Article 1

Fostering creativity through science

education: a case for investigative practical
work
Mavis Haigh
Auckland College of Education, New Zealand. Email: [email protected]

Paper presented at the British Educational Research Association 2003

conference, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, 11-13 September, 2003
Abstract

School leavers who can think creatively are perceived as desirable. Such creativity is recognised as being valuable
for personal, social, technological and economic reasons. Many curriculum and curriculum support documents assert
that creativity can be taught. This paper draws on data collected during a long-term study of students carrying out
investigative practical work in senior Biology classrooms to make a case for engaging in such activity as a way of
fostering personal and collaborative creativity.

Recipe following practical work had become pervasive in a majority of New Zealand senior Biology classrooms in
the late 20th Century. Traditionally, students were not given much opportunity for freedom of thought, nor were they
required to make decisions as to methodology, validity or reliability of data. One of the outcomes of such recipe
following for most students was that they carried out their practical work unthinkingly. Student engagement in
practical work was not seen as particularly efficient as either a means of learning scientific knowledge, learning
about the nature of science, or in encouraging creativity in students. In contrast, many New Zealand students who
were engaged in doing 'research' for Science Fair projects were able to successfully engage in what Jungck has
called the three Ps of science - problem posing, problem solving and peer persuasion. Some questions arose: Could
practical work in the regular science classroom become more openly investigative in nature? If so, would this result
in increased learning of science and about science? Could such an approach encourage creativity in students?

Introduction

There have been many claims made for the central importance of creativity in our
lives with Csikszentmihalyi (1996, p. 1) stating that "when we are engaged in it we
feel that we are living more fully than during the rest of life". As well as the
excitement of the involvement, being creative leaves a product/effect that adds to the
intensity and complexity of future life.

It is claimed that school leavers who can think critically and respond creatively will
more likely be able to meet the challenges of the 21 st century by contributing
positively to the personal, social, technological and economic worlds that they will
inhabit as adults (for example, Welle-strand & Tjeldvoll, 2003). Such an ability is seen
as crucial by writers such as Csikszentmihalyi (1996, p.6) who claims that "our future
is now closely tied to human creativity". This wish for school leavers who can think
creatively is reflected in national curriculum documents throughout the world that
include aims referring to problem solving, creativity, entrepreneurship and innovative
thought. Such curriculum statements assert that creativity can be taught. There is
support for this position from academics and researchers (Murdock, 2003; Runco,
2003). In addition, many organizations working alongside mainstream education
emphasise the importance of preparing students for contribution to the community
that they will live in as adults. The Royal Society for the encouragement of Arts,
Manufactures and Commerce (RSA) promotes a school curriculum that helps "every
young person to develop to the best of his or her ability the competences needed to ...
be able to contribute their creative and other talents to their work, their families and to
society" (Bayliss, 1999, p. 13). Also in the United Kingdom the 1999 report from the
National Advisory Committee on Creative and Cultural Education (NACCCE)
emphasized the importance of creativity, not only for education but also as an
essential component of economic, social and individual development. Because the
NACCCE believe that "creativity can be expressed in collaborative and collective as
well as individual activities, in team work and in organizations, in communities and in
governments" (p. 30) and that creative possibilities and activities are pervasive they
favoured a democratic rather than elitist notion of creativity. This stance is also
supported by groups such as the American Association for Childhood Education
International who assert that the creative process must be recognised as "socially
supported, culturally influenced and collaboratively achieved" (Jalongo, 2003).

Defining creativity

Definitions of creativity usually include notions of personal involvement, novelty and

value. For instance Boden (2001, p. 95) defined creativity as a person's "ability to
come up with new ideas that are surprising yet intelligible, and also valuable in some
way". However, there are different kinds of creativity that should be recognized and
rewarded (Kaufmann, 2003; Sternberg, 2003).

There are two major contrasting views of creativity presented in the creativity
literature. The first refers to that extraordinary, or high, creativity displayed by
geniuses with special gifts, often called 'high' or 'big C creativity' (BCC); the second
with that more ordinary, everyday creativity, 'little c creativity' (LCC), displayed when
an individual exhibits personal agency and self-direction (Craft, 2001, p. 46). LCC is
different from BCC in that it is that kind of creativity that "we all share ... because we
have a mind and can think" (Csikszentmihalyi, 1996, p. 7).
Feldman, Czikszentmihalyi and Gardner (1994) have argued that BCC exists within a
socially constructed system formed from an interaction of three elements. These
elements, shown in Figure 1, are a domain or culture that contains symbolic rules,
a person who brings new ideas into the symbolic domain, and a field of experts who
recognise and validate the innovation. Together these elements form a framework for
the study of high (or BCC) creativity.

Insert Figure 1 here

Similarly, Craft (2001) has proposed a framework for LCC, or, as she alternatively
calls it, possibility thinking. This is also a three-part framework with the three parts
being agents, processes and domains. The agent is the individual engaging in LCC
who, in doing so, will be interacting with another person or an object/procedure. For
Craft the processes of LCC may be intuitive and/or conscious. LCC "also involves
using one's imagination ... [and] considering other possibilities" (p. 55).
The domains that Craft refers to are 'all knowledge, not simply the academic domains,
but all of life" (p. 56).

Proponents of LCC indicate that LCC is a way of coping with basic daily challenges
through use of prior knowledge to inform one's response. It is "determined by the
extent to which the agent is intentionally open to exploring possibilities and is taking
action in the world" (Craft, 2001, p. 59). It encompasses innovation and development.
A conscious intention may be involved, as may knowledge-based intuition. The
innovative act will be at some point along the spectrum of novel to the agent but not
to the wider world to novel to the wider world. LCC involves a moving on, being
open to possibilities and willing to try options. It is likely to involve problem
identification as well as problem solving. LCC is frequently socially and culturally
contextualised.

Writers do not agree as to whether the affective and cognitive aspects of engaging in
the creative act are the same for different domains. Whilst Csikszentmihalyi (1996)
and Craft (2001) have identified commonalities of the creative act and frequently
found characteristics of people who engage successfully in BCC and LCC
respectively, other writers have suggested that being creative may differ in the
domains of, for example, arts and science. Medawar (1967) claimed that for a scientist
being creative is different because the scientific enterprise is a much more personal
and individual activity than many creative activities in the arts:

No one questions the inspirational character of musical or poetic invention because

the delight and exaltation that go with it somehow communicate themselves to others.
Something travels: we're carried away. But science is not an art form in this sense;
scientific discovery is a private event and the delight that accompanies it, or the
despair of finding it illusory, does not travel. One scientist may get great satisfaction
form another's work and admire it deeply; it may give him great intellectual pleasure;
but it gives him no sense of participation in the discovery, it does not carry him away,
and his appreciation of it does not depend on his being carried away. If it were
otherwise the inspirational origin of scientific discovery would never have been in
doubt. (pp. 172-173)

Creativity and the scientific enterprise

However, even though Medawar (1967) noted differences between the process and the
effects of creativity in the sciences and the arts, he clearly did perceive of the
scientific enterprise as a creative endeavour:

... 'having the idea' [in science] resembles other forms of inspirational activity in the
circumstances that favour it, the suddenness with which it comes about, the wholeness
of the conception it embodies and the fact that the mental events which lead up to it
happen below the surface of the mind. (p. 173)

This view is still current. McComas (1998, p. 58), for example, states that "close
inspection will reveal that scientists approach and solve problems with imagination
and creativity, prior knowledge and perseverance" and asserts that this is similar for
all effective problem solvers. Csikszentmihalyi (1996) noted that the work of
scientists is creative and asserted that the "excitement of ... the scientist in the lab
comes close to the ideal fulfilment we all hope to get from life" (p. 2). The NACCCE
report (1999) also indicated that it saw the scientific domain as a possibility for
creative thought, and that children could engage in this creativity as well as scientists:

The processes of scientific analysis and investigation can involve the highest levels of
creativity and insight. Discovery in science is not always strictly logical. It often
results from unexpected leaps of imagination: from sudden moments of illumination
in which the scientist grasps the answer to a problem and then sets our to verify it by
calculation. This can be true for children setting out as for experience scientists. (p.
35)

If science is a creative endeavour then our students should be able to recognize this.
Being able to "explain the value of imagination and creativity in doing science" is
therefore seen as an important outcome of science education (Clough, 1998, p. 214).

Creativity and school science curricula

That the scientific enterprise is a creative endeavour is also emphasised in many

school science curriculum statements. McComas, Clough and Almazroa (1998)
analysed eight international science curriculum documents and found that in six of
these the notion that scientists are creative was indicated in the Nature of Science
learning objectives. Whilst they accurately indicated that this notion was not present
in the learning outcomes of the New Zealand Science Curriculum statement (Ministry
of Education, 1993), one of the curriculum statements that they analysed, there are
statements regarding the creative nature of science indicated in this document:

Science involves people investigating the living, physical, material ...components of

their environment and making sense of them in logical and creative ways. Using
systematic and creative processes of investigation, scientists produce a constantly
evolving body of knowledge ... (Ministry of Education, 1993, p.7)

There is therefore a strong intention in the New Zealand Science Curriculum

statement (and the senior science statements that link to the scientific inquiry strand of
the core document) that students should participate in science education both as a
creative activity and in order to understand that there is a place for creative conjecture
in the construction of scientific knowledge. This approach is supported by researchers
in science education who contend that it is important that explicit teaching regarding
the creative aspects of science knowIedge construction occurs when students carry out
investigations as part of their science learning (for example, Lederman, 1998).

The importance of addressing creativity in schools in response to the need for

creatively thinking individuals in the wider community is also indicated by the
burgeoning academic literature addressing notions and pedagogies of creativity. For
example, articles in the July, 2003 special issue of the Scandinavian Journal of
Educational Research address the various concepts of creativity and the pedagogies
that stimulate creative thinking in students (Kaufmann; Murdock; Runco).

In this paper I will draw on data collected during a longitudinal study of students
carrying out open investigative practical work in senior biology classrooms (Haigh,
1998) to make a case for engaging in such activity as a means of fostering personal
and collaborative creativity. I will be analyzing the behaviours and perceptions of
senior school biology students and their teachers during investigative practical work.
The students' and their teachers' understandings of investigative practical work as a
means of encouraging students to engage creatively will also be considered. Since the
findings from this research project both support and challenge the inclusion of open
investigative work in senior biology programmes as a means of fostering creativity, I
will indicate some of the implications for teachers of biology that arise from the
findings of the study.

Context of study
Recipe following practical work had become pervasive in a majority of New Zealand
senior Biology classrooms in the late 20th century. Traditionally, students were not
given much opportunity for freedom of thought, nor were they required to make
decisions as to investigative design, validity or reliability of data. One of the outcomes
of such recipe following for most students was they carried out their practical work
unthinkingly. Student engagement in practical work was not seen as particularly
efficient as either a means of learning scientific knowledge, learning about the nature
of science or in encouraging creativity in students. In contrast, many New Zealand
students who were engaged in doing 'research' for Science fair projects were able to
successfully engage in what Jungck (1985) has called the three Ps of science -
problem posing, problem solving and peer persuasion. Some questions arose: Could
practical work in the regular classroom become more openly investigative in nature?
If so, would this result in increased learning of science and about science? Could such
an approach encourage critical thinking and creativity in students?

Research design

In this study the research data were gathered, analysed and discussed with the
participants within an interpretivist paradigm framed by a social constructivist
epistemology (Neuman, 2000; Robottom & Hart, 1993). An interpretivist
methodology also allowed the complexity of the many classrooms studied to be
reflected in the findings (Brown, 1992; Sarantakos, 1998). In addition, it had the
potential to encompass, acknowledge and elucidate the personally subjective nature of
a teaching and learning context. Both quantitative and qualitative modes of enquiry
were undertaken in order to gain a more complete picture of the changing confidence
and abilities of the students and the change of classroom interactions across the period
of the research project.

The researcher worked with the teachers and students following a process of
negotiated intervention (Simon & Jones, 1992) where the researcher and the teachers
together determined the direction of the research project, an approach commensurate
with action research (Cardno, 2003; Carr & Kemmis, 1986). The teachers who
participated in the first and second phase of this research project were involved in a
collaborative manner (Johnston, 1990) in defining the problem, selecting a design,
selecting a sample, selecting measures, analysing the data and in interpreting and
applying findings.

There were three main phases in the data gathering for this study. The first two phases
of this research project were conducted in a large, urban, co-educational state
secondary school. All four of the school's biology teachers participated in the initial
introduction of investigative practical work during one school year and one of these
teachers worked with additionally developed material for a second year. A teaching
package relating to the introduction of partially open investigative practical work was
developed during the second year. Teachers from 22 other secondary schools from
around New Zealand participated in the third phase trial of this material. In all, 27
teachers and more than 400 students were involved in the study. The students were all
Year 12 Biology students. In New Zealand Year 12 is the penultimate year of
secondary schooling and most of the students would have been aged 15 - 17 at the
start of their Year 12 study.

Nature of the classroom intervention

The intervention involved the introduction of a way of presenting practical work to

students in the Year 12 Biology programme that was different from the approach
normally taken. The introduced practical work required students to carry out
investigative problem solving. A degree of openness was introduced as students were
required to design their own investigations in order to come up with answers to a
given problem. The investigations were linked to content teaching and the students
were expected to apply their prior declarative and procedural understandings to these
new situations. The intervention investigations were linked with different parts of the
Year 12 Biology programme. - some with the ecology section, some with the cell form
and function section and others with the plant form and function section. An example
of the type of investigation that the students were carrying out is one used during the
ecology section called "Green streams!". The students were asked to develop and test
ways of finding answers to the problems posed in the investigative worksheet. In this
way they were, initially at least, being asked to be reactively creative (Kaufman,
2003).

Insert Figure 2 here

All investigations were presented to the students in the following manner. The
students were first asked, as individuals working alone, to consider how they might go
about solving the problem that was posed by the worksheet and to design an
investigation that they thought would help them answer the questions posed. Then, in
groups of three or four, the students were asked to discuss their approaches. They
were asked to be prepared to defend their own method and to challenge others', in
order to develop a group approach to solving the problem. Thus the students were
being asked to think of other possibilities and to evaluate these. After the students had
carried out the investigation they were asked to evaluate their procedures and findings
and to indicate how valid and reliable their findings might be and what they had
learned.

Findings
The findings will be described from two points of view. Firstly the students' and
teachers' responses to the introduction of an investigative approach will be indicated 1.
Following this the students' and teachers' responses to investigation as an activity that
fosters creative endeavour will be presented.

Student response to an investigative approach in biology practical work

The majority of the students indicated a positive response to investigative practical

work in Biology. They perceived that engagement in practical work had increased
their learning in the cognitive, skill and affective domains. They indicated that they
had learned both declarative and procedural concepts and they recognised the value of
practical work as a means of both personalising and visualising their learning. A small
number of the students also recognised that they were more metacognitively aware of
their own learning as a result of their involvement in investigative practical work. In
addition, they indicated that they found such work enjoyable, relevant and realistic
and felt that the personal involvement helped them gain confidence. Some students
accepted the opportunity for personal involvement, self-direction and responsibility
very quickly, whilst others needed support and encouragement from their teachers for
much longer periods of time. The students perceived the role of the teacher as critical.

Teacher response to an investigative approach in biology practical work

The participating teachers reported affective and cognitive gains for their students
from open investigative practical work in the Year 12 Biology programme. Student
skills gains identified by the teachers included working co-operatively, creatively,
independently, critically and honestly. Students were perceived to be thinking more
deeply about their work and to be more cognitively engaged in their practical work.
The teachers perceived that this increase in student engagement positively influenced
their students' declarative and procedural conceptual understanding. The teachers also
indicated that students who were engaged in investigative practical work were happy
to take more personal responsibility for their actions and became more resilient and
determined when faced with 'failure'. Involvement in investigating was seen to
encourage flexibility of thinking in the students.

However, in order to maximise these cognitive gains the teachers had to provide
support for their students as they investigated. They perceived that they needed to
offer reassurance and encouragement and to present their students with cues to past
knowledge and experience in order to help them make appropriate connections.
Similarly, they often found it necessary to stage the introduction of degrees of
openness, scaffolding the students as they took their initial tentative investigative
steps. The teachers needed to teach, actively and openly, how to carry out
investigations. Strategies used included analysis of structured experimental methods,
having trial runs, providing planning sheets, providing 'questions to think about',
offering alternatives to think about, by being constructively critical, by initiating
considerable discussion and by allowing repeated attempts (Haigh, 2001).

Creativity linked findings

Creativity is often linked to possibility thinking and problem solving (Craft, 2001). In
this project problem solving was perceived as an inherent part of the investigative
practical work process (see Figure 3). Practical work was defined widely and
inclusively and did not necessarily indicate controlled experimentation, though many
of the contextual situations presented to the students did require this. The problems
could have a large canvas or be of decreasing dimension as students refined or
focussed the investigation.

Insert Figure 3 here

The students first encountered a general problem area. They then designed an
investigation to help them solve this specific problem. In turn, problem solving may
be part of the investigation, for example the students may have needed to solve a
problem regarding the development of specialised equipment or a particular chemical
test, to help them complete the investigation. The students were required to answer a
number of 'what', 'how', 'how many', 'when', 'where' and 'why' questions (Haigh &
Hubbard, 1997). Thus, at each stage of problem solving the students were engaged in
possibility thinking and making decisions. Worksheets were designed to scaffold the
students through these challenges.2

Many of the students and teachers in the research project made considerable reference
to creating knowledge and being creative when they were asked to describe their
response to the introduction of open investigative practical work in a senior biology
programme. Student and teachers' references will be addressed in turn.

Student responses linked to aspects of creativity

The students' responses highlighted an understanding of the creative nature of

scientific processes, for example:

It makes you draw conclusions, helps you to understand your mistakes and create new
experiments.

A small number focussed on the challenge and mystery associated with open
investigative practical work:
[Yes, I would like to have done more investigation because] it is fun finding out what
the problem was by ourselves instead of already knowing it before you start the
experiment.

[Yes, I would like to have done more investigation because] it makes you think about
all the possible outcomes you can create. It gives us a challenge!

The students were also very aware of the need for each student to be actively and
individually engaged in thinking through the given situation so that they could
contribute ideas and make decisions. One previously reluctant learner identified this
for himself very clearly one day when very unselfconsciously he indicated first to his
teacher, and later to the researcher:

Miss, Miss, I'm thinking, I'm thinking!

During the third phase of the research one group of students reported an incident
indicating that they could demonstrate agency and take the initiative during their
biology lessons. After following an open investigative programme for the first half of
the year they were presented with a carefully detailed experiment from their textbook.
When asked how they responded they explained that they read the investigation
through, thought that they could improve it and so made changes to the design before
carrying out the practical work:

[Researcher: You felt that you were able to do that?]

Student: Yes, it was much more fun than following the instructions. It can be boring
you know [following instructions].

As they reported this incident to the researcher it was clear that they did not consider
that they had done anything very surprising. They claimed that they felt more
responsibility for carrying out the investigation carefully if they had planned it
themselves and that they learnt more when this was the case.

Teacher responses linked to aspects of creativity

The teachers engaged in the research project strongly endorsed open investigative
practical work as a means of enhancing students' creativity:

I would carry out a similar programme in future years because it is one of the few
subjects at school where students can think for themselves and be creative in their
ideas.
They also emphasised the role that teachers play in encouraging students to think in
ways that are wider, more creative and different from that they are used to. However,
less frequently mentioned was this way of working as means of increasing their
students' understanding of the role of creativity within the scientific enterprise.

The teachers indicated that as their students carried out a number of similar
investigations the students became both more creative in what they planned and
worked more co-operatively (Graves and Graves, 1990), a skill that had not
necessarily been part of the students' previous repertoire, for example:

[Open investigating] allows originality and creativity. Initially individually, and then
another skill that it develops, which I think is important as well, is the working in
groups and communicating and co-ordinating activities in the group.

The teachers perceived that when working in a situation that encouraged individual
creative input the students also gained work independence and learnt to evaluate their
work more critically and honestly. They felt that the students approached investigative
work very positively and many previously reluctant workers were quick to become
involved when required to individually contribute to the direction of the work.
However, a number of the teachers reported that some students did have difficulty
making the adjustment to a situation that required them to think for themselves:

A small group can't make the adjustment and don't achieve a lot over the year. Many
do learn that they must 'think for themselves' if they wish to succeed at open
investigative work.

More than 30% of the teachers reported that most students' attitudes and approaches to
their study did change over the year, for example:

I am not sure that they were aware of any change themselves - they gained some
confidence in group work (co-operative model), formulating hypotheses ... The
evaluations helped them accept that they were in charge and they often expressed
satisfaction.

[The students] found that they were more actively involved in the thinking process and
planning process in practical work ... They found that they had to analyse their own
data and present criticisms.

However, the teachers did have some concerns regarding the introduction of
contextually-situated open investigations into biology programmes. They queried
whether contextually situated problems might have made identifying the biology
concepts more difficult for the students. One indicated that she preferred to think that
the students were more creative in their thinking in these situations but she had not put
that to the test:

I don't know. I mean I haven't really assessed [the gains accruing from placing
investigations into contextual situations]. I suppose I would like to think that it's given
them an element of lateral thinking ability. I haven't tested that.

On the other hand, this teacher had also noticed that when students were carrying out
other practical work that required them to follow a series of set instructions they did
not engage closely with the task.

The teachers also indicated that some tensions arose for them as teachers of biology
when they worked with their students doing open investigative practical work. These
tensions were linked with the ability of their students to cope with this new way of
learning, with externally imposed assessment regimes, and with the availability of
resources (time, equipment and ideas). The teachers found that some of their students
required considerable help before they could function efficiently as investigators. A
tension arose for the teachers between giving cues to students and their wish that the
students would be creative in their approach, for example:

I think the idea really is to get them to think for themselves. Because if you spoon
feed, you say you are going to need five test tubes and ten beakers, what are we doing
it for?

I try to keep direct information to a minimum. Often they will ask me a question and I
simply look at them and they will then come up with the answer. And I say, good,
away you go. So they have thought of it. But I think it's maybe a confidence thing, in
some cases. ... I think the whole system would fall apart if we gave them too many
cues ... it would just become teacher directed again, wouldn't it?

Some judicious cueing however was seen as a means of increasing students' creativity
since a lack of understanding of suitable practical techniques may limit the students'
ideas during the planning stages of an investigation.

Another major concern repeatedly stated by these teachers was a perceived tension
between teaching biology to enhance creativity thinking and the necessity to prepare
their students for internal and external examinations that emphasise theoretical
understanding and recall. For example, in response to an observation from a colleague
that their school's emphasis on examinations had produced students who were not
very creative but instead were 'desperate for the right answers' one teacher
commented:
In an ideal world we would produce scientists and I have got this terrible dilemma,
you know, do you produce a scientist who can cope with tertiary education, or do you
produce a pupil who gets a great mark in bursary? You know, its a terrible position to
be in. It would be lovely to be able to teach everything in an open-ended manner.

One teacher noted that when the students were spending longer doing practical work
they had less class time for learning biology content knowledge. However, she valued
the investigative approach sufficiently to say that she felt that adjustments to the
programme were necessary:

[Being involved with this project] provided a new way of providing experiences to
challenge and involve students. And reinforced my own gut feeling that it is
the experiences that students have that most influence the way they think. I committed
continuing time to some of the investigations because the students became so involved
- it seemed to me a more constructive use of time than 'getting on with the
syllabus.' ... I recognise the tension between 'process' and the 'body of knowledge' the
students need to acquire. I come back to the conviction that my students learned more,
and increased their confidence in their ability to 'do biology' when making their own
decisions.

Availability of equipment was also a significant issue for the teachers. There was
concern over the lack of readily available equipment for the students to use when
early notification of need could not always be given to the school's science technician.
In an attempt to address this the teachers found that they tended to cue the students to
use certain equipment that they had already ensured would be available in the
laboratory. But they admitted that this was problematic for them, since clearly
identifying possible equipment could act to restrict creativity of design. Additionally,
clearly indicating to the students that it may be better to use alternative equipment was
seen as possibly casting doubts as to feasibility or appropriateness of the students'
design, thus possibility inhibiting students' confidence in their decision-making.

Another limitation related to the design of contextually situated open investigative

situations for their students. Teacher creativity and time were required to develop
investigative contexts that were of appropriate standard, curriculum linked and
relatively comparable with regard to the demand on the students.

For a number of the teachers, as well as impacting on the students' ways of working in
biology classrooms, introducing open investigative work into their biology
programme challenged their view of themselves as biology teachers. They had to
consider strategies other than the didactic approaches they were comfortable with.
They were being challenged to be more "unusual" in their approaches. One, in answer
to a question regarding the teacher's role in the student change process said:
I think that having these scenarios available meant that I put them in open situations
and pushed them into thinking/planning for themselves. I found it quite sobering that
this felt like an exciting new idea ... to me!

Discussion

Introducing open investigative practical work to biology programmes presented

challenges to the teachers and the students. It was also rewarding for both the teachers
and the students. Such an approach to learning and teaching in biology can enhance
creative thinking of students within the LCC framework described above (Craft,
2001). It is also likely to enhance and/or challenge the creative thinking of the teacher.

The introduction of open investigative practical work to Year 12 Biology programmes

was expected to be multi-dimensional, involving the use of new materials and/or new
teaching approaches and possibly requiring an alteration of beliefs (Fullan, 1991) on
the part of the students and their teachers. The findings from this the research study
indicate that such a change was required of both the teacher and the student body
when an investigative practical work was introduced. It is clear that both the students
and the teachers are learners in this context. They are working together to construct
knowledge of biology (new to the students at least) and new knowledge about
learning and teaching in school classrooms. Roles previously understood, either
implicitly or explicitly, by the participants had to be renegotiated so that teachers and
students had common expectations of learning in biology. Intended goals had to
become more visible in the classroom. If this had not taken place then changes in
expressed goals would not have necessarily resulted in changes in the classroom
(Penick and Bonnstetter, 1993).

It is generally accepted that "creative thinking can not happen unless the thinker
already possesses knowledge of a rich and/or structured kind ... [including] a
culturally accepted style of thinking" (Boden, 2001, pp. 95-96). For both the student
and the teacher working with this new style of practical work there is a challenge to
understand and adopt a new cultural style of thinking. The cultures concerned are the
culture of biological inquiry and the culture of the classroom. Working in this way
requires understanding of a very complex interactive system and there is considerable
demand on the teacher as the experienced member of the learning dyad:

The teacher who lacks the relevant knowledge, who thinks in rigidly prescribed
fashions, who cannot try to make their intuitions explicit and who lacks the self-
confidence to say 'Let's try this!' or 'I don't know' will feel helpless and threatened if
asked to teach" in a manner to enhance creativity in their students. (Boden, 2001, p.
102).
Boden (2001) outlined three types of creativity - combinational (combining old ideas
in new ways), exploratory (being creative within the rules of the domain) and
transformational (permitting changes to the rules of the conceptual space). Within the
frame of this research project linked with investigative practical work the students and
the teachers were engaging with all three of these types of creative endeavour.

The students were required to make associations of many different kinds between
different aspects of their previous knowledge of biology concepts - both declarative
and procedural. In addition to the structured support of the prepared worksheets that
the students were provided with, their teachers had to help them to make these
associations. The teachers learnt how to cue their students and to identify how much
help individual students required.

For a person to be creative within exploratory and transformational frames he/she

needs to have knowledge of some culturally accepted style of thinking. Exploratory
thinking "investigates the possibilities inherent in the space" (Boden, 2001, p. 96). It
involves a consideration of what the rules of the culture enable you to do. In the
context of this project, the knowledge may have been about a particular aspect of
biology, for example, knowledge of aquatic ecological systems. It may have also been
knowledge about the generally acceptable ways of working in a school laboratory - an
understanding of the culture of the school laboratory. Transformational creativity
"involves some significant alteration of one or more of the rules of the current
conceptual space" (Boden, p. 96). One has to know the rules in the first place and it
was this that presented difficulties for a small number of the students in this study.
Others, however, felt confident enough to challenge usual classroom practice. The role
of the teacher and his/her attitude to change/difference is also significant here and
some of the teachers in this study found it easier to adapt their approaches and give
students more control over the activities they were doing than others.

Conclusion

If engaging with information, resources and ideas is a central feature of the creative
endeavour, then encouraging students to carry out investigative practical work in
biology in the manner described in this paper is a means of enhancing their creativity,
at least of the LCC type. There were many opportunities for socially supported and
collaborative possibility thinking and decision making.

In addition, the system that the students were working within is arguably similar in
structure to the three-part system proposed by Feldman, Czikszentmihalyi and
Gardner (1994) for BCC. Within the system there are individuals (or groups of
individuals) developing ideas (novel to them at least), within a cultural domain (of
biology and of school), that are validated by 'experts' (their peers or their teacher).
However, careful planning and thoughtful oversight of the students' engagement in the
activities by the teacher are crucial if students are to gain maximum opportunities for
critical thinking and creative response from this involvement.

Whilst the findings from this project support the contention that useful and positive
creativity learning results from engagement in investigative practical work in school
science and biology programmes there are aspects that need further exploration. Some
possible questions might be: Can we nurture both individual and collaborative
creative activity through science education? How context specific are possibility-
thinking skills? How might we increase the opportunities for open investigative
practical work within the context of a rigidly assessed senior school system? Do
science teachers need to be creative themselves if they are to enhance creativity
thinking in their students? How might the creativity thinking of science teachers be
encouraged and nurtured?

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Notes:
1. More detailed accounts of the general findings from this research project can be found in Haigh (1997, 1998, 1999, 2001).

2. Planning worksheets and evaluation sheets to guide the students were developed during the research project. Details can be found in Haigh (1998) or on request from the author.
Figure 1: The Big C creative enterprise system

Figure 2: The "Green streams!" investigation

 Figure 3: Model for relationship between investigating, problem solving and practical work.

This document was added to the Education-line database on 21 October 2003

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