CECW-EG Department of the Army EM 1110-2-1914

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

Engineer Washington, DC 20314-1000 29 May 1992
Manual
1110-2-1914
Engineering and Design

DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, AND

MAINTENANCE OF RELIEF WELLS

Distribution Restriction Statement

Approved for public release; distribution is
unlimited.
 EM 1110-2-1914
29 MaY 1992

US Army Corps
of Engineers

ENGINEERING AND DESIGN

Design, Construction, and

Maintenance of Relief Wells

ENGINEER MANUAL
 DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY EM 1110-2-1914
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
CECW-EG Washington, D.C. 20314-1000

Engineer Manual
No. 1110-2-1914 29 May 1992

Engineering and Design

DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, AND MAINTENANCE OF RELIEF WELLS

1. Purpose. This manual provides guidance and information on the design, construction, and mainte-
nance of pressure relief wells.

2. Applicability. The provisions of this manual are applicable to all HQUSACE/OCE elements, major
subordinate commands, districts, laboratories, and field operating activities (FOA) having responsibility
for seepage analysis and control for dams, levees, and hydraulic structures.

FOR THE COMMANDER:

Colonel, Corps of Engineers

Chief of Staff
 Department of The Army EM 1110-2-1914
US Army Corps of Engineers
CECW-EG Washington, DC 20314-1000

Engineer Manual 29 May 1992

No. 1110-2-1914

Engineering and Design

DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, AND MAINTENANCE OF RELIEF WELLS

Table of Contents

Subject Paragraph Page Subject Paragraph Page

Chapter 1
Introduction
Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1 1-1 Infinite Line Sink and Infinite Barrier . . 4-7 4-3
Objective and Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2 1-1 Complex Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . 4-8 4-3
Applicability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-3 1-1 Partially Penetrating Wells . . . . . . . . . . 4-9 4-3
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-4 1-1 Effective Well Penetration . . . . . . . . . . 4-10 4-6
General Consideration . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5 1-1
Chapter 5
Chapter 2 Analysis of Multiple Well Systems
Relief Well Applications General Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1 5-1
Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1 2-1 Empirical Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-2 5-1
Use of Wells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2 2-1 Circular Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-3 5-2
History of Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3 2-1 Wells Adjacent to Infinite Line
Other Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-4 2-3 Source with Impervious Top
Stratum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4 5-2
Chapter 3 Infinite Line of Wells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-5 5-2
Basic Considerations Top Stratum Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-6 5-2
Foundation Investigations . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1 3-1 Infinite Line of Wells, Impervious
Foundation Permeability . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2 3-1 Top Stratum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-7 5-2
Anisotropic Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-3 3-1 Well Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-8 5-8
Chemical Composition of Infinite Line of Wells, Impervious
Ground Waters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4 3-1 Top Stratum of Finite Length . . . . . . . 5-9 5-8
Seepage Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5 3-1 Infinite Line of Wells, Impervious
Allowable Heads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-6 3-6 Top Stratum Extending to
Blocked Exit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-10 5-8
Chapter 4 Infinite Line of Wells, Discharge
Analysis of Single Wells Below Ground Surface . . . . . . . . . . . 5-11 5-8
Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1 4-1 Infinite Line of Wells, No Top . . . . . . . 5-12 5-12
Circular Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2 4-1 Finite Well Lines, Infinite Line
Noncircular Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3 4-1 Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-13 5-9
Infinite Line Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4 4-1
Finite Line Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5 4-3 Chapter 6
Infinite Line Source and Infinite Well Design
Line Sink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-6 4-3 Description of Well . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1 6-1

i
EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

Subject Paragraph Page Subject Paragraph Page

Materials for Wells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2 6-1 Chapter 9

Selection of Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3 6-1 Relief Well Outlets
Well Screen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4 6-2 General Requirements ... . . . . . . . . . . 9-1 9-1
Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5 6-2 Check Valves . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . 9-2 9-1
Selection of Screen Opening Size . . . . . 6-6 6-3 Outlet Protection . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . 9-3 9-1
Well Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-7 6-4 Plastic Sleeves . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . 9-4 9-1
Effective Well Radius . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8 6-5
Chapter 10
Chapter 7 Inspection Maintenance and Evaluation
Design of Well Systems General Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1 10-1
General Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1 7-1 Periodic Inspections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-2 10-1
Design Heads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2 7-1 Pumping Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-3 10-1
Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3 7-1 Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-4 10-1
Design Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4 7-1 Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-5 10-2
Infinite Line of Wells, Impervious
Top Stratum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-5 7-1 Chapter 11
Infinite Line of Wells, Wells in Ditch . . 7-6 7-2 Malfunctioning of Wells and
Infinite Line of Wells with Impervious Reduction in Efficiency
Top Stratum of Finite Length . . . . . . 7-7 7-2 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-1 11-1
Computer Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-8 7-4 Mechanical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-2 11-1
Head Distribution for Finite Line of Chemical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3 11-1
Relief Wells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-9 7-4 Biological Incrustation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4 11-2
Well Systems at Outlet Works and
Spillways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-10 7-5 Chapter 12
Well Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-11 7-5 Well Rehabilitation
Seepage Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-12 7-5 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-1 12-1
Mechanical Contamination . . . . . . . . . . 12-2 12-1
Chapter 8 Chemical Treatment with
Relief Well Installation Polyphosphates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3 12-1
General Requirements . . ... ..... . . . 8-1 8-1 Chemical Incrustations . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4 12-1
Standard Rotary Method ... ..... . . . 8-2 8-1 Bacterial Incrustation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-5 12-1
Reverse-Rotary Method . ... ..... . . . 8-3 8-1 Recommended Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . 12-6 12-2
Bailing and Casing . . . . . ... ..... . . . 8-4 8-3 Specialized Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-6 12-3
Bucket Augers . . . . . . . ... ..... . . . 8-5 8-3
Disinfection . . . . . . . . . ... ..... . . . 8-6 8-3 Appendices
Installation of well Screen and Riser
Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... ..... . . . 8-7 8-5 Appendix A
Filter Placement . . . . . . ... ..... . . . 8-8 8-5 References
Development . . . . . . . . . ... ..... . . . 8-9 8-6
Chemical Development . ... ..... . . . 8-10 8-6 Appendix B
Mechanical Development ... ..... . . . 8-11 8-6 Mathematical Analysis of Underseepage
Sand Infiltration . . . . . . ... ..... . . . 8-12 8-8 and Substratum Pressures
Testing of Relief Wells . ... ..... . . . 8-13 8-8
Backfilling of Well . . . . ... ..... . . . 8-14 8-9 Appendix C
Sterilization . . . . . . . . . . ... ..... . . . 8-15 8-9 List of Symbols
Records . . . . . . . . . . . . ... ..... . . . 8-16 8-9
Abandoned Wells . . . . . . ... ..... . . . 8-17 8-9

ii
 EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

Chapter 1 1-4. References

Introduction
Appendix A contains a list of required and related publi-
cations pertaining to this manual. Unless otherwise
noted, all references are available on interlibrary loan
1-1. Purpose from the Research Library, ATTN: CEWES-IM-MI-R,
US Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station,
This manual provides guidance and information on the 3909 Halls Ferry Road, Vicksburg, MS 39180-6199.
design, construction, and maintenance of pressure relief
wells. 1-5. General Considerations
1-2. Objective and Scope All water retention structures are subject to seepage
through their foundations and abutments. In many cases
The objective of this manual is to provide guidance and the seepage may result in excess hydrostatic pressures or
information on the design, construction, and mainte- uplift pressures beneath elements of the structure or
nance of pressure relief wells installed for the purpose landward strata. Relief wells are often installed to
of relieving subsurface hydrostatic pressures which may relieve these pressures which might otherwise endanger
develop within the pervious foundations of dams, levees, the safety of the structure. Relief wells, in essence, are
and hydraulic structures. nothing more than controlled artificial springs that
reduce pressures to safe values and prevent the removal
1-3. Applicability of soil via piping or internal erosion. The proper
design, installation, and maintenance of relief wells are
The provisions of this manual are applicable to all essential elements in assuring their effectiveness and the
HQUSACE/OCE elements, major subordinate com- integrity of the protected structure.
mands, districts, laboratories, and field operating
activities (FOA) having responsibility for seepage
analysis and control for dams, levees, and hydraulic
structures.

1-1
 EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

Chapter 2 of their discharge must be provided (Turnbull and

Relief Well Applications Mansur 1954). Adequate systems of piezometers and
flow measuring devices must be installed in accordance
with ER-1110-2-110 and EM 1110-2-1908 to provide
continuing information on the performance of relief well
2-1. Description systems.
Pressure relief wells as used in this manual refer to 2-3. History of Use
vertically installed wells consisting of a well screen
surrounded by a filter material designed to prevent a. The first use of relief wells to prevent excessive
inwash of foundation materials into the well. A typical uplift pressures at a dam was by the US Army Engineer
relief well is shown in Figure 2-1. The wells, including District, Omaha, when 21 wells were installed from July
screen and riser pipe, have inside diameters generally 1942 to September 1943 as remedial seepage control at
between 6 and 18 inches (in.), sized to accommodate the Fort Peck Dam, Montana (Middlebrooks 1948). The
maximum design flow without excessive head loss. foundation consisted of an impervious stratum of clay
Well screens generally consist of wire-wrapped steel or overlaying pervious sand and gravel. Although steel
plastic pipe, slotted or perforated steel or plastic pipe. sheet piles were driven to provide a complete cutoff,
Slotted wood stave well screens, which are no longer leakage occurred and high hydrostatic pressure devel-
manufactured, are found in many existing installations. oped at the downstream toe with an excess head of
Details of various well screens are given in Chapter 6. 45 feet (ft) above ground surface. The high pressure
was first observed in piezometers installed in the
2-2. Use of Wells pervious foundation. The first surface evidence of the
high hydrostatic pressure came in the form of discharge
a. Relief wells are used extensively to relieve from an old well casing that had been left in place.
excess hydrostatic pressures in pervious foundation Since it was important that the installation be made as
strata overlain by more impervious top strata, conditions quickly as possible, 4- and 6-in. well casings, available
which often exist landward of levees and downstream of at the site, were slotted with a cutting torch and installed
dams and various hydraulic structures. Placing the well on 250-ft centers in the pervious stratum with solid
outlets in below-surface trenches or collector pipes (riser) pipes extending to the surface. The excess head
serves to dry up seepage areas downstream of levees at the downstream toe was reduced from 45 to 5 ft, and
and dams. Relief wells are often used in combination the total flow from all wells averaged about 4500 gal-
with other underseepage control measures, such as lons per minute (gpm). However, the steel screens
upstream blankets, downstream seepage berms, and corroded severely and in 1946 were replaced by
grouting. Horizontal stratification of pervious founda- 17 permanent wells consisting of 8-in.-ID slotted red-
tion deposits is not a major deterrent to the use of relief wood pipe at a spacing of 125 ft.
wells, as each of the more pervious foundation strata
can be penetrated. The use of relief wells for levee b. The first use of relief wells in the original design
systems is discussed in EM 1110-2-1913; their use for of a dam was by the US Army Engineer District,
earth and rock-fill dams is discussed in Vicksburg, when wells were installed during construc-
EM 1110-2-2300. tion of Arkabutla Dam, Mississippi, completed in
June 1943. The foundation consisted of approximately
b. Relief wells provide a flexible control measure as 30 ft of relatively impervious loess underlain by a
the systems can be easily expanded if the initial system pervious stratum of sand and gravel. The relief wells
is not adequate. Also, the discharge of existing wells were installed to provide an added measure of safety
can be increased by pumping if the need arises. A with respect to uplift and piping along the downstream
relief well system requires a minimum of additional real toe of the embankment. The relief wells consisted of
estate as compared with other seepage control measures 2-in. brass wellpoint screens 15 ft long attached to 2-in.
such as berms. However, wells require periodic mainte- galvanized wrought iron riser pipes spaced at 25-ft inter-
nance and frequently suffer loss in efficiency with time vals located along a line 100 ft upstream of the down-
for a variety of reasons such as clogging of well screens stream toe of the dam. The tops of the well screens
by intrusions of muddy surface waters, bacterial growth, were installed about 10 ft below the bottom of the im-
or carbonate incrustation. Relief wells may increase the pervious top stratum. The well efficiency decreased
amount of underseepage which must be handled at the over a 12-year period by about 25 percent primarily
ground surface, and means for collecting and disposing

2-1
EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

METAL WELL GUARD

PLASTIC STAND PIPE
--.---
' 1-IN. WIRE MESH
'
z z
0
I I
..;-
RUBBER GASKET
N
CAST IRON TENON

BACKFILL
VARIABLE-TO TOP OF----\
MINIMUM WATER TABLE __J _ _,- SAND BACKFILL

RISER PIPE
OF GRAVEL FILTER

2-FT.
TOP OF WELL SCREEN

-BLANK PIPE
THROUGH VERY
FINE SAND OR SILT STRATA
"9'o.
0 0
'0 0
'3 ~ ,.-9

o--~ --- GRAVEL FILTER

0 ao 4-IN. MIN.
0
.. c:c
0 .o
' . , (]:
,<;1 0'
o a
.J<v,

. a
0
PERFORATED OR
SLOTTED SCREEN

6-lN. MIN.

Figure 2-1. Typical relief well (after EM 1110-2-1913)

2-2
 EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

as a result of clogging of the screens. However, the and other hydraulic structures. In addition, wells have
piezometric head along the downstream toe of the dam, been employed to control excess hydrostatic pressures in
including observations made at a time when the spillway outlet channels including areas immediately downstream
was in operation, has not been more than 1 ft above the of navigation locks. Often wells incorporated in struc-
excess head of 9 ft was observed (US Army Engineer tures have been located so that they discharge through
Waterways Experiment Station 1958). Since these early collector pipes and manholes which are not readily
installations, relief wells have been used at many levee accessible to cleaning and maintenance unless the struc-
locations to control excessive uplift pressures and piping tures are dewatered. An example of a relief well system
through the foundation. incorporated into a toe drainage system for a dam is
shown in Figure 2-2.
2-4. Other Applications

Pressure relief wells have also been used extensively

beneath the stilling basins of spillways, outlet structures,

2-3
2-4

29 May 92
EM 1110-2-1914
t CHA~NEL
I ~ TOE TRENCH ~ ~EUEF WEllS
5'-1)'' SELECT I
5' -0" SELECT PERVIOUS rill ' L
PERVIOUS FILL 1 ~- 4'-0"

@ORIGINAL GROUND
/
/
. ~EXCAVATION, PERVIOUS
COMMON
::::JI
1.5
TOE TRENCH INV.
6'-0'' PROCESSED DRAIN
2'-D"
3'-0"

15'-0"

Figure 2-2. The drainaga systQfl'l wJih relief wei& at Cochiti Dam
 EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

Chapter 3 given in EM 1110-2-1901. The vertical permeability of

Basic Considerations individual strata can be estimated from laboratory tests
on undisturbed samples or determined from field pump-
ing tests (Mansur and Dietrich 1965).

3-1. Foundation Investigations 3-3. Anisotropic Conditions

The design of a relief well system should be preceded Analytical methods for computing seepage through a
by thorough field and geologic studies conducted in permeable deposit are based on the assumption that the
accordance with EM 1110-1-1804. Sufficient borings permeability of the deposit is isotropic. However,
should be made to define seepage entrance and exit natural soil deposits are stratified to some degree, and
conditions, the depth, thickness, and physical the average permeability parallel to the planes of stratifi-
characteristics of the pervious strata, as well as the cation is greater than the permeability perpendicular to
thickness and physical characteristics of the top stratum these planes. Thus, the soil deposit actually possesses
in upstream or riverside areas and downstream or anisotropic permeability. To make a mathematical
landside areas. See Appendix B for further details. analysis of the seepage through an anisotropic deposit,
Particular attention should be given to the presence of the dimensions of the deposit must be transformed so
buried channels and pervious abutments which could that the permeability is isotropic. Each permeable
impact on underseepage estimates. An example of a stratum of the deposit must be separately transformed
generalized soil profile for relief well design along a into isotropic conditions. In general, the simplest pro-
levee reach is shown in Figure 3-1. The influence of cedure is to transform the vertical dimensions with the
surficial deposits on levee underseepage and on relief horizontal dimensions unchanged.
well design may be noted in Figure 3-2. High exit
gradients and concentrations of seepage which may 3-4. Chemical Composition of Ground Waters
occur adjacent to clay-filled swales or channels will
often govern the locations of individual relief wells. Some ground waters are highly corrosive with respect to
Where soil conditions vary along the proposed line of elements of a pressure relief well or may contain
wells, the profile can be divided into a series of design dissolved minerals or carbonates which could in time
reaches as shown in Figure 3-3. Additional borings, as cause clogging and reduced efficiency of the well. The
subsequently described, should be made after completion chemical composition of the ground water, including
of final design to ensure that a boring is located within river or reservoir supply waters, should be determined
5 ft of each final well location. In general, samples as part of the design investigation. Sampling, sample
should be taken at intervals not greater than 3 ft or at preservation, and chemical analyses of ground water is
changes of soil strata, whichever occur first. covered in handbooks (Moser and Huibregtse 1976,
Environmental Protection Agency 1976). Indications of
3-2. Foundation Permeability corrosive and incrusting waters are given in Table 3-1.
The chemical composition of ground water is a major
Preliminary estimates of foundation permeability can be factor in the chemical and biological contamination of
made from laboratory tests or correlations with grain well screens and filter packs as described in Chapter 11.
size as described in EM 1110-2-1901. Because sam-
pling operations do not necessarily indicate the relative 3-5. Seepage Analysis
perviousness of foundations containing large amounts of
gravelly materials, field pumping tests are recommended The determination of whether relief wells are needed is
to verify the foundation permeability on all projects based on a seepage analysis which also provides the
where the use of pressure relief wells is being consid- conditions for design of the relief well system. The
ered. The test well should fully penetrate the pervious seepage analysis defines the entrance and exit conditions
aquifer, and a well flow meter should be used to deter- and provides an estimate of substratum pressures which
mine the variations in horizontal permeability with may exist under project flood conditions. On completed
depth. An example of data derived from a field pump- structures where piezometric data are available, seepage
ing test conducted in this manner is shown in Fig- analyses are required to permit extrapolation of the data
ure 3-4. Field pumping test procedures for steady state to the project flood conditions. The mathematical
and transient flow conditions are given in Appendix III analysis of underseepage and substratum pressures is
to TM 5-818-5. Additional information, including pro- contained in Appendix B.
cedures for field permeability tests in fractured rock, is

3-1
3-2

29 May 92
EM 1110-2-1914
LEVEE STATIONING
800+00 81 0+00 820+00

400 RELIEF WELLS 400

NET GRADE OF LEVEE :::: EL 410.8
76 77 81

380 380

..J 360 111

-'
Ill 360
::;: :l!i

,.: t-
w
w w
w "-
"- .PERVIOUS
z 340 340 :z
z %
0 0
i=
<(
';;:
> >
UJ
w 320 320 ..J
-'
w UJ

300 - 300

280

Figure 3-1. Soli profile, relief w<~ll, and piezometer i"stallation data
 LEGEND
SYMBOLS fOR TOPSTRATUI.t THICKNESS
SYMBOL THICKNESS
JZ] 12 fEET OR MORE
D 8 TO 12 FEET
I :. />.1 5 TO 8 FEET
D 5 FEET OR LESS

.....
I I
L.t.L..U
SEEPAGE AREA
SAND BOILS

EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92
FI!JUI'G 3-2. Sellpage thrwgh flOin1 bar deposits
3-3
3-4

29 May 92
EM 1110-2-1914
DESIGN DESIGN
1- REACH 1 REACH 2
_,
-':11 r IW
-:11~11 )'41=-
DAM /

;:.,TLET
STRUCTURE
"'

ASSUMED IMPERVIOUS
VALLEY FLOOR
Zb = THICKNESS OF TOP STRATUM MATERIAL
D = THICKNESS OF SUBSTRATUM

F;gure 3-3. Profile of typical design reaches lor relief well analysis
 EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

WELL 60~1t1G
WfC-i05 WB-105
p: cs
370~--~---+--~----+----~--~----+----+---~
"-
.. ;:::
W'~"' 360~--+---~--J---+--~--+-~--+---~
~""~
V.f. 1.&1
~~ I I
h\o 32 1.1 ~I"
~ -~ 350 1-::=:j::::;-t-t---'
r%. ~ i
'.! f- AVERAGE PERM ABILITY
I - - - OF SAND STRATA
@o.tz .PK-\2
340
,fl_ D K,r3000 10 -4CM/SEC -1-----J

z
0

~
;;;1~:: ~ :f--o_T~~~:::;_-_,++-,--+--+--1-----l--1------l
fJ\0.37
\.!.)
Me
~
E<i PK-13
c
;; 0 l
5 :s1o H--+--~'----+----4----+----+--~----+---
~ ~
o.F ~ ~3oo5p~1===~=i==~==~--r--1---t--~
@0.04 I.IC G
@0.30 lift. 290 1--lp;:;;---t--+---+===~>, ,--+---- -----i---1
(fj)0.76 t0<::>
~
qj)1.20
280 ~-p
@0.43 G
- cs 270~--~---+--~----+-+-+---4----+----+---1
@)0.30 ~

@) 0.75 id"
r'% i
zso ,.0,----+--' --+--+-1--+--+--+-
@o.so-{<i o PK-14
1
~ i
z5o t=:::==t=::::__l__L__l_ _l__j
~ 0 zooo ooo sooo aooo
~ COEFFICIENT OF PERMEABILITY < 10 -eM PER SE:C

NOTE:
l. WEU. FC-105 LOCATEO AT LEVEE STA 301+2'>. FT. CHARTRES l.EVEE DISTRICT.
APPROX. 45 MilES SOUTH OF ST. LOUIS.
2. PERMEABILITIES SHOWN BY BAR GRAPH WERE COOIPUTEp .FROM WEU. t.IHER AND
PIEZOMETER READINGS
.3~ PERMEABIUTIES SHOWN BY 0 AfiD D WERE OEiiAIN0 FROM LABORATORY TSTS
ON BORING AND WELL DRIU.ING SAMI!'t.ES, RESPECTIVELY, .O,HC WERE ADN~T<:O
TO THE EST1MA1ED NATURAL VOID RATIO BY THE !'ORMULA Kn=KL < ( n;et) 2
AND CORRECTED TO T=20C.
4. FtGUR5 TO THE LEn OF BORINGS ARE 0 l O IN U!.l, OBTAINED fROM BORING
SAMPLES: THOSE TO RIGHT OF BORINC fROI' WELL ORILLING SAMPLI;S.
5. CIRClED NUMBERS REFER TO GRAll! SIZE CURVES.

Figure 3-4. Coefficient of permeability and effective gain size of individual sand strata - Well FC-105

3-5
EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

Table 3-1
Indicators of Corrosive and Incrusting Watersa
Indicators of Corrosive Water Indicators of Incrusting Water

1. A pH less than 7 1. A pH greater than 7

2. Dissolved oxygen in excess of 2 ppmb 2. Total iron (Fe) in excess of 2 ppm

3. Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) in excess of 1 ppm 3. Total manganese (MN) in excess of

detected by a rotten egg odor a 1 ppm in conjunction with a high
pH and the presence of oxygen

4. Total dissolved solids in excess of 4. Total carbonate hardness in excess

1,000 ppm indicates an ability to of 300 ppm
conduct electric current great enough to
cause serious electrolytic corrosion

5. Carbon dioxide (CO2) in excess of 50 ppm

6. Chlorides (CL) in excess of 500 ppm

Notes:
a. From TM 5-818-5.
b. ppm = parts per million.

3-6. Allowable Heads The factor of safety with respect to uplift or heave
normally should be at least 1.5. In addition to providing
Whenever a structure underlain by pervious deposits is a minimum factor of safety with respect to uplift of
subjected to a differential hydrostatic head, seepage heave (Condition a), relief wells may also be designed
enters the pervious strata, creating an artesian pressure to ensure that piezometric heads in downstream areas
beneath the structure and downstream areas which could are below ground surface, thereby preventing upward
result in piping or failure by heave of the downstream seepage from emerging beneath the downstream top
top stratum. Pressure relief wells are designed to pre- stratum (Condition b). The latter condition usually
vent piping and provide an adequate factor of safety, applies to dams where visible seepage in downstream
FS, with respect to uplift or heave. For this purpose, areas is undesirable and can be prevented by installing
reduce the net head beneath the top stratum in the wells with outlets in ditches or collector pipes along
downstream areas to an allowable value, ha. The equa- the embankment toe. The two conditions are illustrated
tion for FS is in Figure 3-5.

io /w Zt a. Condition a. The allowable net head (ha) under

FS (3-1)
ic ha / Zt wha the top stratum of the downstream toe for this condition
is given by
ic
ha Zt (3-2)
where FS

ic = critical upward hydraulic gradient, the ratio of

the submerged weight of soil, , to the unit b. Condition b. The maximum downstream
weight of water, w piezometric surface is defined by hd which is the
difference between this surface and the elevation of the
Zt = transformed thickness of downstream top well outlets corrected for well losses as subsequently
stratum (see Appendix B) described. For wells discharging into a collector ditch,

3-6
 EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

Figure 3-5. Determination of allowable heads in downstream toe area

the factor of safety with respect to uplift below the

bottom of the collector ditch should be at lease 1.5. ic
ha Zc (3-3)
The allowable net head under the top stratum below the FS
bottom of the collector ditch for this condition is given
by the equation
where Zc is the transformed thickness of the downstream
top stratum below the bottom of the collector ditch.

3-7
 EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

Chapter 4 hw = head at well

Analysis of Single Wells
rw = radius of well

4-3. Noncircular Source

4-1. Assumptions
If geologic or terrain conditions indicate a noncircular
Analytical procedures for determining well flows and source of seepage, the radius of influence, R, may be
head distributions adjacent to single artesian relief wells replaced by Ac, defined as an effective average of the
are presented below. By definition, relief wells signify distance from the well center to the external boundary.
artesian conditions, and equations for artesian flow are For a rectangular boundary of sides 2a and 2b, the value
applicable. In cases where wells are pumped, and gravity of Ac is
flow conditions exist, procedures for well analysis can be
found in TM 5-818-5. It is assumed in the following
analyses that all seepage flow is laminar or viscous, i.e.,
Darcys Law is applicable. It is also assumed that steady 4ab (4-3)
Ac
state conditions prevail; the rate of seepage and rate of
head reduction have reached equilibrium and are not time
dependent. Unless otherwise indicated, the well is
assumed to penetrate the full thickness of the aquifer.
4-4. Infinite Line Source
4-2. Circular Source Conditions may arise where the flow to the well origi-
nates from the bank of a river or canal reservoir or
Certain geologic or terrain conditions may require the another body of water. In such cases, the bank or
assumption of a circular source of seepage. The formulas shoreline may act as an infinite line source of seepage. If
for a fully penetrating well located at the center of a leakage occurs through the top stratum, the effective dis-
circular source (see Figure 4-1) are tance to the infinite line source of seepage should be
Qw computed as discussed in Appendix B. The solutions for
R (4-1)
hp H ln a single well adjacent to an infinite line source (see
2kD r Figure 4-1) is determined using the method of images
described by Muskat (1937), Todd (1980), and EM 1110-
2-1901. The formulas are
Qw R Qw
hw H ln (4-2) r (4-4)
2kD rw hp H ln
2kD r

where Qw 2S
hw H ln (4-5)
2kD rw
hp = head at point p between the well and the
source

H = head at the source where

Qw = well discharge r = distance from point p to image well
k, (kf) = coefficient of permeability of pervious r = distance from point p to real well
substratum
S = distance from real well to line source
D = thickness of pervious foundation
A solution for hp is also presented in terms of x and y
R = radius of circular source (radius of coordinates in Figure 4-1 (Equation 4-6).
influence)

4-1
EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

h ~
Ow
H - 211kD In
.!l_ (4-1)
p r

Ow R
h ~ H - 21fk0 In (4-2)
w
'w

CIRCULAR SOURCE

=
h
p
~H--w-ln-
Q
2wk0
r'
r
(4-4)

(
h ~H-~InZS (4-5)
y
w 2nkD 'w
X WELL IN TERMS OF X AND Y COORD!NA TES

s s
(4-6)
IMAGE WELL REAL WELL

= INFINITE UNE SOURCE

h = H- ~In 4S
(c 2 -r;f + 4S
2 2
c l2
w 21Tk0
2
c - r; +}(c 2
- r~J + 4ic J (4-7)

[=I ,~LL
:L~
FOR WELL ON PERPENDICULAR BISECTOR, r0 = S

h
w
= H - ~
21Tk0
In
25
r:\G+ )
f' 2
(4-8)
FINITE LINE SOURCE w ~

Figure 4-1. Summary of equations for artesian flow to single well

4-2
 EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

4-5. Finite Line Source the aquifer thickness is irregular and three-dimensional
analyses are required. The use of flow nets for the design
In cases where the length of the source of seepage is of well systems is described by Mansur and Kaufman
relatively small compared to its distance from the well, (1962). Methods for conducting three-dimensional electri-
the source may be considered as a finite line source. The cal analogy tests are described by Duncan (1963), Banks
solution for a single well adjacent to a finite line source (1965), and McAnear and Trahan (1972).
was developed by Muskat (1937). The formulas, which
are available only in terms of head at the well, are shown 4-9. Partially Penetrating Wells
in Figure 4-1 (Equations 4-7 and 4-8).
The previous equations are based on the assumption that
4-6. Infinite Line Source and Infinite Line Sink the well fully penetrates the aquifer. For practical rea-
sons, it is often necessary to use wells which only par-
As discussed in Appendix B, a semipervious landside tially penetrate the aquifer. The ratio of flow from a
blanket can be replaced by a totally impervious top partially penetrating artesian well to that for a fully pene-
stratum and a theoretical line sink at an appropriate trating well at the same drawdown is
equivalent distance from the well. The theoretical line
sink, parallel to the infinite line source, is referred to as
an infinite line sink. A solution, based also on the Qwp
Gp (4-13)
method of images, considering one of the infinite line Qw
sources as a sink, was developed by Barron (1948) and is
shown in Figure 4-2.

4-7. Infinite Line source and Infinite Barrier or

The method of images is an extremely powerful tool for

developing solutions to wells for various boundary 2kD(H hw)Gp
Qwp GpQw
conditions. Solutions for various boundary conditions R (4-14)
including barriers are presented by Ferris, Knowles, ln
rw
Brown, and Stellman (1962), Freeze and Cherry (1976),
and Todd (1980). For example, a typical problem would
be to calculate the discharge or heads for a single artesian
well located between a river denoted by an infinite line where
source and a barrier such as a buried channel or rock
bluff. In this case, the image well for the river would Qwp = flow from partially penetrating well
have a second image well with respect to the rock bluff
which in turn would have an image with respect to the Gp = flow correction factor for partially
river and so on. A similar progression of image wells penetrating well
would be needed for the impermeable barrier (see
EM 1110-2-1901). The image wells extend to infinity; An approximate value of Gp can be obtained from the
however in practice, it is only necessary to include pairs following equation developed by Kozeny (1933):
of image wells closest to the real well because others
have a negligible influence on the drawdown. A solution
for this case was presented by Barron (1982) and is
(4-15)
shown in Figure 4-3. W rw w
Gp 1 7 cos
D 2w 2D
4-8. Complex Boundary Conditions

Oftentimes, geologic factors impose conditions which are

difficult to simulate using circular or line sources and where W/D is well penetration expressed as a decimal.
barriers. In such cases, flow net analyses or electrical An alternate equation developed by Muskat (1937)
analogy tests may be used to advantage especially when assuming a constant flow per unit length of well screen is

4-3
4-4

29 May 92
EM 1110-2-1914
= =
P(x, Y)
"' "
'--

I ---------~
y
_.aw
'"0
"":::>0
X

s
WELL
0
x3
"'z
i7> r/././>-:/// / / / / / / /
"<;;"-'\
v 'V
-
V///././///:1
"'
-
I I
"'z "":)z I s II x3 I
"'z
-::; iil
I k II 1..,
I D I ;<;
I I ---'
I
:
/ //
= = I x.,
PLAN SECTION

hp ~
H
S + x

s
3 - x
+ y3 -
Qw
47rkD
In [ '""'
cosh 5 +
'
ny
+
rry
- cos
'3
- CQ$
rr(x+S)
s
rr(x -
s + '3
+ '3
S) ] (4-9)

'3

4ITk0 (H - H
s )
+ '3 s
Q
w
~

In .
~
2 2
[2(S + ,) ( 1- cos 5 ns
+ ~
2 2
j (4-10)
n 'w AFTER BARRON (1948)
.

Figure 4-2. Dl'awdow~ tor well betw""'n lnlinim liN> sourco and do-stroam sink
 = =

s
y
X
p(x, y)

WELL
0
:
I
I
D k
- BARRIER

s Ls
w 0<: SECTION
(.)

"'
::J
"'ii?0<:
0 L <
(11 ID 2 2
w w Q(SIN !12'. COSH !!!.. + SIN rrS) + (COS ~ SINH.!!!)
z z hp;H ___w_ ln--~2~l_____2~L~----~2L~----~2~L~,--~2~L-- ( 4-11)
:::; ::l 4rrkD 2 2
(SIN.!!.! COSH !!:L - SIN rrS) + (COS rrx SINH!!. )
2L 2l . 2L 2L 2L

2 2
0 (SIN rrS COSH rrZLrw + SIN 1rS ) + (COS rrS SINH rrrw)
= PLAN
= hw= H- ...::JL In __...,.:2)>.L___-=.!~---2~L,__~.-----22:!::L'---~2"'-L-- ( 4-12)
4rrkD rrs 1T S 2 S 2
(SIN - L COSH _!:ff- SIN:!;.__) + (COS 1!._ SINH 1rrw)
2 2L 2L 2L 2L

EM 1110-2-1914
Figure 4-3. Drawdown f<>r well batween infinite line scurce and inf.,ite barrier

29 May 92
4-5
EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

length of well screen to total thickness of aquifer. To

R determine the required length
__ of well screen W to achieve
ln
rw (4- an effective penetration W in a stratified aquifer, the
Gp procedure shown in Figure 4-5 can be used. It is
D 16) assumed that the individual strata are anisotropic and each
2 ln 4D G(T) ln
4D
2w rw R
stratum is transformed into an isotropic stratum in
accordance with the following equation:

where G(T) is a function of W/D and approximate values kh

from Harr (1962) are given in Table 4-1. d d (4-17)
kv

Table 4-1 where

Partially Penetrating Well Function, G(T)

W/D G(T) d = transformed vertical dimension

0.1 6.4 d = actual vertical dimension

0.2 5.0
0.3 4.3 kh = permeability in the horizontal direction
0.4 3.5
0.5 2.9
0.6 2.4 kv = permeability in the vertical direction
0.7 1.9
0.8 1.3 The horizontal dimension of the problem would remain
0.9 0.7
unchanged in this transformation. The permeability of the
1.0 0.0
transformed stratum to be used in all equations for flow
or drawdown is as follows:
Values of Gp based on the above values for a typical well
(rw = 1.0 ft) with a radius of 1,000 ft are plotted in
Figure 4-4. An empirical method for calculating the head k khkv (4-18)
at any point for partially penetrating wells is described by
Warriner and Banks (1977). Limitations of empirical
formulas for determining flows from partially penetrating
wells are discussed in TM 5-818-5. where k is the transformed coefficient of permeability.

4-10. Effective Well Penetration

In a stratified aquifer, the effective well penetration

usually differs from that computed from the ratio of the

4-6
 EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

a_
<:.::><:.::>
z
t= ~ 0 .B
...: -'
o::W
t--3:
w
Z<!>
Wz
"- -
1-
>-<-
...JO::
- ' 1- 0.6 -
...:w
- z
t-w
~a..
"->-
-'
::,;_,
0=>
E..._
.._ o.4-
3:0
01- NOTE: CURVES ARE VALID
~~ FOR R =
1000 FT AND
.._t--
oo
AND r =
1.0 H
w
0 1- 0.2
;:::-'
<C-'
a::W
3:

OL-------~---------L--------L-------~--------'
0 20 40 60 80 100
WELL PENETRATION, W/D IN PERCENT

AFTER HARR (1962)

Figure 4-4. Flow to partially penetrating well with circular source

4-7
EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

d2

d3
d4
dj : kv1 t khl (r
Iw
I
i
0
-lFI !l

dl1l_
//W

ACTUAl SECTION TRANSFORMED SECTION

Actual wen penetration ~ W

Effective well penetration = W
Actual well penetration in percent = W[D x 100
Effective well penelralion in pen::ent = W/D x 100

1 Transform each layer into an isotropic layer of thickness d and penneabilily k

(4-17) (4-18)

2. Calculate thickness of the 8-qufvalent homogeneous, isotroplc acquifer, 6

m-n ""'"
D : L <imi<Hm L dmlf<vm !4-19)
m-1 m-1

n "' number of strata, numbered from top to bottom

3. Calculate the elfective p!lrmaabilily of the transformed aquifer, k,

m-n

ke =
,.,
E dni<Hm
(4-20)
mn
E
m1
dmlkvnr

4. Celculata tile eflective weD screen penetration into the transformed aquifer, WID
w w w
Ec dk E dk E dkH
w
D
- m-n
. 0
= 0
m-n (4-21)
D ke
E
m1
dm km E rikH
m-1

5. Determirw actual well pBnetratlon required to achieve a given effective wen penetration by succasstu# trials.

Figure 4-5. Determination of actual and effective well penetrations

4-8
 EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

Chapter 5

Analysis of Multiple Well Systems
hwj H1
1 Q ln Rj
2kD wj rwj
(5-3)
i n 1
R
5-1. General Equations Qwi ln i
i 1 ri , j
In most applications, a system of pressure relief wells in
various arrays is required for the relief of substratum
pressures or reduction of ground-water levels. In such where
cases, analyses must be made to determine the number
and spacing of wells to meet these requirements. The Qwj = flow from well j
head at any point p produced by a system of fully
penetrating artesian wells was first determined by Rj = radius of influence of well j
Forcheimer (1914). His general equation as later
modified by Dachler (1936) is rwj = effective well radius of well j

ri,j = distance from each well to well j

R The other symbols are as defined previously.

1
hp H1 Qw1 ln 1 Equations 5-1 and 5-3 as well as subsequent equations
2kD r1
(5-1) for multiple well systems are based on the principle of
R2 R superposition. Thus, the head at a given well in a
Qw2 ln . . . . . Qwn ln n system of wells is equal to that resulting from this well
r2 rn
flowing as if no other wells were present minus the
head reduction caused at the well due to flow from the
remaining wells. In most applications, the radius of
influence is large compared to the distance between
or wells and can be considered as constant. When wells
are pumped as in a dewatering system, the values of
i n
Ri
1 (5-2) Qwi are known (or assumed). However, when n wells
hp H1 Qwi ln
2kD i 1 ri are used for pressure relief where they flow under
artesian head conditions, the flow from each well must
be computed taking into account the discharge elevation
of each well. The procedure requires the solution of n
where simultaneous equations to determine individual well
flows.
H = gross head on system
5-2. Empirical Method
n = number of wells in group
An empirical method developed by Warriner and Banks
Qwi = discharge from ith well (1977) using the results of electrical analogy studies by
Duncan (1963) and Banks (1965) can be used to deter-
Ri = radius of influence of ith well mine the head at any point within a random array of
fully or partially penetrating wells. The method,
ri = distance from ith well to point at which head is described in EM 1110-2-1901, is also valid for
computed arbitrarily shaped source boundaries. A FORTRAN
computer code is provided by Warriner and Banks
The head, hwj, at any well, e.g. well j, in a system of n (1977).
wells is determined from the equation

5-1
EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

5-3. Circular Source d. The boundaries at the ends of the system are
impervious, normal to the line of the wells, and at a
a. General case. The general equations for a group distance equal to one-half the well spacing beyond the
of fully penetrating wells subject to seepage from a end of the well system. For the above conditions, the
circular source with radius R are shown in Figure 5-1. flow to each well and the pressure distribution around
It is assumed that the radius R is large with respect to each well are uniform for all wells along the line.
the distances between wells and that the flows from Therefore, there is no flow across planes centered
each well are equal. As indicated previously in the case between wells and normal to the line, hence no overall
of variable well discharges, the procedure requires the longitudinal component of the flow exists anywhere in
solution of n simultaneous to solve for individual well the system. The term infinite is applied to such a sys-
flows. tem because it may be analyzed mathematically by
considering an infinite number of wells; the actual num-
b. Circular array of wells. A special case consists ber of wells in the system may be from one to infinity.
of a circular array of n wells equally spaced along the
circumference of a circle of radius rc, the center of 5-6. Top Stratum Conditions
which is also the center of a circular source of seepage
of radius R. The general equations are shown in The permeability and lateral extent of the top stratum
Figure 5-2. landward of an infinite line of wells can have a
pronounced effect on the performance of the well sys-
c. Other well arrays. For other multiple-well sys- tem. The assumption of a completely impervious top
tems within a circular source, see Muskat (1937), Banks stratum extending landward to infinity is a convenient
(1963), and TM 5-818-5. assumption for which theoretical solutions are available.
However, this condition is rarely realized in practice. A
5-4. Wells Adjacent to Infinite Line Source with more general condition occurs when the impervious top
Impervious Top Stratum stratum extends landward a finite distance terminating at
a line sink. This condition is also applicable with
Where wells are located adjacent to a source which can respect to results at the well line to the case of a
be approximated as an infinite line source and the semipervious top stratum which can be converted to an
pervious stratum is overlain by an impervious top equivalent length of impervious top stratum using appro-
stratum extending landward to a great distance, a solu- priate blanket formulas. The two conditions are illus-
tion for heads and well flows is obtained using the trated in Figure 5-4 together with assumed head distri-
method of images. The equations are shown in Fig- butions with and without relief wells including the
ure 5-3 for the case of (a) equal well discharges and effects of well losses. Calculation of the corrected net
(b) variable well discharges. As noted previously, head on the well system, h, should also take into consid-
case (b) requires the solution of n simultaneous equa- eration any extension of the well riser above tailwater
tions to determine individual well flows. elevation. A third condition occurs when the pervious
substratum is blocked at some point landward of the
5-5. Infinite Line of Wells well line. Theoretical solutions for the three conditions
follow.
An infinite line of wells refers to a system of wells that
conforms approximately to the following idealized 5-7. Infinite Line of Wells, Impervious Top
conditions: Stratum

a. The wells are equally spaced and identical in The head midway between wells and the well flows for
dimensions. the case of an impervious top stratum extending land-
ward a great distance (L3 = ) may be calculated using
b. The pervious stratum is of uniform depth and the method of multiple images (after Muskat 1937,
permeability along the entire length of the system. Middlebrooks and Jervis 1947). Solutions are shown in
Figure 5-5 for the case of no well losses. Equa-
c. The effective source of flow and the effective tions 5-14 through 5-17 are applicable to both fully
landside exit or block, if present, are parallel to the line penetrating and partially penetrating wells. The latter
of the wells. make use of the so called well factors, a and m.

5-2
 EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

CIRCULAR SOURC[

'3
H1
WEll. 1
'2 3
"
2 II II II h,
I
11 II II PERVIOUS
SUBSTRATUM

R .I
PLAN srCTION

Th& hea<l at Po!ot P io:

hp - H1 - ....,;,.
~1uu.1
(ow1 In rR Dw2 In
1
!!. . . 0.., !!.)
r2
In
rn
(54)

or

i .. n
- , E (55)
~i-1

(56)
Owi In R)
f;

If all wruls have tha same tadius, and discharglil at ths sams elevation, hw, then-ths WlilU discharye~ are
equal and given by:

(5-7).

Figure 5-1. Random array of fully penetrating wells with a circular source

5-3
EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

Figure 5-2. Circular array of fully penetrating artesian wells with a circular source

5-4
 EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

INfiNITE LINE SOURCE JNF'INITE UNE SOURCE

' ( j )
2' I'
a...___ 0-._ 2

------- r' r,

-- r'
'
p r,
0

IMAGE WELLS REAL WELLS

A. For e'fJal weH discharges

(5-11)

(5-12)

B. For variable well discharges

'
f
(5-13)
Qwiln..!..
r;

whera
ri ""' distance from Point P to roof W~i I
rj = distance from Point P 10 image Well I
'i = distance from Well j to real WeH i
r~ = distance from WeU j to image Well ~
J

Figure 5-3. Multiple wells adjacent to infinite line source - general case

5-5
EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

HEAD WITHOIJT WELLS

SUBSTRATUM
D
s

a. IMPERVIOUS TOP STRATIJM EXTENDING TO INFINITY

H ; NET HEAD ON WELL SYSTEMS INCL
h ; CQRR. N<:T HEAD ON WELL SYSTEM
Hm= NET HEAD MIDWAY BETWEEN WELLS
hm= CORR. NET HEAD MIOWAY BETWEEN WELLS
H0,f AVERAGE N<:T HEAD IN PLANE OF WEllS
h = CORR. NET HEAD IN PLANE OF WELLS
ov
H w= WELL LOSSES
h-, H W = WELL PENETRATION
HEAD WITHOUT WELLS

TOP STRATUM

SUBSTRATUM
0
s L 3 OR x3

b. IMPERVIOUS TOP STRATUM OF FlN!TE LENGTH

Figure 5-4. Infinite line of wells with infinite or finite impervious top stratum - general case

5-6
 EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

Figure 5-5. Infinite line of wells parallel to infinite line source - impervious top stratum

5-7
EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

5-8. Well Factors the well line can be simulated by a line sink. The head
distribution beneath the top stratum without wells varies
The well factor, a, is the "extra length" or average linearly from 100 percent of the net head at the effective
uplift factor, and m is the midwell uplift factor. For source of seepage to 0 percent at the line sink. The
fully penetrating wells, conditions are illustrated in Figure 5-4 (b). These
conditions are also applicable to the case of a
semipervious landside blanket after conversion to an
(5-18) equivalent length of impervious blanket x3 . Equations
for the head midway between wells and well flows are
shown in Figure 5-9. The equations are applicable to
both fully penetrating and partially penetrating well
systems. The equations in Figure 5-9 apply to the case
(5-19) of no well losses. If well losses are considered, sub-
stitute h for H as shown in Figure 5-4 (b).

5-10. Infinite Line of Wells, Impervious Top

Stratum Extending to Blocked Exit
Approximate solutions for the well factors for various
well penetrations were developed by Bennett and Barron Pervious foundations seldom extend landward to a great
(1957). More theoretically exact solutions were distance. Blockades generally occur because of the
developed by Barron (1982) and verified by electrical presence of old clay-filled channels or upland forma-
analogy tests. The theoretical results are shown in tions. If the distance from the line of wells is large,
Table 5-1 and plotted in Figures 5-6 and 5-7 together then the approximation of an infinite landward extent is
with the data from the electrical analogy tests. As there reasonable. If the distance from the line of wells is less
is a linear relation between the well factors and log a/rw than the well spacing, then the error due to the
for values of a/rw greater than about 20, the well factors approximation may be significant. The equations for the
are shown in terms of values at a/rw = 100. The well head midway between wells and well flow are shown in
factors at any other value of a/rw are given by the Figure 5-10 with exact equations for the case of fully
following equations: penetrating wells and reasonably accurate equations for
both fully and partially penetrating wells where the dis-
(5-20) tance to the blocked exit is greater than one-half times
the well spacing. The presence of a blocked exit can be
ignored if the equivalent length of landside impervious
top stratum is less than LB .
(5-21)
5-11. Infinite Line of Wells, Discharge Below
Ground Surface
where is obtained from Table 5-1. Values of the
well factors may also be obtained from the nomograph In many well installations, the well outlets are located
from EM 1110-2-1901 shown in Figure 5-8 (after Ben- below the ground surface to prevent any seepage
nett and Barron 1957). The nomograph though based upward through the top stratum. Under this condition,
on approximate solutions, is reasonably accurate for well the blanket formulas are inapplicable and the top stra-
penetrations greater than 25 percent. A computer tum is assumed to be impervious. Solutions are
program for well design based on the Figure 5-8 was obtained using equations in Figure 5-5, with hd at or
developed by Conroy (1984). below ground surface, assuming hd = Hav .

5-9. Infinite Line of Wells, Impervious Top Stra- 5-12. Infinite Line of Wells, No Top Stratum
tum of Finite Length
A special case may exist in which there is no landside
In many instances, the impervious top stratum landward top stratum and wells are needed to lower the heads
of a line of wells is of finite length, and the boundary below the landward ground surface. The flow in this
edge can be considered as a line sink. The presence of case is a combination of artesian and gravity flow, and
exposed borrow pits or other seepage exits landward of

5-8
 EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

Table 5-1
Theoretical Values of a and m

W/D D/a a/rw a m

100% All values 100 0.440 0.550 1.00

75% 0.25 100 0.523 0.633 0.489

0.50 0.563 0.667
1.0 0.606 0.681
2.0 0.678 0.682
3.0 0.748 0.682
4.0 0.818 0.682

50% 0.25 100 0.742 0.851 0.733

0.40 0.857 0.955
1.0 0.983 1.012
2.0 1.175 1.024
3.0 1.361 1.024
4.0 1.547 1.024

25% 0.25 100 1.225 1.335 1.466

0.50 1.569 1.622
1.0 1.926 1.908
2.0 2.390 2.024
3.0 2.798 2.047
4.0 3.199 2.075

15% 0.25 100 1.662 1.772 2.077

0.50 2.310 2.401
1.0 2.970 2.938
2.0 3.747 3.293
4.0 4.941 3.432

10% 0.25 100 1.908 2.018 3.298

0.50 2.934 3.025
1.0 3.977 3.941
2.0 5.139 4.649
4.0 6.814 5.071

5% 0.25 100 1.778 1.887 6.963

0.50 3.879 3.969
1.0 6.063 6.021
2.0 8.377 7.864
4.0 11.144 9.283

the equations shown in Figure 5-11 (Johnson 1947) may the solution for a linear array of equispaced wells
be used to estimate heads midway between wells and parallel to an infinite line source can be obtained using
well flows for design. the equations shown in Figure 5-3.

5-13. Finite Well Lines, Infinite Line Source b. Impervious top stratum of finite length. In the
case of an impervious top stratum extending to a finite
The essential difference between finite and infinite well distance landward of the well line or in the case of a
lines is the presence or absence of an appreciable semipervious landside top stratum converted to an
component of flow parallel to the line of wells, resulting equivalent length of impervious top stratum, theoretical
in nonuniform distribution of heads midway between solutions for finite well lines are not available. Empiri-
wells and well discharges. cal solutions based on electrical analogy tests are
presented in EM 1110-2-1905. The application of these
a. Impervious top stratum. Where the landside top solutions for design is discussed in Chapter 7.
stratum is impervious and extends landward to infinity,

5-9
EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

Figure 5-6. Theoretical values of average uplift factor (after Barron 1982)

5-10
 EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

10.0
_...
1
9.0 f- LEGEND ' I
'f W/0=57.
8.0 1- THEORY ___..... I
7.0 f---&- ELECTRICAL '--
ANALOGY TESTS ~l v--=-
__
6.0 1--
5.0
v
v
--
_...
/'
::v ., '
4.0
r:r
/./'

~ ::;:: f:.--"

1-"
- :1----1

lit
W/D 15%
~

1--

:) /v
3.0
.,........ ~~
0 ./"'.
v )
0

!I
2.0
v ~- ......
r:.---'
"'"""" - - ; . ..f )W/0=257.

~
lt
......
~

....
~
<(

E 1.0 G- - W(D= so:;

"' 0.9
c;r-
1

0.8 -- --- I -L
0.7 - ----1 - - ! W/0=75%

0.6 ~
~ :! I I I -
W/D~1DO% 1---

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0
D/o

Figure 5-7. Theoretical values of midwell uplift factor (after Barron 1982)

5-11
EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

0
e
~
0
>
-e ~

w a
.," "'~ ~
%

"
0
~
0
w
~...... "'
~
0
z
"
z

~
?
"'"~ "-~ "-z 0

ij 0

~ 15
,;; -
L
;.;
L
.. ... "' "'
L
~
L L L
1:' 1:'
J !); ~ !!!
L
~
"'w
<
X " ~

we 'i " ' <l

- "'...i
C> 0
~
-C> N ,.;
0z

O> 0s
i\
00~ 0 (H
~
....._
1\
'
L

D 0
ooz 0 oz
\
00~ 0 O>
ocv 0 Ot
oo,; 0 OS

.,
000 ~ 0 001
~~,~~\ ~\ ~ ~ .~, ~ -"c>'
% '(0/M) NOI1VHBN3d 113M lN30~3d

5-12
 EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

Figure 5-9. Infinite line of wells parallel to infinite line source, impervious top stratum of finite length

5-13
EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

Figure 5-10. Infinite line of wells with blocked landside exit

5-14
 EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

"" LINE
0
a

0
H1 I
0 I
I ..iL_
a I 0
I
0 I
s
"a
00 s
SECTION

Gravity llow, 0 11 artaian f!ow Q

0" 1tk (h! - h~ : a k (H

!!!n;xg
1 -
Xa
hi/ aD
(5-31)
In ae <f

(5-32)

r '""")
(5-33)
where ~ !E. In ,.,-.-
nx8 ~

hp = height of saturation al any point in gravity flow zone

h2 _ h2\ cos~ (x x;, -cos 2ffy

(
h' - g ~ lnl---~sc------~a~
g 2us cosh 2rr (x ~ x ..) - cos 21iy (5-34}
-.- a a
In ae
~
llHm .:. excess head above the wetl outlet midway between w-ells

(5-35)

Figure 5-11. Infinite line of fully penetrating wells, combined gravity, and artesian flow

5-15
 EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

Chapter 6 Stainless steel is apparently a very stable material in

Well Design most environments; however it is relatively expensive.
Type 304 stainless steel has excellent corrosion resis-
tance; whereas Type 403 stainless steel has moderate
corrosion resistance. Low-carbon or other-type steel
6-1. Description of Well wire-wrapped screen may be more economical in many
instances; however it has no corrosion resistance. Brass
While the specific materials used in the construction and bronze are extremely expensive and are not com-
vary and the dimensions and methods of installations pletely stable in some acid environments. Fiberglass is
differ, relief wells are basically very similar. They a promising material; however its performance history is
consist of a drilled hole to facilitate the installation; a relatively short. PVC appears to be completely stable,
screen or slotted pipe section to allow entrance of and it is easy to handle and install; however it is a rela-
ground water; a bottom plate; a filter to prevent entrance tively weak material and easily damaged. The life of
and ultimate loss of foundation material; a riser to con- iron screens is extended by galvanizing, which may not
duct the water to the ground surface; a check valve to provide permanent protection. Ferrous and nonferrous
allow escape of water and prevent backflooding and metals should never be placed in direct contact with
entrance of foreign material; backfill to prevent recharge each other, such as the case of a brass screen and a steel
of the formation by surface water; and a cover and some riser; the direct contact of these dissimilar metals may
type of barricade protection to prevent vandalism and induce electrolysis and a resultant deterioration of the
damage to the top of the well by maintenance crews, material.
livestock, etc. Figure 2-1 shows a typical relief well
installation. The hole is drilled large enough to provide 6-3. Selection of Materials
a minimum thickness of 4 to 6 in. depending on the
gradation of the filter material as subsequently Since pressure relief wells are designed and installed to
described. The hole is also overdrilled in depth to pro- protect the foundations of structures, selection of mate-
vide for the fact that initial placements of filter material rials for the well should be based on costs and perfor-
may be segregated. The amount of overdrilling required mance over the life of the structure which it protects.
is variable depending upon the size of tremie pipe used Generally, the choice of well screen material will
for filter placement, the total depth of the well, and depend on three factors: (a) water quality, (b) potential
most importantly on the tendency of the selected filter presence of iron bacteria, and (c) strength requirements.
material to segregate. The backfill indicated as sand in A water quality analysis will determine the chemical
Figure 2-1 normally consist of concrete sand or other- nature of the ground water and indicate whether it is
wise excess filter material. Its only function is to fill corrosive and/or incrusting (see Table 3-1).
the annular space around the riser pipe to prevent col- Enlargement of screen openings due to corrosion can
lapse of the boring; these granular materials are easily cause progressive movement of fines into the well,
placed and require a minimum of compaction. The therefore it is essential that the well screen be fabricated
backfill indicated as concrete in Figure 2-1 forms a seal from corrosion-resistant material where corrosive waters
to prevent inflow of surface water from rains and are expected. Similarly, if incrusting ground water is
flooding. expected, future maintenance which may require acid
treatments as described in Chapter 12 necessitates the
6-2. Materials for Wells use of material that can withstand the corrosive effect of
the treatments. When the presence of iron bacteria is
Commercially available well screens and riser pipes are anticipated, the well screen should be selected which
fabricated from a variety of materials such as black iron, can withstand the damaging effects of the repeated
galvanized iron, stainless steel, brass, bronze, fiberglass, chemical treatments described in Chapter 12. The
polyvinyl chloride (PVC), and other materials. How strength of the well screen is usually not a major factor
well a material performs with time depends upon its when commercial well screens designed for deeper well
strength, resistance to damage by servicing operations, installations are employed. The screen sections should
and resistance to attack by the chemical constituents of be able to withstand maximum compression and tensile
the ground water. Wood has proven to be very stable in forces during installation operations as well as horizon-
most environments in well installations, as long as it is tal forces which may develop during installation and
continuously submerged in water; however wood well possibly later because of lateral earth movements.
screens and risers are no longer commercially available.

6-1
EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

6-4. Well Screen 6-5. Filter

a. Slot type. A variety of slot types are available in a. In order to prevent infiltration of foundation
most types of well screens. PVC screens with open sands into the filter, the filter gradation must meet the
slots of varying dimensions consisting of a series of saw stability requirement that the 15 percent size of the filter
cuts are typically available. Metal and fiberglass should be not greater than five times the 85 percent size
screens are available with open slots, louvered or other- of the foundation materials. As shown in Figure 6-1,
wise shielded slots, or "continuous slots." The the design should be based on the finest gradation of the
"continuous slot" screens consist of a skeleton of verti- foundation materials, excluding zones of unusually fine
cal rods wrapped with a continuous spiral of wire. The materials where blank screen sections should be pro-
wire can be a variety of cross-sectional shapes. The vided. If the foundation consists of strata with different
trapezoidal-shape wire provides a slot that is progres- grain size bands, different filter gradations should be
sively larger toward the inside of the screen. This shape designed for each band. Each filter gradation must also
allows any filter gravel that enters the slot to fall into meet the permeability criterion that the 15 percent size
the well rather than clog the screen. The open-type of the filter should be more than three to five times the
slots are advantageous in developing the filter. They 15 percent size of foundation sands. Either well graded
allow the successful use of water jets; whereas shielded or uniform filter materials may be used. A uniform
slots deflect the water jet and reduce or destroy its filter material has a coefficient of uniformity, Cu, of less
effectiveness in the filter. Machine cut slots typically than 2.5 where Cu is defined as
have jagged edges which facilitate the attachment of
iron bacteria making screens difficult to treat later.
Continuous slot screens are commercially fabricated of D60
Cu (6-1)
Type 304 and 316 stainless steel, monel, galvanized or D10
ungalvanized low-carbon steel, and thermoplastic
materials, mainly PVC and ABS or alloys of these
materials. Couplings and the bottom plate for the well
screen may be either glued, threaded, or welded and where
should be constructed of the same material as the well
screen. D60 = grain size at which 60 percent by weight is
finer
b. Dimensions. The size of the individual openings
in a well screen is dictated by the grain size of the D10 = grain size at which 10 percent by weight is
filter. The openings should be as wide as possible, yet finer
sufficiently small to minimize entrance of filter
materials. Criteria for selection of screen opening size The Cu of well-graded filter materials should be greater
are presented subsequently. The anticipated maximum than 2.5 and less than 6 to minimize segregation. The
flow of the well dictates both the minimum total open- grain sizes should be reasonably well distributed over
slot area of the screen (the spacing and length of slots) the specified range with no sizes missing. Well-graded
and the minimum diameter of the well. The open area filter materials used with proper well development pro-
of a well screen should be sufficiently large to maintain cedures increase efficiency and permit the use of large
a low entrance velocity of less than 0.1 ft per second screen openings; however they are subject to segregation
(fps) at the design flow. Representative areas and maxi- during handling and placement. Well-graded filters
mum well capacities for various well diameters with should have an annular thickness of 6 to 8 in. Uni-
different continuous slot sizes are shown in Table 6-1. formly graded filters permit a lesser annular thickness of
Well screen manufacturers should be consulted for more filter (4 to 6 in.) and are not subject to segregation,
specific information. The well diameter must be large thereby reducing the amount of overdrilling.
enough to conduct the maximum anticipated flow to the
ground surface and facilitate testing and servicing of the b. The filter should consist of natural material made
well after installation. Head loss in the well should also up of hard durable particles. It should contain no
be taken into consideration in selecting a well diameter. detrimental quantities of organic matter or soft, friable,

6-2
 EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

Table 6-1
Properties of Wire-wrapped Continuous Slot Screens
(Manufactured by Johnson Division, SES Inc.)
Shipping Weight Intake Areas (square inches per foot of screen)

Slot Opening Size

Nom.
Lb/Ft Diam. 10-slot 20-slot 40-slot 60-slot 80-slot 100-slot 150-slot 250-slot

3 15 26 41 52 59 65 73 82
4

5 3 1/2 18 31 49 61 70 77 88 99

6 4 20 35 57 71 81 88 101 115

6 4 1/2 23 40 64 80 92 100 114 129

7 5 26 45 72 90 102 112 112 132

8 5 5/8 28 49 79 99 113 123 141 159

10 6 30 53 85 106 100 112 132 156

15 8 28 51 87 113 133 149 160 194

19 10 36 65 108 141 166 186 200 243

22 12 42 77 130 143 171 195 237 265

35 14 37 68 97 132 161 185 232 292

41 16 42 60 108 148 180 208 261 327

47 18 36 69 124 169 206 237 298 375

57 20 41 77 139 189 229 264 280 366

71 24 61 113 131 182 226 265 343 449

72 26 63 118 138 191 237 278 360 471

81 30 75 138 161 224 278 325 422 552

91 36 84 157 184 255 317 371 481 629

Notes:
1. Open areas may differ somewhat from these figures. Extra-strong construction, for example, reduces open areas in some cases
because heavier material is used to increase screen strength.
2. The maximum transmitting capacity of the screen can be derived from these figures. To determine gpm per ft of screen, multiply the
intake area in square inches by 0.31. It must be remembered that this is the maximum capacity of the screen under ideal conditions
with an entrance velocity of 0.1 fps.

thin, or elongated particles. Crushed carbonate essential to the installation of acceptable permanent
aggregates should be avoided because they tend to break relief wells.
down with a loss in permeability. Furthermore, they
will tend to dissolve if the wells require future acid 6-6. Selection of Screen Opening Size
treatment as part of future rehabilitation operations. It
is often difficult to purchase material that meets the In general, the slot width (or hole diameter) of the
required gradation, and it may be necessary to have the screen should be equal to or less than the 50 percent
material specially blended. The special blends are size of the finest gradation of filter. Application of this
expensive and sometimes difficult to acquire, but criterion is demonstrated in Figure 6-1. Use of the

6-3
EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

Figure 6-1. Typical design of filter for relief well

50 percent size criterion for the selection of screen slot connections (Hf) plus velocity head loss (Hv). The total
size appears to provide reasonable assurance against in- hydraulic head loss in a well (Hw) is given by
wash of filter materials during well development and
surging and furthermore results in suitably large
openings to minimize the effects of incrustations and Hw He Hf Hv (6-2)
blockages which may develop during the life of the well
(Hadj-Hamou, Tavassoli, and Sherman 1990).
b. The entrance losses in the screen and filter for a
6-7. Well Losses properly designed and developed screen and filter will
generally be relatively small at the time of well
a. Head losses within the system consist of entrance installation. Installation techniques resulting in smear or
head loss in the screen and filter (He) plus friction head undue disturbance of the drill hole walls, however, can
losses arising from flow in the screen, riser, and result in relatively large initial entrance losses. Entrance

6-4
 EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

losses can be expected to increase with time for a The resistance coefficient in the formula is solved by
variety of reasons discussed in Chapter 11. For exam- the Colebrook-White equation also given in EM 1110-2-
ple, as shown in Figure 6-2, the entrance losses for 8- 1602. This equation requires the input of an effective
in.-ID slotted wood well screens, based on piezometer roughness parameter for the material comprising the
data at the time of installation, amounted only to about well screen and riser pipe. A computer code for the
0.10 to 0.25 ft for a flow through the screen of 10 gpm solution of the Colebrook-White equation is given in
per foot of screen. However, as shown in Figure 6-2, USAEWES (1973).
entrance losses for the particular wells increased signifi-
cantly with time. The initial entrance losses for wire- d. Velocity head losses, Hv, should be computed by
wrapped screens should be even less. Both field and means of the equation
laboratory tests indicate that the average entrance
velocity of water moving into the screen should not
exceed 0.1 fps. At this velocity, friction losses in the 2 (6-3)
Hv
screen openings will be negligible and the rates of 2g
incrustation and corrosion will be minimal. The average
entrance velocity is calculated by dividing estimated
well yield by the total area of the screen openings. If where
the velocity is greater than 0.1 fps, the screen length
and/or diameter should be increased accordingly. The = the velocity of the water in the riser pipe
long-term value of entrance loss is difficult to predict,
and unless experience in a specific location is available, g = acceleration due to gravity = 32.2 ft/sec2
conservative values based on Figure 6-2 should be
selected. Losses due to elbow connections should be included
where applicable.
c. Friction losses in the screen and riser sections
may be estimated from Figure 6-3. The head loss in the 6-8. Effective Well Radius
screen section should be computed for a distance of
one-half the screen length. More accurately, friction The effective well radius to be used in design computa-
losses can be calculated according to the Darcy- tions is calculated as the outside radius of the well
Weisbach formula as described in EM 1110-2-1602. screen plus one-half the thickness of the filter.

6-5
EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

Figure 6-2. Entrance losses versus inflow for 8-in.-ID slotted wood well screens in St. Louis District (after
Montgomery 1972)

6-6
 EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

0.2 0.4 0.6 2 3 4 5

10
8

6 /

,....;:::,.,_s
/
4
o~"'/;.-
vv
?&?' /
L
0~
3
"'z "-"'""'""
v
0
u <;)~.,... v/ / vv
w
"'
"'
2
,....-'-"-
...- / v - v /
v
w
a.
....w v y,s""L
v /
v v /

,o ~
w
u.. / /
u ./ ,.,- /
0.8
a;
::::> ,. / /
I'" v
'-' 0.6 r:i~ /
w
<:> '0~ - v
"'
"""
I
u 0.4 /
/
v
c."~
/
IJ) /
Cl
.. ~
v
...J
...J
w
:;:: 0.2
l' /
0
303 v 1.85
Hf = c 1.85 d 1. 167
FT/100 FT OF PIPE
0.1
HAZEN - WILLIAMS. C 100 =
0.08 FOR OTHER VALUES OF C MULTIPLY
FRICTION VALUES BY (1 00/C) 1.85
0.06 '

0.04
0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 2 3 4 5
Hf FRICTIONAL HEAD LOSS (rT/100 FT OF PIPE)

Figure 6-3. Friction head losses in screen and riser sections

6-7
 EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

Chapter 7 7-4. Design Procedures

Design Of Well Systems
Direct application of the formulas in Chapter 4 and 5 is
not possible as they are based on the assumption that
the hydraulic head losses in the well are zero. As
7-1. General Approach shown in Figure 5-4, the head losses must be deter-
mined on the basis of the computed well flow and
The design of relief well systems consists essentially of added to the maximum landside head with wells, which
determining the location and penetration of wells that in turn would result in a lower factor of safety with
will reduce the piezometric surface of the substratum respect to uplift. If the tops of the well risers extend
pressure, ho, in landside or downstream areas to an above tailwater, the difference in elevation should be
allowable head, ha. Analyses are made using formulas added to the well losses in determining the maximum
presented in Chapter 4 and 5. Where wells are required landside head with wells. The maximum landside head
along the toe of a levee or dam, the wells will generally will always occur midway between wells for fully pene-
be located along a line so that their locations are defined trating wells. For partially penetrating wells, there may
by a well spacing. The well spacing is first determined be a difference as the average head may exceed the
assuming an infinitely long line of wells, and then the head midway between wells. To maintain the required
spacing is reduced where necessary to allow for the factor of safety, a reduction in well spacing is required
reduced efficiency of a finite number of wells compared so as to lower the maximum landside head with wells.
to the infinite number. For given boundary conditions Thus, an iterative procedure must be utilized to find the
and the same allowable head, there are any number of well spacing which satisfies the condition that when
combinations of well spacing and penetration that will well losses are considered, the head midway between
suffice. The final selected spacing and penetration wells or the average head, whichever is greater, equals
should be based to a great extent on the most economi- the design values. Procedures involving this concept are
cal design. The presence of natural topographic features presented below.
may require adjustment in the design well spacing to
ensure that well outlets are located at the lowest practi- 7-5. Infinite Line of Wells, Impervious Top
cal elevation. Stratum

7-2. Design Heads The general procedure for designing a system of relief
wells along an infinite line with an impervious top
The design of relief well systems for dams are based on stratum extending to a great distance landward follows.
steady state conditions which would prevail with the The procedure is valid for both fully and partially pene-
reservoir pool at the maximum design level. This trating well systems.
reservoir pool normally is taken as the top of the
surcharge pool. The design net head is the difference a. Compute the allowable head, ha, under the top
between the latter elevation and downstream tailwater stratum at the downstream toe of the dam or levee from
elevation, usually taken as downstream ground surface Equation 3-2. Assume tailwater elevation coincides
or lower, if appropriate. In the case of relief well with ground surface (or as appropriate).
design for levees, the design net head is usually taken as
the difference in elevation between net grade of the b. Assume that Hm, the net head midway between
levee and tailwater. wells, is equal to ha and that well losses, Hw, are equal
to zero (see Figure 5-4a).
7-3. Boundary Conditions
c. For a given well penetration, W, compute Hm, for
Boundary conditions which must be determined include various trial values of well spacing, a, based on Equa-
the distance to the effective source of seepage entry, S; tion 5-14. Interpolate to determine the required well
the distance from the line of relief wells to the effective spacing for Hm = ha.
seepage exit, x3; and the distance to a blocked exit, LB,
if such exists. Procedures for the determination of these d. Calculate the well flow, Qw, for the above well
values are given in Appendix B. spacing and penetration using Equation 5-17.

7-1
EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

e. Assume the well dimensions, and calculate the spacing that satisfies Equation 3-3.
well losses, Hw, corresponding to Qw.
b. Select a design ground-water level landward of
f. Repeat step c using hm = Hm - Hw in place of the wells defined by hd = hw + D. Assume hd = Hav.
Hm in Equation 5-14, and determine a new value of a.
c. Proceed with step (i) using hd in place of Hav.
g. Repeat steps (d) through (f) until relatively
consistent values of a are obtained on two successive d. Continue steps (j) through (n) to obtain the design
trials. The value of a derived in this manner satisfies well spacing.
the design requirement for fully penetrating wells.
7-7. Infinite Line of Wells with Impervious Top
h. If the wells are not fully penetrating, repeat step Stratum of Finite Length
(b) assuming that Hav, the average net head, is equal to
ha. The procedure for design of an infinite line of wells
with a landside impervious top stratum of finite length
i. For a given well penetration, W, compute Hav for is presented below. The procedure is also applicable to
various trial values of well spacing, a, based on Equa- the case of a semipervious landside top stratum after
tion 5-15. Interpolate to determine required well conversion to an equivalent length of impervious top
spacing for Hav = ha. stratum as discussed in Appendix B. The spacing for an
infinite line of relief wells for a given penetration is
j. Calculate the well flow, Qw, for the above well determined using an iterative procedure. For small well
spacing and penetration using Equation 5-17. spacings, the average uplift factor a will be equal to or
larger than m and will control. For large well
k. Assume the well dimensions and calculate the spacings, m will be equal to or larger than a and will
well losses, Hw, corresponding to Qw. therefore control. A summary of the equations used is
shown on Figure 7-1. The procedure for computing the
l. Repeat step (i) using hav = Hav - Hw in place of well spacing for both conditions is as follows:
Hav in Equation 5-15 and determine a new value of a.
a. Compute the allowable head beneath the top stra-
m. Repeat steps (j) through (l) until relatively con- tum at the downstream toe of the dam, ha, from
sistent values of a are obtained on two successive trials. Equation 3-2.
For design, select the lesser value of well spacing
determined from steps (g) and (l) for a given well b. Assume that the net head in the plane of the
penetration. wells, Hav, is equal to ha and calculate the net seepage
gradient toward the well line, M, substituting in Equa-
n. Repeat for various well penetrations to develop a tion 7-6 as follows:
relation between well penetration and spacing that
h ha ha
satisfies design requirements. M (7-11)
S x3
7-6. Infinite Line of Wells, Wells in Ditch

The design of an infinite line of wells with the well out-

lets located in a collector ditch to lower landside where
ground-water levels below ground surface should be
based on the assumption that the top stratum is S = distance from effective seepage entry to line of
impervious regardless of its permeability. The design wells
procedure is essentially similar to that described in the
preceding paragraph with the following exceptions: x3 = distance from line of wells at the landside toe to
effective seepage exit (length of landside
a. Assume an elevation for the well outlets, hw, and impervious top stratum)
compute the allowable head, ha, under the top stratum
beneath the collector ditch from Equation 3-3. Proceed c. Assume a well spacing and compute the flow
with steps (b) through (g) to obtain a design well from a single well using Equation 7-7.

7-2
 EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

HEAD WITHOUT WELLS

h H

//// /'
TOP STRATUM
/

w SUBSTRATUM
D

s X
3

h=H-H
w
(s x +
X3
3) (H) /;M:
H -Hav
s
-
Hav
XJ
(7-6)

h av =
_s .
a
hfl,

s ..
x3
x, r (72)
Qw

orQ
= al!.M kt D

hkrD
(7-7)

Hav = Hw + hav (7-3) s s + x3 (7-8)

+
a x3
9, h9,.
hm "'"'hav-
aa s s + x3 " (7-4) hm = (1/;Mfjm (7-9)
- +
a x3
Hm = Hw + 11, (7-5) hav = al!.MBa (7-11})

Figure 7-1. Nomenclature and formulas for design of relief wells at toe of dam

7-3
EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

d. Assume the well dimensions and calculate the r. Find m from Table 5-1 and Figure 5-7 or Fig-
well losses, Hw, corresponding to Qw. ure 5-8 for the values of a used in step (q) and the
corresponding a/rw and D/a values.
e. Compute the net average head in the plane of
wells, hav, using Equation 7-3. s. The second trial well spacing is that value of a
which m from step (q) equals m from step (r).
f. Substitute values of M and hav in steps (b) and
(e) and solve for a using Equation 7-10. t. Find a from Figure 5-6 for the second trial well
spacing and the corresponding values of a/rw and D/a.
g. Find a from Table 5-1 and Figure 5-6 or
Figure 5-8 for the given well penetration using the u. Determine the third trial well spacing by repeating
values of a used in step (f) and the corresponding a/rw steps (k) to (t) using the second trial well spacing in lieu
and D/a values. of the spacing originally assumed in step (k), and in
step (n) using the values m and a from steps (s) and
h. The first trial well spacing is that of value a for (t), respectively, instead of those from steps (h) and (i).
which a from step (f) equals a from step (g). This procedure should be repeated until relatively con-
sistent values of a are obtained on two successive trials.
i. Find m from Table 5-1 and Figure 5-7 or Normally, the third trial is sufficiently accurate.
Figure 5-8 for the given well penetration and first trial
well spacing and the corresponding values of a/rw and v. Repeat steps (g) through (u) for various well
D/a values. penetrations to develop a relation between well
penetration and spacings that satisfies design
j. If a > m repeat steps (c) to (i) using the first requirements.
trial well spacing in lieu of the spacing originally used
in step (c), and determine the second trail well spacing. 7-8. Computer Programs
This procedure should be repeated until relatively
consistent values of a are obtained on two successive A computer program for design of relief wells systems
trials. Usually the second trial spacing is sufficiently based on the above procedures was developed by
accurate. If in step (j), a < m, a modified procedure Conroy (1984). Comparisons of the computer and hand
is used for a second trial using steps (k) through (t). solutions are presented by Cunny, Agostinelli, and
Taylor (1989).
k. Assume Hm = ha and compute Qw from Equa-
tion 7-7 using the value of M obtained in step (b) and 7-9. Head Distribution for Finite Line of Relief
the first trial well spacing from (h). Wells

l. Estimate Hw from Qw of step (k). In a short, finite line of relief wells, the heads midway
between wells exceed those for an infinite line of wells
m. Compute the net head midway between the wells both at the center and near the ends of the well system
as hm = Hm - Hw. as shown in Figure 7-2. With an infinite line of wells,
the heads midway between wells are constant along the
n. Using a and m from steps (h) and (i), entire length of the well line. Many well systems may
respectively, compute hav from Equation 7-4. be fairly short; thus, it will be necessary to reduce the
well spacing computed for an infinite line of wells so
o. Using Hw and hav from steps (l) and (n), that heads midway between wells will not be more than
respectively, compute Hav from Equation 7-3. the allowable head under the top stratum. The ratio of
the head midway between wells at the center of finite
p. Compute M from Equation 7-6 using Hav from systems to the head between wells in an infinite line of
step (o). wells, for various well spacings and exit lengths, is
given in Figure 7-3. The spacing of relief wells in a
q. Using hm and M from steps (m) and (p), finite line should be the same as that required in an
respectively, compute m for various values of a from infinite line of wells to reduce the head midway
Equation 7-9. between wells to ha divided by the ratio of Hm n/Hm

7-4
 EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

Figure 7-2. Variation of pressure relief along a finite line of relief wells (after EM 1110-2-1905)

from Figure 7-3. In any finite line of wells of constant equations using the method of images for fully
penetration and spacing, the head midway between wells penetrating wells with a line source and impervious
near the ends of the system exceeds that at the center of downstream top stratum are utilized, and the head at the
a system. Thus, at the end of both short and long well center of the well group is calculated by superposition.
systems, the relief wells should generally be made
deeper to provide additional penetration of the pervious 7-11. Well Costs
substratum in order to obtain the same head reduction as
in the central part of the well line. In the case of fully The design of relief well systems will normally produce
penetrating wells, the same head reduction can be various combinations of well spacing and penetration
obtained by additional wells using gradually decreasing which satisfy the design criteria. The optimum design
well spacings near the ends of the line. The above- should be based on initial cost as well as overall costs
mentioned procedures for designing finite relief well including maintenance and possible replacement costs
systems, although approximate, are usually sufficient. over the life of the structure. Costs should be calculated
per 100-ft stationing as shown in Figure 7-4. Elements
7-10. Well Systems at Outlet Works and included in the estimate of initial costs are the cost of
Spillways drilling or other installation technique, as well as the
cost of well screen, riser pipe, and filter, all of which
When well systems for outlet structures and spillway are on a foot basis. Additional fixed costs include back-
structures are being designed, the problem is to design a filling, well development and testing, plus the costs of
group with a finite number of wells with proper spacing well guards, check valves, and horizontal outlet pipes if
and penetration which will reduce the head at the center used. As shown in Figure 7-4, the well spacing and
of the well group to the allowable design head. In this screen penetration should be selected that will result in
type problem, usually the pressure at the well is known the minimum well cost per station over the life of the
because such wells normally will be discharging into structure.
tailwater elevation, possibly through a collector system
either under the stilling basin or along the channel-side 7-12. Seepage Calculations
slopes. Thus, the head at the well is equal to tailwater
plus the hydraulic head loss in the well and collector As previously noted, the presence of relief wells will
system. This elevation when subtracted from the reser- tend to increase the total quantity of seepage beneath a
voir pool represents the net head acting on the system. levee or dam, Qs. The seepage per foot of structure
For such a system of fully penetrating wells, the with no wells is computed by the equation

7-5
EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

Figure 7-3. Ratio of head midway between relief wells at center of a finite well system to head midway
between wells in an infinite system (after EM 1110-2-1905)

7-6
 EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

Figure 7-4. Determination of optimum well design

7-7
EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

kDH kDHav
Qs (7-12) Qsw (7-13)
S x3 x3

The seepage with wells is equal to the flow from the

well system Qw, plus the seepage beyond the well where Hav is computed from equations in Figure 7-1.
system, Qsw , which is computed by the equation The estimation of the total quantity of seepage passing
beneath a structure with or without wells can be of
importance in selecting a well spacing which will inter-
cept the desired amount of seepage.

7-8
 EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

Chapter 8 a. Equipment. A rotary-type drill rig of sufficient

Relief Well Installation hoisting and torque capacity is required. The cutter or
drill bit can be of either drag or roller design. The drill
pipe should be as large as practicable to increase the
volume of fluid at the drill bit and, consequently, the
8-1. General Requirements velocity of the fluid returning up the open hole.
Proper installation of relief wells is essential to the b. Problems. The reverting process of the drilling
successful protection of the structures for which they are fluid leaves a small amount of slimy ash which,
designed to protect. Before installation is begun, all unavoidably, is mixed into the filter material; however a
materials required for completion of the installation large percentage of this ash is removed during develop-
should be on hand at the worksite. The well screen and ment of the well. Testing to determine the extent of
riser should be checked for proper material, length, detriment caused by this ash residue has not been
diameter, and slot openings. The filter material should sufficient to evaluate the effectiveness of this method;
be inspected and checked against gradation specifica- however it has been used successfully in installation of
tions. Successful completion of a well installation is permanent relief wells. Chemical development of the
often dependent upon time, and many installations have well is required as subsequently described.
been aborted because of delays. An open boring of
sufficient size and depth is necessary to facilitate the 8-3. Reverse-Rotary Method
installation of a well. The hole should be vertical so
that the screen and riser may be installed straight and This method is generally considered to provide the most
plumb. As previously discussed, the hole is drilled large acceptable drill hole and should be used whenever pos-
enough to provide a minimum thickness of 4 to 6 in., sible for the installation of permanent relief wells. In
depending on the gradation, of the filter material. The the reverse-rotary method, the hole for the well is made
methods of providing an open boring in the ground are by rotary drilling, using a similar cutting process as
numerous; however not all are acceptable for the instal- employed in standard rotary drilling except the drilling
lation of permanent relief wells, and those considered fluid is pulled up through the drill pipe by vacuum and
acceptable are discussed in the following paragraph. the drilling fluid reenters the top of the open boring by
gravity. Soil from the drilling is removed from the hole
8-2. Standard Rotary Method by the flow of drilling fluid circulating from the ground
surface down the hole and back up the hollow drill stem
One method of drilling for well installation which has from the bit. Since the cross-sectional area of the bor-
gained popularity in the well drilling industry is stan- ing is many times larger than that of the drill pipe, the
dard rotary drilling using a biodegradable, organic dril- slow downward velocity of the fluid acting against the
ling fluid additive. No bentonitic clays are used in the open boring does not erode the walls. The drilling fluid
drilling fluid. Standard rotary drilling consists of rotat- consists of water and, unavoidably, a small amount of
ing a cutter bit against the bottom of a boring, while a the finer fraction of the natural material being drilled.
fluid is pumped down through the drill pipe to cool and A high velocity is attained with the fluid returning up
lubricate the bit and return the cuttings up the open hole through the drill pipe, thus eliminating the need for a
to the ground surface. The required size of bit is high viscosity. The drill water is circulated by a centrif-
governed by the screen diameter and the thickness of ugal or jet-eductor pump that pumps the flow from the
filter. The ability of the fluid to carry the cuttings is drill stem into a sump pit. As the hole is advanced, the
dependent on its velocity and viscosity. The velocity of soil particles settle out in the sump pit, and the muddy
the returning fluid is reduced with increased boring water flows back into the drill hole through a ditch cut
diameter, and the reduction is compensated by increased from the sump to the hole. The sides of the drill hole
viscosity of the drilling fluid. One such drilling fluid are stabilized by seepage forces acting against a thin
additive is marketed under the trade name "Revert," so- film of fine-grained soil that forms on the wall of the
called because the fluid reverts to the viscosity of water, hole. A sufficient seepage force to stabilize the hole is
normally in about three days. Chemicals can be added produced by maintaining the water level in the hole at
to speed up or delay the reversion of such fluids as least 7 ft above the natural water table. Figure 8-1
"Revert." Ground-water temperatures may effect rever- shows schematically the circulating system for
sion times.

8-1
EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

Figure 8-1. Schematic diagram of circulatory system (after EM 1110-2-1913)

reverse-rotary drilling. No bentonitic drilling mud that material entering the system can be circulated com-
should be used because of gelling in the filter and pletely through it. In alluvial deposits, a drag-type bit
aquifer adjacent to the well. If the hole is drilled in similar to the cutter head for a dredge is sufficient.
clean sands, some silt soil may need to be added to the Roller-type bits are commercially available for use in
drilling water to attain the desired degree of muddiness consolidated deposits. The eductor consists of a pipe Y
(approximately 3,000 ppm). A biodegradable organic with a nozzle fitted into one end of the Y.
drilling fluid additive such as "Revert" or equivalent
may also be added to the drilling water to reduce water b. Problems. It is necessary to maintain an excess
loss. hydrostatic pressure on the drill hole to stabilize the
walls. In most materials, a minimum excess head of
a. Equipment. Reverse-circulation rotary drilling 7 ft is required and greater is desirable. When the static
requires somewhat specialized equipment, most of which water level is very near the ground surface or artesian
is commercially available or easily fabricated. Any conditions prevail, it may be necessary to elevate the
rotary-type drill rig large enough to handle the load and drilling rig on temporary berms. Some success has been
having sufficient torque capability can be adapted to experienced by lowering the water level with well
circulate water through an eductor to create a vacuum points, but if the pressure is derived from a deeper,
on the drill pipe. Drill pipe and hoses should be of a artesian source, it is necessary to lower the pressure in
constant inside diameter throughout the system to assure the aquifer with deep wells. Since the formation in

8-2
 EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

which a well is installed consists predominately of gran- bailing and may also produce smear along the sides of
ular material, the loss of water into the formation pre- the drill hole which could impair free flow into the well.
sents a problem during drilling. An almost unlimited Penetration of the casing can be retarded by friction of
supply of water can be necessary to maintain a the granular formation against the outside of the casing
completely filled, open boring. A large sump is re- unless vibratory hammers are used. After the casing is
quired to supply adequate water. During the drilling, all set, the boring completed, and the well installed, the
cuttings from the boring are deposited in the sump and casing is removed. The casing should be pulled, as the
must be provided for. A sump three times the antic- filter material is placed, to prevent disturbing the well
ipated volume of the completed boring is adequate, if it installation by the friction of the filter material inside
can be kept filled with water from another source. the casing. Using a vibratory pile hammer to drive and
Consideration should be given to the required thickness extract casing can densify loose foundation materials
of the natural impervious clay blanket when constructing and filter materials. Generally, when material is
a sump. An instantaneous loss of water resulting in loss densified, the hydraulic conductivity is reduced. The
of excess head can cause failure of the boring walls. vibratory hammer cannot be used in wells that have
Often, if the rotation of the drill bit is stopped, the water more than one filter pack. As densification in the filter
loss is greatly reduced. The boring must be kept full of pack occurs, the material settles. This settlement, com-
water until the well screen, riser, and filter are installed. bined with settlement which occurs as the filter fills the
void left by removal of the casing, results in uncertain-
8-4. Bailing and Casing ties regarding the final position of the top of the filter.
There are many uncertainties associated with this
In cases where standard or reverse-rotary drilling is not method of installation which makes it very difficult to
successful, an equally acceptable method of drilling con- estimate time and costs.
sists of bailing while driving a steel casing into the hole
to stabilize the boring walls. This method is economical 8-5. Bucket Augers
in some materials, and it does not inject deleterious
materials into the formation. Loose to medium dense, Under certain conditions drill holes for relief wells can
clean, granular materials can be bailed economically. be made with a bucket auger. The method has been
Often the granular materials are overlain with a cohesive successfully employed where cobbles up to 10 in. have
overburden which does not yield easily to bailing, and it been encountered. A bucket with side cutters is
is more economical to auger through this overburden. employed, and only water is used as the drilling fluid.
The rate at which the bucket is inserted or withdrawn
a. Equipment. A drill rig with a wire line hoist and must be carefully controlled; thus close inspection is
driving capability is adaptable to this method of well obligatory. A steel casing is installed through the top
installation. It should be remembered that large casing, stratum to prevent smearing of fine-grained materials on
heavy enough to sustain driving, presents a sizable load the walls of the drill hole.
to be handled by the drill rig. The use of a vibratory
pile driver can greatly facilitate the driving and subse- 8-6. Disinfection
quent removal of the casing. The casing should be
flush-joint, or welded-joint steel pipe. Two types of Before drilling begins, all tools, rods, bits, and pumps
bailers are commonly used for this purpose (Figure 8-2). should be thoroughly washed with a chlorine solution to
Details are given in EM 1110-2-1907. The bailer is kill any bacteria remaining from previous well installa-
operated on a wire line by lowering to the bottom of the tions. Water used in the drilling process and filter
boring and quickly pulling, or snatching, up a short materials should also be treated with a chlorine solution
distance a number of times to fill the bailer. (Driscoll 1986). The strength of the chlorine solution
should not be less than 100 ppm, which means a pro-
b. Problems. This method of drilling produces portion of 100 lb of chlorine to 1 million lb of water.
good results but often presents problems in operations. Calcium hypochlorite which contains 65 percent avail-
Thin layers of cohesive materials, or cemented materials able chlorine is commonly used for this purpose. The
within the formation, can preclude the advance by required weight (wt) of calcium hypochlorite to produce

8-3
EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

WELD

5'
1/4"

BAlLER ASSEMBLY SAND PUMP

Figure 8-2. Bailer and sand pump assemblies (after EM 1110-2-1907)

8-4
 EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

a given strength in N gallons (gal) of water is given by made-up length, and the bottom of the screen should be
the equation set at the designed depth, or as field conditions require.
The method of connecting the lengths of screen and
Wt (lb) N (gal) 8.33 riser vary: metal screen and riser have threaded or
(8-1) welded joints; plastic and fiberglass screens usually have
solution strength either mechanical or glued joints. Each joint should be

available chlorine made up securely to prevent separation of the well
during installation and servicing activities. Each joint
should be kept as straight as possible to facilitate ease
where both solution strength and available chlorine are of servicing and testing. The riser and screen sections
expressed as a decimal. Thus, for a chlorine solution of of the well should be centered in the drill hole by means
100 ppm in 1,000 gal of water, using calcium hypochlo- of appropriate centering devices to facilitate a continu-
rite with 65 percent chlorine, the required weight of ous filter around the well screen. If materials
calcium hypochlorite is appreciably finer than anticipated in design are encoun-
tered, design personnel should be notified. In such
cases, it may be necessary to replace the screen by a
solid pipe or blank screen to prevent piping of founda-
tion materials into the well. Immediately after instal-
lation of the well screen and riser, the total inside depth
should be sounded. The exact inside depth of the well
Similarly, for chlorine products such as sodium must be known to determine whether damage occurs
hypochlorite which is available in gallons, the required during development and servicing of the well.
volume (V) to produce a given strength in N gal of
water is given by the equation 8-8. Filter Placement

Caution in proper design, control of manufacture, and

(8-2) handling of filter materials to the jobsite can be
completely negated by improper placement in the well.
Acceptable construction of permanent relief wells
demands that the filter be placed without segregation
Thus, for a chlorine solution of 100 ppm in 1,000 gal of because widely graded filters when placed in increments
water using sodium hypochlorite with 10 percent avail- tend to segrate as they pass through water, with coarse
able chlorine, the required volume of sodium hypochlo- particles falling faster than fine particles. A tremie
rite is should be used to maintain a continuous flow of
material and thus minimize segregation during place-
ment. A properly designed, uniform (D90/D10 < 3 to 4)
0.0001 filter sand may be placed without tremieing if it is
V (gal) 1,000 (gal) 1.0 gal
0.10 poured in around the screen in a heavy continuous
stream to minimize segregation. The tremie pipe should
be at least 2 in. in diameter, be perforated with slots
8-7. Installation of Well Screen and Riser 1/16 to 3/32 in. wide and about 6 in. long, and have
Pipes flush screw joints. The slots allow the filter material to
become saturated, thereby breaking the surface tension
Once the boring is completed and the tools withdrawn, and preventing "bulking" of the filter in the tremie. One
the boring should be sounded to assure an open hole to or two slots per linear foot of tremie is generally suffi-
the proper depth. The well screen and riser pipe can be cient. To avoid contamination by iron bacteria, the
fabricated at the factory in varying lengths. The filter should be washed through the tremie pipe using a
contractor will determine these lengths based on the 100-ppm chlorine solution. The tremie pipe is lowered
capacity of his equipment. The bottom joint of the well to the bottom of the open drill hole, outside the well
screen should be fitted with a cap or plug to seal the screen and riser pipe. The presence of centering devices
bottom of the screen. The lengths of screen are will interfere with the proper use of the tremie by pre-
connected together as they are lowered into the hole. venting uniform filling to some extent. The use of dual
Each length must be measured to determine its total diametrically opposed tremie pipes will ensure more

8-5
EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

uniform placement. After the tremie pipe or pipes have methods, well design, and filter installation, affect the
been lowered to the bottom of the hole, they should be time it takes to fully develop a well. Basically there are
filled with filter material and then slowly raised to keep three methods used in development as discussed below.
them full of filter material at all times. Extending the
filter material at least 2 ft above the top of the screen a. Water Jetting. A water jet, consisting of a series
will depend on the depth of the well to compensate for of small nozzles at the end of a pipe, lowered into the
settlement during well development. The top of the well screen, is very effective in developing the
filter should also terminate below the bottom of the continuous slot-type, wire-wrapped screens. A typical
overlying top stratum if present. The level of drilling water jet is shown in Figure 8-3. Water is pumped
fluid or water in a reverse-rotary drilled hole must be down and out through the nozzles at a high velocity.
maintained at least 7 ft above the natural ground-water Nozzles are directed toward the screen slots in small
level until all the filter material is placed. If a casing is concentrated areas, as shown in Figure 8-4. The water
used, it should be pulled as the filter material is placed, jet equipment can be fabricated in local welding shops.
and the bottom of the casing kept 2 to 10 ft below the The size and number of nozzles must be consistent with
top of the filter material. the size and length of the pipe through which the water
is pumped to ensure a high-pressure and high-velocity
8-9. Development jetting action. This method requires a high-pressure,
relatively high-volume water pump. The lowest effec-
A well is at best inefficient until properly developed. tive nozzle velocity for water jetting is about 100 fps.
Development procedures include both chemical and Better results are obtained with nozzle velocities be-
mechanical processes. Development of a well should be tween 150 and 300 fps. Normally, development with a
accomplished as soon after the hole has been drilled as water jet is started at the bottom of the screen. Jetting
practicable. Delay in doing this procedure may prevent is accomplished at one depth with the jet rotated for a
a well being developed to the efficiency assumed in fixed period of time. The jet is raised approximately
design. 0.5 ft; rotation and jetting is continued for another fixed
period of time. For the most effective jetting, the wells
8-10. Chemical Development should be pumped or airlifted during jetting to remove
the fines as they are dislodged by the jetting. This
Chemical development is applied usually in the case process is continued until the entire well screen has
where special drilling fluids are utilized and chemicals been jetted. The jetting tool should be continuously in
are injected into the well to aid in the dissolution of the motion since a small amount of sand is disturbed and
residual drilling fluid in the filter. The chemicals should may cause localized erosion of the screen. Jetting must
be of a type and concentration recommended by the be repeated a number of times to ensure optimum devel-
manufacturer of the drilling fluid. They should be opment of the well.
placed starting at the bottom of the well and dispersed
throughout the entire screen length by slowly raising b. Surging. A surging block is a plunger consisting
and lowering the injection pipe. After the chemicals of one or more stiff rubber or leather discs attached to a
have been dispersed, the well should be pumped and the heavy shaft. These discs should be about 1 in. smaller
effluent checked to ensure that the drilling fluid has in diameter than the screen ID. A typical surge block is
completely broken down. shown in Figure 8-5. Surging consists of moving water
in and out of the screen using the up and down motion
8-11. Mechanical Development of the surge block through short sections of the well
screen. The well should always be pumped or bailed to
The purpose of mechanical development is to remove ensure a relatively free inflow of water prior to surging.
any film of silt from the walls of the drilled hole and to Surging should begin with a slow and gentle motion
develop the filter immediately adjacent to the screen to above the well screen and continue with more vigor
permit an easy flow of water into the well. The result from the top of screen downward. This method is less
of proper development is the grading of the filter from effective than the water jet described above in contin-
coarsest to finest extending from the well. The effect of uous slot screens and more effective in screens with
proper development is an increase in the effective size widely separated slots and louvered or shielded slots.
of the well, a reduction of entrance losses into the well, The surging block should be pulled at approximately
and an increase in the efficiency of the well. Many 2 fps for effective surging. For record keeping
factors, including but not limited to development

8-6
 EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

Figure 8-4. Well development by high-velocity jetting

(after Driscoll 1986)

Figure 8-3. Schematic of four-nozzle jetting tool

designed for use unside 8-in well screen for jet devel-
opment

purposes, it is convenient to use 15 round trips as one

cycle. The amount of material deposited in the bottom
of the well should be determined after each cycle (about
15 trips per cycle). Surging should continue until the
accumulation of material pulled through the well screen
in any one cycle becomes less than about 0.2 ft deep.
The well screen should be bailed clean if the accumula-
tion of material in the bottom of the screen becomes
more than 1 to 2 ft at any time during surging,
thenrecleaned after surging is completed. Material
bailed from a well should be inspected to see if any
foundation sand is being removed. If the well is over-
surged, the filter maybe breached with resulting infil-
tration of foundation sand when the well is pumped.

c. Pumping. One of the least effective and slowest

methods of developing a well is simply pumping from Figure 8-5. Development with a surge block (after
the well. Pumping should be accomplished at a suffi- Driscoll 1986)
cient rate to effect maximum drawdown in the well.

8-7
EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

The water passing from the formation through the filter 8-13. Testing of Relief Walls
into the well removes part of the finer fraction of the
filter material. The pumping equipment required de- Performance of relief wells properly installed and
pends on the size, yield, and anticipated drawdown in developed is determined by pumping tests. The pump-
the well. Surging produced by repeatedly starting and ing test is used primarily to determine the specific
stopping a pump is only effective where the static water capacity of the well and the amount of sand infiltration
level is well below the ground surface. Pumping, con- experienced during pumping. The information from this
tinued over a long period of time, is a reasonably effec- test is required to determine the acceptability of the well
tive method of well development. Pumping of the well and will be used to evaluate its performance and loss of
is normally accomplished by inserting a pipe in the well efficiency with time. The results of this pumping test
and forcing compressed air to the bottom of the well. If must be made a part of the permanent record concerning
the depth of submergence of the pipe is at least the well.
50 percent of its length, air bubbles reduce the weight of
the water column and will cause a flow to the ground a. Equipment. The equipment required for a
surface. If 50 percent submergence is not possible, the pumping test consists of a pump of adequate size to
water column which must be physically blown out of effect a substantial drawdown. If the water level in the
the well as it accumulates will require a large supply of well is near enough to the ground surface, and the
air. Pumping can be accomplished using a mechanical specific capacity of the well is high enough to produce a
pump, but granular material in the water can cause substantial flow with a small drawdown, a centrifugal
damage. pump may be used for this purpose. If the water level
in the well is lower than about 18 to 20 ft, a deep-well
8-12. Sand Infiltration pump will be required to effect substantial drawdown.
A flow meter is required to measure the flow rate. A
During the development process, sand and silt will be flat-bottom sounding device and a steel tape are required
brought into the well. When the depth of sand collected to determine the amount of sand infiltration deposited in
in the bottom of the screen reaches 1 ft, it should be the bottom of the well. A suitable baffled stilling basin
removed by bailing. The accumulation of sand in the is used to determine the amount of sand in the effluent.
screen prevents development of that portion of the A sounding device suitable for determining the depth to
screen. A properly developed well will not produce an the top of the water is needed to find the exact draw-
appreciable amount of sand, and entrance losses through down in the well. A well flow meter is desirable to
the filter will be reduced to a minimum. In each of the measure the amount of flow at various depths within the
methods discussed above, the actual amount of develop- well to define flow from various zones.
ment must be recorded: the length, diameter, speed, and
number of cycles of a surging block; the volume, pres- b. Pumping. The well must be pumped to obtain a
sure, and diameter of water jets; and the rate and specified drawdown or flow rate. Drawdown measure-
method of pumping and length of time pumped. In ments in the well should be made to the nearest 0.01 ft
addition, the amount of filter and foundation materials and recorded with the flow rate at 15-minute (min)
brought into the well and bailed out should be recorded. intervals throughout the duration of the tests. Sufficient
Upon completion of the development of the well, all sand infiltration determinations are necessary to esta-
material infiltrated into the well should be bailed out. blish an infiltration rate for each hour of the pumping
The well should be pumped to achieve a drawdown in test. The rate of sand infiltration may be determined
the order of 5 ft in the well. If the well produces sand from sounding and measurements of sand in the efflu-
during pumping in excess at approximately 2 pints per ent. For most properly developed wells, the amount of
hour (as determined from sounding and from collection sand deposited in the well will be negligible and sand
of well flow in a 10-gal container) the well should be inflitration in the effluent can be recorded in terms of
resurged or developed further and repumped. Wells parts per million (Note: sand infiltration in parts per
continuing to produce excessive amounts of sand after 4 million is approximately equal to pints per hour times
to 8 hours or surging or pumping should be abandoned 3,000 divided by the pumping rate in gallons per min-
and properly plugged. ute) as measured with a centrifugal sand tester or other

8-8
 EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

approved sediment concentration test (Driscoll 1986). pores of the foundation soils. Therefore, chlorine in the
The length of time that the pumping test must be contin- form of calcium hypochlorite should not be used in
ued is normally specified for the particular project. If waters containing high calcium content.
the rate of sand infiltration during the last 15 min of the
pumping test is more than 5 ppm, the well should be 8-16. Records
resurged by manipulation of the test pump for 15 min;
then the test pumping should be resumed until the sand Permanent records of the installation, development, test-
infiltration rate is reduced to less than 5 ppm. If after ing, and sterilization of a permanent relief well must be
6 hours (hr) of pumping the sand infiltration rate is kept for evaluation of future testing. To monitor the
more than 5 ppm, the well should be abandoned. efficiency and performance of the installation, the record
must include identification of the well, method of drill-
8-14. Backfilling of Well ing, type, length and size of well screen, and slot size.
The filter should be defined as to grain-size character-
After completion of the well testing, the annular space istics, depth, and thickness. Elevation of the top of the
above the top of the filter gravel should be filled with well and the ground surface should be recorded. An
filter gravel if necessary to achieve design grade. The abbreviated log of the boring should be included to
remainder of the hole should be filled with either a define the depth to granular material, the thickness of
cement-bentonite mixture tremied into place or concrete that material, and the percent penetration of the well.
where the height of drop does not exceed 8 ft. In both Development data should include the method of devel-
cases, a 12-in. layer of concrete sand or excess filter opment, the amount of effort expended in development,
material should be placed on top of the filter before and the amount of materials pulled into the well during
placement of grout or concrete. A tremie equipped with development. The record should show the final sounded
a side deflector will prevent jetting of a hole through the depth of the well in case some fines remain at the bot-
sand and into the filter. tom. The pumping test data should include the rate of
pumping, the amount of drawdown, the length of time
8-15. Sterilization the pumping test was conducted, and the amount of sand
infiltration during pumping. Installation and pumping
Upon completion of the pumping tests and before instal- test data should be recorded on forms similar to that
lation of the well cover, each well should be sterilized shown in Figures 8-6 and 8-7. Forms should be filled
by adding a chlorine solution with a minimum strength in completely at the time each operation is completed
of 500 ppm. Sufficient solution should be added to the and any additional observations should be recorded in a
bottom of the well to provide a volume equal to three "remarks" section.
times the volume of the well based on the outer diam-
eter of the filter. Before the solution is introduced into 8-17. Abandoned Wells
the well, all flow from the well should be stopped with
inflatable packers or riser extensions. The solution Wells that produce excessive amounts of materials dur-
should be injected into the well through a jetting tool by ing pumping tests or that do not conform to specifica-
slowly raising and lowering the tool through the tions and can not be rehabilitated should be abandoned.
screened portion of the well. The well should be gently Abandoned wells should be sealed to eliminate physical
agitated at 10-min intervals every 2 hr for the first 8 hr hazards, prevent contamination of ground water, con-
and then at 8-hr intervals for at least 24 hr. As the serve hydrostatic heads in aquifers, and prevent inter-
chlorine will dilute with time, the concentration should mingling of desirable and undesirable waters. Primary
be periodically checked; if it falls below 500 ppm, addi- sealing materials consist of cement or cement-bentonite
tional chlorine compound should be added. It should be grout placed from the bottom upward. In general,
noted that calcium hypochlorite may combine with abandoned wells should be sealed following procedures
naturally occurring calcium in the ground water to form established by local, state, or Federal regulatory
a precipitate of calcium hydroxide which can plug the agencies.

8-9
EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

RELIE:F WELL INSTALLATION REPORT

PROJECT:

ro:
PERFORAfiC:HS:

LOG P!P
OF
HOLE:

WES fQR~ 7'1

MAR ';3
REVl:iE:~ OCT. '~3

Figure 8-6. Relief well installation report 28

8-10
 EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

RELIEF WELL PUMPING TEST REPORT

~I:OJECT:
I LEVEE
DISTRICT:
lOCAT!OH
(ST4)'
Tor i:LEV TOP
RISER, I WELL NQ;

Oi..T: ,.nwE
ttsT STdttD~
lllLtE
ltST CDMPUT"EO!
U.PSE:O
DEPTH' TO DRAWDOWN n.ow tU.FStD ll1'Tll ~woow FI..OW
TIUE
""'
MINUTES WAf~ .. I'm" tN GP'-i
llll< TillE
WINUTES
TG WATER 1H F"T IN G-PW

'

-~~L--
SAND INnLTRA.T!OH TEST

DEPTH Of" WEU:: ~''.!!!. ,To.~~ ~. f ~~gRr T~~t;-

DEPTH SAND QJJ+I OR SAND ~TAl FNF"L.OW L(NOTH RAT or SAND
1ST Till
TO IN LOSS or f'Ul.IP0
our or 01' TEST Ulnl.TRA.TION
:!AN~JO
~~
NO. WEU SAND,. IN<>
(PTS) WEll.. PTS WELL. (PTS) WLL (WIN) (PlS. Hl!)

I
I
~

- --

T
I
~J
DiPTJ.t IO SAND IN I UltD JN Wil..L
I I SlHO IN Wi:LL
WELL AFTrR TEST~ AfTER TEST: AfTER CI...EAH!NG~

REMARKS:

-
WD fORM 798
l.l.f..R '!:3 !HSPE:CTOR
REVIStD OCT 'S3

Figure 8-7. Relief well pumping test report

8-11
 EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

Chapter 9 9-3. Outlet Protection

Relief Well Outlets
For wells discharging at ground surface, the tops of the
wells should be provided with a metal screen to safe-
guard against vandalism, accidental damage, and the
9-1. General Requirements entrance of debris. Details of a conventional metal well
guard are shown in Figure 9-2. A suitable alternative
Relief wells should always be located where they are consists of a section of stainless steel wire wound screen
accessible by a drill rig for pump testing and cleaning as shown in Figure 9-3. In the case of a T-type well
and provided with outlets for this purpose. The outlets where the top of the riser pipe is more than 5 ft below
should be designed to minimize maintenance and to ground, the well guard should be 42 in. in diameter to
provide protection against contamination from back- permit safe access by a ladder. A guard screen consist-
flooding, damage from floating debris, and vandalism. ing of a wire mesh with 1 in.-square openings may be
When wells are to discharge into a collector ditch or installed at the end of the outlet pipe to prevent animals
backwater which may contain organic matter, debris, and debris from entering the outlet pipe in the event the
and fine-grained sediment in suspension, or where high flap gates do not close properly.
velocities may be expected while the wells are flowing,
they should be installed off to the side and should dis- 9-4. Plastic Sleeves
charge into the ditch or area through a tee connection
and horizontal outlet pipe protected against corrosion. Where relief wells are provided for underseepage con-
A flat-type check valve should be installed on the well trol at levees, the well flows at relatively low river
riser with a flap gate on the end of the horizontal pipe. stages will be somewhat in excess of natural seepage.
An example of this type of installation is shown in In cases where the additional seepage is considered
Figure 9-1. objectionable, each well can be provided with a plastic
sleeve, 1.0 or 1.5 ft in length, which will raise the dis-
9-2. Check Valves charge elevation of the well accordingly. The sleeves
prevent well flow at low river stages when no pressure
Control of backflooding, which greatly impairs well relief is necessary. At higher river stages or as soon as
efficiency, is best implemented by flat-type check valves substratum pressures develop to the extent that water
constructed of aluminum (see Figure 9-1). The check begins to spill over the top of the sleeves, they should
valve is supported by a soft rubber gasket which fits be removed so that the well can function as intended.
snugly over the top of the riser or cast iron tenon set in
the concrete backfill. Other types of check valves may
be used but should be thoroughly tested under controlled
conditions before application in the field.

9-1
EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

Figure 9-1. Typical detail of well top, check valve, and outlet

9-2
 EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

-ffi-
31!6' STEEL ROD LIFTING
RING ATTACHED BY wELDING
5/8' BRASS-BOLT
AND \J ASHER c4 REQ' D>
22' DIA lO GA. GALV.
2" X 2' X 3\16" ---~ STEEL COVER PLATE

21' DIA. 10 GA. GAL V. CDRR. ME;T Al

PIPE. BITUMINOUS COATED
2' X 2' X 3/16"

BDL T OR RIVET
w!RE

NATURAL GROUND

.
0

L
1 - - - - - - - 2 1 ' MIN.

~--------36~-------~

Figure 9-2. Metal well guard details

9-3
EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

(.235)

'
'
ROO
DETAIL
PLAN - Pl.ATE THREADED
FOR FASTENING I'IOTE:
1 - FINISH TO BE FLAT
NOT BUFfED
SECTION A-A
2 - 51% OPEN AREA
.3,B " SOCKET HEAD CAP SCREWS
304 SS ( 4 REQ'D}
2 !" QlA COVER PLATE
304 ss

rT
20" 16"
20" DIA JOHrtSON SCREEN
.250 SLOT - .304 SS

S<E OETAIL

~ .
'
-- . :" 10"
.if
""'. ,' 8'' I.D.
___l

"'..
-':
.if

....
. :...
~

ELEVATION

~ l
l
21" MSN

36''

METAL WELL GUARD DETAIL

.I
(NTS)

Figure 9-3. Alternative metal well guard

9-4
 EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

Chapter 10 evidence of significantly decreased effectiveness, as

Inspection Maintenance and Evaluation shown by changes in flow quantities or piezometric
levels for a constant combination of reservoir level and
tailwater level.

10-1. General Maintenance b. Flowing wells located in areas in which failure

would not constitute a hazard to life or property, as on
Relief wells require a certain amount of nominal mainte- excavated slopes of canals, should be visually inspected
nance to ensure their continued and proper functioning. at monthly intervals. Measurements of piezometric
Any trash or obstruction in the well or well guard levels and flow quantities should be made annually.
should be removed immediately. Sand or other material
that may have accumulated in and around flap gates to c. Relief wells located along the toe of levees and at
obstruct the flow or prevent functioning of the gates locations where they flow infrequently should be
should be removed. Outfall ditches, bank slopes, or inspected annually, preferably immediately prior to
berms should be properly maintained in the vicinity of normal high-water seasons and more often during major
horizontal outlet pipes. The area in the immediate high waters. Flow quantities and piezometric levels
vicinity of the wells should be kept free from weeds, should be measured approximately a week after a peak
trash, and debris. Mowing and weed spraying should be in the reservoir level or in the river level at a levee.
extended at least 5 ft beyond the well, and the ground Pumping tests should be performed at five-year intervals
shaped and maintained for inspection and servicing of on wells that flow infrequently. The tests should be
the wells. performed to determine the specific capacities and the
efficiencies of the wells. The amount of sediment in the
10-2. Periodic Inspections wells should be measured before and after performance
of the pumping tests.
a. Periodic inspections of relief well systems should
be carried out as described in ER 1110-2-100 and 10-3. Pumping Tests
ER 110-2-1942. Relief well installations in readily
accessible locations at dams and appurtenant structures All wells should be pump tested every five years using
where well flow is continuous should be visually procedures described in Chapter 8. Wells in relatively
inspected weekly. Observation should be made for inaccessible locations should be pump tested whenever
evidence of wet spots on the dam or on the ground the structure is unwatered or when piezometric data
around the wells and structures, for evidence of slough- indicate that well efficiency has decreased significantly.
ing or piping, for indications of discharge of sand or Wells should be checked for sanding before and after
other materials from the wells, and for surficial signs of pumping. All wells requiring removal of sediment
damage. The inspection should detect whether vandal- should be pump tested after cleaning to see if any ap-
ism, theft, abuse by carelessness, unauthorized use of preciable loss of efficiency has resulted from foreign
the wells or associated piezometers, or other irregulari- material entering the well. In the case of continuously
ties have occurred. The inspection should include an flowing wells, the discharge should be measured at high
examination of check valves, gaskets, well guards, cover pool levels to determine specific capacity and indica-
plates, flap gates on tee outlets, and other appurtenances. tions of sanding. If the pumping tests indicate that the
Malfunctioning or damaged items should be repaired or specific capacity is less than 80 percent of that deter-
replaced. At yearly intervals, piezometric levels and mined at the time of installation, then corrective mea-
flow quantities should be measured, and wells should be sures should be employed. Investigations as described
sounded for evidence of deposition of sand or other in Chapter 10 should be conducted prior to initiating the
material in the wells. Where relief wells penetrate two rehabilitation methods described in Chapter 11. If the
or more aquifers, the well flows at various depths rehabilitation are unsuccessful in restoring the wells to
should be checked at yearly intervals to determine at least 80 percent of their original efficiency, consi-
whether flows between aquifers are occurring. deration should be given to replacing these wells.
Piezometric levels and flow quantities should also be
measured approximately one week after the attainment 10-4. Records
of an unusually high reservoir level. Wells in relatively
inaccessible locations, as beneath stilling basins, should A record should be kept of all inspections and
be inspected whenever the structure is unwatered for a maintenance performed on each well. The record
general maintenance inspection, or when there is

10-1
EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

should include all pumping test data, descriptions of a dam has greater influence on well performance than
rehabilitation efforts, and summaries of well flows and variation in reservoir level, because the point at which
piezometric data during periods of high river stages or the tailwater has access to the aquifer is considerably
pool levels. closer to the well than the point at which the reservoir
pressure can enter the aquifer.
10-5. Evaluation
b. The values obtained from measurement or
a. It should be noted that a reduction in well dis- piezometric levels and flow quantities should be
charge accompanied by a fall in piezometric levels in extrapolated to predict the values that would be pro-
downstream areas probably indicates a decrease in duced by a maximum design reservoir or river elevation.
seepage due to siltation in the reservoir, riverbed areas, If these values are greater than those for which the
or riverside borrow pits, which is a favorable condition. structure was designed, or if the specific capacities or
It is possible, however, that such a reduction was caused the efficiencies of the wells are less than 80 percent of
by erosion or excavation of an impervious top stratum at the values that were obtained at the time of installation
a point downstream of the line of wells, thus permitting of the wells, additional investigations should be per-
exit of seepage to tailwater much closer to the wells. formed to determine the cause of the inadequacies.
This condition would be unfavorable, because it would Investigations may include the examination of the well
indicate a higher value of the seepage gradient and an screen by means of a borehole camera, sounding the
increased potential for piping immediately downstream well with a caliper, and the performance of chemical
from the well line. A reduction in well discharge tests on the water and on any deposits or incrustations
accompanied by an increase in piezometric levels indi- found in the well. If there are any inclinometer tubes
cates clogging or obstruction of the relief wells, and installed in the foundation in the vicinity of the wells,
requires immediate remedial action. Observation of they should be read to determine if there has been any
changes in flow and piezometric levels must be related horizontal movement of the foundation that would cause
to changes or lack of changes in both reservoir level and disruption of well screens or risers.
tailwater level. Often, variation in tailwater level at

10-2
 EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

Chapter 11 11-3. Chemical

Malfunctioning of Wells and
Chemical incrustation of the well screen, filter pack, and
Reduction in Efficiency
surrounding formation soils can be a major factor in
specific capacity reduction with time. Chemical
deposits forming within the screen openings reduce their
11-1. General effective open area and cause increased head losses.
Deposits in the filter pack and surrounding soils reduce
Relief wells may not function as intended and may also their permeability and also increase head losses. The
be subject to reduced efficiency with time. Failure of occurrence of chemical incrustation is determined
relief wells to function as intended can be attributed to a chiefly by water quality. The type and amount of dis-
number of causes. Deficiencies in design can usually be solved minerals and gases in the water entering the well
assessed during initial operation of the well system. determine the tendency to deposit mineral matter as
Based on piezometric and well flow data, an assessment incrustations. The major forms of chemical incrustation
of the effectiveness of the well system can be made and include: (a) incrustation from precipitation of calcium
if considered inadequate, additional relief wells may be and magnesium carbonates or their sulfates, and
installed. Relief wells may malfunction for a variety of (b) incrustation from precipitation of iron and
reasons including vandalism, breakage, or excessive manganese compounds, primarily their hydroxides or
deformation of the well screens due to ground move- hydrated oxides.
ments, corrosion or erosion of the well screen, and a
gradual loss in efficiency with time. The reduced effi- a. Causes of carbonate incrustations. Chemical
ciency generally determined as a percentage loss in incrustation usually results from the precipitation of
specific capacity based on the specific capacity deter- calcium carbonates from the ground water of the well.
mined from pumping tests at the time of installation is a Calcium carbonate can be carried in solution in propor-
measure of increased well losses, which in turn result in tion to the amount of dissolved carbon dioxide in the
higher landside heads. Thus, reduced well efficiency ground water. For a well discharging from a confined
will result in hydrostatic heads larger than those antici- aquifer, the hydrostatic pressure adjacent to the well is
pated in the design. The major causes of reduced spe- reduced to provide the gradient necessary for the well to
cific capacity with time are (a) mechanical, (b) chemi- flow. The reduction in pressure causes a release of
cal, and (c) biological. carbon dioxide which in turn results in precipitation of
some of the calcium carbonate. The precipitation tends
11-2. Mechanical to be concentrated at the well screen and surrounding
filter pack where the maximum pressure reduction
Most relief wells undergo some loss in specific capacity occurs. Magnesium bicarbonate may change to magne-
probably due to the slow movement of foundation fines sium carbonate in the same manner; however incrusta-
into the filter pack with a corresponding reduction in tion from this source is seldom a problem as precipita-
permeability. The process occurs more commonly in tion occurs only at very high levels of carbonate
cases of poorly designed filter packs, improper screen concentration.
and filter pack placement, or insufficient well develop-
ment. Generally, the major cause of reduced efficiency b. Causes of iron and manganese incrustation.
by mechanical processes is the introduction of fines into Many ground waters contain iron and manganese ions if
the well by backflooding of muddy surface waters. the pH is about 5 or less. Reduction of pressure due to
Normally, backflooding can be prevented by the use of well flow can disturb the chemical equilibrium of the
check valves at the well outlet; however if not properly ground water and result in the deposition of insoluble
designed and maintained, the valves may not function as iron and manganese hydroxides. The hydroxides initial-
intended. The introduction of fines into the well and ly have the consistency of a gel but eventually harden
surrounding filter pack under backflow conditions can into scale deposits. Further oxidation of the hydroxides
result in serious clogging which will result in reduced results in the formation of ferrous, ferric, or manganese
specific capacities.

11-1
EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

oxides. Ferric oxide is a reddish brown deposit similar (2) Gallionella. This organism is composed of
to rust, whereas the ferrous oxide has the consistency of twisted stalks or bands resembling a ribbon or chain. A
a black sludge. Manganese oxide is usually black or bean-shaped bacterial cell, which is the only living part
dark brown in color. The iron and manganese deposits of the organism, is found at the end of the stalk.
are usually found with calcium carbonate and magne-
sium carbonate scale. (3) Filamentous Group. This filamentous group
consists of four genera: Chrenothrix, Sphaerotilus,
11-4. Biological Incrustation Clonothrix, and Leptothrix. The organisms are structur-
ally characterized by filaments which are composed of
a. Iron bacteria are a major source of well screen series of cells enclosed in a sheath. The sheaths are
and gravel pack contamination. They consist of organ- commonly covered with a slime layer. Both the sheath
isms that have the ability to assimilate dissolved iron and slime layers or these organisms typically become
which they oxidize or reduce to ferrous or ferric ions for encrusted with ferric hydrate resulting in large masses of
energy. The ions are precipitated as hydrated ferric filamentous growth and iron deposits.
hydroxide on or in their mucilaginous sheaths. The
precipitation of the iron and rapid growth of the bacteria d. Identification. The presence of iron bacteria is
can quickly reduce well efficiency. Iron bacteria usually indicated by brownish red stains in well collec-
problems in ground water and wells are recognized tor pipes or ditches. Television and photographic sur-
throughout the world and are responsible for costly well veys can pinpoint the locations of screen incrustation,
maintenance and rehabilitation. and samples of the incrustations can be obtained by a
small bucket-shaped container. Samples can be sent to
b. Despite the widespread familiarity with iron the USAE Waterways Experiment Station, or a private
bacteria problems in wells, relatively little is known firm familiar with iron bacteria for identification. Identi-
about their growth requirements. One reason for the fication is best accomplished by scanning electron or
lack of research on iron bacteria is that these organisms transmission electron microscopy and phase contrast
are difficult to culture for experimental study and that techniques. Correct identification is necessary for selec-
pure cultures of many of these organisms have never tion of an appropriate treatment method.
been obtained. Available information on the nature and
occurrence of iron-precipitating bacteria in ground water e. Prevention. It is not clear whether iron bacteria
is summarized by Hackett and Lehr in Leach and Taylor exist in ground water before well construction takes
(1989). place, or whether they are introduced into the aquifer
from the foundation soils or in mix water during well
c. In order to determine which genus of iron construction. Evidence exists that iron bacteria may be
bacteria is contained in a particular water sample, a carried from well to well on drill rods and other equip-
system of classification based on the physical form of ment and therefore every effort should be made to avoid
these organisms has been employed by the water well introducing iron bacteria into a well during installation,
industry (Driscoll 1986). The three general forms re- maintenance, or rehabilitation operations. After comple-
cognized are: tion of operations on a well, all drilling equipment,
tools, bits and pumps, should be thoroughly disinfected
(1) Siderocapsa. This organism consists of nume- by washing with a chlorine solution (100 ppm) before
rous short rods surrounded by a mucoid capsule. The initiating work on another well.
deposit surrounding the capsule is hydrous ferric oxide,
a rust-brown precipitate.

11-2
 EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

Chapter 12 magnesium, and iron ions adhering to the particles to

Well Rehabilitation remain in a soluble state. The most widely used chemi-
cals for this purpose are the glassy sodium phosphates
which are inexpensive and readily available. The chem-
icals are usually applied in concentrations of 15 to 25 lb
12-1. General per 100 gal of water in combination with at least
50 ppm of chlorine (about one-half gal of 3 percent
The analysis of well discharge records and household bleach or chlorox in 100 gal of water). Phos-
accompanying piezometric data will often indicate phate solutions are mixed in a barrel or tank adjacent to
whether the relief wells are functioning as intended. A the well. The material is best dissolved in small
decrease in well discharges with time for similar pool or amounts in a wire basket or perforated container in
river stages with rising piezometric levels between wells agitated or swirling water. If the material is dropped
is usually indicative of decreasing well efficiency. A directly into the tank or well, it will sink to the bottom
quantitative measure of the loss in efficiency is only and form a large gelatinous mass that could remain
determined by carefully conducted pumping tests as undissolved for some time. One of the most effective
previously described. Should the pumping tests indicate means of introducing the phosphate and chlorine solu-
a reduction in specific capacity of more than 20 percent tion into the well is by means of a horizontal jetting
compared to that measured at installation, a detailed device. The well should then be surged vigorously prior
study should be made of the consequences of the reduc- to pumping. Three or more repetitions of injecting,
tion and what remedial measures should be employed. surging, and pumping over a 2 to 4-hr cycle will be
Generally, it may be possible to restore the wells to much more effective than a single treatment with a lon-
about their original efficiency by means of rehabilitation ger detention time.
techniques.
12-4. Chemical Incrustations
Rapidly developing technology in the fields of chemistry
and microbiology, as they are related to wells and If the cause of reduced well efficiency is determined to
aquifers, could negate portions of the following rehabili- be chemical incrustation, more frequent cleaning and
tation techniques but the items covered are at least maintenance should be initiated. If the efficiency re-
broadly covered and represent present practice. Envi- mains low, consideration should be given to treating the
ronmental concerns (past and present chemical usage) well with a strong acid solution which can chemically
also require that certain Federal, State, and local laws be dissolve the incrusting materials so that they can be
followed and rehabilitation techniques may have to be pumped from the well. Acids most commonly used in
modified to comply with these laws. well rehabilitation are hydrochloric acid, sulfamic acid,
and hydroxyacetic (glycolic) acid. Acid treatment
12-2. Mechanical Contamination should be used with caution on wooden screen wells as
the acid may tend to attack the lignin in the wood and
Plugging of relief wells by silts, clays, or other particu- cause severe damage. Methods for acid treatment of
late media entering the filter pack either from the forma- wells are described in detail by Driscoll (1986). The
tion or through the top of the well is usually difficult to methods require great care and only experienced person-
determine except as indicated by periodic pumping tests. nel with specialized equipment should be employed.
If significant reductions in specific yield are noted, Specialized firms with experience in this field should be
rehabilitation of the well is in order. Mechanical rede- utilized for this purpose.
velopment of the well similar to that used to develop a
new well should be the first step. Overpumping or 12-5. Bacterial Incrustation
pumping the well at the highest rate attainable is gener-
ally advantageous. Surging and the use of horizontal Incrustation of wells by iron bacteria is best controlled
jetting devices also may produce beneficial results. by a combination of chemical and physical treatments.
Many chemical treatments have been suggested and
12-3. Chemical Treatment with Polyphosphates applied in practice but their success has been variable as
evidenced in many cases by recolonization or regrowth
Mechanical plugging of relief wells is corrected most in the treated wells. A strong oxidizing agent such as
often by chemical treatment with polyphosphates. These chlorine is widely used to limit the growth of iron bac-
chemicals act as dispersing agents which causes silt and teria. Chlorine, in the form of a gas, is used in the
clay particles to repel one another and calcium,

12-1
EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

restoration of commercial wells; however safety and hydroxyactic acid may sometimes be beneficial. An
experience requirements limit its general application. A inhibitor is needed only if the well screen is metal. The
more convenient alternative is the use of hyperchlorite amount of acid should be typically one and a half to
or other chlorine products (see Table 12-1). A discus- two times the volume of the well screen. If a chelating
sion of procedures for the use of the various products is agent is not used, iron will precipitate out if the pH rises
given by Driscoll (1986). Physical methods for control above 3. The precipitate can result in clogging; there-
of iron bacteria are available, however sufficient fore the pH should be monitored throughout the acid
research has not been accomplished to justify their use treatment and not be allowed to rise above 3 regardless
in relief wells. A survey of new techniques is presented of whether a chelating agent is used.
by Hackett and Lehr in Leach and Taylor (1989).
b. Gently agitate the solution with a jetting tool at
12-6. Recommended Treatment 10-min intervals for a period of 1 to 2 hr.

As clogging of well screens and filter materials is c. Pump out a volume of solution equal to the vol-
caused not only by the organic material produced by the ume of the well.
bacteria but also by oxides and hydroxides of iron and
manganese, better results are usually obtained by treat- d. Determine the pH of solution removed from the
ing the well alternately with a chlorine compound to well. If the pH is more than 3, repeat steps (a) to (c).
attack the organic material and a strong acid to dissolve
the mineral deposits. Between each treatment the well e. Allow the acid to remain in the well for a mini-
is pumped to waste to ensure that chlorine and acid are mum of 12 hr and then pump to waste.
not in the well at the same time. A recommended pro-
cedure using the two procedures is: f. Inject a mixture of chlorine and one or more
chloric-stable surfactants (detergents and wetting agents,
a. Inject a mixture of acid, inhibitor, and wetting for example). The concentration of the chlorine should
agent. The addition of a chelating agent such as exceed 1,000 ppm.

Table 12-1
Quantities of Various Chlorine Compounds Required to Provide as Much Available Chlorine as 1 lb of Chlorine Gas1

Number of lb
% Available Equivalent to
Chemical Chlorine 1 lb Cl2

Chlorine Gas 100 1.0

Calcium Hypochlorite 65 1.54

Lithium Hypochlorite 36 2.78

Sodium Hypochlorite 12.5 8.0

2
Trichlorisocyanuric Acid 90 1.11

Sodium dichloroisocyanurate2 63 1.59

2
Potassium dichloroisocyanurate 60 1.67

Chlorine Dixoide 4 25.0

Chlorine Dioxide 2 50.0

Notes:
1. From Driscoll (1986).
2. Chlorine compounds that incorporate isocyanuric acid stabilize the chlorine against degradation from sunlight. Except for storage, the
advantage offered by the addition of isocyanuric acid is less valuable in water wells.

12-2
 EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

g. Gentle agitate the solution with a jetting tool at information from the tests, targeting the problematic
10-min intervals every 2 hr for the first 8 hr and then at agents with an appropriate set of chemicals. Redevelop-
8 hr intervals for at least 24 hr. ment of the wells using the ARCC method is based on
the use of blended chemicals and high temperature
h. Pump out a volume of solution equal to the (BCHT) and is divided into three principle elements of
volume of the well. treatment:

i. Determine chlorine concentration. If the concen- a. Shock. This phase is achieved by adding high
tration is less than 10 percent of the original concentra- temperature chlorinated water to the well and surround-
tion, repeat steps f to h. ing aquifer to "shock" kill or reduce the impact of dele-
terious algae and bacteria. The water is chlorinated to
j. Perform a pumping test on the well. If the >700 ppm with gaseous chlorine to avoid binders found
specific capacity has improved by more than 5 percent, in powdered chlorine and is applied to the well as steam
repeat the entire procedure until the specific capacity until the well temperature is brought above 120 deg F
does not improve by 5 percent. for massive bacteria kill. The chlorine treatment
remains in the well for a specified period of time;
12-7. Specialized Treatment mechanical surging is used; and pumping follows for
removal of the initial loosened biomass.
The USAE Waterways Experiment Station personnel,
funded under a repair evaluation maintenance and resto- b. Disrupt. This phase is achieved by the addition
ration (REMR) work unit, developed a field procedure of chemical agents, acids and surfactants, and steam to
(Kissane and Leach 1991) for cleaning water wells that the well and surrounding aquifer while the well is pres-
provides initial kill of the active bacteria in the well, surized. Mechanical surging to break up organic and
dissolves the biomass in the screen, in the gravel pack, mineral clogging in the system is also used. The
and some distance into the aquifer, and provides some mechanical surging and chemical set time are important
inhibition of future growth. The procedure was devel- during this phase to achieve dissolution of the remaining
oped using a patented process known as the Alford biomass.
Rodgers Cullimore Concept (ARCC). The procedures
in general include an initial well diagnosis performed c. Disperse. This phase of treatment consists of
with a prepackaged field microbiological test kit which removal of the material that has been clogging the well
is designed to give a qualitative indication of the types and aquifer. Acceptance criteria for the well are
of bacterial and chemical agents at work in the wells, checked and further cycles are considered or a final cold
and a very general indication of the bacterial concentra- chlorination treatment is applied for inhibition of any
tions. The initial water chemistry is also measured prior remaining bacterial colonies.
to treatment. A treatment is then designed with the

12-3
 EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

APPENDIX A A-2 Related Publications

References
Banks 1963
Banks, D. C. 1963 (Mar). "Three-Dimensional Electri-
cal Analogy Seepage Model Studies; Appendix A:
A-1. Required Publications Flow to Circular Well Arrays Centered Inside a Circular
Source, Series G," Technical Report No. 3-619, US
TM 5-818-5 Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station,
Dewatering and Ground Water Control (Nov 83) Vicksburg MS.
ER 1110-2-100 Banks 1965
Periodic Inspection and Continuing Evaluation of Banks, D. C. 1965 (Mar). "Three-Dimensional Electri-
Completed Civil Works Structures (Apr 88) cal Analogy Seepage Model Studies; Appendix B: Flow
to a Single Well Centered Inside a Circular Source,
ER 1110-2-110 Series H," Technical Report No. 3-619, US Army Engi-
Instrumentation for Safety-Evaluations of Civil Works neer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.
Projects (Jul 85)
Barron 1948
ER 1110-2-1942 Barron, R. A. 1948. "The Effect of a Slightly Pervious
Inspection, Monitoring, and Maintenance of Relief Top Blanket on the Performance of Relief Wells," Pro-
Wells (Feb 88) ceedings of the Second International Conference on Soil
Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Rotterdam,
EM 1110-1-1804 Netherlands, Vol 4, p 342.
Geotechnical Investigations (Feb 84)
Barron 1982
EM 1110-2-1602 Barron, R. A. 1982 (Sept). "Mathematical Theory of
Hydraulic Design of Reservoir Outlet Works (Oct 80) Partially Penetrating Relief Wells," Unpublished report
prepared for the US Army Engineer Waterways Experi-
EM 1110-2-1901 ment Station, Vicksburg, MS.
Seepage Analysis and Control for Dams (Sep 86)
Bennett and Barron 1957
EM 1110-2-1905 Bennett, P. T., and Barron, R. A. 1957. "Design Data
Design of Finite Relief Well Systems (Mar 63) for Partially Penetrating Relief Wells," Proceedings of
the Fourth International Conference on Soil Mechanics
EM 1110-2-1906 and Foundation Engineering, London, United Kingdom,
Laboratory Soils Testing Ch 1-2 (Nov 70) Vol II.
EM 1110-2-1907 Conroy 1984
Soil Sampling (Mar 72) Conroy, P. 1984. "Computer Program for Relief Well
Design According to TM 3-424," US Army Engineer
EM 1110-2-1908 District, St. Louis, St. Louis, MO.
Instrumentation of Earth and Rock-Fill Dams - Part 1
(Aug 71), Part 2 (Nov 76) Cunny, Agostinelli, and Taylor 1989
Cunny, R. W., Agostinelli, V. M., Jr., and Taylor,
EM 1110-2-1913 H. M., Jr. 1989 (Sept). "Levee Underseepage Software
Design and Construction of Levees (Mar 78) User Manual and Validation," Technical Report REMR-
GT-13, US Army Engineer Waterways Experiment
EM 1110-2-2300 Station, Vicksburg, MS.
Earth and Rock-Fill Dams General Design and Con-
struction Considerations (May 82)

A-1
EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

Dachler 1936 Kissane and Leach 1991

Dachler, A. E. 1936. "Grundwasserstromung," Kissane, J., Leach, R. 1991 (Mar). "Redevelopment of
Julius Springer, Vienna. Relief Wells, Upper Wood River Drainage and Levee
District, Madison County, Illinois," Technical Report
Driscoll 1986 REMR GT-16, US Army Engineer Waterways Experi-
Driscoll, F. G. 1986. "Groundwater and Wells" 2d., ment Station, Vicksburg, MS.
Johnson Division, SES, Inc., St. Paul, MN.
Kozeny 1933
Duncan 1963 Kozeny, J. 1933. "Theorie and Berechnvng der
Duncan, J. M. 1963 (Mar). "Three-Dimensional Elec- Brunnen," Wasserkroft W. Wasser Wirtschoft, Vol 29.
trical Analogy Seepage Model Studies," Technical
Report No. 3-619, US Army Engineer Waterways Leach and Taylor 1989
Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS. Leach, R.E. and Taylor H.M. Jr. 1989 (Jul). "Proceed-
ings of REMR Workshop on Research Priorities for
Environmental Protection Agency 1976 Drainage System and Relief Well Problems," Final
Environmental Protection Agency. 1976 (Jul). "Manual Report, US Army Engineer Waterways Experiment
of Methods for Chemical Analysis of Water and Station, Vicksburg MS.
Wastes," EPA-625-6-76-003a. Available from Environ-
mental Protection Agency, 26 W. St. Clair Street, Mansur and Dietrich 1965
Cincinnati, OH 45268. Mansur, C. I., and Dietrich, R. J. 1965 (Jul). "Pumping
Test to Determine Permeability Ratio," Journal of the
Ferris, Knowles, Brown, and Stellman 1962 Soil Mechanics and Foundation Division, American
Ferris, J. G., Knowles, D. B., Brown, R. H., and Stell- Society of Civil Engineers, Vol 91, No. SM4.
man, R. W. 1962. "Theory of Aquifer Tests,"
Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 1536-E, Mansur and Kaufman 1955
US Government Printing Office, Washington, DC. Mansur, C. I., and Kaufman, R. I. 1955 (May).
"Control of Underseepage, Mississippi River Levees, St.
Forcheimer 1914 Louis District, Corps of Engineers," US Army Engineer
Forcheimer, P. H. 1914. Hydraulik, Teubner, Berlin. Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.

Freeze and Cherry 1976 Mansur and Kaufman 1962

Freeze, R. A. and Cherry, J. A. 1976. Groundwater, Mansur, C. I., and Kaufman, R. I. 1962. "Dewatering,"
Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N. J. Foundation Engineering, edited by G. A. Leonards,
McGraw-Hill, New York.
Hadj-Hamou, Tavassoli, and Sherman 1990
Hadj-Hamou, T., Tavassoli, M., and Sherman, W. C. McAnear and Trahan 1972
1990 (Sept). "Laboratory Testing of Filters and Slot McAnear, C. L., and Trahan, C. C. 1972 (Jan).
Sizes for Relief Wells," Journal of Geotechnical Engi- "Three-Dimensional Seepage Model Study, Oakley
neering, American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol 116, Dam, Sangamon River, Illinois," Miscellaneous Paper
No. 9. S-72-3, US Army Engineer Waterways Experiment
Station, Vicksburg, MS.
Harr 1962
Harr, M. E. 1962. Groundwater and Seepage, Middlebrooks 1948
McGraw-Hill, New York. Middlebrooks, T. A. 1948. "Seepage Control for Large
Earth Dams," Transactions of the Third International
Johnson 1947 Congress on Large Dams, Stockholm, Sweden.
Johnson, S. J. 1947. Discussion of "Relief Wells for
Dams and Levees," by Middlebrooks, T. A., and Jervis,
W. H., Transactions of the American Society of Civil
Engineers, Vol 112.

A-2
 EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

Middlebrooks and Jervis 1947 US Army Engineer District, Albuquerque 1967

Middlebrooks, T. A. and Jervis, W. H. 1947. "Relief US Army Engineer District, Albuquerque. 1967 (Jul).
Wells for Dams and Levees," Transactions of the "Cochiti Lake, Rio Grande, New Mexico, Embankment
American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol 112. and Conveyance Channel," Design Memorandum No. 9,
Albuquerque, NM.
Montgomery 1972
Montgomery, R. L. 1972 (Jun). "Investigation of Re- US Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station
lief Wells, Mississippi River Levees, Alton to Gale, 1956
Illinois," Miscellaneous Paper S-72-21, US Army Engi- US Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station.
neer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS. 1956 (Oct). "Investigation of Underseepage and Its
Control, Lower Mississippi River Levees," 2 Vols,
Moser and Huibregtse 1976 Technical Memorandum No. 3-424, Vicksburg, MS.
Moser, J. H. and Huibregtse, K. R. 1976 (Sept).
"Handbook for Sampling and Sample Preservation of US Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station
Water And Wastewater," EPA-600-4-76-049; Available 1958
from Environmental Protection Agency, 26 W. St. Clair US Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station.
Street, Cincinnati, OH 45268. 1958 (Jun). "Analysis of Piezometer and Relief Well
Data, Arkabutla Dam," Technical Report No. 3-479,
Muskat 1937 Vicksburg, MS.
Muskat, M. 1937. The Flow of Homogeneous Fluids
Through Porous Media, J. W. Edwards, Ann Arbor, MI. US Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station
1973
Todd 1980 US Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station.
Todd, D. K. 1980. Groundwater Hydrology, 2d ed., 1973. "Computer Program H2030- Discharge in Pres-
John Wiley & Sons, New York. sure Conduits Using the Darcy-Weisbach Formula,"
Vicksburg, MS.
Turnbull and Mansur 1954
Turnbull, W. J. and Mansur, C. I. 1954. "Relief Well Warriner and Banks 1977
Systems for Dams and Levees," Transactions of the Warriner, J. B., and Banks, D. C. 1977. "Numerical
American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol 119, Analysis of Partially Penetrating Well Arrays," Techni-
Paper No. 2701. cal Report S-77-5, US Army Engineer Waterways
Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.

A-3
 EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

APPENDIX B e. All seepage is laminar.

Mathematical Analysis of
In addition to the above, it is also required that the
Underseepage and Substratum
foundation be generalized into a pervious sand or gravel
Pressure stratum with a uniform thickness and permeability and a
semipervious or impervious top stratum with a uniform
B-1. General thickness and permeability (although the thickness and
permeability of the riverside and landside top stratum
The design of seepage control measures for levees and may be different).
dams often requires an underseepage analysis without
the use of piezometric data and seepage measurements. B-3. Factors Involved in Seepage Analyses
Contained within this appendix are equations by which
an estimate of seepage flow and substratum pressures The volume of seepage (Qs) that will pass beneath a
can be made, provided soil conditions at the site are levee and the artesian pressure that can develop under
reasonably well defined. The equations contained herein and landward of a levee during a sustained high water
were developed during a study by the US Army Engi- are related to the basic factors given and defined in
neer Waterways Experiment Station (1956)1 of piezome- Table B-1 and shown graphically in Figure B-1. Other
tric data and seepage measurements along the Lower terms used in the analyses are defined as they are dis-
Mississippi River and confirmed by model studies. The cussed in subsequent paragraphs.
following discussion is presented in terms of levee
underseepage; however the analyses and equations are B-4. Determination of Factors Involved in
considered equally applicable to dam foundations. It Seepage Analyses
should be emphasized that the accuracy obtained from
the use of equations is dependent upon the applicability Many of the factors necessary to perform a seepage
of the equation to the condition being analyzed, the analysis, such as exploration and testing, have
uniformity of soil conditions, and the evaluation of the previously been mentioned in the text; however they are
various factors involved. As is normally the case, sound discussed in more detail as they apply to each specific
engineering judgment must be exercised in determining factor. The use of piezometric data, although rarely
soil profiles and soil input parameters for these analyses. available on new projects, is mentioned primarily be-
cause it is not infrequent for seepage analyses to be per-
B-2. Assumptions formed as a part of remedial measures for existing
levees in which case piezometric data often are
It is necessary to make certain simplifying assumptions available.
before making any theoretical seepage analysis. The
following is a list of such assumptions and criteria nec- a. Net head, H. The net head on a levee is the
essary to the analysis set forth in this appendix: height of water on the riverside above the tailwater or
natural ground surface on the landside of the levee. H
a. Seepage may enter the pervious substratum at is usually based on the net levee grade but is sometimes
any point in the foreshore (usually at riverside borrow based on the design or project floodstage.
pits) and/or through the riverside top stratum.
b. Thickness, Z, and vertical permeability, kb, of top
b. Flow through the top stratum is vertical. stratum. Where the thickness of the riverside blanket
differs from that of the landside blanket, the designa-
c. Flow through the pervious substratum is hori- tions, ZbR and ZbL are used. Similarly the permeability
zontal. Flow in the vertical direction is entirely of the riverside and landside blankets are designated kbR
disregarded. and kbL , respectively.

d. The levee (including impervious or thick berm) (1) Exploration. The thickness of the top stratum,
and the portion of the top stratum beneath it are both riverward and landward of the levee, is extremely
impervious. important in a seepage analysis. Exploration to deter-
_______________________________ mine this thickness usually consists of auger borings
1
References cited in this appendix are listed in with samples taken at 3- to 5-ft intervals and at every
Appendix A.

B-1
EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

Table B-1
Examples of Transformation Procedure
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Transformed Thickness,
Actual Actual ft
Thickness Permeability Ft = kb for kb = 1 10-4 cm/sec
Strata ft cm/sec kn

Clay 5 1 10-4 1 5.0

Sandy Silt 8 2 10-4 1/2 4.0

Silty Sand 5 10 10 -4
1/10 0.5
Z=18 Zb = 9.5

Figure B-1. Illustration of symbols used in Appendix B

B-2
 EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

change of material. Boring spacing will depend on the c. Thickness D and permeability kf of pervious sub-
potential severity of the underseepage problem but stratum. The thickness of the pervious substratum is
should be laid out for sampling the basic geologic fea- defined as the thickness of the principal seepage-carry-
tures with intermediate borings for check purposes. ing stratum below the top stratum and above rock or
Landside borings should be sufficient to delineate any other impervious base stratum. It is usually determined
significant geological features as far as 500 ft away by means of deep borings although a combination of
from the levee toe. The effect of ditches and borrow shallow borings and seismic or electrical resistivity
areas must be considered. surveys may also be employed. The thickness of any
individual pervious strata within the principal seepage-
(2) Transformation. The top stratum in most areas carrying stratum must be obtained by deep borings. The
is seldom composed of one uniform material but rather average horizontal permeability kf of the pervious sub-
usually consists of several layers of different soils. If stratum can be determined by means of a field pump
the in situ vertical permeability of each soil layer (kn) is test on a fully penetrating well as described in the main
known, it is possible to transform the top stratum to an text. For areas where such correlations exist, their use
equivalent stratum of effective thickness and vertical will usually result in a more accurate permeability deter-
permeability. However, a reasonably accurate seepage mination than that from laboratory permeability tests.
analysis can also be made by assuming a uniform verti- In addition to the methods above, if the total amount of
cal permeability for the top stratum equal to the perme- seepage passing beneath the levee (Qs) and the hydraulic
ability of the most impervious strata and then using the grade line beneath the levee (M) are known, kf can be
transformation factor given in Equation B-1 to deter- estimated from the equation
mine a transformed thickness for the entire top stratum.
Qs
kf (B-2)
kb M
Ft (B-1)
kn

d. Distance from riverside levee toe to river, L1 .

This distance can usually be estimated from topographic
where Ft is the transformation factor. Some examples maps.
using this procedure are given in Table B-1 and in Fig-
ure B-1. A generalized top stratum having a uniform e. Base width of levee and berm, L2. The distance,
vertical permeability of 1 x 10-4 cm/sec and thickness of L2, can be determined from anticipated dimensions of
9.5 ft would then be used in the seepage analysis for new levees or by measurement in the case of existing
computation of effective blanket lengths. However, the levees.
thickness ZbL may or may not be the effective thickness
of the landside top stratum Zt that should be used in f. Length of top stratum landward of levee toe, L3.
determining the hydraulic gradient through the top stra- This distance can usually be determined from borings,
tum and the allowable pressure beneath the top stratum. topographic maps, and/or field reconnaissance. To
The transformed thickness or the top stratum equals the determine this distance, careful consideration must be
in situ thicknesses of all strata above the base of the given to any geological feature that may affect the seep-
least pervious stratum plus the transformed thicknesses age analysis. Of special importance are deposits of
of the underlying more pervious top strata. Thus, ZbL impervious materials, such as clay plugs which can
will equal Zt only when the least pervious stratum is at serve as seepage barriers. If the barrier is located near
the ground surface. Several examples of this transfor- the landside toe, it could force the emergence of seep-
mation are given in Figure B-2. To make the final age at the near edge and have a pronounced effect on
determination of the effective thicknesses and perme- the seepage analysis.
abilities of the top stratum, conditions at least 200 to
300 ft landward of the levee must be considered. In g. Distance from landside levee toe to effective seep-
addition, certain averaging assumptions are almost age exit, x3. The effective seepage exit (Point B,
always required where soil conditions are reasonably Figure B-1) is defined as that point where a hypothetical
similar. Existing landward conditions or critical areas open drainage face would result in the same hydrostatic
should be given considerable weight in arriving at such pressure at the landside levee toe and would cause the
averages.

B-3
B-4

29 May 92
EM 1110-2-1914
TRANSFORMED STRATA FOR TRANSFORMED STRAT~ FOR
COHPUT.r!ON OF SEEPAGE CD~PUTATION OF" MAXIMUM
ACTUAL STRATI\. AND SUBSTRATUM PRESSURE ALLOIJABLE UPLirT
GROUND SURFACE <C.S)
CLAY
f SANDY Sll T
N
112
"
l/10
t
z b3., 0.5' *
z ,_ o.s SA.ND

"'!
l/10 SANDY StLT

CLAY
i Sll H SAND

II SANDY SILT
1/2
N
"

1 cuw

i SANDY $JL T
K1 "" C X 10- 4
112
'""" z4

:F
SANDY SILT

CLAV
t SANDY SILT

Ill "
N b2-=5"
.L
K CLAY CLAY
2 = .tX.lD- 4

* '=
N
f
z b3 "'0.5' S lL TY S:AND
SIL1Y SANO _ 1/1[)
K...., = 10 X 10
4
f
"SAND * z 3 ;;;;; 0.5' SILTY SAND

Figure 8-2. Transformation of tops strata

 EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

same amount of seepage to pass beneath the levee as (1) If the distance to the river from the riverside
would occur for actual conditions. Point B is located levee toe, L1, is known, and no riverside borrow pits or
where the hydraulic grade line beneath the levee pro- seepage blocks exist, x1 can be estimated from the fol-
jected landward with a slope M intersects the ground lowing equation:
water or tailwater. If the length of foundation and top
stratum beyond the landside levee toe L3 is known, x3
can be estimated from the following equations: tanh cL1
x1 (B-7)
c
(1) For L3 =

1 kf ZbL D where C is calculated from Equation B-4 using appro-

xc (B-3)
C kbL priate properties of the riverside top stratum.

(2) If a seepage block (usually a wide, thick deposit

of clay) exists between the riverside levee toe and the
where river in order to prevent any seepage entrance into the
pervious foundation beyond that point, x1 can be esti-
kbL mated from the following equation:
C (B-4)
kf ZbL D
1
x1 (B-8)
c tanh cL1
(2) For LB = finite distance to a seepage block

1 where L1 equals distance from riverside levee toe to

x3 (B-5)
c tanh cLb seepage block and c is calculated from Equation B-4.

(3) The entrance conditions often are such that an

assumption of a vertical entrance face is not reasonable.
(3) For L3 = finite distance to an open seepage exit Two limiting cases are shown in Figure B-3. The addi-
tional effective length, L1, may be obtained for either
Case A which assumes a uniformly sloping entrance
tanh cL3 face or Case B which assumes a combined infinite
x3 (B-6)
c horizontal entrance face with a vertical entrance face,
D, varying from 0 to D (see Figure B-3).

i. Critical gradient for landside top stratum, ic. The

h. Distance from effective source seepage entry to critical gradient is defined as the gradient required to
riverside levee toe, x1. The effective source of seepage cause boils or heaving (flotation) of the landside top
entry into the pervious substratum (Point A, Figure B-1) stratum and is taken as the ratio of the submerged or
is defined as that line riverward of the levee where a buoyant unit weight of soil, , comprising the top stra-
hypothetical open seepage entry face fully penetrates the tum and the unit weight of water, w, or
pervious substratum. An impervious top stratum be-
tween the seepage entry and the levee would produce
the same flow and hydrostatic pressure beneath and Gs 1
(B-9)
ic
landward of the levee as would occur for the actual con- w 1 e
ditions riverward of the levee. Effective seepage entry
is also defined as that line or point where the hydraulic
grade line beneath the levee projected riverward with a
slope, M, intersects the river stage.

B-5
EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

1.0

I 0.8
\ J
\ / ~
0.6 ::::>

~V
u
\ ~

.e_
1\. 1/
cY 0.4 "-"
/ 0
0

/ ""'
/ ~"
~
0.2 "'
;;;:

0
/ ~ 0.0
0.0 (), 1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
l>L 1/Il
EXTRA LENGTH RATIO DUE TO
SEEPAGE ENTRANCE CONDITIONS

WATER SURFACE

PERVIOU~. FOUNDATION

L2.

/ / / //

AFTER BARRON ( 1982)

Figure B-3. Corrections for nonvertical entrance face (after Barron 1982)

B-6
 EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

where foundation, permeability of the foundation, and the

character of the top stratum both riverward and land-
Gs = specific gravity of soil solids ward of the levee. The head hx beneath the top stratum
at a distance x landward from the landside levee toe can
e = void ratio be expressed as a function of the net head H and the
distance x, although it is more conveniently related to
j. Slope of hydraulic grade line beneath levee, M. the head ho at the levee toe. When hx is expressed in
The slope of the hydraulic grade line in the pervious terms of ho it depends only upon the type and thickness
substratum beneath a levee can best be determined from of the top stratum and pervious foundation landward of
readings of piezometers located beneath the levee where the levee; the ratio hx/ho is thus independent of river-
the seepage flow lines are essentially horizontal and the ward conditions. Expressions for s, ho and hx for
equipotential lines vertical. The slope of the hydraulic various boundary conditions are presented below.
grade line cannot be reliably determined, however, until
the flow conditions have developed beneath the levee. b. Case 1 - no top stratum. Where a levee is
If no piezometer readings are available, as in the case founded directly on pervious materials and no top stra-
for new levee design, M must be determined by first tum exists either riverward or landward of the levee
establishing the effective seepage entrance and exit (Figure B-4a), the seepage Qs can be obtained from
points and then connecting these points with a straight Equation B-12. The excess hydrostatic head landward
line, the slope of which is M. of the levee is zero and ho = hx = 0. The severity of
such a condition in nature is governed by the exit gradi-
B-5. Computation of Seepage Flow and ent and seepage velocity that develop at the landside
Substratum Hydrostatic Pressures levee toe which can be estimated from a flow net com-
patible with the value of S computed from Equa-
a. General tion B-12.

(1) Seepage. For a levee underlain by a pervious c. Case 2 - impervious top stratum both riverside
foundation, the natural seepage per unit length of levee, and landside. This case is found in nature where the
Qs, can be expressed by. levee is founded on thick (15-ft) deposits of clay or silts
with clay strata. For such a condition, little or no seep-
age can occur through the landside top stratum.
Qs s kf D (B-10)
(1) If L3 is infinite in landward extent or the pervious
substratum is blocked landward of the levee, no seepage
occurs beneath the levee and Qs = 0. The head beneath
where s is the shape factor. This equation is valid pro- the levee and the landside top stratum is equal to the net
vided the assumptions upon which Darcys law is based head on the levee at all points so that H = ho = hx.
are met. The mathematical expressions for the shape
factor s (subsequently given in this appendix) depend (2) If an open seepage exit exists in the impervious
upon the dimensions of the generalized cross section of top stratum at some distance L3 from the landside toe (i.e.,
the levee and foundation, the characteristics of the top L3 is not infinite) as shown in Figure B-4b, the distance
stratum both riverward and landward of the levee, and from the feet toe of the levee to the effective seepage
the pervious substratum. Where the hydraulic grade line entry (river, borrow pit, etc.) is L1 = L2. The equation for
M is known from piezometer readings, the quantity of the shape factor is given by Equation B-13, and the heads
underseepage can be determined from ho and hx can be computed from Equations B-14 and B-15,
respectively.
Qs Mkf D (B-11)
d. Case 3 - impervious riverside top stratum and no
landside top stratum. This case is shown in Figure B-4c.
The condition may occur naturally or where extensive
(2) Excess hydrostatic head beneath the landside landside borrowing has taken place resulting in removal of
top stratum. The excess hydrostatic head ho beneath the all impervious material landward of the levee for a
top stratum at the landside levee toe is related to the net considerable distance. The shape factor is computed from
head on the levee, the dimensions of the levee and Equation B-16. The excess head at the top of the sand

B-7
EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

landward of the levee is zero, and the danger from piping resulting in Equation B-20. Since no landside top stratum
must be evaluated from the upward gradient obtained from exists, ho = hx = 0.
a flow net.
g. Case 6 - semipervious landside top stratum and no
e. Case 4 - impervious landside top stratum and no riverside top stratum. This case is illustrated in
riverside top stratum. This case is more common than Figure B-5b. The shape factor is given by Equation B-21
Case 3 and occurs when extensive riverside borrowing has and the heads ho and hx are computed from Equa-
resulted in removal of the riverside impervious top stratum tions B-22 and B-23, respectively.
(Figure B-4d). For this condition, the shape factor is
computed from Equation B-17; the heads ho and hx are h. Case 7 - semipervious top strata both riverside and
computed from Equations B-18 and B-19, respectively. landside. Where both the riverside and landside top strata
exist and are semipervious (Figure B-6), the shape factor
f. Case 5 - semipervious riverside top stratum and no can be computed from Equation B-24. The head ho is
landside top stratum. This case is illustrated in given by Equation B-25. The head hx beneath the semi-
Figure B-5a. The same equation for the shape factor as pervious top stratum depends not only on the head ho but
was used in Case 3 can be applied to this condition also on conditions landward of the levee and can be
provided x1 is substituted for L1 in Equation B-16 computed from Equations B-26 through B-30.

Figure B-4. Equations for computation of underseepage flow and substratum pressures for Cases 1 through 4

B-8
 EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

Figure B-5. Equations for computation of underseepage flow and substratum pressures for Cases 5 and 6

Figure B-6. Equations for computation of underseepage and substratum pressures for Case 7

B-9
 EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

APPENDIX C
List of Symbols G(T) A function used in analysis of partially penetrat-
ing well

h Net head on well system corrected for well losses

a Well spacing
ha Allowable net head beneath top stratum at landside
a,b Dimensions defining boundary of non-circular toe of levee on dam
source
hc Piezometric head midway between wells in circular
Ac Effective average distance from well center to array
external boundary of source
hd Maximum head landward from a slot or line of
Ae Equivalent radius of a group of wells wells
c (1) Conversion factor used in determining the effec- hg Head at boundary between artesian and gravity
tive length of a pervious foundation covered by flow
a semipervious blanket
hm Net head midway between well corrected for well
C (2) Hazen-Williams coefficient losses
C (3) One-half the length of a finite line source ho Excess hydrostatic head beneath the top stratum at
landside levee toe
Cu Coefficient of uniformity
hp Net head at any point p
d Thickness of a pervious stratum
_ hw Head at well
d Transformed thickness of pervious stratum layer
with thickness = d hx Head beneath top stratum at distance x from land-
slide toe of levee
dm Thickness of pervious foundation layers (summa-
tion of m = 1 to m = n) hav Average net head in plane of wells corrected for
well losses
D Thickness of pervious foundation
_ hwj Head at well j in a system of n wells
D Transformed thickness of pervious foundation
hd Difference in elevation between landslide
D Thickness of sloping entrance face of pervious piezometric surface and well outlets
foundation
H Net head on well system. Difference between
Dn Grain size for which n percent of the sample is riverside pool and landslide tailwater
smaller
H1 Total head measured from bottom of pervious
e Void ratio foundation
Ft Permeability transformation factor He Entrance loss in screen and filter
FS Factor of safety Hf Frictional head loss
g Acceleration due to gravity Hm Net head midway between wells
Gp Flow correction factor for partially penetrating Hv Velocity head loss
well

C-1
EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

Hw Well losses LB Distance from line of wells to blocked exit

Hav Average net head in plane of wells Le Distance from line of wells to seepage exit

Hmn Net head midway between n number of wells L1 Extra length of pervious foundation due to sloping
entrance face
Hmoo Net head midway between wells in infinite line
n Number of wells in group
Hm Excess head above the well outlet midway
between wells M Slope of hydraulic grade line (at middepth of
pervious foundation)
ic Critical hydraulic gradient
M Difference in slopes of hydraulic grade line river-
jo Downward force acting against uplift pressure side and landside of toe of levee

k Coefficient of permeability p A point

- Qa Artesian component of seepage flow
k Coefficient of permeability of transformed
stratum
Qg Gravity component of seepage flow
kb Vertical permeability of top stratum
Qs Total amount of seepage beneath levee
-
ke Effective permeability of multistratum trans-
formed aquifer Qw Discharge from a single well

kf Horizontal permeability of pervious substratum Qwj Flow from well j

kh Coefficient of permeability in horizontal Qwp Flow from partially penetrating well

direction
Qsw Seepage flow beyond well system
kL Coefficient of permeability from laboratory tests
r Radial distance from well (distance from point p
kv Coefficient of permeability in vertical direction to real well)

km Permeability of pervious foundation layers rc Rows of circular array of well

(summation of m = 1 to m = n)
ri Distance from ith well to point p
kn Vertical permeability of individual layers com-
prising top stratum (n = layer number) rij Distance from well i to well j

kbL Vertical permeability of landside top stratum r Distance from point p to image well

kbR Vertical permeability of riverside top stratum ro Distance from well to center of finite line source

L Distance from source to seepage exit rw Radius of well

L1 Distance from source to landside toe of levee or rwj Effective well radius of well j
dam
R Radius of influence
L2 Base width of impervious levee and berm
Ri Radius of influence of ith well
L3 Length of pervious foundation and top stratum
beyond landside toe of levee Rj Radius of influence of well j

C-2
 EM 1110-2-1914
29 May 92

S Distance from effective seepage entry to line of Zc Thickness of top stratum below collector ditch
wells
Zn Thickness of individual layers comprising top
Sj Distance from infinite line seepage to multiple stratum (n = layer number)
wells
Zt Transformed thickness of landside top stratum for
v Flow velocity in well uplift computations

W Actual well penetration ZbL Transformed thickness of landside top stratum

__
ZbR Transformed thickness of riverside top stratum
W Effective well penetration
Angle of entrance face
x,y,z Cartesian coordinates
Unit weight of soil
xa Distance from effective seepage entry to point
where gravity flow occurs
w Unit weight of water
xg Length over which gravity flow occurs to well
Submerged unit weight of soil
line
a Average uplift factor
x1 Distance from effective seepage entry to river-
side toe of levee
m Midwell uplift factor
x3 Distance from landside toe of levee to effective
Change in a and m per 1 log cycle of a/rw
seepage exit
Offset distance between well and center of circular
Z Thickness of top stratum
source
Zb Transformed thickness of top stratum s Shape factor

C-3