Neural Networks and Fuzzy Logic

UNIT VI Fuzzy Sets

Introduction to classical sets - properties, Operations and

relations;

Consider a universe of discourse, X, as a collection of objects all having the same

characteristics. The individual elements in the universe X will be denoted as x.
The features of the elements in X can be discrete, countable integers, or continuous
valued quantities on the real line.

Examples of elements of various universes might be as follows:

The clock speeds of computer CPUs;

The operating currents of an electronic motor;
The operating temperature of a heat pump (in degrees Celsius);
The Richter magnitudes of an earthquake;
The integers 1 to 10.

A useful attribute of sets and the universes on which they are defined is a metric
known as the cardinality, or the cardinal number.
The total number of elements in a universe X is called its cardinal number;
denoted nx, where x again is a label for individual elements in the universe.
Discrete universes that are composed of a countably finite collection of elements will
have a finite cardinal number; continuous universes comprises an infinite collection of
elements will have an infinite cardinality.
Collections of elements within a universe are called sets, and collections of
elements within sets are called subsets. Sets and subsets are terms that are often used
synonymously, since any set is also a subset of the universal set X.
The collection of all possible sets in the universe is called the whole set.

Example

For crisp sets A and B consisting of collections of some elements in X, the following
notation is defined:
x X x belongs to X
x A x belongs to A
x A x does not belong to A

For sets A and B on X, we also have

A B A is fully contained in B (if x A, then x B)

A B A is contained in or is equivalent to B
(A B) A B and B A (A is equivalent to B)

Null set, , as the set containing no elements, and the whole set, X, as the set of all
elements in the universe.
All possible sets of X constitute a special set called the power set, Denoted by P(X).
The cardinality of the power set, denoted nP(X), is found as nP(X) = 2nX.
If the cardinality of the universe is infinite, then the cardinality of the power set is also
infinity
Operations on Classical Sets

Let A and B be two sets on the universe X.

Union:
The union between the two sets, denoted A B, represents all those elements in the
universe that reside in (or belong to) the set A, the set B, or both sets A and B. (This operation
is also called the logical or; another form of the union is the exclusive or operation.
Intersection
The intersection of the two sets, denoted A B, represents all those elements in the
universe X that simultaneously reside in (or belong to) both sets A and B.
Complement of a set
The complement of a set A, denoted A, is defined as the collection of all elements in the
universe that do not reside in the set A.
Difference of a set A
The difference of a set A with respect to B, denoted A | B, is defined as the collection of
all elements in the universe that reside in A and that do not reside in B simultaneously.

Union A B ={x | x A or x B}.

Intersection A B ={x | x A and x B}
Complement A ={x | x A, x X}
Difference A | B ={x | x A and B}.

These four operations are shown in terms of Venn diagrams as

Union of sets A and B (logical or)

Intersection of sets A and B.

Complement of set A.
Difference operation A| B.

Properties of Classical or Crisp Sets

Another name for classical sets is that crisp sets.

The most appropriate properties for defining classical sets and showing their similarity
to fuzzy sets are:

Commutativity AB=BA
AB=BA.
Associativity A (B C ) = (A B) C
A (B C ) = (A B) C.
Distributivity A (B C ) = (A B) (A C)
A (B C ) = (A B) (A C).
Idempotency AA=A
A A = A.
Identity A=A
AX=A
A = .
AX=X.
Transitivity If A B and B C , then A C.
Involution = A.

Two special properties of set operations are known as the excluded middle axioms and
De Morgans principles. These properties are enumerated here for two sets A and B.
The excluded middle axioms are very important because these are the only set
operations that are not valid for both classical sets and fuzzy sets.

The first, called the axiom of the excluded middle, deals with the union of a set A and
its complement;
A =X
The second, called the axiom of contradiction, represents the intersection of a set A and
its complement.
A =

De Morgans principles
= .

= .
De Morgans principles can be stated for n sets

= U U

=
Mapping of Classical Sets to Functions

Suppose X and Y are two different universes of discourse (information). If an element x

is contained in X and corresponds to an element y contained in Y, it is generally termed a
mapping from X to Y, or f : XY.

As a mapping, the characteristic (indicator) function A(x) is defined as ( ) {

Where A expresses membership in set A for the element x in the universe.

Fuzzy Sets

In classical, or crisp, sets the transition for an element in the universe between
membership and non membership in a given set is abrupt and well defined (said to be crisp).
A fuzzy set, is a set containing elements that have varying degrees of membership in
the set.
Elements of a fuzzy set are mapped to a universe of membership values using a
function-theoretic form.
Fuzzy sets are denoted in this text by a set symbol with a tilde under strike.
would be the fuzzy set A. This function maps elements of a fuzzy set to a real
numbered value on the interval 0 1.
If an element in the universe, say x, is a member of fuzzy set , then this mapping is
given by Equation

When the universe, X, is continuous and infinite, the fuzzy set is denoted as

The numerator in each term is the membership value in set associated with the
element of the universe indicated in the denominator.

Fuzzy Set Operations

Fuzzy set is mapped to a real numbered value in the interval 0 to 1. If an element of

universe, say x, is a member of fuzzy set , then the mapping is given by ( ) [0 , 1].
 Considering three fuzzy sets , and on the
universe X. For a given element x of the universe, the
function theoretic operations for the set theoretic
operations unions, intersection and complement are
defined for , and on X

Union:

The union of these two sets in terms of function theoretic

form is given as

Here V indicates the maximum operator

Intersection

The intersection of two sets in function theoretic form is given

as

Here indicates the minimum operator

Complement

The complement of single set on universe X, say A is given by

Properties of Fuzzy Sets

Fuzzy sets follow the same properties as crisp sets. Because of this fact and because the
membership values of a crisp set are a subset of the interval [0, 1], classical sets can be
thought of as a special case of fuzzy sets.
The properties of fuzzy sets are
 ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )( ) ( ) ( )
( )( ) ( ) ( )( )
( )( ) ( )( )( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )

Classical Relations and Fuzzy Relations

Relations represent the mapping of the sets. Relations are intimately involved in logic,
approximate reasoning, classification, rule-based systems, pattern recognition, and control.
In the case of crisp sets relation there are only two degrees of relationship between the
elements of sets in a crisp relation, i.e., completely related and not related.
A crisp relation represents the presence or absence of association, interaction, or
interconnectedness between the elements of two or more sets.
Fuzzy relations have infinite number of relationship between the extremes of
completely related and not related between the elements of two or more sets considered.
Degrees of association can be represented by membership grades in a fuzzy relation by
membership grades in a fuzzy relation in the same way as degrees of set membership are
represented in the fuzzy set.
Crisp set can be viewed as a restricted case of the more general fuzzy set concept.

Cartesian product of Crisp Relation

An ordered sequence of n elements is called as ordered n-tuple. The ordered sequence is

in the form of a1,a2,...,an. An unordered sequence is that it is a collection of n elements
without restrictions in the order.
The ntuple is called as an ordered pair when n = 2. For the crisp sets A1 ,A2 ,...,An,
the set of n-tuples a1,a2,...,an, where a1 A1-,a2 A2,...,an An, is called the Cartesian
product of A1 ,A2 ,...,An.
The Cartesian product is denotedbyA1 A2 An. In Cartesian product the first
element in each pair is a member of x and the second element is a member of y formally,
x y = {(x, y)/x X and y Y },
if x y then x y y x.
If all the An are identical and equal to A, then the cartesian product of A1 ,A2 ,...,An
becomes An.

Cardinality of Crisp Relation

Suppose n elements of the universe X are related to m elements of the universe Y. If

the cardinality of X is nx and the cardinality of Y is ny , then the cardinality of the relation R ,
between these two universe nxy = nx ny
The cardinality of the power set describing this relation, P (X Y ) in then np(x y )=2nxny
Fuzzy Cartesian product and Composition

Let be a fuzzy set on universe X and be a fuzzy set on universe Y, then the
Cartesian product between fuzzy sets and will result in a fuzzy relation which is
contained with the full Cartesian product space

Where the fuzzy relation has membership function.

Features of Membership Function

Membership function describes the information contained in a fuzzy set and is useful to
develop a lexicon of terms to describe various special features of this function.
For purposes of simplicity, the functions shown in the figures will all be continuous, but
the terms apply equally for both discrete and continuous fuzzy sets.
The sketch of a membership function consists of 3 regions
1. Core
2. Support
3. Boundary

Core
The core of a membership function for
some fuzzy set is defined as that region of
the universe that is characterized by
complete and full membership in the set
.That is, the core comprises those
elements x of the universe such that
( )

Support

It is the region of the universe that is

characterized by nonzero membership in the set .That is, the support comprises those
elements x of the universe such that ( ) .

Boundaries

The boundaries of a membership function for some fuzzy set are defined as that
region of the universe containing elements that have a nonzero membership but not complete
membership.
The boundaries comprise those elements x of the universe such that ( )
These elements of the universe are those with some degree of fuzziness, or only partial
membership in the fuzzy set .
Crossover point

The crossover point of a membership function is the elements in universe whose

membership value is equal to 0.5, ( ) = 0.5
Height

The height of the fuzzy set is the maximum value of the membership function, max ( ( ))
The membership functions can be symmetrical or asymmetrical. Membership value is
between 0 and 1.

Based on the membership functions fuzzy sets are classified into two categories

Normal fuzzy set: If the membership function has at least one element in the universe
whose value is equal to 1, then that set is called as normal fuzzy set.
Subnormal fuzzy set: If the membership function has the membership values less than 1,
then that set is called as subnormal fuzzy set.

Convex fuzzy set: If the membership function

has membership values those are
monotonically increasing, or, monotonically
decreasing, or they are monotonically
increasing and decreasing with the increasing
values for elements in the universe, those fuzzy
set is called convex fuzzy set.

Nonconvex fuzzy set: If the membership

function has membership values which are not
strictly monotonically increasing or monotonically
decreasing or both monotonically increasing and
decreasing with increasing values for elements in
the universe, then this is called as nonconvex
fuzzy set.
The membership functions can have
different shapes like triangle, trapezoidal,
Gaussian, etc.
 UNIT - VII
Fuzzy Logic System Components

Fuzzification: Fuzzification is the process where the crisp quantities are converted to fuzzy
(crisp to fuzzy). By identifying some of the uncertainties present in the crisp values, fuzzy
values are formed.
The conversion of fuzzy values is represented by the membership functions. Thus
fuzzification process involve assigning membership values for the given crisp quantities.
In the real world, hardware such as a digital voltmeter generates crisp data, but these
data are subject to experimental error. The representation of imprecise data as fuzzy sets is a
useful but not mandatory step when those data are used in fuzzy systems.
For representing this kind of data, data is considered as a crisp. The crisp data is
compared with a fuzzy set.

Membership Value Assignments

There are various methods to assign the membership values or the membership
functions to fuzzy variables.
Intuition
Inference,
Rank ordering,
Angular fuzzy sets,
Neural networks,
Genetic algorithms, and
Inductive seasoning

Intuition

Intuition is based on the humans own intelligence and understanding to develop the
membership functions. The thorough knowledge of the problem has to be known, the
knowledge regarding the linguistic variable should also
be known.
For example, consider the speed of a dc-motor.
The shape of the universe of speed given in rpm is
shown in Figure. The curves represent membership
function corresponding to various fuzzy variables. The
range of speed is splitted into low, medium, and high.
The curves differentiate the ranges, said by humans.
The placement of curves is approximate over the
universe of discourse; the number of curves and the
overlapping of curves is an important criteria to be
considered while defining membership functions

Inference

This method involves the knowledge to perform deductive reasoning. The membership
function is formed from the facts known and knowledge.
Rank Ordering

The polling concept is used to assign membership values by rank ordering process.
Preferences are above for pair wise comparisons and from this the ordering of the membership
is done.

Angular Fuzzy Sets

The angular fuzzy sets are different from the standard fuzzy sets in their coordinate
description. These sets are defined on the universe of angles, hence are repeating shapes
every 2 cycles. Angular fuzzy sets are applied in quantitative description of linguistic
variables known truth-values. When membership of value 1 is true and that of 0 is false, then
in between 0 and 1 is partially true or partially false.

Neural Networks

The fuzzy membership function may be created for fuzzy classes of an input data set.
For a given problem the number of input data values is selected. Then the data is divided into
training data set and testing data set. The training data set is used to train the network. After
full training and testing process is completed, the neural network is ready and it can be used
to determine the membership values of any input data in the different regions.

Genetic Algorithm

Genetic algorithm (GA) uses the concept of Darwins theory of evolution. Darwins
theory is based on the rule, survival of the fittest.

The steps involved in computing membership functions using GA are:

1. For the given functional mapping of a system, some membership functions and their
shapes are assumed for various fuzzy variables to be defined.
2. These membership functions are then coded as bit stings.
3. These bit strings are then concatenated (joined).
4. Similar to activation function in neural networks, GA has a fitness function.
5. This fitness function is used to evaluate the fitness of each set of membership functions.
6. These membership functions are the parameters that define that functional mapping of
the system

Inductive Reasoning

The membership can also be generated by the characteristics of inductive reasoning.

The induction is performed by the entropy minimization principle, which clusters the
parameters corresponding to the output classes.

Formation of Rules

For any linguistic variable, there are three general forms in which the canonical rules
can be formed.
(1) Assignment statements
(2) Conditional statements
(3) Unconditional statements
Assignment statements
These statements are those in which the variable is assignment with the value. The
variable and the value assigned are combined by the assignment operator =. The
assignment statements are necessary in forming fuzzy rules. The value to be assigned may be
a linguistic term.
The assignment statement is found to restrict the value of a variable to a specific
equality.

Conditional statements
In these statements, some specific conditions are mentioned; if the conditions are
satisfied then it enters the following statements, called as restrictions.

Unconditional statements
There is no specific condition that has to be satisfied in this form of statements.

Fuzzy (Rule-Based) Systems

In the field of artificial intelligence (machine intelligence), there are various ways to
represent knowledge. Perhaps the most common way to represent human knowledge is to
form it into natural language expressions of the type
IF premise (antecedent), THEN conclusion (consequent).
The form in Expression given in above statement is commonly referred to as the IF
THEN rule-based form; this form is generally referred to as the deductive form. It typically
expresses an inference such that if we know a fact (premise, hypothesis, antecedent), then we
can infer, or derive, another fact called a conclusion (consequent).
This form of knowledge representation, characterized as shallow knowledge, is quite
appropriate in the context of linguistics because it expresses human empirical and heuristic
knowledge in our own language of communication.
It does not, however, capture the deeper forms of knowledge usually associated with
intuition, structure, function, and behavior of the objects around us simply because these
latter forms of know ledge are not readily reduced to linguistic phrases or representations;
The fuzzy rule-based system is most useful in modeling some complex systems that can
be observed by humans because they make use of linguistic variables as their antecedents and
consequents; as described her e these linguistic variables can be naturally represented by
fuzzy sets and logical connectives of these sets.

The canonical form for a fuzzy rule-based system.

Rule 1: IF condition C1, THEN restriction R1
Rule 2: IF condition C2, THEN restriction R2
.
Rule r : IF condition Cr, THEN restriction Rr.

Decomposition of Rules An Example

An example for a compound rule structure is

IF x = y THEN both are equal
ELSE
IF x y
THEN
IF x>y THEN X is highest
ELSE
IF y>x THEN Y is highest
ELSE
 The fuzzy rule-based system may involve more than one rule. The process of obtaining
the overall conclusion from the individually mentioned consequents contributed by each rule
in the fuzzy rule this is known as aggregation of rule.

Properties of Set of Rules

The properties for the sets of rules are

Completeness,
Consistency,
Continuity, and
Interaction.
(a) Completeness
A set of IFTHEN rules is complete if any combination of input values result in an
appropriate output value.
(b) Consistency
A set of IFTHEN rules is inconsistent if there are two rules with the same rules-
antecedent but different rule-consequents.
(c) Continuity
A set of IFTHEN rules is continuous if it does not have neighboring rules with output
fuzzy sets that have empty intersection.
(d) Interaction
In the interaction property, suppose that is a rule, IF x is A THEN y is B, this
meaning is represented by a fuzzy relation R2, then the composition of A and R does not
deliver B

Defuzzification

Defuzzification means the fuzzy to crisp conversions. The fuzzy results generated
cannot be used as such to the applications, hence it is necessary to convert the fuzzy
quantities into crisp quantities for further processing.
This can be achieved by using defuzzification process. The defuzzification has the
capability to reduce a fuzzy to a crisp single-valued quantity or as a set, or converting to the
form in which fuzzy quantity is present.
Defuzzification can also be called as rounding off method. Defuzzification reduces the
collection of membership function values in to a single sealer quantity.
Defuzzification of fuzzy sets is done with the help of Lambda Cuts for Fuzzy Sets.

Lambda Cuts for Fuzzy Sets

Consider a fuzzy set , then the lambda cut set can be denoted by A, where ranges
between 0 and 1 (0 1). The set A is going to be a crisp set. This crisp set is called the
lambda cut set of the fuzzy set , where

The value of lambda cut set is x, when the membership value corresponding to x is
greater that or equal to the specified . This lambda cut set can also be called as alpha cut set.
Lambda ranges in the interval [0, 1].
Defuzzification methods

There are seven methods used for defuzzifying the fuzzy output functions.
They are:
1. Max-membership principle,
2. Centroid method,
3. Weighted average method,
4. Meanmax membership,
5. Centre of sums,
6. Centre of largest area, and
7. First of maxima or last of maxima

Max-membership-principle

This method is given by the expression,

This method is also referred as height method.

Centroid method

This is the most widely used method. This can be called as center of gravity or center of
area method. It can be defined by the algebraic expression is used for algebraic integration.

Weighted average method

Weighting each membership function in the obtained output by its largest membership
value forms this method. This method cannot be used for asymmetrical output membership
functions, can be used only for symmetrical output membership functions.
The evaluation expression for this method is

Meanmax-membership

This method is related to max-membership principle, but the present of the maximum
membership need not be unique, i.e., the maximum membership need not be a single point, it
can be a range. This method is also called as middle of maxima method the expression is
given as
Centre of sums

It involves the algebraic sum of individual output fuzzy sets. The intersecting areas of the
fuzzy are added twice.
The defuzzified value z is given as

Center of largest area

If the fuzzy set has two convex sub regions, then the entire of gravity of the convex sub
region with the largest area can be used to calculate the defuzzification value. The equation is
given as

Where cm is the convex region with largest area. The value z is same as the value zobtained
by centroid method. This can be done even for non-convex regions.

First of maxima or last of maxima

 Answers to Important questions

1. Write the mathematical expression of the membership function and sketch of the
membership function.

Membership function describes the information contained in a fuzzy set and is useful to
develop a lexicon of terms to describe various special features of this function.
For purposes of simplicity, the functions shown in the figures will all be continuous, but
the terms apply equally for both discrete and continuous fuzzy sets.
The sketch of a membership function consists of 3 regions
4. Core
5. Support
6. Boundary

Core
The core of a membership function for
some fuzzy set is defined as that region of
the universe that is characterized by
complete and full membership in the set
.That is, the core comprises those
elements x of the universe such that
( )

Support

It is the region of the universe that is

characterized by nonzero membership in the set .That is, the support comprises those
elements x of the universe such that ( ) .

Boundaries

The boundaries of a membership function for some fuzzy set are defined as that
region of the universe containing elements that have a nonzero membership but not complete
membership.
The boundaries comprise those elements x of the universe such that ( )
These elements of the universe are those with some degree of fuzziness, or only partial
membership in the fuzzy set .

2. Write the properties of fuzzy set theory and explain

Fuzzy sets follow the same properties as crisp sets. Because of this fact and because the
membership values of a crisp set are a subset of the interval [0, 1], classical sets can be
thought of as a special case of fuzzy sets.
The properties of fuzzy sets are
 ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )( ) ( ) ( )
( )( ) ( ) ( )( )
( )( ) ( )( )( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )

3. Give and explain the properties of crisp sets

The most appropriate properties for defining classical sets and showing their similarity
to fuzzy sets are:

Commutativity AB=BA
AB=BA.
Associativity A (B C ) = (A B) C
A (B C ) = (A B) C.
Distributivity A (B C ) = (A B) (A C)
A (B C ) = (A B) (A C).
Idempotency AA=A
A A = A.
Identity A=A
AX=A
A = .
AX=X.
Transitivity If A B and B C , then A C.
Involution = A.

Two special properties of set operations are known as the excluded middle axioms and
De Morgans principles. These properties are enumerated here for two sets A and B.
The excluded middle axioms are very important because these are the only set
operations that are not valid for both classical sets and fuzzy sets.

The first, called the axiom of the excluded middle, deals with the union of a set A and
its complement;
A =X
The second, called the axiom of contradiction, represents the intersection of a set A and
its complement.
A =

4. What do you mean by CRISP Relations? Explain with an example max-min

composition relation.

Classical (crisp) relations structures are the relations or structures that represent the
presence or absence of correlation, interaction, or propinquity between the elements of two or
more crisp sets.
There are only two degrees of relationship between elements of the sets in a crisp
relation: the relationships completely related and not related, in a binary sense.
 Fuzzy relations are then developed by allowing the relationship between elements of
two or more sets to take on an infinite number of degrees of relationship between the
extremes of completely related and not related.
Fuzzy relations are to crisp relations as fuzzy sets are to crisp sets; crisp sets and
relations are constrained realizations of fuzzy sets and relations.
Operations, properties, and cardinality of fuzzy relations are Cartesian products and
compositions of fuzzy relations.
Let R be a relation that relates, or maps, elements from universe X to universe Y, and
let S be a relation that relates, or maps, elements from universe Y to universe Z. A useful
question we seek to answer is whether we can find a relation, T, that relate the same
elements in universe X that R contains to the same elements in universe Z that S contains. It
turns out that we can find such a relation using an operation known as composition.
From the Sagittal diagram in Figure, we see that the only path between relation R
and relation S is the two routes that start at x1 and end at z2(i.e., x1 y1 z2 and x1 y3
z2). Hence, we wish to find a relation T that relates the ordered pair (x1,z2), that is, (x1,z2)
T.
In this example, R ={(x1, y1), (x1, y3), (x2, y4)} . S ={(y1, z2), (y3, z2)} .
The max min composition is defined by the set-theoretic and membership function-
theoretic expressions
Uncertainty

In the traditional view of science, uncertainty represents an undesirable state, a state

that must be avoided at all costs.
The situation of uncertainty is avoided with the help of statistical mechanics or
probability theory in scientific research.
Probability theory dominated the mathematics of uncertainty for over five centuries.
The twentieth century saw the first developments of alternatives to probability theory
and to classical Aristotelian logic as paradigms to address more kinds of uncertainty than just
the random kind.
Jan Lukasiewicz developed a multi valued, discrete logic (circa 1930). In the 1960s,
Arthur Dempster developed a theory of evidence, which, for the first time, included an
assessment of ignorance, or the absence of information. In 1965, Lotfi Zadeh introduced his
seminal idea in a continuous-valued logic that he called fuzzy set theory.
In the 1970s, Glenn Shafer extended Dempsters work to produce a complete theory of
evidence dealing with information from more than one source, and Lotfi Zadeh illustrated a
possibility theory resulting from special cases of fuzzy sets.
Later, in the 1980s, other investigators showed a strong relationship between evidence
theory, probability theory, and possibility theory with the use of what was called fuzzy
measures (Klirand Wierman, 1996), and what is now being termed monotone measures.
Uncertainty can be thought of in an epistemological sense as being the inverse of
information.
Information about a particular engineering or scientific problem may be incomplete,
imprecise, fragmentary, unreliable, vague, contradictory, or deficient in some other way (Klir
and Yuan, 1995). When we acquire more and more information about a problem, we become
less and less uncertain about its formulation and solution.