Electrical Conductor

Definition: The conductor is the type of metal which allows the electrical current to flow
through it. The electrical conductor is generally made up of metals like copper, aluminum
and their alloys. In an electrical conductor, the electrical charges move from atom to atom
when the potential difference is applied across them. The electrical conductors are used in
the form of the wire. The choice of the conductor can be taken into account by
considering the various factors like tensile strength, fatigue strength, corona loss, local
conditions and cost.

The electrical conductor which is used for power transmission is usually stranded.
Stranded conductors have great flexibility and mechanical strength as compared to a
single wire of the same cross-section area. In stranded conductor usually, the centre wire
is surrounded by the successive layers of wires containing 6, 12, 18, 24, … wires.

The size of the conductor is determined by its equivalent copper cross section area and
the number of strands with the diameter of each strand. The equivalence cross section of
a stranded conductor is the area of a cross section of the solid conductor of the same
material and length as the stranded conductor. And also the conductor having the same
resistance at the same temperature.

Types of Electrical Conductors

Hard-drawn copper, hard-drawn aluminum conductors and steel-cored aluminum
conductors are most commonly used in a power. Some of the important types of
conductors are explained below in details.

Hard Drawn Copper Conductor

Such type of conductors gives high tensile strength. It has high electrical conductivity,
long life, and high scrap value. It is most suitable for distribution work where spans and
tapping are more.

Cadmium Copper Conductor

The tensile strength of the copper is increased by approximately 50 percent by adding

about 0.7 to 1.0 percent cadmium to it, but their conductivity is reduced by about 15 to 17
percent. The property of higher tensile strength enables the conductor to be erected on
longer spans with the same sag. This conductor possesses the advantages of easy joining,
more resistance to atmospheric condition, better resistance to wear, easy machinability,
etc.
The temperature at which copper anneals and softens is also increased, and temperature
effects on stresses are less. The variation in sag due to changes in load and temperature is
minimized.

Steel-Cored Copper Conductor (SCC)

In steel cored copper conductor one or two layers of copper strands surround a steel cored
copper conductors. The steel core adds the tensile strength to the conductor.

Copper Welded Conductor

In such type of conductors, the uniform layers of copper are welded onto a steel wire. The
conductivity of the copper welded conductor varies from 30 to 60 percent to that a solid
copper conductor with the same diameter. Such types of conductors may be used for
longer span such as a river crossing.

Hard-Drawn Aluminum Conductor or All-Aluminum Conductor

The cost of the copper conductor is very high, and hence it is replaced by the aluminum
conductor. The handling, transportation and erection of the aluminum wires become very
economical. It is used in distribution lines in the urban area and short transmission line
with the lower voltages.

Aluminum Conductor Steel Reinforced

All aluminum conductors are not sufficiently strong mechanically for the construction of
long span lines. This deficiency in strength can be compensated by adding a steel core to
the conductor. Such a conductor is called steel-cored aluminum conductor (SCA) or
aluminum conductor steel reinforced (ACSR).

Smooth Body ACSR Conductor

Such type of conductor is also called Compacted ACSR. The conventional ACSR
conductor is pressed through dies to flatten the aluminum strands into segmental shape.
The interstrand space is filled and the diameter of the conductor reduces without affecting
its electrical and mechanical properties. This conductor can be made with different ratios
of aluminum to steel. The figure shows below the conductor having ratio 6 Al/1 St.

Expanded ACSR Conductor

For reducing the corona loss and radio interference at a high voltage a fibrous or plastic
material is filled between the strands. The diameter of the conductor expands due to the
filling material and hence, it is called an expanded conductor. These conductors consist
paper material which separates the inner aluminum strands from the outer steel strands.

Electrical Power Cable

Definition: A cable used for the transmission and distribution of electrical energy is
called electrical power cable. Power cable consists two or more electrical conductors join
with an over sheath. It is used for the transmission of extra high voltages in a place where
overhead lines are impracticable to use like, the sea, airfield crossing, etc. But
underground cable is more costly as compared to aerial cable for the same voltage which
is one of the main draws back of electrical power cable.

Construction of Cable
The power cable mainly consists of three main components, namely, conductor,
dielectric, and sheath. The conductor in the cable provides the conducting path for the
current. The insulation or dielectric withstands the service voltage and isolates the
conductor with other objects. The sheath does not allow the moistures to enter and
protects the cables from all external influences like chemical or electrochemical attack,
fire, etc. The main components of electrical power cables are explained below in details

Conductor
Coppers and aluminum wires are used as a conductor material in cables because of their
high electrical conductivity. Solid or number of bare wires made of either copper or
aluminum are used to make a power cable.
For a conductor having more than three wires, the wire is arranged around a center wire
such that there are six in the first layer, twelve in the second, eighteen in the third, and so
on. The number of wires in the conductors are 7, 19, 37, 61, 91, etc., The size of the
conductor is represented by 7/A, 19/B, 37/C, etc., in which first figures represent the
number of strands and the second figure A, B, C, etc., represents the diameters in cm or
mm of the individual wire of the conductors.

Insulation
The most commonly used dielectric in power cables is impregnated paper, butyl rubber,
polyvinyl chloride cable, polyethylene, cross-linked polyethylene. Paper insulated cables
are mostly preferred because their current carrying capacity is high, generally reliable and
having a long life. The dielectric compound used for the cable should have following
properties.

 The insulator must have high insulation resistance.

 It should have high dielectric strength so that it does not allow the leakage current
to pass through it.
 The material must have good mechanical strength.
 The dielectric material should be capable of operating at high temperature.
 It should have low thermal resistance.
 It should have a low power factor.

The cables used for submarine and damp soil should use synthetic dielectrics like
polyvinyl chloride, polyethylene, etc. These materials are comparatively lighter and have
non-migratory dielectric. Also, such type of dielectric material has good dielectric
strength, low power loss, and low thermal resistance.

Inner Sheath

It is used for protecting the cable from moistures which would affect the insulation. Cable
sheath is made up of lead alloy, and these strengths withstand the internal pressures of the
pressurized cables. The material used for inner sheath should be nonmagnetic material.

The aluminum sheath is also used in a power cable because it is cheaper, smaller in
weight and high mechanical strength than the lead sheath. In oil-filled cables and
telephone, cables corrugated seamless aluminum sheath is used because it has better
bending properties, reduced thickness and lesser weight.

Protective Covering

Lead sheath cables when directly laid down on the ground are damaged by corrosion and
electrolyte. For protecting the cables against corrosion layers of fibrous material like
paper, hessian, etc., or polyvinyl chloride is used. Layers of fibrous material spread with
the waterproof compound to the outside of the electrical cable are called serving.

Armouring

Armouring is the process in which layers of galvanized steel wires or two layers of metal
tape are applied over sheath for protecting it from mechanical damage. The steel wires
are normally used for armouring because it has high longitudinal strength. Armouring is
also used for earthing the cable. When the fault occurs in the cable (due to insulation
failure) the fault current flows through the armour and get earthed.

OverSheath

It gives the mechanical strength to the cables. It protects the cable from overall damage
like moisture, corrosion, dirt, dust, etc. The thermosetting or thermoplastic material is
used for making over the sheath.

Solid Cable
This type of cable uses one solid copper wire per conductor and is used for permanent
infrastructure links between two wiring centers or between a wiring center and a wall
box. It has a lower attenuation and is less costly than stranded cable, however it is
designed for horizontal and vertical structured cabling and it should not be flexed once
installed.

Stranded Cable
Stranded cable consists of multiple strands of wires wrapped around each other in each
conductor. Stranded cable is much more flexible and consequently suited to applications
which demand flexibility and reshaping. Due to higher attenuation, stranded cable is
better used over shorter distances.
Stranded cable has a higher attenuation and is not suitable for long runs, although with a
high specification cable e.g. Cat6a / Cat7 we have been able to produce very long
stranded cables that still meet specifications during testing.

Key Differences between Stranded vs. Solid Wires:

Comparing stranded vs. solid wire involves exploring the advantages and disadvantages
of the two very different types of wire. A comparison narrows down the choices based on
how the specific wire characteristics relate to their expected use and the project
requirements. You must first determine your application’s requirements for weather
resistance, flexibility, and resistance to splitting or severing. Then, choose the wire that
most closely meets those needs.

Some key differences of stranded vs. solid copper wire include:

 Stranded vs. solid wire current capacity. Solid wire is thicker, which means less
surface area for dissipation. The thinner wires in stranded wire contain air gaps
and greater surface area with the individual strands, translating to more
dissipation. When choosing between solid or stranded wire for house wiring, the
solid wire offers higher current capacity.
 Routing. Stranded wires offer superior bendability and flexibility, making them
easier to route around obstacles than solid wires.
 Flexibility. Stranded wires are more flexible and can sustain more vibration and
flexing without breaking. Solid wires may require more frequent replacement than
stranded wires in applications with significant movement or vibrations.
 Cost. The production costs of solid wire are much lower than stranded wire, which
makes solid wire the more affordable choice.
 Ease of manufacturing. The single-core nature of solid wire makes it much
simpler to manufacture. Stranded wires require more complex manufacturing
processes to twist the thinner wires together.
 Distance. For longer runs, solid wires are the better choice because they feature
less current dissipation. Stranded wire will perform well over shorter distances.
 Superiority. When it comes down to stranded vs. solid wire, there is no clear
choice. Each option offers distinct advantages in particular situations.

Basics of wiring
In three phase circuit, connections can be given in two types:

1. Star connection

2. Delta connection

STAR CONNECTION
In star connection, there are four wires, three wires are phase wire and fourth is neutral,
which is taken from the star point. Star connection is preferred for long distance power
transmission because it is having the neutral point. In this we need to come to the concept
of balanced and unbalanced current in power system.

When equal current will flow through all the three phases, then it is called as balanced
current. And when the current will not be equal in any of the phase, then it is unbalanced
current. In this case, during balanced condition there will be no current flowing through
the neutral line and hence there is no use of the neutral terminal. But when there will be
unbalanced current flowing in the three phase circuit, neutral is having a vital role. It
will take the unbalanced current through to the ground and protect the transformer.
Unbalanced current affects transformer and it may also cause damage to the transformer
and for this star connection is preferred for long distance transmission.
In star connection, the line voltage is √3 times of phase voltage. Line voltage is the
voltage between two phases in three phase circuit and phase voltage is the voltage
between one phase to the neutral line. And the current is same for both line and phase. It
is shown as expression below:

Delta Connection
In delta connection, there are three wires alone and no neutral terminal is taken.
Normally delta connection is preferred for short distance due to the problem of
unbalanced current in the circuit. The figure is shown below for delta connection. In the
load station, ground can be used as neutral path if required. In delta connection, the
line voltage is same with that of phase voltage. And the line current is √3 times of phase
current. It is shown as expression below:
Voltage drop and losses across cables and conductors
Voltage drop (VD) occurs when the voltage at the end of a run of cable is lower than at
the beginning. Any length or size of wires will have some resistance, and running a
current through this dc resistance will cause the voltage to drop. As the length of the
cable increases, so does its resistance and reactance increase in proportion. Hence, VD is
particularly a problem with long cables runs.

Electrical cables carrying current always present inherent resistance, or impedance, to the
flow of current. VD is measured as the amount of voltage loss which occurs through all
or part of a circuit due to what is called cable "impedance" in volts.

Too much VD in a cable cross sectional area can cause lights to flicker or burn dimly,
heaters to heat poorly, and motors to run hotter than normal and burn out. This condition
causes the load to work harder with less voltage pushing the current.

How is this solved?

To decrease the VD in a circuit, you need to increase the size (cross section) of your
conductors – this is done to lower the overall resistance of the cable length. Certainly,
larger copper or aluminum cable sizes increase cost, so it’s important to calculate VD and
find the optimum voltage wires size that will reduce VD to safe levels while remaining
cost-effective.

How do you calculate voltage drop?

VD is the loss of voltage caused by the flow of current flow through a resistance. The
greater the resistance the greater the VD To check the VD, use a voltmeter connected
between the points where the VD is to be measured. In DC circuits and AC
resistive circuits the total of all the voltage drops across series-connected loads should
add up to the voltage applied to the circuit.

Each load device must receive its rated voltage to operate properly. If not enough voltage
is available, the device will not operate as it should.

To accurately calculate the VD for a given cable size, length, and current, you need to
accurately know the resistance of the type of cable you’re using. However, AS3000
outlines a simplified method that can be used.

For example, a 30m run of 6mm2 cable carrying 3 phase 32A will result in 1.5% drop:
32A x 30m = 960Am / 615 = 1.5%.
Voltage drop can also be calculated from the formula:

VD = mV/A/m × L × Ib ÷ 1000

Where:
mV/A/m = the voltage drop per meter per amp
L = the length of the circuit conductor
Ib = the design current

The allowable voltage drop for low voltage installations supplied directly from a public
low voltage distribution system is 3% for lighting and 5% for other uses.

What is resistance and conductivity?

Three major categories of materials include conductors, semiconductors and insulators.
Insulators have a high resistance, we can also describe them as having "low electrical
conduction". Conductivity: Most metals are conductive, which means that electrons can
freely flow to different atoms in a given direction. Metals have loosely bound, or free
electrons which allow this to happen. Insulative materials on the other hand have tightly
bound valence electrons. Dielectrics are materials that are do not allow electricity to
flow through them (are insulators) however in the presence of an electrical field the
material becomes polarized. This phenomenon is useful in electronics. For example we
use dielectric materials in the middle of capacitors because it acts as insulator, blocking
DC current flow, but the changing polarity allows energy to pass through. We use the
measurement of Electric Susceptibility to understand how easy it is for a given dielectric
to polarize.

What is Insulation & Why Do We Need It?

Any item that carries an electrical current is designed to do so safely and with some type
of insulation. The insulation limits the flow of current between the different conductors
and between the conductors to ground. It is therefore very important that the insulation
has the opposite transfer properties of the conductor.

Conductors are usually metallic. The most common are copper or aluminium, both of
which are known to be very good conductors of electric current due to the metals’ high
current carrying capacity and constant thermal properties.
Insulation is usually made from a non-metallic material. The majority of electrical
insulation is made of PVC, plastic, or rubber. It should resist current and keep it within
the path alongside the conductor. Many of the best insulators are man-made.

In theory, insulation should not carry electrical current. However, in reality, there isn't a
perfect insulating material. Every kind of insulation offers resistance; usually, the
material's resistance is very high, however, it is not infinite. Obviously, the higher the
resistance, the better the insulation capacity the material has.

Insulation Degradation
While in use, insulation is subject to many effects which can cause it to fail: mechanical
damage, vibration, excessive heat or cold, dirt, oil, corrosive vapours, moisture from the
air, and general wear and tear.

A combination of electrical stress and the degradation of insulation is constantly

happening. One of the major causes of insulation failure is general wear and tear. As
pinholes or cracks develop, moisture and foreign materials penetrate the insulation,
providing a lower resistance path for leakage current. Once started, different degradation
processes aid each other; this will then permit excessive current through the insulation.

A sudden drop in insulation resistance is very rare; the most common cause of this is
when a device has been subject to complete submersion. Therefore, monitoring gradual
drops in resistance as part of a regular insulation resistance testing program is vital to
limiting the risk of electric shocks, maintaining the safety of personnel, and reducing
repair times due to failure. Detecting the onset of insulation breakdown means scheduled
maintenance programs can be implemented.

List of Common Insulating Materials

1. Solids

Clay (ceramic)(porcelain) - This is the standard material for high voltage and RF
insulators.

Plastics - PVC, Cresyl Pthalate, DEHP and other plastics replaced rubber as an insulator
for wires and other parts. PVC and nylon are now standard in most types of wire.

Glass (silica, soda ash and limestone) - This material worked fine for telegraph and other
low voltage apparatus. It is still used today to some degree.

Paper/Cardboard - paper and cardboard are used as insulators in certain circumstances

as these materials are cheap and can work in situations without high heat or high
voltages.

Mica - This is a good stable material even when exposed to the elements. It is a good
thermal conductor while being an insulator. Sheet mica is easily stamped and shaped for
electrical components. Mica is very important for the most common types of capacitors.

Teflon (PTFE) - (polytetrafluoroethylene) - Slippery, durable and resistant to corrosion

this Dupont made material is used in cable jackets. Other forms besides PTFE include
FEP and ETFE.

PFA (Perfluoroalkoxy) - This substance is resistant to chemical attack, transparent and

better than PTFE when it comes to flexibility. The weakness is that the number of times it
can be folded is less than PTFE. It is good for applications near the ocean as it is resistant
to salt spray. The dielectric strength of PFA is up to 4 times higher than PTFE.

Rubber - Rubber in its natural and synthetic forms was used as an insulator from before
the 1870s until the 1950s. Plastics (especially PVC) replaced rubber.

Wax and oil - in the 1880s Edison used trinidad asphaltum with linseed oil, beeswax and
paraffin to insulate copper wires mounted inside of iron pipes. This was used for durable
underground power lines.

2. Liquids

Insulating Oil (Transformer Oil) - This petroleum product is used as an electrical

insulator and thermal conductor. It conducts heat away from hot transformer coils. Some
capacitors also use insulator oil.
3. Gasses

Normally when you separate two high voltage conductors an arc forms in between in
open air. In the utility industry we use special non-conductive gas in a compact
encapsulated metal container to stop arcs from forming. Gas-insulated switchgear is
designed to disconnect very high voltages safely. There are gas insulated transformers as
well as other devices.

What is Electrical Conduit?

A Conduit made of plastic or metal inside which electrical wire runs smoothly. This is
called an electrical conduit. The open wall from the outside is always found in the open
environment which protects the cable. It is used for unfinished places such as attics,
crawlspaces, basements, and exterior mounts.

Conduits are commonly used as a term to describe a system that has a series of electrical
conductors. The following are the reasons why duct systems are specially installed:

 Connect the part of the conduit accordingly.

 To act as a bridge outlet for the installed conductor.
 Provide cavities, especially for making taps and pieces in conductors.
 To provide taps especially for branch tube runs.
 To make a 90-degree bend for the run of the hose.
 To provide access for the conductor in terms of future system and maintenance
system
 To act as mounting outlets for lighting fixtures and wiring devices.

Types of Electrical Conduits:

A conduit system is generally classified on the material used to make mechanical inertia,
tubing, and wall thickness. The material is selected for corrosion resistance and automatic
protection after taking into account the factor.
1. Electrical Metallic Tubing (EMT):

Electrical Metallic Tubing (EMT) is a common example of an unbending conduit. Which

is usually made of galvanized steel. Or it can be made of aluminum. This tube is
commonly described as a thin-walled conduit. As it is thinner and lighter than RMC. It
can also be rigid, but it can be easily bent using a tool called a tube bender.

EMT is installed with fittings and couplings that are completely protected by
compression-type fasteners or setscrew.

2. Rigid Metal Conduit (RMC):

RMC stands for Hard Metal Conduit Heavyweight Galvanized Steel. Which are installed
using threaded fittings. Commonly taken in outdoor use to provide damage and
protection. It is also important to provide structural support, especially for electrical
panels, cables, and other equipment. RMC is only available for sale in lengths of 10 to 20
feet. And there must be threads on both ends of it.

This conduit is considered to be one of the most expensive alternatives for electrical
wiring in the market. However, it does offer added power and durability which is a huge
plus.

4. Intermediate Metal Conduit (IMC):

It is known from its name that the wall of this conduit is thinner than RMC and thicker
than EMT. Similarly, the weight of this conduit also comes between RMC and EMT.
This metal conductor is threadable but can also be un-threaded and can be used with
clamp-type fittings. IMCs are usually made of steel and can also be coated.

5. Flexible Metal Conduit (FMC):

This conduit is also known as “greenfield”. Which is taken from the name of the
inventor. It has a spiral construction which makes it extremely flexible. The flexibility of
the FMC makes it acceptable through walls and even other structures. Standard FMCs are
commonly used for dry indoor locations, often only for short periods.

The FMC is always a great option for many areas that require close quarters and a hard
turn, making it difficult to divert regular conduit later. Lights, attic vents, and water
heaters are common examples of basic flexible conduit installations.
6. Liquid-tight Flexible Metal (LFMC):

LFMC or liquid-tight flexible metal conduit is a special type of flexible metal conduit.
Which is used for the required seal fitting includes a plastic coating. The parts that make
up the entire LFMC are bound with water. This metal electrical conduit is used for
equipment with the outdoor unit for AC.

7. Electrical Non-Metallic Tubing- (ENT):

ENT is a thin-walled corrugated conduit that is flexible. It can be bent even without the
aid of a special device. Don’t turn it around, though. This is easier to install than an RNC
as it can be rotated around the barrier without cutting or welding. Special ENT
connectors are used – these are usually snap-in connections and not watertight.

8. Rigid PVC Conduit:

Rigid polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is similar to plastic plumbing pipes. And it is installed
with plastic fittings. Which are glued. It can be folded after heating in a portable heater
box. Because the conduit tubing and fittings are glued together, the conduit assembly can
be watertight. PVC in many uses makes it suitable for burial directly in the ground. It is
also allowed in rusty environments.