Reviewed

HETTIARACHCHI Paper
and HETTIARACHCHI

32nd WEDC International Conference, Colombo, Sri Lanka, 2006

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF WATER RESOURCES, WATER SUPPLY AND

ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION

A Comparison of Guidelines on Septic Tanks and Soakage Systems

in Sri Lanka

Missaka Hettiarachchi and Induni Hettiarachchi, Sri Lanka

Excreta related waste is a major cause of surface and groundwater pollution in Sri Lanka. The fact that decentralized onsite
disposal is the dominant form of disposal for human excreta related waste makes it an even difcult problem to handle.
Therefore well laid out national standards and guidelines on the construction and design of onsite disposal systems are
essentially required to ensure safety of water resources in Sri Lanka with the growing population and urbanization. Many
attempts have been made by different government authorities to fulll this requirement at different times. The objective
of this paper is to critically and comparatively analyze the contents and level of information given in different key guide-
lines, codes of practice and regulations related to onsite disposal of human excreta related wastes and suggest methods
to integrate and effectively disseminate this information.

Introduction 1. Indian Code of Practice for Installation of Septic Tanks

THE civilization of the Indian subcontinent at large is char- (IS 2470: 1985)
acterized by its particular focus on Sanitation and Hygiene. 2. Standard for Design and Construction of Onsite Waste-
In Sri Lanka archaeological evidence on well designed latrine water Systems in State of Kansas USA.
systems are found in historic sites which date back to at least
the 5th Century A.D. However these early systems were The Indian standard was selected because India is a
either obliterated through the passage of time or replaced developing country which has many socio-environmental
widely by the western perspectives of sanitation during 19th similarities to Sri Lanka. Main reason to select the Kansas
and 20th centuries. standard was to compare the local guidelines with a typical
Without doubt onsite-disposal is the dominant method in standard of a country like USA which observes comparatively
disposal of excreta related wastes in Sri Lanka today, includ- more stringent environmental guidelines.
ing all the urban and suburban areas except the Colombo The local documents studied for this review were as fol-
city limit (Werellagama and Hettiarachchi, 2003). The lows
appropriateness of the ultimate disposal method has more 1. SLS 745 of 1986: Code of Practice for Construction of
importance than the front-end sophistication of a latrine. The Septic Tanks, Standards Institute of Sri Lanka
authors have come across many instances in Sri Lanka where 2. SLS 745 of 2003
toilets with expensive ttings and oor tiling discharge raw 3. PHI Manual: Manual for Sri Lanka Public Health In-
sewage into adjoining natural streams and rivers. spector (1989) published by the Ministry of Health of
The objective of this paper is to critically and compara- Sri Lanka
tively analyze the contents and level of information given in 4. NWS&DB Design Manual D7: For wastewater treat-
different key guidelines, codes of practice and regulations ment-March 1989, National Water Supply and Drainage
related to onsite disposal of human excreta related wastes in Board of Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka. The authors also suggest methods for integrating 5. CFRR manual: Implementation guideline issued by
and re-standardizing to effectively disseminate this scattered the government of Sri Lanka (2005) for Rehabilitation
information. Work after the Tsunami disaster in 2004.

Methodology Discussion
Since this is purely a review paper the research was entirely Design considerations of Septic tank according
based on literature survey. The survey was done mainly to different standards in Sri Lanka
using the publications on the relevant subject published by A septic tank can be dened as a primary sedimentation
the government of Sri Lanka. Few scientic research works tank. This has the capability of removing 60-70 % of the
and foreign standards are quoted in the analysis to support dissolved matter which enters it. The efuent from such a
the contentions of the authors. Two foreign standards are tank should be disposed to a secondary treatment system or
quoted mainly to maintain consistency, a soakage system.

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Design considerations were compared with regard to Aver- The minimum capacity given in the standard of the US state
age ow of sewage, Tank capacity, Ventilation, Length-Width of Kansas is 4.5 m3. Larger capacities will always ensure
ratio and Freeboard space allowed in the septic tank (sum- lesser risks of overowing but could be strictly constrained
mery given in Table 1). Authors assume that a good design by the cost factor. Therefore 2m3 is a reasonable value for
for septic tank should provide adequate capacity to reduce a developing country like Sri Lanka.
the desludging frequency, prevent direct currents between
the tank inlet and outlet to enhance sedimentation, prevent Length to width Ratio
disturbance of scum, allow for proper removal of gas and Both versions of SLS 745 recommend that the length should
have good structural strength with minimal possibilities of be about 4 times the width and the minimum width 750mm.
leakage. The NWS&DB design manual has specied length as 2 times
the width. Rectangular shapes are generally recommended
Average ow of sewage by many authors (Emmanuel, 2003; Vazirani & Chandola,
The average ow of sewage (daily per capita) depend on 1980) to ensure better sedimentation, reduce turbulence
the user group, such as houses (luxury or low income), and induce laminar ow. But some guidelines in the US
shops, schools and commercial buildings etc. SLS 745 of recommend even square shapes due to the large volumes
2002 categorizes the average daily per capita ow of sew- and retention time followed in the US (Standard of State
age according to the user group whereas SLS 745 of 1986 of Kansas, 1997). Because of the cost factor involved with
and NWS&DB design manual species a single value (150 larger volumes, rectangular shapes will be more suited for
l/p/d). No mention is made about the average per capita ow Sri Lanka.
of sewage in the PHI manual and the CFRR. Determining
the daily per capita wastewater ow according to the user Ventilating pipe
type is a standard approach (Emmanuel 2003), but this ap- Ventilating pipe is for the removal of gas produced in the septic
proach may only be essential when designing large systems. tank. No particular specications are given in the NWS&DB
For small onsite systems giving a single average value is design manual and CFRR manual about the ventilation pipe.
reasonable. SLS 745 of 1986 species that a 50mm diameter pipe to the
height of 2 m should be xed if the nearest building is 15m
Capacity of septic tank away, otherwise 600mm above the highest vent opening of
The total capacity of the tank consists of the capacity needed the building. But in the 2002 revision the diameter has been
for sludge and scum storage and capacity for liquid retention. reduced to 25mm and gives no information about the height
The design equations given in SLS 745 of 1986 (appendix of the pipe. Both documents say that the ventilation pipe top
C) for calculation of working capacity of a septic tank, only should be covered to prevent mosquito problems.
allow for settling and sludge storage, where as the 2002
version gives an additional equation to allow for sludge Free board
digestion also. The design values given in the 2002 version Free board is the height between the top water level and the
are moderate and economic. Values given for minimum soft of the cover slab of the septic tank. NWS&DB design
capacity a septic tank in the SLS 745 (1986 & 2002) and the manual, SLS 745 of 1986 and CFRR manual give three dif-
NWS&DB design manual are 2m3 and 1.575m3 respectively. ferent values 400mm, 300mm and 250mm respectively for

Table 1. Some important design parameters for septic systems given in the documents reviewed

Value
Parameter
NWS&DB SLS 745:1986 CFRR SLS 745:2002

120 l/p/d (with cistern) depend on the user

Average ow 150l/p/d -
40 l/p/d (without cistern) category
Hydraulic retention time 1 day 1.5-2 days - equation given
Desludging 3 years when 1/3 lled - when 1/3 to 1/2 full
Minimum capacity 1.575m3 1m3 - 1m3 to 12m3
50 mm dia. and height of
2 m if the nearest building
Ventilation pipe - - 25mm to sufcient height to avoid odor nuisance
15 m away otherwise
600mm
Free board 400 mm 300mm 200mm 200
Liquid depth 1.5m 1.5m 1
Length: Width 2:1 4:1 2:1 2-4:1
Percolation rate Max 50l/d/m2 Design table given - Design table given
Distance to a water well 18m 18m 18

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freeboard. It has been reduced to 200 mm in the 2002 version Standard of State of Kansas). The standard used in the US
of SLS 745, which is closer to the minimum open-space (free- state of Kansas recommends getting information from the
board) value observed in the state of Kansas USA (180mm). available soil survey reports and examining a soil prole
Larger freeboard reduces the risk of septic tank overowing to the depth concerned prior to onsite testing, in addition
during shock loads, but increases the cost of construction, to the percolation test. Difculty in obtaining soil survey
especially in brick tanks. Since some severe shock loading reports and the cost of digging observation pits will render
conditions might occur in public buildings and commercial the above recommendations inapplicable in most cases in
buildings on special occasions (Emmanuel, 2003), its rec- Sri Lanka.
ommendable that a higher free board value such as 400mm
be observed in the septic tanks for such buildings. Depth above the highest ground water level
SLS 745 of 1986 recommends a minimum depth of 1.2m
Construction materials and methods between the bottom of the soakage pit or dispersion trench
A main drawback in all Sri Lankan documents reviewed by and the highest ground water level in the site, whereas SLS
the authors is the lack of information on construction materials 745 of 2002 gives a set of different depths to be observed
and methods, only SLS 745 of 2002 gives substantial details under different percolation rates. Both IS 2470:1985 and
on this aspect. Some of the international guidelines referred the standard of the US State of Kansas gives a single mini-
by the authors gave detailed information about construction mum value of 1.2m (4ft.) for this parameter. Considering
materials (State of Kansas, IS 2470 (Part 1 & 2)). In a country the high ground water levels frequently experienced in Sri
like Sri Lanka where skilled labour is at an alarming low, its Lanka, especially in the coastal sand domain aquifers and
appropriate for a guideline to include the essential details of some inland lateritic perched aquifers (Arumugam, 2002),
construction materials and methods. the detailed method followed in SLS 745 of 2002 ensures
the safety of ground water resources.
Disposal of the efuent from septic tanks
The efuent coming out from the septic tank may contain Dimensions
substantially high organic loading and pathogenic microor- Sizing of soakage pits and seepage trenches are based on the
ganisms, which makes it impossible to be directly discharged specic effective area calculated by the percolation rates.
in to a surface water body according to the wastewater dis- Both versions of SLS 745 give tables to obtain the specic
charge regulations in Sri Lanka. The most widely practiced area values according to the percolation rates.
method for ultimate disposal in Sri Lanka is soil soaking, Soakage Pits: Both versions of SLS 745 give 900mm as
where the secondary efuent from the septic tank will be the minimum diameter for a soakage pit, but only the
soaked in to soil through a soakage pit or leaching trench. 2002 version stipulates a maximum diameter of 3m.
Secondary treatment through anaerobic lters is gradually IS 2470:1985 also species 900mm as the minimum
becoming popular in some areas (Corea et al, 1998) where diameter, but does not give a maximum value. Since
soil soaking is very ineffective or inapplicable. diameters larger than 3m might pose problems with
constructing large unsupported cover slabs and with the
Design considerations for soil soaking lateral strength of the walls, giving a maximum diameter
systems according to different standards is recommended. SLS 745 of 1986 and IS 2470:1985
gives a maximum limit for inow (30m3/d) to a single
in Sri Lanka soakage pit, which acts as an indirect restriction on the
The key parameters used in the design of soakage systems diameter also.
are percolation capacity, depth above the highest ground Seepage Trenches: For seepage trenches, SLS 745 of 1986
water level and distance between the soaking system and species a width of 0.3 1m and a total depth of 0.3 1m,
other features. Out of all the Sri Lankan documents reviewed distance between two adjacent trenches is specied as
only SLS 745 gives substantial information about the soakage 1.8m. The 2002 version stipulates a width of 300-600mm,
systems. SLS 745 of 2002 contains much more descriptive a minimum total depth of 400m (including a minimum
details on soakage systems than the former version. Al- of 100mm topsoil layer) and a minimum distance of 1m
though SLS 745 of 2002 contains substantial information between two adjacent trenches. The dimensions given in
on Secondary Treatment systems such as anaerobic lters, SLS 745 of 1986 are comparatively higher to the values
only soakage systems will be discussed in this paper due stipulated in IS 2470 and the Standard of the US State
the length constraints. of Kansas, which ensure high safety margins. Since the
seepage trenches are essentially located in the unsaturated
Estimation of Percolation Capacity zone, which facilitates vertically downward percolation
Both versions of SLS 745 give standard percolation test as and also because the water enters the ground with very
the method for estimation of the percolation rate. This method low horizontal velocities such as 0.2 m/d at maximum,
is widely accepted and recommended by many authors soaked water will not travel a considerable lateral dis-
and overseas standards (Emmanuel, 2003; IS 2470:1985; tance unless the unsaturated zone is temporarily saturated

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due to heavy precipitation (Todd, 1980). Therefore the For major building works it can be recommended that a
1m distance between two adjacent seepage trenches as specication and a design guideline for septic and soakage
recommended in SLS 745 of 2002 is a reasonable value, systems (based on SLS 745 of 2002) should be released by
but may cause problems under very wet conditions. a competent construction industry regulatory or training
authority such as Institute of Construction Training and
Distance between the soaking system and other features Development (ICTAD).
Main concern here is the distance between a drinking water
source and a soakage system. Both versions of SLS 745 References
recommend a minimum distance of 18m (54 ft.) and the Arumugam S., Studies on Ground Water in Sri Lanka,
PHI manual recommends 50 ft. for this value. Although IS Ministry of Irrigation and Water Resources Management,
2470:1985 also recommends 18m, the Kansas standard stipu- Sri Lanka, 2002.
lates a lager offset distance of 100ft (30.3m). Considering the Cash For Repair and Reconstruction outside buffer-zone,
space constraints encountered in most parts of the wet zone CFRR project, NHDA, Sri Lanka, 2005
urban and suburban areas in Sri Lanka 18m is a reasonable Corea E.J.H., Gamage I.R. and Wickramanayake P.N.,
value. Hettiarachchi and Warellagama (2004) who did an Anaerobic lters for on-site sewage disposal, Proceedings
extensive study on the recommended distance between a of 24th WEDC Conference, Islamabad, 1998
drinking water source and a fecal pollution source, contended Design manual D7, Wastewater treatment, NWS&DB,
that 18m is a good value for most parts of Sri Lanka but may Sri Lanka, 1989
be inadequate in highly percolative coastal sand domain Emmannuel V. J., A handbook of applied sanitary engineering
aquifers or discrete limestone domain aquifers (north and for Architects & Engineers, IESL, Sri Lanka, 2003
eastern parts of Sri Lanka). Therefore the value remains a Herath H.M.S.S.D.,A Manual for the Sri Lanka Public Health
fresh frontier for environmental engineering research in Sri Inspector, Ministry of Health, Sri Lanka, 1989.
Lanka. The standard of the US State of Kansas gives an array IS 2470:1985, Code of Practice for Construction of onsite
of different recommended distances to different features from disposal systems, Standards Institute of India, India,
a soakage system, such as property line, dwelling founda- 1985
tion, different types of water sources, stream etc. Although Minimum Standards for Design and Construction of On-
suggesting values for such an array of off-set distances for site Wastewater Systems, Department of Health & Env.
Sri Lanka is beyond the scope of this paper, considering the of Kansas USA, Kansas,1997
complicated nature of urban dwellings and settlements, the SLS 745:1986, Code of Practice for Construction of Septic
approach followed in the Standard of the US state of Kansas Tanks, SLSI, Sri Lanka, 1986
is strongly recommended for Sri Lanka too. SLS 745:2003, Code of Practice for Construction of Septic
Tanks SLSI, Sri Lanka, 2003
Conclusions Todd D.K., Grouns Water Hydraulics, John Willey & Sons,
Based on the above comparisons its quite evident that NY, 1980
there are some notable differences among the reviewed Warellagama D R I B and Hettiarachchi M, Safe Distance
documents regarding the design of septic tanks and soakage between a dinking well and a fecal pollution source for
systems (Table 1). SLS 745 of 2002 is undoubtedly the most Sri Lanka, Annual Research Symposium, NWS & DB,
comprehensive document in Sri Lanka regarding the onsite Sri Lanka, 2004
disposal of excreta related wastes. Vazirani V. N. and Chandola S. P., Handbook of Civil Engi-
In all the documents reviewed above the information neering, Vol.II, Part II, Kanna Publishers, Delhi, 1980
provided on operation and maintenance of Septic Tanks and
Onsite-disposal systems was very low.
Since the Local Government Authorities (LGA) bare the
primary responsibility of approving minor building works Contact addresses
and maintaining public health, the PHI Manual should Missaka Hettiarachchi,
be the focal point of knowledge dissemination with regard Lecturer, Department of Chemical and Process
to proper construction and operation of septic tanks and Engineering, University of Moratuwa, Sri Lanka
onsite disposal systems. Therefore this document should be
developed into a more comprehensive source of information Induni Hettiarachchi,
with well dened guidelines for construction, following Civil Engineer, LAN Management Development Services,
the SLS 745 of 2002. Its strongly recommended that the 189/1 Nawala Rd, Nugegoda, Sri Lanka.
manual should have a separate chapter on Operation and
Maintenance of Septic tanks.
In addition to the PHI manual, a booklet on operation and
maintenance of septic systems for public can be distributed
through LGAs as a user guideline.

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