. The Kuling shales
\~you'Ut.tu~ ~ha\'e~ 01 'bp)t).) ~eem t'V be \t.'e ~'dN<tl{C"i'A~ 'if"
Upper Productus Limestones while the sandstones under-
lying the Kuling shales correspond to the Middle Produc-
tus. The Anthracolithic of Shan States show some
general resemblance, though few fossils are identical. The
Middle and Upper divisions are equivalent to the Lopin-
gian of China which contains several identical species
of brachiopods.
The Lower Productus beds contain a strong element
of the Pacific fauna which is developed in Australia, while
the Middle and Upper divisions show a similar relationship
with the boreal or Russian fatma. However, mingled
with these, there is a strong local or endemic fauna showing
that the Indian region was a distinct life province with its
own special characters.
FAUNAL CHARACTERS AND EVOLUTION.
The fauna of the Productu s Limestones bears some

resemblance to that of the European Carboniferous so that
Dr. W. Waagen did at first correlate the two. But later
studies and the discovery of ma-rine fauna in Sicily and
the Urals showed that it was really Permian. It was also
realised that the Salt Range Permian rocks represent a
complete succession of normal marine Permian in the
world.
XI] UPPER CARBONIFEROUS AND PERMIAN SYSTEMS. 3!lt
The fauna includes all sub-divisions of the animal
world except reptiles and the higher vertebrates. Fusulinids
are found in large numbers in the lower Productus
beds. Crinoids, Hydrozoa and Bryozoa are plentiful;
the crinoids are all of the Pala:ozoic type such as Cyatho-
crinus and Phllocrinus, and in certain places they must
have been extremely abundant as they make up large
masses of limestone.
The Chitichun limestone contains two trilobites,
Phillipsia middlemissl and Cheiropyge himala;yensis which are
amongst the last of this extinct order of animals.
The extraordinary richness of the fauna in brachiopods
and other fixed forms of life (crinoids and bryozoa) shows
that these must have constituted veritable submarine
forests at the bottom of the relatively shallow seas, and
that the conditions were eminently suitable for luxuriant
development of organisms. In addition to many normal
forms, there were also various aberrant brachiopods. One
of the most remarkable of these was Richtlwfenia (which
bears a resemblance to the form assumed at a later period
by the lamt'llibranchs classed under the Hzppuritidae) which
occurs in the Lower and Middle Productus beds. The
aberrant forms I.(Yttonia and Oldhamina occurring in the
Middle and Upper beds have dorsal valves resembling
a midrib to which are attached a number of linear pro-
cesses. Noeding (Palaeontographica, Vol. 51, 1908) re-
garded them as representing a specialised branch of the
Productidae. These very specialised forms had naturally
a very brief range in geological time and died off as soon
as the favourable conditions of life were disturbed.
The higher organised brachiopods such as the Terebratu-
lids and Rhynchonellids survived the changes at the end
of the Pala:ozoic era and continued to flourish in the
Mesozoic.
The gastropods and lamellibranchs, which are of
subordinate importance in the Himalayan Permian and
in the Lower and Middle Productus beds of the Salt
.p
Range, attain great prominence in the Upper Productus
beds, and probably indicate the shallowing of the ocean
basin. Amongst the gastropods, a large number belong
to types in which the outer lip is notched by a slit. The
most important gastropods of the Upper Productus beds
are Bellerophon which is represented by over 20 species,
Euphemus zndicus of which an enormous number of indi-
viduals occurs, and the large tooth-shell Entalis herculea.
The lamellibranchs are more or less concentrated in
the Chidl u beds; some of them (Schizodus, Pleuro-
phorus, Allorisma) are typically Permian while a few
precursors of the .Mesozoic genera, AIytdus and Septifer,
also occur.
The Cephalopods are represented by Nautiloids and
early Ammonoids, the latter being abundant in the Upper
Productus Limestones. The Ammonoids are easily dis-
tinguished from the Nautiloids by reason of the compli-
cated patterns of the sutural lines. They are divided into
three groups-the GoniJ.tites, typical examples of which
have rounded saddles and angular lobes; the Ceratites
in which both the saddles and the lobes are generally
rounded; the Ammonites in which both the saddles and
lobes develop highly irregular and involved patterns.
Each of these groups has shells of various thickness in
different species. At a certain stage of development there
is a tendency to bifurcation of character of the shell in
order to strengthen it; in the one case the shell becomes
corrugated and sculptured and in the other the sutural
line (i.e., the line of junction of septa and the shell) becomes
complicated. These two lines of development are parti-
cularly well exemplified in the Ammonites, but the
Goniatites and Ceratites also show them to a somewhat
limited extent. As the specific characters diverge more
and mort" from the normal, the organism becomes delicate
and any sudden changes in the environment have a dis-
astrous effect on it. It is thus that we find these groups
dying off in large numbers at the end of each geological
:XI] UPPER CARBONIFF.ROUS AND PERMIAN SYSTEMS. 3!23
period. Each of these groups has a limited distribution
in geological time, the Goniatites bemg essentially Palreo-
zoic, the Ceratites characteristic of the Triassic and the
Ammonites particularly abundant in the Jurassic and
Cretaceous. It was therefore that the announcement, in
1872, of Waagen's discovery of Ceratites and especially
of the Ammonites in the' Carboniferous' strata of India
came as a surprise to Palreontologists.
The species now known as Cyclolobus oldhami was first
described by Waagen under the name of Phylloceras oldhami
as it was believed to belong to the Ammonite group on
account of the serrated outline of its sutural inflections.
It was later recognised that the Goniatites and Ceratites
had also the same types of developmental stages as the
Ammonites. Waagen's diagnosis of Xenodiscus as a mem-
ber of the Ceratite group proved to be correct. Cyclolobus
oldhami is now regarded as a highly specialised member
of the Goniatite group and the anomaly of a ' Carboni-
ferous ammonite' has been explained.
KASHMIR-HAZARA

THE INFRA-TRIAS.
U nfossiliferous Upper Palreozoic rocks are developed
in the Lesser Himalayan zone which would include the
Simla, Garhwal and the Kashmir- Hazara regions, all of
which seem to have some general resemblance.
The Tertiary (Murree) zone of Kashmir contains
inliers of dolomitic limestone in which no fossils have
been found. This is called the Great Limestone, and is
regarded as the upper part of the Infra-Trias series of
Hazara.
In western Kashmir and Hazara the Tanawal series
is overlain by a boulder-conglomerate containing ice-
striated boulders. This formation is probably the equi-
valent of the Talchir boulder-bed. Over this are found
purple sandstones and shales which are in turn followed
by 2000 feet of unfossiliferous dolomitic limestones. This

group of rocks is known as the Infra-Trias series as it
underlies Triassic formations. The dolomitic rocks are,
in places (e.g., in Kaghan) intercalated with flows of the
Panjal trap. Their age is therefore, at least in part, Upper
Carboniferous to Permian.
SIMLA-GARHWAL.
INFRA-KROL AND KROL SERIES.
The Upper Palreozoic unconformity in the Simla

region is probably indicated by the presence of the Blaini
boulder-bed which may be correlated with the Tanakki
conglomerate of Hazara. The Blainis contain also some
pink limestones and slates, the latter resembling the slates
of the Infra-Krols. The Infra-Krols consist of dark slaty
shales with thin bands of quartzite. The Infra-Trias is
presumably represented here by the Infra-Krol and Krol
series, but it must be pointed out that there is little litho-
logical similarity between the rocks of the two areas.
In the Krol belt of the Sirmur State the Krol series

is well developed. Its basal beds are Krol sandstones,
orange to brown in colour, generally soft, and containing
fragments of shale. They are followed by limestones
which show five sub-divisions with an aggregate thickness
of 2000 feet.
Krol E.-Massive cream coloured limestone, calcareous sand-
stone and brown shales.
" D.-Cherty limestone, dark limestone, bleached sh<~les and
quartzitl's.
" C.-Masslve crystallIne limestone, often sulphurous.
" B.-Red and Kleen shales \~lth dolomitic limestone.
" A.-ThIll bedded blue limestone, shdly limestone, calcareous
and carbonaceom shales.
In Garhwal, the Lower Krols (A) are slaty, the
Middle Krols (B) being represented by purple shales
and the Upper Krols (C, D, E) by massive limestone as
seen around Mussoorie and further east. The Krols of the
two areas are com pared below :
SImla. Garhwal.
Krol E }
"D Upper Krol. Limestone Massive limestone.
" C
" B MIddle Krol: Red Shales Purple Shalf's.
" A Lower Krol: Limestone Slates.
There are two great overthrusts in the Krol belt, the Girl
thrust which brings the Blainis and Jaunsars over the Krol
series, and the Krol thrust which brings the Infra-Krols
over the Kasauli (Tertiary) beds. In the Chakrata area
the Krol thrust brings the Krol and older rocks on to the
Subathu beds. The Krol series is seen to be highly folded
in the area between these two thrusts.
The Krols show signs of rather shallow water deposi
tion and only rarely contain fragmentary and undeter-
minable fossils. The foetid limestones occurring in them
may be taken as indicating that the basin of deposition
was far from favourable for the habitation of organisms.
In the Simla region there are also the Shali Limestones,
dolomites and slates whose age is unknown, but from
whose resemblance to the Krols, the two might perhaps
be correlated. The Shali limestones are overlain by the
Madhan Slates and these in turn by the Subathu and
Dagshai bed~.
The Blainis may be roughly correlated with the
Permo-Carboniferous, and the Infra-Krol and Krol beds
with the Permian. This is however a mere conjecture.
EASTERN HIMALAYA.
In the Lesser Himalayas of Darjeeling, Buxa Duars,
Bhutan and some other places further east, the Upper
Carboniferous and Permian are represented by the Gond-
wanas in which typical Barakar rocks with carbonaceous
shales and poor coal seams have been recognised. The
Gondwanas are generally thrust over the Siwaliks to
their south.
PERMO-CARBONIFEROUS AND PI:RMIAN.
Auden, .J.B. Geology of the Krol bt"lt. Rer 67, 357-454, 1934
Bion, H.S. and Mlddlt"mi~s, C.S. Fauna of the Agglomeratic Slates
of Kashmil. Pal. Ind. N.S. XII, 1928.
Diener, C. Geological structure of the Chitil hun rt"glOn. Mem. 28,
Pt. I, 18g8.
Diener, C. Anthracolithlc fossils of Kashmil dnd Spiti. Pal. Ind.
SeT. XV, Vol. 1(2), 1899.
Diener, C. Permocarboniferom fauna of Chitichun 1. Op Clt. Pt. 3,
1897.
Diener, C. Fossils of Productus ~halcs of Kumaon and Garhwal.
Op. cit. Pt. 4, 1897.
Diener, C. Permian fossils of the Central Himalayas. Op. CIt. Pt. 5,
19;1.
Diener, C. Anthracolithic fossils of Shan Stcltes. Pal. Ind. N. S. Ill)
4, 19 1 1.
Diener, C Anthracolithic faun,\c of Kashmir, Kanaur and SpitL
Pal. Ind. N.S. V. 2, 1915.
Dunbar, C.O. Fusulinids of Lower Productus limestones. Rec. 66,
40 5-4 13, 1933
Griesbach, C.L.Notes on the Central Himalayas. Rec. 26, 19-25,1893.
Reed, F R.C. Upper Carbomferous fossils from Chltral and the
P,unirs. Pal. Ind. N.S. VI, 4, 1925.
Reed, F. R. C. Fauna of the AgglomeratIc slates of Kashmir. Op.
CIt. XX, I, 1932.
Reed, F. R C. Fosslis from the Productus limestone of the Salt
Ran~e, Op. CIt. XVII, 19'31
Reed, F R C Fossll~ from tht" Eurydesma and Conulana beds of
the Salt Range. Op CIt. XXIII, I, 1936.
Reed, F. R. C. BrachIOpoda and Mullusccl from the Productus
Limestones of the Salt Range, Op. CIt., XXIII, 2, 1944
Reed, F. R. C. Anthracolithic faunas of S. Shan States. Rec. 67,
357-4-54, 1934
Seward, A C and Smith Woodward, A. Permo-carbomferous plants
and vertebrates from Kashmir. Pal. Ind N. S II, 2, 1905.
Waagen, W. Salt Range Fossils (Productus Limestone). Pal. Ind.
SeT. XIII, Vol. I, 1-7, 1879-1887.
Waagen, W. Salt Range Fossils-Geological results. Pal. Ind. Sey.
XIII, Vol. IV, 1889-1891.
Wager, L R. The L:lchi senes ofN. Slkklm. Rec.74, 17 1- 188, 1939
Wynne, A.B. Geology of the Salt Range 111 the Punjab. Mem. 14,
18 78 .
CHAPTER XII.
THE TRIASSIC SYSTEM.
The marine Triassic is well developed in the northern
Himalayan zone in the classic area of Spiti and its sub-
divisions are easy of correlation with those of the Medi-
tenanean region of Europe. This belt extends into
Garhwal-Kurnaon, there being some differences in the
lithology near the Nepal border. To the west, in Kashmir,
the strata are thicker, but they have not been studied in
as much detail as in Spiti, though several important zones
have been identified. The Triassic of the Cis .. lndus Salt
Range is incompletely developed, only the lower division
and the lowest part of the middle division being seen. The
upper division is, however, seen in the Trans-Indus
portion.
The Upper Trias is seen as a thick series of argillaceous
rocks in the Zhob-Pishin region of Baluchistan on the west
and in the Arakan region on the east. The Triassic rocks
assume the red sandstone facies beyond and east of the
Irrawaddy, as in parts of Yunnan and Szechuan, bearing
some resemblance to the Gondwana strata of the same age.
A marine facies is however to be seen in the areas bordering
on the' Red basin' of China and in Tonkin in Indo-
China. The Tethyan facies is developed in the Malay
Archipelago and in New Zealand through which apparent-
ly there was communication with the Pacific (American)
basin of sedimentation. To the west of the Himalays,
the Triassic rocks have been recognised in several places
between them and the Alps. Indeed there is a remarkable
similarity between the calcareous Tibetan facies and the
Hallstatt marble facies in the Eastern Alps not only in
fauna but also in lithology.
GEOLOGY or INDIA AND BURMA. [CHAP.
FIG. 8.--GENERAUSED SECTION NEAR LILANG, Spm

(AI"TER A. VON KRAFFT. As IN DIENER, Mem. 36, Pr. 3).
I Productus shales II Lower Trias 3 Muschelkalk 4. Daonella
shales. 5. Daonella hmestone 6. Halobia limestone. 7. Grey beds. B. Tro-
pite shales. g. DolomIte WIth LIma austnaca. 10 Juvavltes shales. II.
Coral bmestone. 12 Monotts beds. 13. Quartzite senes. 14. Megalodon
lunestone. a. Zone of JOtIllllltts thallamtnsls. b. Zone of Joanmtes eymbiformas
c Brachlpod layer (Grey beds). d Zone:: of Tropltes sub-bullatus. e, Zone i
,MonollS sa/marla.
SPITI: THE LILANG SYSTEM.

The most complete section of the Trias is exposed in
the Spiti-Kumaon belt of the Himalaya north of its main
axis where it forms immense escarpments rising often to a
height of 10,000 feet from the level of the adjoining valleys.
Deriving its name from the type section of Lilang in Spiti,
the system is seen to comprise black limestones with shale
intercalations and to attain a thickness of nearly 4,000 feet.
It is entirely marine in character and is fossiliferous except
XII] THE TRIASSIC SYSTEM,
TABLE 22-TRIAS OF SPITI,
(After Hayden,Mlm, XXXVI. Pt. I, and Diener, Ibid., Pt 3),
Divisions.
I,
Nanle of beds.
-:~:-~~---___:----------
LIAS Kloto
r
I
Massive lime, tone and dolomite (With Step-

(z M .. galodon)
Description of beds
'----
hanoctTQS coronarum 350 ft below the top)
----------------
Ma~lVe hmestonl" and dolomite (With
-_-
SPtrI-
I~~
\ n~t.
1600
gera noetlmllt, Megalodon ladakh,nsts and I 800

lImestone Dlceracardlum hlmalayenre 300 to 400 ft I
Quartzite series
I
above ba.,e)
White and brown quartzites with grey hme-I
stones and bla<'k shales (With SpmgtTa
---- 300
manltnlls)
U
'g I Sandy and 'haly limestone with brown-we a- I
!
--
Z Monou, shalt's thering shales and sandstone, (With Mono- 3 00
ltf sa/mana and Spm/enna /?ne,bnchl).
.5
I
Coral Imcstone
I LImestones (With Sptrl/mna gnesbachl, and
oral and crmOid remams).
I 100
~
f:-<
Juvavlte$ beds
\ Brown-weathermg shales, hmestones and I 5 00
.'."
sand,tont's (with ]uval'lles a7li(ula!Us)
III
;:J - Troplles beds

I DolomitIC
'
hmestones (with Dtela,maJulr.um)
Shales and dark hmestones With ammo-
I
300
\ nlte bed (Tropttes subbullatus) 4( 0 ft. above I 600
bae.
u
...a
J
Grey beds I Grey shales and shaly hmestones WIth a b,-
valve bed 30 ') ft above base, and an am-
monite bed 50 ft above base (SpmJeTlna
shalshalenszs and ]oanmlts cymbiform ls )
5 00
Halobla beds I Dark ~phntery hmestone (with HaloblO (f \

comata). Bed with ]oan"lles thanamenlls
near basp
I.j.o
Daonella Llme-l Hard dark hmestone (With Daonella IndICa). 1

st'Jne
DaoneJ1a shales., Black hmestone, shaly hmf'stone and shale \ 160
(with Dflomfla fnmrnPl, anri Ptv r nl'" !?"arrir).
Upper Muschel-I ConcretiOnary hmestone With shal<: bands
kalk (Ptychltes TUf(lfer)
I 20
Lower MUSChel-, Dark shales and grey limestone~ (with

kalk. Ktyserlmi(.lts dunm, Slbmtes prahlada,
I 6
Nodular
stone
Spmfirma stracheyt
hme-, Hard nodular hmestone With few fossJ)s.
- 60
8a'al Muschel-I Shaly hmestone (With Rhynchonella grles-, 3

kalk bnch,)
33 0 CEOLOQY OF INDIA AND BURMA. [CHAt-.
DIvision, II
Nan\(' of be(ls IkscriptlOn of beds
I
I
'flllck-
ness.
Ft.-
IHedemtToemla Limestone wIth Ps~domon()I'" hlmalCo. Sha\y

beds. hmestones amI shales alt~lnatmg (unfOS,l-
IIferous l
Thm-bedded lunestone~ and sh.ll~, (with 7
H,dmstromna mOJSfsCVtCH, t"ltmlrgtl~s ro~'lIn
Rnd XIIIOdlrCIIS "tVa/.s)
Meekoceras I Thin-bedded hmestones and shales with
MBd,ocu{p {'aralia and M~ekoceras Illan-
I
Zone 3
I tl1lJt. I
I
Ophlceras zone Grey limestone with Op/nceras 'QAu~lala an,1 I
PJtudoTllonohs grieJbaclll I
Otoceras zone. I Brown limestone with OloClTas woodwardt. 2
I
_P~F_R_~_~I_N__
'P_r_,"_h_l'_tl_"_'I_la_'e_~~I_D_a_rk_s_h_a_k_,_w_lt_h_~_er_"_ll_al_l_to__
~'_II_s______ I__2_
in the topmost division which grades imperceptibly into

the Lower Jurassic without any change in lithology.
As in Europe, it is divisible into three series, but the
divisions are of very unequal thickness. The Lower
Trias is only 40 f[. and the Middle 400 ft., while the
Upper Trias attains a thickness of 3,500 ft.
The Himalayan Trias has been studied in Spiti,
Johar, Painkhanda and Byans. Superb sections are seen
in the neighbourhood of Lllang and other places in Spiti
and in the Bambanag and Shalshal cliffs further east,
though, unfortunately, these are difficult of access from the
plains. Table 22 gives details of the general section at
Lilang.
LOWER TRIAS.
The Lower Trias follows conformably on the Productus

shales and consists of limestones and intercalated shales.
The basal 10 feet contain rich fossiliferous zones showing
at least three distinct faunal assmblages, viz., Otoceras-
Ophiceras, Meekoceras and Hedenstroemia-Flemingites faunas.
The Chief fossils in these zones are :
Otoceras zone O/oceras woodwardi, O. cr. undatum, Ophlceras
sakunlala, Pseudosageceras dala./amM.
XII] THE TRIASSIC SYSTEM. 33 1
PLATE XIV.
TRIASc;IC FOSSIL5 1.
E.XPLANA liON OF PLATE X IV.

I Nautilus brahman zeus (1/3) 2 Medluottta dalatlamlZ (1/4)' 3. Otoceras
woodward, (1{6). 4- Meekoceras varaha (1{4). 5. Ophlceras sakuntala (1{3). 6.
Danubltes hlmallV'anus (1/3). 7. Ceratltes subrobustu, (1/8). 8. Flemmgltts rohilla
(1/4), 9. HeiUnstrOlrnllJ moJSUOVU;SI (1/6) 10. A;pldlte. superbus (III!!). 11.
Ophiceras zone Ophictras sakuntala, O. tibellcum, Xenodlscus
radians, Puudomonotls gnesbacln.
Meekoceras Zone Meekoceras llaraha, M. markhaml, M. lliangense,
M. Jobnktnse, Aspldlt,s spitunns, Komnckltes
haydem, Xenodlscus radians
The three above-mentioned zones are close together
and separated from the Hedenstroemia beds by 2 to 4 feet
of unfossiliferous rock. The Hedenstroemia beds contain
some 30 species of cephalopods including Hedenstroemia
mojsisovicsi, Sibirites spitiensis, Pseudosageceras multilobatum,
Xenodiscus nivalis, Flemingites rohilla, Aspidites muthianus,
Meekoceras cf. joharense, Koninckites giganteus.
These are followed by similar but unfossilifcrous beds
having a thickness of about 24 ft., above which a fossili-
ferous 3-foot bed occurs, containing Pseudomonotis himaica
and P. decidense.
MIDDLE TRIAS.
The Muschelkalk.-Within 2 to 3 feet of the last
mentioned bed, there is another horizon which yielded
Rhynchonella griesbachi and Retzia himaica which are refer-
able to the basal Muschelkalk. It is followed by hard,
nodular limestone, about 60 ft. thick, similar in lithological
characters and stratigraphical position to the Niti limestone
of the Niti Pass in Kumaon, and containing only a few
fossils. The over-lying beds, consisting of dark shales and
limestones, constitute a typical Lower Musche1kalk horizon,
with an ammonite-rich lower part and a brachiopod-rich
upper part. They contain :
Cephalopods Keyserlingttrs (Durgmtes ) dienm, Danubites kansa,
Dalmatltes ropml, Monophyllltes ham, M. corifucli
Sibirites prahl ada.
Brachiopods SPmferina strachtyi, Rhynchonella dzenen.
CtTatltes thoullim (1/4). 12 Aspldltes spllleTISlS (1/3) 13 XtTloducus radIans

(1/4)' 14 Hungantes mzddlemlJSl (1/3) 15 Kashmmles blaschJc.. (1/3) 16.
Grypoc,TQs vthlanum (I/g) 17 /sculltesmlddlemlSsl (1/3) 18 CeraUtes (Hollandtles)
VO.tl (1/4). Iq SlblnUsprahlada (2/3). 20. G.ytTl'ltesJollytmus (1/4) 21. Gymmtu
(Buddhalus) rama (1/4) 22 Ptycllltts gerardl (1/4). 23. Ptychlus rugiftr (1/6)
114. Lob,lts oldlulllllfIUS (2/3). .
XII] THE TRIASSIC SYSTEM. 333
The Upper Muschelkalk.-This consists of a COll-
cretionary limestone and contains a large number of
cephalopods and a few brachiopods a:.nd mollusca.
Amongst the fossils are :
Brachiopods CoenothYTls cr. vulgaris, Mentzella koeveskalirensls.
Cephalopods Ptychltes rugifer, P. gerardI, Ceratlles thuilieri, C.
trmodosus, C. (Hollandltes) ravana, C. (H.) VOltl,
Beyrrchltes khamko1Ji, StuTla sansovlmi, Budd-
haites rama, Gymmtes }ollyanus, Orthoceras SPltl-
enslS, Joanmtes d. proavus, Proarcestes aff.
bramantei.
LADINIC STAGE.
Daonella Shales.-The Upper Muschelkalk bed
shows a gradual passage to the Ladinic stage, there being
no noticeable change in the stratigraphical unit; that is to
say, the Ladinic begins somewhere in the middle of the
concretionary limestone. The lower part of the Ladinic is
the Daonella shales, about 160 ft. thick, consisting of shaly
limestones and shales. The passage beds contain Spirigera
hunica, Arpadites cf. lissarensis, Protrachyceras spitiense, Rim-
kinites nitiensis, Ptychites gerardi, Jaonnites kossmati, J. praovus,
Proarcestes cf. balfouri, etc. Many of the fossils are common
to both the Upper Muschelkalk and the Daonella shales.
The Daonella shales enclose a typical Ladinic fauna
amongst which may be mentioned: Daonella lommeli, D.
indica, Spirigera !tunica, Hungarites pradoi, Rimkinites nitiensis,
Pro tra chyceras spitiense, Pinacoceras sp., Ptychites gerardi,
Joannites cf. proavus, Proarcestes aiT. bramantei.
Daonella Limestone.-The Daonella shales are over-
laid by a mass of homogeneous splintery limestone, 280 ft.
thick, but this is divided into two stages by a band of black
limestone with shale intercalations in the middle. The
portion (160 ft.) below this dark band contains Daonella
indica throughout, the lower part containing also Daonella
cf. lommeli. The portion containing D. lommeli is included
in the Ladinic stage while that above is assigned to the
Carnic stage. Hence, on palreontological grounds, the
334 GEOLOGY OF INDIA AND BURA. [CHAP.
line of division between the Middle and Upper Trias passes
halfway through the Daonella limestone. The Daonella -
limestone contains, besides species of Daonella, the cephalo-
pods RWlkinite; nitiensis, Joanllites kossamti, Celtites trigonalis,
Monophyllites cf. wengmsis and the brachiopod Rhynchonella
rimkmensis.
UPPER TRIAS: CARNIC STAGE.
The Upper Trias, which attains a huge thickness, is
divisible into two main divisions, the lower mainly shaly
and the higher mainly calcareous. They correspond more
or less with the faunistic division as in the case of the Alps
where a lower (Carnic) stage is distinct from an upper
(Noric) stage. The Carnic stage in Spiti comprises the
beds upwards from the upper part of the Daonella lime-
stone to the base of the Juvavites beds.
Halobia Limestone.-The dark limestone bed just
above the Daonella limestone is the zone of Joannites thana-
mensis. The limestone overlying this is the Halobia lime-
stone characterised by Halobia cf. comata which is a
typical European fossIl of the Julie substage of the Carnic.
Grey shales.-The Halobia limestone is overlain by the
Grey shales which have a thickness of 500 feet and consist
of shales with intercalations of shaly limestone. They
show fossil horizons a little above the base and again at
300 ft. above the base. The lower horizon contains
Trach.;'ceras aff. ariae, Joallnites cf. cymbiformis, Monophyllites
cf. simoyni, etc. The upper horizon yielded only one ill-
preserved ammonoid (Paratropites sp.) and several brachio-
pods and bivalves :
BrachIOpods Rhynchonella laucana, R. hlmalca, Spmferma
shalshalensls, S. gregarta, Ment<;ella ment<;eiu,
Dulasma Jullcum.
Bivalves Ll[angma nobllu, Pomarangina hayden!, LIma sp.
Tropites beds.-The Grey shales are overlaid by the
Tropites beds, the lower 600 feet of which are calcareous
shales with limestone intercalations. About 400 ft. above
the base of these there is a nodular limestone containing
XU] THE TRIASSIC SYSTEM. 335
PLATE XV.
TRIAS<;IC FOSSIL'; II.
17?. 1r-:~
\:l ~t~//'
t'.'
6,- ~ ~
Il ~-
n~ - I~' ~.. 2'~ 2? ~ 4
~~ 4 Gil) ~.~
~.U2J''''&.''
, , ""-, d,)
" '.. I At.. /\(I.JO.
hi" ~ .. ... _
8"' ::j.. ~~
~. "'7~ ~i'~: .
(I i- ~i~. i. 6.i~
(ii.j.i~es
43& f3b 44. 4i. ."~. ~.
~o
... V,
~~.~, ~
M.... M 1.fl"'!'" ~
~- UV'Iia.
EXPLANAT[ON OF PLATE XV
25. Proarcestes ba/juun (I (4) 26 Dalluh,tes kansa (1/4) 27 Orthoceras cf.
campamle ([/3)' 28. Monophyllites corifuCII (1/3) 29 Halontes procyon (1/4),
30 ParO}UI'ol':lts jelStmantth (1/3). 3) CllOmtes woodwardl (J /3) 32. Dill
mantes hllldel (1/3)' 33. PmQCoceras parma (li3) 34 Tlbetttes ryallt (2/3) 35.
Bamballagltts dlenen (113). 36. Joanrutes cymbiforml.S (1/4) 37 JUl'avJtes angulatus
(1/3) 38. Smmles elegans (1/3) 39. DrstlCh,tes sollasn (1/8) 40. MargarttiS
georgl (2(3). 4 1. Tropttes suh-hullatus (1/3). 42. Sandllllgiles vnbasus (1/6). i3.
GEOLOGY OF INDIA AND BURMA. (CHAP.
a rich, but badly preserved, cephalopod fauna which
includes Tropites cf. subbullatus, T. dlscobullatus, Clydonautilus
acutilohatus, Jovites spectahilis, Sandlingites afT. reyeri, Proar-
cestes cf. gaytani.
The upper part of the Tropites beds are dolomitic
limestones, with a thickness of 300 ft. also containing
Carnic fossils- Dielasma )ulicum, Spiriferina aff. shalshalensis ;
Lima cf. austriaca, Halabia afT. superba, DaonelLa afT. sryriaca.
The Carnic beds, which end with this limestone, have
a total thickness of 1,600 ft.
NORIC STAGE.
Juvavites Beds.-The Tropites beds are followed con-

formably by brown-weathering limestone with shale and
sandstone beds having a total thickness of 500 ft. Their
characteristic fossil is Juvavites angulatus which is associated
with others, such as-
Juvavlles aff. ehrllcht, Anatonlttes aff. melchloris, Tibetites cf. ryaUi,
Plnacoceras afT. parma, Melacarmtes footei, Dtttmantes lzll!/ormls, Atraeilles,
cf. alveolans, Paranautllus arcestiformls :
Bivalves . . Lima cf. serratlcosta, Pecten afT. monilijero, Halob,a
aft'. fasclgml.
Coral limestone.-The base of the overlying stage,
the Coral limestone, is a calcerous sandstone with plant
remains. The Coral limestone, which is 100 ft. thick,
abounds in crinoidal and coral remains and contains two
brachiopods Spiriferina griesbacht and Rhynchonella bambana-
gens,s.
Monotis sha,les.-Above the Coral limestone are
shaly limestones, black limestones, fiaggy sandstones and
sandy shales, which attain a thickness of 300 ft. The
sandy shales and sandstones especially contain abundant
fossils, which include-
HIlK/tUs cr. gltuculal4 (2/3) 44 Jelltnektlts barlUlrdi (t/3) (confined to Tropites
limestone beds). 45. Tlusbllts me/lagn (1/3). 46. Duiymlus I"IILS (1/3). 47
Proarcestes gllJlant (1/3). 48 Carnlles ftondus (1/4)' 49. Plactles polydtUlJlus (1/4)
(numencally the most abundant fOSSil III the Tropitcs limestone bed). 50. JOUlUJ
a-iformu (1/4)' 51. AlrtUlIUs elitpll&US ( 1/5)'
Bivalves Monotls salmaria, Lima cf. serratteosta, Pecten aff. mom li-
fero, P. margantlcostatuf, Pleuromya hlmalCa.
Brachiopods Spiriferma grzesbachl, Sptrz,t:era d,enm, Aulacothyns
Joharenslf, R hvnchonella bambanagensis .
.
Quartzite series.-Immcdiately above the Monotis
shales are white and brown quartzites, 300 ft. thick, which
form a conspicuous horizon visible from a distance. Most
of its fossils are also found in the Monotis shales, but
Spirigera maniensis is restricted to it.
Megalodon limestone (= Kioto limestone).-The
topmost beds of the Triassic sequence are thick massive
limestones and dolomites which Griesbach originally
included in his Rhretic system. Their total thickness is of
the order of 2,500 ft. and they bear a striking resemblance
to the Dachsteinkalk of the Alpine region both in lithology
and stratigraphical position. They have a uniform appear-
ance throughout their thickness and are for the most
part unfossiliferous. Fossils have been found between 200
and 300 ft. from the base, amongst which are-
Megalodon ladakhenm, Entollum cf fubdemlSjUm, Pecten chabrangensis,
Lzma cumaumca; Spmgera noetltngl, Spmfenna cf. haum.
Near Hansi, large numbers of Megalodon ladakhensis and
Diceracardiurn himalayense are seen in the limestone about
50 ft. above the Quartzite series. This was called the
Para Limestone by F. Stoliczka and referred to the Rhretic.
The fossil assemblage however shows the limestone to be
Noric.
The Megalodon Limestone, to which Hayden has
advocated the use of the name Kioto Limestone, is overlain
by the Spiti Shales of Callovian age. Near Giumal, the
Megalodon limestone yielded the typical Middle Jurassic
fossil Stephanoceras corona turn about 370 feet below the base
of the Spiti Shales. About 1,000 feet further below (i.e.,
below the Stephanoceras coronatum zone) Spiriferina cf. obtusa
was found which is probably Liassic in age. Diener has
therefore come to the conclusion that, out of a total thick-
ness of 2,550 ft. for the Megalodon Limestone, the lower
43
800 ft. may be assumed to be Upper Triassic and the rest
Jurassic.
PAINKHANDA (KUMAON).
Excellent sections of the Trias are exposed in the

Bambanag and Shalshal cliffs in the north-western part of
Kumaon. Table 23 shows the general succession observed.
The Painkhanda section, though resembling that of Spiti,
has some peculiarities. In particular, the Ladinic stage
dwindles down to insignificance and the Upper Trias is
much less thick.
The lowest three beds of the Trias contain the Otoceras_
Ophlceras fauna in which, besides species of these, there
are Eplsageceras dalailamae, Hungarites sp., Meekoceras hodgsoni,
Xenodiscus himalayanus, etc, The top of the lowest zone
contains also abundant Pseudomonotis griesbachi. Dark
shales having a thickness of 18 ft. intervene between the
Ophiceras beds and the Meekoceras beds, which are
succeeded by 5 ft. of unfossiliferous grey limestones and
these again by the Hedenstroemia beds which contain
Flemingites rohilla, XOlOdiscus nivalis and Pseudomonotis himaica.
The .Nfuschelkalk begins with a 3-foot limestone zone
containing RhyncllOnella griesbachi and Sibirttes praltlada.
The nodular limestone of Spiti is represented here by the
Niti limestone having a thickness of 60 ft. The Spiriftrina
stracheyi beds with Keyserlingites dieneri, Monophyllites Izara
and Dalmatites ropini overlie the Niti limestone. They are
followed by the Upper Muschelkalk limestone (Ptychites
beds) enclosing a very rich Cephalopod fauna the impor-
tant species in it being: Hollandites voiti, H. ravana, Ceratites
thuilleri, C. trinodosus, B~richites khanikoJfi, Buddhaites rama ,
Gymnites jollyanus, G. uasantasena, Ptychites rugiftr, P.
gerardi.
The Ladinic stage is all but absent, being represented
by 20 ft. of thin bedded limestones containing a few fossils,
most of which are the same as those occurring in the
overlying beds. It is only the presence of Joannites cf.
XII] THE TRIASSIC SYSTEM.
339
TABLE 23,-TRIASSIC SECTION IN PAINKHANDA.
LIAS Megalodon limestone (10 part)
Upper
-----------------------
Mcgalodon hmestone (ill part)
QuartZite senes wIth SplTIgera manttnslS

Sagt"ntte or Anodontophora beds: Brown hmestones wIth
Anodolltophora grlesbacht 160'
Earthy limestones wIth Splrrfmna grltsbadll passing down

mto calcareou., shales . 3!10'
Lower Halorites beds' MaSSIVe grey hme.tones with numeroUl
cephalopods, esp("clally Halorltes procyon and other specIes. 200'
Nodular and slaty limestone wah Proclydonautllus grzesbachl lOa'

Haiobla beds: Black flag~ limes tunes, shales, massIVe
I"arthy grey Itmestonrs and dolomItes passmg up mto
Carmc micaceous .hale, , wllh Ha{ohla cf ,ornata . 800'
rraumatocnnus beds Black flaggy hmestones with shale
_ _ _ _ _ _-'--'-parhngs, WIth Traumatocr;:nur and Daonel/a mdua la'
Ladinic Pa,sage beds (shalshal) Thm bedded concretionary hme-
\ ~tone with Daqnellil mdlra, Spmgera hUnlca _ _~
Upper Mmchelkalk hmr-stone With PtychlteJ rugller 20'
Splrzjmna strachtJt beds With Ktyserlzn~ltts dlen tTl

Mu~cheikaik
Nlti hmcstone-Hard nodular hmeslone 60'
Shaiy hmestone WIth RhYllcholie/Ja gm,bachl and Slbmus

\ prahlada
----__:_..!------------ - - - -3'
Hedenstroemla bed,: Thm bedded grey hme,tone
WIth shale partmgs, With Flemlnglles rohll/a and Pseudo-
monotls hlmalCa near the top 25'
Grey llmestone-no determmable fossjls 5'
Meekoceras bed-Dark concretionary limestone with
Meekoceras oaraha and M markham I I'
Lower Trias Dark blue shales-Unfossthferous 18'

Dark hmestone with Otl)ceras woodwardl and Ophueras
hbetzcum J.'

Dark hard clay wllh concrehons contaming EplJageceras
dalallamae and Ptycheltes schclblen
Dark blue hmestone With OtoCtr/l.J woodwardt and OphuerGS

sakulitaia I'
Premlan I Prod uctus ahales

proavus that indicates the presence of the Ladinic. The
characteristic fossil of this stage, Daonella cf. lommeli, is not
found in Painkhanda.
The beds above them are the Traumatocrinus beds-
well-bedded limestones containing abundant crinoid stems,
cephalopods, etc., which indicate the J ulic horizon of the
Carnic stage. The fossil fauna includes:
Bivalves Daonella indIca
Brachiopods SPmgera humca, Retzia afr. [adina, Aulacothyris
miangensls, Rhyllchonella nmkwtnsis.
Cephalopods Proclydonautllus cr. buddhaicus, ]oannites cymbyormls,
]. kOJS1nati, Grypoceras nmkl1lensls, Lobttes delphI
nocephalus, Anatomites sp, Carnites cf. ftondus,
RimA mites lIitiewls, Arpadltes nmktnensls, Dlttma-
rite.l cf. ci,cumsclssus, Trachyceras austrzacum,
Szrellltes cooAn.
Overlying the crinoidal beds are a thick series of dark
carbonaceous shales and shaly limestones which constitute
the Halobia beds. They are 650 ft. to 800 ft. thick and
contain fossils throughout and especially in the lower part:
BrachIOpods Splrifl'fllla shalshalens!s, Retl:',la schwagert, Rhynchonella
laurana.
Lamellibranchs Halobla cf. comata, AVlcula girthlana.
Cephalopods Jovltes afr. dacl, Anatomltes bambanagensis, Juvavites
cf. tonkinensls, Placltes pulydactylus, MOJsvantes
eugyrus, DI.lcophyllites ebnen; also Sagemtes,
Tzbetltes, Monophylhtes, Proarcesles, etc., which
could not be determmed specifically because
of the poor state of preservatIOn.
The lowest beds of the Noric stage are nodular and shaly
limestones, 100 ft. thick, containing Proclydonautilus gries-
bachi, Pinacoceras aff. imperator, Metacarnites sp., Arcestes,
Sagenites, Juvavites, etc.
The Halobia beds are succeeded by the Halorites
beds, consisting of dark shales with limestone bands. The
fossiliferous Halorites zone, about 20 to 30 ft. above the
base, is a rich cephalopod horizon containing numerous
fossils of which mention may be made of-
Halonles procyon, H. Sapphoms, ParaJuvavtles blanfordl, Tibelltes ryalll,
Paraltbetltes bertrandt, Heitcl!tes atalanta, Steznmanmtes dmderu, Cliomtes
woodward!, S,remtes nchteTI, Sandltngites mcolat, Pmacoceras mettermchi,
P. parma, Bambanagltes dleneri, Placltes sakuntala ; also a few brachIopods
PLATE XVI.
TRIASSIC FOSSIU III.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE XVI.

52 Pstudomono/I.S grusbachl (1/3) 53 Belltrophon ",eke! (2}3). 54 Daonella
lommeh(I}3) 55 Daonellatndrca (1/4). 56. L,maserrallcosta (1/3)' 57. Megalo-
lion ladakhell$ZS (1/8) j8 Halohla comata (1}3). 59. Anodontophora griesbach'
(1(3). 60. Myophona cf ova/at (1(4) 61 Rhyndwntlla Inn.dosl (2}3) 62 Myo-
phoria mlddlemlSsl (1/3)' 63 SpmjeTIna stracheyl (1/2). 64 Rhynchonella griesbachl
(2}3). 65 Ret::'la hunalCa (2}3). 66 Spmgera hUTUca (2/3). 67. Rhynchonelld
ImklnlllSlS (2}3). 68 Dlelasma Jullem (1/2).
and lamellibr,mchs including RhYlldlOnella bambaTiagensis, Anodontaphora
griesbachi, Lima serra/tcosta and Halobra cf. comata.
The Halorites beds pass upwards into earthy compact
limestones, often dolomitic or micaceous, having a thick-
ness of over 300 ft. They contain abundant Spiriferina
grieshachi, and also Spirigera dieneri, Aulacothyris joharensis
and Ret:::,ia schwageli, and the bivalves Lima cumaunica and
Pecten interruptus. Above them are the beds containing
Anodolltophora griesbachi in which a specimen of Sagenites
was discovered. They are liver-coloured or brown -
limestones having a thickness of about 150 ft. They are
overlain by the Q,uartzite series similar in constitution to that
of Spiti and containing Spirigera maniensis and S. dieneri.
The topmost beds are, as in Spiti, the Megalodon lime-
stones which here have a thickness of I,Boo to 2,000 ft. of
which perhaps 500 to 600 ft. may be of Upper Triassic
(Upper Noric) age and the rest Lower Jurassic.
BYANS.
The Triassic succession in Byans in north-eastern
Kumaon, close to the Nepal border, is less well developed
than in the western areas and the facies is also generally
different, limestones predominating to a very large extent.
The Lower Trias of Byans is composed of chocolate
coloured limestone with shales in the lower part. The
basal portion contains Otoceras and Meekoceras fauna, while
the Hedenstroemia bed of Spiti is here represented by the
Sibirites spiniger zone. The Muschelkalk is a light grey
limestone without any shales, contrasting strongly with
the shaly facies elsewhere. It contains a brachiopod bed
The followtng fOSSIls are from the Salt Range.
69 Sltphallllls sujlubus (1/12). 70. AchrochordlClTDJ corllnatum (1/4) 71.
Cerahtes normallS (1/4), 72. Celtius armatus (1/4), 73. Dl1lafltes corona/us (1/2).
74' SlbmUs chldruenslS (1/3). 75. GOniodlScus typus (1/2). 76. Fiemlllgites radlatus
(1/6) 77. Flemlngltes jleml1lglanus (1/12). 78. Proptychltes lawwlClanus (1/6).
79. Ambiles dISCUS (1/4). 80. Clypltes kzngzanus (114). 81 Aspldller superbus (1/12).
82. Kmgltes lens (1/4). 83 Konuu:ktltS uolulus (1/1). 84. Mtekoceras vllnans
(1/6). 85 P71onolobus rotundatus (IIi). 86. Gyromtts /re'luens (113) 87. Leca-
IIIUs gan~'tlCllS (1/3)'
TABLE 24.-TRIAS OF BVANS.
Megalodon Limestone (in part) ? 400'

Norie Grey lime.t<?nes with shales at the top. containing
undetermmable ammonites
1000'
Black shales with Arcestes
Carnic I Troplt<" hmestone very nch In fossils
? Ladime ILight grey

..
Limestones unfossihferous
.. Cephalopod bed with Ceratr-
les thull/err, Buddhalle~
rama,
etc
Musehelkalk II " .. Brachiopod b<:>d with Spmjmna
strach~YI
and Rhynehonella gnts-
I b(!(/II
l " mamly unf()'!~jhf("rous
Slbmtes rpllllifer zone near top
Lower Trla~ Chorolatt' hm!'.
I stone with
I some ~hal .., { lIfeekoCtras and Otoceras fauna
near hot tom
Pennian I Productus shale.
-----~--------------------
70 ft. above the base and a cephalopod bed a little above it.
The latter contains, besides some familiar cephalopods such
as Ceratites thuilleri, Buddhflites rama, Gymnites jollyanus and
Ptychites sahadeva, also species not known elsewhere, e.g.,
Smithoceras drummondi, Bukowskites colvini, Pinacoceras loomisii
and Ph ilippites Jolinkanus. The I.adinic is apparently
absent. At the top of the limestone, a 3-foot zone consti-
tutes the Tropites zone which is extraordinarily rich in
fossils representing a mingling of Carnic and Noric typess
This mixture is apparently due to the faunal remain.
accumulating more rapidly than the sediments at the sea
bottom. The Noric is, however, well represented by a
series of thick shales and limestones overlaid by limestones
of the Dachsteinkalk type (i.e., Megalodon limestone).
The shaly beds and associated limestones are about 1,000 ft.
thick and fossils found in them are all crushed and undeter-
minable, even generically. The Megalodon limestone is
1,500 ft. thick, and as usual includes the Lower Jurassic.
Some ISO species of cephalopods have been identified
from the Tropites limestone besides which thele are several
which are not specifically determinable. Two-thirds of
the species are peculiar to this region while the rest are
identical with species of the Hallstatt marble of the Alps.
The fauna of the Tropites limestone includes the follow-
ing :-
Lamellibranchs Halobza cr. cOlllala, H. cr. jaSClgera, Ameula afr.
caudata.
Cephalopods A tratllies cf. ell,ptlcuS, Orlhoceras d. trladicum,
Proclydonautllus griesbachiformls, PtnaCOceraf parma,
P. mettemichl, Placltes po(ydactylus, var. oldhami
(Placites being numerically the most abundant
fossil), Bambanaglles krafftl, Carnztes cr.
jloridus,
Megaphyllltes jarbas, Dlscop~yllltes ebnm, Arcesles
dlceras, Proarcestes cr. gaytant, Lobiles cr. elltpticus,
7 .'
5
.. l
Jo'1O 9.-SECTION N. W 01' KALAPANI, BVANS

(AFTER A. VON KR"PFT AslIIem 36, Pt. 3)
IN DIENER,
r. White quartzite 2 Produ('tus shales 3 Chocolate limestone (L.
frias). 4. Grey hmestone (Muschclkalk, Ladmlc and Carnic stage,). 5
fropltes ltmestone. 6. Black shal~s with ArmIes. 7. Grey limestone. 8. Shalel
or l~ ammomtes. 9. M~~odon limestone.
Helutites cf. gemculatus, Thubites meleagri,
Jellinekttes barnardz, Arpadrtes tassllo, D,ttmantes
rawlmsoni, Drepamtes (chuchertl, Trbetztes cf.
ryalll, Paratzhelltes adolphl, HZlIlavatltes watsoni,
CllOnztes graci/ts, Sandlmgltes cf. orzbasus, Slrenites
cf. argonautae, S. vredenburgl, D,stlch,tes Joilasli,
D. ectolcitiformis, Ectolcites hollandl, lscuhtes smlthil,
Halorltes aff procyon, Jovltes spectabllls, Analo-
mItes speclOsus, Dldymltes teetus, DlscotropiteJ
kraJftI, Margantes acutus, Tropltes subbullatus,
T. cr. fusobullatus, Anatropttes nihalensls, etc.
JOHAR.
North of the main Mesozoic belt of the northern

Himalaya there is a region of the Tibetan frontier of
Kumaon-Malla Johar, Balchdhura and Chitichun-con-
taining a large number of blocks and masses of limestone
lying pellmell over the Mesozoic rocks, and closely asso-
MAP IX.
GEOLOGIC ... L ..... 1'
,,,I. .
O~
...... LL" ~OH"'R ""0 "D~OI"ING
P"RTS or ,M,I..
HUNoes
44
dated with lavas of late Cretaceous or Eocene age and of

andesitic to basaltie composition. The masses vary ill
size from small boulders to those as big as hillocks, and even
sheet-like masse's covering a few square miles. The lime-
stone is entirely different from any known in the Himalayan
region and the fossil contents have also a different facies,
being allied more to the Eastern Alps than to Spiti or
Kumaon, and must belong to some area in Tibet where
it was originally deposited.
These an' the 'exotic blocks' described by A. von
Krafft and C. Diener. Their presence close to the Spiti
zone is explained as due to shattering by volcanic explo-
sions and transport by lava flows to their present position.
An alternative hypothesis is that they represent the rem-
nants of overthrust sheets ('nappes') which carried the
rocks from their original site.
The exotic blocks include limestones of Permian to
Cretaceous age. Some of them -contain the equivalents
of the Triassic horizons observed in the Shalshal cliff, but
the horizons are of smaller thickness and the facies quite
different, the Upper Triassic especially being extraordi-
narily like the red and white Hallstatt marble of the Alps
both in lithology and fossil content.
The Lower Trias is represented by earthy limestones
containing Meekoceras joharense, Xenodiscus nivalis and Heden-
strtemia cf. byansica, which facies is closely related to that
of Spiti. The Middle Trias was noticed near Chitichun I,
containing Ceratites (Danubites) kansa, Sibirites pandya,
Monophyllites confucii, Xenaspis middlemissi, etc., which can
be correlated faunisticaIIy with the Spiriferina stracheyi beds
of the Muschelkalk. The Carnic stage is represented by
the red marble blocks in Balchdhura and Malta Johar
containing Cladiscites crassestriatus, Arcestes cf. richthrifeni,
Proarcestes gaytani, Pinacoceras aff. rex, Tropites cf. subbullatus,
Juvavites krajJii, Tibetites bholensis, etc., which show greater
affinites to the Julie and Tuvalic stages of the Alpine
Hallstatt marble than to the corresponding stages of Spiti.
Arcestes and Cladiscites which occur in great numbers in
these blocks are characteristic of the Hallstatt marble and
rare in Spiti. The Upper Noric is represented by white
or grey dolomitic limestone different in appearance from
the Megalodon limestone, and containing no fossils. The
Liassic has also a striking resemblance to the Alpine facies
as in the case of the Carnic stage of the Triassic.
KASHMIR.
The Himalayan Triassic belt extends into Kashmir

anJ occurs in the Sind and Lidar valleys, Ward wan,
Gurais and Central Ladakh and also in north-west Kashmir
and Pir Panjal. In the Pir Panjal the Trias occurs as a
long thin band extending from Kishtwar on the east to
Tosh Maidan beyond the Jhelum valley on the west.
In north-western Kashmir only the Upper Trias is seen.
Good sections are observed in the Vihi district near
Khunmu, Khrew and in the Guryal ravine. The
Kashmir Triassic beds are easily accessible from the
Kashmir valley, in contrast with the other Himalayan
occurrences.
TABLE 25.- TRIAS OF KASHMIR.
Urry to dark, massIVe limestone: wIth occasional fosai\s.

Upper mostly fragmentary.
(several thousand ft )
IZone of Sprrifmna strache_vi and S cf haum
Lamelhbranch beds
Ptychtte~ h0f170n ~andy shales WIth calcareous layers.
Cerahte bed, """
MIddle RhynchQnella trmodosl brds " " "
(over goo ft ) Gymmtes and Ceratite beds-Red and grey slabby
hmestone.
Lower nodular limestone, ann shales.
Interbedded thm hmestones, shales and sandy limestones.
Lower Hun~arites shales (po'ihon uncertain).

(over 300 ft.) , Meeltocera! beds-lImestones and shales.
Ophlceras hmestone.
LOWER TRIAS.
The Lower Trias is well represented in the Sind and

Lidar valleys. Good sections have been studied near
GEOLOGY OF I NOlA AND BURMA. [CHAP,
Pastanna and other places but the lowest beds are much
concealed by scree and vegetation. The horizons known
in Spiti have been found here, except the basal Otoceras
zone. The Ophiceras zone contains :
Ophlceras sakuntala, O. ptychodes, Xenodlscus himalayanas, X cr. ophioneu.
V,shnuites pralambha; Pseudomonotls griesbachi, P. pamkhandana, etc.
A slightly younger fauna, of the Hedenstroemia zone,
is found in the Guryal ravine. It shows:
Flemzngltes ~p ) Meekoctras afT. jolznkense, PrlOnrtes guryulensls, Slbmtes
kashmiTlcus, Kashmlrites blaschkei, Stephanites superbo, Hungarites sp.
The Lower Trias has a thickness of over 300 ft., and
systematic excavations may reveal more fossiliferous
zones.
MIDDLE TRIAS.
Above the Hungarites zone there occurs a succession
of thin bedded limestones with intercalated shale and sand-
stone layers. The lower 200 ft. consist of dark grey lime-
stones with only occasional lamellibranchs. They are
overlain by alternating beds of thin limestones and shales
and these again by 100 ft. of grey, thin bedded sandy
limestone containing a lamellibranch bed near its base.
Above this is a bed 200 ft. thick, of pale nodular sandy
limestone with hard shale partings, containing cephalopod
horizons 20 ft. and 80 ft. respectively below the top. At
the top of the last mentioned beds is a conspicuous horizon
of red and grey slabby limestones rich in Gymnites and
other fossils (Gymnites and Ceratites beds). These have
yielded:
Ceratites thullleri, Hollandltes voiti, H. Tavana, Beyrichites khanikoji,
Sibmtes cf. prahlada, Gymnites Jollyanus, G. sankaro, Acrochord,ceras
balarama, Buddhattes rama, Grypoceras vthtanum, and some lamellibranchs.
Twenty feet above the main Gymnites horizon is
another fossiliferous bed of the same character, the
intervening beds being black shales. They are followed
by 400 to 600 ft. of alternating limestones and shales. In
the Khrew section, the Ptychites horizon occurs about
THE TlUASSIC SYSTEN.
XlI]
.. -
'"onco ..
..;
U)
U)
.-...
...v ..!:!
.c 0
0
r-
g
ot ..
& ~ 8N ~
530 ft. above the Gymnites beds and contains the following:
Cera tiles trinodosus, Buddhaltes rama, Ptychltes sahadeva, PtyChltes sp.
Mojsvaroceras kagae, Grypoceras v,hlanum; Myophorta, L,ma, Pecten,
etc.
These belong to the Upper Muschelkalk.
UPPER TRIAS.
The PfYchites-bearing beds pass gradually upwards into

massive limestones. The Lamellibranch bed and the zone
of Spiriferina griesbachi occur in the lowest parts of the
Upper Trias and belong to the Carnic stage. The lamelli-
branch bed contains only one brachiopod, Dielasmajulicum,
but is rich in lamellibranchs, including : -
Myophoria middlemtSSl, M. cr. kefirstewl, Hoernesia bhavani, Chlamys
middltmlssii, Pseudomonotis sp., Lima cr. subpunctata.
The Spiriferina stracheyi bed contains, besides that
fossil, Spiriferina aff. lilangensis, Mentzelia mentzelii,
Rhynchonella trinodosi, etc.
The Upper Trias is well developed in the mountains
of Vihi and Anantnag districts and in other places and
forms conspicuous scarps. It lacks the Daonella and
Halobia beds which are developed in Spiti. But further
search may reveal the equivalents of these. The upper
portion resembles the Megalodon (or Kioto) limestone but
has not yielded any Megalodon in the Vihi district. Else-
where in Kashmir it is known to contain some corals,
crinoidal stems and bivalves.
SIKKIM.
Above the Lachi series of Permian age there occur

Triassic beds. In the Lachi ridge the calcareous sandstone
with Upper Permian fossils is overlaid by thick quartzites
and shales having a thickness of several hundred feet. These
may be of Triassic age. In the same region, some dark
limestones and shales have been obtained, containing
Triassic ammonoids, lamellibranchs and gastropods. They
XU] THE TRIASSIC SYSTEM.
35 1
also apparently overlie the fossiliferous Upper Permian
beds.
REVIEW OF THE WESTERN HIMALAYAN TRIAS.

The Triassic rocks of the different areas in the western
Himalayas may conveniently be reviewed at this stage.
The Lower Triassic is well represented in Kashmir,
Spiti, Painkhanda and Byans. It is only 40 ft. thick in
Spiti and slightly more in Painkhanda. Though it attains
a thickness of over 300 ft. in Kashmir, it does not seem to
be richer in fossils, but this is partly because it has not been
investigated in detail. It is also quite thick in Byans (15 0
ft.) and contains a new element in the fauna, viz., Sibirites.
The Muschelkalk of Spiti falls into three divisions.
The lower portion is a nodular limestone with a brachiopod
horizon (RhynchoneLLa grzesbachi) at the base; the middle
one contains a fauna with Spirifenna stracheyi and Keyser-
lingites (Durgaites) dieneri. The Upper Muschelkalk is
extraordinarily rich in fossils and characterised by Prychites
rugifer. The same characters are more or less recognised
in Kashmir where the strata thicken to goo ft. In Pain-
khanda the Muschelkalk is only a little over 100 ft. thick,
though the different zones are recognizable. In Byans it is
a pure limestone facies but faunistically closely related
to Spiti.
There is a great variation in the Ladinic stage of the
different areas. It is 300 ft. thick in Spiti, dwindles down
to about 20 ft. in Painkhanda and is apparently absent or
represented by unfossiliferous limestone in Byans. Its
equivalents in Kashmir should be looked for in the strata
above the Ptychites beds. This marked difference con-
tinues also into the Carnic stage. The Carnic is 1,600 ft.
thick in Spiti, consisting of a lower Joannites horizon and
an upper Tropites horizon. It attains only half that
thickness in Painkhanda and much less in Byans where the
Tropites horizon is extremely rich in fossils, but contains
also some Noric elements. The Lamellibranch beds and
'III PU1!Snottl I1!J~A:lS
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Spiriferina stracheyi beds of Kashmir represent the Carnic

stage: _
. The Noric stage is dominantly calcareous in all the
areas except Byans where it is shaly and generally contains
crushed fossils. In Kashmir the Noric seems to be prac-
tically unfossiliferous. The Upper N oric division is the
Megalodon limestone (Kioto Limestone) which attains
large thicknesses in all areas and whose upper portion is
Liassic in age. It is thickest in Kashmir (several thousand)
feet), and gradually becomes thinner southeastwards, being
2,500 ft. in Spiti, 2,000 ft. in Painkhanda and 1,500 ft. in
Byans.
The correlation of the Triassic formations of these
areas IS gIVen in Table 26.
SALT RANGE.
Triassic rocks, known as Ceratite beds, are well deve-

loped in the Salt Range on either side of the Indus.
In the Cis-Indus portion, only the Lower Trias and the
lower part of the Middle Trias are observed westward from
Kathwai near Kundghat, their total thickness being ISO
to 200 ft. In the Trans-Indus region the Upper Trias is
also seen, the thickness of the whole system being around
400 to 500 ft.
It has already been mentioned that the Chidru stage
of the Upper Productus beds becomes arenaceous at the
top. A slight but distinct unconformity intervenes between
the Permian and Trias; a conglomerate marking the.
break in deposition is found near Siran-ki-dhok, and a
marked change occurs in the fauna with the earliest Triasic
rocks. Table 27 shows the Triassic succession found in
the Salt Range.
The basal bed of the Trias is the Lower Ceratite
Limestone which is a hard thin-bedded light grey lime-
stone containing numerous Gyronites frequens, and which is
the equivalent of the Ophiceras beds of Spiti. The Otocera!
horizon is probably represented by the unfossiliferous sands
XII] THE TRIASsIC SYSTEM.
355
and clays which lie between this limestone and the Chidru
beds of Upper Productus Limestone. The Lower Ceratite
Limestone is overlaid by thick greyish green marly beds
with limestone bands, called the Ceratite Marls, containing
abundant fossils. The marls constitute a very conspicuous
and easily visible horizon because of their colour, and
weather into rounded outcrops. The Ceratzte sandstones
which succeed them are divided into an upper and a
lower sandstone separated by a calcareous horizon rich
in Stachella, a genus closely allied to Bellerophon. The
Upper Ceratite sandstone is characterised by the presence
of Flemingltes fiemingianus, which can be correlated with
the Flemingites rohilla zone of Painkhanda. Above the
Ceratite sandstone is the Upper Ceratite Limestone composed
of hard limestones and intercalated grey marls with
highly ornamented Ceratites of the genera Sibirites, Stepha-
nites, etc. This corresponds to the Sibirites spiniger zone
of Byans.
TABLE 27.-TRIAS OF THE SALT RANGE.
I I Thlck- I
DIVISion. Salt Range. I ness Ft I Himalaya.
I
I CnnOldal dolomite
I
I
I
I ? Halobla beds.
Carnic
Middle Tria, I Sandy hmestones with bivalves I
I
25 0
100 I ~ Daonclla
and
beds
Mwchel-
I I I kalk.
Upper Ceratlte hmestone with I
Sllphallltes >uperbus and SlblTltes I 20 i
I
Slbtrltes splnlger
zone (Byans)
,hldrutnslS. I
rUpper Cerahte SanJstone 1 Flemmglus rohula
~ ~ with /'lemzngltes jlemln-
&I
zone.
t: ~ ~ I
f-<
;;; 0
~~~1~
gillnus
Stachella beds with S'a-
chella sp and Flemln-
I
30
I
I
HIm."""nua
beds.
C
l /lilts rad,atus.
II Lower Ceratlte Sand$tone
wilh Ceitltes Jal/ax.
I I
. .!:l
.:: Cera ute Marls with Pnonolobus rO-l I
~ 8 tUlidalUs and Proptychltes lawren- 20 to 60 I Meekoceras beds.
...:I clanus
Lower Cerotlte Lime,tone With
G romtes Jrequens
U nfos>llhferous sands and clay,.
I I
10
I
Ophlceras zone.
? Otoceras zone.
Permian. I, Chldru ~tage I,
I Upper Productus Limestone. \ I PrcJuctUG shales.
The Ceratite beds are succeeded by the Bivalve beds

which range in composition from limestone to calcareous
sandstone and contain abundant bivalves but very few
ammonoids. The uppermost member consists of yellowish,
somewhat brecciated or cavernous dolomites containing
some obscure fossils. The top of these is sometimes marked
by a thin limestone with bivalves.
The succession varies in different places as to details;
limestones vary to dolomite and sometimes there are
pisolitic limestones with glauconitic matter. Sandstones
and limestones may vary to marls.
F AUNA.-As mentioned already, fossils belonging to
the Ceratite group of Ammonoids characterise the Ceratite
beds. Some of the beds, and especially the Bivalve bed,
contain lamellibranchs. The chief fossils of the different
sub-divisions are shown below:
Lower Ceratite Gyronitesfrequens, Prionolobus atavus, P. ophioneus,
Limestone. Lecamtes pszlogyrus, Meekoceras varians, Dinantes
cuccenslS.
Cleratite Marls Proptych,tes lawrenclanus, Pnonolobus rotundatus,
Dmarites minutus, Komnckdes oval,s, ClyPltes
tyP'CUS, Kongltes lens.
Lower Ceratite Celllles fallax, Ceratites normalis, Gyromtes rotula
sandstone. G. radIans.
Stachella beds Stachella sp., Flemingltes radiatus, F. rotula, Geltites
acutepllcatus, Asptdltes kinglanus.
Upper Ceratite Flemillgltes jlemmglanus, F. compressus, Aspidites
sandstone. superb us, Celhtes ormalus, Ceratltes wynnel.
Upper Ceratite Stephamtes suerbus, S. CorOlla, S,bmtes chldruensJs,
Limestone. S. kmgzanus, Dmantes dlmorphus, Geltlles patella,
Pnomtes tuberculalus, teltlles d,mophtus, Acro-
chordlceras corona/um.
HAZARA.
The southeastern parts of Hazara contain Mesozoic
rocks. Excellent sections of a sequence extending from
Upper Trias to Eocene are observed in Mount Sirban
south of Abbottabad.
357
The Infra-Trias rocks are overlain by a thickness of
100 ft. oflavas of rhyolitic and felsitic character, succeeded
by thick-bedded grey limestones, which vary in thickness
from 500 to J ,200 ft. They contain Upper Triassic fossils
similar to those of Spiti. The Hazara area belonged to the
geosynclinal basin of deposition in contrast with the Salt
Range whose deposits were of a comparatively shallow
to coastal facies.
ATTOCK DISTRICT, PUN] AB.
Between Hazara and the Punjab Salt Range, and

along the northern border of the Potwar plateau, lie the
folded rocks of the Kala Chitta hills, the denuded anticlines
of which expose a series of strata ranging iq age from
Upper Trias to Siwaliks, as shown below:
Siwalik System Pliocene.
Murree Series Miocene.
Nummuhtic rocks .. Eocene.
Giumal sandstones, etc. .. Albian.
Splti shales Argovian - Tithonian.
KJOto limestone .. Upper Trias to Lias.
Attock slates .. Pre-Cambrian to Cambrian.
The Kioto limestones of Spiti are represented by
similar limestones which are grey or cream-coloured and
include a few shaly bands. They are sparsely fossiliferous
and range in age from Upper Triassic to Liassic as in Spiti.
The Upper Triassic fossils found in them between Jhalar
and Campbell pore include Rhynchonella cf. bambanagensis,
Terebratula sp., Velata velata, Lima serraticosta, Pecten sp. etc.
BALUCHISTAN.
The Upper Trias is represented in the Zhob and Pi shin

districts of Baluchistan by a vast thickness, amounting to
several thousand feet, of greenish slaty shales with inter-
calations of thin black limestone. They occupy an area
70 miles long (east to west) and some 12 miles broad. They
are fairly ri<;h in fossils which include abundant Monotis
salinaria and a few species of ammonoids of the genera
Halorites, Didymites and Rhacophyllites.
BURMA.
Triassic rocks are found in the Shan States, Amherst
district, the Arakan Yom as and possibly also in the Mani-
pur hills.
NORTHERN SHAN STATES.
Napeng beds.-We find a hiatus in sedimentation

between the Plateau Limestone and the Napeng beds of
Rhretic age, there being a well marked unconformity
between the two. The Napeng beds occur in a series of
patches and consist of a variety of sedimen ts-yellow shales,
clays, sandy marls, sandstones and limestones-deposited
in very shallow and irregular basins. They contain a
fauna including the following:
Corals .. Isastraea eonfraeta.
Lamellibranchs Palaeoneilo flbularis, P. nanimensis, Pinna cr.
blanfordi, Conocardium superstes, Grammatodon
/yetlti, GerVilita shaniorum, G. rugosa, Avieula
contorta, Myophoria napengensis, Plicatula carina-
ta, Modiola frugi, Cardita singularis.
Gastropods Turritelia sp., Promathilda exills.
The fauna is of Rhretic age and of peculiar character,
being composed mainly of lamellibranchs and recalling
the fauna of the Wetwin Shales. It is quite distinct from
the fauna of the Himalayas or of the Salt Range.
AMHERST DISTRICT.
Kamawkala Limestone.-In the eastern part of the

Amheret district near the Siamese frontier, the Permo-
Carboniferous beds are succeeded by the Kamawkala
limestones which are referred to the Triassic, probably the
Noric age. The fauna includes Rhynchonella bambana-
gensir, Chlamys aff. valoniensis, Trachyceras sp., and Centras-
traea cotteri.
359
ARAKAN Y OMA AND NAGA HILLS.
The oldest rocks exposed in the Arakan Yomas belong

to the Axial System the lower part of which is referable
to the Triassic. The rocks of this system are found in-
Prome and Thayetmyo districts, usually much folded and
disturbed. They consist of dark shales and sandstones
with some limestones. The only fossils found in them are
Daonella lommeli and specimens of Monotis and Avicula.
These seem to indicate a Triassic age.
Further south in Minbu and Pakokku districts, the
equivalents of the Lower Axials are the Chin Shales.
Black slates, sandstones and quartzites found in the
Manipur State on the Assam-Burma border have also been
referred to the Axials and may probably be partly of
Triassic age,
THE FAUNA OF THE TRIASSIC PERIOD.
During the Triassic period all the major groups of

animals existed except birds and mammals. The impor-
tant class of Arthropoda, viz., Trilobites, had disappeared
during the Permian or at any rate in the upheaval before
the dawn of the Mesozoic era.
The ammonoids, including the Ceratites, Goniatites and
Orthoceras, constitute the most nemerous and useful fossils
of this system. The oldest Belemnites are also to be found
here represented by the genus Atractites. Rhynchonellidt
and Spiriferint have also an extensive distribution, and in
addition some genera and species of mollusca. In the case
of the ammonoids individual species are highly useful
because of the very short range of their vertical distri-
bution. The species of brachiopods and molluscs have also
proved useful because some of them occur in enormous
numbers in certain beds, e.g., RJrynchonella griesbachi,
Spiriferina strach),ei, Spiriferina griesbachi, Daonella Indica,
Daonella cf. lommeli, Halobia cf. comata and Monotis salinaria.
360 GEOLOGY OF' INDIA AND BURMA. [CHAP.
The ammonoids, however, are eminently suited for
use as zone fossils because of the richness of forms, their-
easily recognizable differences in external characters,
extensive and world-wide distribution in marine beds and
very limited distribution of species in range of time. The
Trias of the Himalayas and of the Salt Range carry excep-
tionally rich ammonoid faunas. The Ceratites are cha-
racteristics of the Trias-the Lower Trias with primitive
Ceratites, the Middle Trias with typical members and the
Upper Trias with specialised and ornamented members.
The Lower Triassic ammonoids appear simple and
monotonous in appearance in comparison with the variety
seen in the Upper Permian. The simple-sutured but
robust Lower Triassic types vere able to withstand and
survive the changes that took place at the end of the
Permian, whereas the specialised Permian types died out.
The primitive Ceratites seem to have first appeared in
Middle to Upper Permian times represented by such forms
as Xenodiscus carbonarius. Otoceras which characterises the
earliest Trias in India has a raised ear-like rim around the
umbilicus and a ceratitic suture of the type rendered
familiar by the common European Muschelkalk fossil Cera-
tites nodosus; the saddles have a smooth rounded outline
while the lobes are slightly denticulated. Hendenstroemia
and Pseudosageceras still retain the ceratitic outline of the
suture, but the lobes and saddles become numerous, thus
foreshadowing the complex sutures of the Pinacoceratidae of
Middle and Upper Trias. Another genus, Episageceras,
which occurs in the Otoceras beds of the Himalaya and
the Stachella beds of Salt Range, is a relic of the Goniatite
group, very closely allied to and derived from the Permian
Medlicottia. Further up in the Lower Trias the beds are
characterised by the large and spirally grooved Ceratite
of the genus Flemingies.
The Muschelkalk is the age of the typical Ceratites,
which begin to develop here along two lines ; in one the
~hell gains ~tr~ngth by corrguations while the sutures remain
simple; in the other the shell remains smooth but gains

strength by the ramIfications of the sutural lines. The
first group constitutes the typical Ceratites, of which large
numbers are present both in the Himalaya and Kashmir,
being somewhat evolute forms with thick ribs and blunt
knobs. In Sibirites the sutures remain simple but the
shells are highly sculptured. The smooth-shelled forms
with sutures tending to complexity are represented by
Gymnites and Ptychites, the former a compressed form and
the latter rather globose. The genus Stu ria resembles
Gymnites but has a spirally grooved shell.
In the Upper Triassic beds, the Ceratites reach their
zenith of development, and are represented by a number
of beautiful forms in the Himalayan strata. The two lines
of development continue here, the contrast becoming
stronger than in the Muschelkalk. The genus Arpadites,
some species of which are of fairly large dimensions, re-
sembles the typical Ceratites but has a deep smooth furrow
on the outer margin; in Ceratites proper the periphery is
either rounded or raised into a keel. The genus Distichites
is similar to Arpadites but has somewhat simpler suture line.
In the genera Tibetites and Sirenites, the shell is sculptured
and involute and shows a tendency to become c1ypeiform
in shape. In Tropites the shell tends to become globose
but the whorls do not completely overlap the umbilical
channel. The involution is much more pronounced in
Halorites and Juvavites in which the urn bilic.us is nearly or
almost completely obliterated. Smooth-shelled forms are
less prominent than the highly sculptured ones in the
Upper Trias, often tending to become globose. The genera
Lobites and Didymites combine a subdued sculpturing with
only slightly serrated sutures which however have a large
number of inflections. Amongst the smooth clypeiform
ammonoids is Pia cites (abundantly represented in the
Tropites limestone of Byans) which is distinguished by the
multiplicity of auxiliary inflections. In Carnites and Fina-
46
coceras the inflections are greatly multiplied by the splitting

up of the external saddle. The well-known forms Pina-
coceTas parma and P. metternichi are amongst the ammonoids
which exhibit the most complicated sutural lines. They
are accompanied by Bambanagites which has a sculptured
shell but has the same plan of suture though less com-
plicated. A true member of the Ammonite group is
represented by Discophyllites which is a precursor of the
PhylloceTatidae which attains prominence in the Jurassic.
The vast majority of the specialised Ceratites died out
at the end of the Trias as was the case with the earlier
ammonoids at the end of the Permian. Only a few
ammonoids like the Phylloceratids survived the changes
at the end of the Trias.
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bittner, A. Triassic brachiopoda and lamelhbranchiata. Pal. Ind.
Ser. XV, Vol. III, 2, 1899.
Diener, C. Trias of the Himalayas. Mem. 36, Pt. 3, 1912.
Diener, C. Upper Triassic and Liassic faunae of the exotic blocks of
MalIa Johar. Pal Ind. Ser. XV, Vol. I, (I), 1908.
Diener, C. The Cephalopoda of the Lower Trias. Op. CIt Vol. II,
(I), 1897.
DIener, C. The Cephalopoda of the Muschelkalk. Op. CIt. Vol. II,
(2), 1895.
Diener, C. Fauna of the Tropites limestone of Byans. Op. cit. Vol.
V, (I), 1906.
Diener, C. Fauna of the Himalayan Muschelkalk, Op. cit. Vol. V,
(2), 1907.
Diener, C. Ladinic, Carnic and Noric faunre of Spiti. Op. Cit. Vol.
"I, (3), 1908 .
Diener, C. and von Krafft. Lower Triassic Cephalopoda from Spiti,
Malla Johar and Byans. Op. cit. Vol. VI, (I), 1909.
Diener, C. Fauna of the Traumatocrinus limestone (Painkhanda).
Op. cll. Vol. VI, (2), 1909.
Diener, C. Triassic faunre of Kashmir. Pal. Ind. N. S. V, (I),
19 1 3.
XII] THE TalAmc ~YSTEM.
Gregory, j. W. tt al. Upper Triassic fossils from Burma-Siam frontier.

Rec.63, '55- 181 , 1930 .
Hayden, H H. Geology ofSpiti. Mem.36, Pt. I, 1904.
Healy, M. Fauna, of the Napeng beds (Rhaetic) of Upper Burma.
Pal. Ind. N. S. Il, (4), Ig08.
Krafft, A. von. Exotic blocks of Malia Johar. Mem 3~, Pt. 3, '902 .
MojSlSovics, E. von. Upper Triassic Cephalopod faunae of the
Himalayas. Pal. Ind. StY. XV, Vol. III, (I), 1899.
Waagen, W. Salt Range FossIls-Ceratite formation. Pal. Ind. Ser.
XIII, Vol. II, 1895.
CHAPTER XIII.
THE JURASSIC SYSTEM.
GENERAL.
Distribution and Facies.-Rocks belonging to the

Jurassic System are developed in the Indian region in the
Himalayas of Spiti, Kumaon, Nepal, Kashmir, Hazara;
in Baluchistan and Salt Range; in Cutch and Rajputana ;
in the Rajmahal hills; in the Puri district of Orissa;
in the Ellore, Ongole, Madras and Trichinopoly regions
on the eastern coast. The Himalayan areas belong to the
geosynclinal facies and the others to the coastal facies. In
Baluchistan and the outer border of the Iranian are, the
rocks are l1lainly calcareous in this as well as in the suC-
ceeding Cretaceous system, for which reason the region of
their development is called the Calcareous zone. To the
interior (north-west) of this zone as well as in the
Himalayan area the rocks are dominantly shaly. The
Tibetan facies of the Lias, which is seen in the exotic
blocks of the Kiogarh region, consists of reddish earthy
limestones which resemble rocks of the corresponding
age in the Eastern Alps.
Unconfo rmity and Marine Transgression.-The
geosynclinal region shows a marked interruption of sedi-
mentation commencing from the Callovian and lasting
until the Oxfordian or later. This Callovian unconfor-
mity is widespread and recognised in many parts of the
world. In Spiti and northern Himalayan this interrup-
tion ranges up to the Oxfordian while in Baluchistan it
extends to the Neocomian. In both cases the unconfor-
mity is marked by a bed of ferruginous laterite. In the
coastal facies, on the other hand, the Lower Jurassic rocks
are absent and the deposition begins later, assuming a
marine character in the Callovian and continuing on
XIII] THE JURASSIC SYSTEM.
beyond the Jurassic times. It is interesting to note that

the Callovian is marked by a regression in the
geosynclinal area but by a transgression along parts of
the coasts of the Peninsula.
SPITI.
The geosynclinal deposits are typically developed in

Spiti. Here, the Upper Triassic (Upper Noric stage) and
the Liassic form one lithologic unit called the Megalodon
(or Kioto) limestone, consisting of massive limestones and
dolomites, mostly unfossiliferous, and forming steep and
imposing cliffs. The lower 700 to 800 feet of this forma-
tion constitute the Para stage and are of Upper Noric age
as they contain Megalodon ladakhensis, Diceracardium hima-
layense, Lima cumaunica, Spirigera noetlingi, etc. The portion
above that, having a thickness of 1,500-1,600 feet, belongs
to the Jurassic, and an important zone fossil, Stephanoceras
cf. corona tum, occurs 350 feet below the top of the limestone.
The Jurassic part of the Megalodon limestone is called the
Tagling stage. At its top occur the Sulcacutus beds, so
called from the abundance of Belemnites sulcacutus in them.
They are overlain by the Spiti shales, ranging in age from
the Oxfordian to the Tithonian. The Spiti shales form
a persistent and well-marked horizon which has been
traced from Sikkim and Nepal to Kashmir and thence to
Hazara. The Jurassic succession of Spiti is as follows:
TABLE 28.-JURASSIC SUCCESSION IN SPIT!.
Strata. Age.
[Lochambal beds Portlandian to Tlthoman.
Spitl Shales ~ Chldamu beds . Kimmeridgian
l Belemnttes gerardl beds .. Oxfordian. Sequaman.
~~~unconrormlty~
---
Sulcacu tus beds .. CallOVian
r
Megalodon or Tagltng stage .. Lias to Bathonian.
l
KlOtO hme'
stone.
Para stag.. .. Upper TrllU
------------------------
The Sulcacutus beds contain, besides Belemnites,
bivalves and brachiopods of Callovian age.
Spiti shales.-The overlying Spiti shales from rolling
downs at an altitude of about 15,000 feet in contrast with
the precipitous cliffs formed by the Kioto limestone. They
are about 500 feet or more in thickness, but the thickness
varies in different regions. They consist of grey to black,
soft, friable shales with a few thin intercalations of lime-
stone in the upper part, and contain calcareous nodules
enclosing ammonites and other fossils. The Spiti shales
are divided into three units, the lower one being grey shales
characterised by the occurrence of Belemnites gerardi, the
nodules found in the beds being unfossiliferous. The
Middle division, of Kimmeridgian age, is called the
Chidamu beds and contains large numbers of ammonites
amongst which the genera Perispkinctes and Oppelia are
the most important. The Upper division, constituting
the Lochambal beds, are characterised by the genera Hoplites
and Holcostephanus (Spiticeras) the latter being abundant
in species as well as individuals.
The Spiti shales have yielded a rich fauna which has
been described inPalaeontologia Indica (Series XV, Vol. IV,
1910-1914.). The more important species are enumerated
below:
Cephalopods Phylloceras pllcatlus, Lytoceras exotieum, Hecticoceras
kobelll, Oppetla (Streblltes) krafft" Aspldoceras
avellanoldes, Sp,tlCtras spltlemls, S. grotei, H,mala-
ydes mdell, AcanthodlScus octagonus, Hopldes
(Thurmanma) hOlmen, Macrocephalltes cr. mty'a,
Pensph metes (Paraholaceras) sabmeanus, p.
( Vtrgatosphmctes) densepbcatus, P. (V.) raja, P.
(AulacosphincteJ) splllemas, P. (A), torquatlls.
Lamellibranchs .. Avicula spltltnsis, Aucella spitaensis, L,ma melan-
cholica Nucula splllenslS, Astarte hermanni, Cos-
morrrya egregla, Homomya tlbetica, Gomomya uhllgi,
Ostrea, Pecten, Leda, etc.
The spiti shales pass upwards into the Giumal
sandstones of neocoIllian age.
XIII] THE JUl~.ASSIC SYSTEM.
PLATE XVII.
JURASSIC FOSSIL') 1.
EXPI ANATION OF PLATE XVII

I. Terebratula pUTvablenslS (1/3). 2 SphaeroldlthyrlS attockenJIS (1/3). 3. Hoi-
cothyrlS subovallS (1/3) Gryph(1!a ballt (1/3) 5 Grammatodon tddurghurenslS (1/3)
6. Nuculoma blake I (1/3) 7. TTigoma smeet (1/8) 8 T crassa (1/8). 9. T.
cUtclunslS (1/4) 10 T. ventru:osa (1/3) II MontllVa/lla cornutifomllS (1/2)
12 M kachhenslS (6) 13 Sty/Ina kachhenslS (6). 14 !sastrtlla !'arva (4) 15.
Cenlrastraea kobYI (II). 16. PhylLoceras (Ptychophyllomas) Pl)CholCU11l (1/6).
368 GEOLOGY OF INDIA AND BUlWA. [CHAP. ,
NITI PASS.
In the region of the Niti Pass, about 150 miles east
of Lilang, the general sequence is the same as in Spiti.
Th.e Kioto limes.tone is. about '2)000 feet thick ; it consistCb
of 1,300 feet of dolomitic limestone with flaggy limestone
layers, overlaid successively by 500 feet of thin-bedded
limestone, 120 feet of light grey flaggy limestone, 30 feet
of dark oolitic limestone and finally 150 feet of grey calcare-
ous sandstone constituting the Sulcacutus beds. Overly-
ing this is a conglomerate den~ting an unconformity, fol-
lowed by the Spiti shales.
SHALSHAL CLIFFS.
In the Shalshal cliffs of north-western Kumaon, the

Kioto liIl1estone is 2,000 ft. thick and consists, at the base,
of 500 feet of grey dolomite weathering to a brownish
tinge and forming inaccessible cliffs; it is followed by
1,000 feet of dark dolomites with thin layers of billish
black crinoidal limestone and occasional shales; then
by 150 feet of massive dolomite and 350 feet of crinoidal
limestones and shales. The Sulcacutus beds at the top
are only 20 feet thick and contain Belemnites sulcacutus, B.
tibeticus, and species of Gervillea, Cardium, etc. At the top
of this is a zone of laterite indicating disconformity and
a period of subaerial weathering. The laterite is overlain
by Spiti shales of Upper Oxfordian (Argovian) age.
17 Lytocl1(J$ (Hemllytoceras) rex (1/15) 18 Oppdla (TaramelllCeras) kachhfllJlS (1/4)

19 HarpocerllS (SublunulocerllS) lalrense (1/10). 20 HarptcerllS (H&ldoglochlCeras)
koblill (1/3)' 21 Peltoceras (Peltoceralo.des) semlrugosum (1/7). 22 Peltoceras
athllta(=P. kachhenu) (1/6). 23 P pondtrosum (Asp.doceras ponuroJum Waag) (1/8)
~4. SlephanlKlftJS (MacrlKephaldes) macrocephalus (1/8) :15 Stephanoceras (Maya'lts)
maya (1/12). 26. Sltphanoceras (Ep.mllvalteJ) polyphemus (J/1I2). 27. Stephan~nas.
(Indocephalltes) dladematum (1/6). 28 Stephanoceras (Kamptoktphalllts) dlmerum (1/5)
29 StePhan~eras grantanum (= Plturoctphalltts habye1lSu) (113) 30 Pmsphlnctes
onon (=OnIJnoldes mdzcus) ([/3) 3 1 Pensphl1lctes (Vlrgatosphlnctes) jrequt1lS (1/4),
3 2 pensphlnctes (Vlrgatosphlncus) u1lStplICaius (I 14) 33. Perzsphlnctts (pachys-
phwtes) balhyplocus ([/6). 34 Peruphmctes (AtaxlOCtras) Itlocymon (1/6). 35
Pmsphwtes (Katrol&teras) katTolemlS (1/8) 36 PnuphlTICtts (TorquatlSphlncIfS)
torquatus (I/B). 37. Perisphwlts (IndosphITIClts) caluus (1/8).
XIII] THE JURAssle SYSTEM.
BVANS.
Further south-east, in Byans, near the Nepal border,

the Kioto limestone is less massive and only about 1,200
feet thick, composed of 250 feet of ftaggy limestone with
: haly bands, succeeded by 700 feet of shaly limestone and
shales, then by 200 feet of massive grey limestone and go
feet of dark shales and finally by the Sulcacutus beds
with a laterite bed at the top. This is followed by the
Spiti shales. In Ngari Khorsum on the border of the
Tibetan plateau, north of the main Himalayan Mesozoic
belt, there are large blocks of thin-bedded nodular earthy
limestone of Liassic age occurring amidst volcanic breccia.
These differ in lithology and fauna from the Spiti facies
just as the Upper Triassics of the two areas differ. The
fauna of this Tibetan facies resembles closely the Alpine
fauna. It is rich in species of the genus Phylloceras, Rhaco-
phyllites, Schlotheimia, Arietites, etc., showing that the beds
are of Lower Liassic age.
MOUNT EVEREST REGION AND TIBET.
The Jurassic rocks apparently continue eastwards

through Nepal to Sikkim and Lhasa in Tibet. North of
Mount Everest there are large thicknesses of shales and
limestones containing Belemnites, crinoids and ammonites.
They are overlain by Cretaceous and Eocene strata.
SUB-HIMALAYA OF GARHWAL.
As already mentioned, the Jaunsars are overlain by

the Krol beds which are probably of Permian (? Permo-
Trias) age. East of the Ganges in Garhwal, the Krols are
overlain by the Tal series consisting of shales in the lower
portion and quartzites and limestones in the upper portion.
The Tal series contains fragmentary molluscs and corals
and may represent partly the Jurassic System or even the
Cretaceous. It is overlain by Eocene rocks.
47
KASHMIR.
We have already seen that the Megalodon limestone_
is present in the Vihi district and in Ladakh. The upper
portion of this is referable, as in Spiti, to the Lias. This
limestone is known to be overlain, in parts of Ladakh and
the Zanskar range, by the Spiti shales. Fossils are found
in concretions in the shales but have not been studied in
detail. They include ammonites (Macrocephalites among
them), Belemnites, lamellibranchs and brachiopods.
Jurassic rocks are also found in a small area north Of '
the Banihal Pass in the Pir Panjal mountains. It is likely
that Jurassic rocks are associated with bands of Trias in
other parts of this range.
In the area of the syntaxial bend of nOlth-western
Kashmir, there is a band of orange coloured strata, some
150 feet thick, which it is thought may be Jurassic to
Cretaceous in age.
HAZARA.
Hazara is a region of transition from the Himalayan
to the Baluchistan type of development. Here there are
two neighbouring zones running N.E.-S.W. and parallel
to each other, the north-western one containing massive
limestones overlain by the Spiti shales as in the Himalaya,
and the south-eastern showing limestones overlain by
N eocomian strata as in Baluchistan.
The massive limestone (of the north-western belt) is
dark grey in colour and varies in thickness from 500 to
1,200 feet. It contains Megalodon and Diceracardium in the
lower part and is therefore similar to the Megalodon
limestone of Spiti. The upper portion is presumed to be
Lower Jurassic in age. It is succeeded by shales of the
Spiti shale type containing Gymnodiscoceras acucinctum, Vir-
gatosphinctes frequens, Belemnites gerardi, Inoceramus sp., and
~rigonia ventricosa.
ATTOCK DISTRICT.
Jurassic rocks are present in the folded strata of the

Kala Chitta hills of this district. The lower portion is
XIII] THE JURASSle SYSTEM.
included in the Kioto limestone and the upper in Spiti

shales. The latter are however not easily separable from
the overlying Giumal series because the lithology is con-
tinuous and shows very gradual change. The Spiti shales
consist of sandy and carbonaceous shales, Belemnite- -
bearing beds and olive clays. The fossils found in the
lower limes tones are:
SphaeroldothyrtS attockensis, Burmirlrynchia cf. nal1'!)'auensis, Lophrothyns
euryptycha.
The fossils of the Spiti shales are:
Eplmayaltes polyphemus, Peltoceratoldes, sp, Pemphtncles orientalis,
P. cf. indogermanus, Prososphznctes vlrguloldes, BlanJordiceras walilchi,
Spltlceras, Belemvpns tanganenns, Hlbolites budhalcus, H. tlbeticus, etc.
These indicate an age similar to that of the Chari beds
of Cutch and younger, and approximately Bathonian to
Oxfordian. The horizons above these do not show any
fossils except one which has yielded Oxytropidoceras, indi-
cating an Albian (Gault) age.
It may be mentioned here that there is a fairly close
resemblance between the Gault horizons of Attock, Hazara
and Kohat.
SALT RANGE.
The Middle and Upper divisions of the Jurassic

System are developed in the western portion of the Salt
. Range in the Trans-Indus region as a series of sandstones
and limestones, the latter increasing in proportion west-
wards. The strata are 100 to 200 feet thick near Amb ,
500 feet near Kalabagh on the Indus and over 2,000
feet in the Sheik Budin hills and Surghar range. The
facies is dominantly coastal and generally resembles that
of Cutch in Western India.
In the Salt Range proper, the lower beds are called
the Variegated series. The lower part of this consists of
thick bedded soft sandstones of red, yellow and variegated
colours alternating with grey and brown bands which are
often ripple-marked. They are succeeded by argillaceous
GEOLOGY or INDIA AND BURMA. [CHAP.
yellow limestone, grey gypseous and pyritous clays (alum

shales) and soft white incoherent sandstones. Amidst
these beds are bands of hrematite and thin layers of' golden
oolite', composed of iron-coated oolite grains resembling -
the golden oolite of Cutch (see p. 38g). The upper
beds of the Variegated Series are coarse brown sandstones,
yellow marls, white cavernous sandstones and bands of
hard grey limestone. The sandstones become locally
conglomeratic.
The upper Jurassic beds seen in the Trans-Indus
region are not developed in the Cis-Indus Salt Range.
Near Kalabagh, just beyond the Indus, the Variegated
Series contains thin coal seems amidst sandstones. The
coal is of poor and variable quality, high in ash.
In the Trans-Indus region the Variegated Series
consists mainly of shales in the lower portion, overlain by
thick-bedded dun-coloured limestone intercalated with
shales and clays. The limestones are succeeded by black
shales containing Belemnites with Neocomian affinities,
these beds corresponding to the Belemnite beds of Baluchis-
tan. The Jurassic succession is underlain by white
crinoidal limestone which may b~ Lower Jurassk. Qr
Upper Triassic.
TABLE 2g.-JUllASSIO SUOCESSION IN SHEIK. BUDIN HILLa.
-------------------------------------------------
Neocomian. Black shale. with Belemnites. 60'
Upper Jurassic . Limestones and intercalated shales 800'

Middle to lower Jurassic Vane-gated senes . Vanegated sandstones
and shales With carbonaceous matter
gypseous and pyntous shales. 1000'to
140'
?Lower Jurassic 1Crinoidal Limestone 200'
Fossils.-The carbonaceous layers of the Variegated

Series have yielded some plant fossils including Ptilophyllum
acutijalium and Podozamites sp. which indicate Upper
Gondwana affinities. The associated limestones contain
marine fossils including lamellibranchs, gastropods, tere

bratulids and echinoids. The ammonites include Indo.
cephalites aff. transitorius, Pleurocephalites habyensis, Kamptoke ..
phalites cr. magnumbilicatus, etc., which are fossils of the
Macrocephalites beds of Cutch. The Neocomian strata
above contain Olcostephanites and Thurmannites.
The similarity of stratigraphy of the Cutch and Salt
Range regions would seem to show that a sea connected
the two, probably through Jaisalmer. Both are associated
with Upper Gondwana fossil plants.
BANNU DISTRICT (N.-W. F. P.).
In the Bannu district, sandy limestones of Callovian
age have been found containing Burmirhynchia and Daghani.
rhynchia. These are separated by a thickness of 500 feet
of strata from rocks which have yielded Ornithella coulsoni,
O. indica, O. ovalis, Kingena punjabica, Daghanirhynchia coul-
soni and D. pezuensis. These indicate, according to M. R.
Sahni, an Oxfordian-Kimmeridgian age. Associated with
these are beds containing cephalopods which Spath
regarded as Neocomian. Though the thickness separating
the two beds is only 4 feet, there is no stratigraphic break.
There is thus an anomaly here of the Kimmeridgian
affinity of brachiopods and the Neocomian affinity of
Cephalopods.
SAMANA RANGE.
A Jurassic-Eocene succession has been discovered

in the Samana Range near Fort Lockhart. The lowest
beds noted are sandstones and shaly limestones with shale
bands. From the fact that Rhynchonella arcuata is found
in the upper part of these beds, they are thought to be of
Callovian to Bathonian age. They are succeeded by
dark grey limestones called Samana Suk Limestones which
are regarded as Upper Jurassic.
BALUCHISTAN.
A calcareous geosynclinal facies is developed in
Ea.l!t~n:~ ~aluchistap
comprising strata ranging in age from
XIII] THE JURASSIC SYSTEM. 375
PLATE XVIII.
JURASSIC FOSSILS II
.i~ir.W@)B
3" JIb 3,. 3gb 40 .Ii .Ib 421 4fb
.'%.~.~~Q43. .3b
t\~~~~4Q
~fJ~~.(J
.~'t,l. ". fi.. 5",
.fi6~i "i'~~
6i .66~ .. *.
~. ," . . . . ~ ~ "'" r
A~ ,. (J, 0,
'(l~ ~_,
~ 73b 7... 74~ 76 78
EXPLANATION OF PLATE XVIII.

38 Sttphanoceras (Maaocephalttes) chartensts (1/3). 39. Pertsphmctes (SIvaJI-
ceras) cOllgener (1/8) 40. Pmsphmctes (Proemtes) hrallS (1/12). 41 Pensphmctes
(Retnecketa) anups (=R retsSl) (1/6). 42. Pmsplllnctes rehmanm (=RemecketUs
waagem) (1/12). 43. MlCracanthoctras mtCracanthum (1/3)' 44 PhylloCtras stTlCtle
(1/2) 45. Lytoceras exottCum (1/3). 46 Aspldoceras avellanoides (1(4) 47
Oppelta (Streblltes) kraffil (I (4) 48. Oppeha acuelncta (1/3) 49 Holcostephanw
(SplttCtras) SPltUnsts (1(4) 50 Holcostephanus (SplltCtras) cautleyt (1(6). 51. Hol-
CQjtephanlLf (Astrlma) schenk, (1/3) 5~. Hoplttes (Acanthodtscu octagonus (1/6).
53 Hoplltes (Ac4nthQdtscus) htmalayarrtq (I/G). 54. Hoplttes (Blan/ordta) wallidli
Permo-Carboniferous to Jurassic, followed by Neocomian

beds. The Liassic beds are 3,000 to 4,000 feet thick and
include crinoidal amI oolitic limestones and calcareous
shales containing a few fossiliferous horizons which are
easily correlated with Liassic horizons of the Mediterranean
region. The Liassic beds are succeeded by massive lime-
stones, also of about the same thickness, well exposed near
Quetta and in the mountains of the Calcareous Zone.
The uppermost beds of the massive limestone constitute
the Polyphemus beds so named because of their containing
the giant ammonite Macrocephalites polyphemus. Other
fossils of these beds are Macrocephalites macrocephalus, M.
grantanum, M. madagascariensis, M. lamellosus, Perisphinctes
(Choffatia) baluchistanensis, Choffatia balinensis, Nautilus gigan-
teus, N. intumescens, Terebratula ventricosa, and Rhynchonella
plicatella. These indicate a Callovian age.
The Liassic and Middle Jurassic limestones form
prominent hill masses in the Calcareous Zone of .Jhalawan
and Sarawan. Amongst the conspicuous hills may be
mentioned Zaradak, Anjiro and Sumbaji in Jhalawan
(Liassic), and Chehiltan ami I\.oQ-i-M<lfqIl in Sqrawan
(Middle Jurassic).
COASTAL FACIES.
General.-Peninsular India, which was practically
devoid of marine sediments since the Vindhyan times,
witnessed marine transgressions in the coastal regions in
the Jurassic, Upper Cretaceous and Miocene times. The
(1(6). 55. Pensphmctes (Aulacosphmctes) sPltltnSIS (113) 56. Hoptdes (Blanfordla)
mlddlemlSsl (1(4). 57. HlmalaYltes hyphaslS (I/g). 58 Hlmalayttes mdell (1/4),
59 PtrlSphlnctes (ParabollCeraj) sabineanw (1(3) 60 Ptwphmctes (Vlrgatosphmctes)
raja (1{4). 61. Pmsphlnctes (Aulacosphmcles) lIifUlld.bulum (I{g) 62. Pemphtnctes
(VlrgatosphlllCtes) krafft' (1(4). 63. Pm sphl1lctes (V"gatosphmctes) blpllCotus (1(3).
64. Hopllus (Sarastntlla) varians (1/4) 6') Hoplltes (Ntocomtus) walken (1/4).
66 Hoplales (Neocomltes) Ind,cus (1(3)' 67 Belemnttes (BelmmopslS) gerardi-a,
I''lttl'rnal appearance; b, transverse sectlOn ; c, longtttudmal section, d, phragmo-
cone (1(4). 68 Plturolomana sPltlenslS (1(3) 69 Homomya Meltea (1{4). 70.
Area tgertmllana (1/3). 71. Nucula spllienm (11'l) 7'l. Lima roberta (1/4).
73. Auc,Un spltunslS superba. 74. Astarte sowerbyanQ (1{3) 75. Tngonia spltlensis
(1/3). 76, lTUlCeramu~ everest! (1/1I).
XIIIJ THE JURASSIC SYSTEM. 377
TABLE 30 .-JURASSIC SUCCESSION IN CUTCH.
Age Su b.divisions Leadmg Jo'oSSlls

f AptIan IManne Sandstones. Columblcera; waagen!. Ckelontetra;
atf marllm, Tropatum australIS.
Neocomian Umla plant beds (sand. PagIophyllum, Brachyphyllum, Clnk
or ? Up. TI. stones and shales) gOlttS, WIlilamsonta, Cladophlebu
thoman. denlleulata.
Ukra beds (unfossihfe. No fossils.
~.::
rous sandsl ones)
TngoDia be.!s Tngoma vtlltneosa, T ;me"
~ L Tithonian Ammonite beds (Green VtrgatnsphlTletes densephealus, V.
::J..; oolites and sandstones) oppell, Pty,hophyiloceras tltho
",cum, MlCrocanthoceras aft'.
mterocanthum, Umlattes,
Portlandian Zamla shales. Htldoglochlceras Kobelli, H propln'
quum, Dorsoplamtes mrrab,IIS.
[portlandian Gajansar beds. Btltmnopm gerardi, Streb/ltes gaJIn'

sarrnSIS, Phylloreras cf pl,caltus,
HtldogloehlCtraf spp.
Bononian
I "
Upper Katrol (barren)
Upper Katrol
I
No fossils
Aulacosphtnetoldes merzdlonallS,
VITgalosphmetes mdosphmttoldes
Havrian Middle Katrol (reu "and- Waagtrtla kaehhenslf, Katrolteeras
....l.
stones).
I katr(Jlmst, Katrolleeras pottmgeri,
Pach_vsphlTlete.l spp Aspldoeeras
-. I lere~s:_
0'::
~~.:1Sequanian -------- _____ . _ __
Lower Katrol (Sand- TorquatlSphmetes slmlits, Aspido.

stones, $hales, marls), eeras arymmetrtcum, Ptychophyl.
loteras ptyehoicum. Taramelll-
uraS kaehhen.t, Strrblttes pltco-
dISCUS, Waal1'ema, spp
Up. Argovian Kantkote sandstone. Epimayaltes spp. Pro~raYtcer4S,
,rayi, Ataxioctras leiocymon,
Blplicts waJ!urensis, ProsotfJhine-
lis VIrJ!uloidts, Torqualisphincttl
l torquatus
L. Argovian Dhosa oohte (green and TaTOmtlltceras lumarense, D,seos-

roUp. brown oobtes). phlnet.s aft' kreiJ!<.I, Per/,phmctes
Dlveslan . tnd~t:ermanus. Mayaltes maya,
r Eplmayalte. polyphemus, Para

cmoceras kumagunense, Pe1toctra-
tOldes semlTugosus
IMid to L \thleta beds (marls and Pellauras athleta, P ponderosum,
~~ ~ DlveSlan gypseoWl shales). P. metamorphum Orzonoldes mdl'
eus, O~r~p_u_rus
___________
o ~~ I Up Callovian '\ncep ( beds (limestones Pensphmcte! anceps, Indosphmctes
and shales) calvus, Relneck.la ravana Klnkell-
metras, gp. Huber/Dc'7os mu.tan<.
L. CallOVian Rehmanm beds (yellow RetneekelO rehmanni, R ryrannz-

hmestone). [ormls, SlVaJlCeras kleldos. Idlo-
cycloceras smgutare, Kellaway-
l Sites grepplTll.
Age. Subdivlsions. Leading (omls.
~
UP~i~thO' MacroCf'phalus bed s 'Marrocephailles macrocephalus
(shllles with calcareous M charIeTlSis, Dohchorephalltes
;~ bands, with golden 00 subcompressus, indocephaittts dla.
Iite--dladematm zone dematus, Kamptokephal,ltS d"
~~ -in the upper part). merus, Plwrocephaillcs habyenslS,
u.: Belemmhs
IL. Batho- Patcham coral bed. Mac/ocephall/IS t"angularlS, S,vaji

::>1 r man.
cerOf ,ongeller, ProceTites h,ans,
Thamnastrea, SI)lma, MOlltl,.
~.::I valtla
u I
~Il.o .:lL. ~tho-
man.
Patcham shell limestone.
Patcham basal hmestone.

Macroctphallter tTiangulaTis TTl'
tonla (Julius. Corbula Tyrola
MtlaltutJlIs.
----~----------~~-----------------
eastern coast seems to have taken roughly the present

outline in the Jurassic, when probably the Gondwana
Continent began gradually to separate into different
units which drifted apart. A sea also invaded the area
north of Kathiawar during this period.
The strata formed during these temporary incursions
of the sea are of clastic nature and of moderate thickness,
generally dipping gently seaward. Sometimes however
they attain a large thickness as in the case of the Jurassic
rocks of Cutch (about 6,000 feet) which is to be attributed
to gradual sinking of the basin of sedimentation as the
deposition proceeded.
The Jurassic rocks of Western India occupy large
areas in Kathiawar, Cutch and Rajputana all of which
seemed to have formed parts of a large sedimentary basin,
a shallow sea which extended northwards from Cutch
as far as the Salt Range in the Punjab. The outcrops are
now isolated by intervening large stretches of desert sands
and alluvia. The Salt Range deposits, though folded,
compressed and much disturbed, are similar to those of
Cutch and show much less affinity with those of the
Himalayan and Baluchistan geosynclinal facies of the same
age. Compared to the geosynclinal facies, these rocks are
XIII] THE JURASSIC SYSTEM. 3i9
TABLE. 3I.-SECTION IN THE JUMARA DOME, CUTCH.
(Pal. Ind. N. S. IX, II, Part 6.)
Age. Stage and zone. Characteflstic ammoDlte
Up. Argovian Upper DhOla oohte (green Taramellulfas JumaTlrut.

ooht(").
L. Argovian Lower Dho!a oohle (brown Moyotle.! mayo, P,JIH~,ol()IIJu .umt
oolite). ,ugosus.
Up. DlVesian Lower Dhosa oohte (brown Euas/Jldoceras sp
oohte.
Mid. D~vesian Upper Athletll beds (shales MelapelloetraJ spp , Pe/toctras p~T/de
and yellow marls) rosum, 0 nonold,s tndlcUJ.
Mid. Divesian Middle Athleta bed. (shales Pellouras mtlamorphum, Ononotdes
and yellow marls). purpuruf
L Dives!.n Lower Athleta beds Gypse- PelloCtras sp., Reineckelles sp
ous shale~).
Up. Gallovian Upper Aneeps beds (yellow Kmkellnutras sp. Hub"loceras

hmestone). mulans
Lower Anceps beds (yellow IndoJphmctes calvus, SlvaJlceras
hmestone). jiHum
L. Calloviun Upper Rehmanm beds (yel- RW1tcAela !Yranniformls, SIl'aji

low hmestone). ceras kle,dos, ld'o(ycloceras szngu'
lare
Lower R .. hmanni beds (yel- RelneckelD rehmanm, Kellawaysllts
low limestone). greppznl
Up Bathonian Upper Macrocephalus beds DollCephallits subcompreSJus, Macro-

(hmestone). ctphailies spp K amptokephalatts
aff ma,numbllrcatuJ.
u ,. Middle Macrocephalus beds Doircephalllts suhcompressus, Notho-
(Shales with ferrugenous cephailies semllnevls.
nodules).
" "
.. MacrocephallllS charleT/sIS, K amp-
tokephallltS dlmerus, IrIdosphlnctej
~p.
Macrocephailies charztTlJIf, Alczdla

" " " " ~p , Parapeloceras ,p.
M acrocephalltes charrensis, K amp-
" " tok/phailies dlmerlJs, Pleuro(tpha'
Illes hab)tnslS
Lower Macrocephalus beds MacrQ{tphalrles traangularlS, AI.
" " (White limestones and madagDJcarzenslS, SwaJlCtras afT.
shale,) cOrlgerler
L. Bathonian Upper Patcham (coral bme- Macrorephailits Irrangulans, S,va-
I stone). _llceras COT/gelltr, Proctntes htans.
ILower Patcham
hme,tone).
(Shelly Macrocephall/es Irrangularls
other SpI"Cle~.
and
of shallower origin and laid down not far from the land, as
evidenced by the presence of intercalated plant remains.
RAJPUTANA.
The Jurassic sea of Western India which covered Cutch
seems also to have spread over a large part of Rajputana.
Outcrops are seen in Bikaner and J aisalmer States but
their full extent is hidden from the view by desert sands
and alluvia. The rocks consist of alternations of compact,
buff, light brown or yellow limestones and grey or brown
sandstones and grits. Some of the bands are rich in fossils
of marine character and can be correlated with similar
beds of Cutch. Some of the limestones are grey to bluish
grey at depth but on weathering assume a yellow or brown
colour. Two types of these are quarried inJaisalmer; one
is a compact, fine grained orange or yellow brown lime-
stone and the other a brown and yellow shell-limestone
full of shells. Both of these take good polish and are
handsome stones for decorative building.
The succession of these rocks in Jaisalmer is as follows:
Abur beds Limestones and shales U ppermost Jurassic
Parihar sandstones. . Felspathic sandstones ?
(un fossiliferous) .
Badasar beds Ferruginous sandstones., Katrol.
Jaisalmer hmestone~. FossilIferous sandstone. Middlt" and upper
and limestont"s. Chari.
The lowest beds appear to be the Jaisalmer limestones
with rich fossils including Stephanoceras fissum (=Idiocyclo-
teras singulare) , Sindeites sindensis, Reineckeia aft'. reissi,
Grossouvria steinmanni, etc., which indicate the same age as
that of the upper portion of the Chari beds of Cutch. The
Badasar beds contain Pachysphinctes aff. bathyplocus and
other fossils and may be correlated with part of the Katrol
series. The Parihar sandstones are unfossiliferous, while
the Abur beds indicate an age high up in the Jurassic as
they have yielded PseudQhaploceras ahurense and P. indicum.
CUTCH.
Jurassic rocks occupy a large area in Cutch and are

the oldest rocks except for some patches of Pre-Cambrians.
XIII] THE JURASSIC SYSTEM. g81
They are bordered to the south by the Deccan traps while
on the north lies the saline marsh of the Rann of Cutch.
The Jurassic rocks have an estimated thickness of
some 6,3 00 feet and crop out in three anticlinal ridges
trending E.-W. Owing to an E.-W. fault the whole
sequence is repeated. The northern range is about 100
miles long and is broken up into four islands (Patcham,
Karrir, Bela and Chorar) in the Rann of Cutch. The
middle ridge is 120 miles long, trending E. S. E. from
Lakhpat on the west. A large outcrop occurs around
Wagur in the east, separated by a plain. The southern
ridge, south ofBhuj, is 40 miles long and forms the Charwar
and Katrol hills. These anticlines show transverse un-
dulations so that the dome-like parts have been separated
from each other by denudation. Some distance to the
east, in Dhrangadhra in Kathiawar, there is a large
outcrop of Jurassic rocks which forms part of the same
sedimentary basin.
The Jurassic sequence has been divided into four main
divisions which are named PATCHAM, CHARI, KATROL and
UMIA SJo.RIES from below upwards, and range in age from
Bathonian (Inferior Oolite) to Neocomian (Lowest Creta-
ceous). The topmost beds appear to contain represen-
tatives of the Aptain. They are covered over in places
by the Eocene or by the lavas of the Deccan trap.
Patcham series.-The lowest rock group exposed in
the Jurassic sequence is the Patcham series named after
the island of Patcham in the Rann of Cutch as this is
exposed in the ridge of this island as well as further east-
wards. The lower strata are yellow limestones and
sandstones containing lamellibranches (e.g., Corbula, Tri-
gonia) in the earlier beds and corals and some ammonites
in the later beds. The upper strata seen near Jarra
consist of white limestones and shales with Macrocephalites
and brachiopods. The Patcham series is estimated to
be about 1,000 feet thick on the whole. Though ammo-
ist-<
B
~
r/l
.~
Xu
~o
~~
r/l
~ I&.
~
::>
""' 0
~
i-'
III
11:
o
o J:
a. ~I
(
,,~:aI: ~
Ie
- z
!II od -
III :t
<
D~IO
0
II: t-
:l ::l
., U
..,....
XIII] THE JURASSle SYSTEM.
nites are present in this, they are not very numerous

or as important as the brachiopod and molluscan fauna.
Chari series.-This takes its name from a village 30
miles north-west of Bhuj and contains five main stages.
The lowest is the MACROCEPHALUS BEDS (so called from
the common fossil-Macrocephalites macrocephalus) which can
be sub-divided into several zones by means of the ammonite
fauna. The upper part of the middle division of this
stage contains a few layers of' golden oolite' constituting
the DIADEMATUS ZONE (Indocephalites diadematus) which is a
calcareous oolite, the grains of which are coated with thin
films of ferric oxide giving them a golden colour. Species
of Nucuia and Astarte arc also very common in the Macro-
cephalus stage. Above this occur dark shales and sandy
shales with calcareous and ferruginous nodules. The
lower portion of these beds is the REHMANNI ZONE (Reineckeia
rehmanni) in which Macrocephalites persists and Phylloceras
and Lytoceras begin to appear; Idiocycloceras and
Subkossmatia are characteristic, as also some terebratulids
and Trigonias. The ANCEPS BEDS (Perisphinctes anceps) suc-
ceeding the Rehmanni zone contain ammonites, brachio-
pods and lamellibranchs. The ATHLETA BEDS (Peltoceras
athieta) above them are composed of white limestones with
a similar fauna. The topmost beds of the Chari series
are the DHOSA OOLITES, composed of green and brown
oolitic limestones and very rich in fossils, among which
may be mentioned Mayaites maya, Epimayaites polyphemus,
Perisphinctes indogermanus, Peltoceratoides semirugosus, Para-
cenoceras kumagunf!nse, Euaspidoceras r.tJaageni and some tere-
bratulids.
Katrol series.-This series, composed of different
types of sandstones and shales, includes the KANTKOTE
SANDSTONES, KATROL BEDS proper and GAjANSAR BEDS in
the ascending order, and range in age from upper Argovian
to Portlandian. The Kantkote sandstone is found in the
neighbourhood of Wagad and indicates a horizon below
the Katrol beds proper, the chief fossils being Epimayaites
tJansiense, Prososphinctes virguloides and Torquatisphinctes
torquatus. The lower and middle Katrol beds proper con~
tain Oppelids, Katroliceras, Aspidoceras, Streb lites and Waagenia,
but the upper Katrol beds are barren. Interstratified
with these strata are horizons containing plant remains.
The Gajansar beds contain a fauna in which appear
species of Glochiceras, Phylloceras, etc.
Umia series.-The Katrol series is overlain by the
Umia series whose aggregate thickness is over 3,000 feetJ
consisting of sandstones, conglomerates and shales, the
sandstones often showing bands of hard brown or black
ferruginous grit. The shaly beds which are assigned to the
basal Umias (ZAMIA BEDS) have yielded Belemnopsis cf.
gerardi, Hildoglochiceras kobelli, H. propinquum, etc. The
Zamia shales are assigned a higher horizon, i.e., just
below the Umia plant beds, by Dr. Raj Nath. The
lower portion of the Umia beds, which comprises calca-
reous sandstones and oolites, has a Tithonian fauna
including Hibolites claviger, Ptychophylloceras tzthonicum,
Vlrgatosphinctes densepJicatus, etc., some of which attain
a large size. Acanthorhynchia multistriata, Lobothyris sp.
and other branchiopods are also abundant. Succeeding
the lower ammonite beds and separated from them by
200 feet of sandstones and conglomerates, are the TRIGONIA
BEDS with Trigonia ventricosa, T. Smeei and other species.
The Trigonia beds are overlain by 1,000 feet of unfossili~
ferous shaly strata which have been called the UKRA
BEDS by Raj Nath. At the top of the Umia series are
the Umia plant beds (BHUJ STAGE of Raj Nath), containing
a flora of Lower Cretaceous age, which has been dealt with
under the Gondwana System. Their upper portion con-
tains an ammonite bed with Crioceras and Acanthocetas
which are referable to the Aptian.
This sequence is overlapped by the Deccan trap lava
flows or by Nummulitic rocks, with a distinct unconformity.
MADRAS COAST.
Marine fossils are associated with the Upper Gond-
wana beds of the East coast of the Peninsula in the Goda-
vari-Kistna-Guntur tract. Amtnonites and other marine
fossils were found in some of the beds. The Ammonites,
which are however in a bad stage of preservation, have
been examined by L. F. Spath who assigns an Upper
Neocomian age for them. The plant fossils in these beds
are thought to be of U ppcr Jurassic age. Further details
about them wi]] be found in the chapter on the Gondwana
System.
BURMA.
Namyau Series.-The Nap~ng beds of Northern Shan

.states are overlain by red sandstones, conglomerates and
shales with occasional limestoIle bands. They are well
.developed in the Namyau valley and show evidences of
shallow water origin. Fos~ils are found in the limestones
.and calcareous shales, comprising only brachiopods and
lamellibranchs but no cephalopods, differing in this
respect from other areas. The fossils include species of
Burmirhynchia, Holcothyris, Terebratula, Modwla, Pecten,
etc. which are considered to indicate a Bathonian age. The
Namyau beds extend into Yunnan and Szechuan in
'China.
The LOI-AN SERIES of Southern Shan States is con-
sidered to be of Jurassic age. It is composed of shales and
sandstones, with coal seams in the upper portion. The
plant remains 'found in them include Ginkgoites digitata,
(;ladophlebis denticulata, Pagiophyllum divaricatum, Braclry-
jJhyllum expansum and Podozamites distans.
There are certain red sandstones in Amherst and
Mergui districts which continue into Thailand and Tonkin.
Though fossils are rare in them and of little value for
determining the age, they are assigned to the Jurassic
from their lithological similarity to beds in Northern
Shan States and Siam (Thailand).
49
Buckman, S. S. The brachiopods of Namyc\u beds, Burma, Rec. 45,
75-81 , 19 1 5. -
Buckman, S. S. The brachiopods of Namyau beds. Pal. Ind. N. S.
111, (2), 1917.
Cox, L. R. The tfl.lssic, Jurassic and Cretaceous gastropoda and
lamelhbranchiata of the Attock district. Pal. Ind. N. S. XX, (5) ..
1935
Holdhaus, K. Fauna of the Splti shales-Lamellibranchiata and
gastropoda. Pal. Ind. Ser. XV, Vol. IV, Fasc. 4, 1913.
Middlemiss, C.S. Geology of Hazara. Mem. 26, 1886.
Muir-Wood, H. M. Mesozoic brachiopoda of the Attock district.
Pal. Ind. N. S. XX, (6), 1937
Raj Nath. A contrIbutIOn to the stratigraphy of Cutch. Q.J C.M.
M. S IndIa, 4, IGI-174, 1933
Spath, L F. RevisIOn of the JurassIc cephalopod f.mna of Cutch.
Pal Ind. N. S. IX, 1924-33.
Spath, L.F. Jurassic and Cretaceous ammOnites and Belemmtes of
the Attock district. Pal. Ind. N. S. XX, (4), 1934.
Uhlig, V. and Steiger, P. Fauna of the Spiti shales-Cephalopoda.
Pal. Ind. Ser. XV, Vol. VI, (1,2,3,5), 1903-14.
Waagen, W. Gergory, j.W. and Kltchm, F.L. JurassIc fauna or
Cutch. Pal. Ind. Ser. IX, Vol. I, II, III, 1873-1903.
Wynne, A.B. Geology of Kutch, Mem. 9, Pt. I, 1872.
CHAPTER XIV.
THE CRETACEOUS SYSTEM.
GENeRAL.
The Cretaceous is one of the most widely distributed

sedimentary systems in India and is, moreover, repre-
sented by a variety of facies. The Himalayan area, as in
the earlier systems, shows the geosynclin3.1 facies. A large
area of Tibet and northern Himalaya is covered by these
rocks. In Baluchistan there is an eastern calcareous
fossiliferous facies and a western arenaceous unfossiliferous
facies consisting of sandy strata of the European Flysch
type. Similar rocks are developed also in the Arakan
region at the other border of India. Marine incursions
of this period have left their deposits in the Narbada valley,
in the Trichinopoly-South Arcot area of southern Madras
and in Assam. The latter two have a faunal assemblage
different from that of the geosynclinal deposits. Estuarine
and lacustrine deposits are developed in various parts of
the centre of the Peninsula underlying the great group of
lava flows called the Deccan Traps.
Towards its end, the Cretaceous was a period of
extensive igneous activity. Granites and basic rocks
belonging to this period are found in the HImalayan area.
Baluchistan and the Arakan region of Burma likewise
witnessed igneous phenomena. The Peninsula was the
scene of stupendous volcanic outbursts which were res-
ponsible for a large thickness of lava flows and fragmental
products which at one time probably covered close upon
half a million square miles of the land surface.
The eastern coast of India seems already to have
taken shape at the beginning of the Cretaceous, but on the
west there was still land from the southern end to as far
north as Gujarat and Kathiawar. The Tethys extended
into Baluchistan and further west on the one hand and
into the Arakan region on the other. A sea connected
with it transgressed into the Narbada valley in Uppe~
Cretaceous times and about the same time a southern sea
invaded the eastern shores of the Peninsula in Southern
Madras and Assam.
I t is an interesting fact that there is a more or less
pronounced stratigraphical gap between the Lower and
Upper Cretaceous in the geosynclinal area. Strata belong-
ing to the age of the great transgression in the coastal areas
-i.e., the Cenomanian-are absent in Baluchistan and
Hazara, and possibly also in the Arakan. This would
suggest that the Cenomanian transgression may be
compensated for by the marine regression on the borders
of some parts of the geosynclinal area of the Extra-Penin-
sula.
SPITI.
Giumal series.-At Giumal, Kibber and Chikkim,

the Lochambal beds gradually merge into yellow and
brown sandstones and slaty quartzites. These constitute
the Giumal sandstones and have a thickness of about 300
feet. The uppermost Lochambal beds contain the cepha-
lopods Hopliles (Neocomites) neocomensis and Acanthodiscus
subradiatus which clearly point to a Neocomian age. * The
Giumal sandstones enclose a fauna which indicates that
they cannot be older than Upper Velanginian or Lower
Hauterivian nor younger than the Albian:
Ceph,tlopods Holcostephanus (Astteria) aff. atherstom, Stephanoceras
sp., Pertsphznctes, sp.
A ~Pltz (Ru.14, p. 197-2'7, 1914) remarks, in connection with the ammomtes

of the LOl hambal b{'d~. that the European forms indicate even a somewhat later
age than that assl~lled by him. This IS slgmficant III view orthe assignment by Spath
of an Upper Neocomlan age for the Imperfect ammonites found In the East coast
Upper Gondwana strata, and ofa Neocomlan age for beds III Bannu which contam
brachlopod~ of Kimmeridgian affinIties Perhaps the 'Neocomlan' ammomtes
of the Indian regIon are older than their European relatIVes would lead us to
believe. This is a problem for expenenced palaeontologists to elUCidate.
XIV] THE CRETACEOUS SYSTEM. 389-
Larnelhbranchs.. Cardmm g!eumalense (abundant), Pseudomonoizj
superstes (abundant), Ostrea, sp., Gryphaea aff.
baytel, Pecten, sp. etc.
Chikkim series.-The Giumal sandstones are over-
lain by grey or whitish limestones having a thickness of
100 feet or more. These are the Chikkim limestones which
contain Belemnites, Htppurites, and some foraminifera
including Cristellaria, Textularia, Nodosaria, Dentalina, etc.
These are probably of the same age as the Hemipneustes.
beds of Baluchistan. The Chikkim shales are 150 feet
thick, highly folded and unfossiliferous.
The Chikkim series is overlaid by a group of sand-
stones and arenaceous shales of the Alpine flysch facies,
which are entirely unfossiliferous. In some places even
the Neocomian is represented by the flysch formation. It i&
clear therefore that after the deposition of the Spiti shales
the sea gradually became shallow and became unsuitable
for supporting a rich fauna. 1 here is also a distinct
difference between the Spiti shale fauna and the Cretaceous
fauna since the two have very few common elements.
MALLA JOHAR.
In Malla Johar, the Giumal sandstones are 500 feet
thick, and are followed by 100 feet of red and greenish
shales with intercalations of limestone and chert. These
are followed by 300 feet of black, friable, Belemnite shales
which are probably to be correlated with the Belemnite
shales of Baluchistan, of Hauterivian age. Then follow
600 feet of flysch sediments resembling the Pab sandstones
of Baluchistan. These are overlain by ISO feet of green
tuffs, 50 feet of red tuffs and finally by a great mass of
volcanic breccia 1,000 feet or more thick. This breccia is
associated with blocks of all sizes of sedimentary rocks
ranging in age from Permian to Cretaceous and including
the underlying flysch. These blocks have already been
referred to as 'exotic blocks.' (See p. 345)
KUMAON AND TIBET.
Near the Niti Pass the Chikkim limestones are well

developed. Beyond it in Tibet, there are volcanic rocks
(of Cretaceous age' overlain by sandstones and shales of
Lower Eocene age and these again by sediments of Middle
and late Tertiary age containing mammalian remains.
Cretaceous rocks, consisting of Giumal sandstones and
Cenomanian limestones, occupy a large area in Western
and Central Tibet. They are overlain by Eocene and
later Cretaceous rocks towards the south-east. In the
Phari plain are exposed a thick series of limestones, shales,
slates and quartzites which include Triassic and possibly
older beds. The upper limestones of this group contain
Liassic brachiopods. Jurassic rocks occupy a large area
in the Provinces of Tsang and U, and fossiliferous Middle
Jurassic limestones are known. Typical Spiti shales have
been found near Kampa Dzong and in the hills east and
south-east of Gyantse.
A full Cretaceous sequence, though the whole of it
is not fossiliferous, is noted near Kampa Dzong in a series
-of faulted folds. Together with the associated early
Tertiary rocks it constitutes the Kampa system. The
succession near Kampa Dzong is shown in Table 32.
The lower Cretaceous is represented by the Giri
limestone which is unfossiliferous. The overlying Kampa
shale and Hemiaster beds are Cenomanian as shown by
their fossil content. The Scarp limestones and the Tuna
limestones range in age from Turonian to M<estrichtian
and are apparently the equi.valents of the Hemipneustes
beds and Cardita subcomplanata beds of Baluchistan.
The ferruginous sandstones at the top are thought to be
partly Cretaceous and partly Eocene.
In this region there are altered basic intrusives and
serpentines which appear to be late Cretaceous or Eocene
in age. There is also an unfoliated hornblende granite
intrusive into the Mesozoic rocks.
J'IV] THE CRETACEOUS SYSTEM.
KASHMIR.
The presence of white Cretaceous limestone containing
.(;ryphaea vesiculosa is known in Rupshu and in Ladakh on
the Leh-Yarkand road. Some Hippurite-bearing rocks are
known in the Lokzhung range in northernmost Kashmir.
TABLE 32.-THE KAMPA SYSTEM OF TIBET.
Age. Sub-(ilvlllions. ThIck

Ft
D,ongbuk :'>haJes
Alveohna hmestones
~halc, and hmestones, unfoSSlhferou,
~andy mlcaceou, shales and fl.lggy sandstones
EOCENE Orbltohles hm!'stone with Orbltolltes and MillO/ina
Spondylus ~h.lles-Varlcoloured and n~edle shales
Oprrtulina hm~stone - i:)haly nodular forammlferal
hme.tonl' WIth Nummulites
Gastropod hmolone-tlmo1ones, thln.bedded below
but hartl, mas"vc and dark above with gastropods,
espeCially Velaler schmldeZ,ana
-------- Ferrugmous sand.tone.-no dett'rmmable fossIls
Flaggy ,haly hmestone wah sandy layerSl
.
Mitt'strich- and WIth Llthothammon hme~tone m

Han the middle (Cycioilles regulans. Hemlpneu-
Tuna 51e5 ttbellcus, Ho/ectypu5, Orbltolttes macro-
hmestone pora, Vola ql1adncoslala J
{ ThIrd scarp lImestone WIth shaly bands- }
100
WIth RadlOllles and ActacQneita
Senonian Thin, flaggy and shaly hm~tone WIth Radlohtes and
F,.rhmo!d,
Second Scarp lImestone with Rud,stae, Orblto/ltes medIa,
EchmOids and Ldmelhbranchs
Dark shales and hmestones WIth a few Gryphaea
First scarp IIme,tone, hard and .plmtery-no deter-
mmable fossils 15
HemJasler beds-Pale grey shales WIth Hemlaster gros-,

SOllum, H cenomanense, Gryphaea, Inoceramus i 250
Kampa shale-Brown shaly bmestone and blaCk}
Cenomanian needl<- shales with Acalllho~eras rhotomagense and other
specIes and Turnlltes COJtatus . ?
,Gm hmestone-hard thm-bedded lImestone, un-
Low~r fossilIferous
Cretaceous.
J_!:lRASSIC SPIt! shales.
In the Astor-Burzil region, Cretaceous limestones and

shales bearing foraminifera (Orbitolina cf. bulgarica) , gas-
tropods and corals are found intercalated with volcanic
rocks, while granites, pyroxenites and other igneous rocks
are also known to be intrusive into the Cretaceous.
HAZARA.
Mention has already been n1ade of the fact that there

are two parallel zones in Hazara in which different facies
of rocks are developed side by side. This applies not
only to the Jurassic but also to the Cretaceous.
In the northwestern zone, the Spiti shales of Jurassic
age pass conformably upwards into the Giumal sandstones,
succeeded by 10 to 20 feet of yellow sandstone containing
Albian ammonites. Amongst the fossils are Lyelliceras
lye/Ii (abundant), L. cotteri, Eutrlphoceras, sp., Douvilleiceras
mammillatum D. aff. monile, Brancoceras, Diplom'as aff.
bouchardianufll\ Hamites cf. attenuatUS\ Metahamites aff. elegans~
Oxytropidoceras multifidum, O. roissyanum, Mojslsovicsia aff.
delaruei. This bed is followed by 400 feet of well-bedded
grey limestone with a laterite layer on top, the latter
indicating subaerial weathering before the Eocene was
laid down.
In the south-eastern zone, the massive limestone of
Upper Jurassic age is succeeded by Giumal sandstones
which are 100 feet thick, and dark green to nearly black in
colour. Calcareous intercalations in these sandstones
contain abundant Trigonia. They are succeeded by 100
feet of sandstone and shell limestone, overlain by 100 feet
of buff, thin-bedded shaly limestone. All these form a
conformable series and appear to he of Neocomian to
Albian age. Their junction with the overlying Eocene is
marked by a bed of laterite. In this south-eastern zone,
therefore, the beds between the Albian and Eocene are
missing whereas in the north-western zone the unconfor-
mity is much smaller, i.e., between the Middle Albian and
some part of the Upper Cretaceous.
ATTOCK DISTRICT.
The Spiti shales of this region pass imperceptibly

upwards into the Giumal horizon containing Oxytlopidoceras.
afr. roissyanum in the uppermost beds which are of Albian
XIV] THE CRETACEOUS SYSTEM. 393
age. There are no strata belonging to an age betweelb
these and the Eocene.
SAMANA RANGE.
Above the Samana Suk limestone of Jurassic age
there occur dark grey glauconitic sandstones with lime-
stone bands containing the ammonite Astieria and Belemnites
of Neocomian age. The glauconitic sandstones are un-
conformably succeeded by the MAIN SANDSTONE SERIES
of Albian age consisting of white quartzitic sandstones with
hrematitic bands and having a thickness of about 700 feet.
Fossils occur in the topmost grits including : -
Cephalopods . DOUVl[[elcera5 mamrntllatum (veryabunddot), Pidelza
rf. aJllerlOna, C/eomceras daviesl, Desmoceras latldor-
saturn, Brancoceras tndicum, Hamltes cf. attenuatus.
Brachiopods .. Rhyn~honella samanenSlS, R. rellculata, Terabratula
sarnanenSIS, T. davleSt, Kmgena spmulos a.
Gastropods .. Metllrentkzum cf. ornatlSstmUm, SemlSolarium mom-
liferum
Lamellibranchs . Pecten, Nezlhea, Venus, Cypnna cf. quadrata.
Echinoderms Dzscoldea afr. decorata, Conulus sp , Holas/eT sp.
The Main Sandstone series is succeeded, after a slight
unconformity, by 150 feet of flaggy limestone called the
LOWER LITHOGRAPHIC LIMESTONE, of probably Chikkim
age. Above this there are variegated quartzitic sand~
stones and the UPPER LITHOGRAPHIC LIMESTONE, which
also appear to be of Upper Cretaceous age.
CHITRAL.
Middle to Upper Cretaceous strata, consisting of
limestones containing Orbitolina and Hippurites, are found
in a series of outcrops in Chitral, often faulted against
older strata. They are 5ucceeded by the RESHUN CONGLO-
MERATE BEDS whose age may be Upper Cretaceous or
Eocene.
BALUCHISTAN-SIND.
In the eastern or Calcareous zone of Baluchistan, the
Cretaceous System is well developed as a series of shales
50
and limestones, whereas in the western or Flysch zone it

consists mostly of dark greenish grey sandstones and
sandy shales.
THE CALCAREOUS ZONE.
Belemnite shales.-In the Calcareous zone the

Neocomian succeeds the Callovian strata unconformably.
It consists of two divisions, the lower BELEMNITE BEDS and
the upper PARH LIMESTONES. The Belemnite beds are
-dark shales containing abundant belemnites of the genus
DUl1alia (a flatted form) and other fossils including Duvalia
dilatatus, Belemnites latus, B. subfusiformis, Gryphaea old-
haml, etc. At times the Belemnite beds swell into a
thick formation of green shales with thin limestone inter-
calations ; by the accession of arenaceous materials these
pass into the flysch facies developed on a large scale in
Lower Zhob. The Belemnite shales are younger than the
upper parts of the Spiti shales which, as we have seen, are
of Lower Neocomian age.
Parh Limestones.-Conformably overlying the Belem-
nite shales are the Parh Limestones of white, red and
purple colours and often of porcellanoid texture. They
occasionally reach a thickness of 1,500 feet. They are
unfossiliferous in the main, but occasionally contain Inocera-
mus and the aberrant genus Hippurites characteristic of
the Mediterranean province.
The Parh Limestones and the Belemnite beds are seen
forming the peripheral portions of the domes and anticlines
whose cores are of dark-coloured Jurassic limestone. These
two divisions, which form one stratigraphic unit of Upper
Neocomian age, unconformably overlie the Callovian
Polyphemus beds and are in turn unconformably overlain
by rocks of Senonian (Campanian) age.
Hemipneustes beds.-The Upper Cretaceous is deve-
loped in the Laki range of Sind and in a large area in the
Calcareous zone of Baluchistan. The lowest strata, called
the HEMIPNEUSTES BEDS, are limestones of Campanian to
Maestrichtian age, which have yielded a rich fauna : -
Cephalopods Nautilus sublaevigatus, Parapachydlscus dulmensis,
Bostrychoceras polyplocum.
EchinOlds Hemlpneustes pyrenalCus, H leymeriet, H compressus,
Echznoconus gigas, E. hellOS, Holectypus baluchzs-
tanenSls, P)'71na ataxensls, Hemlasfer blarifordl.
La"l1elhbranchs " Alectryoma peetmata, Gryphaea veslculaTls, Vola quadri-
costata, Spondylu f santomensls, Pecten (Chlamys)
dUJardwz, Corbula harpa.
'Gastropods Ovula expansa.
TABLE 33.-MESOZOIC SUCCESSION IlIO BALUCHISTAN.
(After Vredenburg-Rec. 38, p 199-200.)
-------- --------- --------------.----------------

Age. Sub-dlVISlom
Eocl'ne I Ghazl) bed~-C;ypseous clays .. tc , with A"ilma granulo'Q

Ddman lO lvi.el- l..dr(llld UlciUl110Ull u\:".., \\id1 \OlLdlll(" d.ggl0JllLrdll.~, 1.Jd.~aJts
tnchuan dulentes and serpentlOes
Pab ~and,tones-Masslve, rather coarse, sandstones. sometimes
of large thlcknes<" accompanied by volcamc matenals
Senonian Ohve ~hales with numerous ammonites, occasIOnally mterbedded
WIth volcaniC ash.
H('mlpneuste~ beds-Limestone~ and calcareous shales with
Parapachyd!sC!J5, lJoslryclwceras, and several echm01d~.
~unconformlty ~
Lltuola beds-Flaggy porcellantc hmestones and shales of buff
and pale green colours, containing numerous small forammlfera
pnnclpally 01 the genus L!luola
Parh hmestone-whlte, purcellamc, well stratified hmestones
with ferruglnou~ basal beds
8e1emmte beds-Black splintery shales With abundant belemmtes
Neocomlan (Duvalza) and Hophtes
~unconformltr ~
CallOVian Polyph.. mus beds-thm bedded hmeslones and shales con tammg
the large ammonite 1Ilacrocephal!tes polyphemus
Bathonian and Massive grey hmestone, several thousand feet thick.
BaJocian
LIas Dark, well-bedded hmestones, ~everal thousand feet thick, some-
times with fosslhferous honzons
~ - ~-I Thick, greem,h grey slaty shales With thin black hmestone
lavf'l~ MOT/niH salmarla. Dldvmltes. HalQTltes. etc
Permo-Carbom- JLlmestones With Productus and other Permo-carboniferous fOSSils.
ferou~,
3C)6 GEOLOGY OF INDIA AND BURMA. [CHAP.
C~udita subcomplanata bed~.~The Hemipneustes

beds arc overlain by shales containing occasional fossili.
ferous bands, one of these containing a rich ammonite
fauna, though only 6 inches thick. The fossils from this
zone include Cardita (Venericardia) sul&omplanata (by which
name the beds are sometimes called), and the ammo-
nites Indoceras baluchistanensis, S/Jhenodiscus acutodorsatus,
ParaJJachydiscus dulmensis and Gaudryceras sp.
Pa.b Sandstones.-The above-mentioned shales arc
followed by a thick series of flysch-like sandstones, called
the Pab sandstones. Though mainly unfossiliferous, they
contain rare fossiliferous horizons of shaly constitution,
especially in the upper part, in which Cardita (Venericardia)
beaumonti h.a:; been found. Oth.er fos,s,ils of tl:tese beds
include:
Lamelhbrallchs Venencardla vredenburgi, Ostrea acutzrostris, O.Jlemm-
gl, LIOJtlca onentalls, Corbula sulcifera, C. harpa,
Crassatella austnaca, CardIUm maequlconvexum,
Glycllnms vredenburgl.
Gastropods Bellardla zndlca, JI/erzta halwtls, Morganza fusiformH,
Tumtella praelonga, Polamldes ehaprensls, Proem-
tllium tTIp Ie r:, Campamle brelle.
Cephalopods }lautllu~ forbesi, S. lebechl.
The Pa b sandstones are intercalated with, and some-

times overlain by, volcanic materials of a basic character,
mainly dolerites and basalts. They are largely developed
in Jhalawan around Nal, Jebri, and Wad and in a broad
zone west of the Porali river, continuing west of the Las
Bela plain down to the sea-coast at Gadani.
The Jurassic and Cretaceous succession of Baluchistan
is shown in Table 33, based 00 the work of E.
Vredenburg.
SALT RANGE.
Belemnite beds.-Only the lower portion of the
Cretaceous is represented here, consisting of a 10 feet thick
grey sandstone supposed to be gla uconitic, overlain by
white sandstones. At Kalabagh, just beyond the Indus,
they contain Belemnites of Neocomian age. They continue
on to Chichali, Makarwal and Sheik Budin hills where
the lower belemnite-bearing beds are shaly and associated
with grey marls overlain by white and yellow sandstones.
The Belemnite beds contain a fairly rich fauna belong- _
ing to the Valanginian age, amongst which arc the follow-
ing:
Olcostephanus sa/znanus (.;.bundant), O. sublaems, O. jascigerus, O.
(Rogers,tes) schenkz, Blarifordlceras afr. wallichl, B. cf. boehmi, Subthur-
manma medza, S. jermoT!, S patella, Hlmalayaltes cf. seidell, NeocOnlltes
slml/ts, Parandlceras ~p., Kzhanella aSiatica, K. besamel, Ne(Jcosmoceras
hoploplzorum, Sarasznella ulzlzgl, Neolzoploceras Jubmartlnl, Neolzssoceras
graszanum, HlbolzteJ subfusiformlS (abundant);
Pleurotomena blanchetl, Astarte her:;,ogz, Exogyra Imbrzcata.
Also fish and reptilian remains.
There are apparently no Mesozoic beds in this region
younger than the Albian (Gault). They are succeeded
by ferruginous marls having a thickness of about 6 feet,
and these by Eocene limestones. The marls are also
thought to be of Eocene age.
PENINSULAR AREAS.
BOMBAY.
Ahmednagar (Himmatnagar) sandstone.-The Ah-
mednagar sandstones, discovered by C.S. Middlemiss
in the Idar State, consist of thick, horizontally bedded
sandstones, shales and conglomerates, having pink, red
and brown colours. Amongst the plant fossils found in
these, Matomdium zndzcum and Weichselza reticulata have been
identified, which point to a Lower Cretaceous (Wealden)
age. These sandstones are therefore older than the Bagh
beds and may be contemporaneous with the Nimar
sandstones underlying the Bagh beds.
The Ahmednagar sandstone is similar to the Dhranga-
dhra sandstone (see Upper Gondwanas, p. 265), the Songir
sandstone of Baroda and the Barmer sandstone of Western
Rajputana, all of which appear to be of about the same
age.
CUTeR,
The Jurassic rocks of Cutch pass upwards into the

U mia plant beds which are overlaid by sandstones con-
taining marine fossils like Colombiceras and Cheloniceras.
The age of these beds is Aptian.
NARBADA VALLEY.
Bagh beds.-Strata of Cretaceous age are observed

in a series of outcrops between Barwah east of Bagh in
Gwalior State and Wadhwan in Kathiawar, the best
exposures being found around Chirakhan and in the Ali-
rajpur-Jhabua area in Gujarat. They rest on the ancient
metamorphic rocks and attain a thickness of 60 feet
or more in Gwalior State but are believed to be much
thicker in Rajpipla State. The lower part of the beds is
arenaceous while the upper is mainly calcareous.
Near Bagh, the lower beds consist of a basal conglo-
merate with sandstone and shale layers above. These
are called the Nimar sandstones. The upper portion
consists of three divIsions, a lower nodular limestone, a
middle marly bed (Deola marls) and an upper coralline
limestone.
Deccan Traps.
:8agh beds .
f-_:__----
Upper ..
}
Coralhn .. hmestone
Deola Marls
Nodular argillaceous limestone.
1Lower .. Nimar Sandstones

Metamorphlcs.
The Nimar Sandstones thicken when followed west,

wards. They yield good and durable building stones,
quarries for the extraction of which exist near Songir in
Baroda. The Nodular Limestone is compact, argillaceous
and light coloured. The Deola (or Chirakhan) Marl is
only 10 feet thick bu t richly fossiliferous. The Coralline
Limestone is red to yellow in colour and contains abundant
fragments of Bryozoa. The Deola Marls are the chief
XIV] THE CRETACEOUS SYSTEM. 399-
fossiliferous beds, but closely related fossils occur also in
the limestones above and below them:
Cephalopods Knemueras mlntol, Namadoceras sClndlae, N. bosel.
Lamelhbranchs . Crassznella tngonoldes, C planzsslma, Nezihea morrlSl,
Ostrea arcotenslf, O. ll'_ymerzei, Plicatula multi co-
stata, PratocardlUm /Jand,Cherrlinff, CardIUm (Tra-
chycardlum) tncomptum, Macrocailista, cr. sculptu-
rata, Gratnana cr. }ugosa, Inoceramus concentTlcuJ,
I. TTlultzplzcatuf.
Gastropods Lyna f:ranulora, Fulgurarza elongata, Fasczolaria
nglda, Turntella mulizstrlata.
Echinoids CldQl I; namadlca, Salema kea/mgtz, C)'PhoJoma ceno-
manense, Orlho/iS!s zndlCUS, Echznobrzssus goybetl,
Nucleolitej simzils, Hemiaster cenomanenSIS, H.
SITTlIIIS
This fauna is referable mainly to the Turonian, per-
haps extending from uppermost Cenomanian to Senonian.
In his examination of the Bagh beds of the Dhar
Forest area, Vredenburg came to the conclusion that they
were contemporaneous with, and represented the marine
facies of, the Lametas. The fossil evidence points to the
age of these beds as Cenomanian to Upper Senonian.
The fauna of the Bagh beds has a close resemblance
to that of the Cretaceous of Arabia and Southern Europe
so that it is thought that the area was occupied by an arm
'of Tethys. There are however some elements which show
affinities with the South Indian Cretaceous-Protocardium
pondichemense, Trachycardium incomptum, Macrocallista cf.
sculpturata, Turritella (Zaria) multistriala, and the Uttattur
forms Grotriana cf. Jugosa, and Crassinella cf. planissima. The
available data are not sufficient to infer an intermingling
of the fauna of the Tethyan and Indo-Pacific (Southern)
regIOns.
SOUTHERN MADRAS.
The great Cenomanian transgression covered a large
area of the Coromandel coast from near Pondicherry to
the Cauvery valley. The Cretaceous rocks are found in
three areas separated by the Pennar and V dlar rivers ..
There is, besides, a tiny patch to the south of the Cauvery,

.a few miles west of Tanjore. The largest of these is in the
north-east of the Trichinopoly district and occupies about
250 square miles.
TRICHINOPOLY DISTRICT.
Here the rocks lie on a platform of granitic gneisses

and charnockites, a thin fringe of Upper Gondwanas
MAP XI.
THE CRETACEOUS ROCKS OF TRICHINOPOLY.
'--_---II A ilumll" _ Up Sand ...". I
C:':;::Jcudd.lor. $st t:-: ;.:':3 Ar,hmllo

XIV] THE CRETACEOUS SYSTEM.
intervening between the sediments and the Archaeans in a

'few places along the western margin. On the north they
are covered by alluvium and on the east by the Cuddalore
sandstones of Miocene age. The Cretaceous rocks are
,divided into four stages as shown in Table 34. The oldest
stage is found on the west and is successively overlain, and
in places 0Verlapped, by the younger ones which occur
to the east. The general dip of the formations is to the
east or E,S.E. at low angles. Slight unconformities exist
between the three lower stages, though these are not
prominent.
Uttattur stage.-The lowest beds are named after
the village of U ttattur (about 20 miles N .E. of Trichino-
poly) which lies on the western margin of the Cretaceous
strata. This stage lies on charnockites for the greater
part, and on gneiss and granite at its north,ern and
southern ends.
TABLE 34-CRETACEOUS SUCCESSION IN TRICHINOPOLY.
Age. 1 Stage. 1 Descnptlon and fOSSils,
Daman Whlte sandy limestones and sandstones with Nautilus

,
damcus, Lyrla formosa, Codakla percrassa, Stylllla
parvula
Maestnchtlan Upper, Sandy strata without fosstl~
Arlyalur
Lowtfr' Pale sands and clays with PachydlScus egertom,
P, otacodenslS, Brahmaltes brahma, Baculltes vagina,
Rostellana paillata, MacrodoT! lapetuum, Gryphatfa
veSicularlS, Alectryoma ungulata, Stlgmatopygus elatus.
Senonian
Upper Sandston ..s, clays with Placentu;eras tamu/'cum,
Schloenbachia dravidlCUm, Heteroceras mdrcum, FasclO-
-- Tri~hmopoly
lana ngida
Lower: Sandstones, clays and shell hmestones ,,,th

PachydlScus ptramplus, SchloenbachIa (Prmocyclus)
Turonian serratrcarmatus, Tngoma trrchlnopolltenslS, Protocar-
dlum h.Llanum
Vpp" Sandy beds with itfammltes co11c1i1a1us.
Acanthaceras newboldl, Naultlus huxleyanus
'Cenomaman to Uttattur Aflddle Clays v.lth Acanthoceras cf rhotomagenJt

uppermost A mantelll, A coleroonense, TurTlllles costatus,
Albian, Alectryoma cannata
Lower. Basal limestone and coral rag with clays
above with Schloenbachia inflata, Stoludcala dlSpa
,
Turnlltes berfert, Ham titS armatus Belemnttes, "
51
402 GEOLOGY OF INDIA AND BURMA. [CHAP ..
PLATE XIX.
CRE rACEOUS .FOSSILS I.
30& 3Gb
f:XPLANAT[ON OF PLATE XIX
I. Belmrndesfibula ([/3) 2. B ,tzius (1/3). 3 B seclusus (1/3). 4. Paulll",.

bouchardranus (1/8) 5. N clementmus (1/6) 6. N huxleyanus (1/4). 7. N. danzeus
(1(6). 8 N. jorlJeSranus (1(4). 9. Phylloceras jqrbtSlanum (2/3). 10. Phyllocera,
ue"edoe (1/3). II. Phylloceras SUrylil (1/6). 12. Lytoceras (Gaudry-cera.t) kaye, (2/3)'
13. Lytoceras (Pseudoph,lIi~s) indra (1/4). 14. Lyloceras (Gaudryceras) varagurense (1/4.)'
~IV] THE CRETACEOUS SYSTEM.
Near its junction with the Cretaceous rocks , the charnockite

is heavily weathered and replaced or veined with tufaceous
limestone (kankary matter). Upper Gondwana shales
and sandstones intervene between this stage and the
charnockites in a few places, forming four or five separate
patches. The junction between the Gondwanas and basal
Cretaceous rocks does not show any disconformity but a
thin ferruginous bed may be seen intervening between
the two. The outcrop of thi'i stage is 4 to 5 miles wide
near the southern end but narrows down to less than a
mile in the north, being overlapped at both ends by the
next higher stage.
The Uttattur beds consist offinesilts, calcareous shale~,
and sandy clays containmg ferruginous, phosphatic and
calcareous nodules. The clays are often streaked with
yellow and brown ferruginous stains. At the base, in a
few places, there is a dark grey, somewhat arenaceous,
limestone which is usually weathered (to a depth of IO to
15 feet) to a yellow colour. It is locally of the nature of a
coral rag containing corals and other fossils:' It is locally
used as a building stone and, within the last five years,
for the manufacture of portland cement at Kallak-
kudi (Dalmiapuram) near Pullambadi. The lower beds
are argillaceous and generally gypseous and traversed by
veins of gypsum which are up to 5 inches thick. In cer-
tain areas similar but sparsely distributed veins of fibrous
celestite and calcite also occur as also phosphatic nodules
up to four or five inches long. The upper beds are more
arenaceous anti show current-bedding. There must have
15 Lytoceras (Tetragomtes) eplgonum (1/3) 16 Lytoceras (Tetragomtes) tlmotheanum
(1/3)' 17 Hamlle. (Amsoceras) mdlcus (1/3) 18. Bacultt.s uagma (a, side VIew, b,
bacbllew, C, d, cro~ssectlOns) (1/4) 19. Turrzlltes Clrcumtllmatus (1/2) 20. Tumilles
(Heterocews) mdlcus (1/3). 21. Placenltceras tamultcum (1/3) 22 SOllneralta obesa
(1/4). 23. Schlomhachla Injiata (1/6) 24 SchloenbachIa (PeronlCtras) draL,d,ca
(1/4)' 25 Stoilc~kala dlspar (1/6), 26. Acanlhoceras lallclauum (1/6). 27 Acan-
thoceras gothlCum (1/4). 28. Acanlhomas newboldl (1/3) 29 Acanthoceras mantelll
(1/4), 30. Acanthoceras cunnzngtonl (1/6). 3 1 , 3 2 Scaphltes obl'quUJ (1((3). 3S.
Scaphlles ktngl~nus (2/3). 34. Olcoslephanus superstes (I/S) 35. Holcodzrcus theo-
baldlanus (1/3)' 35. Holcoducus bhauanz (1/2) 7 Holcoducus karapadensls (1/2).
been an interval before the close of the U ttattur times
when the sea became desiccated, impregnating the sedi-
ments with gypsum and salt.
The dips are 10\\ and irregular, from a few degrees
to as much as 25 d~grees towards the east or southeast,
the average being about 10 degrees. The thickness of
the U ttattur stage should however be more than the
1,000 feet allowed for by Blanford, and probably about
2,000 feet.
Fauna.-This stage contains a fauna rich in ammo-
nites and other invertebrates. Three divisions can be
recognised from the faunal content, the lower with Schloen-
hachia (Pervinquieria) injiata, the middle with Acanthoceras
oCf. rhotomagense and other species and the upper with
Mammites conciliatus. According to F. Kossmat, the lower
two divisions are of uppermost Albian and Cenomanian
age and the upper one of Lower Turonian age.
Gastropods Nennea mcavata, Tumtella nodosa, Scala clementina,
Littonna attenuata.
Lamellibranchs Lucina fallax, Grotnana jugosa, Trigonarca gamana,
Inoceramus lablatus, Netthea qumquecostata, Alectry-
oma dzlumana, Gryphaea columba.
Cephalopods Belemnites fibula, B. stt/us: NautIlus huxleyanus,
N. splendens, N. ootatoorenszs, N. negama;
SchloenbachIa tnflata, Stoltc;;.kala dispar, Acantho-
ceras, cr. rhotomagense, A. coleroonensfS, A. mantelli,
l~toceras tzmotheanus, L. sacya, Phylloceras for-
beszanum, MammJtes concihatus, Amsoceras arma-
tum, Tumlttus bergerz, T. costatus, Ptychoceras
jorbmanum, Baculltes vagma.
Corals Astrocoenia rttifera, Caryophyllia granuliftra, Platy-
cyathus indlcus, Srylzna multistella, S. grandls.
Thecosmilla geminata, Isastraea expansa, Thamnas-
traea crassa, Hellopora edwardsana.
TrichinopoIy stage.-This stage is unfortunately
named, since the city of Trichinopoly is at least IS miles
from the nearest outcrop. The best known villages on
this stage are Garudamangalam and Kunnam. It has
a maximum width of 4 miles in the southwest where it

overlaps the Uttattur stage and rests on the metamorphics.
It gradually narrows down northwards where it is over-
lapped by the succeeding Ariyalur stage.
The Trichinopoly stage seems to have been laid down
after the Uttattur stage was slightly uplifted and denuded.
A slight unconformity, somes times marked by a bed of
conglomerate or coarse pebbles, is seen at the base of the
Trichinopoly stage, but this is not dlways noticeable since
the upper U ttattur beds are arenaceous and similar in
constitution to the succeeding beds and angular uncon-
formity is not easy to detect in the irregularly dipping
strata. Some gypsum is associated with the lower part
of this stage. Some of the conglomerate is full of granite,
quartz and felspar pebbles~derived from the granitic area
to the south and southwest.
The Trichinopoly stage is a littoral, shallow marine
formation consisting of sandstones, grits, calcareous grits,
occasional shales and bands of shell limestone full of gastro-
pod and lamellibranch shells. This shell limestone (found
near Pullambadi,\Garudamangalam, Anaipadi, Kunnam
and other places), is a beautiful ornamental stone capable
of taking a good polish, the white or opalescent molluscan
shells being embedded in a very fine-grained dark grey
matrix.
Though there is an unconformity at the base, the stage
has a general dip conformable to that of the underlying
and overlying beds. 'It shows large trunks as well as
broken pieces of fossil wood in several places. One of
these, discovered in 1940 near Sattanur by the author,
measured 86 feet long and 54 inches in diameter at the
base. Several smaller opalised and silicified trunks were
found east and r southeast of Garudamangalam.
The Trichi~opoly stage has yielded a large number of
fossils, the majority being lamellibranchs and gastropods,
a change of faun(being indicated after the Uttattur times.
The uncoiled ammonites characteristic of the Uttatturs-
GEOLOGY OF INOlA AND BURMA. [CHAP.
PLATE XX.
CRETACEOUS FOSSILS II.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE XX.

38. BrahmalleJ brahma (1/3) 39 Brahmalles vIShnu (1/4) 40 PachydlScus
jimboi (1/4). 41 PachydlScus go/lelllllmslS (1/4) 42. PachydlJcus olacodmns (1/4).
43 PU;:;'OSlQ gaudama (1/4) 44 Desmoceras gard(1II (1/2.). 45 Desmocrras lalldor-
satum (1/2). 46. DtsmocerasJugata (1/3). 37. Rosttlltmapaillata (2/3). 48 Cypraea
kaeyel (1/2). 49 Gosavla IndICa (2/3). 50. Fulguraria elongala (1/3). 51. FasclOlarlQ
"C wa (1/2). 52. Aclamella cylmdflca (2./3). 53 Crntlilum arcotense (2/3) 54
.Athleta purpunfonms (1/3). 55 TUmlelia (Z0rIQ) multlSlnata (2/3). 56. CJult;:;'lamn.
Scaphites, Turrilit~s, Anisoceras-are apparently rare in this

stage. The ChIef fossils of this stage are:
Cephalopods Peromceras dravidtcum, Gaudryceras varagurensis, Tetra
gomtes eplgonum, Pachydlscus peramplus, Para-
pachydlscus koluturenJ II. PnonoliYclus serratlcart--
natus, Placentlceras tamultcum, Pu::;osla gaudama,
Desmoceraf sugala, Holcodlscus (Kossmatzceras)
theobaldtanus, H. (K) bhal/ani.
, Gasropods Alana legulata, RosteUana palliata, Cypraea newboldt,
Gosama Indzca, ru/gurarza elongata, Fascwlaria
Tlgzda, Hemifusus cmelus, Cerzthzum Irzmonz[e,
Turrztella ajJinzs, Chemml?;,!a r.ndosa, Velales deCl-
puns, Eutrochus gelnllzzanus. Actaeon lumculatus,
Avellana amp la, Dentalzum crassulum.
Lamellibranchs .. Aleclryonza dllumana, Spondylus calcara!us, Vola
e Nellhea) multlcostata, ModlDla typlca, Trzgonarca
trichinopolltenszs, Tngonza scabra, Protocrdlum
pondzcherzense, P. hzllanum, Trac/rycardzum znromp-
tum, Cylhaea lJal~rans, Panopea onentatu, Corimya
oldhamzana, Corbula parsura.
Corals Trochosnulta iriffexa, Isastraea morchella.
Ariyalur stage.-Taking its name from Ariyalur
town which is situated on it, this stage is more extensively
developed than the lower ones and consists of grey to light
brown argillaceous sandstone and white sandstone. Fos-
sils occur in the calcareous, somewhat nodular, shaly
rock which forms the lower part of the stage. The upper
part consists of white unfossiliferous sandstones. The
. strata are regularly bedded and appear conformable to the
Trichinopoly,stage, though here and there conglomerates
occur at the base. Moreover, they overlap on to the
Uttattur beds in the north. They are found as detached
----------------------------------------------------------
.undosa (1/3)' 57. Eusplra pagoda (2/3) 5B. Ampullmll bulbifonms (1/2). 59'
Gyrodcl pansus (2{3). 60. Nmta dwaruata (1/2). 61. Grotnana jugosa (1/2)'
'62. Cardlta )aqlJenoh (1/2). 63 Cardium (Trachycardlum) lTu:omptum (1/2). 64.
Protoca,.dtum pondlChtmtnse (1/3)' 65 LuclUa (codakta) percrassa (1/4)' 66. Trigo-
narca galdnna (1/2). 6,. Afacrodon (Grammatodon) Japfhcum (2/3)' 68. Vola
.quznquescostata (1/3)' 6g. Exogyra ostracmo (1/2). 70. Stygmatopygus elatus (r/3)'
'] J. Alectroyoma ungulata (1/4)' 72. Caryophyilla arcotelUu (1/3)' ,]3 C"lohlts
,jilamentosa (1/2).
GEOLOGY OF INDIA AND BURMA. [CItA'P.
outcrops in the Vridhachalam and Pondicherry areas and
in a small patch amidst alluvium a few miles west of-
Tanjore. To the east they are covered by the Cuddalore
sandstones. They have a gentle easterly or north-easterly
dip (averaging 3 to 5 degrees) and attain a thickness of
around 1,000 feet. Though shallow water deposits, they
are not coastal deposits like the Trichinopoly stage.
The fauna of the Ariyalur stage resembles that of the
underlying Trichinopoly stage though many new fossils
appear. There is therefore no faunal break between these
two as is evident between the Uttattur and Trichinopoly
stages. The fauna includes reptiles, fishes, mollusca,
echinoderms\ brachiopods~ corals and bryozoa\ amongst
which gastropods and lamellibranchs are the most
numerous. The more important fossils are:
Reptiles (Dmo- . Meg,llosaurian and Titanosaurian bones.
saurs)
Fishes Otodus cr. semlpllCatus, Oxyrhina sp., Ptychodus
lat,SSimus.
Cephalopods Nauillus bouchardlanus, N. ciementi7lus, N. valudcryu-
rensis, N. tnehwopolltenslS j Schloenbachia btan-
fordlana, Kossmatlceras bhavani, A'. paeifieum, K.
aermlzanum, BacuZ,tes vagina, Sphenodlscus siva,
Desmoceras sugata, Brahmmtes brahma, Parapaclry-
discus otacodensls, P. egertomanus, P. grossouvrel,
Pachydiseu.s crishna, Hauericeras gardeni, H. rembda,
Pu~oSla varuna.
Lamellibranchs ., Alectryoma ungulata, Pholadomya caudlta, Cypnna
CTls/ata, Tr(~oma orientalls, Trzgonarca galdrina,
Macrodon Japetlcum, Toldia striatula, Radiolltes
mutab,izs, Inoceramus haltleus.
Gastropods Pugnellus uncatus, Rostl'llarza palllata, 4laTla tegulata
cypraea ka_vel, Fulgurarza elongata, Volu/obthes,
septemcostata, Neptunea rhomholdalls, Cancellana
hrelJlpllCata, Certtll,um areotense, C. karasurense,
Turritella ponduhemensls, T. dlspassa, T. (Zana)
muitistnata, Eusptra pagoda, Gyrodes pansus,
Helcion corrugatum, Actaeon pugilis.
Echinoderms Stygrnatopygus elatus, Hernlaster cristatus, Eplaster
noblizs, Czdaris sceptrifera.
Corals Cyclolites filamentosa, C. conmdea, StyJina parvula.
Hiniyur stage.-The fossil-bearing beds overlying

the Ariyalur stage are regarded as a separate stage. They
are well exposed around Niniyur (Nanniyur) and Sendurai,
northeas(of Ariyalur. The rocks are grey, brown, ochre-
ous and calcareous sands and shales, in which there are
fragments of flint and chert containing algae. There are
nn ammonites in this stage, but the presence of Nautilus
(Hercoglossa) danicus, and Orbitoldes minor fixes its age as
Danian. The fossils found in the Niniyur stage include:
Cephalopods NautIlus (Hereoglossa) damells,.N (H.) tamullCus
Lam("llibranch~ . Telltna areotensls, Luezna (Codakla) pererassa,Cardlta-
Jaquinoti.
Gastropods Pseudoliva pererassa, Eusplra lzrata, Solanum arcotense,
Lyrza formosa, Tumtella cliel/a.
Corals Caryophyllia arcotensts, Styllna parvula, Thamnas-
traea brevtpes
Protozoa Orbltoldes minOT, O. faujasi.
Algae Dissoeladella saultriae, Indopolza satyauantl, AClCulaTla
dyumatsenae, Parachaetetes asvapat,i, Archaeolttho-
thammum sp., OrlOporelia malaviae.
VRIDDHACHALAM AREA (SOUTH ARCOT).
Beyond the Vellar river, near Vriddhachalam, the

Ariyalur beds emerge out of the alluvium and are over-
lapped on the east by the Cuddalore sandstone. They are
exposed in a strip 15 miles long (N.N.E.-S.S.W.) and
3 to 5 miles wide between the two rivers Manimukta and
Gadilam. The strata are of the same nature as around
Ariyalur and' have yielded Trigonia' semiculta, Neithea
quinquescostata, Pecten verdachellensis, etc.
VALUDAVUR-PONDICHERRY AREA.
Further north, around Valudavur (10 miles W. by N.

of Pondicherry) and in the French territory of Pondicherry ~
the upper stages of th~ Cretaceous are exposed in a stnp
8 miles long (N.N.E.-S.S.W.) and 4 miles broad. A
large part of the area is under cultivation or under water
52
(ponds or tanks). Dr. H. Warth, who investigated this

area in 18g5, distinguished six lithological horizons
designated by letters A to F, but the investigation of the
fossils by Dr. F. Kossmat proved that only three faunal
horizons could be distinguished (see Table 35).
The total thickness of the strata is about goo feet. It
was originally thought that the Uttattur and Ariyalur
stages were present here, but later work by H. Warth
proved that only the Ariyalur and Niniyur stages were
present.
RAJAMAHENDRI (GODAvARI DISTRICT).
In the vicinity of Rajamahendri (Rajahmundry) at

the head of the Godavari delta, the Upper Gondwana rocks
TABLE 35.-CRETACEOUS OF THE PONDICHERRY AREA.
Stage. Beds. /zone. De~cnpllon and fO'Slls.
F yellow, somewh"t >,'ndy iime>tonf"s and ,and, with

<al<areous noduk, The hm!"tone, (ontalll fu( 01(1
..: Nermra brds (asts. wlnle tht' (lV! I lYing sands contalll Caryo/Jhyllra,
~ large gastroplKI, dnd Nau/r/uf
'S Fossils Nault/I)' datlUUJ, N. /amullcus. N. serpmlltllH ,
i Nerlllea sp, Crnlh,um kara.ltlrmSIS, Cm_yophyll,a
arcolrrrsts. ey(/oillf' cOIlOldta. abundant Orbltol,!".
E Sh ..n hme.tone o(curnng as nodules and blocks III
\ m~rly and .andy .trata eye/ollies filamenloJll abun-
dant. Many losslls (ommon to zones D and 1-:.
jTrigOnarCa C_yclollttJ jI/amf/l/o'a. Naulllw sublatl'U!alus, Pstudo-
beds. PhylltttJ tndra. Rrahmallts bmJrma. Bacultlt, l'a/:ma;
Exogyra oslracma, Alectryoma uTl/:ulata, Pholadomya
IUCfflla, CY/Jraea k~)ltl. Turri tell a breaTlhaTla
D. Sandy shales with phosphatrc nodules WhKh often re-
place fO'~lb. Tngo1/(jrca galdrllla chara(ten~tlc ,
Alectryoma uns:ulata. Exo'!yra ostracrna, Tumldla
..
;::J
breall/mil, Nal/a dwanca/a, -Ros/ellana pallia/a, Afacro-
don Japt/lCum
ti G. Loose blocks of fint' gramed calcart'ous rock In .oft
t
-< Valudavur or
marl AnlSoctras common Baculttes vaglTla, Gaudry-
ceras kayel, Pseudophylliits IIldra, Sphmodtseus SIVa,
Amsocrras ParapachydtsClIs menu, P. egertom, Brahmartes brahma,
beds. AT/lJoceras ITldrcum, A mga/um Pholadomya lucerna,
Pharella dellcalu/a : Ros/ellana palilOla, Alhlela purpun-
formts, TumUlla POTldlchemellSl.f, T Warlh" Trochus
arcotmsls Bullllla crtiacea, Dtfllaltum areolmum.
B. ConcretIons III sandy matrix contammg many of the
fossils occurring m Zone C.
A. Wh,tish sands WIth large nodules con taming only
annelId tracks and dendnllc markmgs No other
fossils.
PLATE XXI.
CRETACEOUS AND E\RLY TERTIARY FOS<;ILS.
24
EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXI.

I. i\forgama fusif'orrms ('l/3). 2 Bema)a globus (213) 3 VolulocorblS in.dICa
(213). 4 Cardlta (VellerlCardla) beaumontl (2/3). 5 Dlploconus elegans (2/g)
06 Nautilus blanfordl (I/g) 7. Echmolampas grushachl (1/3). 8. Clypeolatnpas
hellos (1/3). g. Hemlpneustes compressus (1/3). 10 Hemlaster oldhaml (1/2). II.
Ovula expans4 (1/4)' 12 Inoceramus SImplex (I/'l). 13. Pa/udllla lIormallS (2/3),
14. Radlolltes muscltket'!JJi (1/3)' 15 Pugnellus crasSlCO.ltatus (1/2) 16 Nerlla
d' arch!ac! (2Ig). 17. Avellana ampla (2/3). 18. Ph_ysa (Bullmus) pnnseptt (I/g)
19. Lymnoea subulota ('2/'3). 20. NatlCa stoddardl (213) 21. Pseudoltva degallS
(2Ig). 22. Cerllh,um stoddardl (1/2). 23, TumldloJ protlongo ('/3)' 24' Vicarya
(usifoTtnls (2/3). 25. Valvatla mu/tlCarmata (3/ 2 ).
are seen to be superposed by sandstones and limestones-

of a total thickness of 50 feet. The limestones, which form
the upper portion, contain bivalves and gastropods among
which Turritella is very common. The fauna, though not
examined in detail, is thought to be related to that of the
Ariyalur stage. These strata are overlain by the Deccan
Traps.
ASSAM.
Marine Cretaceous rocks occur in the Garo, Khasi and
Jaintia Hills, the beds being dominantly arenaceous, with
occasional shales and carbonaceous material. In the
Garo Hills they rest on a gneissic platform and are com-
posed of sandstones with some coaly layers. In the Khasi
and Jaintia Hills the basal beds are conglomeratic, reach-
ing a thickness of up to 100 feet. The conglomerates are
succeeded by the MAHADEO BED (glauconitic sandstone),
LANG PAR BED (light coloured sandstones containing plant
remains) and the CHERRA SANDSTONE (massive sandstones)
The Cretaceous beds are 600 to 1,000 feet thick near
the edge of the Assam plateau, having gentle dips on the
plateau but plunging steeply down the southern flanks
under the alluvial valley to the south. There are several
isolated but small outcrops on the plateau; they are
interesting as indicating the large original spread of the
Cretaceous rocks on the plateau region.
Fossils have been obtained from the glauconitic
sandstones near Mahadeo and from a locality two miles.
distant from Therria Ghat on the Cherrapunji road.
They include the following:
Echinoderms Echtnoconus douvlllez, Stzgrnatopygus elatus. Hernzas/er.
BrachIopods Rhynchonella depressa, Terebratula carnea.
Lamellibranchs .. Nez thea Jaujasl, Vola propmqua Chlamys cf. dujardini,
Ostrea (Alectryoma) areotensls, O. (Aleetryoma)
angulata, Gryphaea viSlculans.
Gastropods Helclon corrugatum, Nerita dwaricata, .Natlea (Lunatla),
larteti, Turritella pondiehemensis, T. multistriata,.
Gyrodes pansus, Campanile tumtelloides, Aporrhazs

tegulata, Rostel/ana paillata, Cypraea, cf. globulma,
Lyrta craSSlcostata.
Cephalopods Nautt/us baluchlstanensis, Baculttes vagina, PUZOSIQ
planulatus, Stollczkata dlspar, Anzsoceras zndicum.
The Assam fauna is very closely related to that of the

Trichinopoly Cretaceous, especially the Ariyalur stage.
According to E. Spengler, it is of Senonian age. Very
similar fauna is found in Natal in South Africa and all the
three apparently lived in one zoo-geographical province
-the Indo-Pacific. As already mentioned, these faunas
have only a small degree of resemblance to the Bagh
fauna which latter is related to the Baluchistan-Arabian
(Mediterranean) Cretaceous fauna. A fairly effective
barrier, the Indo-African Gondwana continent, existed,
which prevented the free intermingling of the two faunal
groups.
The occurrence of Cretaceous rocks in other parts of .
Assam has not been definitely established. It is however
probable that the lower part of the Disang series is of this
age. Some limestones found around Akral in Manipur
may possibly belong to the Cretaceous. No cretaceous
rocks have so far been found in the little-explored 8ub-
Himalayan region of Assam.
BURMA.
In the VICInIty of Kalaw in Southern Shan States

there are 80ft friable purple sandstones, known as the
, Red Beds', o~erlying the Loi-An series. They contain
Turrilites and Baculites which indicate an Upper Cretaceous
age. In Upper Burma, Cretaceous rocks are known to
exist in the Jade mines tract, in the region of the first defile
of the Irrawaddy between Sinbo and Bhamo, and in the
second defile in the Bhamo district. The rocks are mostly
limestones and calcareous shales containing Orbitolina and
other foraminifera and molluscan shells.
GEOLOGY OF INDIA AND BURMA. [CSAP.
ARAKAN Y OMA BELT.
A wide belt of Cretaceous and Eocene rocks stretches

from Assam-Burma border west of the upper reaches of
the Chindwin river, along the mountainous tracts of the
Arakan Y oma down to Cape N egrais. OUf knowledge
of this belt is fragmentary, since much of the area is
covered by mountains and forests difficult of access.
In the Sandoway district of the Arakan coast there
are some argillaceous limestones of creamy colour near
Mai-i, from which Schloenbachia i71jlata, a Cenomanian fossil~
has been obtained. In the Ramri island near the coast
of this region an ammonite identified as Acanthoceras
dauiesi W.:1.S found, which, according to G de P. Cotter
(Rec. 66, p. 255, 1932) belongs to the AcantllOceras coleroon-
ensis group which is chara<:teristic of the U ttattur stage
of Trichinopoly Cretaceous.
The foothills of the Arakan Y oma in the Thayetmyo
district have yielded Cardita beaumonti, Orbitoides and some
lamellibranchs. The rocks of the Yoma in Arakan are
known to contain Placenticeras and Mortoniceras.
The NEGRAIS SERIES, consisting of grey sandstones,
shales and limestones, occurring on the flanks of the Yoma
north of the Cape N egrais, and extending to the Prome
District, is considered to be of Cretaceous age. I t is
intruded by peridotites and serpentines.
The Upper Axial group contains Cardita beaumonti
and other lamellibranchs and gastropods and is therefore
of Cretaceous age in part.
IGNEOUS ROCKS IN THE CRETACEOUS.
Reference has already been made to the presence, in

parts of India, of igneous rocks in close association with
Cretaceous formations. They comprise acid, basic and
ultrabasic types both in the intrusive and extrusive phases.
They occur in the northern zones of the Himalaya, in

Kashmir, Baluchistan, Burma and in the Peninsula, the
last being the Deccan trap which is dealt with in the next
chapter.
Volcanic breccias and lavas of basaltic and andesitic
composition are intimately associated with the 'exotic
blocks' of Johar, Bhalchdhura and their neighbourhood
in Kumaon. They are considered to be of late Cretaceous
or early Eocene age. In the Burzil-Dras region of Kashmir
marine Cretaceous limestones are seen. in association with
basic lava flows, ash-b,>ds and agglomerates, and also with
intrusive hornblende-granite, porphyry, gabbro and ser-
pentinised ultrabasics. The volcanics have a bedded
charactt:T and are intercalated with the Cretaceous
Orbitolwa-bearing limestones and shales which have un-
dergone folding. They occupy a large area in the Burzil
valley and have a thickness amounting to a few thousand
feet.
The sediments and volcanics have been invaded by
bosses and veins of hornblende-granite and serpentine
which are therefore slightly younger than the volcanic
rocks. The hornblende-granite of this region, which
appears to be identical with similar granite in other parts
of the Himalaya, is therefore of post-Cretaceous, probably
early Eocene age.
Pyroclastics, lava flows of basaltic composition and
intrusive masses of serpentine are found in association with
the Cretaceous of Baluchistan. The serpentines of the
Zhob-Quetta atea contain workable deposits of chromite.
Late Cretaceous or early EoceIle igneous activity is
known in the Arakan-Andaman belt. The rocks are
intrusive into the Axials or early Eocene beds and comprise
peridotites and serpentines which con~ain c~1fOl'~ite in
places. Gabbro, serpentines and enstatIte-perIdotItes co-
ver large areas in the Andaman ~nd ~icobar islands
and also in Sumatra and Java whlch he on the same
tectonic belt. At the northern end of Burma, in the
Kamaing sub-division of Myitkyina district, there occur
numerous outcrops of serpentinised peridotites, dunites,
pyroxenites and amphibolites amidst crystalline schists.
They contain masses of chromite and jadeite, the latter
being commercially exploited. The deposits of jadeite
'occur at Tawmaw, Meinmaw, Pangmaw and other
places.
Blanford, H.F., Cretaceous and other rocks of the S. Arcot and
Trichinopoly dIstrIcts. Mem. 4, 1862.
Blanford, W.T. Geology of the Taptee and Lower Nerbudda valleys.
Mem. 6, Pt. 3, 1869 (Bagh beds, p, 45-57).
Clegg, E. L. G. The Cretaceous and associated rocks of Burma.
Mem. 74, Pt. I, 194 1
Davies, L. M. et al. Fossil fauna of the Samana Range. Pal. Ind.
N. S. XV, (1-5), 1930 .
Douville, H. Les couches a Cardita beaumonti. Pal Ind. N. S. x.,
(3), 19 28 - 2 9.
Forbes, E. Report on the fossil invertebrates from South India col-
lected by Kaye and Cunliffe. Trans. Geol. Soc. London, 2nd Ser.
Vol. VII, Art. 5, 97-174, 1845.
<Gupta, B.C. and Mukherjee, P.N. Geology of Gujarat and Southern
Rajputana. Rec. 73, 164- 20 5, 193 8.
Hayden, H.H. Geology of the Provmces of Tsang and U in Tibet.
Mem.:I5, Pt. 2, 190 7.
Huene, F. von, and Matley, C.A. The Cretaceous Saurischia and
Ormthischla of the Central Provmces. Pal. Ind. N. S. XXI, (1),
1933
Kossmat, F. Importance of the Cretaceous rocks of S. India in
eshmatmg the geographical conditions during later Cretaceous
times. Ret. 28, 39-54, 1895.
Kossmat, F. Cretaceous deposits of Pondicherry. Rec. JO 51-110,
1897.
Kossmat, F. DIe Bedeutung der Sud-Indische Kreide-FormatIOn.
J. B. K. K. Geol. Reichanstalt, Wien, 44, (3), 459, 478, 1894.
Kossmat, F. Untersuchungen uber die Sud-Indische Kreide
Formation. Beltr. z. Pal. Geol. Oster.-Ungarns. IX, 97-203. 1895 ;
XI, 1-46, 89-152, I 898.
Matley, C.A. The Cretaceous Dinosaurs of the Trichinopoly dis-

triCt. Rec. 6r, 337-349, 1929.
Matley, CA. Stratigraphy, fossils, and geological relationship of the
Lameta beds of Jubbulporc. Rec.53, 142-164, 1921.
Noethng, F. Fauna of Upper Cretaceom beds of Mari hills. Pal. Ind.
SeT. XVI, Vol. I, (2), 1897.
Rao, L.R. and Pia, J. Fossil Algae from the Nimyur group of the
Tnchinopoly district. Pal Ind N. S. XXI, (4), 193 6 .
Spengler, E. Contributions to the palreontology of Assam. Pal. bid.
N. S. VIII, (I), 1923.
Spitz, A. Lower Cretaceous fauna of the Himalayan Giumal sandstone.
Rec. 44, 197- 21 7, 19'4
Stohczka, F. Cretaceous fauna of S. India. Pal. Ind. SeT. I, Ill,
Vol I; SeT V, Vol. II; SeT. VI, Vol. III; SeT. VIII, Vol. IV ;
1861-73
Wadia, D.N. Cretaceous volcanics of Astor-Deosai, Kashmir. Rec.
72, 15 1- 161 , 1937
Warth, H. Cretaceous formation ofPondicherry. Rec.28, 15-21, 1895.
Vredenburg, E. GeologyofSarawan,.Jhalawan, Mekran, etc Rec38 ,
189-215, 19 10 .
CHAPTER XV.
THE DECCAN TRAPS.
GENERAL.
The close of the Mesozoic era was marked by the

outpouring of enormous lava flows which spread over vast
areas of Western and Central India. They issued from
long narrow fissures or cracks in the earth's crust and
tapped a large magma basin and are therefore called
fissure eruptions. The lavas spread out far and wide in
nearly horizontal sheets, the earliest flows filling up the
irregularities of the then topography. They were erupted
subaerially, for there are no evidences of sub-aqueous
deposition. In recent years a few places have been record-
ed in Western India-e.g., Pavagad hill, Girnar hill and
the neighbourhood of Bombay-where the eruptions were
of the' Central' type, accompanied by differentiates of
varying characters. Because of their tendency to form
flat-topped plateau-like features and their dominantly
basaltic composition, the lavas are called plateau basalts.
Such flows are called traps because of their step-like or
terraced appearance, the term being of Scandinavian
origin.
DISTRIBUTION AND EXTENT.
The area now occupied by the Deccan Traps is about

200,000 square miles, including Bombay, Kathiawar,
Cutch, Central Provinces, Central India and parts of the
Deccan. They are found as far as Belgaum in the south,
Rajahmundry* in the south-east, Amarkantak, Sirguja
and Jashpur in the east and Cutch in the north west.
Rocks of the same age and characters found in Sind are
.RaJamahendn, a contractlOlI of RaJarnahendravaram, is the correct spellmg,
which has however been muuJated to the present RaJahmundry The former spel-
ling will be found in Oldham's MlInu,,1
XV] THE DECCAN TRAPS.
als~ considered to belong to them. The present distri-

butlOn shows that the traps may have occupied some of
the areas interven:ng between the main mass and the
outlying patches, but removed by erosion, and that the
original extent may well have been half a million square
miles. They are thus the most extensive geological for-
mation of Peninsular India with the exception of the
metamorphic and igneous complex of Archaean age.
The traps have been divided into three groups-
Upper, Middle and Lower, with the Infra-trappean beds
or Lametas at their base.
Upper haps Bombay and Kathlawar ; wlth numerous mter-
(1,500 ft thick) trappeaTl beds and layers of volcamc ash.
MIddle traps Central India and Malwa; with numerous
(4,000 ft.) ash-beds in the upper porhon and practically
devoid of mter-trappeans.
L'>wer traps Central Provinces and eastern areas; intu-
(500 ft ) trappean beds, but rare ash-beds.
STRUCTURAL FEATURES
. The trap country is characterised by flat-topped hills

and step-like terraces. This topography is a result of the
variation in hardness of the different flows and of parts
of the flows, the hard portions forming the tops of the
terraces and plateaux. In the amygdular flows the top is
usually highly vesicular, the middle fairly compact and the
bottom showing cylindrical pipes filled with secondary
minerals; while in the ordinary flows the top is fine-
grained and the lower portion coarser with sometimes a
concentration of basic minerals like pyroxene and olivine.
Vesicular and hon-vesicular flows may alternate with each
other, or the flows may be separated by thin beds of
volcanic ash.or scoriae and by lacustrine sediments known
as Inter-trappean beds.
Ash beds are particularly well seen in the upper part
of the traps, for instance around Bombay, Poona and in the
Western Ghats. They usually reveal a brecciated struc-
ture, fragments of the trap being found in a matrix of
dusty or fine-grained material. Columnar jointing in the
GEOLOGY OF INDIA AND BURMA. [CHAr. -
traps may be seen in a few places, for instance in the
Sal sette Island, near Hoshangabad and in some places in
Malwa.
The traps attain their maximum thickness near the
Bombay coast where they are estimated to be well over
- 7,000 feet thick (Manual, Second edition, p. 272). They
are very much less thick further east; at Amarkantak and
in Sirguja they are about 500 feet thick, while near
Belgaum they are only about 200 feet.
The individual flows vary greatly in thickness, from
a few feet to as much as 120 feet. A borehole at Bhusa wal,
1,2 I 7 feet deep, revealed 29 flows, the average thick-
ness being 40 feet. In the Chhindwara district of the
Central Provinces, IS flows have been identified with an
average thickness of 70 feet. In the Sausar tahsil of the
same district, the average for 7 flows has been found to
be about 55 feet.
The flows have a great superficial extent in com-
parison with their thickness. Individual flows have been
traced for distances of 60 miles and more, as for example
between Chhindwara and Nagpur. This extraordinary
spread is explained by Fermor as due to a high degree of
super-heat in the erupted mass which is believed to have
been derived from the basaltic or eclogitic shell of the
earth, the heat being due probably to exothermic mineral
transformations.
The Deccan traps occasionally show gentle dips as in
the vicinity of Bombay. They are known to exhibit slight
undulation and folding in the Satpura region of the
Central Provinces which are believed to be due to slight
disturbances subsequent to their formation .. They have
also been affected by faulting of post-trappean age-e.g.,
several faults in the Sausar tract and also the Ellichpur
fault at the southern foot of the Gawilgarh hills in Berar.
DYKES AND SILLS.
Dykes and sills of trap are noted in regions where the

Deccan trap formation is quite thin, especially in the
peripheral region. A large number occur in the Satpura

area of th~ Central Provinces, the sills being particularly
abundant III the Upper Gondwanas. In Ctltch numerous
dykes and sills have been observed cutting into the Jurassic
strata. Similar features are observed in the Gondwana
basin of Rewa, in Rajpipla State near Broach, in the Gir
Forest of Kathiawar and in Southern Bombay. The sills
are composed of fairly coarse grained and porphyritic
dolerite. The dykes are often of a composite nature,
containing both dolerites and basalts, the former some-
times porphyritic. The dykes are to be regarded as
feeders for the trap flows and they should be expected to
be present also underneath the main mass of traps. In
general, the dykes and sills show no great regularity in
direction, thickness or size, but some of them are many
miles long and several hundred feet thick.
PETROLOGICAL CHARACTERS.
The Deccan traps belong to the type called plateau

ba~S~ J'Vashington. They are extraordinarily ---
uniform in composition over much the greater part of the
area and correspond-to dolerite or basalt, with an average
specific gravity of 2.9. They are dark-grey to dark-
greenish grey, but brownish to purplish tints are also met
with. The more acidic typ~DO!lnd near Bombay and
S~ette haye _a buff to creamy colour. The non-ve~_1.l1ar
types are hard, tough, compa'Zt and medium to fine-grained
and break with a conchoidal fracture. The vesicular
types are comparatively soft and break more easily.
As already remarked, the traps are dominantly basic
in character, but tachylite or basalt-glass is distinctly rare
and may be found only as a thin selvage where the hot
lava encountered a cold surface and suddenly became
chilled thereby. In parts of B<1,.mbay. Katbiawar and
Cutch, however, the traps are associated with aciel,
intermediate and ultrabasic rock type~_ derived through
differentiation ~f the ongmal magma.
4~2 GEOLOGY OF INDIA AND BURMA. [CHAP,
In the Girnar and Osham hills of Junagarh State

(Kathiawar) there are, besides the usual dolerite and
bas<llt, lamprophyre, li,mburgite, monchiquite, olivine-
gabbro, porphyrite, andesite, monzonite, nepheline-syenite
granophyre, rhyolite, obsidian and pitchstone, studied and
described by M.S. Krishnan. K.K. Mathur and others
who mapped the Girnar hills have expressed the
opinion that the basaltic flows of this area were domed
up by later intrusives which represent the result of differen-
tiation through progressive crystallisation. In the Gir For-
est of Kathiawar also there occur dykes of olivine-dolerite
and masses of granophyre and rhyolite. The coastal
region of Bombay has been shown to contain a large
variety of types-rhyolite, granophyre, trachyte, andesite,
ankaramite and oceanite, the acid types being considered
to belong to a late phase of igneous activity. From the
Pavagad hill in Gujarat, Fermor has described pumice,
pitchstone, rhyolite, felsite, quartz-andesite, etc. The
rhyolite which caps the hill is considered by Fermor and
Heron to be a flow and not a plug-like intrusion as advocat-
ed by Mathur and Dubey. (Rec. 68, 17, 1934). Acid
rocks also occur in the Narbada valley and in the Por-
ban dar State. In parts of Kathiawar where borings
have been put down through the traps, very basic types
like limburgite and ankaramite are found inter-bedded
with normal dolerites and basalts. Investigation of the
phenocrysts in the very basic types, by W.D. West, has
revealed that they correspond in composition to that of
the rocks in which they occur, leading to the view that the
phenocrysts are not due to crystal settling but are essential
parts of the lavas which had already been differentiated
at the time of intrusion.
The ultra-basic types seem to be more or less restricted
to the western edge of the trap country in Bombay and
Kathiawar as dykes, while the acid types are found mainly
along two zones, one running from Pavagad hill to Bombay
,eV] THE DECCAN TRAPS.
and the other from the Narbada valley to Porbandar State

in Kathiawar.
It is of interest to note here that the traps at Worli
Hill, Bombay Island, are associated with bituminous
matter, whose presence in cavities is explained by Dr.
C.S. Fox as due to the distillation, by the heat of the traps,
of the organic matter present in the associated sedimentary
heds.
PETROGRAPHY.
The common type of trap is composed of abundant

labradorite of the composition AbJ An2, and enstatite-
augite (pigeonite), the two forming the bulk of the rock.
The enstatite-augite is aiway~ abundant in the holocrystal-
line types, its amount decreasing with increase in the
content of interstitial glass. It is usually greenish or
brownish grey in colour in hand-specimens but practically
colourless in thin section. In composition it approximates
to a mixture of equal amounts of diopside and hypersthene,
thus differing considerably from common augite. The
most important character of this mineral is its small optic
angle, 2 V measuring up to 300 in the plane of symmetry.
Ophitic texture is common, the labradorite laths
lying in a mass of more or less anhedral enstatite- augite.
The labradorite is almost always the earlier mineral to
crystallise, though contemporaneous crystallisation of
the two may have taken place to some extent.
The roc,ks often show phenocrysts of felspar in the
doleritic types and interstitial glassy matter in the basaltic
types. The proportion of the glassy matter varies a good
deal. The glass is often highly corroded and contains
abundant dust-like inclusions which are presumably
magnetite. The glass is liable to alteration into palagonite,
chlorophaeite, celadonite and delessite. Since the augite
and magnetite bear an inverse relationship to the glass in
thin section, it is obvious that these two minerals are
together represented in the glass.
GEOLOGY OF INDIA AND BURMA. [CHA".
Magnetite is quite a common, though a rather minor,
constituent. It occurs usually as discrete grains amidst the
other minerals, and as grains, dust and skeletal growths
in the glassy groundmass. Some ilmenite and leucoxene
are practically always present which is confirmed by the
appreciable amount of titanium shown by the analyses,
though of course titanium may be present in the augite also.
In some varieties a fair amount of olivine is present
but biotite and hornblende are generally absent from
normal types. Quartz is rare or absent, but there is
generally an excess of silica in the norm calculated according
to the rules of chemical classification devised by Clarke,
Iddings, Pirsson and Washington (C.r.P.W.). Sodic
plagioclase and orthoclase are absent, but interstitial
granophyric or micrographic patches are fairly frequently
seen.
Investigation by Sir Lewis Fermor of the flows en-
countered in the boring at Bhusawal showed that olivine,
and to some extent labradorite, had settled down to the
bottom of the flows, apparently through gravitative set-
tling. In the Satpura region of Jubbulpore-Chhindwara,
thick sills often show the phenomenon of crystal settling,
the lower portions being coarse and holocrystalline and
the upper portions finely crystalline and containing quartz
and micro-pegmatite. A dyke in this region, which is over
8 miles long, consists of porphyrite containing oligoclase,
enstatite-augite, hornblende, quartz and micro-pegmatite.
There are, however, other areas where there is no evidence
of crystal settling even in thick flows, as mentioned on a
preVIOUS page.
Secondary minerals are often developed in the traps
either as fillings in the amygdular cavities or as products of
alteration and replacement.
The minerals of late hydrothermal activity are the
zeolites-stilbite, apophyllite, heulandite, thomsonite, cha-
bazite, scolecite, ptilolite, natrolite, laumontite, analcite
and prehnite-calcite, chalcedony and its varieties (agate,
jasper, carnelian, chrysoprase, heliotrope, onyx, etc.),

opal and sometimes quartz and amethyst crystals in drusy
cavities. These minerals are generally found in amygdular
cavities which may be lined with chlorophaeite and deles-
site. Amongst the zeolites, radiating and sheaf-like aggre-
gates of stilbite are the most common, though prismatic
crystals also occur. Next in importance are apophyllite,
h<"ulandite, laumontite and scolecite, excellent crystals of
which are not infrequently found. The alteration pro-
ducts are chlorophaeite, palagonite, delessite, celadonite,
iudingsitc and serpentine, the last two formed from olivine.
Several of these are collectively spoken of as " green earth,"
which is sometimes used as a pigment material.
CHEMICAL CHARACTERS.
As might be expected from the uniformity in minera-
logical composition, the chemical composition of the traps
also tends to be uniform. Table 36 gives an idea of the
average chemical composition of the traps.
The plateau basalts (of the fissure eruption type)
when compared with the noraml cone basalts (central
eruption type) show a higher iron and titanium content,
the iron being dominantly in the ferrous state. Magnesia
and the alkalies are also lower. This finds mineralogical
expression in the presence, in plateau basalts, of enstatite-
augite instead of the diopsidic augite of cone basalts.
The study of the trap flows (Lower traps) of Linga,
Central Provinces, by Sir Lewis Fermor reveals the fact
that, though tpe analyses are extraordinarily close to each
other, there is, in the normative values, a small but distinct
progressive change from below upwards-i.e., decrease in
quartz, total iron, total water and an increase in alkali
felspars, total felspars and pyroxenes. The same features
are also discernible in Washington's analyses as grouped
by Fermor into Lower traps and Upper traps.
ALTERATION AND WEATHERING OF THE TRAPS.
The traps weather with characteristic spheroidal ex-
foliation which gives rise to large rounded boulders on the
54
GEOLOGY OF INDIA AND BURMA. [CHAP"
TABLE 36.--CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE DECCAN

TRAPS.
All traps. Lower traps. Upper traps.
----------~----------------------------~------.--
Mean II Mean 4 M!"an 4 Mean 3
anal. anal. anal. anal
(H.S.W.) (H.S.W) Lmga trap' (HSW)
(L LF)
SIO.
TIO
.. 50 .61 495 1 4928 5 169
1.9 1 234 3 23 0.63
A II da 1358 13 05 116 9 1472
FelO a 3. 19 3 06 3 O~ 28 3
FeD 99 2 1039 11.5 108 7
MnO .. 0.16 022 02 3 011
MgO 5.46 571 496 4. 18
CaO 1018 10 49 8 :;zo
N a,O ~.~ 225 25 1 3 25
K ,0 .. 07 2 05 1 068 093
o. go
H,O+ I 70 19Q I 201
H,O- .. 043 032 3 058
P,O. .. 039 037 03 1 0.4 2
____T_0_t_al__~___I_OO_._12__~__~99~Q~0__~___
10~0~3~1__~___I_~_4~
Sp ~r. '296 '2 '17 29 1
NORMS.
Qu-;;:-tz--- 414 4 68 3 60 '240

Orthoc lese .. 445 278 3 89 5.56
Alhltf' 22.(11 1886 20 9 6 27 25
Anorth Ite 23.07 24. 19 18.go 22.80
Dlopsld e 1741 1970 2628 12.84
HVPt'fS thene .. 17.78 17 65 1320 20 57
Ohvme - - - -
Magne tite 4 64 441 r~'41 418
Ilmeni te .. 3. 65 4.4 1 .08 1.22
ApatIte 101 o Q1 062 ~9_3_ _
outcrops. The weathering starts along the well-developed

joints, first rounding off the angles and corners and then
producing thin concentric shells or layers which become
soft and fall off gradually. The interiors of the spheroidal
masses, are however, quite fresh.
The traps give rise to either a deep brown to richred
soil or to regur (black cotton soil) which can be seen in
many parts of the Deccan. The regur is rich in plant nutri-
ents such as lime, magnesia, iron and alkalies, on which cot-
ton and certain of the ' dry' crops flourish. It has the
property of swelling greatly and becoming very sticky when
wetted by rain; on drying it contracts again with the

production of numerous cracks. Another product of
weathering is laterite, a material from which silica, alkalies
and alkaline earths have been leached away, while alumina,
iron and manganese have been concentrated. It has a
vermicular or pisolitic structure and contains much water.
Some of the laterite is highly aluminous, when it becomes
bauxite. Laterite plateaux capping the traps are present
in Bombay and Central Provinces, some of these contain-
ing good deposits of high grade bauxite.
THE LAMETA BEDS.
The Lameta beds, named after the Lameta Ghat near
J ubbulpore in Central Provinces, are fluviatile or estuarine
beds occurring below the traps at about the same horizon
or slightly above that of the Bagh beds of the Narbada
valley. They are found to rest on the various older
formations such as the Archaeans, the Upper Gondwanas
or the Bagh beds.
They are fairly extensively developed though not
found everywhere underneath the traps. They usually
occur as a narrow fringe around the trap country, par-
ticularly in the Central Provinces (e.g., around Nagpur
and ]ubbulpore), and along the Godavari valley up to
Bhopal and Indore and in the western part of the N arbada
valley. The chief rock types found in them are limestones,
with subordinate sandstones and clays. The limestones
are generally arenaceous and gritty, though occasionally
pure, but a <;herty type containing lumps of chert and
jasper may be said to be characteristic. Earthy greenish
sandstones are common, after the limestones, while clays
which are usually sandy and red or green in colour are also
found. The Lameta beds vary in thickness from ~o to
100 feet, the individual beds frequently varying in character
when followed horizontally or vertically.
In the type area at Lameta Ghat the following section
can be made out, though all the members are not present
in the same individual section.
4 Sandstone sImilar to No. I, contaming bands of flint or
thin lImt'stone. The sandstone may occasionally be composed of
grains of glassy quartz WIth a white powdery cementmg medIUm.
3. Pale green or purplish mudstone, oftrn finrly laminatrd,
sometimes arenaceous or calcareous.
2. Limt"stone or indurated marl often earthy and dr,\h to bluish
in colour. Has a tufaceous appearance because of veinhkt' cavIties
which may hI' filled with thalcedony or calcium carbonat!' by infiltra-
tion, this marly hme-stone being the characteristic member.
1. Greenish, not very compact, sandstone, sometimes hard .1Ild
cherty. These are brownish near Jubbulpore.
In some cases the rock underlying the Deccan traps
has be~ found to be calcified by solutions descending
down from the traps, the original rocks being Archaean
gneisses and schists. Such altered rocks, though resembling
the Lametas, are not strictly to be classed with them.
The true Lametas can often be differentiated from them
by the occurrence of fragmentary fossil remains.
The Lametas only rarely contain good determinable
fossils, though often showing small fragmentary remains.
They comprise mollusca, fishes and dinosaurian reptiles.
Mol/urea Melanza, Physa (Bullmus), Paludlna and Corbleula.
flrhes Ltpidosleus, Eoserranur, Pycnodus.
Dinosaurs Antarctosaurus septentnonails, Tltanosaurus tnd,eus,
Indosaurus matl~YI, LamelasauruJ IfIdICUS, Jubhul-
porta tenuls, Laplatasaurus madagascariensis.
The Dinosaurian remains have been found mainly at
Jubbulpore and at Pisdura 8 miles north of Warora in
Central Provinces. Coprolites are also found in these
places. Physa (Bullinus) prinsepii is associated with these
reptilian remains at Pisdura, while the other mollusca have
been found in a bed at the base of the traps at Nagpur
and Ellichpur. According to Von Ruene, the age indi-
cated by the Dinosaurs found at Jubbulpore and Pisdura,
which are allied to forms recorded from Madagascar,
Brazil and Patagonia, is Turonian.
INFRA-TRAPPEAN BEDS.
Allied to the Lametas are the beds occurring below

the traps in the Rajahmundry area, and called the Infra-
trappeans. They occur only on the right bank of the

Godavari river. At Dudukuru, a few miles N. W. of
Rajahrnundry, they are composed of yellowish, whitish
and greenish sandstones overlying the Upper Gondwanas.
They are about 50 feet thick, the upper portion being
calcareous and containing a fossiliferous limestone, of I to
2 feet thickness, at the top. The fauna has undoubtedly
a marine aspect and comprises a nautilus, several lamelli-
branchs and gastropods, the latter including a Turritella
which seems to be identical with T. dispassa of the Ariyalur
Stage of the Trichinopoly Cretaceous.
There seems to be a slight unconformity between the
Infra-trappeans and the basaJ basaJt flow since the former
appear to have been partially denuded before the traps
were erupted, and since the upper portion of the fossili-
ferous bed is occasionally wanting. The Infra-trappeans
do not contain, so far as known at present, fossils identical
with any in the Bagh beds or the Trichinopoly Cretaceous
except the Turritella mentioned above. There is, more-
over, an absence of any characteristic genera. Oldham
states that on the whole the Infra-trappeans have perhaps
more affinity with the Cretaceous than with the Ter-
tiary. Recently H. C. Das-Gupta claimed to have
found Cardita (Venericardia) beaumonti from the Dudkur
(Dudukuru) beds, which also supports this view.
INTER-TRAPPEAN BEDS.
During the considerable intervals of time which

elapsed between successive eruptions of lava, there came
into existence some rivers and fresh water lakes in the
depressions and in places where there was obstruction to
drainage. The fluviatile and lacustrine deposits formed in
them are intercalated with the lava flows, and are of small
horizontal extent and generally 2 to 10 feet thick, though
occasionally only 6 inches thick. They contain, in several
places, animal and plant remains which should prove to be
valuable in the determination of the age of these beds and
GEOLOGY OF INDIA AND BURMA. [CHAP."
incidentally of the associated traps. They comprise cherts,

impure limestones and pyroclastic materials, and have
been recorded from the Godavari, Chhindwara, Nagpur
and Jubbulpore districts and parts of Bombay.
The traps of the ,RajahmundfY area appear on either
bank of the Godavari river, with a length of some 35 miles
in an E.N.E.-W.S.W. direction, and a thickness varying
from 100 to 200 feet. Exposures are found at Kateru on
the Rajahmundry side of the river, resting on Archaean
rocks, and on the other side (right bank) near Pangadi and
Dudukuru, resting often on the Upper Gondwanas. The
traps are overlain by the R~jahmundry sandstones
(Cuddalore sandstones) aU the forttlations having a general
gentle dip towards the south or south-east.
The lower flow of trap is about 50 fect thick. It is
overlaid by a fossiliferous bed which is 12 to 14 feet thick
near ~ateru and only 2 to 4 feet thick near Pangadi. The
fossiliferous bed is exposed for about half a mile near
Kateru and for over 10 miles on the other side of the river.
The fauna is unmistakably estuarine and comprises
Cerithium, Potamides, Pirenella, Cytherea, etc., some of the
characteristic species being Corbicuia ingens, Cerithium
stoddardi, C. ieithi, Cytherea meretrix, Physa (Bullinus) prinsepii,
Paludma normalis and Lymnaea subulata. There are no
corals, cephalopods or echinoderms to indicate any
marine affinities. The fauna is said to have more affinity
with the South Indian Cretaceous than with the Eocene,
though no cases of identical fossils have yet been established.
Fossil algae found in these beds have been studied by
S.R. Narayana Rao and K. Sripada Rao. They state
that some of these, like Neomeris and Acicularia, and the
Charophyta are Tertiary in age ~nd that therefore the
associated traps are at least early Eocene in age.
The inter-trappean beds of Bombay are high up in the
Upper Traps, excellent sections of which can be seen on the
Malabar hill and Worli hill at Bombay. Here they are
about 100 feet thick and consist of brown, grey or dark
XV] THE DECCAN TRAPS. 43 1
shales the last being carbonaceous and showing plant
impressions a.nd remains of frogs with occasional pockets
of bitumen and coaly material. They contain also the
fresh water tortoise Hydraspis (Platemys) leithi, the frog
Rana pusilla (""7: Indobatrachus pusillus) and three species of
Cyprides (Crustacea) the common one being Cypris sub-
marginata.
The Inter-trappeans and Infra-trappeans occur also
in some parts of the Central Provinces, where in Chhind-
wara they have yielded plant remains, among which are
palms with distinct Eocene affinities. In Berar and the
Narbada valley the beds are found 300 to 500 feet above
the base of the traps and contain plant and animal fossils
in some places.
AGE OF THE DECCAN TRAPS.
In the previous sections are stated the facts which

should enable us to gain an idea of the age of the Inter-
trappeans and of the associated traps. At Dudukuru, the
traps are underlain by the Infra-trappeans containing
gastropods, lamellibranchs and a nautilus. The fossils,
though not identical with any found in the Trichinopoly
Cretaceous beds, seem to indicate some general affinities
with them. Recent work here has revealed the presence of
several algae including Holosporella, Dissocladella, Neomeris,
Torquemella, and Aciculana, the last of which has not been
recorded from any beds older than the Paleocene. Several
foraminifera have also been recorded- Tritoculina, Nodo-
saria, Textularia, Sphtroidinella, Nonwn, Globotruncana.
In the Narbada valley the Traps are underlain by the
Bagh beds of Upper Cretaceous age, possibly in part
equivalent to the Lametas. Between the traps and the
Bagh beds there is a slight but distinct unconformity.
In Surat and Broach there is said to be a distinct break
between the top of the traps and the Nummulitic strata,
for the basal Eocene contains materials derived from the
denudation of the traps. In Cutch the traps overlie
unconformably the Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous beds
and are overlain by the Nummulitics. Here also there
seems to be an unconformity between the traps and the
N ummulitics though this is not very clear.
In Sind, the Bor hill near Ranikot shows a bed of
calcareous, gritty to conglomeratic, sandstone overlying
the Hippuritic limestone (Upper Cretaceous), in which
occurs an inter-stratified bed of basalt 40 feet thick, some
350 to 400 feet above the base of the sandstone. This
sandstone is overlaid by olive shales and sandstones, the
latter containing some volcanic ash or decomposed frag-
ments of basalt. Cardita (Venericardia) beaumonti occurs
in several horizons in the olive shale, but especially ab-
undantly in a bed 200 to 250 feet below the top of the
series. In addition to some corals, echinoids and gastro-
pods, Nautilus bouchardianus, (which occurs in the Ariyalur-
beds of the Trichinopoly district), is also to be found here.
The faunal assemblage indicates an age between the U p-
per Cretaceous and Lower Eocene.
The Cardita beaumonti bed is overlain by another
bed or flow of basalt, the thickness of strata separating this
and the lower flow being about 600 feet. The upper one
is much more extensive than the lower and has been traced
for 22 miles from Ranikot to J akhmari, at the base of the
Ranikot beds. This upper flow (lying on the Cardita
beaumonti bed) has a thickness varying from 40 to 90 feet,
but is itself composed of two individual flows each of which
is vesicular at the top. There is no doubt, according to
R.D. Oldham, that the basalt is a flow and not an intrusive
(Manual, Second edition, p. 289), and it is conformable
both to the underlying Cardita beaumonti beds and the
overlying Ranikot beds. Though separated by a good
distance from the main Deccan trap areas, these trap beds
in Sind are considered to belong to the Deccan traps.
Recent work on the Inter-trappean fossils, especially
by Prof. B Sahni and collaborators, seems to lend support
to a Lower Eocene age for the beds from which the fossils
XV] THE DECCAN TRAPS. 433
were derived. The chief points in the evidence are:
There is a large proportion of palms (Palmoxylon predomi-
nating) amongst the angiospermous flora; the palms are
said to be much more abundant here than in any Creta-
ceous flora so far studied. The genus Azolla found in these
beds has not been recorded from any beds earlier in age
than the Tertiary. Nipadttes, a characteristic Eocene
genus, occurs in the Intcr-trappeans.
Smith Woodwclrd's work on the fish remains from the
Lametas has shown that perhaps they are more allied to
Eocene than to Cretaceous forms. Dr. S. L. Hora who
studied the fossil fishes found at Takli, Paharsingha and
other places in the Central Provinces, has identified
Lepidosteus indicus, Pycnodus lometae, Eoserranus hislopi, Nandus,
Pristolepis, Scleropages and some percoid fishes, from which
he favours a Lower Eocene age for the lavas associated
with the Intertrappeans.
The fact still remains that much of the stratigraphical
field work on the traps and the associated sedimentaries is
old, and it is very desirable to restudy them and make
fresh fossil collections. The evidence of age, as it stood in
the early nineties of the last century, has been admirably
summed up by R.D. Oldham in the second edition of the
Manual of the Geology of India (pp. 280-281, 289). The
base of the traps lies, in various places, on the Bagh beds
(Cenomanian to Senonian), the Lametas (roughly Turo-
nian according to Von Huene and Madey) and the Infra-
trappeans or Cardita beaumonti beds (Danian). We do
not know how much time interval to allow for any un-
conformities that may exist. But it seems reasonable to
conclude, as Oldham did in the Manual, that the traps
commenced to be poured out in the Uppermost Cretaceous
and that they continued through the gap of time marked
in Europe by the unconformity between the Mesozoic and
the Tertiary, which in North America is represented by the
Laramie fOlmation. This remains to-day the official view
of the Geological Survey of India, but this view can be
55
changed if evidence, based on field and laboratory work,

is forthcoming in a convincing manner to push up the
whole of the traps into the Eocene.
The recent work on Inter-trappean fossils would seem
to place at least a part of the traps in the Eocene. This is
_- reasonable since the traps have a very large thickness
(perhaps 7,000 to 10,000 feet in Western India) and since
it is recognised now that some of the products of the latest
phases of the activity found in Bombay are distinctly later
than the main mass. This however leaves the question
of the age of the base of the traps practically where it was.
It is necessary to know by field work where exactly the
lowest traps exist and whether there may not be a difference
in age between the base of the traps in different places-
e.g., in the Central Provinces and in Rajahmundry. It has
already been mentioned that the Lower Traps occur in
Madras and the Central Provinces and the Middle and
Upper traps progres'iivcly westward. There is also an
opinion current, supported by Dr. C. S. Fox, that the
Rajmahal traps and the basic dykes in the coalfields of
Bengal and Bihar (which are petrographically practically
identical with the Deccan traps and are considered to be
of Oolite age) represent an early manifestation of the
Deccan trap activity.
Lastly, some work has recently been done on the radio-
active characters of the Deccan traps by V.S. Dubey and
R. N. Sukheswala. The work of the latter seems to show
that the traps range in age from Upper Cretaceous to
perhaps as late as Oligocene. There is a great seope for
extending this work systematically in order to help in the
problem of the age. Though there are still some uncer-
tainties attached to the deductions from radioactive work,
it gives supporting evidence which is valuable for the
solution of this problem.
Summing up, it would appear that the evidence
which has been gathered and put forward in recent years
is not conclusive enough to decide on an entirely Eocene age
XV] THE DE:::CAN TRAPS. 435
for the traps, since, though some of the genera of plants
occurring in the Inter-trappeans are identical with those
in the Eocene of other parts of the world, there are
apparently no identical species. Such being the case,
there is no reason why a flora allied to the Eocene of
Europe should not have flourished in India in the time
interval between the top of the Cretaceous and the base
of the Eocene, i.e., in Laramie times, or even in the Upper-
most Cretaceous.
Much work remains to be done in the Infra-trappean
beds of Rajahmundry and such other areas as exist to the
east of Chhindwara, for it is by no means certain that the
lowest traps at Chhindwara represent the earliest flows
of the Deccan trap. In the present stage, It would seem
necessary to await more data from different lines of work-
stratigraphical, palceontological and radioactive, before
this problem can be regarded as satisfactorily settled.
ECONOMIC GEOLOGY.
Being dense, hard and durable, the Deccan traps are

used fairly extensively as building stones in the areas in
which they occur in large masses. But, being dark in
colour, they are not used to the extent to which their dur~
ability will. entitle them. The light buff and cream~
coloured trachytic rocks found in the Salsette island and
the neighbourhood of Bombay are generally more pre~
ferred than the dark traps. The commemoration arch
called the' Gateway of India', at the Bombay harbour,
is constructed' of such trachytic rock obtained from Kharodi
and Malad near Bombay. This rock however frequently
contains some calcite and pyrite which are liable to produce
unsightly brown stains and weakness, on weathering.
As road metal, the Deccan traps are excellent for
macadam and tarred roads and are among the best stones
obtainable in India. They are hard, tough, wear-resisting
and have good binding properties. They are also excellent
for use as aggregates in cement concrete.
OEOLOOY OF INDIA AND BURMA. [CHAP I
The Deccan traps of Western India are a great store'
house of qvartz , amethyst, agate, carnelian, onyx and
other varieties of chalcedony which are used as semi-preci'-
ous stones. rrhese are made into trinkets, beads, ring stone~
and ornamental objects. There is a small agate-cutting
industry at Itatnagiri, Rajpipla and Cambay, the necessary
raw stone being collected from the debris and weathered
trap. The supply for Cambay used to come from 3-
Tertiary Conglomerate, the pebbles of which were derived
from the traps.
The traps are often capped by ferruginous and
aluminous laterite. The latter is in several places-e.g.,
Kolhapur, ~elgaum, Katni, Jubbulpore-rich enough ill
alumina to be high grade bauxite. The bauxite is used
in petroleunt filtration, and a beginning has been made ill
utilising it for the manufacture of alumina and aluminium,
It is however generally rich in titania, as much as IO
per cent. OJ more of this constituent being often present.
The ferruginOUS laterite forms a good building stone
and has also been used formerly for iron smelting in indi-
genous furnilces. There seem to be possibilities also for
smelting the ferruginous laterite and obtaining pig
iron am\ cement try a su1.'ta'o\e pTocess.
The bl~ck soil or regur formed over the Deccan trap
is a rich soil particularly suitable for raising cotton. It i1i
similar to the Russian Chernozem, but is by no meanS
confined to the trap areas, for we find it on gneisses, char ..
nockites, cretaceous sediments, etc., in South India.
This would suggest that it is not only the chemical com"
position of the parent rock but also climatic factors that
play an important part in their formation.
(DECCAN TRAP AND INTER-TRAPPEAN BEDS.)
Blanford, w:f Traps and Inter-trappean beds of Western and
Qentral Iildia . Mem. 6, Pt. 2, 186 7.
XV) THE DECCAN TRAPS. 437
Crookshank, H. Geology of the northern slopes of the Satpuras
between Morand and Sher Rivers. Mem. 6 , Pt. 2, 1936.
Chatterjee, S.K. Petrology of igneous rocks from the West Gir
Forest, Kathiawar. Jour Ceol. 40, 154-170, 1932.
Fedden, F. Geology of Kathiawar. Mem. !U, Pt. 2, 1884.
Fermo r , L. L. Lavas of Pavagad hill. Rec.34, 148-166, 196.
Fermor, L. L. and Fox, C. S. Deccan trap flows of Linga, Central
Provinces. Rec. 47, 81-136, 1916.
Fermor, L. L. BasaltIC lavas penetrated by deep boring for coal at
Bhusawal. Rec. 58, 93-240, 1926.
Fermor, L. L. Decc(\n traps of Linga, Central Provinces. Rec. 68,
344-35 8, 1934
Hora, S. L. Fossil fish scales from the inter-trappeans at Deothan
and Kheri, Central Provinces. Rec. 73, 267-292, 1938.
Krishnan, M.S. Petrography of rocks from the Girnar and Osham
hills, Kathlawar. Rec. 58, 380-424, 1926.
Mathur, K. K. Problems of petrogenesis in the Deccan traps. Proc.
21St Ind. Sci. Cong 329-344, 1934.
Mathur, K. K et at. Magmatic differentiation in the Girnar hills.
Jour. Geol. 34, 289-307, ly26.
Rao, S. R. Narayana and Rao, K. Snpada. Foraminifera of the
Inter-trappean beds near Rajahmundry. Rec. 71,389-396, 193 6 .
Rao, S. R. Narayana and Rao, K Sripada. Fossil Charophyta from
the Kateru Inter-trappeans. Pal. Ind. N. S. XXIX, (2),194 0
Washington, H.S. Deccan traps and other plateau basalts. Bull. Ceol.
Soc. Amer. 33, 765-84, 19 22 .
CHAPTER XVI.
THE TERTIARY GROUP.
Genera.l.-The last great group of formations in the
history of the earth was formed during the Tertiary or
Kainozoic (Cenozoic) era, interrupted by stupendous earth
movements in certain parts of the globe. The records of
this era and the relics of organisms which flourished then
are more clearly seen than those of the earlier ones be-
cause of their proximity in time to the present.
The Break-up of Gondwanaland.-The transi-
tion from the Mesozoic to the Kainozoic is generally
marked, in many parts of the world, by an abrupt change
in lithology and fauna. This coincided, in India, with
igneous action on a large scale. More or less contempo
raneously with this, the Gondwanaland was broken up
into its component parts, partly by the drifting away of
these from one another and partly by the faulting down
of some segments into the subcrust.
Fa.unal and floral changes.-The great changes
which took place at the close of the Mesozoic era affected
animal and vegetable life profoundly. The giant reptiles
of the Mesozoic which roamed over the lands and, the
luxuriant ammonites which peopled the seas became
practically extinct at the dawn of the new era. The
physiographic and environmental changes which took
place were apparently too drastic for them to adapt
themselves to. New groups of animals and plants took
the place of those which had perished, and gradually grew
in importance. The mammals among the animals began
to gain importance and multiplied in rich variety. The
Pteridosperms and Cycads, which were the dominant
plants of earlier eras were replaced by the flowering plants.
Elevation of the Himalayas.-The great Medi-
terran~an sea, the Tethyst was first shallowed and its floor
THE TERTIARY GROUP. 439
raised up and compressed into mountain ranges during
the Tertiary. This Tertiary mountain system extended
from the Pyrenees on the west to the Himalayas and the
Malay arc on the east.
This risc of the Himalayas took place in a series of four
great movements separated by intervals of quiescence.
The first can be dated in the Upper Eocene, after the
deposition of the Kirthar beds. After the Nari, GaJ and
Murree strata were laid down, there occurred a second
upheaval in Middle Miocene times. This was probably
the most powerful of all the disturbances since the Hima-
layas appear to have acquired their major features as a
result of this. The shallow marine basins which remained
after the first uplift were all ubliterated, but an important
but shallow trough seems to have been formed along the
region where the Peninsular mass and the Himalayas met.
In this trough were deposited sediments from both sides,
and especially from the newly risen mountain mass on
the north. These sediments constitute the Siwalik system in
the Himalaya while their counterparts in Sind and Burma
are called the Manchhar and Irawaddy formations
respectively. At the end of the Siwalik sedimentation,
i.e., towards the close of the Pliocene, the third upheaval
took place; this, together with the incoming of the
Pleistocene Ice Age, brought about the virtual extinction
of the spectacularly rich mammalian fauna of the Siwalik
times though a small part of the fauna managed to migrate
to other area,s and survive. The final phase, a feeble one
compared to the earlier ones, took place in later Pleistocene.
It was during this that the Pir Panjal range in the north-
western Himalaya attained its present height, for we find
Pleistocene deposits on its flanks elevated to a height
of several thousand feet. There is very clear evidence
in the north-western Himalaya that minor movements
occurred almost down to Sub-Recent geological times
for some of the beds affected by them were formed since
the advent of man and contain stone implements.
Fluviatile and marine facies.-The Tertiary rocks

have an early marine facies and a later fluviatile facies, not
only in the Himalayas but also in the Burmese and Baluchis-
tan arcs. The original marine basins of deposition were
filled up and shall owed and later become estuarine and
deltaic. In the north-western Himalaya, for instance, the
Eocene was marine, the succeeding Murree sediments
estuarine while the Siwaliks were distinctly fluviatile (i.e.,
fresh-water) in nature.
Distribution.-The Extra-Peninsular region shows a
great development of Tertiary rocks continuously from the
Mekran coast of Baluchistan, through the mountainous
frontier tracts of Sind and N.W.F.P., to Kashmir and
thence along the Himalayan foot-hills to the Brahmaputra
gorge in the extreme north-east of Assam. It is probably
continuous, underneath the Brahmaputra alluvium, with
the broad Tertiary belt of Eastern Assam and Arakan.
This is separated from the Burmese Tertiary belt by a zone
of Cretaceous (and older) rocks forming the central parts
of the Arakan Voma. In Peninsular India Tertiary rocks
are developed in comparativ~y small areas in Gutch,
Gujarat and Travancore on the western coast and in
- several places along the eastern coast up to Mayurbhanj
in Orissa.
To enable the reader to form a comprehensive idea
of the Tertiary succession in the different areas, a sum-
marised account is first presented before proceeding with
the detailed descriptions.
SIND AND BALUCHISTAN.
The Sind-Baluchistan region is in many respects the
type area of the Tertiaries, not only because of the excel ..
lent development of th~ divisions but also because it was
one of the earliest areas to be studied in detail. The
Eocene and Oligocene are particularly well-developed as
grand marine formations. The Lower Miocene Gaj series
shows two facies while the succeeding Manchhar series
XVI] THE TERTIARY GROUP. 441
(the equivalent of the Siwaliks) is entirely of fresh water
origin. This has, however, marine equivalents further
west in Baluchistan.
TABLE 37-TERTIARY SUCCESSION IN SIND AND

BALUCHISTAN.
Upper Manchhar
(5,000 ft.)
I Sandstones, conglomerates and clays Phocene.
Lower Manchhar Conglomerates and sandstones with mam- Upper to Middle
(3,000-5,000 ft.) mahan fossils Miocene.
Upper Gaj Red and green shales, occasionally ')
(500 to 1,000 ft) gyr~eous I
Lower GaJ Limestones and shales with manne fos- ~ Lower Miocene.
(50-1,000 ft.) 8118 (represent("d bv flUViatile Bugti I
beds in Baluchl,tan) )
Upper Nari Thick unfossihferous sandstones and Up Ohgocene.
(4,000-6,000 ft.) shales
Lower Nan !osslhferous mann .. limestones Lr. Oligocene.
~
Upper-(Spmtangl hmestone) mas- ')
Klrthar
r 81Ve lime, tones, poorly developed I
~ Middle Eocene.
(5,000-9,000 ft) i in Smd
Middle-Limestone
I Lower---Shales and sandstones, )1
1
l practically absent trom Sind
~{GhaZIJ~nd
Dunghan hme-
hme
I stones With coal
1
Lakl (500-2,500 ft.) stone ~seams and somf:'-j Middle to Lower
Metmg shales and I times 011 seep- Eocene.
limeston~ ) ages.
~
Upper Ramkot Buff to brown Nummuhhc hmeston Lower Eocene
(800 ft) and shales
Lower Ranikot Gypseous shales and sandstones with Paleocene.
(1,000-1.50 ft.) hgmte and coal
Cardlta beaumonh beds Daman to

McntnchtJan.
THE SALT RANGE.
The Punjab Salt Range shows a fine development of

Tertiary rocks. The top of the scarp over the greater part
of the range is formed of Eocene limestone, mainly of
Laki age, while the Ranikot series is seen as a shaly
facies in the eastern part. The limestones are intercalated
with marls and are overlain, with a pronounced unconfor-
mity, by the Murree series of Lower Miocene age, and
this in turn by rocks of the Siwalik system.
56
442 GEOLOGY OF INDIA AND BURMA. (CHAP,
TABLE 38.-TERTIARIES OF THE SALT RANGE.
Siwalik system. Conglomrrate~, gnts, sandstones and Ph()( rne to Upper

-haIrs. Miocene.
Murrer ~t'rtrS PSl'udo-< onglomeratrs, sandstones and Lowrr Miocene.

~
(';1,000 ft ) !,~I.:ple shale!
Bhadrar h,tb (I o(}o300 ft.) shAles,
limestones and marls
Saktsar lllnntone (200-500 ft)
1
Lakl f S<alp hme,tone j\ hcldlc
to Luwer
l Nammal lImestone and ,haltSJ

(100-200 ft ) Limestone" shal""
and Ihm marl.
Patala shales (IDO-II50 fl) 5halesl
with thm hmestones and sand-
Eocene.
slones and a wal seam at the

bas!'.
Khalrabad limestone (50-500 ft) Lower Eocene.
Ranikot Nummuhlll: hmestones and cal-
careou~ shale,
Dhak Pass b,ds (20-100 ft.) Sand-
stones and shales and haemahhc
bt'ds
Part of the Patala shales IS of Laki age,
THE POTWAR PLATEAU.
The northern slopes of the Salt Range merge i~to the

Potwar plateau which forms the type area of the Siwalik
formations. The Siwaliks are divided into several stages
on lithological and faunal characters since they enclose
a rich mammalian fauna. The succession is shown below:
TABLE 39.-TERTIARIES OF THE POTWAR REGION.
Upper
(6,000 ft.)
1r
Boulder con-
glomerate.
Pll'lJor stage
Tatrot stage
Conglomerates, sandstones
and clays
Coarse sandstones
Sandstones
Lr PleIStocene.
Up Phocene.
_g Middle {DhOk Pathan Sandstones and shales Lr Phocene.

01
(6,000 ft.)
I
stage.
Ifh.
:$ Nagn stage Sandstonf's and shales Up. MlOce~e.
Vi
Pseudo-conglomerates, red Mid Miocene.
Low"
(5,000 ft.) J ...." ~haks and grey sandstones.
Kamhal stage Pseudo-conglomerates, grey Mid. Miocene.
I sandston!'s and shales.
Murrer ISandstont's and purple
shall"!
I Lr Miocene.
--
s('nes.
XVI] THE TERTIARY GROUP.
443
OUTER HIMALAYA OF JAMMU AND THE PUNJAB.
~erti~ry rocks are developed all along the Himalaya,

the Slw~hk strata forming a practically constant zone of
outer hills. Older Tertiary rocks are also known in the
Western Himalaya, where they are best developed in
Jammu and the neighbourhood. The sequence here is :
TABLE 40.-TERTIAIUES OF THE JAMMU STATE.
Siwaliks J Upper (6,000 ft)

Middle (6,000 ft)
L Lower (5,000 ft.)
Murre~s J Upper (3,000 ft.)

Lower (5,000 ft )
Basal-FatehJang zone
~
l of osslferous conglomerates.
~Unconformlty~
Chharat ~tage Nummulmc shales, hmestones and Upper to MIddle
marls Eocene
HIli Limestone Ma"'lve NummulilJc hmestones wIth MIddle to Low~r
(I,~OO ft ) coaly layers ' Eocene
In the foot-hill region of the Simla-GarhwaI Himalaya,

the Eocene is represented by the Subathu beds, consisting
of grey to red shales, often gypseous, and some limestones.
The Lower and Upper Murrees are represented by the
Dagshai and Kasauli beds respectively which are brackish
or lagoonal deposits having a total thickness of 7,000 or
8,000 feet. The Tertiary rocks of the Eastern Himalayas
have been visited by geologists only in a few places and
our knowledge of them is meagre.
ASSAM.
Eastern . and south-eastern Assam show excellent

development of Tertiary rocks but there is a good deal of
variation in the succession of the different areas. There is
a well-marked and wide-spread unconformity in the Upper
Oligocene, between the Barail and the Surma series.
Another is inferred or suspected in the Upper Miocene
between the Tipam series (Middle to Upper Miocene) and
the Dihing series (Pliocene). The general succession in
Assam is given in table 41.
444 GEOLOGY or INDIA AND BURMA. [CHAP.
BURMA.
The succession in Burma resembles that of Assam in
some measure. Eocene beds are developed in the
TABLE 4I.-TERTIARY SUCCESSION IN ASSAM.
Age. Central and Lower Assam IUpper Assam.
Pontian Dihmg acriea . Pebble beds with sands and Dlblng aenes.
(5,000 ft.) clays.
~-........- .....~.Unconfonnil~
VlOdobonian to Oupi Tlla stage-Sands Num RongKbu
I
Burdigalian. and clays stage.
Glftl] an clay-Mottled Glru)an clay.
Tipam series clays and sandstone!.
(ll,OOO ft.) Tipam .andstont'll-Ferru Tipam sand.
gInOU. sandstont's and stone.
subonlmate clays.
Burdigalian to ROka BII stage-Sandy
Chattian. shaks and samhtoncs
Surma series Bhuban stage-Conglo. surma 'erie!
(13,000 ft) { merdt ..s, saml.tones and } (much redu
shalt",. ced).
-~.....,.._~- UnconfOTmlty~
Ren]1 stage-Hard mas flkak Parbat

slve sand~tont'. sta~e.
Chatt;an to Barail stllge Jenam stage--sandfttone'! Baragoloi atage.
Auversian (15,000 ft) and carbonaceous
{ shales.
Lallong stage-Sand. Naogaon stage
stones and subordinate
l shales.
Lutetian Jainti. series {KOPIII stage-Carbonace- }
(3,000 ft) OUI shales
Sylhet hlllestone-Num- Disang serino
muhtIc hmestone.
~ Unconformlty~ ~
Upper Cretaceous rocks
mountainous region of the Arakan Yoma, closely following

the Cretaceous rocks. The Oligocene and Lower Miocene
are represented by the Pegu series, corresponding to the
l\1urn~es and to the Nari and Gaj beds of north-western
India. The beds above these constitute the Irrawaddy
system, corresponding to the Siwalik system.
A marine facies is observed in the greater part of the
succession in the south, but when the same beds are
followed northward, they show estuarine and fresh-water
facies. This is due to the fact that a Tertiary gulf existed
in the region between the Arakan Yoma on the west and
the Shan plateau on the east. This gulf was gradually
filled up, the waters receding southward as deposition
proceeded.
TABLE 42.-TERTIARY SUCCESSION IN BURMA.
Irrawaddy system Fluviatile deposits with mamma Phoc~n~ to Upp~r

(5,000 ft ) han fossils and fossil wood. MlOc~n~.
~ ~'~:.rnconformlty ~
ObOgOn sands .md clays (3,000 ft.) Vllldoboman.

Upper Pegu series Kyaukkok sandstone (5,000 ft.) Burdlgahan
{
Pyawbwe clays (3,000 ft ) AqUitaman
~Pal~ntologlcal break~
rOkhmmtaung sandstone (3,000 Chattlan

feet)
Lower Pegu series
1 Padaung clays (2,500 ft.) Stamplan

'ihwezetaw sandstont'q (2.000- Lattorfian
4,000 ft)
Yaw shales (2,000 ft) Bartoman-Ludlan.
Pondaung 'andstone (6,000 ft.) AuverSian
Eocene system Tabylll clays (5.000 ft ) Upper Lutettan.
'fIlm sandstone (4,000 ft.) Lower Lutetian.
{ Laung'lhe shalt's (10,000 ft ) Ypreslan
PaunggYI conglomerate (3,000 ft ) Londtnlan.
EASTERN COAST OF INDIA.
Associated with the Cretaceous of the Pondicherry

area there are rocks which have recently yielded Eocene
;oraminifera, but the extent of these rocks is not known.
Overlying these unconformably there are Miocene
rocks called' the Cuddalore sandstones. They extend
from Madura in the south to Pondicherry in the north.
The Rajamahendri sandstones in the Godavari district
and the Baripada beds of Mayurbhanj State in Orissa are
also of about the same age as the Cuddalore sandstones.
TRAVANCORE AND KONKAN.
Fossiliferous Miocene beds are found near Quilon and

Varkala in Travancore, overlain by current-bedded sands
and variegated shales with lignitic matter (Warkalli beds).
They resemble the Cuddalore sandstones and are covered
by a thickness of laterite. Similar beds also occur near
Ratnagiri in Southern Bombay. Beds younger than these
and of Pliocene age have been met with in borings at
Karaikal in the Tanjore district.
WESTERN INDIA AND RAJPUTANA.
Gujarat.-Small inliers of Eocene age occur in the

coastal region of Surat and Broach amidst the alluvium.
They are overlain by thick deposits of gravel and ferru-
ginous sandstones containing pebbles of agate and Deccan
trap. These are of Gaj age. The low-lying tract east of
Kathiawar is composed of Pleistocene deposits.
Kathiawar.-Small outcrops on the western and
eastern coasts of Kathiawar, consisting of clays, sandstones
and conglomerates, belong to the Tertiary system. In the
Piram island lying off the eastern coast of Kathiawar they
contain mammalian remains of Middle Siwalik age. At
the western extremity of Kathiawar are the Dwarka beds,
composed of yellow, gypseous clays below, and foramini-
feral sandy limestones above. Below them are the Gaj
beds. A sub-Recent foraminiferal limestone, called the
Porbander stone, also occurs in this area.
Cutch.-In Cutch there are well-developed Tertiary
strata including the Laki, Kirthar, Gaj and Manchhar.
These attain greater extent and thickness than in Kathia-
war and Gujerat.
Manchhar beds Conglomerates, sands Pliocene.
(500 ft ) and clays.
Gaj beds Shales, marls and Burdigalian.
(1,200 ft.) sandstones.
Kirthar " Numrnuhtlc limestones Upper to MIddle
(700 ft.) Eocene.
Laki Shales, often bituminous MIddle Eocene.
(200 ft ) and pyritous.
Deccan traps Lavas.

Rajputana.-In Bikanir and Jaislamer there are
Eocene strata conslsting of nummulitic limestones asso-
ciated with beds containing lignite and fuller's earth. The
Pal ana lignite field of Bikaner is situated in these rocks.
The rocks are underlain by Cretaceous and Jurassic strata.
This short summary of the Tertiary group will now
be followed by more detailed and systematic descriptions
of the different systems which form its constituent parts.
The inter-relationship of the strata of the different areas
will be apparent from Table 43 which gives at a glance the
correlation of the Tertiary rocks.
Barber, C.T. Tertiary igneous rocks of the Pakokku district. Mf'm.
68, Pt. 2, 1936.
Blanford, WT Geology of Western Sind. Mem 17, Pt. I, 1878.
Bme, P.N. Geology of the Lower Narbada valley. Mem. 21, Pt. I,
1884.
Clegg, E. L. G Geology of part~ of Mmhu and Thayetmyo. Mem.
72, Pt. 2, 1938.
Cossman, M. and Pisarro, G. The Mollusca of the Ranikot series.
Pal. Ind. N. S. III, (I), 1909; X, (2), 1927; X, (4), 1928.
Cotter, G. de P. The Lamelhbranchs of the Eocene of Burma.
Pal. N. S. VII, (2), 1923
Cotter, G. de P. Geology of parts of Minbu, Myingyan, Pakokku and
Lower Chindwm districts. Mem. 72, Pt. I, 1938.
Cotter, G. de P. Notes on the geologIcal structure and dIstnbution
of oil-bearing,rocks of India and Burma. World Petroleum Congress,
Proc. I, 7- 13, 1933.
Davies, L M. et al. The fossil fauna of the Samana Range. Pal.
Ind N.S., XV, (6-8), 1930.
Davies, L. M. and Pmfold, E.S. Eocene beds of the Punjab Salt
Range. Pal. Ind. N S. XXIV, (I), 1937
Duncan, P. M. and Sladen, W. P. Tertiary and Upper Cretaceous
fauna of Western India. Pal. Ind. SeT. VI/and XIV, 1871-1885.
Evans, P. Tertiary succeSSlOn in Assam. T. M. C. I. I. 27, (3), 193 2
Evans, P. and Sansom, C.A. Geology of the Burmese oilfields. Geol.
Mag. 78 (5), 321 -35, 1941.
Lepper, G.W. Outline of the geology of the oil-bearing regions of
the Chindwin-Irrawaddy valley and of Assam-Arakan. World
Petroleum Congress, Proc. I, 15-23, 1933.
Medhcott, J.G. Tertiary and alluvial deposits of the central portion
of the Narbada valley. Mem.2, Pt. 2, 1860.
Medlicott, H.B. Sub-Himalayan ranges between the Ganges and
the Ravi. Mem.,3, Pt. 2, 1864.
Middlemiss, C.S. Geology of the Sub-Himalaya of Garhwal and
Kumaon. Mem. 24, Pt. 2, 1890'
Mukherjee, P. N. Fossil fauna of the Tertiary of the Garo Hills,
Assam. Pal. Ind. N. S. XXVIII, (1), 1939.
Noetling. Petroleum in Burma and its technical exploitation. Mem.
27, Pt. !;I, 1897.
Noetling, F. Fauna of the Miocene beds of Burma. Pal. Ind. N. S. I.
(3), 190 1.
Nuttall, W. L. F. Stratigraphy of the Upper Ranikot series of Sind
Rec. 65, 306 -3 13, 193 2 .
Nuttall, W. L. F. Stratigraphy of the Laki series. Q.. J. G. S.
(London) 81, (3), 192 5.
Pascoe, E. H. Oil fields of Burma. Mem. 40, Pt. I, 1912.
Pascoe, E. H. Petroleum occurrences of Assam and Bengal. Mem.
40, Pt. 2, 1914.
Pascoe, E.H. Petroleum in the Punjab and N. W. Frontier Province.
Mem. 40, Pt. 3, 19 20 .
Pilgrim, G.E. Vertebrate fauna of the Gaj series in the Bugti hills
and the Punjab. Pal. Ind. N. S. IV, (2), 1912.
Pilgrim, G. E. The Perissodactyla of the Eocene of Burma. Pal.
Ind. N. S. VIII, (3), 1925.
Pilgrim, G.E. The Artiodactyla of the Eocene of Burma. Pal. Ind
.N. S. XIII, 1928.
Pilgrim, G. E. and Cotter, G. de P. Eocene Mammals from Burma.
Rec. 47, 42-77, 19 16 .
Pinfold, E.S. Structure and stratigraphy of N. W. Punjab. Rtc. 49,
137-160, 19 18 .
Stamp, L.D. Outline of the Tertiary geology of Burma. Geoi. Mag.
59, 481 -5 01 , 19 22
Theobald, W. Geology of Pegu. Mem. 10, Pt. 2, 1873.
Vredenburg, E. Geological sketch of the Baluchistan desert and part
of Eastern Persia. Mem. 31, Pt. 2, 1901.
Vredenburg, E. Considerations regarding the age of the Cuddalore
Senes. Rec. j6, 32 1-323. 1908.
Vredenburg, E. Geology of Sarawan, Jhalawan, Mekran and Las
Bela, Rec.38, 18g-21 5, IglO.
Vredenburg, E. Classification of the Tertiary system of Sind. Rec.
34, Pt. 3, 19 06 .
Vredenburg, E. Description of Mollusca from the Post-Eocene
Tertiary Formations of N. W. India Mem 50, 1925-28.
Wadia, D.N. Geology of Poonch State, Kashmir, Mem. 51, Pt. 2,
19 28 .
Wadia, D.N. Tertiary geosyncline ofN. W. Punjab. Q. J. G. M. M.
S.I, 4 (3), 193 2 .
Wynne, A.B. The salt region of Kohat. Mem. If, Pt 2, 1875.
57
GEOLOGY OF 1NDY AND BURMA.
I
bIl
c::
1:
Q
\) S
J~
,------"------,
CHAPTER XVII.
THE EOCENE SYSTEM.
General.-The end of the Cretaceous period was

marked by a widespread marine regression which was,
to a large extent, responsible for the destruction of the
specialised groups of animals hke the ammonites and the
coralloid lamellibranchs-the Rudistae. This change was
similar to that at the close of the Palceozoic el a when the
Goniatites and specialised brachiopods disappeared from
the scene of life. The changes which happened on the
surface of the land were similarly responsible for the
sudden end of many of the Mesozoic reptiles.
This marine regression accounts for the stratigraphical
gap, with erosion unconformity, which separates the
Cretaceous from the Tertiary formations in many parts
of the world. In India the Eocene begins with the Ranikot
stage (Lower Eocene) which is developed in Sind and
further north. The overlying Laki and Kirthar stages
(Middle to Upper Eocene) are developed much more
extensively in north-western India. The Uppermost part
of the Eocene coincided with the first Himalayan upheaval,
so that it is unrepresented by deposits in many parts of the
Tertiary belt. The Eocene underwent some uplift and
disturbance before the deposition of the Oligocene began.
Distribution.-The Eocene comprises three facies-
deep sea, coastal and fluviatile. The first is well-developed
in Western Sind and adjoining parts of Baluchistan, parts
of the N. W. Frontier Province, Hazara, Kashmir and
along the northern zone of the Himalaya up to the meridian
of Lhasa; and also in the Arakan Yomas on the borders
of Burma. The coastal facies is developed in south
Kashmir, and the sub-Himalaya from Jammu to near
Naini Tal; in Gujarat, Cutch, Rajputana and to the
south of the Shillong Plateau. The freshwater facies is
seen in Upper Burma and in north-western Punjab.
45~ GEOLOGY OF INDIA AND BURMA, [CHAP,
SIND AND BALUCtHSTAN.
The Kirthar, Laki, Suleiman and other ranges of the

Sind-Baluchistan border show an excellent development
of Eocene rocks The upper paft of the Kirthar range
exposes upper Eocene rocks which are apprppriately
named after the range. The eastern flanks expose suc-
cessively younger beds, viz., Nari, Gaj and Manchhar,
dipping towards the Indus plains. To the west, in Kalat,
older Eocene rocks are seen, which attain a thickness of
10,000 feet. The disposition of the strata in the Laki
range also is similar.
RANIKOT SERIES.
The lowest division of the Eocene is called the Ranikot

series, after Ranikot in Sind. They rest on the Deccan
traps or the Cardita beaumonti beds and show a stratigra-
phical break at the junction. The lower Ranikot beds,
which are 1,000- I ,500 feet thick, comprise soft sandstones,
shales and variegated clays. Gypsum and carbonaceous
matter frequently occur in them, while in one place there
is a coal seam 6 feet thick. The fossils found in them are
dicotyledonous leaf impressions and oysters in an oysterbed
at the base.
The Upper Ranikots, which have a thickness of 700-
800 feet, consist of fossiliferous brown limestones inter-
stratified with sandstones and clays. Nummulites first
appear in the upper part of the upper division, the most
characteristic species being Nummulites planulatus and Mis-
cellanea miscella. These indicate a Cuisian age, the rest
of the beds being probably referable to the Londinian.
The fauna of the upper Ranikot comprises foramini-
fera, corals, echinoids and molluscs, the earliest Nummulites
occurring together with the last Belemnites-Sryracoteuthis
orientalis. The Eocene genus Belosepia which forms a link
between Belemnites and the modern cuttle-fish is also
present. A large species of Calyptropharus (gastropod)
XV(l] THE EOCENE SYSTEM.
45~
which is characteristic of the uppermost Cretaceous and
lowermost Eocene is found in the lowest bed of the Upper
Ranikot. The following are the chief Ranikot fossils:
For,lmimfcra Nummulztes planulatus, Mtscellanea misulla,
Lockhartra newboldt, Asstltna ramkot" Operculina
cf canalifera.
Corals Montlwaltta, /sastraea, Thamnastraea, Feddema,
Cyclolztes, Trochosmlha, Stvlma.
Echin()ids Ph)'llo(,anthus flTldensls, Cypho;oma abnormale, Salmia
blariford!, Dlctyopleurus haimel, Conoclypeus sznden-
sis, PleslOlampas placenta, P. ovalts, Eurhodla
morns!, Hemlaster elongatus, Schu.aster alveolatus.
Lamellibranchs Ol/rea cf. multtcostata, O. bellovacensis, O. talpur,
Flemzngostrea haydeni, Spondylus roxanae, Venen-
card,a hollandt, Cardzum sharpel, Meretrix morgani,
Corbula vredenburgi
Gastropods Surcula polycesta, S vredenburg!, PleurotomaJhlrakensis
Calyptrophorus znd!cus, Conus blagrovei, Athleta
noetltngi, Volutocorbls eugeniae, Lyria feddmi,
Clavdithes leilanmsis, Strepsidura cossmanni,
Murex sindi~nsis, Gisortia jhirakensis, Rostellaria
morgani, Rhinoclavis subnuda, Turritella halaen.r!s,
Nallea adela, Crommium do {tum , Velate~ affints.
Cephalopod!! Nautzlus subjleurtaUSlanus, N. delucl, N. cossmanni,
N. szndrmm.
LAKI SERIES.
The Laki beds are well developed in the calcareous

zone of Baluchistan and also in South Waziristan, Kohat,
Salt Range, Attock district, Jammu, Bikaner, Cutch and
Assam. Th'ey succeed the Ranikot beds and may some-
times be found directly overlying th~ Cretaceous. The
base is sometimes marked by a zone of ferruginous laterite
indicating sub-aerial weathering of the underlying beds.
The Lakis are the chief oil-bearing beds of Northwestern
India. They are divided into three divisions:
Upper Ghazlj beds Gyp~eous clays, greenish sandstones
(2,000 ft.) and clays of the flysch facies, With
occasionallin.estones and coal seams.
454 GEOLOGY OF INDIA .;.ND BURMA. [CHAP.
Mtddle Dun~han lime- White or pale, massive, nodular lime~

stone (500- stone in Smd (dark coloured in
860 ft.) Baluchiiltan).
Lower Meting shales Whlte chalky limestones and shales.
anc:' lime-
stones (50-
250 ft.).
Basallatel'lte. Thin crust of ferruginous laterite.
The full succession is nowhere seen at one place. The

METING SHALES are observed on.ly in the Laki range in
association with a fine development of Dunghan limestone
which is overlain by the Kirthar series, the Ghazij shales
being absent. In otneT p\aces tnt; Mt;\)n'g ~n7l.\tl 7l.'i~
absent but the other two stages are well developed. The
Ghazij shales have a flysch-like aspect and contain some
coal seams less than 3 feet thick, which have been worked
at Kohat and other places. The coal, though of fair
bituminous quality, has a variable ash and sulphur content
and is generally crushed by earth movements.
The DUNGHAN LIMESTONE (formerly called Alveolina
limestone and for which Col. L. M. Davies advocates the
term BOLAN LIMESTONE) is developed typically in the Bolan
Pass and also in the Bugti hills, Dera Ghazi Khan and the
borders ofWaziristan, over a distance of about 200 miles.
It is a massive, well bedded, hard, tough limestone, some-
times nodular. The thickness is variable but may reach
a maximum of several hundred feet. In the Bugti hills
it is intercalated with olive shales. In Sind it is a soft,
white limestone, generally nodular. The Eocene of
Waziristan bears little resemblallce to that of Sind, the
estuarine shales developed in the former probably being
the equivalents of the Ghazij shales. There is nothing
corresponding to the Dunghan limestone in Kohat and
the Salt Range. The Lakis of the Salt Range are the scarp
limestone and associated marls and shales.
The Laki series is characterised by Nummulites atacicus,
Assilina granulosa and Alveolina oblonga. The Ghazij shales
XVII] THE EOCENE SYSTEM. 455
are rarely fossiliferous but the Dunghan limestones contain
a rich echinoid fauna. There are also plant fossils
including seeds and leaf impressions.
Foraminifera .. Assilina granulosa, A. exponens, Nummulites alaelCuS,
.N. Irregularts.
Echinoids .. LelOcidarrs canallculata, PorocldaTls anomala, Cyphosoma
macrostoma, MicropslS venustula, ConoclypeuJ
alveolatur, Echlnocyamus nummuliticus, Amblypygus
sub-rotundus, Eolampas excentricus, Echmolampas
rotunda, E. obesa, lIemiaster nobllts, H. carinatus,
Metalta sowerbYI, M. depressa, Schi<:,aster symme-
tricus, Macropneusles speciosus. Euspatangus sp.
The following mollusca are found in the Laki and
Kirthar beds and may probably be common to both:
Lamelhbranchs Ostrea vCSlcularrs, Pltoladomya halaensls, Vulsella
tegumen.
Gastropods Tumtella angulata, Xenia schmldelzana, Natlca longi-
spIra, Terebellum pllCatum, Rosetellarza anglstoma,
R. prestwlchi, Ovulum murchlsom.
KIRTHAR SERIES.
The Lakis and Kirthars are exposed in the hilly tract
of Northwestern Sind, both containing similar-looking
massive limestone. The Kirthars are exposed in the
Kirthar, Dumbar and Kimbu ranges while the Lakis are
seen to their southeast in the Laki, Sumbak, Surjana and
Kara ranges.
The Kirthar series consists of three divisions, the
lower mainly shaly, the middle calcareous and transitional,
and the upper mainly calcareous. The lower shaly division
is chiefly of'the flysch facies, consisting of thin-bedded
greenish shales and some sandstones and limestones,
attaining a thickness of several thousand feet.
There is a distinct stratigraphical and faunal break
between Laki and Kirthar, marked by brecciated limestone
strata. The basal beds in Baluchistan are locally the
GHAZABAND LIMESTONES, named after a hill 15 miles from
Quetta. They contain Nummulites irregularis, N. laevigatus
and Assilina exponens \
PLATE XXII.
LOWER TERTIARY FOSSILS
..
.
.
12
EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXII

1. Drilltajhtraktruts (2/3)' 2. Volutosprna syktst (1/2). 3. Fusus (Pagodula)
coIpophorus (2/3). 4. Tumtella halaensts (1/3) 5 Ampullma (Crommlum) poly-
btllhra (1/3)' 6. Tumtella anguiala (1/3) 7. Rlmtlla jUJoldeJ (1/2) 8 Num-
1""tes nuttall. (a, specimen, b, equatorIal and" meridIOnal sectIons) (5).
9. Nummul,t,s ataclCus (4). 10. Nummulites tahltll (3). II. ASSlllna dandollca (7).
The Middle Kirthars form a passage zone to the
massive upper Kirthar limestones, and m~y in fact be
considered as their lower part. They are characterised
by Nummulites gizehensis, N. beaumonti, Discocyclina javana,
D. undulata and Asslina spira, the last extending into the
upper Kirthar. Only the middle portion of the Kirthars
is well developed in Sind, the lower beds and the upper-
most beds being often missing. But all the divisions are
well developed in Baluchistan.
The Upper Kirthars, also known as the SPINTANGI
LIMESTONES in Baluchistan, attain locally a thickness of
3,000 feet. Their characteristic foraminifer is the large
form Nummulites complanatus.
The equivalents of the Kirthars are found in many
places in the Tertiary Alpine belt of Western Asia and the
Mediterranean region. The Kirthars are rich in fossils.
Amongst the more important of them are:
Foraminifera (Lower) Nummulites laevlgatus, N obtusus, N.
atacicus, Assllma exponens.
(Middle) NummulItes gl;:ehensls, N. aculus, N.
beaumontl, N. murChlSOnl, N. dlscorblna, N. perfo-
ralus, DlctyoconOl.des COOkl, Dlscocycltna javaruz,
D. dispansa, D. undulata, Assilina exponens, A.
spira, A. paplllata, Alveolina elltpttca.
(Upper) NummulItes perforatus, N. complanatus N.
biarrit<.ensls.
Echinoids Cyphosoma undatum, Conoclypeus rostratus, Sismondia
polymorpha, Ambl)pygus tumidus, A. latus, Echino-
Lampas smdensls, Echtnanthus tnlermedtus, Mlcraster
tumldus, Schz;:;aster slmulans.
Ill. Amllna J[ranulosa (3). 13. Opercuhna subsalsa (5)' 14 AflScelianta mlSceila
(8) 15 Lep,docyclma (Polylep.dma) pun)abens.s (a, mendlOnal section and b,
equatorial section) (16) 16. Blagrol'la SImplex (I). 17 Montltvallta vigne. (2/3)
18. Aslrocoemo ramasa (3) 19. MontllVallla ramkall (a. specimen; b, sectJOn (I).
20. Trochocyathus nanenslS 21 Trochocyathus nartensts 21 Trochocyathus burnes.
(I). 1111. S~vlophora pulchernma (4). 23 Cycloides vlCary. (b, septa enlarged)
(I) 24 Cyclolttes ramkot. (3/2). 25 Solema blanford, (2/'3) 26 Conoclypeus
declwlS (1/4) 27 Eurhod.a mornsl (2/3) 2!l Schu.aster alueolatus (1/3) 29
S.smondla polymorpha (3/2). 30. Amblypygus subrotlwdus (1/3) 3 1 Ech.nolampas
rotunda (1/3). 32. Metaha depressa (1/3) 33. Euspatar.gu. ave/lana (1/2).
58
GEOLOGY OF INOlA AND BUR.MA. [CHAP.
TABLE 44.-FoRAMINIFERA OF THE EOCENE OF WESTERN

INDIA. (AFTER. W. L. F. NUTTALL).
~
l'" " I
Lakl. Kirthar .
..s0
1
v.a. =vr-ry abundant
~ ..c: 0c:: I'~j ~I
..101 ,;
a=abun<iant
(:=common
.~
<'I
Q" 0 .!I ::a
~ "0 "0
~ ti ~ e "'2
C
Il
f=frequent t1
~
tot-
p=presenl or rare :::;>-; b ~
tQ] "'2.:1\ l~ j
~
.: Q.
::l ~ ~ ~ ..J ::l
Species.
,Nummulites planulatus Lmk. f

,N. aff (uetlaral I)'areh. . c
Sdrrol,iis mlJltlia (O'Arch & Haime) f
A"i/ma 1a",ko/l Nutlall a
O~l"cullfla canalifua D'Arch
O. hardltl O'Arch. & Haime c
D.< lyocorloldts <OTldltl Nuttall p
All'to/ma oblollga D'orb. l C
F/o'cull1ll1 I/Iobo'" (Leym ) va
A/vlo/ma sub/>vrlnmca L ..ym va va
NUlll'1lulJles I",pla,... Dt"sh p
Asn/ma IfrtJnu/osa D'Arch. a a a
,Nflmmu/llef atacuus Lf'ym a f a ,I a
Orbuolltes complallata Lmt. a c p p p
A,SllllIa nponms (SOW) c C
Nummulites obtusus (Sow) p a c
.Nummuillts af'lltu.s (Sow) f
N. bcaumonh D'Arch. and Haime " f
.N. stamln.us Nullall f
lJIC~'1OCO'IOld,s COOKI (Carter) a
DlscO'"ydmll dtspansa (Sow.) a
D }aoaTla var. Indu:o Nuttall v.a
D. undu/ata Nuttall p
D sowerbYI Nuttall c
AII'to/lna .lllp/rea (Sow) c p
Nummu/ltes laevu:atul (Brug.) p a
.N afT. sca~" Lmk. a
.N Ca,tm O'Arch. & Halme p
,N. ,1{ehen51S (F orksal) P
Am/Ina cQII&ellata Nuttall f
A. papillaia Nuttall c
A. spira de ROlss) f
Since the foraminifera are of great importance in the

zonal sub-division of the Eocene Table 44 gives the chief
forms and their distribution in Sind-Baluchistan.
SALT RANGE.
The Eocene strata of the Salt Range are intermediate
in character between the deep sea facies of Sind and the
~
.(
,
::s
III
..; ~
~ ~
> ~
'0 !-o
0::
~
..r;: CIJ
_.x
")
~
en
I
S
~
~
-<
\:Q
..
~
!I:
<;;I
;;>
~
..
:=
;!:
sa
CIJ
~
...'"
~
'0 ~
~
::>
0
:::E
U
::>
"C
0
<-
(/) ~
GF,OLOGY OF INDIA AND BURMA. [CHAP.
coastal facies of the Sub-Himalaya. The greater part

of the Eocene is well developed here, the beds generally
thickening towards the west. The beds overlap the older
formations and are overlain by the Murrees or Siwaliks.
The. following succession (in the descending order)
has been established.
Bhadrar beds (10-3 ft.)-Sandstones, limestones,
marls and clays.
Sakesar Limestones (200-300 ft.)-Massive limestone
Laki with chert nodules.
Nammal limestones and shales (100-200 ft.)-Lime-
stones, marls and shales.
(Patala (hales (100-250 ft.)-Carboneceous shales,
~
limestones and sandstones.
Khmrabad limestonts (50-500 ft.)-Nodular limestone~.
Ranikot Dhak Pass beds (20-100 ft.)-Sanclstolles and shales,
carbonaceous and gypseous wlth subordmate
l limestones.
Latente horizon at base.
Dhak Pass beds.-The earliest Eocene beds are seen
at Dhak Pass near Nammal, where the Jurassic rocks are
overlain by a pisolitic ferruginous band. Resting on
this band, or directly overlying the Jurassic3, arc the Dhak
Pass beds consisting of sandstones and shales which are
often. carbonaceous and sometimes gyps eo us, and also
some thin limestones. Their fossil contents include:
Foraminifera Operculina cf. canalifera, O. subsasla, Misetllanta mis
cella, lockhartia conditi, L. halmei.
Gastropods Gamdaria cf. archiaci, Megalocypraea ranikotensis,
Velates noetlingl.
Lamellibranchs .. Grassotella salsensis, Dtplodonta cf. hmdu, Luclna
vredenburgl.
Khairabad Limestone.-Resting over the Dhak Pass
beds there are nodular limestones named after Khairabad
near Kalabagh. They are 500 feet or more thick in the
western Salt Range but gradually thin down eastwards.
The following are the chief fossils in this division:
Foramimfera Nummulttes nut/allt, N. thaltcus, N. smdensis, Asstltna
dando/ica, aperculina subsalsa, O. cf. I anadifera,
O. J,wam, Miscellanea miscella, M. slampl, Lock-
XVII] THE EOCENE SYSTEM.
harlla newboldi, Lockhartla eondlti, Alvtolzna vreden-

burgi, A. ovoldea, Dictyoconoides fiemzngl, Lepldocy-
elma (Polylepldma) punjabensls.
Echinoderms EurhodlQ mQrrtSl, Henllaster elongatus, Ple510lampas
ovalts.
Gastropods Velates noetlmgi, V. perversus.
Lamelh branchs Lucina mutahllzs, L. noorpoorenslS, L. cf hellardl.
Patala shales.-These form the upper Rani.ot beds,
comprising dark grey shales, often carbonaceous, with
subordinate limestones and sandstones. The coal seams
worked at Dandot, Makarwal, Pidh and elsewhere
belong to this division. The shales are alum-bearing on
account of the action of the sulphuric acid derived from
decomposing pyrite contained in them, the alum being
extracted by the solution of the shales in water.
There is a marked change in the foraminiferal fauna
in the middle of this division, the earlier forms like
M isellanea miseella, Loekhartia haimei and Lepidocyclina
punjabensis becoming scarce in the upper portion, and
forms like Opereulina patalensis, Assilina dandotlea and
Discocyclina ranikotenfis becoming abundant. The fossils
in the Patala shales include:
For.. minlfera Operculzna palalensls, 0 cf. canalifera, O. salsa, O.
subJalsa, Amlzna dandottea, A sptnosa, Dlscocyclina
ramkotensu, Nummulttes globulus, N cf mamtlla,
Alueolwa globosa, A vredenburgt, A. ovoldea.
Corals Astrocoema blanfordl, Trochoeyathus cf epl/heeata.
Gastropods Turritella ramkotl, T. hollandt, T. halaensts, Measlia
fasciala, Rzmellajamesom
Lamellibranchs Crasstella salstensls Os/rea pharaonum var. aui-
culma.
Nammal limestones and shales.-These consist of
limestones, marls and shales, a fine section being seen in the
N ammal gorge. The characteristic fossils are Nummulites
atacicus, N. cf. mamilla, N. irregularis, Assilina granulosa.
Some long-range forms like N.lahirii, Loekhartia tipperi, Dis-
cocyclina ranikotensis, Assilina subspinosa and Ostrea jlemingi
are also found in them.
Sakesar limestone.-This is a massive limestone,
200 to 400 feet thick, containing numerous chert nodules
in places. It is the characteristic member of the Laki
series, forming high cliffs like the Sakesar hill, towering
above the scarp. Occasionally it is seen to pass into
gypsum, as near Kalabagh. On account of its massiveness
and well-developed joints, it weathers into steep and
irregular -masses having the appearance of ruined fortress
walls. The weathered surface shows numerous N ummu-
lites. The chief fossils found are:
Nummul,tes ataclCUS, N. cf. mamIlla, Assilina granulosa, A. spinosa
Lockhartla ttppm, L. conditt, Alvealina oblonga, A. oVOldea, A. glabosa.
Bha.drar beds.-These constitute the uppermost Laki
division, overlying the Sakesar limestone. They consist
of sandstones, limestones, clays and marls varying in thick-
ness in different places from 200 feet to a few feet. In some
places they are associated with the red clays characteristic
of the Chharat beds of the Kala Chitta hills. Massive
gypsum, regarded as derived from Laki limestone, occurs
at the base of this division ncar Mari-Indus. The charac-
teristic foraminifera are Orbitoides complanatus and Assilina
cf. pustulosa, together with longer range forms likeNummulites
cf. mamilla, N. atacicus, Assilina subspinosa, Lockhartia conditi,
L. tippen, Alueolina ouoidea, A. oblonga.
KOHAT DISTRICT.
In the Kohat district, north-west of the Salt Range,
there occur beds of rock salt overlain by massive gypsum,
the latter being altered limestones of Laki age. The salt
of this region is grey or dark owing to inclusions of
bituminous matter. The Laki limestone and gypsum are
intercalated with greenish shales and are succeeded by
Kirthar rocks which consist mainly of limestones and red
clays.
Near Kohat itself the Lakis consist of greenish shales
at the base, succeeded by the SHEKHAN LIMESTONE (upper
Laki) and by red gypseous clays. The overlying Kirthars
comprise a lower division of KOHAT SHALES and limestones
and an upper division including Nummulitic shales and

ALVEOLINA LIMESTONES.
TABLE 44-A.-EoCENE FORAMINIFERA OF THE SALT RANGE.
(AFTER DAVIES AND PINFOLD, Pal. Ind. XXIV, I, p. 67,
1937)
"present only In a small part of the ~trata.

l( present thrQughout or In greater part.
I Ramkot.
SpeCle'l. \ L M U L M U
Nummulites nultalll Davies x It

thallcu.! Davies x X
"'J lmdenslS (DaVIes) X
g{ObU{Ul Leym. " x
cI Mamdla (Flch. & Moll) x x
x
x
x
x
x
alac.cus Leyro.
x
" la"", DavIt's x
" IrregulaTls De sh x
" sublrregulaTls De la Harpe
Amllna dandolzea Davies x
x x
" granulosa D'Arch. x x
" spinosa Davies
" subspmosa DavIes x x x x
x
" cf pusluiora Dorl
Operculma d. canalifera D' arch. x x x
x
" salsa DaVies x x x
" sublalsa Davies x x
" pala/mslS DaVies x x
" Jlwam DaVIes x x
MIScellanea stamp I (DaVIes) x x x
" mucel/a (D'A. & H.) X x x
Loekhart,a halme, DaVIes x x x x x
" newboldt (D'A & H.) X x x x x x
" ,ond,tt (Nuttall) x x x x x
" Itpptn (DaVies)
Sakesana cottert Davle~

x
DlCtyocono,des jlemmgl DaVIes
Heterostegma cf rUlda Schw.

x x
up,docycltna (Polylei/ldma) pun)abenslS Davies x x x
DlScocyclma rantkolenslS Dav ea x
O,b.tolltes camplanatus Lamk
Alueo/ma vredenburgt DaVIes
.. x
x x
oblongo D'Orb. . x x x
"
Dvo,tha D'Orb
globosa Leyro.
x x
SAMANA RANGE.
Quartzites and Hangu Shales. - In the Samana

Range, which lies some distance to the northwest of the
Kohat area, the lowermost Eocene consists of about 150
CEOLOGY OF lNDIA AND BURMA. [CHAP.
feet of white quartzitic sandstones followed by the Hangu
shales which are IS feet thick and full of fossils. The
Hangu shales form a useful marker horizon in this region.
The fossils show affinities with those of the Cardita beau-
monti beds, but the absence of cephalopods and of the
larger foraminifera shows that they belong to early Eocene
age, i.e., Lower Ranikot. All the fossils found in them are
new except a few which have a long time range.
Corals Blagrovia simplex, Placotrochus tippen, Euphyliia
thalensis, Astroeoema (Platastrocoenia) ramkotl, A.
blanfordi, Cyeloldes viearyl, C. striata, Placosmllia
wadlal.
Gastropods Campamle brookmani, Tumtella daviesi, T. ranikoti,
Mesalta fasClata, Tibia samanensu, Rlmella levis,
EusplTa roei, Globulana brevispria, Arehltectonia
mamwanngi, Hemifusus montenslS, Murex wadlal,
StrepSldura tippen, Voluta vredenburgi, Athleta
(Volutocorbls) devlesI, Lyria samanensis.
Lamellibranchs . Cardlta hanguensis, GardlUm inaequiconvexum, Mere-
tnx mdlca, Trapezium daviesi, Grasselelilles eXlguus,
Corbula samanensls.
Lockhart Limestone and Hangu breccia.-The over-

lying rocks show two facies, one being a massive grey
limestone of 200 feet thickness (Lockhart limestone) and
the other a limestone breccia. The larger foraminifera
make their first appearance here, species of Dictyoconoides
(D. haimei, D. newboldi and D. conditi) being common.
Upper Ranikot.-Above the Lockhart limestones are
clays, shales and impure limestones having a thickness of
70 feet, capped by a limestone-breccia which is 30 feet
thick. The most important fossils in these are Nummulites
nuttalli, N. thalicus, aperculma cf. canalifera and Discocyclina
Spa The Upper Ranikot contains several corals including
the following :
Parachyathus altus, Feddenia jaequemonti, Astrocoenia blarifordi, A.
ramosa, Thamnastrea balli, Dlplona jlexuosimma, Pachyseris murchisoni,
Trochoseris ohl&quatus, Isis ranekat"
XVIIl THE EOCENE SYSTEM.
PO;WAR PLATEAU.
Hill Limestone.-The lowest zone in the Tertiaries
of the Kawagarh and Kala Chitta hills is a ferruginous
pisolite associated with unfossiliferous shales of Lower
Ranikot age. This is overlain by the Hill limestone, a
massive limestone with shale intercalations, including both
the Ranikot and Laki series. The shaly beds in the Hill
Limestone occasionally contain layers of coal. They
attain a thickness of several hundred feet but vary from
place to place, the upper portion containing the Laki
fossil Assilina granulosa.
Chharat series.-The Hill Lime~tone is succeeded
by the Chharat series in the Kala Chitta hills, where the
following divisions have been recognised:
3. Nummulitic shales (50-200 feet).
2. Thin bedded limestones and green shales (100-200
feet).
I. Variegated shales and limestones (300-500 feet).
The passage bed between the Hill limestone and the
variegated shales in a chalky limestone with gypsum,
showing oil seepages near Chharat. The Variegated
shales and limestones show fragments of reptilian and mam-
malian fossils and shells of Planorbis. The middle division
contains Nummulites and molluscs including Cardita (Veneri-
cardia) subcomplanata. The Nummulitic shales contain
numerous Assilina papillata and Discocyclina javana. It is
therefore considered to represent the lower part of the
Middle Kirtha,r. The upper Kirthar is absent.
Kuldana beds.-Some calcareous conglomerates and
red shales which are found between the Nummulitics and
the Murrees were described by Wynne as the Kuldana
series and regarded as the equivalents of the Subathus.
Pinfold showed later that they are approximately of the
same age as the Chharat series.
HAZARA.
The southeastern border of the mountainc; of Hazara
shows a well developed zone of Eocene rocks. At the base
59
GEOLOGY OF INDIA AND BURMA [CHAP.
.
is a band of laterite followed by beds of sandstone and clay
containing inferior coal. These are overlain by massive
dark limestones interbedded with shales belonging to the
Laki series. Above these are shales, marls and nodular
limestones bearing some resemblance to the Chharats
and containing large Nummulites referable to Kirthar
age.
Overlying these with an unconformity is a band of
shales, clays and marls, 15 to 20 feet thick, known as the
Kuldana beds. They are purple to deep brown in colour
and contain NummulItes derived from the denudation of
the older beds. These beds are succeeded by the Murree
senes.
KASHMIR.
Eocene rocks similar to those of Hazara are developed

on the southern flanks of the Pir Panjal. They consist of
imestones resembling the Hill limestone, followed by a
llarge thickness of variegated shales containing a few coal
seams in the lower part. The limestones are thin-bedded,
pale grey and cherty, containing a few Nummulltes of
Ranikot age and gastropods. They attain a thickness of
300 to 500 feet. The overlying beds are pyritous, coaly and
ferruginous shales with thin carbonaceous beds. These
are succeeded by thin-bedded dark limestones containing
Nummulites, Assilina and Os/rea, and these in turn by
variegated shales of several hundred feet thickness with
sandstone intercalations. This shale and limestone forma-
tion is similar to the Chharats in characters.
(Vanegated red and green shales (800 ft.).
Chharat i Dark thin-bedded lenticular nummuhtlc limestone (100
I ft.).
LPyritous and carbonaceous shales with ironstone (50 ft.).
Thin bedded, pale grey, cherty limestones with a few
Ranikot { NummulItes and gdstropods (400 ft).
To the south of the Pir .Panjal there is a series of
outcrops of Eocene rocks near Riasi and Jammu. These
"Con tain a basal zone oflaterite succeeded by grey and green
pyritous and carbonaceous shales and Nummulitic lime-

stones. They attain a thickness of 600 feet or more and
are similar to the Subathu beds of Simla foothills further
east. The laterite is often highly aluminous and may
therefore be useful as an ore of aluminium. The shales
overlying them contain seams of coal which are workable
hut are more or less crushed and graphitic. The Nummu-
Ii tic limestone is dark and thin-bedded, but when followed
westwards becomes paler, more massive and thicker and
contains Nummulites atacicus and Amlma granulosa.
SUB-HIMALAYA OF SIMLA.
The Jammu belt of Eocene rocks continues southeast-
wards along the foothill zone of the Simla and Garhwal
region as far as Naini Tal. The deposits thin down and
are of coastal facies. They are called the Subathu beds
in this region, and contain a basal pisolitic laterite ovedain
by greenish grey and red gypsecus shales with occasional
sandstones and a few lenticular impure limestone bands.
The Subathus are roughly the equivalents of the Kirthars.
NORTHERN HIMALAYA AND TIBET.

Eocene rocks are found in Ladakh . n the Upper Indus
valley along a zone parallel to the Himalayan trend from
Kargil to Leh, Hanle and beyond. They consist of fels-
pathic grits, green and purple shales and limestones con-
taining badly preserved Nummulites and other fossils. The
rocks have been subjected to folding and crushing and
igneous intrusions on a large scale. From the fossil evi-
dence it is known that the sediments extend in age from
the Cretaceous to Oligocene.
Eocene rocks occur over large areas in Southern Tibet
and form part of the Kampa system. The sub-divisions
recognised by Hayden are given in Table 45.
The ferruginous sandstone is similar to the Dhak Pa.ss
beds of the Salt Range. The succeeding three beds are
the equivalents of the Khairabad limestone, and all contain
foraminifera, especially the Operculina limestone. The
chief foraminifera in these are Miscellanea miscella, Num-
mulites sindensis, N. thalicus, apercu lin a subsalsa, Lockharlia
haimei, L. newboldi, L. conditi, Dictyocolloides cf. fiemingi,
LePidoryclina (polylepidina) punJabensis, Verneuilia sp., and
these bear a striking resemblance to the fauna of the Salt
Range. The mollusca found in these beds include Megalo-
cypraea ranzkotenris, Gosavia humberti, Hippochrenes cf. amp/us,
Campanile brevis, Ve/ales perversus, Vulsella legumen, as/rea
(Liostrea) jlemingi.
TABLE 45.-EoCENE SUCCESSION IN KAMPA DZONG.
6. Dzong-buk shale~ (150 ft.). S.lOdy micaceous

shales with thm sandstone lavers .. Lakl.
5. Orbltolites limestone (50 ft) .. Limestone full of
Orbltolltes and Alveoll1la Laki.
4. Spond ylus shales (150 ft ). Fine-grained, greenish ')
grey and black shales I
3. Opercuhna Ijme~tonc (150 ft.). Shaly nOdUlarju
limestone full of fi)r.mumfera pper Ram-
2. Gastropod limestone (300 ft). Hard, dark, kot.
mlSsive limestont", thm bedded at bd~e, with a
shale band 40 ft. thick Jmt abovt" tht' middlt".
I. Ferruginous !>.lndstont"s (200 ft.). Lower
R.mikot.
ASSAM.
Disang series.-Th~ Eocene is well represented in

Assam. In Upper Assam and Eastern Assam (Sadiya
tract, Manipur and Naga Hills) it is represented by the
Disang series which is of Lower and Middle Eocene age
and possibly also extends down into the Cretaceous. It
consists of splintery dark grey shales intercalated with
sandstones, passing up into well-bedded sandstones. The
shales are found to be metamorphosed to hard slates in
the N aga hills region. The Disang series is confined to the
south of th(" Haflong-Disang fault which is a prominent
feature across Assam.
Jaintia series.-Along the southern border of the
Shillong Plateau and in North Cachar and Mikir Hills a
different facies appears, called the Jaintia series. The
Iow:r part of this is. the SYLHET LIMESTONE STAGE of Upper
Lakl to Lower Klfthar age, compmed of foraminiferal
limestones intercalated with sandstone beds. This attains
a thickness of nearly I,OOO feet near Therria Ghat but thins
down to the east, appearing as a thin strip below the
overlying Barail series.
The upper portion is the KOPILI STAGE consisting of
grey shales, ferruginous shales with ironstone, and sand
stones. Near Cherrapunji and Laitryngew it contains
coal seams, while near Lumding warm sulphurous springs
issue from it. This stage is of Middle Kirthar age and is
not known in Upper Assam
Kopzlz stage (1,000 ft.) Fme I
. s "1" grained sandstones, dark grey jupper
J amtm enes shales, Ironstones, carbonaceous Lutetlan.
(Lutetian to shales dnd local limestones.
Up. Londinian). j Sylhet Limestone stage (c.oo f1.) I L. Lutetian
Foraminiferal limestones and rto Up.
J sandstones. ) Londinian.
GARO HILLS.
Eocene rocks occur along and to the south of the
Tura range in the Garo Hills. The lowest beds, consti-
tuting the TURA STAGE, comprise sandstones and shales
with coal seams. Two good seams of coal are found in the
Garo Hills, estimated to contain 1,000 million tons within
a depth of r ,000 feet from the surface. The rocks form
an anticline to the south of the Tura range, then flatten
and finally dip steeply southward towards the plains
under the Surma series of Upper Tertiary age.
The TURA STAGE is conformably overlain by the SIJU
LIMESTONE which on fossil evidence is correlated with the
Sylhet limestone. The Siju limestone is in turn overlain
by the REWAK STAGE which is the equivalent of the Kopili
stage.
In the Khasi and Jaintia hills the Cretaceous rocks are
overlain by unfossiliferous CHERRA SANDSTONE of Lower
47 0 GEOLOGY OF INDIA AND BURMA. [CHAP,
Eocene age. The Cherra sandstone gradually passes up

into the Sylhet limestone.
Kopili or Rewak
stage Sa.ndstones and marine shales 4,000 ft.
Sylhet or SIJU stage M.lrlnc shales and limestones 500 ft.
Upper sandstone 200 ft.
Upper coal Sf'am 2-4 ft.
stage f
Cherra or Tura MIddle sandstone
Lower coal seam
J Lower sandstone
180 ft.
5-6 ft.
210 ft.
Barail series.-In Upper Assam, the Disang series

is overlain by the Barail series which is divided into three
stages.
Tlkak Parbat stage (1,000-2,000'1
l ft.). Carbonaceous shales and

, coal seams.
I
~
BaTagOIOI stage (9,000 ft.). Sand- fcoal Measure
Barail series stones, carbonaceous shales and sub-series.
, coal seams.
I Naogaon stage (3,000-3,5 00 ft.).
J Sandstones.
J
The NAOGAON STAGE consists of hard, thin bedded,
Baggy sandstones forming prominent hills. The BARAGOLOI
STAGE shows grey sandstones intercalated with shales,
carbonaceous shales and coal seams as in the Baragoloi
colliery. The TIKAK PAR.BAT STAGE consists of alternating
sandstones, sandy shale, and shales associated with coal
seams such as those worked in the Nazira, Makum,
N amdang-Ledo and Tikak coal fields. There is a lateral
variation when these stages are followed from Upper Assam
to the N aga Hills and the Surma valley.
The Barail series occupies a large area north-west of
the Haflong-Disang fault. It is of varying extent in
different areas but well developed south-west of Lumding
and in North Cachar. The name is derived from the
Harail range which forms the water-shed between the
Brahmaputra and the Surma valleys.
In the area to the south-east of the Haflong-Disang
fault, in the southern part of Khasi and] aintia hills and
XVII] THE EOCENE SYSTEM, 47t
part of North Cachar, the Barail series shows a different
development, as shown below:
rRenp s~age (2,000-3,000 ft). Hard
1 massive sand~tont's .. Chattian.
I Jenam stage (3,000-4,000 ft ). Sand-
Barail series ~ stones alternatmg with shales and
I carbonaceous shales Lattorfian.
I Laisong sta,e,e (6,000-8,000 ft.). Hard,
I well beddf'd sandstones and subor- Bartonian to
l dinate shales Auversian .
. The Naogaon stage is the equivalent of the lower

La~song stage; the Baragoloi stage represents the upper
LaI!;ong and lower Jenam stages and the Tikak Parbat
stage represents the upper Jenam and lowermost Renji
stages.
The Barails show well-marked lateral variation>
thoygh the arenaceous element predominates on the
whole. The sandstones increase in coarseness in a north-
westerly direction. The argillaceom and carbonaceous
content increase north-eastwards, the latter to a marked
extent. There are no coal seams in the Surma valley.
They begin to develop east of the main part of the Dhansiri
valley, the seams being often 10 feet thick north-east of
the Dayang valley.
The maximum development of coal in the strata is in
the neighbourhood ofLcdo. Though carbonaceous matter
and thin seams are widely distributed, the thicker seams
are restricted to a comparatively small range of thickness
in the Baragoloi and Tikak Parbat stages. Oil seepages
also occur in' the Barails, the oil-bearing horizons being
mostly below the thick coal seams.
The Barails are poor in fossils, though there are abun-
dant plant remains in the upper stages. The lowest
Barails are regarded as Upper Lutetian. The Laisong
stage is the equivalent of the Pondaung sandstone of Burma,
of Upper Eocene age (Auversian to Bartonian!. The
Jenam stage is mainly l . . attorfian, i.e., Lower OlIgocene,
while the upper limit of the Barails is Chattian. There is
GEOLOGY Ol- INDIA AND BURMA. [CHAP,
a very well marked unconformity above the Barail series
all over Assam.
BURMA.
Eocene rocks are found in a belt stretching from the
Dutch East Indies through the Nicobar and Andaman
Islands and the Arakan Yoma to Upper Burma.
The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are composed,
for the most part, of Eocene rocks. The lower beds are
conglomerates and sandstones resting on rocks resembling
the Axials. They contain Nummulites atacicus and Assilina
and are therefore of Laki age. The same series is repre-
sented by limestones in Sumatra and Java.
Lower Burma.-The eastern foothills of the Arakan
Yoma in Lower Burma show Eocene rocks apparently
faulted against the pre-Tertiary rocks. They comprise
alternating sandstones, sandy shales and bluish shales
containing some carbonaceous matter and thin coal seams.
The sandstones are sometimes used as a building stone.
The shales contain fish scales and plant fossils. The
shales and thin limestones occurring in the upper beds
contain Nummulites. Coal seams occur in Eocene sand-
stone in the Henzada district but the coal is crushed and
friable and of little economic value.
Upper Burma.--The Eocene rocks of Upper Burma
comprise the following divisions:
6. Yaw shales (2,000 ft.). Manne blue ~hdles with Rtrtonian-
fosSIls Ludlan.
5. Pondaung s,mdstones (6,000 ft.). Conglomerates,
sandstones and vane gated clays with mamma-
lian fossils Auversian.
4. Tabyin clays (5,000 ft.). Green clays and sand-
stones with coal Up. Lutetian
3. Tilin sandstones (5,000 ft.). Greenish sandstones,
sparsely fosslhferous L. Lutehan ..
2. Laungshe shales (g,ooo- I 2,000 ft.). Blue Nummu-
litic shales, gypseous and concretionary, with
bands of sandstone Ypresian.
1. Paunggyi conglomerates (2,000-4,000 ft.). Con- Thanetian to
glomerates, grits and sandstonrs Danian.
The basal beds are grits and conglomerates which
unconformably rest on phyllites and slates of older age.
Because of their inconstancy, they arc regarded by G. de
P. Cotter as the lower part of th~ overlying Laungshe
shale stage. The LAUNGSHE SHALES are thin-bedded blue
clays, often concretionary and gypseous, with bands of
sandstone. They contain Nummulites atacicus, Opercultna
canalifera and some mollusca and correspond in age to the
Lakis, whereas the Paunggyi conglomerate may represent
part of the Ranikots. The TILIN SANDSTONES are marine
in the south and fluviatile in the north and increase in
thickness northward. They are sparl'ely fossiliferous, con-
taining Ampuilina, Area, Ostrea, Cerithium, Turritella and
Volutilithes and also fossil wood in places. The succeeding
T ABYIN GLA YS arc dark blue coloured shales with sandstones
and pebble-beds. They contain septarian nodules, lignitic
and carbonaceous nests and some coal seams especially in
the Pondaung range. The marine development in the
south contains the characteristic middle Kirthar fossils
Nummulites vredenburgi and N. acutus.
The PONDAUNG SANDSTONES are typically developed in
the Pondaung range, the lower part being conglomerates,
greenish sandstones and clays, and the upper part greenish,
purplish and variegated shales. As with other formations
they are marine in the south and brackish to fresh-water
in the north. They enclose fossil wood which is usually
carbonised in the lower part of the stage, and partly car-
bonised and p'artly silicified in the upper part. The con-
glomerate bed at the base contains Cardita mutabilis, Area
pondaungen5is, Aleetryonia newtoni, Corbula daltoni and some
gastropods. The freshwater facies consists of red, buff, and
cream coloured earths interstratified with sandstones. The
earthy beds contain reptilian and mammalian remains in
the Pakokku district, the chief mammalian fossils being:
Pnm'ltes Pondaungta cotten, Amphiplthecus mogaungensis.
Brontotheridre Swatllanops btrmanzcu71, S. cotlen.
Tapmdre ., Indolophus guptal, Deperetella birmanicum.
60
Anthracotherid<e Anthracothema pangatl, A. crassum, A. rubrrca"

Anthracokt'~yx hospes, A. btrmamcus, A. IInulS, A.
hambusae, AnthracokJiuS cllOeroides.
Tragulid<e Ir..domtryx cotterr, I. arenae.
The fossils indicate an upper Eocene (Auversian) age.
The YAW SHALES rest on the Pondaung sandstones
and comprise bluish grey shales of essentially marine
character, though the fluviatile representatives whh coal
seams are developed in the Min bu district. They often
show thin bands of impure calcareous matter, septarian
nodules, phosphatised coprolites (lnd fish remains, fora-
minifera and molluscs. The chief fossils are:
Foraminifera Nummulites .vawenSIS, Orthophragmrna omphalus, O.
sella, c.ypsrna globulus, Operculrna canalifera.
Lamellibranchs Solen manenSIS, Corbula sube>.arala, C. paukensls,
Meretrix (Calltsta) yawensls, Venus pasokensis,
Tellzna salinmsir, CardIUm AanlfarlUm, Lucina
yawellsis, Ostrra minhuen.m, Leda sz/Vtstrzs.
Gastropods Vrlates schmldt/zana, ()praedia blrmamca, Gosaula
blTmanica, Llthoconus graclizjpITa, Athleta rosallndae,
A archiaci, Volutdithes arakanerms, Clavillthes
cossmanm, Vela/es perversus, Ampul/Ina cf. grossa.
This fauna bears a distinct resemblance to that of the
Upper Eocene of Java and to the Upper Kirthar of
Western India.
RAJPUTANA.
The comparatively lowlying tracts of Bikaner and
Jaisalmer in south-western Rajputana were under the sea
in Eocene times. The strata exposed here belong to the
Laki series and especially its middle division, and comprise
a considerable thickness of white or pale buff limestone
with Nummulites atacicus and Assilina garnulosa.
The Eocene beds contain lignite beds which are
successfully worked at Palana in Bikaner, and also an
earthy brown shale used as fuller's earth.
CUTCH.
The Eocene marine invasion bas left deposits in Cutch
belonging to the Laki and Kirthar series. One of the two
bands is in the interior and rests upon the Deccan trap,
while .the other, nearer the coast, overlaps on to the
JurassIc rocks.
The lower beds are gypseous, pyritous and carbona-
ceous shales of Laki age overlain by Kirthar limestones
which attain a thickness of several hundred fect and enclose
Nummulites, echinoderms and other fossils. The Kirthars
arc succeeded by shales, calcareous shales and marls
containing numerous lamellibranchs and gastropods which
indicate a Gaj (Lower Miocene)age.
GUJARAT.
There are two exposures of Eocene rocks in the area

between Surat and Broach, separated by the alluvium of
the Kim river. The smaller southern exposure extends for
10 miles northward from the Tapti and is 15 miles at its
widest. The larger exposure, between the Kim and the
Narbada, is go miles long (N.E.-S.W.) and 12 miles wide.
The basal beds are impure limestones and some laterite
and contain such characteristic Ranikot Nummulites as
Nummulites thalicus, N. globosus and Discocyclina afr.
ranikotensis. The beds above these contain Assilina
exponens, Nummulites ramondi, Ostrea flemingi, Rostellaria
prestwichi, Natica longispira and Vulsella legumen which are
regarded as indicating a Kirthar age.
A large thickness (4,000-5,000 feet) of gravel, conglo-
merate, sandstones and shales, overlies the Eocene lime-
stones near Ratanpur east of Broach. The conglomerate
contains pebbles of agate and other forms of silica derived
from the denudation of the traps, these being excavated
and worked as semi-precious stones in Cambay. This
upper group is evidently of Gaj age as it contains the
valves of Balani common in the Gaj series of Sind.
PONDICHERRY AREA.
The discovery of Lower Eocene foraminifera (Nummu-
lites and Discocyclina) was announced by L. Rama Rao in
1939 in some limestones in the Pondicherry area which

was hitherto known to con tain only Cretaceous rocks.
Upper Eocene rocks with fossils of Lutetian to Bartonian
age have also been found in some borings ncar Pondichcrry.
It may therefore be expected that an Eocene sequence
will be found in this area overlying the Cretaceous rocks,
possibly partly under the Cuddalore sandstones of Miocene
age.
RAJAMAHENDRI (RAJAHMUNDR.Y).
The infra-trappean sandy limestone of the Raja-
mahendri area contains a fauna whose age appears to be
doubtful but more probably Upper Cretaceous according
to Medlicott and Blanford. The Inter-trappeans have
yielded a rich algal flora containing Acicularia, Neomeris,
Chara, etc. which have a decided Eocene aspect. The age
of these beds must remain in doubt until the results of
more detailed work are available.
CHAPTER XVIII.
OLIGOCENE AND LO\VER MIOCENE SYSTEMS.
General.- The uppermost part of the Eocene was
marked by an orogenic upheaval which marked the com-
mencement of the formation of the Alpine-Himalayan
system of mountains. The great thickness of sediments
which had accumulated in the Tethyan basin was now
compressed, corrugated and raised up and the sea was
shallowed up and restricted in extent. In the Oligocene,
however, sedimentation still continued but the large
thickness of sandstones and gritty shales which were laid
down bear evidence of shallow water deposition, the floor
of the sea sinking gradually as sedimentation proceeded.
These calcareous sandstones and greenish shales are
singularly uniform in appearance and constitute the bulk
of the 'flysch' formation similar to the Oligocene flysch of
southern Europe. Similar beds were deposited during the
Eocene and even in the Upper Cretaceous but the thick-
ness of these was much smaller than that of the Oligocene
rocks. This sedimentation continued until the Middle
Miocene when a second upheaval took place which
obliterated the Tethys but left a series of lagoons in front
of the Himalayas and connected arcs.
The Oligocene and lower Miocene rocks therefore
make up one stratigraphic unit. This is represented by
the Nari and Gaj beds of Sind-Baluchistan hills, the flysch
of Baluchistan, the Murree system of northwestern India
and the Pegu system of Burma. The coastal regions of the
Peninsula also experienced marine sedimentation in certain
restricted areas. The Oligocene-Lower Miocene deposits
may therefore be grouped under four principal types, viz.,
(I) an open-sea calcareous facies, (2) a shallow marine
flysch facies, (3) a lacustrine facies deposited towards the
Peninsula side of the mountains and (4) the coastal facies
of the Peninsula.
SIND AND BALUCHISTAN (CALCAREOUS FACIES).
The Calcareous facies of the Oligocene-Miocene is

developed in the Sind and Baluchistan mountains on the
eastern side of the Eocene strata. Two main divisions are
- recognised, viz., the Nari and Gaj series both named after
rivers on the Sind frontier. Both are characterised by
massive limestones but sandstones and shales also occur,
especially in the upper portion. When followed north-
wards the arenaceous element in the beds increases, show-
ng the approach to land in that direction.
Lower Nari.-The N ari series is well developed on the
eastern flanks of the Kirthar range and also to the west
of the Laki range throughout Lower Sind. It is divisible
into two sub-series. The lower Nari is variable in thick-
ness, from 100 to 1,500 feet, and consists mostly of lime-
stones. The lower beds are white and massive but the
upper are brown and yellow, inter-bedded with bands of
shale and layers of sandstone.
Upper NarL-The Upper Nari beds reach a maxi-
mum thickness of 4,000 to 6,000 feet and consist of thick-
bedded grey sandstones and subordinate shales and conglo-
merate. The rocks are mostly unfossiliferous but certain
bands are crowded with Lepidocyclina (L. dilatata group) of
very large size; often 2 inches or more across.
The Nari series corresponds with the Stampian and
Chattian, covering the greater part of the Oligocene.
Amongst its leading fossils, most of which come from the
lower division, are :
Foramuufera Nummulites intermediUS, N. vaseus, Lepidocyclina
dUatata
Corals Montllvaltla vignei.
EchinOlds Breyma multdubereulata, Eupatagus rostratus, Eehano-
lampas dlJcoldeus, Clypeaster simplex.
Lamellibranchs .. Ostrea fiaasa, O. orbicularis, O. angulata, Pecten
labadyel, P. artlcu/atus, Area semztorta, Luclna
eolumbella, Crassatella suleata, Callista splendlda,
C. tlXlntermedla, Venus puerpera, val'. aglaurae,
V. multilamella, P,tar porrectus.
XVIlI] OLIGOCENE AND LOWER MIOCENE SYSTEMS. 479
Gastropods Terebra narica, A,uilla indica, Volutospzna smdunsls,
Lyrza anceps, Cypraea subexClSa, Cmthium sznduns,
C. bhagothorense.
Gaj serieS.-The Nari series is overlain conformably
by the Gaj series which attains a thickness of 1,500 feet
and consists of yellow and brown limestones, either
massive or rubbly, with intercalations of white arenaceous
limestones, clays and gypsum. The lithology indicates
that the area of deposition was first marine and later
became gradually estuarine. The two divisions of the Gaj
have several fossils in common but there are also some
species exclusively found in each division.
The following fossils are found throughout:
Echinoids Breynia cannata, Eupatagus pateltans, Echinolampas
Jacquemonll, Clypeaster profundus, EchznodlScuS
placenta.
Gastropods Vlcarya verneuill, Tumtella angulata, TelescoplUm
sub-trochleare, OllVancllla nebulosa.
Lamelhbranchs Pecten scabrellus, P. senatonus, DOSlnta pseudoargus,
Venus granosa, Clementia papyracea, Dlscors tTl-
Jarmzs, Luczna columbel/a, etc.
The species found in Lower Gaj are Ostrea angulata,
Pecten labadeyi, P. articulatus and Lepidocyclina marginata.
Those in the Upper Gaj are Ostrea latimarginata (charac-
teristic), O. gajensis, O. imbricata, O. gingensis, O. vestita,
Pecten placenta, P. subcorneus, Area peethensis, A. burnesi, A.
semitorta and also some remains of Rhinoceros. The age
of the Lower Gaj is Aquitanian and that of the Upper Gaj
Burdigalian, both being Lower Miocene, and they corres-
pond respectively to the Rembang and Njalindung series
of Java.
BALUCHISTAN (FLYSCH FACIES).
Khojak shales.-Beyond the calcareous zone, in
Baluchistan, there occurs a vast series of sandstones, shales,
and sandy shales constituting the flysch zone which
includes the hills of the Zhob and Pishin valleys, the
Khwaja Amran range west of Quetta and almost the
whole of the Mekran province. This region is occupied
GEOLOGY OF INDIA AND BURM,\. [CHAP.
by closeset ridges consisting mostly of a monotonous series
of folded sandstones and slaty shales of a greenish colour
known as the Khojak shales which resemble the Oligocene
flysch of Europe. In the coastal region of Mekran the
strata are friable clays. The typical Khojak shales con
tain fossils only rarely. Amongst them are Nummulitef
(Camerina) intermedius, N. vaseus, Lepidocyclina (Eulepidina)
dilatata, Rotalia, Triloeulina, Globigerina, etc. They arc
apparently the equivalents of the Nari series.
Hinglaj sandstons.-Large masses of sandstones
with shale beds rest conformably upon these Oligocene
clays and make up the Peninsula of Ormara and Gwadar,
the Hinglaj mountains and other hills of the Mekran coast.
The shale intercalations sometimes contain fossils, especially
in the uppermost and lowermost horizons. The lowest
beds contain Turritella jauana, Ostrea gingensis, Area burnesi,
Dosinia pseudo-argus. The uppermost beds contain Pecten
vasseli as the commonest fossil and also Vertagus bonneti,
Crepidula subeentralis, Ostrea frondosa, O. eucullata, Area divari
eala, A. squamosa, A. tortuosa. The beds in the middle
contain Turritella angulata, T. bantamensis, T. bandoengensis,
Ostrea virleti, O. petrosa, O. digitalina, Area inflata, Clementia
papyraeea, Circe corrugata.
A large proportion of the Hinglaj species occurs in the
Miocene of Java and Burma, the fauna of the upper
portion bearing some resemblance to that of the Karikal
beds on the Madras coast. The Hinglaj beds correspond
to a part of the Lower Manchhars and are of Burdigalian
to Helvetian age.
NORTH-EASTERN BALVCHISTAN.
Bugti beds.-In the Bugti hills of Baluchistan the

marine element of the Nari series becomes very reduced,
being represented by a small thickness of brown arenaceous
limestone containing the characteristic Nummulites. These
are succeeded by a series of fluviatile sandstones with the
XVIII] OLIGOCENE AND LOWER MIOCENE SYSTEMS. 481
characteristic Gaj Ostreae at the base, the beds above

containing a rich vertebrate and fresh-water lamellibranch
fauna including the ribbed Unios (U. cardita, U. Vicaryi,
U. cardijormis.)
The vertebrates include:
Anthracotherium bugttense, A. mgens, Telmatodon bugl!ensis, Brachyodus
giganteus, B. hyopotamOldes, Paraceratherzum bugtzenns, Hemimeryx speclOSUS,
Aceratherium bugtlens, Teleoceras blanfordi, CadurcotherlUm md,cum, Baluchl-
therium sp., Pterodon bugtzensls, Amphuyon shahbaZI, Rhinoceros gaJensls.
These beds are of Gaj age, and the Lower Siwaliks rest
on them with an unconformity.
POTWAR PLATEAU AND JAMMU.
North-western Punjab and the adjoining regions of

Jammu and Kashmir contain one of the most complete
Tertiary sequences in India. This region was once a
basin of large dimensions in which were laid down very
thick deposits of brackish and fresh-water origin during the
Oligocene and Miocene times. The earlier deposits
(Lower Murrees) are of brackish water origin while the
late ones (Upper Murrees) arc fresh-water deposits.
Fatehjang zone.-The Chharat series of Upper
Eocene age is overlain, with an unconformity marked by a
bed of conglomerate about a foot thick, by the Fatehjang
zone which belongs to the basal part of the Murree series.
This zone consists of brown and grey sandstones and
pseudo-conglomerates. The numerous large Nummulites
with which their exposures are covered have been derived
from the denudation of the earlier beds. Several mamma-
lian fossils, indicating a lower Burdigalian age, are found
in the Fatehjang zone:
Anthracotherzum bugtzense, Hemimeryr sp. Brachyodus cf africanus
Palaeochoerus pascoei, Teleoceras fatehJangense.
Murree series.-The Fatahjang zone passes upward
into the Lower Murrees which consist of bright purple
shales, hard purple and grey sandstones and pseudo-conglo-
merates. They contain sparse fossils including leafimpres-
sions (e.g., Sabal major) and some lamellibranchs. The
6,
red colour of the rocks points to heavy oxidation and

rather dry conditions in the areas from which the sediments
were derived.
The upper Murrees are distinct from the lower,
especially in the Salt Range, being composed of soft, pale
coloured sandstones resembling the Chinji (Lower Siwalik)
sandstones to some extent. They contain impressions of
dicotyledonous leaves and remains of mammalia including
primitive rhinoceros.
The Murrees are typically seen at and near the hill
station of Murree and attain a maximum thickness of more
than 8,000 feet. They are developed in the eastern part
of the Salt Range and are succeeded by the Siwaliks.
They are regarded as of Burdigalian to Helvetian age
(i.e., Middle Miocene) and as the equivalents of the Upper
Pegu rocks of Burma.
The Murrees are the reservoir rocks of petroleum in
the Khaur oil field of the Potwar plateau, though the
petroleum probably originated from the underlying
Eocene rocks.
SIMLA HIMALAYA.
When followed eastwards from the Jammu area, the
Murrees diminish in thickness and are represented in the
Simla hills by the Dagshai and Kasauli beds which are
roughly the equivalents of the Lower and Upper Murrees
respectively. These beds, together with the underlying
Subathus, used to be included formerly under the SIRMUR
system.
Dagshai beds.-The Subathus are overlain by the
Dagshai beds which comprise a series of very hard, fine-
grained grey or purplish brown quartzitic sandstones inter-
calated with seams of red clay. The clays predominate
in the lower part but the sandstones gradually increase
in proportion and thickness in the upper part. The
sandstones are massive, 5 to 20 ft. in thickness, and
scarcely show any stratification. The clays are purplish
brown~ mottled with grey, and are harder than either
XVIII] OLlGOctNE AND LOWER MIOCENE SYSTEMS. 483
the Kasauli or Nahan (Lower Siwalik) clays. Though
no disconformity is apparent between the Subathus and
the Dagshais, the former is Upper Eocene and the latter
Lower Miocene in age and there is a stratigraphical gap
between. The transition between the two is somewhat
abrupt and is marked by pisolitic marl (a reu clay con-
taining calcareous concretions) purple shale and white
sandstone with ferruginous concretions.
Kasauli beds.-The Dagshai beds pass conformably
up into the Kasauli beds in which there is an absence of
bright red clays. The Kasaulis are essentially a sandstone
group with minor argillaceous bands, the sandstones being
grey to greenish in colour and generally softer, coarser and
more micaceous than the Dag~hai sandstones. The argil-
laceous bands are gritty, greenish or brown and weather
into angular splintery chips. The Kasaulis are poor in
fossils, impressions of palm leaf (Sabat major) and Unio
shells being found. The lithology indicates that the
Dagshais are brackish water deposits and the Kasaulis
fresh-water ones.
ASSAM.
The rock groups falling into the Oligocene and
Miocene in -Assam are the Barail and Surma series.
The Barail series has already been dealt with under the
Eocene system. The upper limit of the Barails is about
Chattian (Upper Oligocene) where a widespread un-
conformity occurs throughout Assam.
Surma series.-The Surma series rests on a denuded
and irregular' platform of Barail rocks and includes the
rocks between the Barail and Tipam series. In the Surma
valley the following sub-divisions have been recognised:
Boka Bll stage Sandy shales, SiltS, sandstones and Burdigalian.
(3,000-5,000 ft.) ferruginous sandstones.
jU pper . Sandstones, sandy shales")
I and conglomerates. I Acquitanian,
Bhuban stage I Middle: Shales and sandy sholes r
(4,000-8,000 ~ and occasional conglomerates. I
ft.)
l Lower: Sandstones, sandy shales :
and conglomerates. J Chattian.
The Surma series is developed in the Surma valley,

North Cachar hills, Manipur and parts of Upper Assam.
The rocks are mainly arenaceous but the sandstones are
strikingly different from the fairly coarse, massive ferru-
ginous and false-bedded sandstones of the overlying Tipam
series. Good but not complete sections are seen in the
Jenam valley. The Bhuban stage takes its name from the
prominent scarp of the Bhuban range in North Cachar.
The Boka Bil stage is seen as long strips of narrow ridges
in the marshy ground of the Hailakandi valley and
other places. The Surma series is of less thickness in
Upper Assam and is absent from large areas, the Tipams
overlapping them. It is poor in carbonaceous material,
contrasting thus with the coal-bearing Barails below and
the lignite-bearing Tipams above. Fossils are locally
abundant but fragmentary, e.g., ncar Kanchanpur, where
a fauna of the upper Bhuban stage is found which is closely
allied to Upper Pegu forms of Aquitanian age (Lower
Gaj). In the Garo hills fossils have been obtained from a
higher horizon-Burdigalian.
The Miocene fauna from the Garo Hills recently
described by P. N. Mukherjee (Pal. Ind. N. S. XXVIII,
No. I, 1939), includes:
Lamellibranchs .. Nucula alcoch, Lucina pagana, Mactra protoreevesii
CardIum protosubrugosum, C. mmbuense, Macro-
calluta erycma, Dostnla subpemctllata, ClementIa
papyracea, Trindos semitorta, Barbatla batavtana,
Anadara eratlcuiata, A. garoensls, CMamys se1Ul-
tona, Ostrea iatlmarglnata.
Gastropods Archltectonica cf. nitens, Calyptraea rugosa, Natica
pelils tlgrina, Smum protonentoldeum, Tumtella
angulata, Slphonalta subspadlcea, M,tra chznensis,
OLIVa australis, OllVancdlaria nebulosa, Terebra
woodwardlana, Turricula promensls, Conus odeng-
ens!s.
BURMA: PEGU SERIES.
The Pegu series occupies the tract between the
Irrawaddy and Sittang rivers including a large part of the
XVIII] OLIGOCENE AND LOWER MIOCENE SYSTEMS. 4a5
Pegu Yomas. It is also found west of the Irrawaddy
between the Eocene strata and the later Irrawaddian beds.
It is marine in the south but fluviatile to continental in the
north, and, because of the lateral variation the correlation
of beds in different areas is not an easy m~tter. Table 46
shows the classification of the Pegus adopted by the
Geological Survey.
TABLE 46.-THE PEGU SERIES (G. S. I.).
Akauktaung stage Grits, conglomerates, sandstones Vindobonian
and some shales. (L. Siwalik)
Pyalo stage .. Sandstone~, shales and pebble Burdigalian
(1,500 ft) bed~ containing Ostrea lati- (Up. Gaj.).
margtnata
Kama stage .. Sandstones and shales with rich Acquitanian
(1,50 - 2 ,000 ft ). gastropod fauna. (Lr. Gaj ).
Singu stage .. Sandstones and shales with nu- Chattian
(1,500 ft.) merou~ molluscs.
(Up. Nari).
Sitsayan stage .. Shales and sandstones with Lepi- Stampian
(Lr. Nari).
(1,50-3,000 ft.) docyclina.
Shwezetaw stage .. Sandstones with Ampullina bir- Lattorfian.
(3,000 ft.) mamca.
The Shwezetaw. stage consists of shales in Lower
Burma but becomes arenaceous when followed northwards.
In the Minbu district it is a shallow-water sandstone.
Thin coal seams of poor quality with numerous sandy
partings occur near the Yaw river. Near Shinnadaung,
north of Pakokku, the sandstones contain Ampullina bir-
manica. Other fossils found are Cardita cr. mutabtlis, Ostrea
spp., Vicarya'sp., etc.
The Sitsayan shales are well developed in the
Henzada and Prome districts. They are mainly blue
clays with poorly developed bedding but contain beds of
marl and thin sandstones especially in the upper part.
Amongst the fossils are Tritonidea, Corbula, Pecten, etc.,
while Lepidocyclina theobaldi occurs in the ~p~er pa~t.
The Padaung Clays of the Minbu dlstnct whIch are
blue clays with some grey litnestones, are their equivalents
and contain Nucula alcocki, Tellina indi}ferens, Genota irravadi-

ca, CyprtCa subexcisa, Clavilithes seminudus, Hindsia pardalis,
Athleta theobaldi, I)ria varicosa.
Sing,u stage.-The Pegu rocks exposed in the Singu
and Yenangyaung oil-fields are typical of this stage, being
sandstones and shales. This stage is represented in the
Minbu district by shallow marine deposits and in Pakokku
by estuarine deposits. Among the fossils of this stage are:
Corals Dendrophyllla dIgItalis, D. macronana.
Lamellibranchs .. L,ma protosquamosa, Pteria suessiana, Septifer nico-
bancus, Nucula alcocki, Cardlta scabrosa, Trachy-
cardium mmbuense, Pltar protoiliaetna, Corbula
rugosa.
Gastropods Archttectonica maxima, Slgaratus neritoideus, Turri/el-
la angulata, Vicarya verneulli, CaSSIs, btrmanica,
Tntomdea martmlana, Athleta jacobsl, Mitra
singuensls, Ancllla blrmanica, Genota Irravad,ca,
Conus odengensis.
Kama stage.-This stage is named after Kama, 18
miles from Pro me and consists, in Lower Burma, of blue
shales and sandy shales with occasional sandstones. It
has been called the Padaukpin clay in the Thayetmyo
district. It consists of soft sandstones and shales with-
brackish and fresh-water fauna. The fauna of the Padauk-
pin clays includes-Leda virgo, Carbula socialis, Turritella
acuticarinata, T. angulata, Rimella Javana, Pyrula promensis,
Cassidaria echinophora, Ranella antiqua, Conus odengensis,
nrillia protocincta.
The mammalian fossils found in this stage arc:
Anthracotheridae Telmatodon sp.
Rhinoceratidae Cadurcotherium sp.
Tragulidae Dorcathmum blrmamcum.
pyalo stage.-This is an arenaceous stage found
in Lower Burma around Pyalo on the Irrawaddy, and
characterised by the occurrence of Ostrea latimarginata.
Terebra promensis, Turritella pinfoldi and Terebra myaunguensis
also occur.
Akauktaung stage.-N amed after the Akauktaung

hills in the Henzada district, this stage comprises grits,
conglomerates and yellow sandstones with bands of blue
shales and calcareous sandstone. The marine fossils in
this stage include Ostrea gingensis, O. virleti, Area burnesi,
Cytherea eryeina, Dione dubiosa, Turritella acuticarinata, T.
simplex and Conus literatus. The fresh-water representatives
of these beds in Upper Burma have yielded Cyrena petrolei
and Batifsa crawfordi.
The geologists of the Burmah Oil Company have
adopted a different classification of the Pegus in which the
two lowermost divisions are the same as those in the
Geological Survey classification. An unconformity ana
palreontological break occurs in the middle of the series,
the portion below it corresponding to the Oligocene and
that above to the Miocene. The classification, as pub-
lished by G. W. Lepper, is shown below:
TABLE 47.-THE PEGU SERIES (B.O.C.).
ir
Obogon alternatIons (g,ooo ft.). Rapidly alter-
nating thin beds of sands and sandy clay
or clay. Often missing In the north ., Vindbonian.
~
Kyaukkok sandstones (5,000 ft ). Include the
~ Prome sandstones and the highest Pegu
til sandstones of the central Ollficlds. Y 1"110-
g wish brown sandstones and suhordlnate
:: I sandy shales with a rich lamelhbranch
, fauna .. Burdigalian.
\ Pyawbwe clays (3,000 ft.). Concretionary blue
l sandy clays and thin sandstones with gyp-

sum. Fossils abunadnt
~Unconformity~
Aquitanian.
Okhmtntaung sandstones (3,000 ft.). Massive
~
. f
sandstones, sandy shales with thin grey
l'
clays . . Chattian.
~ Padaung clays (2,500 ft). Bluegrey clays
g with limestone bands .. Stampian.
::l Shwe:::;etaw sandstone (2,000-4,000 ft.). Arena-
i
o ceo us in the north and argillaceous in the
L south Lattorfian.
The Pegu strata show a great deal of variation in
constitution from place to place, the marine facies of .the
southern areas gradually changing northwards mto
brackish and fresh-water facies in Upper Burma. The
upper beds in the north contain fossil wood, which may
be carbonaceous, calcareous, siliceous or ferruginous, but
less abundant than in the overlying Irrawaddy system.
Ecollomic Importance: Petroleum.-The Pegus con-
tain the chief petroliferous horizons of Burma. The
petroleum has apparently migrated from older beds into
the anticlinal crests in the Pegu sandstones. The petro-
leum and gases are kept in by beds of impervious argilla-
ceous strata capping the sands.
The most productive oil-fields of Burma are those of
Upper Chindwin, Yenangyat in the Pakokku district,
Singu in Myingyan, Yenangyaung in Magwe and minor
fields in Mibu and Theyetmyo. The main Chindwin-
Irrawaddy valley is a syncline with a monocline on the
west and a series of broad folds on the east. The main
oilfie1ds are situated on the first anticline east of the main
syncline. Yenangyaung is the most productive field in
Burma and has maintained its high production (about
130 million gallons per year) for a long period. Singu
ranks second with a production of 90 million gallons, the
producing sands here being at depths of 1,400 , 1,800, 3,000
and 4,500 feet depth. Lanywa is on the structural
continuation of Singu. Yenangyat and Sabe are on a
structure slightly to the east of the Singu one. The
Indaw field in Upper Chindwin is the most northerly field
now worked, while the southernmost group includes the
Minbu, Yethaya and Palanyon fields.
Many seepages of oil and gas occur on the Arakan
coast and the neighbouring islands. The chief fields in
Assam are in the Lakhimpur district of Upper Assam
(Digboi), Surma valley (Badarpur) and at Masimpur.
Numerous oil and gas seepages arc known in N orth-
western India but the structures in general are either too
Khaur and Dhulian are from dome-like structures. The

deepest producing zone here is over 7,700 feet deep. The
oil is believed to have originated in the Nummulitic strata
and migrated into the Murrees.
IGNEOUS ACTIVITY.
The Extra-peninsular region bears evidence of con-

siderable igneous activity, especially of the plutonic
phase, in Lower Tertiary times. Several types of rocks are
known but the dominant ones are granite and grano-
diorite. The hornblende-and tourmaline-granites of
the main Himalayan range were probably intruded mainly
as a result of earth movements of the first Himalayan
Upheaval and some of them may belong to the second
upheaval.
THE PENINSULA.
Cutch.-Two bands of Tertiary rocks occur in Cutch.

The Eocene is overlain by Nari and Gaj strata comprising
buff coloured limestone with interbedded variegated shales
and marls. These beds are over 1,000 feet thick and dip
towards the coast.
The Lower Nari contains Nummulites intermedius and
the Upper Nari Lepidocyclina. The Gaj strata are rich
in fossils including-Brtynia carinata, Ostrea angulata, O.
gingensis; Terebra kachhensis, Pleurotoma bonneti, Drillia
kachhensis, Lithoconus odengensis, Oliva australis var. indica,
Athleta dentatq, Lyriajugosa, Ranella bufo, Rimella subrimosa,
Turritella angulata.
They are overlain by the equivalents of the Siwalik
system.
Kathiawar.-Theyare highly fossiliferous Gaj beds
at the western extremity of Kathiawar, overlain by soft
gypsiferous clays and sandy foraminiferal limestones
which are called DWARKA BEDS. They have not been
studied in detail but are supposed to represent the Hinglaj
beds of Baluchistan. In eastern Kathiawar and especially
62
in the island of Piram, there are Siwalik sandstones which

have yielded mammalian fossils.
Gujarat.-In the Surat-Broach area the Eocene
rocks are succeeded by gravels, conglomerates, sandy clays
and calcareous and ferruginous sandstones, about 3,000-
5,000 feet thick. The conglomerate contains abundant
pebbles of agate and trap. The fossils found in these beds
(e.g., Lepidocyclina caneili, Nephrolepidina sumatrensis) indicate
a Gaj age.
Ratnagiri.-On the Ratnagiri coast, south of Bombay,
beds ofGaj age are exposed, overlain by laterite. The Gaj
beds are bluish clays with sandy and gravely layers, some-
times with lignitic material and nodules of resin and
pyrites.
Baripada beds.-At Molia near Baripada, the capital
of the State of Mayurbhanj in Orissa, there are exposed
yellow and yellowish brown limestones full of shells of
Ostrea (resembling O. gajensis). These limestones pass
upwards into thin-bedded greysih white or pale greenish
clays. Similar sections are seen around Baripada under a
varying thickness of laterite averaging 20 feet. A boring
at Baripada traversed through 150 feet of these rocks
without reaching the bottom. Several fossiliferous beds
were traversed, especially one layer full of Rotalia at a
depth of 142 feet. These beds are regared as of Miocene
age (Gaj). Beds of about the same age occur near
Cuttack and in the Midnapur district of Bengal.
Durgapur beds.-Railway and road cuttings near
Kalipur and Khairasol east of the Raniganj coalfield in
Bengal expose coarse yellow and white felspathic grits
with beds of white, bluish grey and mottled clays, and thin
bands of hard ferruginous grit. They occupy a large area
between the Damodar and Ajai rivers but are largely
covered by laterite. Lithologically these rocks resemble
the Cuddalore sandstones (Miocene) of the east coast
though there is a possibility of their being of Upper
XVIII] OLIGOCENE AND LOWER. MIOCENE SYSTEMS. 49 1
Gondwana age. Similar beds OCcur further north near
Muhammad Bazar.
Rajamahendri sandstones.-Tertiary rocks which
are correlated with the Cuddalore sandstones occur near
Rajamahendri. They are red and yellow sandstones,
grits, and conglomerates with pockets of ironstone and
earthy ochre, resting unconformably on the Deccan trap
or older rocks.
Conjeevaram gravels.-A fairly large area of grits,
gravels and shingles occurs between the laterite and
Upper Gondwanas of the Madras region north of Con-
jeevaram. Their age is not known and may be any-
thing from Miocene to Pleistocene.
Cuddalore sandstones.-Overlying the Upper Cre-
taceous rocks of the Trichinopoly and South Areot
districts, there are ferruginous sandstones and mottled
grits extending from Pondicherry to Madura and further
south. They are named after Cuddalore in South Arcot
at the mouth of the Ponnaiyar river. The rocks include
some argillaceous and silicified sandstones and contain
lumps and veins of chert, and have a gentle seward dip.
They contain algal, foraminiferal and molluscan remains
(Ostrea, Fusus, Terebra, Oliva, Conus, etc.) and at Tiru-
vakkarai near Pondicherry a number of large silicified
tree trunks (Peuce schimzdiana). A few miles south of
Tanjore they contain rounded pebbles of transparent
quartz used locally for making beads and spectacle lenses.
<luilon and Warkalli (Varkala) Beds.-A series of
current-bedded sandstones and variegated clays with
thin seams of lignite form the coastal fringe from Quilon
to Warkalli (Varkala). They are capped by laterite and
are thought to be of the same age as the Cuddalore sand-
stones (Miocene).
At Padappakkara near Quilon, some beds consisting
of limestones, sands and clays have been met with in wells
at a depth of a few feet. The limestone is seen in a cliff
49 2 GEOLOGY OF INDIA AND BURMA. rCHAP.
near the coast and also at depths up to 40 feet, in the
neighbourhood of Quilon. The limestone beds contain
corals and molluscus and are often full of the foraminifera
Orbiculina malab"rica. Some of the fossils in them are:
Corals Stylopora pulchernma, Leptocyathus cr. epithteata.
Lamellibranchs .. Paratlelopipedum prototortuosum, Arca theobaldt,
Nucula cancellala, PectunculuJ Jtndunsls
Gastropods SlrombUJ fortlsi, Conus catenulatus, C. ham:.a,
Rlmella subrimosa, Voluta Jugosa.
The fauna is essentially upper Miocene to Pontain and
bears some resemblance to the Gaj and Karikal faunas.
Since the Karikal beds are assigned a Pliocene age they
are described in the next chapter.
Ceylon.-Upper Miocene to Pontian rocks occur
along the north-western coastal strip of Ceylon and are
known as the Kudremalai and Jafl'na series. They com-
prise limestones and mottled sandy shales. The lime-
stones have yielded several foraminifera and mollusca
(E.J. Wayland and A.M. Davies Q.J.G.S., LXXIX,
P577-602 , 1923) which point to a Tortonian-Pontian age.
The beds are correlated with the Quilon beds and are
regarded as older than the Karikal beds. Amongst the
fossils of these beds are :
Foraminifera . . Orbiculina malabanca, OPerculma sp. Floscult.
tulia sp. Miliolidae (several).
Echinoderms . Cfypeaster depressus, Schizaster sp.
Lamellibranchs . . Arca puthensis, AVicula cf. suwiana, Spondylus
rouaulti, Pinna pachyostraca, Cardium sharpei,
Cardlta inttrmedta, Oslreat virlelz.
Gastropods . . Trochus cognatus, Phasianella owem, Natica rosta-
lma, Cmlh,um cf. rude, Ouula ell IPSO ides, Oliva
pupa, Conus brevis.
CHAPTER XIX.
MIDDLE MIOCENE TO LOWER PLEISTOCENE.
NORTH-WESTERN INDlA : THE SIWALIK SYSTEM.
Introduction.-The close of the Murree period

,"oincided with the main period of Himalayan orogeny.
'There were already the remnants or an arm of the sea in
front of the ranges and this extended as an almost con-
tinuous narrow basin in the areas now occupied by the
HimalaYdn foothills over the whole length of the Himalaya.
This depression (the 'fore deep ') was the site of the de-
position of the Siwalik strata commencing with the Middle
Miocene and extending through Pliocene to Lower Pleisto-
cene. The sediments bear the characters of deposition in
fresh water and their immense aggregate thickness (over
16,000 feet) indicates that the site of deposition kept sinking
as the sediments accumulated. This was probably aided
by the tangential compression of the crust which should
have been active at least intermittently, during the period
of sedimentation.
Distribution.-The Siwalik system takes its name
from the Siwalik hills of the Hardwar region between the
Ganges and Jumna rivers. It extends continuously along
the foot of the Himalaya from the Brahmaputra valley
on the east to the Potwar plateau and the Bannu plains
on the west. Its equivalents intervene between the Indus
plains and the early Tertiaries of the Sind-Baluchistan
hills. The re-entrant angle near Quetta ex.hibits a com-
plete development of these rocks, the Zarghun mountain
mass in this region forming a synclinal of these rocks.
Similarly, in the Burmese, arc, we see their equivalents on
both sides of the Arakan Y omas, both in Assam and in
Burma.
The rock groupS have received different names in the
different areas. They form the Siwalik system along the
494 CEO LOGY OF INDIA AND BURMA. [CHAP.
outer Himalayas; the Manchhar system in Sind; the
Mekran series in the Mekran region of Baluchistan; the
Dihing series in Assam and the Irrawaddy system in Burma.
Constitution.--The Siwalik system is made up of
sandstones, grits, conglomerates, pseudo-conglomerates,
clays and silts having the characters of fluviatile deposits
of torrential streams and floods in shallow fresh-water
basins. The fossils included in them show that the earlier
beds were deposited in a somewhat brackish environment
as compared with the later ones. Some of the latest
deposits may be continental, i.e., left on dry land by
temporary heavy floods. There is a considerable amount
of ferruginated matter, especially in some of the older
horizons, which indicates that the sediments were derived
partly from an old and well oxidised terrain. Coarser
and finer sediments alternate. The sandstones show poor
stratification and are generally ungraded as to grain size.
They are felspathic, micaceous and current-bedded and
some of them have clearly been derived from the break-
down of the central Himalayan granites.
The Siwaliks have been involved in the later phases
of Himalayan orogeny, for we find them often folded,
faulted, overthrust and lying at steep angles against other
formations. Where overthrust, there is often an inversion
of the normal order of superposition. The main overthrust
in which the Siwaliks are involved used to be called the
, Main boundary Fault' but recent work has shown that
there are at least three major thrusts in the Himalaya in
addition to less important local ones. These thrusts may,
in some instances, mark the limits of deposition of the
older series involved, but there has been so much move-
ment that even within the Siwaliks the older strata are
found thrust over younger ones and lying with very
abnormal dispositions.
Conditions of deposition.-The coarse and often un-
graded sandstones show that they must have been borne
by rapidly flowing and large masses of water and laid
XIX] MIDDLE MIOCENE TO LOWER PLEISTOCE!I1r:. 495
down in wide depressions of shallow water or in swampy
areas. The alternation of coarse and fine sediments
suggests seasonal deposition, the coarse materials during
floods of the wet season and the fine sediments during the
drier season. The extraordinary similarity of the deposits
over long distances along the strike would show that the
source rocks were similar and that the basin of deposition
was practically continuous. The large thickness of the
coarse materials makes us infer that the area of deposition
was sinking in pace with the sedimentation. At the same
time there was a gradual southward shift of the basin with
each fresh pulse of the uplift. It is almost certain that the
Siwaliks extend down for several miles underneath the
alluvial cover of the Indus and Ganges valleys.
The occurrence of this important strip of fluviatile
rocks all along the foot~hill regions of the Himalaya frum
Assam to Punjab and thence to Sind has led to the view,
advocated by Sir E.H. Pascoe and Dr. G.E. Pilgrim,
that the Siwaliks were laid down in the flood plains of a
single large river (the Indobrahm or Siwalik River) which
rose in Assam and followed the present line of distribution
of these deposits. The present author and N. K. N.
Aiyengar have discussed this question (Rec. 75, Paper No.6,
1940) and shown that the available evidence points to the
basin of deposition being a continuous lagoon or foredeep
formed in front of the Himalayan range.
Climatic conditions.-The Siwalik deposits give
evidence of a warm humid climate through the greater
part of the period of sedimentation. The coarse materials,
which are often fresh, may have been derived from the
north and the finer ferruginous clays from the ancient
Peninsular area to the south, the one contributing material
during the wet flood season and the other during the dry
season. Some chemical decay may have also taken place
under the swampy conditions in which the sediments were
laid down. The earlier Siwalik period-that of the Lower
Siwaliks and the lower part of the Middle Siwaliks-was
49 6 GEOLOGY OF tNDIA AND BURMA. [CHAP.
apparently a wet period, or alternatively, the sediments

were deposited in shallow water. In Dhok Pathan times
there is evidence that the humidity was less and that the
sedimentation took place in partly marshy and partly
dry land. The disturbance at the end of the Middle
Siwalik times raised the deposits into dry land and shifted
the basin southwards. The Upper Siwaliks again show
the return of wetter conditions. Towards the end of
Tatrot times another uplift took pla.ce and the climate
became distinctly cooler. The animals which lived in the
marshes and valleys migrated away Or died, as the subse-
quent deposits were of semi-glacial cha.racter.
Organic remains.-The great bulk of the Siwalik
formations is unfossiliferous but certain areas are rich in
fossils. These include plants, mollusca, fishes, reptiles and
mammals. The plant remains consist of leaf impressions
in clays and tree trunks in sandstones. The tree tr_unks are
silicified but in most cases the finer woody structures are
not preserved. The mammalian remains are the most
important fossils as they are of great help in dividing the
formations into stages and as they indicate the stages of
development through which the animals passed before
they disappeared from the scene of life. The present day
mammals in India are but the poor remanants of the rich
variety that lived formerly in the swamps and forests of the
Siwalik basin. The relics consist of hard, bony parts, skulls,
jaws and teeth. Their abundance testifies to the very
favourable conditions of claimate and hydrology, abun-
dance of food and suitable environment for entombment
of the remains.
The detailed study of the mammalian remains in many
countries has thrown much light on the origin, evolution
and migration of the animals. Some groups like the pigs,
hippopotamus and ancestral elephants are believed to have
originated in Africa and later migrated into Asia. The
horse is supposed to have come from North America through
Alaska and a land bridge across the Behring straits. It is
XIX] MIDDLE MIOCENE TO LOWER PLEISTOCENE. 497
an interesting fact that the horse became extinct in
N. America by the Pleistocene and was reintroduced there
by man from Europe.
Divisions.-The Siwalik system is divided into three
series, Lower, Middle and Upper. There is a definite,
though not always well-marked, break between the middle
and upper series and other local breaks are known. The
lithological characters are not always helpful because of
the repetition of the same deposit'l, but palreontological
characters constitute the chief criteria for classification.
The chief sub-divisions and stages are given in Table 48
together with their lithology and age.
TABLE 48.-SIWALIK SUCCESSION (N. W. INDIA).
(AFTER G. E. PILGRIM).
rBoulder
'
I
Conglomerate. coarse~L' Pleistocene
conglomerates, sands, grits
and some clays.
(Cromenan).
Upper Siwalik
(6,000- 8 ,000 tit. )
i PtnJor stage. Coarse grits, sand- V'll''''
stones and conglomerates.
: Tatrot stage. Soft sandstoneS,}
I hrunc h'Ian.
l drab clays and some conglo- Astian.

merates.
1
( Dhok Pathan stage. Brown sand-i
I stones, gravel beds, orange Pontian.
Middle Siwalik clays and drab shales.
(6,000-8,000 ft.) Nagn stage. Hard grey sand- S t'
stones and subordinate shales. arma Ian.
Chinjl stage. Bnght red Shales}up. Tortonian.
[
and sandstones.
Lower Siwalik
(5,000 ft.) 'l
~ Kamlzal stage. Hard red sand-
stones, purple shales and L. Tortonian.
Pseudo-conglomerates.
!CamUsl stage. -This is named after Kamlial (33 01 5'

72 30 ') near Khaur and consists of hard red sandstones
with clay nodules (pseudo-conglomerates) and purple
shales, the sandstones forming conspicuous strike-ridges.
The Kamlials of the Jammu area are not easily separable
from the Murrees, especially as they are also poorly fossili-
ferous. The chief mammalian remains are :
63
GEOLOGY OF tND1A AND nURMA. tCHAP.
(Carnivora) Amphicyon and Hyaenelurus; (Proboscidea)
Dinotherium, Trilophodon _: (Suidre) Palaeochoerus and
Lis/riodan. The earlier Proboscidea like Maeritherium and
Hemimastodon as well as the Rhinoceratids like Diceratherium,
Teleoceras, Baluchitherium and Aceratherium, and Griffids
like Progiraffa which were present in an earlier age had
disappeared.
Chinji stage.-Taking its name from Chinji (32041':
7222'), this stage shows alternating soft light grey sand-
stones and red shales. The sandstones are rather subordi-
nate in the Potwar area but are predominant in the Jammu
hills where they are not easily distinguished from the
Kamlials. This stage is 3,000 feet thick and of longer
duration than the previous one and contains a large
number of animal remains and also fossil wood. The
mammals include:
(Primdtes) Dryopithecus, Sivap'thecus, Bramapithecus, (Carnivora)
Dissopsallj, Amphlcyon, M artes, EomelllVora Sivalictis, Lycyaena, Sansa-
nosmlius, Vlshllujells " (Proboscidea) Dmotherum, Tnlophodon, Semden-
lInus, Synconolophus, Anancus, Sttgolopltodon; (Equidre) H,pparlOn; (Chah-
cotheridcr) Macrothmum; (Rlllnoceratidcr) Galndaillerlum, Aceraille.
num; (Suidcr) CO'IO~yus, LlStnodon, Propotamochoerus, Dlcoryphochoerus,
Samthmum; (Anthracotheridae) Hyoboops, Hemtmtryx, Ttlmatodon>
(Tragulidre) Dorcabunt, Dorcathenum; (Giraffidre) Gtraffolceryx; Propala-
eomeryx, Glraffa.
Of these, Macrotherium, Hipparion and Gaindatherium
are supposed to have migrated into India from America.
Numerous reptiles like crocodiles, turtles, pythons and
lizards are found in these rocks as also shells of Unio. In
the Hardwar area the Lower Siwaliks have been called
Nahan beds and they correspond mainly to the Chinji stage.
Nagri stage.-This stage (after Nagri, 3246'; 7221'
in the Attock district) consists of hard grey sandstones with
a small proportion of shales and clays. It is poorly fossili-
ferous, many of the animals of the previous stage having
apparently disappeared. Several Primates-Bramapithecus,
Sivapithecus, and Sugrivapithecus are present. Among the
Carnivores, Amplticyon and Sivanasua persist and Crocuta
XIX] MIDDLE MIOCENl? TO LOWER PLEISTOCENE. 499
appears. No Proboscidra have been found. Hipparion,
Gaindatherium and Aceratherium continue. Several of the
pig family are found such as Palaeochoerus Conohyus,
Listriodon, Lophochoerus, Propotamochoerus, Dicoryphochoerus,
Hippohyus and Sus. Hemzmeryx (Anthracotheroid), Dorca-
bune, Dorcatherium (Tragulid) and Girqlfokeryx have also
been found.
Dhok Pathan stage.~This is named after Dhok
Path an (338': 7221') on the Soan river and comprises
brown sandstones drab shales, orange days and some beds
of gravel. It is the richrst fossiliferous stage of the Siwaliks
and has yielded a large number of fossils amongst which
are:
(PrImates) Macacus, Swaplthecus , (Rodentia) Rhl{.omys and Hystrix ,.
(Ursidre) AgrwtheTlum, Indarctos,. (Mustehdre) PromelllVora, Enhydriodon,
Slvaonyx; (Hyaemda:) Icttthmum, Lycyaena, Crocuta, (Fehda:) AleuropSls,
Mellivorodon, Paramachoerodus, FellS, (Proboscidea) Dlnothmum, Tnlo-
phodon, Tetralophodon, Synconolophus, Stegolophodon, Stegodon; (EqUldce)
Hlppanon; (Rhmoceratid.e) Acerathmum,~ Rhmoceros " (Smda:) Ltstno
don, Tetraconodon, PropoiamochoerUf, Dlcoryphochoerus, Hyosus, Hippohyus,
Sus, (Anthracotherida:) Choeromeryx, Merycopotamus, (Hlppopotamidre)
HIppopotamus; (Traguhda:) Dorcabune, Dorcatherzum, Tragulus, (Cer.
vidae) Cervus; (Giraffidre) Hydaspltherzum, Vlshnutherz~m, Bramathenum,
Glraffa; (Bovlda:) TaurotraguJ, Pmmla, Tragocerus, Boselaphus,
Proleptobos.
Several of the giraffe family and the short-jawed
proboscidean Synconolophus are confined to this stage
while the Bovid((J filst make their appearance here.
Tatrot stage.-This stage, named after Tatrot (320
52': 732 I') 'is made up of conglomerates, soft sandstones
and drab and brown clays. At its base is a conglomerate
indicating a phycisal break. The sediments are distinctly
coarser than before, possibly on account of an uplift of
the area from which they were derived and higher
gradients. The animal remains in this are represented
by Pentalophodon and Stegodon. A true (one-toed) h~rse,
Equus sivalensis, the pigs Hippohyus and Sus and also HZppQ-
potamus have been found in this stage.
Pinjor stage.-This stage (named after Pinjor ncar

Kalka in the Simla foot-hills) shows distinctly coarse
sediments composed of pebble beds and sandstones. It
contains a rich fauna which can be regarded as the
immediate ancestors of the present-day animals:
(Pnmates) l'aplO, Semnopllhec IS, Simia; (Rodentia) Rhl~omys,
Nesokia, l/.ystrix; (Carmvora) Canis. AgrlOthmum, Slnlctls, MelllVora,
Lutra, Enlrydrwdon, Vwerra, Hyaentctis, Crocuta. Megantereon, Panthera.
)F'lis: Proboscidea) Pentalopho.fon. Stegodon, Stegolophodon. Archldiskodon,
Hypselephas .. (Equidcr) Equus ; (Rhmoceratidcr) Rhllloceros, Coelodonta;
(Suidce) T,traconodon. Potamochoerus, Dicoryphochoerus, Htppohyus,
Sus; (Anthracotheridae) Mertcopolomus; Hippopotamus, Came/us
and Cervus; (Gir<lffida:) SllIathmum, Camelopardalls. Glraffa ; (Bovida:)
several mcludmg Cobus, Capra, Leptobos, Bubalus, Bas and Bison.
Boulder oonglomerate.-This is the topmost stage
characterised by very coarse conglomerates and mixtures
of boulders, pebbles and fine material. The Pleistocene
glaciation had already set in and the Himalayan glaciers
seem to have descended almost down to the plains, making
the whole region unsuitable for the existence of highly
developed mammalian life. Some remains of Bovids are
found in the sediments of this age.
With the onset of the glacial conditions the fauna
suffered heavily, but some species were able to migrate to
warmer regions. The giraffes are, at the present day,
found only in Africa. Though many species of the ele-
phant family lived during the Siwalik times, all that is
left of them at the present day is the Indian elephant and
the African elephant.
Correla.tion.-Since the Siwaliks are fresh-water
(and partly land) deposits, the determination of the age
of the stages is a matter of some uncertainty. It is definitely
established that the Middle Siwaliks are closely allied to
the Pikermi beds of Greece where they are associated with
marine Pontian strata.
In Table 49 is given the correlation adopted by G.E.
'Pilgrim of the Geological Survey of India compared with
that of E. H. Colbert and G. E. Lewis. It will be noticed
XIX] MIDDLE MIOCENE TO LOWER PLEISTOCENE. 50t
that the ages assigned to the divisions by the American

aut?o~ities are you~ger than those adopted by Pilgrim.
ThIs IS perhaps attnbutable partly to the hypothesis that
the Hipparion (primitive horse) migrated to India from
N. America.
TABLE 49-CORRELATION OF TilE SIWALIK STRATA.
DIVISion,.
Colb~rt
1935
I Lewi~
1937
Europe. I North
America.
I~~I'
i
~ ,
Middle \
~
la."n
I
"\ Lower Bouluer .:gl Break
-- Rock. creek
~ lB'ollider cg) Pinjar
~
Tatrot Cromerian '>h~ridan

_l,----'
I Tatrot
.. ;\Jpper Pi\\)ot
Z Dh(1k Break
8;__ Path an
Villeferan-
cbam
San Pedro
---
,Middle Tatrot Ndgll
~
Dhok Astian Blanco

Path an ~ight
\--
r,uwer Dhok ChlnJl Nagn Ponti an Republican
Fathan River.
~--
Kamllal
._--- Valentine
Upper Nagri ---- Chin)i Sarmatlan Barstow

iG;j;I-" Tortoniali:'
I
Middle Chinji
Helveuan
''''.Kamlial
... ... .~
----
Burdigalian
Lower 1Aqullaman
.!
SIND: MANCHHAR SERIES.
The highest formations of the Tertiary group in Sind

are called the Manchhar series, after the Manchhar Lake.
They resemble the Siwaliks to a large extent.
Lower Manchhar.-The Manchhar series attains a
thickness of 10,000 feet and comprises two divisions. The
Lower Manchhars are composed of grey sandstones asso~
ciated with red sandstones and dmglomerates. The con-
glomerates contain pebbles of sclndstone and nodules of
clay. The lowest horizon has yielded vertebrate fossils
which indicate a Helvetian zone, i.e., lower than that of the
Lower Siwaliks.
Upper Manchhar.-The upper division is well
exposed near Larkhana and ccmsists of conglomerates,
sandstones and orange and brown clays. It contains
pebbles of Gaj and Nummulitic limestones.
The Manchhars of the Kirthar range appear to
follow conformably on the older (Gaj) rocks whereas those
to the east of the Laki range lie unconformably on Kirthar
beds. They are mainly fluviatile, but as we follow them
southwards they become graduaJly estuarine and marine.
Vredenburg divides the Manchhars into three portions
~hich are respectively Vindobonjan, Pontian and Pliocene
III age.
MEKRAN, BALUCHISTAN.
The Upper Tertiary rocks cleveloped in the Mekran
region are called the Mekran series and comprise thick pale
grey clays with thin intercalatiops of shelly limestone and
sandstone. Vredenburg has divided them into a lower
TALAR STAGE of Middle Siwalik age and an upper GWADAR
STAGE of Upper Siwalik age. T}1.e Mekran series contains
a fairly rich marine fauna which bears a great resemblance
to that of Odeng stage (=T a lar) and Sonde stage
(=Gwader) of Java. It is inferred that the Indian seas
were completely cut off from tpe European seas during
Mekran times as there is not rJluch resemblance to the
European marine fauna. Many of the Mekran species are
found in the Karikal beds. The molluscan fauna of the
Mekran series includes the following:
Gastropods Surcula tuberculata, Terebra aspera, Pleurotoma
haydenz,Dnlla fTlekramca, Lithoconus djarianensis.
Clavaillthes verbeek I , Melongena ponderosa, Pur-
pura angutata, Cassidia mekranica, Dollum sp.,
XIX] MIDDLE MIOCENE TO LOWER PLEISTOUENE.
Tmbralla mekramca, Nalica globosa, Ritnella

Javana.
Lamelli branchs Corbula mekranica, Dnsmia pseudoargus, Cardium
untcolor, A'(a newlom, Pedunculus gwadarensis,
Ostrea pseudodlgltaltna, O. vzrletl, O. frondosa,
o Crenulifera, Pecten vassell.
CUTCH AND KATHIAWAR.
Overlying the Gaj beds of Cutch there is a large thick-

ness of sandstones and clays whirh are correlated with the
Manchhar strata.
In the Piram Island of the eastern coast of Kathiawar
there are Siwalik rocks which have yielded mammalian
fossils. These indicated a Middle Siwalik age.
MADRAS.
Karikal beds.-Richly fossiliferous upper Tertiary

beds have been found at a depth of 350 feet at Karikal
on the Tanjore coast. The rich fauna, which has been
described by Cossmann (Jour. de Conchyliologie, XLVIII,
p. 14, 1900; LI, p. 105, 1903; LVIII, p. 34, 19 10)
consists entirely of gastropods including the following:
Actaeon (Soltdula) soltdulus, A. bonnetl, Terebra (Myurella) marresi,
T. (M.) cancellala, Hemlpleurotoma bonnell, Surcula Javana, Dnllla kari-
kalens1s, D. sznensis, Conus (Dendroconus) figulznus, C. (Llthoconus) literatus,
C. (Leptoconus) karikalenm, Cancellana verbeekt, Olwa chenbonensis,
Agaronia acuminata, Ancilla cinnamomea, Marglnella bonneti, MItra (Cancella)
fiammea, Fusus perplexuf, Turhmellarapa, Nassa ovum, N. (Hmia) karlka-
lensH, Murex bonnetl, Renella margarztuia, Htndna tjemoraensls, Strombus
karzkalensls, R.oslellarza jusus, Rzme/la cancellata, Cerzthtdea trifunata,
Tumtella dJadjarzensls, Archttectonica maXima, Crepldula cf. walshl, Nallea
rostaizna, N. globosa, Solartella ambligoniata.
The assemblage is distinctly Pliocene (post-Ponti an)
and somewhat younger than the fauna of the Quilon and
Jaffna beds. According to Vredenburg, the Karikal
beds are the equivalents of the Mekran series and especially
its upper (Gwadar) stage. It would appear therefore that
there is probably a complete upper Tertiary sequence
underneath the CC\.uvery alluvium in the Tanjore district.
GEOLOGY OF INDIA AND BURMA. [CHAp.
ASSAM.
_ The Siwalik system is represented in Assam by the

Tipam and Dihing series.
The Tipam series extends over a large area from the
Arakan coast to the Surma valley and in North Cachar and
Upper Assam. It is dominantly arenaceous and in several
places shows lignhr ' pebbles' and silicified and carbonised
fossil wood. It is divided into three stages, as shown below:
(Num Rong
II I
Khu stage. Lignitic")
conglomerates, grits & clays
(=Dupi Tila stage of Surma
vallt"y, comprIsmg ferrugt-
~
nous sandstones with pebble rVindObonian.
beds)
GiruJan clays. Mottled days
Tipam series and subordmate sandstones
(9,000-14,000 ft.) with fossil wood and lignite.
T.pam sandstones Coarse gritty
I sandstones, blue to green
I coloured, and weathering
, brown j with some conglo- Burdigalian.
I merates and shale partings;
l occasional fOSSil-wood and
lignite.
Dihing series.-The Tipam series is succeeded by a
great thickness of pebble beds with thick intercalations of
clay and sand, called the Dihing series. At its base there
is an unconformity and the beds overlap the older forma-
tions. This series is seen in the Dihing valley, frontier
tracts, Naga Hills and Sylhet district. Its age is probably
Pontian or younger, corresponding mainly to the Upper
Siwaliks.
BURMA: THE IRRAWADDY SYSTEM.
Overlying the Pegu series, generally with an uncon-

formity, is a series of fluviatile sandstones oflarge thickness
originally called the Fossil-wood Group by Theobold, because
of its abundant content of fossil-wood. This name has
now been replaced by the term Irrawaddy system, since
the sediments lie in the valley of the Irrawaddy river.
XIX] MIDDLE MIOCENE TO LOWER PLEISTOCENE. 50 5
Distribution.-The Irrawaddy system is extensively
distributed along the central north-to-south tract of Burma.
It is found in the north ill Katha, upper Chindwin, and
Myitkyina, and extends as far south as Rangoon. Parts
of the area are covered by Pleistocene and younger alluvia
but it is likely that the Irrawaddy rocks extend under all
the alluvium of the delta.
Lithology.-The lower beds often contain ferrugi-
nous conglomerates indicative of a period of subaerial
weathering. The main formations are sandstones, often
current-bedded, with pebbles, boulders and numerous
ferruginous concretions. The concretions consist ofh~ma
tite and limonite with some manganese oxide. Calcareous
sandstones and calcareous and siliceous concretions are
also met with. Fossil wood occurs profusely in certain
areas, often well silicified. The rocks weather into
fantastic shapes with the formation of intricate gullies and
, bad lands.' The total thickness of the system is of the
order of 10,000 feet.
Fossils.-The Irrawaddians contain a fairly rich
v~riety of vertebr~te fo:y;;il~if"tly, mammalian, but indu-
dmg also crocodIles, torf61ses, etc. -Both monocotyledo-
nous and dicotyledonous fossil woods ate fonnd, the latter
inel u ding Dipterocarpoxylon burmense. The chit;{ VG~l'te brate
fossils are : '
Lower Irrawaddy beds.- ~
(Equidre) Hipparion antzlopinum; (Rhinoceratidre) Acerather'
lydekkert; (SUldre) Tetraconodon mmor,. (Giraffidre) Hydasp!theriu
bzrmamcum, Vts'hnutherzum zravatzcum,. (BOvldre) Pachyportax latzdens,
Proleptobos bzrmamcus.
Upper Irrawaddy beds.-
(Proboscidea) Stegolophondon tat!dens, Stegodon eltphanto,des, Steg~don
!ns!gms blrmamcus, Hypselephas hYJudrzcus,. Elephas plamjrons (Rhmo-
ceraudre) Rhmoceros slValensls; (Anthracothendar) Merycopotamus
dlSS1mtlls, (Hippopotamlda:) Hexaprotodon lravaticus, H. cf slVa/enslS"
(Bovidre) Leptobos, Bubalus . ,
The Irrawaddy system is the eqmvalent ~amly of the
middle and upper Siwaliks. The lower fosslhferous beds
64
are correlated with the Dhok Path an stage (Pontian) and
the upper fossiliferous beds, which are separated from the
lower by 4,000 feet of strata, are of Pinjor age.
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Falconer and Cautley. Fauna antlqua sivalensis. London, 1846.
Lydekker, R. Indian Tertiary and post-Tertiary verbetrata. Pal.
Ind. SeT. X, Vols. I to IV, 1874-1887.
PIlgnm, G E. Teritiary and post-Tertiary fresh water deposits of
Baluchistan and Sind. Rec. 37, 139-166, 1908 .
Pilgnm, G.E The fossil glraffidre of India. Pal Ind. X.S. IV, (I),
191 I.
Pilgrim, G.E ReVised classification of the Tertiary fresh water
deposits of India. Rec. 40, 185-25, '9 10 .
PIlgrim, G.E. Correlation of the Slwahks with the mammal horizons
of Europe. Rec. 43. !l62-326, 19 1 3.
Pilgrim, G.E. New Siwalik primates, Rec 45, 1-74, 19 15.
Pilgrim, G.E. The fOSSil sUld<e of India. Pal. Ind N.S. VIII (4),
19 26
Pilgrim, G.E. The fossil carnivora of India. Pal. Ind N.S. XVIII,
193 2
Pilgrim, G E. The fossil bovldre of India. Pal. Ind. N.S. XXVI,
1939
Wadla, D.N. and Aiy'Cngar,' N~i~~ ~ossil anthropoids of India.
Rec. 72, 46,. ~!94, 1938
CHAPTER XX.
THE PLEISTOCENE SYSTEM.
Pleistocene Ice Age.-The Quaternary era was
heralded by the general lowering of temperature, in all the
Northern Hemisphere, resulting in the formation of ice
sheets which extended southward from the Arctic regions.
The temperate north latitudes of the present day experi-
enced a frigid climate and evidences of the advance and
retreat of glaciers have been well established in parts of
Europe and N. America. The fauna of the period was
thereby very adversely affected, a large number of species
suffering extinction.
Being much nearer to the equator, India shows less
distinct evidences of glaciation than northern Europe. The
country must have experienced a generally cooler climate
than at present, and it is possible that there are evidences
of glaciation concealed under the later alluvia. The
Himalayas were for the m~t part covered by glaciers which
probably descended down to very low levels. Evidences
of extensive glaciation such as moraines, facetted boulders,
grooved rock surfaces, etc., are found in many parts of
Kashmir, Garhwal and other regions. The glaciers des-
cended to as Iowan altitude as 5,000 feet or lower. The
morains left by the glaciers have formed obstructions to
drainage and given rise to lakes around which the evidences
of glaciation could be studied.
Dr. H. De Terra has recorded the evidences of several
advances and retreats of the glaciers in Kashmir. The
first glaciation is the most marked, the later ones becoming
gradually less and less distinct. Man had already appear-
ed in Kashmir in the second period of ice advance which
De Terra correlates with the Boulder Conglomerate stage
of the Siwaliks and the Chello-Acheulian of Europe.
As evidence of the mildness of climate in the Peninsula,

W. T. Blanford cites the spread of certain plants and
animals from the Himalaya southward. The remnants
of these-such as some species of rhododendron and some
mammals including one or two species of goat-are now
isolated in the higher altitudes of the mountains of South
India, Bihar and Assam, none of these being found in the
plains or lower altitudes of the intervening country.
Bain Boulderbed.-Associated with the Siwaliks of
the Marwat Kundi and Shekh Budin hills in the Trans-
Indus continuation of the Salt Range there is a boulder-bed
about 70 feet thick (the Bain boulder-bed) intercalated with
the Marwat formation. The boulder-bed is of glacial
origin and the associated formation contains a fauna which
is of Villefranchian to Lower Pleistocene age according
to T. O. Morris (Q.J.G.S. XCIV, p. 385, 1938).
Eratics of the Potwar Plateau.-There are several
localities in the Attock district where large blocks of
rock are found amidst boulders, gravel and finer sedi-
mentaries. Several of these occur near Nurpur Kamalia,
a few miles from Campbell pur, one being a granite block
of 50 feet girth and another a basalt block with a girth of
48 feet. Some of the blocks show grooved surfaces. They
now lie amidst alluvial country, there being, for miles
around, no rock outcrops from which they could have
been derived.
These ' erratic' blocks seem to have come from the
Himalaya, transported through the agency of ice. It is
believed that large bodies of water were frozen up behind
barriers of rock and moraine which obstructed river valleys
during the glacial times, the barriers giving way suddenly
when the ice partly thawed. The glacial floods which
spread out would have brought with them unassorted
material including large sized boulders. There are many
records of severe floods of the Indus during historic times
owing to its valley being dammed up by rock debris.
XX] THE PLEISTOCENE SYSTEM. 5o~
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GEOLOGY OF lNDIA AND 'BURMA.
Similar floods, but glacial in character, could therefore

have taken place during the Pleistocene times.
THE KAREWA FORMATION.

Tpe Kashmiri name Karewa is applied to the fairly
flat terraces or platforms which cover a good part of the
Jhelum valley in Kashmir. Sections of this can be seen
between Srinagar and Gulmarg, especially on both sides
of the Ferozpur nala and on the northeastern slopes of the
Pir Panjal range. The deposits consist of sands, clays,
loams, gravel and boulder beds, the finer deposits sometime
showing very fine lamination of the nature of glacial varves
deposited alternately in winter and summer.
The Karewas are found over the greater part of the
Kashmir valley extending for a length of 50 miles in a
N.W.-S.E. direction and occupying 3,000 square miles.
They attain a thickness of some 5,000 feet on the northern
Banks of the Pir Panjal. The lower beds are more or
less of a sandy constitution, while the upper ones are
much coarser and contain boulders and gravels and also
layers of lignitic coal which occur in workable quantities
in two or three places. They are practically horizontal
and undisturbed over by far the greater part of the area
in the valley. Where they abut on the Pir Panjal they
show sharp flexures and are tilted up at angles up to 40.
The highest altitude to which they reach is about 1 1,500
feet, i.e., 5,500 feet above the general level of the Kashmir
valley.
The Karewas were originally regarded as of lacustrine
origin, but recent work shows that this might hold for the
upper beds while the lower beds are more likely to be of
fluviatile origin. They include also interbedded glacial
strata and several definite glacial episodes can be made
out. According to De. Terra, the Karewa lake in which
the Upper Karewas were deposited occupied at least
2,000 square miles of the Kashmir valley between the
main Himalayan ranies on the north and a low ridge
XX] THE PLE1STOCENE SYSTEM. 511
on the south which latter has since been elevated as the
Pir Panjal. The Karewas always dip towards the valley,
the dip decreasing as one follows the bed down from the
hill towards the valley. The uplift of the Pir Panj al is of
post-Karewa age. The last stage of the uplift, which must
have been of the order of 6,000 feet, is believed to have
occurred since the advent of early man. This upheaval
has not only elevated the Pir Panjal and folded and tilted
the Karewas, but has also affected the rocks of the Potwar
and the Salt Range.
The Lower Karewas contain a large number of
well-preserved plant remains among which are pine, oak,
birch, beech, alder, willow, poplar, rose, rhododendron,
holly and cinnamon, indicating a cold temperate climate.
There are also some types of aquatic plants such as Trapa,
Vallisneria and Charophyta. Amongst the animal remains
are fresh-water shells, fishes and mammalia-Equus,
Elephas namadicus, Bas, Sivatherium, Rkincoersa, Cervus, Sus,
Felis. These indicate a correlation with the Pinjor stage
of the of Upper Si waliks.
Traces of Pal reo lithic stone culture exist in the Potwar,
Kashmir and in Little Tibt beyond the Kashmir Himalaya.
De Terra states that there were at least five advances of
glaciation in northwestern India, the second advance
being contemporaneous with the deposition of the Boulder
Conglomerate which is, according to him, of Middle
Pleistocene age.
There is clear and indisputable evidence according
to archaeologists that Baluchistan was enjoying a wet
climate even in Chalcolithic times, about 3,000 B.C., and
that desiccation set in between then and 300 B. C.
Potwar silt.-About the Boulder conglomerate zone
of the Siwaliks there are some deposits to which the name
Potwar silt has been given. It consists of a lower gravel
and sand deposit and an upper yellow silt which in places
attains a thickness of 350 feet. The lower part is of
fluviatile origin while the upper part is a uniform loess-like
CEO LOGY OF INDIA AND BURMA. [CHAP.
material mainly deposited by wind but somewhat re-
arranged by rain water. Its distribution is independent
of natural obstacles as it is found both in valleys and on
top of ridges and watersheds.
I.n the Soan valley there is a system of five terraces of
which the third is composed of Potwar silts. This third
terrace is cut into the moraine of the third glaciation in
Jammu and Poonch, so that the Potwar silts may be
regarded as contemporaneous with the third inter-glacial
period.
Early Palreolithic stone tools-hand axes, choppers
and flakes-are found at the top of the Boulder Conglo-
merate which De Terra correlates with the Middle Pleisto-
cene. The first glaciation occurred before the Karewas
were deposited, the Lower Karewas representing the first
inter-glacial period. Then an uplift occurred followed
by the second glaciation and deposition of Upper Karewas
and a further uplift. Then followed a period of erosion
and subsequently the third glaciation set in. The last
three terraces are associated with three consecutive
advances of the ice-front. These advances are now
indicated by the respective moraines.
Alluvial deposits of the Upper Sutlej valley.-
Large stretches of alluvial terraces exist in the Sutlej valley
in the Hundes Province of the Central Himalaya. These
are composed of sands, gravels and clays which have
yielded remains of mammalia such as Bas, Equus, Capra,
Pantholaps, etc., most of which belong to genera now living
in Tibet. The river hali cut through these deposits to a
depth of a few hundred feet.
Narbada alluvium.-The Narbada and Tapti rivers
flow in a large basin covered by extensive Pleistocene and
Recent deposits. The main part of the Narbada plain,
between] ubbulpore and Harda, covers an area 200 miles
long and 35 miles wide. Further down the river. there is
another plain from Barwai to Harin Pal near Bagh. The
plain of Tapti in Khandesh is also similar and extends from
XX] THE PLEISTOCENE SYSTEM.
a
~'"
'"
.D
L
z
.
......; Z'"
!:?
Burhanpur westward for ISO miles and is 30 miles broad

at its maximum. To the south-east is the valley of the
Purna river in Berar, also containing Pleistocene deposits.
The Narbada deposits, amongst these, have received
the- best attention. The deposits in the Harda plain
are composed of reddish and brownish clays, with inter-
calations of gravel and with Kankar (calcareous concre-
tions). 'Hard pans' of calcareous conglomerate are often
found. The plains are about 100 feet above the bed of the
Narbada, this representing the thickness of the deposits.
Near Gadarwada, north of Mohpani in the Central
Provinces, the alluvium attains a thickness of over 500 feet
and contains a lateritic gravel at the bottom.
Between Hoshangabad and N arasinghpur the river
terrace is about 120 feet above the bed of the river. Two
stages are recognised here each with a basal gravel overlain
by orange clays and silts. The gravel and conglomerate
of the lower stage are harder and better cemented than those
of the upper. Fossils are found especially at the junction
of the two stages, being sometimes accompanied by human
implements. The lower zone contains Acheulian axes
and flakes while the higher zone contains flakes, chips and
cores of quartzite and trap resembling the Soan imple-
ments of the Potwar area.
In some places, at the sides of the valley, a basal
laterite underlies the alluvium. This is more than 30 feet
thick and represents, according to De Terra, a stratigraphi-
cal break. The laterite may possibly be older than the
Pleistocene or may be Lower Pleistocene. The lower stage
is correlated with the Boulder conglomerate zone of the
Siwaliks on the evidence of lithology, fossils and imple-
ments. The upper zone may therefore be the equivalent
of the extensive silt deposits of the Potwar area since both
contain implements of the Soan type. The black cotton
soil of this area is probably the equivalent of the re-deposited
Potwar silts and the second Loess of Northwestern India.
Table 50 shows the correlation suggested by De Terra. I
The following are the chief fossils of the Narbada

alluvium:
ReptilIa .. Pangshura jlavlVentns,' BataguT sp., Tnonyx gangeti-
CUS
MammalIa . . Ursus namadlcus, HIppopotamus (Hexaprotodon) palm-
dICUS, H. namadlcus, Rhinoceros unicorms, Equus
namadzcus, Elephas namadicus, E. Insigms, Stegodon
ganesa, Bubalus palaeindlcus, Leptobos fraasi, Bos
namadlcus.
TABLE SO.-CORRELATION OF THE NARBADA A~D N.W.

INOlA PLEISTOCENE.
(After DE TERRA AND P. TEILHARD DE CHARDIN).
Age. N.W. Punjab. \ Kashmir Valley. \ Narbada Valley.
Redeposited Potwar and IV Glaclal. Black Cotton SOll.

Second loess.
E'OSioll 1nUn/Q1. III Inter-glacial. ErOSIon Interval.

- - - - - - - - - - - - -
potwar Slit. III Glacial. Upper zone.
,
Lo nl Erosion Interval. II Inter-glacIal. Erosion InkTval.
. ... .... l "
. J
Upper Karewa.
II Glacial.
Boulder conglomerate. Karewa gravels. Lower zone.
. . - . ...
P mjor stage. r Inter-glacIal. ?
T atrot stage. I Glacial. Narbada laterite.

. .
-
PlIocene D hok Pathan stage. _- -
Godavari alluvium.-There are thick deposits of
alluvium along the upper Godavari in the Central Pro-
vinces and Hyderabad State. They are composed mainly
of brown clay and sandy silts with nodules of kankar and
beds of gravel. In some places west of Chanda they are
saline. The gravels are composed of pebbles of Deccan
trap, agate and chalcedony. Fossil wood trunks have
been found in them between Wardha and Encha palli and
bet~en the latter and Albaka. Animal remains including
Elephas namadicus and Bas. sp. have been found near Mungi,
Paitan, Hingoli and a few other places.
Kistna (Krishna) alluvium.-Gravels, sandy silts
and calcareous conglomerates of Pleistocene age occur in
the Upper Kistna valley 60 to 80 feet above the present
river bed. Parts of the cranium of Rhznaceras deccanensis
have been found near Gokak and also remains of Bas.
The alluvia of the tributaries of this river in South Mahratta
country have yielded stone implements.
Madras.-Overlying the conglomerates of the Satya-
vedu (Upper Gondwana) beds, in the valley of the Korta-
layar river there is a series of four terraces, respectively
100 feet, 60 feet, 20 feet, and 8 feet above the river bed.
These contain implements which are referable to Abbevil-
lian-Acheulian (first terrace), Acheulian (second terrace)
Late Acheulian and Levalloisian (third terrace) and
Upper Palaeolithic (fourth terrace).
In the Vadamadurai area southwest of Madras,
Pleistocene boulder-conglomerates containing Abbevillian
tools overlie the upper Gondwanas. Above this is detrital
laterite and alluvium, the former containing Acheulian
type of tools.
Irrawaddy alluvium.-Four terraces have been
recognised in the Irrawaddy valley overlying the Irra-
waddy system. The oldest terrace is seen in a group of
hills 300 feet above the present river bed near the Chauk
oil-field. This contains gravel and boulder-beds and
sandstones which are tilted. The fossils found in them
are Elephas namadicus, Bas. cf. namadicus and Hippapolamas.
The second and third terraces lie 180 and 100 feet respec-
tively above the river and contain Middle Pleistocene
fauna and Palaeolithic tools near Mandalay. The fourth
terrace, of sandy gravel and sand, contains a late type of

Palaeolithic implements. The fifth terrace grades into
recent river deposits. The whole of the terrace system is
assigned a Middle to Upper Pleistocene age by De Terra,
the uppermost Irrawaddys being regarded as Lower
Pleistocene by the same authority.
THE INDo~GANGETIC ALLUVIUM.
General.-The great alluvial tract of the Ganges,

Brahmaputra and the Indus forms one of three main
physiographic divisions of India, separating the Peninsular
from the Extra-Peninsular region, and covering an area
estimated at over 250,000 square miles. The deposits of
this tract belong, so to say, to the last chapter of earth's
history and conceal beneath them the northern fringes
of the Peninsular formations and the southern fringes of the
Extra-Peninsular formations. The area is geologically
uninteresting but, being a rich agricultural tract, is of
great interest and importance in human history.
It consists of two units separated by a narrow low
ridge passing through Delhi and Ambala which is but a
continuation of a part of the Aravalli ranges. This ridge
is not particularly noticeable as it is covered by thin deposits
of geologically recent date. Geodetic observations indi-
cate the presence, underneath the Indus alluvium, of a
ridge parallel to the Himalayas from Delhi to the Salt
Range, on which lie the Kirana and Sangla Hills.
Origin of the depression.-The alluvial tract is of
the nature of a synclinal basin formed concomitantly with
the elevation of the Himalaya to its north. One view, due
to Eduard Suess, the great Austrian geologist, holds that
it is a ' fore deep' formed in front of the resistant mass of
the Peninsula when the Tethyan sediments were thrust
southward and compressed against the former. The
Peninsula is regarded as a stabt'e unmoving mass and
Central Asia as the moving segment of d Je crust. Accord-
ing to a second view, due to Sir Sydney Burrard (formerly
Surveyor-General of India) the plains represent a rift-
valley bounded by parallel faults on either side. A third
and more recent view regards this region as a sag in the
crust formed between the northward drifting Indian
conti.nent and the comparatively soft sediments accumu-
lated in the Tethyan and connected basins on the north
when the latter were crumpled up and lifted up into a
mountain system.
\Vhether the first or third interpretation is accepted,
the dynamical effect would appear to be the same, but
accumulating evidence tends to support the third view.
The depression perhaps began to form in the Upper
Eocene and attained its greatest development during the
second Himalayan upheaval in Middle Miocene. Since
then it has been gradually filled up by sediments to form
a level plain with a very gende seaward slope. .
Depth.-The shape of the depression is known in a
general way, though not with any accuracy. It is deepest
within a few miles of the mountains and gradually shelves
up towards the Peninsula. The borings that have put
down in the alluvium in search of artesian water, show
that the depth is well in excess of 2,000 feet. Recent
geodetic data would indicate that the maximum thickness
of the alluvial deposits in the Ganges basin is of the order
of 6,000 feet and probably not so much as 10,000 feet.
The Bihar earthquake of 1934 showed that there are some
zones of disturbance underneath the alluvium, parallel
to the Himalayan trend, which may be faults. Near the
northern margin the floor is undoubtedly greatly disturbed
and is underlain for some distance by the Siwalik strata.
The alluvium is shallow between the Rajmahal and
the Garo hills, these being connected by a ridge. Some
authorities opine that this depression was formed at as
late a period as the Pleistocene, but it may well have been
formed by faulting during the Middle Miocene uplift, for
it is surmised that about the same period a series of N.-S.
block faults were formed in Assam as a result of the
XX J THE PLEISTOCENE SYSTEM.
compression of the northeastern part of the Peninsula

against Burma.
Nature of the deposits.-The sediments are sands,
silts and days with occasional gravel beds and lenses of
peaty organic matter. The older alluvium (called Bhangar
in the Ganges valley) is rather dark coloured and generally
rich in concretions and nodules of impure calcium
carbonate known as kankar in Northern India. The kankar
concretions are of all shapes and sizes from small grains
to lumps as large as a man's head. The older alluvium
forms slightly elevated terraces, generally above the flood
level, the river having cut through it to a lower level.
I t is of Middle to lJ pper Pleistocene age.
The Newer alluvium (called Khadar in the Punjab) is
light coloured and poor in calcareous matter. It contains
lenticular beds of sand and gravel and peat beds. It
merges by insensible gradations into the recent or deltaic
alluvia and should be assigned an upper Pleistocene age.
The older alluvium contains the remains of extinct
species of animals including Rhinoceros, Hippopotamus,
Palaeoloxodon, Elephas and Equus. The fossils in the Newer
Alluvium are mostly those of animals still living.
COASTAL DEPOSITS.
Eastern Coast.-Raised beaches, some of them

elevated as much as 50 to 100 feet above the present sea
level, occur at several places along the coast. They
contain molluscan shells of recent or present day species.
Such deposits are common along the Orissa, Nellore,
Madras, Madura and TinneveUy coasts.
The Chilka Lake.-The Chilka lake on the Ganjam
coast dates back to the Pleistocene. It has been rendered
shallow by the deposits from the mouths of the ~fahanadi,
while a sand spit has been thrown across its mouth by the
monsoon winds. Near the southwestern end of the spit
there is a deposit of estuarine shells 20 to 30 feet above the
high tide level. The shells include Cytherea costa and Area
GEOLOGY OF INDIA AND BURMA. [eHA p.
granosa, neither of which live in Chilka Lake at present,
but the former is known in the estuary connecting the lake
with the sea. The Chilka lake appears to be gradually
diminishing in size.
South-western Coast.-Along the Travancore and
Malabar coasts, mud banks have been formed which
separate lake-like expanses of water (backwaters or Kayals)
from the sea. The backwaters are used for coastal
communication by small boats. The mud banks are
Pleistocene to Recent in age.
Gujarat.-The lowlying tract connecting the Kathia-
war Peninsula with the mainland near Ahmedabad shows
recent deposits with Cerithium, PotamitIes, etc., indicating
that this was an estuarine area in Pleistocene times.
Kathiawar.-On the coast of Kathiawar is found a
marine limestone composed of the remains of the foramini-
fer Miliolite, around which oolite grains have been formed.
I t is usually sandy in the vicinity of the coast, and attains
a thickness of 100 feet in western Kathiawar, but is thinner
and less extensive in eastern Kathiawar. This Miliolite
limestone, also called Porbandar Stone, is found on the top
of Chotila hill (I, I 73 feet altitude) which provides clear
proof of the elevation of the coast in recent times. This is
locally used as a building stone in Kathiawar.
There are also raised beaches, oyster beds and coral
reefs on the Kathiawar coast which have been elevated a
few hundred feet since the Pleistocene.
Rann of Cutch.-During the Pleistocene the Rann
was a shallow arm of the sea. Even in historic times it
was so, as the Indus and the Sarasvati of Vedic times
flowed into it. It is now silted up and forms an extensive
and desolete salt marsh during the dry part of the year
and a tidal flat covered wih a few feet of sea water during
the monsoons.
Mekran coast.-Raiscd beaches containing shells of
living species are found about 100 feet above the sea level
in th<; Mekrap. coas~ of Baluchistan. The commonest shells
XX] THE PLEISTOCEI"E SYSTEM. 521
are Ostrea hyotis, Anomya archaeus, Pecten erassicostatus, Area
antiquata, A. nivea, etc.
AEOLIAN AND OTHER DEPOSITS.
Loess.-Large stretches of wind-blown dust of sandy

to clayey constitution are found in Punjab, Kashmir, Sind
and Bal uchistan. This material, called loess, is of fine
grain, buff or grey coloured and with little signs of stratifi-
cation. It covers the land surface irrespective of barriers
and altitude, and deposits are particularly well seen in the
Potwar plateau, Salt Range, and ThaI Chotiali in Balu-
chistan. It is essentially a deposit of arid regions liable
to strong winds carrying much dust. The irregular
distribution of loess has in some measure been responsible
for the formation of shallow lakes at the top of the Salt
Range.
Desert sands.-A vast tract of western and south-
western Rajputana and adjoining parts of Sind, occupying
an area 400 miles long and 100 miles wide, constitutes the
Thar desert. It is covered for a depth of several feet, and
a few scores of feet in places, by sands which are at t.he
mercy of the winds blowing from the south-west for several
months in the year. The sands lie over and cover an
irregular rocky floor but rocky ridges and prominences
sometimes raise their heads above the level of the sand.
Over the greater part of the area the sands are piled up
into dunes. The longitudinal ridge-like dunes are common
in the south where the winds are stronger, while the
crescentic type or 'barchane' is common in the interior.
The desert conditions seem to have been established
during and after the Pleistocene when the monsoons became
operative. Winds blowing from the Arabian sea meet
with no obstacles until they encounter the Himalaya. The
Aravallis are aligned parallel to the course of the winds,
so that they are unable to prevent the winds from traversing
the whole length of Rajputana. Hence Rajputana has
only a very scanty rainfall-s to 8 inches in a year-and
66
most of this is precipitated during the few sudden cloud-

bursts. The increasing aridity and the large diurnal
range of temperature are instrumental in disintegrating
the rocks and this is helped further by the sand-blasting
action of the winds.
A large part of the desert is, however, not a perfect
sandy waste, for it supports a scrubby, stunted, xerophytic
vegetation. It is studded with cities and villages which
indicate that the arid conditions are of a recent date and
still in course of development. When the sand cover is
thin or is kept off by human endeavour, the underlying
soil is found to be rich and is cultivated by means of water
drawn from below. In many places the subsoil water
from some depth is of quite good quality.
The growth of desert conditions has of course been
aided by man by his habit of destroying forests. The
Rajput kingdoms must originally have been established in
a fertile region well clothed with forests. But now the
desert is slowly and relentlessly marching northward. A
feature of this advance is the transport by \\ inds of large
a~ounts of comminuted saline matter from the Rann of
Cutch and the Arabian Sea Coast. This is deposited with
the sand, and the scanty rainfall helps to concentrate it
in the inland lakes. This wind-borne salt is, in the opinion
of Sir T.H. Holland and Dr. W.A.K. Christie, responsible
for the salt content of the Sambhar and other lakes in
Rajputana.
. Daman Slopes.-Pleistocene gravel and talus deposits
are a conspicuous feature of the lower slopes of the hills in
Baluchistan and neighbouring areas. The loose rocky
material is highly porous and often stores up large quantities
of water which can be drawn by driving tunnels and wells
through it. In proper locations water rises up in wells
under artesian pressure. The long, nearly horizontal,
tunnels driven into these deposits for obtaining water are
called Karezes.
Bhabar and Terai.-In the foot-hill region of the

Himalaya, the hills are fringed on the side of the plains by
talus fans. The upper portion of the talus fans is composed
of rock fragments, gravel and soil and supports good forests.
This zone, known as the Bhabar, has a vertical extent ofless
than 1,000 feet between its upper and lower limits.
The Terai tract lies immediately below the Bhabar.
It is composed of gravel and soil often forming a marshy
tract overgrown with grass and thick jungle. It is an
unhealthy zone, uninhabitable unless well drained.
Cave Deposits.-Though a number of caves exist
in various parts of the country, especially in limestones,
few of them have been investigated in detail. Some are in
unfrequented areas and even the more easily accessible
ones have not received the attention they deserve from
the scientists.
A group of caves (Billa Surgam) near Betamcherla in
the Kurnool district, Madras, was examined by Bruce
Foote and his son who found a rich Pleistocene fauna well
preserved in the red marl of the floor of the caves. The
majority of the fossils belong to species still living, h~lt
a few which are extinct irt India are still found in Africa,
such as Papio sp., Equus asinus, Hyaena crocuta, Manis cr.
gigantea. Amongst the others are:
Mammalia Presbytts, Macacus, Chelroptera, Sorex, FeliS tlgrrs
Vtverra kamulensts, Cams, Herpestes, Hystrrx
crassidens, Mus, Nesokta, Sus karnulmsis, Ltpus,
Rhinoceros karnulensis, Rusa, Memlmma, Gazella,
Portax, Capra, Ovis, Bos.
Reptiles Crocodzlus, Varanus, Lacerta, Ophidia, Emys, Phelona.
Amphibia Rana, Bufo.
RECENT DEPOSITS.
Coastal Dunes.-The recent deposits are sand dunes
in the coastal and desert areas, the various types of soil
covering the surface of the country and river alluvia of
the present day.
Several parts of the eastern coast of India are covered

by sand which is massed into small sized dunes by winds,
rarely attaining a height of 30 feet. Such are seen on the
coasts of Ganjam, Vizagapatam, N ellore, Ramnad and
Tinnevelly. The sand dunes slowly march inward and
are a menace to cultivation. Their progress can be
controlled by plantations of trees.
River alluvia.-All the important rivers have an
erosive action in their upper courses and deposit their
sediments in the delta region. The deposits consist of
lenticular beds of sand and day.
Along the upper courses of North Indian rivers there
are deposits of blown sand and fine dust. These are laid
down where there are obstacles to wind movement such
as clumps of trees or shrubs. In course of time these
deposits near river banks become consolidated into mounds
and form good sites for villages above the flood level. They
are called bhur lands.
In the drier portions of the Indus and Ganges valleys,
where there is no good outward drainage, the soil becomes
water-logged and the accumulated salts in the ground
water are drawn up to the surface to appear as efflores-
cences. Such efflorescences are called Teh in the United
Provinces and kallar in the Punjab. The term usar is
applied to alkali-laden land unfit for cultivation. The
salts in these are mainly sodium chloride, sodium sulphate
and sodium carbonate. Water-logging and concentration
of salts is also a feature in parts of the canal-irrigated areas
wherefrom there is no adequate outward drainage.
The salts become concentrated comparatively near
the ground level, especially within a depth of some 30 feet
from the surface. The water from this part is unpalatable
and often injurious to the health of plants and animals.
Further down, however, sweet potable water is usually
met with.
SOILS.
Soils are of two types, residual and transported. The
first group is derived in situ from the rocks and the second
is brought by flowing water or wind from elsewhere. The
soils of the river vaYeys, deltas and valleys in mountainous
country belong to the second type while those of other
areas are practically all residual.
Large parts of the Peninsula, particularly the regions
occupied by granites and gneisses, give rise to ' red soil.'
The red soil is not always necessarily red in colour though
it is frequently so. The colour is due to the oxidation and
wide diffusion of the iron content. It is moderately
fertile and varies considerably in composition because
of the variation in characters of the original rock.
Regur or ' black cotton soil' (the equivalent of the
Russian chernozem) is a black clayey soil containing high
alumina, lime and magnesia, a rather variable but small
amount of potash, and low nitrogen, phosphorus and
humus. It is highly porous and swells enormously when
wetted and dries up with conspicuous cracks on drying.
Though sticky when wet and impassable in the rainy season,
it does not become compact or 'heavy' clay. It forms
on basic rocks like the Deccan traps and also on some
gneisses, Cretaceous rocks, etc. It is prevalent in areas
with low rainfall (20 to 30 inches) .
... ateritic soils are those in which there is a concen-
tration of the hydroxide of alumina and iron) with loss of
silica, lime, magnesia and alkalies. They are associated
with laterite in various parts of India.
The soils on sedimentary rocks are variable in nature,
those derived from shales and slates being usually richer in
plant food than those from arenaceous and calcareous
rocks. Impure calcareous rocks can however give rise
to good soils.
The soils of the Peninsula have, in general, attained
a high degree of maturity as they have been under cuIti-
vation for many centuries and represent products of

weathering over long ages.
The alluvial soils are of comparatively recent origin
and do not show the maturity characteristic of the soils
inland. They are however very rich and support a vast
agricultural population and livestock. They are clay-
loams and do not show much difference in composition
over large areas.
The arid tracts of India such as Rajputana, parts of
Sind and Baluchistan have no soil cap, the surface being
covered by sand or loess. Though loess can support
agriculture, there is generally much difficulty in obtaining
water in the areas covered by it. '
Soils (and wind-blown materials) are deposits which
are forming at the present day. Their study is now
specialised and belongs to the province of the science of
Agriculture, though their mineralogical characters are
best elucidated by geologists.
RECENT CHANGES IN THE COASTAL TRACTS.
Many changes have happened at numerous places in

the coastal region during the Recent and historic periods.
The evidences are much more noticeable on the eastern
coast than on the western. Both submergence and emer-
gence of the coast are known.
In the Princes Dock at Bombay, tree stems were
found standing in situ at a depth of 30 feet below high water
level. On the Tinnevelly coast also, in the Valinokkam
bay, a similar submerged forest has been noticed, in which
numerous tree stumps of about 2 feet diameter at the base
were seen at low tide sticking out of a bed of dark clay
containing oyster and other marine shells. The peat
beds of Pondicherry give evidence of submergence in
Pleistocene and Recent times. Several places which
were on the sea a few centuries ago are now some miles
inland. For instance, Coringa at the mouth of the
Godavari, Kaveripatnam in the Cauvery delta and Kafka
on the Tinnevelly coast were all flourishing sea ports

1,000 to 2,000 years ago but are now some distance
inland, mainly because of the outward march of river
deltas. The Rann of Cutch has also gradually emerged
into dry land during Recent times.
The Arakan coast and the Andaman and Nicobar
islands have undergone submergence in Pleistocene and
Recent times. The presence of deep creeks and inlets in
the Arakan and T ennasserim coasts is clear evidence of
such submergence. The Gulf of Cambay region is also
being encroached upon by the sea.
The sea has advanced on land at Tranquebar on the
Tanjore coast and the remains of a pagoda could be seen
above water level at low tide even in the last century.
The town of San Thome (now part of Madras City) is said
to have been some distance inland formerly but is now
on the sea shore. The sea is also vigorously invading the
northern part of the city of Madras, expensive protective
works being necessary to check the incursion. This is at
least partly attributable to the construction of the Madras
harbour, for the coastal current sweeps past the pier and
whirls in towards the laUd on the north side of the harbour
works, the prevailing direction of the current being more
or less parallel to the Coast from the south to north.
Changes of level have also occurred as a result of
earthquakes. A large area bordering the Rann of Cutch
was suddenly submerged some 15 feet and an adjoining
area inland was elevated after the great earthquake of
1819. The Madhupur jungle in Eastern Bengal is known
to have been elevated by as much as 50 feet to 100 feet in
very recent times, producing thereby a westward shift of
the course of the Brahmaputra. Several cases of change of
level have been recorded by R. D. Oldham as having been
produced by the Assam earthquake of 1897.
Cha.nges in the course of Rivers.-Some of the
important changes noticed in the river courses of the Indus
and Ganges-Brahmaputra systems have already been
referred to. The most notable of these is the drying up
of the rivers that once flowed through Rajputana, and the
shift in the course of the Brahmaputra. Further details
will he found in Chapter 1.
LATERITE.
No account of the stratigraphy of India is complete

without a reference to the peculiar ferruginous material
called laterite which is a product of tropical alteration
suffered by some rocks. It is typically developed in tropi-
cal lands such as India, Malaya, East Indies, West Indies,
and Tropical America, though similar formations of warm
climates in some past ages are known in the temperate
regions of the present day also.
Characters.-Laterite is a porous, pitted, clay-like rock
with red, yellow, brown, grey and mottled colours,
depending in some measure on the compsoition. It has
a hard protective limonitic crust on the exposed surface,
which is generally irregular and rough. When dug up,
the fresh material is comparatively soft and easily cut by a
spade or a saw. In this state it has often variegated colours
and shows vermicular cavities which are irregular and
tortuous. Laterite is often pisolitic, the pisolites having
a concentric structure and being cemented together by
ferruginous or aluminous material. When the fresh soft
rock is exposed to air, it is quickly dehydrated and becomes
quite hard.
The term was first used for material from Malabar in
South India by Francis Buchanan in 1800. The following
extracts from his diary are of interest in this connection:-
" The ore is found forming beds, veins, or detached masses in the
stratum of indurated clay that is to be afterwards described, and of
which the greater part of the hills of Malabar consist. This ore is
.FranclJ Buchanan: A journey fcom Madras through the countries of Mysore,

Canara, Malabar, etc. (London, 1807, 3 volumes). Vol. lI, PP 436-437, dated
Angadlpuram 2O-21Sl December, 1800.
composed of clay, quartz in the form of sand, and of the common black
iron sand. This mixture forms small, angular nodules closely com-
pacted together and very friable. It is dug out with a pick-axe"
Continuing, he wrote on a later page (p. 440) : -
" It is diffused In immense masses without any appearance of
stratification and IS placed over the gramte that forms the basis of
Malayalat It IS full of caVities and pores and contams a very large
quantity of iron in the form of red and yellow ochres. In the mass,
while exclUded from the air, it is so soft that any iron mstrument
readily cuts it and IS dug up in square masses with a pick-axe and
immediately cut into the shape wanted with a trowel or a large kmfe.
It very soon after becomes as hard as a brIck and resIsts the air and
water much better than any bncks that I have seen m India .
As It IS usually cut Into the form ofbncks for bUlldmg, In several of the
native dialects it is called the bnck-stone (Itlca-cullu). Whe~e however
by the washing away of the SOil, part of it has been exposed to air and
has hardened into rock, its colour becomes black, and ItS pores and
inequalities give it a kmd of resemblance to the skin of a person
affected With cutaneous disorder; hence III the Tamil language It is
called shun cull or itch stone. The most proper English name would be
latente, from latentes, the appellation that may be given to it in science,"
Composition.-Laterite may form from a variety of
rocks, the end product containing mainly the hydroxides
of iron, alumina and ma\1ganese. The original alkalies,
lime, magnesia and silica are removed in solution, silica
being present until a late stage. Titania remains in the
residual material so that, in some Indian laterites derived
from the traps, as much as 8 to 16 per cent. of this consti-
tuent may be present. Analyses of gneisses and khondalites
in various stages of lateritisation will be found in the
papers by C. S. Fox and M. S. Krishnan cited in the
bibliography.
In accordance with the relative amounts of ferric oxide,
alumina and manganese present, .the material is called
ferruginous laterite (laterite), aluminous laterite (bauxite)
and manganiferous laterite (lateritoid manganese ore).
In general, the highly ferruginous material is red to red-
tMala)alam IS the local name of the Malabar CountrY and also of th.;
language of Malabar, Cochm and Travancore.
67
brown, the aluminous one creamy or greyish, and the
manganiferous one dark brown to black.
Types related to parent rock.-Large areas of
Deccan trap are covered with a laterite cap having a
thickness up to 100 or 150 feet. In these the lateritisation
has gone to completion, with little or no combined silica,
and the material may vary from ferruginous to highly
aluminous laterite.
In the case of khondalites, lateritisation is generally
not so well developed as in Deccan traps, for there is often
much kaolinic or lithomargic material. In certain areas
as on tops of hills, the process has been carried to comple-
tion. The study of the laterite of Malabar by C. S. Fox
has shown that it is generally lithomargic and derived from
granite and granite-gneiss. There is still much combined
silica in the rock. Though this is the type originally
described by Buchanan, the term laterite is now res-
tricted by usage to the product which is free from combined
silica, so that the Malabar laterite will now be called
lithomargic laterite.
In typical sections in Malabar, the surface material is
highly ferruginous and pellety in structure, underlain by
vermicular mottled laterite containing some clay and free
silica. Below this comes the soft, pale coloured, highly
lithomargic material which preserves to some extent the
gneissic structure of the underlying rock. This is really
kaolinised gneiss gradually changing to laterite. Almost
the whole section shows the presence of free quartz and
kaolinic material except a small thickness exposed at the
surface.
Sir John Harrison's observations are interesting in this
connection :-
" Under tropical conditions, acid rocks, such as aplites, pegmatites
or granites or gramtlc gneiss, do not undergo primary latentisation
but gradually change through katamorphlsm mto PIP" or pot-clays,
or more or less quartziferous impure kaolms."
"Under tropical conditIOns, the katamorphlsm of bd~IC and
intermediate rocks, at or close to the water-table, under conditions of
more or less perfect drainage, is accompanied by the almost complete

removal of sIlica and of calcium, magnesIUm, potassium and sodium
oXIdes, leaving an earthy residuum of aluminIUm trihydrate (in its
crystalline form of gibbsite), limomte, a few unaltered fragments of
felspars, and In some cases, secondary qual tz, and the various resistant
minerals onginally present in the rock. ThIS residuum is termed
pnmary latente."
The observations of Fox on Malabar laterite show
that when free silica is present in the parent rock, the
tendency is to form kaolinic and lithomargic products;
when free silica is absent, as in basic rocks, true laterite is
formed.
Another type of lateritic product is known, parti-
cularly in the Mediterranean region. It is the 'terra
rosa' type, a red clay derived, according to Fox, from the
accumulation of the insoluble matter of limestones and
dolomites, and typical of the bauxite deposits of France.
It is characterised by a comparatively low content of
combined water (which may be due to the preponderance
of the monohydrate of aluminium), and by a low percen-
tage of silica. The terra rosa type is present in India over
some areas of calcareous rocks, but is insignificant in
quantity in comparison \{'ith the other types.
High-level and low-level laterite.-Most of the
laterite occurring as massive beds is found generally capping
hills at altitudes of 2,000 to 5,000 feet. The laterite cap in
the Deccan trap country varies considerably in thickness
and may be up to 200 feet. Laterite also occurs at lower
levels, but in many cases this is secondary, being derived
from the high level laterite and recemented in the valleys
or plains. There is also laterite which is formed on rocks
exposed at low levels. This classification according to
altitude is now known to be untenable. A genetic classi-
fication can differentiate between only primary and
detrital laterite, the first referring to material formed in
situ while the second is primary laterite transported to
other places and there recemented. Primary laterite can
be formed at all altitudes if the conditions are favourable.
On the whole, however, the primary material is compact
and fairly uniform in composition while the detrital laterite
is heterogeneous and far from comp:lct.
Distribution.-Laterite is extemively distributed in
Peninsular India. The best known occurrences are on the
Deccan traps and on khondalites. It is commonly seen
in the Western Ghats. Less important occurrences are
found in almost every district covering gneisses, schists,
slates, impure limestones and ferruginous rocks.
Age.-There are no definite criteria for determining
the age of the laterite. Much of the laterite on hills in
Bombay, Central India, Central Provinces and Orissa is
probably of Upper Tertiary age extending into the
Pleistocene. It is forming at the present day in Western
Ghats and probably in other regions, the necessary
condition, according to Norbert Krebs, being a rainfall
of over 65 inches per year and an average monthly
temperature of over 20 C. It is known, however, that
laterite was formed in Cretaceous times, for the Eocene
of Northwestern India is underlain by a conspicuous bed
of laterite. A thin zone of this material is seen also at
the junction of the Upper Gondwana and Cretaceous
beds in the Trichinopoly district. It indicates a period
of subaerial weathering in tropical regions with fairly
flat topography.
Origin.-Several hypotheses have been proposed to
account for the formation of laterite. Among the earlier
ones are volcanic agencies, ascending thermal waters,
solution of alumina and iron by acidic waters and subse-
quent precipitation or deposition in lakes or lagoons
through the agency of running water.
It is, however, now generally agreed that laterite is a
product of subaerial weathering in a monsoon climate
having alternate dry and wet seasons. Good drainage
conditions also seem to have an important influence.
Dr. C. S. Fox has suggested that acid waters percolating
XX] THE PLEISTOCENE SYSTEM. 533
down through a porous rock might set up a potential
gradient and that the passage of silica downwards and
ferric oxide upwards might be allied to the phenomenon
of cataphoresis, the alumina set free from the rock as a gel
acting as a diaphragm. Capillary action may also help
the migration offerric hydroxide to the surface. Sir T. H.
Holland has suggested that bacteria may help in the dis-
integration of the original rock and in the concentration
of the sesqui-oxides. This seems to be supported by the
work of G. A. Thiel, Ellis and others.
Fox has given a section of a typical laterite-capped
plateau in the Deccan trap country. At the top occurs
ferruginous laterite passing down into vermicular or
pisolitic material, having a thickness of some 7 or 8 feet.
Further down comes a layer of grey, creamy or reddish
bauxite (aluminous laterite) whose thickness is variable.
Underlying this is a porous soft laterite which grades down
into lithomarge, this being highly siliceous at about the
ground water level. Below the lithomarge is partially
altered rock and then the unaltered parent rock.
Uses.-Ferruginous laterite is used extensively in some
parts of India for building houses, culverts, bridges and
other structures. It is easily dressed when freshly quarried
but hardens on exposure and is a fairly good and durable
building stone.
Aluminous laterite (or bauxite) is used as an ore of
aluminium, i.e., for the preparation of high grade alumina
which is electrolysed for the preparation of the metal.
It is also used in oil refining as its colloidal comtituents
have the property of decolourfsing oils. It can be employed
for the manufacture of salts of aluminium and for
making high-alumina cement. There is, in the ferruginous
laterites of India and other countries, a vast store of iron
which it should be possible to smelt cheaply at some future
date when the high grade hocmatite deposits become
scarce or costly to mine and voncentratc.
~ . - --
....
(PLEISTOCENE AND RECENT.)
Auden, J.B. Report on the reh soils in the U. P. Rec. 76, paper I,
1942 .
I'oote, R. B. Blila Surgam and other caves in Kurnoo!' Rec. 17,
27-34, 1884
Foote, R. B. Results of excavation in Billa Surgam caves. RIc. 18,
227-235, 1885.
La Touche, T. D. Submerged forests at Bombay. Rec. 49, 214-219.
19 18 .
Vredenbwg, E. Pleistocene movement m the Indian Peninsula.
Rec. 33, 33-45, 1906 .
Wadia, D. N. eI al. Geological foundations of the soils of India.
&c. 68, 363-391, 1935. (Extensive bibliography).
LATERITE.
-------Laterite and laterite soils. Tech. Comm. 24, Imp. Bur.

Soil Sci., London, 1932.
Bauer, Max. Beitrage zur Geologieder Seychellen, insbesondere zur
Kenntnis des Latents. .N JB. Min. II, 163-219, 18g8.
Fermor, L. L. What is laterite? Ceoi. Mag. 4B, 454-462. 5 0 7-5 16,
559-5 66, 19 11 .
Fox, C. S. Bauxite and aluminous laterite occurrences ofIndia. Mem.
49, Pt. I, 1923.
Fox, C.S. Bauxite and aluminous laterite. London, '932.
Fox, C.S. Buchanan's laterite of Malabar and Kanara. Rec. 69,
38g-422, 1936 .
Harrison, J. The katamorphism of igneous rocks under humid
tropical conditions. Imp. Bur. SOli SCI., London, '934.
Holland, T.H. On the constitution, origin and dehydration of
laterite. Ceol. Mag 40, 59-66, 1903.
Krishnan, M.S. LateritisatIOn ofkhondalite. Rtc. 68, 392-399,1934.
Lake, P. Geology of Malabar. Mem. 24, 217-233, 1890.
Middlemiss, C.S. Bauxite deposits of Jammu. Kashmir Minerai
Survry Report, 1928.
Rumbold, W.G. Bauxite and aluminium. Imp. Jnst. London,
MOTWgraph senes, 1925.
Smeeth, W.F. Laterite in Mysore. M. C. D. Rec. I I, 1910.
Thiel, G.A. Enrichment of Bauxite deposits through the activity of
micro-organisms. Econ. Ceol. 22, 4 80-493, 1927.
Wetherell, E.W. The nature of Laterite, the Bangalore-Kolar
laterite. M.G.D., Mem. IJI.
- ------ +--
\
\U. ~926~
INDEX.
A Assam plateau, 8, 39, 67, 71, 72-
Abur beds, 380. I\~am wedge, 71.
AeQhan deposlts, 5'11. .\sbestos, 164, 174, 185.
Agglomeratlc slates. 235, 306, 320 ,\thgarh beds, 268, 269
Ahmednagar ,andstone, 288, 397. Athleta beds, 383.
Alyengar, N K N, 495 Attock slates, 148, II}?
Ajabgarh Senes, ISo Auden, J B, 146, 149, 285.
,\kauktaung stage, 487. \uk shales, 194, 19B
Alkah rocks, 108. 113, 137, 152-151, 182 \utoclastJc, ga, 129.
Alluvlum Sutle., 512, Narbada, 512- .\xlal group, 57, 359, P4, 4 1 5.
515' Godavan, 515, Klstna, 516, B
Madras area. 516, Irrawaddy, 516
lndo-gangehc, 5 I 7-;il 9 ; Recent, 523 Badasar beds, '180
Almod ~s, 257, 258 , 259. Bagh beds, 268, 3gB.
Alum shales, 37'1, 461. Bagra stage, 262
Alveohna hmestone, 39 1, 4)4, 463 Bam boulder-bed, soB.
Ah,ar series, ISo Balrenkonda quartzite, 175
Amb beds, 314
Baluchistan arc, 16, 6'2-64, 68, 13.
Amla granite, 117, J.t5. Baluchistan. Tnas, 357 ; JurassiC, 374 ;
Cretaceous, 391; Tertiary, 440; Eo-
Anceps beds, 383
Andaluslte, 115. 155 cene, 452; Ohgocene, 478, MIa-
Pliocene, 502.
Andaman Islands, 17, 57, 59, 472 Banded haemahte quartziu. S Ferru
Angara flora, 280
Angaraland, 280, 299, 300 gmous quartZItes
Anorthoslte, 108, I'll, 126. Banded GneISSIC Complex, 135,143,145-
Apabte, 113, 164, 276 Bandne senes. 102. 143.
Banganapalh beds, 194
Arabian sea, 51, 67.
Arakan coast Mud \olcanDes, .J2, BaragolOl stage, 470
Barahat series, 235
Submergence, 527
Barall series, 470.
Aravalli ranges. 8. 9, 136
Bante (Barytes), 174. 184
Aravalh S) stem. 13;. 13 6, 143 I
Archaean Group: DIstnbutlOn, 96 , ~h Barakar senes. 150, 252-253, 278, 325
sore-S Bomba).q6. H\d('raoad, 106, Banpada beds. 490
Barmer sandstone, 268, 3<)7.
Southern Madras. 108, Ce,lon. 109,
Barren Island, 40, 58, 59.
Eastern Ghats, 112 , Jevpore-Rastar.
Barren Measures, 255, 256.
113' Sambalpur , 115, Ralpur- Basal stage, 188.
Dru~. 116; Rilaspur-Balaghat, 116 Bastar. Arcbaeans 114..
Nagpur. etc, 118, Bengal, 121;
BaUXite, 427. 43 6, 529, 533.
Smghbhum, 121 ,GanItPuI, 127, Son Bawdwm \olcamcs, 1.')4, 215.
\ alley, 129, Jubbulpor.. , 1]0, Bund- Ba"d",m ore-bo<hes, 215.
delkhand, 131, Ralputana, 132;
Bay of Bengal, 51, 59
Assam, Iq8 ,N \\' Hllna)a,a, 14,6;
Beas Rl\er. 24
Spltl, 148, Nepal-Slkklm, 14c), E Belemmtes gerard I beds, 366.
Himalaya, 1')0 Burma, 1')1 , Mogok
Belemmte beds. 396.
151, Myukyma, 151, Shan State<. Bdemmte shales, 38g, 394
1')4 , Tennassenm. 154. Bellarv gneiSS, 106, 107, 108, Ill, 112,
Archaean! . Penmsular, 94-14; , Extra
Pemnsular, 146-151, Mmerals In, 134. 145
Renga I. Archaeans, 12 J.
156-166, CorrelatJon, 140-1-15 Benltal gneiss, 121, 126, 145
An~alur stage, 407-409 BerYl, 153
Arkasam grallophyre, 124. I l i Bhabar, 523
Arsentc sulphIdes, 163. Bhadrar beds, 462
Aryan group, ag. . Bhander (Bundalr) senes, 191, 210.
Assam: Archaeans, q8; Cretaceous, Bhangar, 519
412; Tertiary, 443, Eocene, 468, BhattacharJet", D S , +8, no.
Olago-Mlocene, ",8]; Mlo-Phocene, Bhlma senes, 194.
0;04 Bhuban stage, 484.
Bhuj stage, 384. CeratIte marls, 355.

Bhur lands, 524 Ceratlte sandstone, 355.
Bidalotl series, 102. Ceylon Archaeans, J09-111; Gond
Blja... ar senes, 131, 178. wanas, 274, Miocene, 492.
BiJaIgarh shales, 190 Chall series, 148, 1490 151.
Bijon stage. 256, 257. Champaner senes, 137. 143
BInota ~hales, 136. ChampIOn gneiSS, 103
IJintenne gneISS, t 10. Chandarpur sandstones, 178.
Bivalve beds, 356 Chandpur beds, 235.
BlaInI bed$, 324, 325. Chan senes, 371, 383
BlaInI boulder-bed, 23';, 244, 248, 325' ChamockIte, 6, 7, 103, 105, J09, 110.
Blanford, H F , 404. 112, 113,114,115,139,153,165,4-3.
Blanford, W T., 476, 508 Chatterjee, S K, 119
Boka Bil stage, 483 Chau~an stage, 264.
Bokaro coalfield, 250, 253, 258, 28g. Chaung Magyl senes, 154, 155, 197,
Bolan (Dunghan) lunestone, 454. 21 5
Bose, P N, 130. Chenab River, 24.
Boulder-bed. Set Bam, BlalllJ, Talchir, Cherrapunll, 5, 8.
Tanakki. Cherra stage (Sandstone), 412, 469
Boulder-conglomerate, 500,507. Cheyalr senes, 174
Brahmaputra River, 29, 30, 528. Chharat senes, 4fi 5, 466.
Brown, J C, ISO, 224 Chhlbber, H L , 60.
Buchanan, F, 528, 530 Chlchana beds. 2';<).
Budavada sandstones, 271. Chldamu beds, 366
Bugti beds, 4Bo Chidru beds, 3 1 7, 355.
BUlldmg stones. 165, 184, 192, 19B, 260, Chlklala sta~e, 264.
269, 288. 435, 472 Chlkklm ~enes, 3Sg
Bundelkhand, Archaeans, 131-132. Chllpl (Ghat) senes, lIS, 116, 117, 143
Bundelkhand gneiS5, 106, 131, 134, 143. Chmd\\In River, 31.
Burma arc, 17,57,68,74. ChlOJI sta~e, 4gB
Burma: Archaearu, 151-154 ,Cambrian, Chm shales, 35Q.
215-219; OrdoVlclan-Silunan, 221- Chmtalpudl sandstone, 257
226; DevonIan, 22q-230; CarbonI- Chlrakhan (Deola) marl, 3gB
ferous, 233-234; TnM, 358: JurM- ChltIchun lImestone, 303, 'po, 321.
SIC, 385; CretaceoWl, 413; TertIary, Chltral DeVOnIan, 227 , Carbontferous,
445; Eocene, 471 , Oligocene, 484; 233; Cretaceous, 393
Mia-Pliocene, 504. Chitral slates, 231.
Burrard, Sir S G, 78, 517. Chor granIte, '4.<)
Burton, R C., 116. Chota Na~pur gneiss, 124, 126, 129,130.
Buxa senes, 150, 151. ChrIStie, W.A.K., 15, 204, 522 .
Chromlte, 124, 126, 159, 177, 4 15.
C Chmate,3
CI~pet gramte, 106, 134.
Calcare~ zone (Baluchistan arc), Coal, 150, 19o, 252, 253, 255, 264. 288-
64, 376, 392, 3Q'l, 394, 47 8 297, 325. 373, 461 , 466, 470, +7 1 ,
Calc rocks (marbles, granulItes), gB, 472, 474
102, 106, 110, 113 "4, liS, Jl8, Coate" J.S, 110.
120,128, 129,130,137,146 14<) 150, Coast: eastern, 21. 51 ; western, 50 ,5 1
151, 15 2, 153, 154.177, 178, IRo. Coast, recent chan~es, 526.
Callovian unconformity, 64. 286. 364 Coa~tal depOSits, Recent, 519-520.
CambrIan' Salt Range, I 9I}-2 I I , K~h Colbert, E H, 500.
mlr, 211 ,SPlU, 212 ,Shan State~, 21') Columblte-tantahte, 163
Carbomferous ~Y'tem : Spltl, 230 ; Kash- CompematIon. ISryjtaltC, 77, 78.
mIr, 2'l2 ; ChitTal, 211 ; Burma, 233 ConJee-.aram gravels, 491.
CardIta beaumonu bed, 432. Conulana horizon, 250, 285, 3 12 , 3 13.
Cardlta subcomplanata bed, 3go, 396 3 14.
Carnatlc gneiss (Nellore), 107. Copper ore, '49, IsS, 185. 21 7
Carnic stage (Tnasj. 334, 340. 'H3 3>, Coprolites, 260, 428. 4'7\.
1+7, 150 , 35 1 Coral limestone, 336, 3gB.
CassiterIte, 127, .Cordiente, 100, 102, 1::>8, III, 113, Jl5.
Cave deposits, 523. 138, 1')2.
Celestite, 403 Corundum, 108. 110. 152, 153, 16-+.
Cenomanian tramgression, 188, 399, Cotter, G. de P, 4 1 4, 47~.
~titc beds, 354, 1~6 c:;oul!on, A.L., 132.
INDEX.
537
Cretaceous System: SPlll, 388; Johar
3139, Kumaon, 390, Tibet, 390, Dharwar system, 94, 97, gB, 100, 102,
Kashmir 391 , Hazara, 392 , Attock 106, 10 7, Ill, 121, 126,128,13 1,13 8 ,
392 . Sam ana Range, 393, Chltrai, 143, 145, 148, 151
393, SInd-BaluchIStan, 393, Salt Dhok Pathan stage, 499
Range, 396, Bombay, 397, Cutch Dhosa oolIte, 383
3gB, Narbada valley, 398 , Tnchmo- Dhrangadhra sandstone, 265, 397
poly, 400 , Pondlcherry, 409, ka_,a- Dladematus zone, 383
mahendn, 410 ; Assam, 412, Burma, Diamond, 178, 191, 194, 197.
4 13 DIener, C, 346 .
Cretaceous, Ignrous rocks In, 414 DlhIng senes, 50 4.
Crookshank, H., 113, 114, 258 . Dlsang senes, 413, 468
Crust, pnmordlal, 95. Dogra slate, 147, 148, 235, 23 8
Crustal warp hypothesis, 78, 79 Dome gneiss, 106, 126, 130, 134, 145
Dra\ldlan ~roup, 89.
Cuddalore sandstone, 401, 408, 409,
49 1 Dubey, V S, 422, 434.
DubraJPur sandstone, 260.
Cuddapah system, 114, 115, 116, 134, DudukuTU (Dudkur) beds, 4 29
1
17 - 173 ; dlstnbutlOn, 172, Madras, Dumortlente, 119.
173, S Bomba\. 176, Godavan Dunes, 521, 523.
valley, 177 ; Bllndeikhand. 178 , RaJ- Dunghan (Bolan) limestone, 454
putana, 179, G"ahor, 183 , Economic Dunn, .J A, 124, 218.
minerals In, 18 4 Durgapur beds, 260, 490.
Cuddapah slab" 197 Du TOit. 263, 28 3
Cuddapah traps, IH Dwarka beds, 446, 48g.
Cumbum slates, 175
Cutch . JurassIc rocks, 380-384; Eo. E
cene, 474; Ohgo-Mlocene, 489. Eastern Ghats, 6, 7, 104, 112 See also
under Stnke '
D Earthquakes 38-40, changes of level
due to, 527, 111 TertIary belt, 38 ;
DachsteInkalk, 337, 343 III Gangetic alJU\lUm, 39; 'YInpathe-
Dagshal beds, 482 tIC, 40; m Burma, 59.
Dalmg senes, 149, 151, 2'i5 Eclogite. 153, EclogllIc shell, 42 0 .
Dalma volcamcs (traps" 123, 124, 12 9 Eocene system, 451-47~;, DlStnbutlOn,
D"llv,RA,152 45 I, Smd and Baluchistan, 45 2 ;
Daman slopes, 522 fo a"lumfera, 4'i8, 41i3, Salt Range
Damuda (Damodar) senes, 25G- 25 2I l 77. 4,8' Kohat, 462, Samana Rar'l~e,
Dana, J D, 94 4 63', Hazara 465, Kashnur, 466 ;
Daonalla shales, 333 ~Imla, 467; Assam, 468, Burma,
Daonella limestone, 333 472, RaJputana and Cutch, 474,
DarJeelmg (senes) gneiss, 149, 15 1 PondICherry, 475, RaJamahe"ldn
Das Gupta, H C , 4 2 9 47 6 .
DaVles, L l\f , 205. 454 Ennpura granite, 179, 181
Deccan Trapll, 418-437, sub-dlVlSlOns, Erratles, Potwar, 508
4 19, structural-features, 41 Q , colum- Eurydesma bed, 250, 285. 308, 310, 3 11
nar IOIntlng, 419, dikes and Sills, 420 ; 3 1 2, 3 13.
~trology, 421 ,~trography, 423, Everest, MOllnt, 16
dllferenuates, 422 ,secoO'lal) mme- Everest hmestone, 304
rals, 424 , COmP~llJon, 426 , weather- Everest Pehtlc seTles, 30 4
Ing, 426, age, 43 1-435 Everest's spheroid, i4
DelhI System, 9, 132, 134, 179- 183. EX-;>hC blocks, 303, 346, 369, 3Sg, 4 15.
DelhI quartzite, 181. F
Den\,a stage, 262.
Deoban lImestone, I ~9 FatehJang zone, 4 81 . .
Deola (Chlrakhanl marl. 398 Faults, 2, 21, 22, 39 49, 111 Assam, 72; III
Deoh bed., 2')8 Bawdwm Mines, 215,217, In Deccan
Desert depositS, 521 Traps, 420 , III Gond\\anas, 281,
De Terra, H., 507, 510, 5 14. 282, 293. 297, HaRong-Dlsanll', 39,
Devoman : SPltl, 226, Kashmir, 227; 58, 72, MaIn Boundary (HImalaya),
ChItral, 227, Shan States, 229 55, 494, Great Boundary (RaJPuta-
Dhak Pass beth, 460. na), 133,116, 181, 183,193; In the
Dhandraul QuartZite, 191, l'iarbada ~alJe\, 2 I , on the Western
DhanJori stage, 12 4. coast, 50.
Feistmantcl, 0., 2+2, 243, 263. 275.
68
Fenestella sales, 231, 232. 134; Hosur, 106, 145; Ndgiri

Fennor, Sir L.L, 94,102,106, 113, 117, (chamockite), 10g'106; Pemnsular,
120, 131, 141, 160, 284, 420, 424, 109, 107, loB, JlO, 112, 121, 126,
42 5. 145; Wannl, 109, III
Ferruginous quartzites (Haematite and GneiSSIC complex, 95 ' Banded, 135, 143
magnetIte quartzites), ga, 99, 101, Golaptlli sandstones, 269.
107, 112, 114, 115, 119, 12 3, 124, Gold, 100, 107, 156-157
12 5, 130, 139, 143, 150, 178. Golden oohte, 37g, 383
Fire-clay, 1')8, 253, 287. Gondite, 120, 128, 160.
FlexIble sandstone, 185. Gondwana era: Climate, 277; Palaeo-
Floods, 33. geography, 283-287
Fluonte, 107, 130 Gondwana coalfields 291-297.
Flysch faCIes, 64> 65, 387, 3119, 394. 3g6, Gondwanaland, 20, 72, 241, 24 2 , 279,
453, 455, 471. 479 280, 299, 300, 378, 438
Foote, R Bruce, 94, gIS, 97,272,274,523 Gondwanas' Dlstnbution, 242 ; ClassI-
Fore-deep, 73, 74, 493, 5 17. fication, 24'3-"44; CorrelatIOn, 244,
FossIl-wood group, 504. TalchIr senes, 2H-2.j.8; Umana
Fox, C S , 72, I gIS, 207, 243, 244> 250, marIne bed, 248, Damuda serIes,
279, 284, 285, 3 13, ~3, 434, 53 0, 250-258; Panchet senes, 258-259;
53 1 , 53g Mahadeva senes, 259-262. Rajma-
Fuller's earth, 474. hal serIes, 262-264, Jabalpur senes,
G
264-265; Coastal, 265-274; Ce~lon,
274-275; Tgneou< rocks in, 275-
Gaj senes, 479. 276; World distnbution, 278-279;
Gajansar beds, 383 Floras,280-281; Structure of, 281-282;
Gandak River, 27. Mmeral deposits in, 287.
Gangamopten~ beds, 250, 252, 3oB. Grantte' Amla, 117, 145, Chor, 149;
Ganges River, 25 26, 30. Closepet. 106, 107, 134, 145;
Gangellc alluvium, 517. Central Himalayan, 147, 415, Enn-
GangetIc plams, reialJon to the Hima- pura, 179, 181; Idar, 181, Jalor-
layas, 72, 78. SIW'dna, 182; Kabamg, 152, 153;
Gangpur senes, 128-129, 143. Mylhan, :39, 145; Smghbhum, 122,
Ganurgarh shales, 191 123, 127, '45 ; Tawng Peng, 154,215,
Gamet, 164, ,65. 218.
Gee, E.R., 207. GraphIte, 110, 112, 152, 164.
Gemstones, 151, 153, 16 5. Graptolite beds, 225.
GeodetiC observations, 74. Great LImestone, 323
GeoId, 74 Grey shales, '334.
GeologIcal systems, 84 Gulcheru quartzite, 173
Geological formatIOns, Standard, 85-87 Gupta, B C., 132
Geologlcalformattons, IndIan, 88,91-93. Gwadar stage, 502
Ghazaband hmestone, 455 Gwahor series, 136, 183
Gha~lj shales, 454 Gymnites bed!, 348.
Ghosh, AM N, 150. Gypsum, 192, rg6, 201, 202, 203. 211,
Ghosh, P K, 105, 114, 115, 132. 43, 405, 45 2 , 460 , 46l , 479
Gigantoptens flora, 280, 281.
H
Gm bmestone, 390
Glndlh coalfield, 250. Hackel, C A, 131, 181, 183
GlruJan clays, 504 Haemattte (Me also Iron ore), ga, 123,
Glumal sandstone, 366, 37 1 , 388, 339, 176 , 26 5, 373
390, 392 Hatmanta system, 148, 212-215.
GlaCiatIOn Gondwana, 2, 277, 284, Hallstatr marble, 344, 346 , 347
. PleIStocene, 500, 507. Halobla beds, 334, 340
Glaclen, 17-19. Halonles beds, 340.
Glaucomte, 189, 393, 3g6, 4 12 . Hangu shales, 46g.
Glenme, EA., 78. Harmon, SIr .]., 530
Glossoptens flora, 242, 243, 277, 278, Hayden, Sir H H, 148, 214, 467.
281. Hayford, 77
GneISS; Ikllary, 106, 107, loB, I II, 112, Hazara; Pennlan, 323; Tnas, 356;
134, 145; Bengal, 121, 126, 145; JurassIc, 370, Cretaceous, 392 ;
Bmtenne, 109, 110; Bundelkhand, Eocene, 465.
106, 131, 134, Carnatlc, 107; Heclenstroemla bw, 332, 338, 342, 3+6.
ChampIOn, 103, Chota Nagpur, 126- 3iB
127, BIg, 130, Dome, 106, 126, 130, Haskanen, n 78.
INDEX. 539
Hemipneustes beds, 38 9, 390, 391-> 395 Jubbulpore: Archaean!, 13-13 1 , 143,
HercYnian movnnents, 241, 280, 287, 178, 179; Gond" anas, 264-265,
299 Lametas, 427.
Heron, AM, 106, 132, 134, 135, 182 Jumna River, 25
422 . JurassIc system 364-3!.l6, Attock, 37 0 ;
Hidden range and trough (Burrard's), Baluchistan, 374, Bannu, 374; Bur-
78, 79, 80 ma, 385 ; Cutch, 380, Garhwa'. 36;);
HIll limestone, 465, 466 Hazara, 370; Kashmir. 370, Kumaon,
Hunalaya, physiography and tectonics, 368, Madras, 385, ;\Igan Khorsum,
'4-,6, 51-56. 369, RaJputana, 380, Salt Range
Himalayan upheave!, 283, 439. 37', Samana Range, 374, SplU
Hlmglr beds, 257 365. Ilbet, 369
Hlllgial senes, 480 Jutogh senes, '47, 148, IS'
Holland, Sir T.H, 88, 94, 104, 105, JuvaVltes beds, 336
522 , 533 K
Hora, S.L, 433.
Hornstone breCCia, 180 Kabamg gramte, 152-153.
Hosur gneiss, 106, 145. Kallas Range, '3
Huene, F von. 242, 428, 433 Krumur senes. I go
Hungantes beds, 348. KaJrahat limestone, 188
H)derabad Archaeans, 106, Pakhah. Kalabagh beds, 314.
'77; Bhlmas, 194- 191>. Kaladgl senes, I 76.
Kah River, 27.
I Kallar, 203, 524
Idar granite, 181. 'kama stage, 486
Igneous belt<, Burma, 60 Kamawkala hmestone, 358
Ilmenite. 162. Kamhal stage, 497
Indo-gangetlc alluvlUm, 517-519 Kampa s}stem, 390, 391, 468
Indo-gangettc plams, I, 2, 3, 39 Kamthl beds, 257, 277. 278
Indus River, 23, 29 Kana\\ar system, 230.
Infra-Krol senes. 324, 325. KanJ..ar. 514, 519
Infra-trappean beds, 428 Kantkote sandstone, 383
Infr'l-Tnas, 323 Karakoram Range, 10, 13, 53
Inter-trappean beds, 429, 476 Karewa formation, 510, 512.
Irlakonda quartZite, 176 Karharban stage, 245, 250.
Iron ore, gB, 1'4,123,124.125,131,143, Kanka! beds, 480, 502, 503.
'59,176, 179, 185,255. 2 72 , Karnali RIVer, 27.
lron-ore senes, 122-123, 124, 129, 130, Kasauh beds, 463
139, 143 Kashmir Pre-Cambnan, 147; Cam-
Iron-ore senes (Batladtl.t), 1'4 bnan. 21 I, OrdO\ IClan-SI!unan. 221 ,
Ironstone shales. 255 Devonian, 227 , CarbonIferous, 232 ;
Irrawaddy R",er, 31 Gangamoptens beds, 2.')2. PermIan,
Irrawaddy system, 505. 305-310, Infra-Tnas, 323; TnM,
Il>OStasy, 76-78 347 , JurassIc 370; Cretaceous, 39 1 ,
Iyer, LAN, 171), 272 Eocene, 466
Katro! series. 383
J Katta beds, 314
Jabalpur senes, 264-265 khadar, 51Q
Jabbl beds, 116 Khalrabad hmestone, 46<1.
Jacob, K, 274, 275. Khardeola gnt., 136
Jaddte, 416 Khaq greenslone, 139
Jamha senes. 468 KhemJua stage, 18B
Ja"almer hmestone, 380. KhoJak shales, 479
Jalor gramte, 181, 193 Khondahte, 109, 110, 112. 1"3, 1;,2,
Jammalmadugu senes, '94. 197 52 q
Jaunsar series, '97, 235 Kmg. W' , 104. 107, 116, Jl7, 27 2
Jenam stage, 471 KlOto lImestone See Megalodon lIme-
Jeypore-Bastar. Archaeans, 113. stone
Jhana coalfidd, 2,)0. 252, 253, 255, 256, Klrthar hills, 10, 16, 66, 67.
2,)8,2.,8 282, 28g, 290,291,291>-297. Klrthar senes, 451, 455. 4 62 , 4 65. 46 7,
Jhelum River. 24 474
Jhm shales. 'CJ I- KlStna sene<;, I 76
Jlran sandstone, 181. Kodamlte senes, 102
Jones, H C. 122 Kodurite. 113, 143, 160.
Ko!lkuntla hmestone, 194.

Kolamnala shales, I 76 343, 350, 36 5, 370 , etc; Meting 454;
Moulmem, 155, 234; Mu,chelkalk,
Kolar schist belt, 100, 13, 156- 157. 332, 338, 342, Nammal, 461;
Kolhan senes, 124, 145. Nandyal, 194, Nan, 478, Narj1, 194.
Kop1l1 stage, 469 197; Nlmbahera, 189, NltI, 332;
KOSI RIVer, 28
338, Nodular, 332 338. Nyaungbaw,
Kossamat, F., 404, 410. 224, Padaukpm, 229, P"khal, 177 ;
Kota stage, 260, 263, 269, 275. Parh, 394, Patcham, ~81; Penganga,
Krafft, A von, 346. 177, Plateau, 229, 233, Proouctus,
Krishnan, M S, 128, 422, 5 29. 314,316, Ralpur, 178, Rohtas, 188,
Krol senes, 324, 325. 369. Sakesar, 462, Samana 5uk, 374;
Kuldana beds, 465, 466. Scarp, 390; Shah, 325, Shekhan,
Kuhng system, 302, 320. 462, SIJU, 469, Spmtangl, 457,
Kumaon Penman, 303; Tnas, 338- Sylhet, 469, S}rmgothyns, 232;
345 ; Jurassic, 368 , Cretaceous, 390. Tlrohan, 189, Traumatocrinus, 340,
KundaIr series, 194. Troplles, 334, 344, Tun .. , 390 , Vem-
Kundghat beds, 314. palle, 174- 185, Vmdhvan, 197
Kurnool system, 193. Llpak senes, 231, 232
Kushalgarh hmestone, IBo. LIthographiC lImestone, 393.
Kyamte, 98, 112, 119, 124, 136 149, Lochambal beds, 366, 388.
L Lockhart hmestone, 464
Loess, 511, 521, 526
Laccadlves, 50. Lol-An senes, 385.
Lachl senes 304, 150 LouIS, Henry, 130.
Ladakh Range, 13, 27, 29.
Ladmic stage, 333, 338, 343, 351. M
LalSOng stage, 471. Maclaren, J M, 94
Lake, P, 73. Macrocephalus beds, 383
Lakes, 34-38. Madhan slates, 325
Lab senes, 453-455, 462. Madhupur Jungle, 527
Lamelhbranch bed, 350. Magnesian sandstone, 202, 210.
Lameta beds, 268, 427 Magnesite, log, 164, 182.
Langpar bed, 412 Magnetite, gB, 100, 125, 163.
Latente, 36.J, 368 , 36g, 392, 427, 436, Mahadeo bed,412.
460 , 466, 46 7, 5 28 -533. Mahadeva senes, 259-262, 277.
Latente Characters, 528; ComposI- Mahadevan, C, 177, 195
tion, 529 ; RelatIOn to parent rock, Mam Sandstone senes, 393-
530, DlStnbutlon, 532; Age, 532; Makrana marble, 137, 166
Ongm, 532, Uses, 533- Malam Igneous rod", IBI, IB3, 193
La Touche, 150, 154. Malen (Marweh) Stage, 260
Laungshe shales, 472. Mallet, F R , 129, 179
Lavender clays, 313 Manas River, 28
Lead ore, 161, 176, 185,216,217,224_ Manasarowar, 13, 24, 36
Lepper, G W , 487. Manchhar senes, 501.
Leptynite, 104, I I I . Mandhali beds, 244.
Lewu, G E, 500 Manganese ore, 116, 117, 120, 128, 130,
Lllang system, 328-338. 143, 160, 179
Limestone (Sedimentary): Alveohna, Mangamferow rocks, 100, 102, 113,
454,463 ; Bhander, 192 ; Bhlma, 197, liB, 120
Bolan. 454 ; Ceratlte, 354; Chharat, Mangh beds, 258
46 5 , ChlkkIm, 389 , Chltlchun, 303 ; Marble, ornamental' Dharwanan, 166 ;
Coral, 336, 3gB; Daonella, 333; Makrana, 137, 166, Kaladgi, ,,6.
Dunghan, 454; Everest, 304; GaJ, Mathur, K K, 422.
47Q; Ghazaband, 455; Girl, 390, Matlev, C A, 433.
Halobia, 334 , Halontes, 342 ; Hemi- Mawson senes, 224
pneustes, 394, Hill, 465, 466 , Hlp- Medhcott, H B , 242, 2~B, 476
punte, 393 , Infra-Tnas, 324; Jalsal- Meekoceras bed, 332, 33B. 342, 346
mer, 380 , Juvavites, 336 , KaJrahat, Megalodon (KlOlo) hmestone,337 342,
188, Kaladgl, 176; Kamawkala, 343, 347, 350 , 354, 357, 365, 368 ,
358, Khalrabad, 460, KhemJua, 36g, 370 , 371.
188, Kotlkuntla, 1<)4; Krol, 325, Mekran coast, 66, 67.
Kushalgarh, 180, Lachi, 35; Lias, Mekran ranges, 10, 16
376; Llpak, 231; Lockhart, 464, Mekran senl'S, 502.
Mandhah, 235; MesalQdon, 337, 3411, ~ergUi aenes, IS., 155, 197, 21 5,231),
INDEX.
Meung shales, 454. Nlmbahera hmestones and shales, ISg,

Mica, 107, [27, 163. 198
Mlca-pendoUle. ').76, 293, 297. Nlnl)ur stage, 409, 410
MiddlemISS, C S, 132, 204. 397. NIh hmestone, 332, 33B.
MIO-Phocene (Slwahks) lllStrlbutlOn, Nodular hmestone (Tnas) , 332, 338;
493 , ConstitutIon, 494, fo"Slls, 496 . (Bagh), 398.
Classification, 497 , ~ \\. IndIa, 493- None stage, 33 6, 340, 343, 347. 354.
5~\; Smu, :J{}\; B"'lud\\s\.z.u, 5~'l; Num Rong Khu stage, 54.
Cutch, 503, J(ankai, 503, Assam, Nyaungbaw hmestone, 224.
504 , Bunna, 504.
Mogok, Archaeans, 151. o
Mogok senes, 152 Oil-fields, 488
Molybdemte, 162 Older MetamorphIC series, 123, 124.
Monazite, I l l , 127. Oldham, R D , 204, 429,432,433
Mong long schI5ts, 154. Oligo-Miocene . ~tnd-BaluchJStan, 478.
Monolls shales, 336. Potwar and Jammu, 481, Simla,
Monsoon, 3, 5 482, Assam, {B3, Bunna, 484;
I\IOOnSIOlle, I 11, 153. Igneous activity In, 489, Coastal areas
Morar senes, 183 489 , Ceylon, 492.
Morri" 1 0, 508. Oh,e senes, 310
Motllf stage, 255, 256 Oplllceras beds, 330, 338, 348.
Moulmem hmestone, 155, 234. OrdO\lClan and :-'I1unan: SPltl, 21 9;
MountaInS, 5-17
Mud volcanoes, 41, 42, 65.
Kashmir, 221 ,N 'V. HImalaya, 21l[ ;
Bunna, 221-226.
Mukheflce, P N , 484-
Murra~ ndge, 66 Orogemc pen ods, Burma, 61.
Murree senes, 481 . Orogeny, HImalayan, 439, 494.
Muschelkalk, 332 , 338 , 342, 350 , 351, Orthoceras beds, 224
360 Otoceras zone, 330, 338, 342, 348. 354.
Muth quartzite, 226, 235. p
Mylhem gramte, 139, 145.
MynnekIte, 104, 113 Pab Sandstone, 3Sg, 396.
Mysore, Archaean~, g6-106. Pachmarhl bllls, 7.
Pachmarhl stage, 259, 278.
N Padaukpin cia), 486.
Padaukpin limestone, 229.
Nagan quart:l.ltes, '74. Padaung eta]s, 4B5.
Nagn .tage, 498 Pakhal series, 177, 196
Nagthat beds, 235. Palaeo)Jthlc Implements, 5 11 , 5 12. 5[4,
N allamalal seneS, 174 5 1 7.
Nammal limestones and shales, 461.
Namshlm beds, 225 PalaeozOlcs, unfossiliferous, in the HIlDa-
Namyau serIes, 385. layas, 234-239.
Nandyal shales, 194- Pall beds, 256, 257.
Nanga Parbat, 16, 23. Panchet senes, 258, 278
Naogaon stage, .po Paniam senes, Ig,f
Napeng beds, 358 ., PanJal \olcamcs, 305, 306.
Nappe, 2, 54-55 , Kashmir, 54; Garh- Panna shales. 191
\'oal, 55, Krol, 55; Johar, 346. Papaghm senes, 173.
Nara}ana Rao, SR., 430. Par senes, 183.
Narbada River, 19, 20, 21. Para stage, 337, 365.
Narcondam, 40 Parh limestone, 394
Nan serIes, 478. Panhar sandstone, 380.
Naql limestone, 194, 197, 19B_ Parsora stage, 259
Naungkang)l stage, 222. Pascoe, Su E.H., 204, 495.
N.-gralS senes, 4 1 4. Palala shales, 46 I ,
NeJlore, 107, 112, 130 Patcham beds, 381,
Neobolus beds, 202, 210. Pavalur sandstones, 27'.
Newer DoLerIte, 124, 125. 12 7. Paunggyl conglomerate, 472,473.
NIckel-cobalt ore, 162, 185, 218. Pegu senes, 484.
Nlcobar Island, 17, 57, 472 Pengaga beds, I 77.
Nllgm mountaim. 6. Penm~ula, structure of, -lo, 46-51.
Nllgm gneIss, 1 0 4 Pemnsular gneISS, 103, 106, 107, 108,
Nlmar sandstones, 398. 110, 112, 126, 4SI.
Permian system: SPill, 302; Hundes, RamgaI\) stage, 256-257

303, Kumaon, 303, Everest, 304. Ranlko! senes, 451, 452, 460, 464.
Kashmlt, 305-309, Salt Range, 310- 466, 468 .
320, Fauna, 320, Hazara, 323 Ranthambhor quartzite. 136.
Sunla-Garhwal, 324 , Eastern Hima- Ravi nver, 24.
laya, 325. Recent deposits, 523-527.
Petroleum, 42, 453,471,482,488,489. Red Beds (Kalaw), 4'3.
Phlogopite, J03. Red solis, 525.
Phosphatic nodules, 403. Reed, F.R C, 250, 318
PIlgnm, G E, 495, 500. Regur, 426, 436, 525.
Pmda~a beds, 224 Reh, 524
Pm)or stage, 500 Rehmanm beds, 383.
Plnnacled quartzite, 194, IgS. Ren]1 stage, 471
Pitchblende, 127. Reshun conglomerate, 393.
Plateau basalt, 418, 4:11. Rewa senes, 191.
Plateau hmestone, 155, 229, 233. Rewak stage, 469.
Plostocene system, 507-523 Rhaetlc, 358.
Po senes, 231. RIft valley, 67, 518
PolyphemU5 beds, 376 Rikba beds, 248, 313.
Pondaung sandstone. 473 Rivers, 31-32, Changes In the course
Porbandar stone, 446, 520 of, 29,527 ; Floods, 33 j Slit carned
Porcellamte stage, 188. by, 33
Potash salts, 204. River capture, 23, 31, 32.
Pot\\ar plateau, 68, 69. 199, 442, 465, Rock salt, 20,3, 462.
481 Rohtas stage, 188.
Potwar silt, 511 Rubv, 152, 1')3. ,65.
Pratt, Archdeacon, 76.
Productus limestone beds, 302, 3IS-3l10, S
355 Safed Koh MIS., 10, 16.
Productm (Kulmg) shales, 302, 303. Sahm, B, 263, 432
Pulophvllum flora, 243, 278 SahOl, MR., 188, 374.
Ptychltes horIZon, 3l SakarsaOlte, 102, '43,
Puhvendla stage, 174 Sakesar limestone. 462.
Pullampet slates, 173. Sakoh 5enes, '18, 129, 143.
Purana group, 89 Salkhala senes, 146-147, 151.
Purple sandstone, 196, 202, 208. Salt M.ul (Sahne senes), 202-208.
Pyalo stage, 486 ~alt Pseudomorph shales. 202, 210.
Pyroxene granulites, 100, 102, 105, 1'5, Salt Range, 16, ~, '99.
139, 149 Salt Range: Descripuon and general
geology, '99-201, Cambrian, 202-210;
Q Penman, 310-320, Tnas,.$54 , Juras-
Quartzite senes, 337, 3.p SIC, 371 ; CretaceoU5, 3!1i ; TertIary,
QUllon beds, 491. 441 , Eocene, 458, Murrees, 482.
Salween RlVtT, 32
R Samana Range, 10
Raghavapuram shales, 26g, 271, 273. Samana Suk lImestone, 374.
Raialo senes, 137. 145 Sapphire, 152, 153, 165.
Rainfall, 5, 8, 14 Satpura MountaUlS, 7.
RaJpur hmestone, 178. Satpura stnke, 4B, 73, 1112, 128, 138.
RaJamahendri (RaJamundry) sandstone, Satyaveclu beds, 273.
445,49 1 Sausar senes, 118-120, 12 9, 143.
Rajamahendn, Infra-trappeans and Sawa gnts, 181.
Inter-trappeans, 428, 430. \emrr senes, 188.
RaJmahal senes 262-263' <;eaward, A C., 259, 274. 275.
RaJrnahal traps, 262, 275 ~e ... ell. R B S , 67
Raj ~ath, 384. Shah lImestone, 325
RaJputana' Archaeans, 1,32-1$8; Delhi S~:.m <;tates Archaean, 154; Cambri
system, 179-182, JurassiC, 380; an, 215, OrdOVICian andSllunan, 221-
Eocene, 47+. 226, DevOnIan, 226-230; Permo.
Rama Rao, B, 97, 100, 105 Carbomferous, '234; Trias, 358;
Rama Rao, L., 475 JurassIC, 385; Cretaceous, 4'3.
Ramp valley, 72 Shell limestone, 380, 392, 405
Ranigani coalfield, 252, 255, 250, 258 , Shekhan hme1tone, 462.
288.292. Shield, Penlltsular, 1
INDEX.
543
Shiliong Plateau, 8, 71, 72 Assam plateau, 71-72; Baluchistan,
Shiliong senes, 138, 143 64, Burma, 57-59; Bay oj Bengal,
Shirnoga schISt belt, 100-101. 59- 60, Cuddapah and Vmdhyan
Shwezetaw stage, 485 basins, 49, Hazara., 64, Himalaya.
Slbmtes spmlger zone, 342, 355 51-55. Mekran coast and the Ara-
SlJU stage, 470. bian Sea, 66; Potwar plateau aDd
Sillimanite, 100, 102, 110, III, 112. Salt Range, 69-71
119, 149, 152 SubanslTl River, 29
Silunan (and OrdoVIcian), 219-226. Subathu beds, 467.
Slmla-Garhwal Archaeans, 148, Palaeo- Suess, E., 72 , 517.
ZOIC, 235, 238, 324 , Permo-Carboru- Sukheswala, R N., 434-
ferous, 324 ; Eocene, 467 ; Ohgocene. Suket shales, 187, 189.
t8 2 Sulalman range, 10, 16
Simla slates, 150, 197. SuJcacutus beds, 365, 368.
Smd . Cretaceous, 393; Tertiary, 440 , Sullaval senes, 196.
Eocene, 452; Ohgo..MlOcene, 478, Supra-Panchet, 260
Mlo-Phocene, 501. Surma senes, 483-484
Smghbhum, Archaeans, 121-127. Susnal breCCia, 190
Smghbhum gramte, 123, 124, 127, 1.45. Sutle] Rl\er, 24.
Smgu stage, t86 Sylhet hmestone (Stage), 46g.
Smor, K P, 248 Sylhet trap, 139.
Sirbu shales, 191. SyntaxIS: Nor!h-we.tem, 62, 63, 300.
Sinnur sY5tem, 482 370, North-eastern, 58, B8
Sitsayan shales, 485. Synngothyrill hmestone, 232.
Sittang River, 32.
Slwahk system, 493-501. T
Siwana gramt~, 181, 193. Tabbov.a series, 274.
Smeeth, W F, 97. Tabym clays, 472.
Smith-Woodward, 433 TadpatrJ slates, 174
Snow-hne, 17. Taghng stage, 365.
SOIl~, 525-526. Tal senes, 369.
Sonakhan beds, I 15. Talar stage, 502
Sona", ani series, 117. Talc (and Talc-schiSts), ga, 114, 125.
Songlr sandstone, 397 13 1, 137, 147, 165, 182, 184.
Son Valley, Archaeans, 130. Talclur boulder-bed, 211, 235, 24 1 ,244,
Spath, L F, 272, 374, 385 248 , 277, 310, 312
Speckled sandstone, 313 Talchir senes, 244-248, 277.
Spengler, E, 413. Tanakkl boulder-bed, 235, 244, 248, 32 4.
Spmtangl hme5tone, 457. Tanawal senes, 235
SplClfenna stracheYI beds, 332, 338, 346 Tantahte, III, 127, 163
Spit! . Pre-Cambnan, Its, Cambrian, Taph River, 19, 20, 21.
212 Ordo\lclan-Stlunan, 219; De"o- Tatrot stage, 499
man, 226, Carboniferous, 230; Per- Taungnyo senes, 155.
mian, 302 ; TriaSSIC, 328-'337 , Juras Tawng Peng gramte, 15~, 215, 218.
SIC, 365; Cretaceou~, 388. Ta",ng Peng system, 154'
Splti shal~, 365, 366 , 368, 36g, 371, Thabo stage, 231
390, 392. Thiel, G A, 533.
SprIngs, thennal, 50, 282, 469. Thorlaro te. III
Snpada Rao, K, 430. Thrust: Chatl, 55 ; Glri, 55, 325 , Krol,
~nperumbudur beds, 2i3. 55, 3 25 ; Murree, 54 ; PanJal, 54.
~nsallam quartzites, 176. Tennassenm ; Structure, 59; Pre-Cam-
Stachella bed, 355 brian, 155, CarbOniferous, 234.
Staurolite, ga, 124. 136, 149. Teral, 523.
Steatite (See also [ale), 165, 18.... Terra rosa, 531.
Submte. 162 Tertiary Group' Distnbuuon and Facies,
Stratigraphy, general reView, 87-90. 438 , Smd-Baluchlstan, 440; Salt
Strallgraphy, pnnClples of, 82-84. Range, 441 , Potwar, 442; Jammu,
Stnke: Aravalli, 46, 73. 14.9; Dhar- 443, Assam, 443, Burma, 444,
warian, 47, 97, 108, 114, 128; South India 445, Western India;
Eastern Ghal., 48, 73, 112, 113, 114, 446 .
122. 138; Mahanadl, 4R, Satpura, Tethys, 36, 280, 285, 286, 299, 300,
48, 73, 122. 128. 118 3 8 7.
Structure p, mnsula, 2, 46-51 , Extra Tibetan plateau, 10.
Pemnsula, 2, 51'59; Arabian Sea, 67 i Tibetan faCles, 6t.
544 GEOLOGY OF INDIft AND BURMA.
Tlkak Parbat stage, 471. V

'I\k\ bed~, '260 valknta system, 148.
Tllm sandstone, 472. vanadiferous magnetite, 125, 163
'Tm ore, 161 ~ l>.Tlt&a\eo senes. 3,\, ~'3.
Tlpam Sf'nes, 504. \Iema,aram shales, 271, 27 2 , 274.
Tlpam sandstone, 504 ~ernpalle stage, 174, 184.
'T1cohan limestone, IB9. "Indhya Mountams. 8
Tlrupatl (Tnpettv) sandstone, 269, 273. Vtnd~yan s}Stem. Son Valley, 187;
TlSta Rl~er, 28, 30. RaJPutana, 189 ; Central India, 191 ;
Tltamum are, 162. Madras, 193 ,Hyderabad, 195, Goda-
Trap' Bljav.ar, 178, In Btlndelkhand, varI Valley, 196; CorrelatIOn, 196:
131 ; Cuddapah, 174, Valma, 124, MIneral depOSits, 197
129 ; D~ccan 418-436 , m the Gond- Vlrgal beds, 314.
wana!, 275; GwallOr, 183, Palljal, volcanoes, 4-43.
308 , Rajamahendn, 430 ; Ra]mahal, vredenburg, E., lOS, 243, 391>, 399,
139, 262, 275, Salt Range, 202:
In the Semns, 189, 193 ; 5y\h~t, '39.
53
Transltlon systems, 94. w
Traumatocnnus bed, 340.
Tnas51c system: DI~tnbutlon, 327; Waagen, W, 320.
Spltl, 326-337 Pamkhanda, 338-342 , ,,,,'adla, D N, 146, If7, 205.
....(adhwan sandstone, 268
Byans,. 342-344; Johar, 345-347, ,,'anm gneIss, 109, I 1 1
KashmIr, 347-350, Salt Range, 354-
BaluchIstan, 357; Burma, 358;

,
,:!>~>., \\Ul>.'t'1l. ?,:,>; ~\\<)C:.", ~':>,
Warltalh (Varkala\ beds, 4:46 , 49 1
Warth, H. 410.
faunal characters, 359. Washmgton, H S. 421, 4 2 5
Tnchmopoly Cretaceous. 400-408 ; Up- \\'aterfalls, 20.
per Gondwana, 273 Watershed, 7, 13
Trichmopol) stage, 404-405. ,,'egener, A., 281, 283
Tngoma beds, 384. "Vest, W 0, 40, 120, 146, 422
Western Ghats, 6, 20, 21
Tropttes beds, 334, 343, 35 1
Tso Lhamo series, 304. Wetwm shales, 23()'
Tungsten ore, 161. 'Wmdow, tectorue, 55.
Tura stage, 41i9. Wolfram, 161.
Wynne, A B. 465'
U
Y
Vkra beds, 364'
Vltrabaslc rocks, 98, 104, 106, 109, YlIW shales, 474.
123, 1!26, 137, I,H, 152, 153, 176, 182, z
276 , 4 1 4.4 1 5.422
Vmana manne bed, 248. Zamla beds, 384
Vmia senes, 384 zanskar Range, 14, 25
Vnder-thrust, 73, 74. 283. Zebmgyl beds, 225
Vpper Carbomferous, 302. Zeou\es, 42 4.
VranJum, '42, ,63' Zewan bed$, 3og, 3 20
Vsar, 524. ZJ)lC, 2 1 5, 217
Vttattur stage, 401-40'h 414. ZIrcon, III, Ig8, 139
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GEOLOGY

INDIA AND BURMA

THE MADRAS LAW JOURNAL OFFICE

THE IlADRAS lAW JOURNAl. p . . .

UNIVERSITY OF A.)RICU~ TlJn ,L SC:"NCES

the preparation of the manuscript and during its publi.

INTRODUCTION AND PHYSICJ\L GEOLOGY 1-45

Introduction The terms Archaean, AlgonkIan, Dhar

Introduction. Nomenclature and Extent. Two-fold

Orissa, Godavari, Ongole, Madras, Trichinopoly,

General. Break-up of the Gondwanaland. Elevation

19. The Gondwana System and its foreign equivalents 279

Eocene in the Khasi and Jaintia HIlls 469

I. The Mountain Arcs of Southern Asia. . I [

page or pages, and year of pubhcatlOn.

Page Line For Read

498 HyaeneluTUs HyainailouTos

Stra.tigraphically the Peninsula i!l a 'shield' area

India, but also in preventing this region from experien-

and Monghyr. They have a general E.N.E.-W.S.W.

('onvexity turned towards the Peninsula, i.t'., towards the

efIectively shut off the moisture-bearing winds from the

then crosses it to the south near Thangra, flowing

lower, alpine, .lone up to 16,000 feet and an upper, snow-

REGIONAL DESCRIPTION OF THE HIMALAYAS.

The Nepal Himalaya (500 miles long) is the portion

The Burmese Arc.-The Himalayas behave similarly

are less important and more affected by variations of tem-

The glaciers of the Himalayas and Central Asia have

point to some uplift of the Western Ghats which

The rivers flowing westwards from the Western

HIMALA VAN RIVERS.

northern slopes of the Great Himalaya and capturing the

THE INDUS SYSTEM.

Indus (Sansknt: Sindhu).-The River Indus is the

Jhelum (Sanskrit: Vitasta).-One of the sources of

tributaries have cut deep canyons through these sediments,

The Jumna (Sanskrit: Yamuna) rises in the region of

UAS LIBRARY GKVK

1I111111I111 11I11 III~ 11II1 11111111

Ganges (Sanskrit: Ganga).-Thc many tributaries of

Kali.-This river rises in the Milam glacier (12 miles

range, traverses the Muktinath plateau and flows between

THE BRAHMAPUTRA SYSTEM.

Tista (Sa1lskrit: Trisrota or Trishna) is the major

Subansiri.-The sources of the Subansiri of Upper

RECENT CHANGES IN INDIAN RIVERS.

used to flow westward from Kamal north of Delhi.

westward through the Hukawng valley and turning

landslides of hills which dam up large amounts of water

manufacture of common salt, sodium sulphate, etc., during

of faults resulting from tension in the crust. The earth-

active in the Pleistocent'. I ts crater has been worn down

Medhcott, H B. ,lnd Blanfold, W T. Manual of the Geology of India,

Grinlinton,].L. GlaCiers of the Dhauli ,md Lissar valleys. Rec 14,