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SOLUTIONelations are given for the difference and the sum of the
squares of two numbers. They are to be determined.
Analysis We start the EES program by double-clicking on its icon, open a
new file, and type the following on the blank screen that appears:

which is an exact mathematical expression of the problem statement with x

and y denoting the unknown numbers. The solution to this system of two
nonlinear equations with two unknowns is obtained by a single click on the
calculator icon on the taskbar. It gives
From:
Discussion Note that all we did is formulate the problem as we would on
FLUID MECHANICS
paper; EES took care of all the mathematical details of solution. Also note
that equations can be linear or nonlinear, and they can be entered in any
by Y.A. engel and
order J.M. Cimbala
with unknowns on either side. Friendly equation solvers such as EES
allow the user to concentrate on the physics of the problem without worrying
McGraw-Hill,about
Boston, MA. complexities
the mathematical (c)2006associated with the solution of the
resulting system of equations.

FLUENT
FLUENT is a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) code widely used for
flow-modeling applications. The first step in analysis is preprocessing,
http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0072472367/student_view0/index.html
which involves building a model or importing one from a CAD package,
applying a finite-volume-based mesh, and entering data. Once the numerical
model is prepared, FLUENT performs the necessary calculations and pro-
duces the desired results. The final step in analysis is postprocessing, which
involves organization and interpretation of the data and images. Packages
tailored for specific applications such as electronics cooling, ventilating sys-
tems, and mixing are also available. FLUENT can handle subsonic or super-
sonic flows, steady or transient flows, laminar or turbulent flows, Newton-
ian or non-Newtonian flows, single or multiphase flows, chemical reactions
including combustion, flow through porous media, heat transfer, and flow-
induced vibrations. Most numerical solutions presented in this text are
obtained using FLUENT, and CFD is discussed in more detail in Chap. 15.

110
ACCURACY, PRECISION,
AND SIGNIFICANT DIGITS
In engineering calculations, the supplied information is not known to more
than a certain number of significant digits, usually three digits. Conse-
quently, the results obtained cannot possibly be precise to more significant
digits. Reporting results in more significant digits implies greater precision
than exists, and it should be avoided.
Regardless of the system of units employed, engineers must be aware of
three principles that govern the proper use of numbers: accuracy, precision,
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CHAPTER 1

and significant digits. For engineering measurements, they are defined as

follows:
+++++
++
Accuracy error (inaccuracy) is the value of one reading minus the true +
value. In general, accuracy of a set of measurements refers to the
closeness of the average reading to the true value. Accuracy is generally
associated with repeatable, fixed errors.
Precision error is the value of one reading minus the average of readings. In
general, precision of a set of measurements refers to the fineness of the
resolution and the repeatability of the instrument. Precision is generally
associated with unrepeatable, random errors. A

Significant digits are digits that are relevant and meaningful.

A measurement or calculation can be very precise without being very +
accurate, and vice versa. For example, suppose the true value of wind speed +
is 25.00 m/s. Two anemometers A and B take five wind speed readings each: + +
Anemometer A: 25.50, 25.69, 25.52, 25.58, and 25.61 m/s. Average of all + +
+
readings
25.58 m/s.
Anemometer B: 26.3, 24.5, 23.9, 26.8, and 23.6 m/s. Average of all readings

25.02 m/s.
B
Clearly, anemometer A is more precise, since none of the readings differs
by more than 0.11 m/s from the average. However, the average is 25.58 m/s,
0.58 m/s greater than the true wind speed; this indicates significant bias FIGURE 140
error, also called constant error or systematic error. On the other hand, Illustration of accuracy versus
anemometer B is not very precise, since its readings swing wildly from the precision. Shooter A is more precise,
but less accurate, while shooter B is
average; but its overall average is much closer to the true value. Hence,
more accurate, but less precise.
anemometer B is more accurate than anemometer A, at least for this set of
readings, even though it is less precise. The difference between accuracy
and precision can be illustrated effectively by analogy to shooting a gun at a
target, as sketched in Fig. 140. Shooter A is very precise, but not very
accurate, while shooter B has better overall accuracy, but less precision.
Many engineers do not pay proper attention to the number of significant
digits in their calculations. The least significant numeral in a number
implies the precision of the measurement or calculation. For example, a
result written as 1.23 (three significant digits) implies that the result is pre-
cise to within one digit in the second decimal place; i.e., the number is TABLE 13
somewhere between 1.22 and 1.24. Expressing this number with any more
Significant digits
digits would be misleading. The number of significant digits is most easily
evaluated when the number is written in exponential notation; the number of Number of
significant digits can then simply be counted, including zeroes. Some exam- Exponential Significant
ples are shown in Table 13. Number Notation Digits
When performing calculations or manipulations of several parameters, 12.3 1.23  101 3
the final result is generally only as precise as the least precise parameter in 123,000 1.23  105 3
the problem. For example, suppose A and B are multiplied to obtain C. If 0.00123 1.23  103 3
A
2.3601 (five significant digits), and B
0.34 (two significant digits), 40,300 4.03  104 3
40,300. 4.0300  104 5
then C
0.80 (only two digits are significant in the final result). Note that
0.005600 5.600  103 4
most students are tempted to write C
0.802434, with six significant dig- 0.0056 5.6  103 2
its, since that is what is displayed on a calculator after multiplying these 0.006 6.  103 1
two numbers.
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FLUID MECHANICS

Lets analyze this simple example carefully. Suppose the exact value of B
is 0.33501, which is read by the instrument as 0.34. Also suppose A is
exactly 2.3601, as measured by a more accurate and precise instrument. In
this case, C
A  B
0.79066 to five significant digits. Note that our first
answer, C
0.80 is off by one digit in the second decimal place. Likewise,
if B is 0.34499, and is read by the instrument as 0.34, the product of A and
B would be 0.81421 to five significant digits. Our original answer of 0.80 is
again off by one digit in the second decimal place. The main point here is
that 0.80 (to two significant digits) is the best one can expect from this mul-
tiplication since, to begin with, one of the values had only two significant
digits. Another way of looking at this is to say that beyond the first two dig-
its in the answer, the rest of the digits are meaningless or not significant.
For example, if one reports what the calculator displays, 2.3601 times 0.34
equals 0.802434, the last four digits are meaningless. As shown, the final
result may lie between 0.79 and 0.81any digits beyond the two significant
digits are not only meaningless, but misleading, since they imply to the
reader more precision than is really there.
As another example, consider a 3.75-L container filled with gasoline
whose density is 0.845 kg/L, and determine its mass. Probably the first
thought that comes to your mind is to multiply the volume and density to
Given: Volume: V = 3.75 L
obtain 3.16875 kg for the mass, which falsely implies that the mass so
Density: r = 0.845 kg/L determined is precise to six significant digits. In reality, however, the mass
cannot be more precise than three significant digits since both the volume
(3 significant digits) and the density are precise to three significant digits only. Therefore, the
Also, 3.75 0.845 = 3.16875 result should be rounded to three significant digits, and the mass should be
reported to be 3.17 kg instead of what the calculator displays (Fig. 141).
Find: Mass: m = rV = 3.16875 kg
The result 3.16875 kg would be correct only if the volume and density were
Rounding to 3 significant digits: given to be 3.75000 L and 0.845000 kg/L, respectively. The value 3.75 L
m = 3.17 kg implies that we are fairly confident that the volume is precise within
0.01 L, and it cannot be 3.74 or 3.76 L. However, the volume can be
3.746, 3.750, 3.753, etc., since they all round to 3.75 L.
You should also be aware that sometimes we knowingly introduce small
errors in order to avoid the trouble of searching for more accurate data.
For example, when dealing with liquid water, we often use the value of
1000 kg/m3 for density, which is the density value of pure water at 0C.
Using this value at 75C will result in an error of 2.5 percent since the den-
sity at this temperature is 975 kg/m3. The minerals and impurities in the
water will introduce additional error. This being the case, you should have
FIGURE 141 no reservation in rounding the final results to a reasonable number of signif-
A result with more significant digits icant digits. Besides, having a few percent uncertainty in the results of engi-
than that of given data falsely implies neering analysis is usually the norm, not the exception.
more precision. When writing intermediate results in a computation, it is advisable to
keep several extra digits to avoid round-off errors; however, the final
result should be written with the number of significant digits taken into con-
sideration. The reader must also keep in mind that a certain number of sig-
nificant digits of precision in the result does not necessarily imply the same
number of digits of overall accuracy. Bias error in one of the readings may,
for example, significantly reduce the overall accuracy of the result, perhaps
even rendering the last significant digit meaningless, and reducing the over-
all number of reliable digits by one. Experimentally determined values are
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CHAPTER 1

subject to measurement errors, and such errors are reflected in the results
obtained. For example, if the density of a substance has an uncertainty of 2
percent, then the mass determined using this density value will also have an
uncertainty of 2 percent.
Finally, when the number of significant digits is unknown, the accepted
engineering standard is three significant digits. Therefore, if the length of a
pipe is given to be 40 m, we will assume it to be 40.0 m in order to justify
using three significant digits in the final results.

EXAMPLE 16 Significant Digits and Volume Flow Rate

Jennifer is conducting an experiment that uses cooling water from a garden
hose. In order to calculate the volume flow rate of water through the hose, Hose
she times how long it takes to fill a container (Fig. 142). The volume of
water collected is V
1.1 gal in time period
t
45.62 s, as measured
with a stopwatch. Calculate the volume flow rate of water through the hose
in units of cubic meters per minute.

SOLUTION Volume flow rate is to be determined from measurements of vol-

ume and time period. Container
Assumptions 1 Jennifer recorded her measurements properly, such that the
volume measurement is precise to two significant digits while the time
period is precise to four significant digits. 2 No water is lost due to splash-
ing out of the container. .
FIGURE 142
Analysis Volume flow rate V is volume displaced per unit time and is Schematic for Example 16 for the
expressed as measurement of volume flow rate.
#
V
Volume flow rate: V


t

Substituting the measured values, the volume flow rate is determined to be

1.1 gal 3.785  10 3 m3

a b a b
5.5  10 3 m3/min
# 60 s
V

45.62 s 1 gal 1 min

Discussion The final result is listed to two significant digits since we can-
not be confident of any more precision than that. If this were an intermedi-
ate step in subsequent calculations, a few extra digits would be carried along
to avoid accumulated. round-off error. In such a case, the volume flow rate
would be written as V
5.4759  103 m3/min. Based on the given infor-
mation, we cannot say anything about the accuracy of our result, since we
have no information about systematic errors in either the volume measure-
ment or the time measurement.
Also keep in mind that good precision does not guarantee good accuracy.
For example, if the batteries in the stopwatch were weak, its accuracy could
be quite poor, yet the readout would still be displayed to four significant dig-
its of precision.
In common practice, precision is often associated with resolution, which is
a measure of how finely the instrument can report the measurement. For
example, a digital voltmeter with five digits on its display is said to be more
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FLUID MECHANICS

FIGURE 143 Exact time span = 45.623451 . . . s

An instrument with many digits of
resolution (stopwatch c) may be less
accurate than an instrument with few TIMEXAM TIMEXAM TIMEXAM TIMEXAM
digits of resolution (stopwatch a). 46. s 43. s 44.189 s 45.624 s
What can you say about stopwatches b
and d? (a) (b) (c) (d)

precise than a digital voltmeter with only three digits. However, the number
of displayed digits has nothing to do with the overall accuracy of the mea-
surement. An instrument can be very precise without being very accurate
when there are significant bias errors. Likewise, an instrument with very few
displayed digits can be more accurate than one with many digits (Fig.
143).

SUMMARY

In this chapter some basic concepts of fluid mechanics are there is no slip. This is known as the no-slip condition, which
introduced and discussed. A substance in the liquid or gas leads to the formation of boundary layers along solid sur-
phase is referred to as a fluid. Fluid mechanics is the science faces.
that deals with the behavior of fluids at rest or in motion and A system of fixed mass is called a closed system, and a
the interaction of fluids with solids or other fluids at the system that involves mass transfer across its boundaries is
boundaries. called an open system or control volume. A large number of
The flow of an unbounded fluid over a surface is external engineering problems involve mass flow in and out of a sys-
flow, and the flow in a pipe or duct is internal flow if the tem and are therefore modeled as control volumes.
fluid is completely bounded by solid surfaces. A fluid flow is In engineering calculations, it is important to pay particular
classified as being compressible or incompressible, depend- attention to the units of the quantities to avoid errors caused
ing on the density variation of the fluid during flow. The den- by inconsistent units, and to follow a systematic approach. It
sities of liquids are essentially constant, and thus the flow of is also important to recognize that the information given is
liquids is typically incompressible. The term steady implies not known to more than a certain number of significant dig-
no change with time. The opposite of steady is unsteady, or its, and the results obtained cannot possibly be accurate to
transient. The term uniform implies no change with location more significant digits. The information given on dimensions
over a specified region. A flow is said to be one-dimensional and units; problem-solving technique; and accuracy, preci-
when the velocity changes in one dimension only. A fluid in sion, and significant digits will be used throughout the entire
direct contact with a solid surface sticks to the surface and text.

REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING

1. American Society for Testing and Materials. Standards 4. G. M. Homsy, H. Aref, K. S. Breuer, S. Hochgreb, J. R.
for Metric Practice. ASTM E 380-79, January 1980. Koseff, B. R. Munson, K. G. Powell, C. R. Robertson, and
2. C. T. Crowe, J. A. Roberson, and D. F. Elger. Engineering S. T. Thoroddsen. Multi-Media Fluid Mechanics (CD).
Fluid Mechanics, 7th ed. New York: Wiley, 2001. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000.

3. R. W. Fox and A. T. McDonald. Introduction to Fluid 5. M. Van Dyke. An Album of Fluid Motion. Stanford, CA:
Mechanics, 5th ed. New York: Wiley, 1999. The Parabolic Press, 1982.