Overhead Conductors

It has maximum electrical conductivity

It has high tensile strength so that it can withstand mechanical stresses
It has least specific gravity i.e. weight / unit volume
Why Aluminium Conductor is unsed Instead of Copper
It has lesser cost than copper.
It offers larger diameter for same amount of current which reduces
corona.
Disadvantages of using aluminium
It has lesser conductivity
It has larger diameter which increase surface area to air pressure thus it
swings more in air than copper so larger cross arms required which
increases the cost.
It has lesser tensile strength ultimately larger sag
It has lesser specific gravity (2.71gm/cc) than copper (8.9 gm/cc) cc =
cubic centimeter
AAC (All Aluminium Conductor)
It has lesser strength and more sag per span length than any other
category
Therefore, it is used for lesser span i.e. it is applicable at distribution level
It has slightly better conductivity at lower voltages than ACSR i.e. at
distribution level
Cost of ACSR is equal to AAC.
ACAR (Aluminium Conductor, Aluminium Reinforce)
It is cheaper than AAAC but pro to corrosion.
It is most expansive.

AAAC (All Aluminium Alloy Conductor)

 It has same construction as AAC except the alloy.
Its strength is equal to ACSR but due to absence of steel it is light in
weight.
The presence of formation of alloy makes it expensive.
Due to stronger tensile strength than AAC, it is used for longer spans.
It can be used in distribution level i.e. river crossing.
It has lesser sag than AAC.
The difference between ACSR and AAAC is the weight. Being lighter in
weight, it is used in transmission and sub-transmission where lighter
support structure is required such as mountains, swamps etc.

ACSR (Aluminium Conductor Steel Reinforced)

It is used for longer spans keeping sag minimum.

It may consist of 7 or 19 strands of steel surrounding by aluminium strands
concentrically. The number of strands are shown by x/y/z, where x is
number of aluminium strands, y is number of steel strands and z is
diameter of each strand.
Strands provide flexibility, prevent breakage and minimize skin effect.
The number of strands depends on the application, they may be 7, 19, 37,
61, 91 or more.
If the Al and St strands are separated by a filler such as paper then this
kind of ACSR is used in EHV lines and called expanded ACSR.
Expanded ACSR has larger diameter and hence lower corona losses.
IACS (International Annealed Copper Stand)
It is 100 % pure conductor and it is standard for reference.

Tests
The following tests are type test of electrical power cable.
1. Persulphate test (for copper )
2. Annealing test (for copper)
3. Tensile test (for Aluminium)
4. Wrapping test (for Aluminium)
5. Conductor resistance test (for all)
6. Test for thickness of insulation (for all)
7. Measurement of overall diameter (where specified)(for all)
Physical tests for for insulation and sheath
1. Tensile strength and elongation at break
2. Ageing in air oven
3. Ageing in air bomb
4. Ageing in oxygen bomb
5. Hot set
6. Oil resistance
7. Tear resistance
Insulating Material
Properties of Insulating Material
The materials generally used for insulating purpose is called insulating
material. For successful utilization, this material should have some specific
properties as listed below-
1. It must be mechanically strong enough to carry tension and weight of
conductors.
2. It must have very high dielectric strength to withstand the voltage stresses
in High Voltage system.
3. It must possesses high Insulation Resistance to prevent leakage current
to the earth.
4. The insulating material must be free from unwanted impurities.
5. It should not be porous.
6. There must not be any entrance on the surface of electrical insulator so
that the moisture or gases can enter in it.
7. There physical as well as electrical properties must be less effected by
changing temperature.

Types Of Insulator material

Porcelin
Porcelain also should be free from porosity since porosity is the main
cause of deterioration of its dielectric property.
It must also be free from any impurity and air bubble inside the
material which may affect the insulator properties.
 Property Value(Approximate)
Dielectric Straingth 60 KV / cm
Compressive Strength 70,000 Kg / cm2
Tensile Strength 500 Kg / cm2

Glass Insulator
Advantages of Glass Insulator
1. It has very high dielectric strength compared to porcelain.
2. Its resistivity is also very high.
3. It has low coefficient of thermal expansion.
4. It has higher tensile strength compared to porcelain insulator.
5. As it is transparent in nature the is not heated up in sunlight as porcelain.
6. The impurities and air bubble can be easily detected inside the glass
insulator body because of its transparency.
7. Glass has very long service life as because mechanical and electrical
properties of glass do not be affected by ageing.
8. After all, glass is cheaper than porcelain.
Disadvantages of Glass Insulator
1. Moisture can easily condensed on glass surface and hence air dust will
be deposited on the wed glass surface which will provide path to the
leakage current of the system.
2. For higher voltage glass can not be cast in irregular shapes since due to
irregular cooling internal cooling internal strains are caused.
Property Value(Approximate)
Dielectric Straingth 140 KV / cm
Compressive Strength 10,000 Kg / cm2
Tensile Strength 35,000 Kg / cm2

Polymer typer
In a polymer insulator has two parts, one is glass fiber reinforced epoxy
resin rod shaped core and other is silicone rubber or EPDM (Ethylene
Propylene Diene Monomer) made weather sheds. Rod shaped core is
covered by weather sheds. Weather sheds protect the insulator core from
outside environment. As it is made of two parts, core and weather
sheds, polymer insulator is also called composite insulator. The rod
shaped core is fixed with Hop dip galvanized cast steel made end fittings in
both sides.
Advantages of Polymer Insulator
1. It is very light weight compared to porcelain and glass insulator.
2. As the composite insulator is flexible the chance of breakage becomes
minimum.
3. Because of lighter in weight and smaller in size, this insulator has lower
installation cost.
4. It has higher tensile strength compared to porcelain insulator.
5. Its performance is better particularly in polluted areas.
6. Due to lighter weight polymer insulator imposes less load to the supporting
structure.
7. Less cleaning is required due to hydrophobic nature of the insulator.
Disadvantages of Polymer Insulator
1. Moisture may enter in the core if there is any unwanted gap between core
and weather sheds. This may cause electrical failure of the insulator.
2. Over crimping in end fittings may result to cracks in the core which leads
to mechanical failure of polymer insulator
3. Subject to bird attack by Parrots, Cockatoos and Galahs.
4. Not resilient to bushfire temperatures.
5. Not recommended for location near surf beaches due to salt spray.

Types of Insulator
There are mainly three types of insulator likewise
1. Pin Insulator
2. Suspension Insulator
3. Stray Insulator
In addition to that there are other two types of electrical insulator available
mainly for low voltage application, e.i. stay insulator and shackle insulator.

1) type insulators are used for transmission and distribution of electric power
at voltages upto 33 kV. Beyond operating voltage of 33 kV, the pin type
insulators become too bulky and hence uneconomical
 Safety factor of insulator =Puncture strength/Flash - over voltage

2) For high voltages (>33 kV), it is a usual practice to use suspension type insulators. They

consist of a number of porcelain discs connected in series by metal links in the form of a string.

The conductor is suspended at the bottom end of this string while the other end of the string is

secured to the cross-arm of the tower. Each unit or disc is designed for low voltage, say 11 kV.

The number of discs in series would obviously depend upon the working voltage. For instance, if

the working voltage is 66 kV, then six discs in series will be provided on the string

Advantages
(i) Suspension type insulators are cheaper than pin type insulators for voltages beyond 33
kV.
(ii) Each unit or disc of suspension type insulator is designed for low voltage,usually 11 kV.
Depending upon the working voltage, the desired number of discs can be connected in
series.
(iii) If any one disc is damaged, the whole string does not become useless because the
damaged
disc can be replaced by the sound one.
(iv) The suspension arrangement provides greater flexibility to the line. The connection at the
cross arm is such that insulator string is free to swing in any direction and can take up the
position where mechanical stresses are minimum.
(v) In case of increased demand on the transmission line, it is found more satisfactory to
supply
the greater demand by raising the line voltage than to provide another set of conductors.
The additional insulation required for the raised voltage can be easily obtained in the
suspension
arrangement by adding the desired number of discs.
(vi) The suspension type insulators are generally used with steel towers. As the conductors
run
below the earthed cross-arm of the tower, therefore, this arrangement provides partial
protection
from lightning.

3.When there is a dead end of the line or there is corner or sharp curve, theline is subjected
to greater tension. In order to relieve the line of excessive tension, strain insulators are used.
For low voltage lines (< 11 kV), shackle insulators are used as strain insulators
4. In early days, the shackle insulators were used as strain insulators. But
now a days, they are frequently used for low voltage distribution lines. Such insulators can
be used
either in a horizontal position or in a vertical position
Causes of Insulator Failure
There are different causes due to which failure of insulation in electrical
power system may occur. Let's have a look on them one by one-
Cracking of Insulator
The porcelain insulator mainly consists of three different materials. The
main porcelain body, steel fitting arrangement and cement to fix the steel
part with porcelain. Due to changing climate conditions, these different
materials in the insulator expand and contract in different rate. These
unequal expansion and contraction of porcelain, steel and cement are the
chief cause of cracking of insulator.
Defective Insulation Material
If the insulation material used for insulator is defective anywhere, the
insulator may have a high chance of being puncher from that place.
Porosity in The Insulation Materials
If the porcelain insulator is manufactured at low temperatures, it will make it
porous, and due to this reason it will absorb moisture from air thus its
insulation will decrease and leakage current will start to flow through the
insulator which will lead to insulator failure.
Improper Glazing on Insulator Surface
If the surface of porcelain insulator is not properly glazed, moisture can
stick over it. This moisture along with deposited dust on the insulator
surface, produces a conducting path. As a result the flash over distance of
the insulator is reduced. As the flash over distance is reduced, the chance
of failure of insulator due to flash over becomes more.
Flash Over Across Insulator
If flash over occurs, the insulator may be over heated which may ultimately
results into shuttering of it.
Mechanical Stresses on Insulator
If an insulator has any weak portion due to manufacturing defect, it may
break from that weak portion when mechanical stress is applied on it by its
conductor. These are the main causes of insulator failure. Now we will
discuss the different insulator test procedures to ensure minimum chance
of failure of insulation.
Insulator Testing
According to the British Standard, the electrical insulator must undergo the
following tests
1. Flashover tests of insulator
2. Performance tests
3. Routine tests
Let's have a discussion one by one-
Flashover Test
There are mainly three types of flashover test performed on an insulator
and these are-
Power Frequency Dry Flashover Test of Insulator
1. First the insulator to be tested is mounted in the manner in which it would
be used practically.
2. Then terminals of variable power frequency voltage source are connected
to the both electrodes of the insulator.
3. Now the power frequency voltage is applied and gradually increased up to
the specified value. This specified value is below the minimum flashover
voltage.
4. This voltage is maintained for one minute and observe that there should
not be any flash-over or puncher occurred.
The insulator must be capable of sustaining the specified minimum voltage
for one minute without flash over.
Power Frequency Wet Flashover Test or Rain Test of Insulator
1. In this test also the insulator to be tested is mounted in the manner in
which it would be used practically.
2. Then terminals of variable power frequency voltage source are connected
to the both electrodes of the insulator.
3. After that the insulator is sprayed with water at an angle of 45o in such a
manner that its precipitation should not be more 5.08 mm per minute.
The resistance of the water used for spraying must be between 9 k 10
11 k per cm3 at normal atmospheric pressure and temperature. In this
way we create artificial raining condition.
4. Now the power frequency voltage is applied and gradually increased up to
the specified value.
5. This voltage is maintained for either one minute or 30 second as specified
and observe that there should not be any flash-over or puncher occurred.
The insulator must be capable of sustaining the specified minimum power
frequency voltage for specified period without flash over in the said wet
condition.
Power Frequency Flashover Voltage test of Insulator
1. The insulator is kept in similar manner of previous test.
2. In this test the applied voltage is gradually increased in similar to that of
previous tests.
3. But in that case the voltage when the surroundings air breaks down, is
noted.
Impulse Frequency Flashover Voltage Test of Insulator

The overhead outdoor insulator must be capable of sustaining high voltage

surges caused by lightning etc. So this must be tested against the high
voltage surges.
1. The insulator is kept in similar manner of previous test.
2. Then several hundred thousands Hz very high impulse voltage generator
is connected to the insulator.
3. Such a voltage is applied to the insulator and the spark over voltage is
noted.
4. The ratio of this noted voltage to the voltage reading collected from power
frequency flash over voltage test is known as impulse ratio of insulator.

This ratio should be

approximately 1.4 for pin type insulator and 1.3 for suspension type
insulators.
Performance Test of Insulator
Now we will discuss performance test of insulator one by one-
Temperature Cycle Test of Insulator
1. The insulator is first heated in water at 70oC for one hour.
2. Then this insulator immediately cooled in water at 7oC for another one
hour.
3. This cycle is repeated for three times.
4. After completion of these three temperature cycles, the insulator is dried
and the glazing of insulator is thoroughly observed. After this test there
should not be any damaged or deterioration in the glaze of the insulator
surface.
Puncture Voltage Test of Insulator
1. The insulator is first suspended in an insulating oil.
2. Then voltage of 1.3 times of flash over voltage, is applied to the insulator.
A good insulator should not puncture under this condition.
Porosity Test of Insulator
1. The insulator is first broken into pieces.
2. Then These broken pieces of insulator are immersed in a 0.5 % alcohol
solution of fuchsine dye under pressure of about 140.7 kg cm2 for 24
hours.
3. After that the sample are removed and examine.
The presence of a slight porosity in the material is indicated by a deep
penetration of the dye into it.
Mechanical Strength Test of Insulator
The insulator is applied by 2 times the maximum working strength for
about one minute. The insulator must be capable of sustaining this much
mechanical stress for one minute without any damage in it.
Routine Test of Insulator
Each of the insulator must undergo the following routine test before they
are recommended for using at site.
Proof Load Test of Insulator
In proof load test of insulator, a load of 20% in excess of specified
maximum working load is applied for about one minute to each of the
insulator.
Corrosion Test of Insulator
In corrosion test of insulator,
1. The insulator with its galvanized or steel fittings is suspended into a copper
sulfate solution for one minute.
2. Then the insulator is removed from the solution and wiped, cleaned.
3. Again it is suspended into the copper sulfate solution for one minute.
4. 4.The process is repeated for four times.
Then it should be examined and there should not be any disposition of metal on
it.

The ratio of voltage across the whole string to the product of number of discs
and the voltage across the disc nearest to the conductor is known as string
efficiency i.e.,
String efficiency =Voltage across the string/Voltage across n disc
nearest to conductor
where n = number of discs in the string.

The following points may be noted from the above mathematical analysis :
(i) If K = 02 (Say), then from exp. (iv), we get, V2 = 12 V1 and V3 = 164 V1.
This clearly shows that disc nearest to the conductor has maximum voltage
across it; the voltage across other discs decreasing progressively as the cross-
arm in approached.

(ii) The greater the value of K (= C1/C), the more non-uniform is the potential
across the discs and lesser is the string efficiency.

(iii) The inequality in voltage distribution increases with the increase of number
of discs in the string. Therefore, shorter string has more efficiency than the
larger one.

8.8 Methods of Improving String Efficiency

It has been seen above that potential distribution in a string of suspension

insulators is not uniform. The maximum voltage appears across the insulator
nearest to the line conductor and decreases progressively as the crossarm is
approached. If the insulation of the highest stressed insulator (i.e. nearest to
conductor) breaks down or flash over takes place, the breakdown of other units
will take place in succession. This necessitates to equalise the potential across
the various units of the string i.e. to improve the string efficiency.
The various methods for this purpose are :

(i) By using longer cross-arms.

The value of string efficiencydepends upon the value of K i.e., ratio of
shuntcapacitance to mutual capacitance. The lesser thevalue of K, the greater
is the string efficiency and moreuniform is the voltage distribution. The value of
Kcan be decreased by reducing the shunt capacitance.In order to reduce shunt
capacitance, the distance ofconductor from tower must be increased i.e., longer
cross-arms should be used. However, limitations ofcost and strength of tower
do not allow the use of very long cross-arms. In practice, K= 01is the limit that
can be achieved by this method.

(ii) By grading the insulators.

In this method, insulators of different dimensions are so chosenthat each has a
different capacitance. The insulators are capacitance graded i.e. they
areassembled in the string in such a way that the top unit has the minimum
capacitance, increasingprogressively as the bottom unit (i.e., nearest to
conductor) is reached. Since voltage is inversely proportional to capacitance,
this method tends to equalise the potentialdistribution across the units in the
string. This method has the disadvantage that a largenumber of different-sized
insulators are required. However good results can be obtained by using
standard insulators for most of the string and larger units for that near to the line
conductor.

(iii) By using a guard ring.

The potential across each unit in a string can be equalised by usinga guard
ring which is a metal ring electrically connected to the conductor and
surroundingthe bottom insulator as shown in the Fig. 8.13. The guard ring
introduces capacitance beMechanical Design of Overhead Lines 171tween
metal fittings and the line conductor. The guard ring is contoured in such a way
that shunt capacitance currents i1, i2 etc. are equal to metal fitting line
capacitance currents i1, i2 etc. The result is that same charging current I flows
through each unit of string. Consequently, there will be uniform potential
distribution across the units.

8.9 Important Points

While solving problems relating to string efficiency, the following
points must be kept in mind:

(i) The maximum voltage appears across the disc nearest to

the conductror (i.e., line conductor).

(ii) The voltage across the string is equal to phase voltage i.e.,
Voltage across string = Voltage between line and earth = Phase Voltage
(iii) Line Voltage = 3 Voltage across string

Tower

To determine the actual transmission tower height by considering the

above points, we have divided the total height of tower in four parts,
1. Minimum permissible ground clearance (H1)
2. Maximum sag of the conductor (H2)
3. Vertical spacing between top and bottom conductors (H3)
4. Vertical clearance between ground wire and top conductor (H4)

Theory of corona formation.

Some ionisation is always present in air due to cosmic rays,
ultravioletradiations and radioactivity. Therefore, under normal conditions, the
air around the conductorscontains some ionised particles (i.e., free electrons
and +ve ions) and neutral molecules. When p.d.is applied between the
conductors, potential gradient is set up in the air which will have maximumvalue
at the conductor surfaces. Under the influence of potential gradient, the existing
free electron acquire greater velocities. The greater the applied voltage, the
greater the potential gradient and more is the velocity of free electrons. When
the potential gradient at the conductor surface reaches about 30 kV per cm
(max. value) the velocity acquired by the free electrons is sufficient to strike a
neutral molecule with enough force to dislodge one or more electrons from it.
This produces another ion and one or more free electrons, which is turn are
accelerated until they collide with other neutral molecules, thus producing other
ions. Thus, the process of ionisation is cummulative. The result of this ionisation
is that either coron is formed or spark takes place between the conductors.

8.11 Factors Affecting Corona

The phenomenon of corona is affected by the physical state of the atmosphere
as well as by theconditions of the line. The following are the factors upon which
corona depends :

(i) Atmosphere. As corona is formed due to ionsiation of air surrounding the

conductors, therefore, it is affected by the physical state of atmosphere. In the
stormy weather, the number of ions is more than normal and as such corona
occurs at much less voltage as compared with
fair weather.

(ii) Conductor size. The corona effect depends upon the shape and conditions
of the conductors. The rough and irregular surface will give rise to more corona
because unevenness of the surface decreases the value of breakdown voltage.
Thus a stranded conductor has irregular surface and hence gives rise to more
corona that a solid conductor.

(iii) Spacing between conductors. If the spacing between the conductors is

made very large as compared to their diameters, there may not be any corona
effect. It is because larger distance between conductors reduces the electro-
static stresses at the conductor surface, thus avoiding corona formation.

(iv) Line voltage. The line voltage greatly affects corona. If it is low, there is no
change in the condition of air surrounding the conductors and hence no corona
is formed. However, if the line voltage has such a value that electrostatic
stresses developed at the conductor surface make the air around the conductor
conducting, then corona is formed

Advantages and Disadvantages of Corona

.
Advantages
(i) Due to corona formation, the air surrounding the conductor becomes
conducting and hence virtual diameter of the conductor is increased. The
increased diameterreduces the electrostatic stresses between the
conductors.

(ii) Corona reduces the effects of transients produced by surges.

Disadvantages
(i) Corona is accompanied by a loss of energy. This affects the
transmission efficiency of the line.

(ii) Ozone is produced by corona and may cause corrosion of the

conductor due to chemical action.

(iii) The current drawn by the line due to corona is non-sinusoidal and
hence non-sinusoidal voltage drop occurs in the line. This may cause
inductive interference with neighbouring communication lines.

8.14 Methods of Reducing Corona Effect

It has been seen that intense corona effects are observed at a working
voltage of 33 kV or above. Therefore, careful design should be made to
avoid corona on the sub-stations or bus-bars rated for 33kV and higher
voltages otherwise highly ionised air may cause flash-over in the insulators
or betweenthe phases, causing considerable damage to the equipment.

The corona effects can be reduced by the following methods :

(i) By increasing conductor size. By increasing conductor size, the

voltage at which corona occurs is raised and hence corona effects are
considerably reduced. This is one of the reasons that ACSR conductors
which have a larger cross-sectional area are used in transmission
lines.

(ii) By increasing conductor spacing. By increasing the spacing between

conductors, the voltageat which corona occurs is raised and hence corona
effects can be eliminated. However,spacing cannot be increased too much
otherwise the cost of supporting structure (e.g., bigger cross arms and
supports) may increase to a considerable extent.
Franti effect

In all practical cases the sending end voltage is higher than the receiving end
due to line losses, so current flows from the source or the supply end to the
load. But Sir S.Z. Ferranti, in the year 1890, came up with an astonishing theory
about medium distance transmission line or long distance transmission lines
suggesting that in case of light loading or no load operation of transmission
system, the receiving end voltage often increases beyond the sending end
voltage, leading to a phenomena known as Ferranti effect in power system.
both the capacitance and inductor effect of transmission line are equally
responsible for this particular phenomena to occur, and hence Ferranti effect is
negligible in case of a short transmission lines as the inductor of such a line is
practically considered to be nearing zero.
rise in voltage at the receiving end is directly proportional to the square of the
line length, and hence in case of a long transmission line it keeps increasing
with length and even goes beyond the applied sending end voltage at times,
leading to the phenomena called Ferranti effect in power system

Advantages of Three Phase System over Single Phase

System
1. Power to weight ratio of 3- alternator is high as compared to 1-
alternator. That means for generation for same amount of Electric Power,
the size of 3- alternator is small as compare to 1- Alternator. Hence, the
overall cost of alternator is reduced for generation of same amount of
power. Moreover, due to reduction in weight, transportation and
installation of alternator become convenient and less space is required to
accommodate the alternator in power houses.
2. For electric power transmission and distribution of same amount of power,
the requirement of conductor material is less in 3- system as compare to
1- system. Hence, the 3- transmission and distribution system is
economical as compare 1- system.
3. Let us consider the power produced by single phase supply and 3-phase
supply at unity power factor. Wave form of power produce due 1-phase
supply at unity power factor is shown in figure (C) and Wave form of power
produced due to 3-phase supply is shown in figure (D) below.
4. From power wave forms shown in figure (C) and (D) above it is clear that
in 3-phase system, the instantaneous power is always constant over the
 cycle results in smooth and vibration free operation of machine. Whereas
in 1- system the instantaneous power is pulsating hence change over the
cycle, which leads to vibrations in machines.
5. Power to weight ratio of three phase induction motor is high as compare
to single phase induction motor. Means for same amount of Mechanical
Power, the size of three phase induction motor is small as compare to
single phase induction motor. Hence, the overall cost of induction motor is
reduced. Moreover, due to reduction in weight, transportation and
installation of induction motor become convenient and less space is
required to accommodate the induction motor.
6. 3-phase induction motor is self-started as the magnetic flux produced by
3-phase supply is rotating in nature with constant magnitude. Whereas 1-
induction motor is not self-started as the magnetic flux produced by 1-
supply is pulsating in nature. Hence, we have to make some arrangement
to make the 1- induction motor self-started which further increases the
cost of 1- induction motor.
7. 3-phase motor is having better power factor and efficiency as compare to
1- motor.
8. Power to weight ratio of 3-phase transformer is high as compare to 1-
transformer. Means for same amount of Electric Power, the size of 3-
phase transformer is small as compared to 1- transformer. Hence, the
overall cost of transformer is reduced. Moreover, due to reduction in
weight, transportation and installation of transformer become convenient
and less space is required to accommodate the transformer.
9. If fault occurs in any winding of 3-phase transformer, the rest of two
winding can be used in open delta to serve the 3-phase load which is not
possible in 1- transformer. This ability of 3-phase transformer further
increases the reliability of 3-phase transformer.
10. A 3-phase system can be used to feed a 1- load, whereas vice-versa
is not possible.
11. DC rectified from 3-phase supply is having the ripple factor 4% and DC
rectified from 1- supply is having the ripple factor 48.2 %. Mean DC
rectified from 3- supply contains less ripples as compare to DC rectified
from 1- supply. Hence the requirement of filter is reduced for DC rectified
from 3-phase supply. Which reduce the overall cost of converter.

Technical Reason for not Using Higher Frequencies

It increases series impedance in transmission system. This reduces power
transfer capability so we cannot access full fruit of transmission system.
 Constant losses are directly proportional to frequency and its square, so
they may increases system losses.
Harmonics with higher frequency can carry more power it introduce
excess heat losses.
As frequency directly proportional to speed of alternator some high speed
on gigantic alternator. it is practically difficult to achieve Higher frequency.

Problems with Lower Frequencies

Olden days they observed some issues with frequencies which are less
than 40 Hz.
Perceptible flickering in filament lamp, starting problem in arc lamp and
arcing devices so they need additional devices to start purpose and
maintaining better operation.
Frequency is directly proportional to power lower frequency devices sizes
are very larger than higher frequency so material involved cost involved
transmission everything great larger than higher frequency devices.

Skin Effect

When a conductor is carrying steady direct current (d.c.), this current is

uniformly distributed over the whole X-section of the conductor. However,
an alternating current flowing through the conductor does not distribute
uniformly, rather it has the tendency to concentrate near the surface of the
conductoras shown in Fig. 9.3. This is known as skin effect. The tendency
of alternating current to concentrate near the surface of a conductor is
known as skin effect. Due to skin effect, the effective area of cross-section
of the conductor through which current flows is reduced. Consequently, the
resistance of the conductor is slightly increased when carrying an
alternating current.
The skin effect depends upon the following factors :
(i) Nature of material
(ii) Diameter of wire increases with the diameter of wire.
(iii) Frequency increases with the increase in frequency.
(iv) Shape of wire less for stranded conductor than the solid conductor.
It may be noted that skin effect is negligible when the supply frequency is
low (< 50 Hz) and
conductor diameter is small (< 1cm).

Poles

Wooden poles.

These are made of seasoned wood (sal or chir) and are suitable for lines
ofmoderate X-sectional area and of relatively shorter spans, say upto 50
metres. Such supports are cheap, easily available, provide insulating
properties and, therefore, are widely used for distribution purposes in rural
areas as an economical proposition. The wooden poles generally tend to
rot below the ground level, causing foundation failure. In order to prevent
this, the portion of the pole below the ground level is impregnated with
preservative compounds like creosote oil. Double pole structures of the A
or H type are often used (See Fig. 8.2) to obtain a higher transverse
strength than could be economically provided by means of single poles.

The main objections to wooden supports are :

(i) tendency to rot below the ground level (ii) comparatively smaller life
(20-25 years)
(iii) cannot be used for voltages higher than 20 kV
(iv) less mechanical strength and (v) require periodical inspection.

Maximum permissible span for wooden poles is

(A) 10 meter
(B) 20 meters
(C) 60 meters
(D) 200 meters

Steel poles.

The steel poles are often used as a substitute for wooden poles. They
possessgreater mechanical strength, longer life and permit longer spans to
be used. Such poles are generallyused for distribution purposes in the
cities. This type of supports need to be galvanised or painted inorder to
prolong its life.

The steel poles are of three types viz.,

(i) rail poles (ii) tubular poles and
(iii) rolled steel joints.

RCC poles.
The reinforced concrete poles have become very popular as line supports
inrecent years. They have greater mechanical strength, longer life and
permit longer spans than steel poles. Moreover, they give good outlook,
require little maintenance and have good insulating properties. Fig. 8.3
shows R.C.C. poles for single and double circuit. The holes in the poles
facilitate the climbing of poles and at the same time reduce the weight of
line supports.The main difficulty with the use of these poles is the high cost
of transport owing to their heavy weight. Therefore, such poles are often
manufactured at the site in order to avoid heavy cost of
transportation.

Steel towers.
In practice, wooden, steel and reinforced concrete poles are used for
distribution purposes at low voltages, say upto 11 kV. However, for long
distance transmission at higher voltage, steel towers are invariably
employed. Steel towers have greater mechanical strength, longer life, can
withstand most severe climatic conditions and permit the use of longer
spans. The risk ofinterrupted serivce due to broken or punctured insulation
is considerably reduced owing to longerspans. Tower footings are usually
grounded by driving rods into the earth. This minimises the lightning
troubles as each tower acts as a lightning conductor

Systems

1. D.C. system
(i) D.C. two-wire.
(ii) D.C. two-wire with mid-point earthed.
(iii) D.C. three-wire.

2. Single-phase A.C. system

(i) Single-phase two-wire.
(ii) Single-phase two-wire with mid-point earthed.
(iii) Single-phase three-wire.

3. Two-phase A.C. system

(i) Two-phase four-wire.
(ii) Two-phase three wire.

4. Three-phase A.C. system

(i) Three-phase three-wire.
(ii) Three-phase four-wire