Loneliness - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.

org/wiki/Loneliness

Loneliness
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Loneliness is a complex and usually unpleasant emotional

response to isolation. Loneliness typically includes anxious
feelings about a lack of connection or communication with other
beings, both in the present and extending into the future. As such,
loneliness can be felt even when surrounded by other people. The
causes of loneliness are varied and include social, mental,
emotional, or even physical factors.

Research has shown that loneliness is prevalent throughout society,

including people in marriages, relationships, families, veterans,
and those with successful careers.[1] It has been a long explored
theme in the literature of human beings since classical antiquity.
Loneliness has also been described as social paina psychological
mechanism meant to motivate an individual to seek social Solitude, Jean Jacques Henner
[2]
connections. Loneliness is often defined in terms of one's
connectedness to others, or more specifically as the unpleasant experience that occurs when a
person's network of social relations is deficient in some important way. [3]

Contents
1 Common causes
2 Typology
2.1 Feeling lonely vs. being socially isolated
2.2 Transient vs. chronic loneliness
2.3 Loneliness as a human condition
3 Frequency
4 Effects
4.1 Mental health
4.2 Physical health
4.3 Physiological mechanisms link to poor health
5 Treatments and prevention
6 See also
7 References
8 External links

Common causes

1 of 10 4/20/2017 6:49 PM
Loneliness - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loneliness

People can experience loneliness for many reasons, and many life events may cause it, like the lack
of friendship relations during childhood and adolescence, or the physical absence of meaningful
people around a person. At the same time, loneliness may be a symptom of another social or
psychological problem, such as chronic depression.

Many people experience loneliness for the first time when they are left alone as infants. It is also a
very common, though normally temporary, consequence of a breakup, divorce, or loss of any
important long-term relationship. In these cases, it may stem both from the loss of a specific person
and from the withdrawal from social circles caused by the event or the associated sadness.

The loss of a significant person in one's life will typically initiate a grief response; in this situation,
one might feel lonely, even while in the company of others. Loneliness may also occur after the
birth of a child (often expressed in postpartum depression), after marriage, or following any other
socially disruptive event, such as moving from one's home town into an unfamiliar community,
leading to homesickness. Loneliness can occur within unstable marriages or other close
relationships of a similar nature, in which feelings present may include anger or resentment, or in
which the feeling of love cannot be given or received. Loneliness may represent a dysfunction of
communication, and can also result from places with low population densities in which there are
comparatively few people to interact with. Loneliness can also be seen as a social phenomenon,
capable of spreading like a disease. When one person in a group begins to feel lonely, this feeling
can spread to others, increasing everybody's risk for feelings of loneliness.[4] People can feel lonely
even when they are surrounded by other people.[5]

A twin study found evidence that genetics account for approximately half of the measurable
differences in loneliness among adults, which was similar to the heritability estimates found
previously in children. These genes operate in a similar manner in males and females. The study
found no common environmental contributions to adult loneliness.[6]

Typology
Feeling lonely vs. being socially isolated

There is a clear distinction between feeling lonely and being socially isolated (for example, a
loner). In particular, one way of thinking about loneliness is as a discrepancy between one's
necessary and achieved levels of social interaction,[1] while solitude is simply the lack of contact
with people. Loneliness is therefore a subjective experience; if a person thinks they are lonely, then
they are lonely. People can be lonely while in solitude, or in the middle of a crowd. What makes a
person lonely is the fact that they need more social interaction or a certain type of social interaction
that is not currently available. A person can be in the middle of a party and feel lonely due to not
talking to enough people. Conversely, one can be alone and not feel lonely; even though there is no
one around that person is not lonely because there is no desire for social interaction. There have
also been suggestions that each person has their own sweet spot of social interaction. If a person
gets too little or too much social interaction, this could lead to feelings of loneliness or

2 of 10 4/20/2017 6:49 PM
Loneliness - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loneliness

over-stimulation.[7]

Solitude can have positive effects on individuals. One study found that, although time spent alone
tended to depress a person's mood and increase feelings of loneliness, it also helped to improve
their cognitive state, such as improving concentration. Furthermore, once the alone time was over,
people's moods tended to increase significantly.[8] Solitude is also associated with other positive
growth experiences, religious experiences, and identity building such as solitary quests used in rites
of passages for adolescents.[9]

Loneliness can also play an important role in the creative process. In some people, temporary or
prolonged loneliness can lead to notable artistic and creative expression, for example, as was the
case with poet Emily Dickinson, and numerous musicians. This is not to imply that loneliness itself
ensures this creativity, rather, it may have an influence on the subject matter of the artist and more
likely be present in individuals engaged in creative activities.

Transient vs. chronic loneliness

The other important typology of loneliness focuses on the time perspective.[10] In this respect,
loneliness can be viewed as either transient or chronic. It has also been referred to as state and trait
loneliness.

Transient (state) loneliness is temporary in nature, caused by something in the environment, and is
easily relieved. Chronic (trait) loneliness is more permanent, caused by the person, and is not easily
relieved.[11] For example, when a person is sick and cannot socialize with friends would be a case
of transient loneliness. Once the person got better it would be easy for them to alleviate their
loneliness. A person who feels lonely regardless of if they are at a family gathering, with friends, or
alone is experiencing chronic loneliness. It does not matter what goes on in the surrounding
environment, the experience of loneliness is always there.

Loneliness as a human condition

The existentialist school of thought views loneliness as the essence of being human. Each human
being comes into the world alone, travels through life as a separate person, and ultimately dies
alone. Coping with this, accepting it, and learning how to direct our own lives with some degree of
grace and satisfaction is the human condition.[12]

Some philosophers, such as Sartre, believe in an epistemic loneliness in which loneliness is a

fundamental part of the human condition because of the paradox between people's consciousness
desiring meaning in life and the isolation and nothingness of the universe. Conversely, other
existentialist thinkers argue that human beings might be said to actively engage each other and the
universe as they communicate and create, and loneliness is merely the feeling of being cut off from
this process.

3 of 10 4/20/2017 6:49 PM
Loneliness - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loneliness

Frequency
There are several estimates and indicators of loneliness. It has been estimated that approximately
60 million people in the United States, or 20% of the total population, feel lonely.[2] Another study
found that 12% of Americans have no one with whom to spend free time or to discuss important
matters.[13] Other research suggests that this rate has been increasing over time. The General Social
Survey found that between 1985 and 2004, the number of people the average American discusses
important matters with decreased from three to two. Additionally, the number of Americans with no
one to discuss important matters with tripled[14] (though this particular study may be flawed[15]). In
the UK research by Age UK shows half a million people more than 60 years old spend each day
alone without social interaction and almost half a million more see and speak to no one for 5 or 6
days a week.[16]

Loneliness appears to have intensified in every society in the world as modernization occurs. A
certain amount of this loneliness appears to be related to greater migration, smaller household sizes,
a larger degree of media consumption (all of which, it should be noted, have positive sides as well
in the form of more opportunities, more choice in family size, and better access to information), all
of which relates to social capital.

Within developed nations, loneliness has shown the largest increases among two groups:
seniors[17][18] and people living in low-density suburbs.[19][20] Seniors living in suburban areas are
particularly vulnerable, for as they lose the ability to drive, they often become "stranded" and find it
difficult to maintain interpersonal relationships.[21]

Americans seem to report more loneliness than any other country, though this finding may simply
be an effect of greater research volume. A 2006 study in the American Sociological Review found
that Americans on average had only two close friends in which to confide, which was down from
an average of three in 1985. The percentage of people who noted having no such confidant rose
from 10% to almost 25%, and an additional 19% said they had only a single confidant, often their
spouse, thus raising the risk of serious loneliness if the relationship ended.[22] The modern office
environment has been demonstrated to give rise to loneliness. This can be especially prevalent in
individuals prone to social isolation who can interpret the business focus of co-workers for a
deliberate ignoring of needs.[23]

Whether a correlation exists between Internet usage and loneliness is a subject of controversy, with
some findings showing that Internet users are lonelier[24] and others showing that lonely people
who use the Internet to keep in touch with loved ones (especially seniors) report less loneliness, but
that those trying to make friends online became lonelier. [25] On the other hand, studies in 2002 and
2010 found that "Internet use was found to decrease loneliness and depression significantly, while
perceived social support and self-esteem increased significantly"[26] and that the Internet "has an
enabling and empowering role in people's lives, by increasing their sense of freedom and control,
which has a positive impact on well-being or happiness."[27] The one apparently unequivocal
finding of correlation is that long driving commutes correlate with dramatically higher reported

4 of 10 4/20/2017 6:49 PM
Loneliness - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loneliness

feelings of loneliness (as well as other negative health impacts).[28][29]

Effects
Mental health

Loneliness has been linked with depression, and is thus a risk

factor for suicide.[30] mile Durkheim has described loneliness,
specifically the inability or unwillingness to live for others, i.e.
for friendships or altruistic ideas, as the main reason for what he
called egoistic suicide.[31] In adults, loneliness is a major
precipitant of depression and alcoholism.[32] People who are
socially isolated may report poor sleep quality, and thus have
diminished restorative processes.[33] Loneliness has also been
linked with a Schizoid character type in which one may see the
Loneliness by Hans Thoma
world differently and experience social alienation, described as
(National Museum in Warsaw).
the self in exile.[34]

In children, a lack of social connections is directly linked to several forms of antisocial and
self-destructive behavior, most notably hostile and delinquent behavior. In both children and adults,
loneliness often has a negative impact on learning and memory. Its disruption of sleep patterns can
have a significant impact on the ability to function in everyday life.[30]

Physical health

Chronic loneliness can be a serious, life-threatening health condition. It has been found to be
associated with an increased risk of stroke and cardiovascular disease.[35] Loneliness shows an
increased incidence of high blood pressure, high cholesterol, and obesity.[36]

Loneliness is shown to increase the concentration of cortisol levels in the body.[36] Prolonged, high
cortisol levels can cause anxiety, depression, digestive problems, heart disease, sleep problems, and
weight gain.[37]

Loneliness has been associated with impaired cellular immunity as reflected in lower natural killer
(NK) cell activity and higher antibody titers to the Epstein Barr Virus and human herpes
viruses".[36] Because of impaired cellular immunity, loneliness among young adults shows
vaccines, like the flu vaccine, to be less effective.[36] Data from studies on loneliness and HIV
positive men suggests loneliness increases disease progression.[36]

Physiological mechanisms link to poor health

There are a number of potential physiological mechanisms linking loneliness to poor health

5 of 10 4/20/2017 6:49 PM
Loneliness - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loneliness

outcomes. In 2005, results from the American Framingham Heart Study demonstrated that lonely
men had raised levels of Interleukin 6 (IL-6), a blood chemical linked to heart disease. A 2006
study conducted by the Center for Cognitive and Social Neuroscience at the University of Chicago
found loneliness can add thirty points to a blood pressure reading for adults over the age of fifty.
Another finding, from a survey conducted by John Cacioppo from the University of Chicago, is
that doctors report providing better medical care to patients who have a strong network of family
and friends than they do to patients who are alone. Cacioppo states that loneliness impairs cognition
and willpower, alters DNA transcription in immune cells, and leads over time to high blood
pressure.[2] Lonelier people are more likely to show evidence of viral reactivation than less lonely
people.[38] Lonelier people also have stronger inflammatory responses to acute stress compared
with less lonely people; inflammation is a well known risk factor for age-related diseases.[39]

When someone feels left out of a situation, they feel excluded and one possible side effect is for
their body temperature to decrease. When people feel excluded blood vessels at the periphery of the
body may narrow, preserving core body heat. This class protective mechanism is known as
vasoconstriction.[40]

Treatments and prevention

There are many different ways used to treat loneliness, social isolation, and clinical depression. The
first step that most doctors recommend to patients is therapy. Therapy is a common and effective
way of treating loneliness and is often successful. Short term therapy, the most common form for
lonely or depressed patients, typically occurs over a period of ten to twenty weeks. During therapy,
emphasis is put on understanding the cause of the problem, reversing the negative thoughts,
feelings, and attitudes resulting from the problem, and exploring ways to help the patient feel
connected. Some doctors also recommend group therapy as a means to connect with other sufferers
and establish a support system.[41] Doctors also frequently prescribe anti-depressants to patients as
a stand-alone treatment, or in conjunction with therapy. It may take several attempts before a
suitable anti-depressant medication is found. Some patients may also develop a resistance to a
certain type of medication and need to switch periodically.[42]

Alternative approaches to treating depression are suggested by many doctors. These treatments
include exercise, dieting, hypnosis, electro-shock therapy, acupuncture, and herbs, amongst others.
Many patients find that participating in these activities fully or partially alleviates symptoms related
to depression.[43]

Another treatment for both loneliness and depression is pet therapy, or animal-assisted therapy, as it
is more formally known. Studies and surveys, as well as anecdotal evidence provided by volunteer
and community organizations, indicate that the presence of animal companions such as dogs, cats,
rabbits, and guinea pigs can ease feelings of depression and loneliness among some sufferers.
Beyond the companionship the animal itself provides there may also be increased opportunities for
socializing with other pet owners. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
there are a number of other health benefits associated with pet ownership, including lowered blood

6 of 10 4/20/2017 6:49 PM
Loneliness - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loneliness

pressure and decreased levels of cholesterol and

triglycerides.[44]

Nostalgia has also been found to have a restorative effect,

counteracting loneliness by increasing perceived social
support.[45]

A 1989 study found that the social aspect of religion had a

significant negative association with loneliness among elderly
Paro, a robot pet seal classified as
people. The effect was more consistent than the effect of social
a medical device by U.S.
relationships with family and friends, and the subjective
regulators
concept of religiosity had no significant effect on loneliness.[46]

One study compared the effectiveness of four interventions: improving social skills, enhancing
social support, increasing opportunities for social interaction, addressing abnormal social cognition
(faulty thoughts and patterns of thoughts). The results of the study indicated that all interventions
were effective in reducing loneliness, possibly with the exception of social skill training. Results of
the meta-analysis suggest that correcting maladaptive social cognition offers the best chance of
reducing loneliness.[47]

See also
Autophobia
Eleanor Rigby
Individualism
Interpersonal relationship
Loner
Pit of despair (animal experiments on isolation)
Solitude
Shyness
Social anxiety
Social anxiety disorder
Schizoid personality disorder

References
1. Peplau, L.A.; Perlman, D. (1982). "Perspectives 2. Cacioppo, John; Patrick, William, Loneliness:
on loneliness". In Peplau, Letitia Anne; Human Nature and the Need for Social
Perlman, Daniel. Loneliness: A sourcebook of Connection, New York : W.W. Norton & Co.,
current theory, research and therapy. New 2008. ISBN 978-0-393-06170-3. Science of
York: John Wiley and Sons. pp. 118. Loneliness.com
ISBN 978-0-471-08028-2. (http://www.scienceofloneliness.com)

7 of 10 4/20/2017 6:49 PM
Loneliness - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loneliness

3. Pittman, Matthew; Reich, Brandon. "Social 12. An Existential View of Loneliness

media and loneliness: Why an Instagram (http://www.philosophicalsociety.com/Archives
picture may be worth more than a thousand /An%20Existential%20View%20Of%20Lonelin
Twitter words". Computers in Human Behavior. ess.htm) - Carter, Michele; excerpt from
62: 155167. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2016.03.084. Abiding Loneliness: An Existential Perspective
4. Parker, Pope (1 December 2009). "Why (https://web.archive.org/web/20111007024245
loneliness can be contagious". The New York /http://www.parkridgecenter.org
Times. Retrieved 10 December 2012. /Page437.html), Park Ridge Center, September
5. "Feeling Alone Together: How Loneliness 2000
Spreads". Time.com. 1 December 2009. 13. Christakis, N.A. & Fowler, J.H. (2009).
Retrieved 10 December 2012. Connected: The surprising power of our social
6. Boomsma, Dorret I.; Willemsen, Gonneke; networks and how they shape our lives. New
Dolan, Conor V.; Hawkley, Louise C.; York, NY: Little, Brown and Company.
Cacioppo, John T. (2005). "Genetic and 14. Olds, J. & Schwartz, R.S. (2009). The lonely
Environmental Contributions to Loneliness in American: Drifting apart in the 21st century.
Adults: The Netherlands Twin Register Study". Boston, MA: Beacon Press
Behavior Genetics. 35 (6): 74552. 15. "The 2004 GSS Finding of Shrunken Social
doi:10.1007/s10519-005-6040-8. Networks: An Artifact?". sagepub.com.
PMID 16273322. 16. Half a million older people spend every day
7. Suedfeld, P. (1989). "Past the reflection and alone, poll shows
through the looking-glass: Extending loneliness (https://www.theguardian.com/society/2017/jan
research". In Hojat, M.; Crandall, R. /06/half-a-million-older-people-spend-every-
Loneliness: Theory, research and applications. day-alone-poll-shows) The Guardian
Newbury Park, California: Sage Publications. 17. http://seniorjournal.com/NEWS/Aging
pp. 516. /5-11-21-SeniorsAreLonely.htm
8. Larson, R.; Csikszentmihalyi, M.; Graef, R. 18. http://www.isolatedseniors.ca/
(1982). "Time alone in daily experience: 19. "Isolation and Dissatisfaction in the Suburbs".
Loneliness or renewal?". In Peplau, Letitia Planetizen: The Urban Planning, Design, and
Anne; Perlman, Daniel. Loneliness: A Development Network.
sourcebook of current theory, research and 20. http://www.geog.ubc.ca/~ewyly
therapy. New York: John Wiley and Sons. /u200/suburbia.pdf
pp. 4153. ISBN 978-0-471-08028-2. 21. "Stranded Seniors". governing.com.
9. Suedfeld, P. (1982). "Aloneness as a healing 22. McPherson, M.; Smith-Lovin, L.; Brashears,
experience". In Peplau, Letitia Anne; Perlman, M. E. (2006). "Social Isolation in America:
Daniel. Loneliness: A sourcebook of current Changes in Core Discussion Networks over
theory, research and therapy. New York: John Two Decades". American Sociological Review.
Wiley and Sons. pp. 5467. 71 (3): 35375.
ISBN 978-0-471-08028-2. doi:10.1177/000312240607100301.
10. de Jong-Gierveld, J.; Raadschelders, J. (1982). 23. Wright, Sarah (16 May 2008). Loneliness in the
"Types of loneliness". In Peplau, Letitia Anne; Workplace. VDM Verlag Dr. Mull Ed
Perlman, Daniel. Loneliness: A sourcebook of Beasleyschaft & Co. ISBN 3-639-02734-5.
current theory, research and therapy. New 24. Hughes, Carole (1999). The relationship of use
York: John Wiley and Sons. pp. 10519. of the Internet and loneliness among college
ISBN 978-0-471-08028-2. students (PhD Thesis). Boston College.
11. Duck, S. (1992). Human relations (2nd ed.). OCLC 313894784.
London: Sage Publications.

8 of 10 4/20/2017 6:49 PM
Loneliness - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loneliness

25. Sum, Shima; Mathews, R. Mark; Hughes, Ian; 37. http://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-living

Campbell, Andrew (2008). "Internet Use and /stress-management/in-depth/stress
Loneliness in Older Adults". CyberPsychology /art-20046037
& Behavior. 11 (2): 20811. 38. Jaremka, Lisa M.; Fagundes, Christopher P.;
doi:10.1089/cpb.2007.0010. PMID 18422415. Glaser, Ronald; Bennett, Jeanette M.; Malarkey,
26. Shaw, Lindsay H.; Gant, Larry M. (2002). "In William B.; Kiecolt-Glaser, Janice K. (2013).
Defense of the Internet: The Relationship "Loneliness predicts pain, depression, and
between Internet Communication and fatigue: Understanding the role of immune
Depression, Loneliness, Self-Esteem, and dysregulation". Psychoneuroendocrinology. 38
Perceived Social Support". CyberPsychology & (8): 13107.
Behavior. 5 (2): 15771. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2012.11.016.
doi:10.1089/109493102753770552. PMC 3633610 . PMID 23273678.
PMID 12025883. 39. Jaremka, Lisa M.; Fagundes, Christopher P.;
27. "Is the Internet the Secret to Happiness?". Time. Peng, Juan; Bennett, Jeanette M.; Glaser,
14 May 2010. Ronald; Malarkey, William B.; Kiecolt-Glaser,
28. http://www.slate.com/articles/business Janice K. (2013). "Loneliness Promotes
/moneybox/2011/05 Inflammation During Acute Stress".
/your_commute_is_killing_you.html Psychological Science. 24 (7): 108997.
29. http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2007/04 doi:10.1177/0956797612464059.
/16/070416fa_fact_paumgarten?currentPage=3 PMID 23630220.
30. The Dangers of Loneliness 40. Ijzerman, Hans. "Getting the cold shoulder".
(http://cms.psychologytoday.com/articles The New York Times. Retrieved 1 November
/pto-20030821-000001.html) - Marano, Hara 2012.
Estroff; Psychology Today Thursday 21 August 41. "Psychotherapy". Depression.com. Retrieved
2003 29 March 2008.
31. Shelkova, Polina (2010). "Loneliness". 42. "The Truth About Antidepressants". WebMD.
32. Marano, Hara. "The Dangers of Loneliness". Retrieved 30 March 2008.
Retrieved 10 December 2012. 43. "Alternative treatments for depression".
33. Hawkley, Louise C; Cacioppo, John T (2003). WebMD. Retrieved 30 March 2008.
"Loneliness and pathways to disease". Brain, 44. Health Benefits of Pets (http://www.cdc.gov
Behavior, and Immunity. 17 (1): 98105. /healthypets/health_benefits.htm) (from the
doi:10.1016/S0889-1591(02)00073-9. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
PMID 12615193. Retrieved 14 November 2007.
34. Masterson, James F.; Klein, Ralph (1995). 45. Zhou, Xinyue; Sedikides, Constantine;
Disorders of the Self: Secret Pure Schizoid Wildschut, Tim; Gao, Ding-Guo (2008).
Cluster Disorder. pp. 257. "Klein was Clinical "Counteracting Loneliness: On the Restorative
Director of the Masterson Institute and Function of Nostalgia". Psychological Science.
Assistant Professor of Psychiatry at the 19 (10): 10239.
Columbia University College of Physicians and doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02194.x.
Surgeons, New York" PMID 19000213.
35. "Loneliness and Isolation: Modern Health 46. Johnson, D. P.; Mullins, L. C. (1989).
Risks". The Pfizer Journal. IV (4). 2000. "Religiosity and Loneliness Among the
Archived from the original on 28 January 2006. Elderly". Journal of Applied Gerontology. 8:
36. Cacioppo, J.; Hawkley, L. (2010). "Loneliness 11031. doi:10.1177/073346488900800109.
Matters: A Theorectical and Empirical Review
of Consequences and Mechanisms". Annals of
Behavioral Medicine. 40 (2): 218227.

9 of 10 4/20/2017 6:49 PM
Loneliness - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loneliness

47. Masi, C. M.; Chen, H.-Y.; Hawkley, L. C.; Personality and Social Psychology Review. 15
Cacioppo, J. T. (2010). "A Meta-Analysis of (3): 21966. doi:10.1177/1088868310377394.
Interventions to Reduce Loneliness". PMID 20716644.

External links
Quotations related to Loneliness at Wikiquote Quotations related to Solitude at Wikiquote
The dictionary definition of loneliness at Wiktionary

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Loneliness&oldid=776218326"

Categories: Emotional issues Philosophy of love Social issues Emotions

This page was last modified on 19 April 2017, at 17:43.

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional
terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy.
Wikipedia is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit
organization.

10 of 10 4/20/2017 6:49 PM