Journal of Environmental Management 129 (2013) 206e215

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Environmental Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jenvman

The implications of new forest tenure reforms and forestry property

markets for sustainable forest management and forest certication in
China
Juan Chen*, John L. Innes
Faculty of Forestry, University of British Columbia, 2045-2424 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC, Canada V6T 1Z4

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This study examines issues existing in the southern collective forests in China, particularly prior to the
Received 1 September 2011 implementation of new forest tenure reforms, such as continued illegal logging and timber theft,
Received in revised form inadequate availability of nance and inconsistent forest-related policies. Such problems are believed to
8 July 2013
be hindering the adoption of sustainable forest management (SFM) and forest certication by forest
Accepted 14 July 2013
farmers in China. Two strategies were introduced by the Chinese government with the purpose of
Available online 15 August 2013
addressing these issues, namely forest tenure reforms and their associated supporting mechanism,
forestry property markets. Through two case studies in southern China, we investigated the effectiveness
Keywords:
Forest certication
of the two strategies as well as their implications for the adoption of SFM and forest certication. The two
China cases were Yongan in Fujian province and Tonggu in Jiangxi province. Personal interviews with open-
Sustainable forest management ended questions were conducted with small-scale forest farmers who had already beneted from the
Forest tenure reform two strategies as well as market ofcers working for the two selected forestry property markets. The
Forest farmer study identied eight issues constraining the potential adoption of SFM and certication in China,
Forestry property market including limited nance, poorly developed infrastructure and transport systems, insecure forest tenures,
inconsistent forest policies, low levels of awareness, illegal forest management practices, lack of local
cooperative organizations, and inadequate knowledge and technical transfer. We found that the new
forest tenure reforms and forestry property markets had generally fullled their original objectives and
had the capacity to assist in addressing many of the issues facing forests prior to the reforms.
2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Forest-related decentralization began in the 1980s, and has now

become a major feature of forest governance around the world
Forests are increasingly recognized as a critical element of the (Anderson and Gibson, 2007; Ribot et al., 2006). Many developing
global ecosystem given their importance in providing multiple countries have experienced some form of decentralization in forest
environmental services, such as carbon sequestration and storage, management (Larson, 2005). Decentralization, together with log-
biodiversity conservation, climate change mitigation, poverty ging concessions and timber certication, has been identied as
alleviation, and watershed protection (Agrawal et al., 2008). How- one of the three major trends in forest governance in the 21st
ever, continued deforestation could interrupt these functions. It is century (Agrawal et al., 2008). In the context of forestry, decen-
widely believed that the decentralization of forest management tralization is a process of transferring some aspects of authority and
could, to some extent, reduce the impacts of deforestation and power over forest resources from the state to lower levels, such as
forest degradation through power transfer to local actors (e.g., local communities (Agrawal and Ribot, 1999). Decentralized forest
Gibson and Lehoucq, 2003; Larson, 2003; Ostrom and Nagendra, management is highly context-specic and, so far, there has not
2006), which would allow greater local autonomy and participa- been any xed path for decentralization in forest governance
tion in decision-making (Agrawal and Ribot, 1999), although some applicable in all contexts (Agrawal and Ribot, 1999; Ferguson and
studies have pointed to mixed outcomes (Tacconi, 2007). Chandrasekharan, 2005). It is still a work in progress and a step-
wise approach has therefore been advocated (Ferguson and
Chandrasekharan, 2005).
Decentralization of forest management in China, widely known
* Corresponding author. Tel.: 1 778 926 1237.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (J. Chen), [email protected] as forest tenure reform, has involved the transition of forest tenure
(J.L. Innes). from village collectives to individual farmers. A phased approach to

0301-4797/$ e see front matter 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2013.07.007
 J. Chen, J.L. Innes / Journal of Environmental Management 129 (2013) 206e215 207

the reforms has been adopted to enable public acceptance to Europe each accounted for more than 40% of the total global
develop and to avoid the pitfalls of decentralization, such as elite certied area, whereas Asia had less than 4% (FSC, 2012).
capture (Hong et al., 2006). There have been many changes to The links between decentralized forest management, SFM and
Chinas forest ownership since the 1950s (Liu and Zhao, 2009). As certication, and livelihood improvement are unclear (Liu and
early as 1981, forest tenure reforms were attempted in Chinas Zhao, 2009; Tacconi, 2007). Previous studies have examined the
collective forest sector (Cheng, 2005). These reforms intended to potential and practical implications of decentralization for the
transfer rights of use over the collective forest land to individual improvement of local livelihoods (e.g., Sunderlin et al., 2005).
households, helping them to generate sufcient and sustained Concerns have arisen when local governments favour short-term
forest-derived incomes. However, the rapidly changing policies led prots stemming from deforestation activities over the provision
to a lack of security of forest tenure and a loss of condence in the of environmental services (Tacconi, 2007; Wang et al., 2007). There
forestry authority and forest policies, resulting in the rapid har- is no clear evidence that the decentralization of authority to lower
vesting of forests allocated to forest farmers (Yan and Chen, 2010). levels would reduce or halt deforestation, and one study has
Other problems caused by the earlier forest tenure reforms pointed to the opposite outcome (Wollenberg et al., 2006). Other
included the lack of incentives to invest in the forest land, inade- studies have given rise to the expectation that decentralized forest
quate availability of nance, and lack of legality of forest manage- management could be conducive to the adoption of SFM (Ferguson
ment and local organizations (SFA, 2010). With these problems and Chandrasekharan, 2005), yet this remains to be fully conrmed.
unresolved, it was realized that a modern forestry strategy, con- Forest certication is recognized as a market-based incentive for
sisting of three key components (healthy forest ecosystems, a SFM, in that it should generate adequate economic benets to
sustainable but protable forest industry with high energy ef- motivate those who get certied (Cashore, 2002; Durst et al., 2006).
ciency, and multiple-function forests with particular attention be- Such tangible benets have been difcult to document, with the
ing given to the cultural and spiritual needs of forest-dependent exception of a few examples in developed countries. In China, a
communities), was almost impossible (Jia, 2009). In addition, large amount of research has been undertaken on the effectiveness
poverty and environmental problems coexist in Chinas forest and efcacy of the new forest tenure reforms, particularly as the
sector due to the extent of poverty in rural areas. Many forest- reforms are approaching completion (e.g., Huang and Lv, 2010;
dependent people survive on the income derived from unsustain- Wang et al., 2010; Yang et al., 2010; Zhang, 2010). Some of the
able, short-term forest activities that have detrimental impacts on outcomes of the reforms have the potential to assist SFM and cer-
the environment (Zhang et al., 2002). tication, such as secure land tenure, more consistent forest-
The new forest tenure reforms were introduced in 2003 in the related policies, and greater availability of nancial support and
hope of encouraging farmers to operate and manage their lands subsidies (Zhang, 2010). A wide range of studies have explored the
more sustainably and responsibly (Yang and Ming, 2006). The re- feasibility and potential for SFM and certication in China, as well
forms were supported by a series of mechanisms, including the as the underlying drivers to motivate various stakeholders to
issuing of forest tenure certicates and the introduction of forestry engage in the endeavour (e.g., Feng et al., 2009; Huang et al., 2009;
property markets (Wang et al., 2007). The rst trials were under- Huo, 2009; Zhang, 2009). However, the extent to which the new
taken in Fujian and Jiangxi provinces. A forestry property market is forest tenure reforms will affect SFM and certication remains
a platform where the full range of administrative and nancial unclear. Although the reforms may raise forest-related incomes, it
functions related to forestry activities could be realized, such as is also unknown whether the reforms will assist in reducing or
forest property registration and mortgaging (Yang and Ming, lifting rural poor people out of poverty. Despite these uncertainties,
2006). Thus far, the reforms have had profound impacts on for- there is the potential for synergies between decentralization, SFM
ests, forest-dependent communities and people, local livelihoods, and certication, and poverty reduction. This study aims to narrow
as well as on the promotion of SFM and forest certication (Hong these knowledge gaps. Using evidence from interviews with indi-
et al., 2006). vidual farmers and market ofcers, the study investigates the
Sustainable forest management (SFM) is being advanced by the effectiveness of the new forest tenure reforms and forestry prop-
forest sector with the expectation, amongst others, that it will erty markets as well as their impacts on the promotion of SFM and
reduce the environmental impacts caused by deforestation and forest certication in China.
forest degradation. To date, the most commonly-accepted concept
of SFM involves the integration of ecological, economic, and social 2. Methods
considerations of forest management (Wang, 2006), based on the
Forest Principles developed at the United Nations Conference on 2.1. Case study selection
Environment and Development (UNCED) in 1992. The Forest Prin-
ciples proposed that forest resources and forest lands should be The case study method enables an exploratory investigation of a
managed in a sustainable way to meet the social, economic, phenomenon that is not adequately understood, thereby gaining a
ecological, cultural and spiritual needs of present and future gen- relatively full understanding of the nature and complexity of the
erations by providing for their multiple and complementary func- phenomenon under examination (Yin, 2009). The focus of this
tions and uses (UN, 1992). Since SFM was rst introduced, uptake study is an exploration of the perspectives of small-scale forest
has been rapid. Several mechanisms, including forest certication, farmers and market ofcers on SFM and certication as well as the
have been developed to promote SFM (Durst et al., 2006). Forest development of an understanding of how the new forest tenure
certication was initially developed to respond to the degradation reforms are affecting the adoption of SFM and certication.
of forests and the social, economic and environmental conse- China can be divided into four forest regions, including the
quences of forestry, particularly in tropical countries (Leslie, 2004; east, central, west, and northeast of China, and two major man-
Rametsteiner and Simula, 2003). Forest certication has been agement regimes, one state-run, and the other being collective
widely adopted in developed countries, particularly in Europe, ownership (Rozelle et al., 2003; SFA, 2007; Yi, 2004). State-run
North America, Australia and New Zealand, whereas its adoption in forest farm management covers almost all the north-eastern
developing countries has been slow (Durst et al., 2006; Pattberg, provinces, including Liaoning, Jilin and Heilongjiang, which have
2005). Taking Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) certicates as an the richest timber resources in China (Rozelle et al., 2003). Col-
example, as of July 2012, certied forest areas in North America and lective forests account for more than half of Chinas forests, and
208 J. Chen, J.L. Innes / Journal of Environmental Management 129 (2013) 206e215

are of particular importance to the sustainable development of By April 2006, the total forest land area traded had reached 2
Chinas forest sector. About 75% of the collectively-owned forests million ha, valued at more than 43 million USD (Yongan Forestry
are located in South China, with Fujian and Jiangxi being partic- Element Market, 2010). Although many difculties have been
ularly important (Xi, 2007). They have often been selected as the encountered, 21 counties adjacent to Yongan have already beneted
pilot sites for new forest policies and reforms. Prior to the new from the development of the market, including Sanyuan, Meilie,
forest tenure reforms initiated in the southern collective forests, Mingxi, Qingliu, Ninghua, Shaxian, Jiangle, Taining, Jianning, Yanping,
several forest-related reforms had previously been attempted in Shaowu, Wuyishan, Jianou, Jiangang, Shunchang, Pucheng, Guangze,
these regions (SFA, 2010). Songxi, Zhenghe, Liancheng and Yongchun. In addition, a series of
For this study, two forest-dependent cities with forestry prop- centres covering forest and forest land registration, forest resource
erty markets in these regions were selected as case studies, namely evaluation, forest mortgage, timber and bamboo exchange, forest legal
Yongan in Fujian province and Tonggu in Jiangxi province. They and technical services, and forest labour training have been set up to
were selected because they were considered to be illustrative of the provide more transparent and updated information on the forest
rapid evolution of SFM and forest certication in China. They are property trade and reduce the investment risks as a result of the long
typical and revelatory because their models of various forest- operating turnover (Yongan Forestry Bureau, 2005).
related reforms have been copied by other forestry regions in
China. As a result, the success of implementing SFM and forest 2.1.2. Tonggu County
certication at the sites may provide an indication of the im- Jiangxi province is located in southern China, with an area of
provements to forest management and the economic rewards that 166,900 km2 and a total population of 43.39 million. With 60% forest
could develop in other forest-dependent regions. cover, it ranks as one of the more forested provinces in China. The
province has a large number of timber species, with bamboo, pine
2.1.1. Yongan City and r being the most widespread. Tonggu County,2 is located in the
Fujian province, in southeast of China, is a major forestry region, northwest of Jiangxi province, and comprises 1547 km2 of land and a
and 88% of its forest land has been held collectively (Yang and Ming, population of 131,000. In 2010, its GDP totalled 0.3 billion USD
2006). It has abundant wood supplies and numerous wood manu- (Tonggu Statistical Bureau, 2012). Urban per capita income was 3115
facturing and trading enterprises. However, the implementation of USD while rural per capita income was 634 USD (Tonggu Statistical
sustainable forest management is complicated by the diversity of Bureau, 2012). 86% of the land area is forested, and the growing stock
tree species and forest property ownership (Anonymous, 2008). is 8 million m3. Farmers comprise 72% of the population, amongst
Yongan City,1 with an area of 2941 km2 and a population of whom most are considered to be dependent on forests. It is the most
318,400, is located in north-western Fujian province. More than forested county-level administration unit in Jiangxi province and is
half of the population lives in rural areas and 60% are associated regarded as one of the key forestry counties in the south of China.
with forest-related industries. In 2010, its GDP reached 2.8 billion Being chosen as a pilot site for sustainable forest management,
USD (Yongan Statistical Bureau, 2011). Urban per capita disposable ecological forestry is and will continue to be a goal for the admin-
income was 2755 USD whilst rural per capita disposable income istration, with a focus on achieving a balance between economic
was 1138 USD (Yongan Statistical Bureau, 2011). With 83% forest rewards and ecological well-being. The primary purpose of the
cover and 22 million m3 of timber reserves, forestry is the dominant ecological forestry concept in Tonggu is to create sufcient jobs for
industry in the citys economy and of signicant inuence to both farmers and to increase their incomes without compromising the
local social and cultural development as well as to environmental ecological provisions offered by forests. In 2004, forest tenure re-
protection. The city is renowned in China as a hometown of Moso forms directed at the collectively-owned forest lands were ofcially
bamboo. This grows twice as fast here as in the northern part of initiated in Tonggu. After a ten-month implementation period, the
China due to the better climate and more fertile soil. As one of the boundary demarcation on all forest lands was completed and 34,800
key forestry areas in the south of China, Yongan was selected as the forest tenure certicates were issued to farmers, covering 98.9% of
pilot site for forest tenure reforms by the State Forestry Adminis- the total forest area. Its success has positioned it as the model county
trative. Since its inception, around 170,000 farmers have beneted for forest tenure reforms, attracting more than 300 visiting groups
from land allocations in the city region. from 15 provinces around China. The proposal to create green banks
In May 2004, Yongan City became the rst to complete the on the mountain (see further details of this scheme below) alone
forest tenure reforms in Fujian province and the Yongan Forestry earned more than 6.4 million USD in subsidies from the higher levels
Element Market was established in October 2005 to allow farmers of government. A new development model, known as manufac-
to trade freely in forest property (i.e., forest tenure) and forest land. turers e forest base e farmers, has been utilized, and is enhancing
The development of an appropriate market system is an important the forest industry. By connecting farmers directly to the market,
step in enabling forestry to reduce poverty (Scherr et al., 2004), but timber prices have increased three times since 2001, which in turn
is still at a very early stage in China. Yongan was selected by the has lifted a large number of farmers out of poverty.
State Forestry Administration in 2006 as the pilot site for southern The Tonggu Wood and Bamboo Trading Centre was developed
China to promote the concept of sustainable forest management. one year later than the Yongan Forestry Element Market. It is one of
Two years later, three types of products (including wooden lami- the biggest traditional commodity markets in the region and ex-
nate oor, medium density breboard, and high density breboard) tends into the neighbouring provinces of Hunan and Hubei. Seven
manufactured by the Fujian Yongan Forestry (Group) Joint Stock adjacent counties have beneted from the current market,
Co., Ltd. were certied as meeting the FSC Chain-of-Custody (CoC) including Wanzai, Yifeng, Fengxin and Xiushui in Jiangxi province,
standard, under the auspices of World Wildlife Fund (WWF) who Liuyang and Pingjing in Hunan province, and Tongcheng in Hubei
intended to set up the company as a model for other forest enter- province. To date, 300 million farmers have received land alloca-
prises in the south of China (Anonymous, 2008; FSC, 2010). tions (GCTV, 2012).

1 2
Data were obtained from the Yongan government ofcial website: http://www. Data were obtained from the ofcial Tonggu government website: http://www.
ya.gov.cn/. tonggu.gov.cn/index.asp.
 J. Chen, J.L. Innes / Journal of Environmental Management 129 (2013) 206e215 209

Fig. 1. Outcomes of forest tenure reforms and forestry property markets and challenges to the development of SFM and forest certication in China.

2.2. Data collection responded. The forest farmers were selected based on advice from
the key informants. An attempt was made to obtain a broad spec-
Data collection was interview-based, complemented by eld trum of respondents reective of the various perspectives on SFM
visits. Using semi-structured interviews with open-ended ques- and forest certication from each of the case study villages. As one
tions as a guide, the interviews were designed to solicit the key participant only spoke a local dialect, translation was required. All
elements needed to achieve SFM and forest certication from the interviews were recorded digitally and all communication was in
perspectives of market ofcers and small-scale forest farmers. Care Mandarin (except for the one in local dialect). Apart from con-
was taken to minimize any bias, inconsistencies, and inaccuracies ducting interviews with market ofcers and small-scale forest
(Bailey, 1994). For instance, the same interview procedures were farmers, eld visits to forest areas were made under the guidance of
applied to all participants and no stimulus was provided in order to market ofcers as these added signicantly to the information
obtain a genuine response. Non-probability sampling was used to given during interviews. Throughout the study, farmers showed
select both the case study villages and the interviewees, primarily genuine interest in the research and clearly hoped that the results
through the use of purposive sampling. Purposive sampling would improve their situation. However, results from the in-
allowed the selection of the respondents most appropriate to the terviews should be viewed with caution due to the potential
purpose of the study (Bailey, 1994). Since SFM and forest certi- sampling bias associated with the selection method.
cation are under-studied phenomena in China, villages that were The NVivo (2010) qualitative analysis package was used to assist
judged to be the leaders in this area in China were selected, with coding the large volumes of data, including eld notes, transcripts
the help and collaboration of the key informants3 from Fuzhou and audio recordings. Through detailed contextual analysis, key el-
Forestry Bureau, the Mayor of Hongtian County, Yongan Forestry ements and themes that were relevant to the new forest tenure re-
Working Station, Tonggu Forestry Bureau, and Jiangxi Agriculture forms, forestry property markets, as well as SFM and forest
University. The questionnaire design and research protocol were certication, were identied from the interview transcripts. They
reviewed by key informants. Before interviews were conducted, were most frequently repeated in the interviews. The logical relations
initial contacts with the markets were established. A list of market between key elements and themes were organized to build a con-
employees was obtained from each of the markets and the listed ceptual framework (Fig. 1) that would indicate the capability of the
individuals were approached through an initial letter of contact. new forest tenure reforms and forestry property markets to over-
Market ofcers who expressed an interest in the project and will- come the barriers to the adoption of SFM and forest certication.
ingness to participate and collaborate in the study were chosen as
the initial interviewees. Depending on the initial response, further
3. Results
efforts were made to engage with market ofcers who had not
3.1. Forest farmers

3
A total of six key informants were selected to assist with the interviews. They Five locations were visited in Yongan city and 33 forest farmers
are government ofcers and university professors. were interviewed (Table 1). In Tonggu County, two villages, Fujia and
210 J. Chen, J.L. Innes / Journal of Environmental Management 129 (2013) 206e215

Table 1 3.1.1. Perceived outcomes regarding the new forest tenure reforms
Comparative table between Yongan and Tonggu. Several positive outcomes associated with the new forest
Yongana Tonggub tenure reforms were revealed by the participants. For example, the
Location West of Fujian province Northwest of Jiangxi province
new forest tenure reforms led to a dramatic reduction in illegal
Area 2941 km2 1548 km2 deforestation activities, which had been rampant before the re-
Population 319,000 140,000 forms. Participants had a greater sense of security on forest prop-
Forest cover 83.2% 87.4% erty allocated to them and there were fewer boundary disputes.
Key species Bamboo, Pine and Fir
Forest farmers had the right to transfer tenure (in whole or in part)
Forest land area 2460 km2 (83.6%) 1306 km2 (84.5%)
to another party. All of these motivated farmers to manage the
a
Yongan government website: http://www.ya.gov.cn/.
b forest land responsibly and sustainably. Extensive policy support
Tonggu government website: http://www.tonggu.gov.cn/index.asp.
and substantial government subsidies were received, particularly
for fertilizers and training programs focusing on the application of
Dacao, were visited and 12 farmers were interviewed. The average new methods of bamboo silviculture. Taxation and other payments
area of forest land held by each individual varied widely, with the associated with timber or bamboo harvest and sales were either
smallest being 0.2 ha and the largest being 1.33 ha. Some common cancelled or signicantly reduced. This, in turn, led to an increase
trees planted in the forests of both areas include Chinese r (Cun- in the direct economic rewards associated with forest manage-
ninghamia lanceolata), and various Eucalyptus species and their ment. The increase in economic rewards also stemmed from
hybrids, as well as Moso bamboo (Phyllostachys pubescens). Two increased timber and bamboo prices and from increased land
forest management methods were identied in Yongan, inde- values. In addition, improved infrastructure, including roads and
pendent and joint management, whilst only independent manage- residence construction, was noted by the participants.
ment was found in Tonggu. Participants most often identied three reasons for the perceived
In this study, independent management refers to forests man- benets: 1) the possibility of 50e70 year forest tenures; 2) the more
aged by an individual household, whilst joint management refers to stable and consistent forest policies and regulations; and 3) the
forests managed by a group of households that have voluntarily strong resolution expressed by central government to transfer au-
joined together. The adoption of either method depends largely on thority and power in relation to forest management and usufructs to
the area of forest received in the property distribution. From the local farmers. In addition, improvements to livelihoods were
perspectives of the participants, by grouping small parcels of forest observed, including more vehicle owners, access to the Internet,
land (usually less than 0.67 ha per capita) together, participating increased awareness of physical health (demonstrated by the pur-
households could take advantage of economies of scale, allowing chase of personal tness equipment), and more children receiving
them to apply more scientic and professional management plans higher education through increased affordability of tuition.
applicable to large forest areas. Other benets associated with In addition to the benets, participants also pointed to the pit-
joint management included lower per capita nancial investments falls associated with the forest tenure reforms. For example, some
and labour inputs. The most common ways to manage the forest participants worried that forest property trading would result in
mentioned by participants were selective cutting within the them losing their land, particularly if land and power were grad-
maximum quota set by government, reforestation after logging, ually concentrated into the hands of a few elites. Some participants
weed removal, fertilizing, and pest and disease control (details complained that the amount of land they obtained was smaller
shown in Table 2). In some cases, participants collected bamboo than in other villages. Some participants observed that forest
shoots to increase their incomes, such as in Changchuan village in tenure policy should be sufciently exible to adapt to changing
Yongan. This is a seasonal activity largely depending on the price of demographics. For example, a change in the population structure
bamboo shoots. There were no major differences in the dominant might predicate redistribution of forest land.
tree species planted or management methods adopted at the two It is evident that some villages have been able to adapt to the re-
sites. forms more rapidly than others. For example, Hongtian village, which
Table 2
General information gathered at the two case study sites.

Villages Yongan Tonggu

a
Hongtian Tuanshi Sangxi Changchuan Station Fujia Dacao

No. of interviewees 6 8 4 5 10 6 6
Average forest 0.4 1e1.33 0.2e0.27 0.4e0.53 0.4e1 1 0.8
land area
obtained (ha)
Tree species Mainly Chinese Mainly Moso Moso bamboo Mainly Moso Mainly Moso bamboo, Moso bamboo Moso bamboo
r and some bamboo and combined bamboo and and some Chinese Fir and Chinese r, and some
Eucalyptus some with some and Eucalyptus as well as some Chinese r
Chinese r Chinese r Chinese r livestock cultivation
in the forests
Management Joint Independent Joint Independent Both Independent
method
Weed removal, Using scientic sound Weed removal, Weed removal, Weed removal, Replanting after logging, Cutting the minor
fertilizing, method, such as the fertilizing, fertilizing, fertilizing, logging with the regularly; one thing
replanting high-yield approach, pest and excavation replanting allocated limit, one of is worthy to mention
after logging splitting up the disease control of bamboo after logging them didnt agree on is that no fertilizing
hill to let shoots bamboo shoot digging in this village as no
water through, as such activity would one mentioned that.
pest and probably damage the
disease control growth of young bamboo
a
Station: Hongtian forestry station is where an afliated submarket of Yongan Forestry Element Market located in Hongtian Town. Participants interviewed here are those
frequent visitors of this market, and thereby it is a more convenient place for them.
 J. Chen, J.L. Innes / Journal of Environmental Management 129 (2013) 206e215 211

has been recognized as a model village and copied by other villages in environment and ecosystem as long as there were no immediate
Fujian province and other forest-dependent areas, has established a nancial needs.
number of bamboo products factories. Local government and other
administrative institutions in Hongtian have been better positioned to 3.1.4. Major concerns and motivations of individual farmers
enforce forest tenure reforms, such as the establishment of an afli- In Yongan, most participants considered that economic rewards
ated forestry property market in the Hongtian forestry working sta- were the primary concern and motivation to manage forests.
tion. The convenience of a local market has been exploited by farmers Usually, participants separated ecological welfare forests from
in this area. In other villages, such as Fujia, there have been stronger commercial forests or bamboo forests. From their perspectives, the
concerns about the environment, and the importance of the role of former were set aside to maintain ecological welfare. In contrast,
forests in water protection and soil conservation was repeated by commercial forests were allocated to serve as the major source of
several participants during the interviews. income for individual farmers dependent on the forest. They
strongly believed that their management activities would have no
3.1.2. Knowledge of forestry property markets impacts on the ecosystem provided that there was no clearcutting
Farmers had a relatively low understanding of the forestry prop- or deforestation.
erty markets. For the Yongan Forestry Element Market, the majority Similar perceptions were held by most participants in Tonggu.
of participants had heard about it prior to the study, whereas general SFM could only be adopted provided they had stable and consistent
knowledge about the functions and services provided by the market economic returns to support their subsistence. They expressed
was fairly limited. Only a few (ve participants in Yongan) admitted willingness to manage the forest sustainably, but only after alter-
they were unaware of its existence. Considering that there is a sub- native economic sources that could generate sufcient income
market in Hongtian, it is possible that participants were unaware of were in place. Most participants in rural areas were aware of
the connection between the submarket and the Yongan Forestry increasing environmental problems, such as air pollution, lack of
Element Market. There was greater awareness in Tonggu, as virtually safe and clean water, and higher temperatures (global warming).
all participants had heard about the Tonggu Wood and Bamboo They were also aware of the role of forests in contributing to
Trading Centre at the time the study was conducted. However, there ecosystem health. Clean air and prevention of landslides were the
was still considerable variation in the general understanding of the two most cited elements related to environmental protection. One
trading centre, with some participants showing greater knowledge participant was more concerned about ecological welfare; he had a
than others about the functions and services it provides. higher standard of living than the other participants, and owned a
vehicle and newly-built house.
3.1.3. Issues related to sustainable forest management and
certication 3.2. Market ofcials
In general, few participants at either location had any awareness
of sustainable forest management or certication. Three aspects of 3.2.1. Yongan Forestry Element Market
sustainable forest management, including the economic, environ- Yongan Forestry Element Market was established in 2004 and
mental and social components, were examined to determine the currently has six afliated centres, including a forest property
level of understanding about SFM. Given that the economic benets registration centre, forest property mortgage centre, wood and
derived from forests were the pivotal consideration for partici- bamboo trading centre, forest resources evaluation centre, forest
pants, and the lack of awareness of the concepts of sustainable technology and regulations consulting centre, and forest labour
forest management and certication, the language was adjusted to training centre. In this study, six ofcials were interviewed, one from
refer to environmental concerns and social issues. Despite the lack each of the centres. During the interview, some participants were
of understanding, all participants at both locations considered their reluctant to answer certain questions. Such questions included
management activities to be sustainable. On completion of each whether the market had achieved its anticipated goals, whether the
interview, the denition of and detailed information about SFM and market had realized its original functions, any aspects that needed to
certication were provided to participants expressing an interest. be improved, and any perceived obstacles. Almost all participants
In Yongan, SFM was equated to longer forest tenures, sustainable had minimal awareness or knowledge of SFM and certication.
economic rewards generated by forest land, long-term manage- With one exception, the participants had been conducting forest-
ment planning, and high soil quality (resulting in high-quality related work prior to their present positions in the market. Their
timber and bamboo). In Tonggu, there was confusion between previous working experience was considered to be useful for their
sustainable forest management and regular forest management, current activities. All participants, with one exception, had moved to
such as fertilizing and weed removal. Sustainable forest manage- the market one year before the study and had been employed there
ment was related to long-term management planning, as opposed since its establishment. Generally, they were pleased with the
to clearcutting and a focus on short-term economic rewards. It was market in terms of functions and services, although some aspects
also associated with reasonable and sustainable land utilization. were identied as being in need of improvement. For instance, the
Additionally, stable and consistent policy and government support working conditions were poor because of the large number of study
and subsidies were considered highly important in achieving SFM. groups that had and will continue to visit the market. Financial is-
There was a widespread belief that most current forest activities sues were noted as the major impediment and will continue to be so
would not affect the ecosystem as clearcutting was not involved. as long as the current system is in place. As the market does not
A sizable proportion of the participants from Tonggu referred to charge fees for all of its services, the only nancial source has been
the forest as a green bank4 being maintained for the benet of the government subsidies; this has deterred the further development of
the market and prevented the upgrading of the current facilities
(e.g., computers). One participant considered that it had been un-
necessary to separate the market from the forest bureau given that
4
the market was still an afliated but quasi-independent institution
The word green bank was translated directly from Chinese, which was used
by the participants in Tonggu. Green represents trees, which is compared to
of the forest bureau. The combination of the forestry market and
money. Bank means they will not cut down the tress as long as they have no forest bureau was expected to not only better serve local farmers but
immediate money needs. also to facilitate collaboration. Other improvements mentioned by
212 J. Chen, J.L. Innes / Journal of Environmental Management 129 (2013) 206e215

participants included enlarging the exhibition area and releasing simplied and facilitated the procedures needed for local farmers
more forest-related regulations about the issuing of forest tenure to acquire forest tenure certicates and forest land, and trade
certicates and their renewal. in timber. However, a core issue remained, namely the integration
Market ofcials perceive its impacts to have been immense and of all functions and services into a single market and one-stop
far-reaching. Important roles of the market have been to publicize service.
updated regulations among local farmers and to guide forest Both participants favoured ecological welfare over economic
property transactions. This has assisted farmers in obtaining higher rewards. They felt that the costs incurred in implementing SFM and
than average prices and in avoiding disputes. Due to the wide- certication would be better subsidized by either central or local
ranging publicity and greater availability of the newest informa- governments, or by outside donors. If logging was more expensive
tion, more people have been able to compete in the land auctions, than importing timber, then SFM might be more possible because
sometimes from adjacent provinces. The prices of forest land and of reduced demand for domestic timber. In addition, SFM and
timber have increased, improving farmers livelihoods. With the certication would be more affordable if there was a better posi-
advent of forest property mortgages, pressures attributable to tioned compensation mechanism for adopting them, similar to the
inadequate nancial resources have been alleviated, and small- forest re insurance currently effective in some areas in China.
scale forest farmers have had access to start-up capital, greatly
boosting the local economies. The initial goal of the market was to 4. Discussion
provide one-stop services without charge, covering all services that
forest farmers might need, and the participants conrmed that this Using the results obtained from the forest farmers and market
has been achieved. ofcers, a conceptual framework (Fig. 1) has been constructed to
The level of awareness of and understanding about SFM and demonstrate how various strategies introduced by central and local
certication among the market ofcials was fairly limited. There governments can address the challenges facing the adoption of SFM
was no mention of ecological values. After explaining the main and certication in China. Each individual box represents the key
characteristics of SFM and certication, participants identied elements and themes that emerged from the interviews. The rst
some core elements that could contribute to the promotion of SFM level indicates the three strategies adopted by central and local
and certication, such as clear land ownership, adaptation to local governments, namely, the new forest tenure reforms, the estab-
context and conditions, and a sustainable yield and timber stock. lishment of forestry property markets, as well as other efforts
One participant was concerned that the use of fast-growing high- introduced by the state forestry authorities, mainly aimed at
yield plantations could slow down the uptake of SFM and certi- knowledge and technology transfer. The second level demonstrates
cation, given that the aim of such plantations is to maximize in- the outcomes arising from those strategies. The third level repre-
comes for farmers. To achieve SFM, synergies between various sents the challenges facing the adoption of SFM and certication in
related stakeholders were needed, including between small-scale China prior to the new forest tenure reforms. The fourth level is the
forest farmers, government ofcials, local organizations (such as ultimate goal, namely, the adoption of SFM and certication. Ar-
the various self-organized entities in existence), and central gov- rows connecting the outcomes and challenges indicate the linkages
ernment. The role of central government was seen as being between each component. In this section, the framework will be
particularly more important than others. used to examine how the strategies could potentially facilitate the
adoption of SFM and forest certication in China.
3.2.2. Tonggu Wood and Bamboo Trading Centre
Compared to Yongan Forestry Element Market, Tonggu Wood 4.1. Stable and consistent forest-related policies and government
and Bamboo Trading Centre is smaller and has only two working support
areas, an ofce area and a bidding area. Two participants were
interviewed, one being the director of the trading centre and the Stable and consistent forest-related policies and government
other being an employee. The director provided much information support were perceived by the participants as the key elements to
about the trading centre and its associated supporting measures. SFM and certication. Decentralization is a cyclical process seeking
The other participant had no decision-making power and was a dynamic balance between decentralizing and centralizing forces
cautious in responding, avoiding contradicting the director. in various contexts (Capistrano and Colfer, 2005). Strong govern-
Consequently, the information should be treated with caution, as it ment support and consistent forest policies are conducive to a
is dominated by the responses of the director of the trading centre. desirable setting for decentralization, including accountability, re-
Both participants had a moderate understanding about SFM but sponsibility, and revenue-sharing amongst different groups of
had not heard about forest certication prior to the interview. They stakeholders (Capistrano and Colfer, 2005). Prior to the new forest
gave more emphasis to the ecological functions of forests, tenure reforms, fast-changing forest legislation, laws and regula-
emphasizing that no long-term economic benets could be ach- tions greatly discouraged farmers from using forests sustainably, as
ieved unless a sound ecological system was maintained. there was uncertainty over the continuing rights to forest resources
The director worked as an administrative manager for private (SFA 2010; Yan and Chen, 2010). This is partly why the new forest
companies before working for the market, so had been able to gain tenure reforms initially encountered local resistance; farmers had
a better understanding of forest farmers, forest bureaus and gov- lost condence in the forestry authorities. Yet, with forest tenure
ernment ofcials, particularly the genuine/fundamental needs of reforms going deeper and deeper, more policies favourable to forest
farmers. The other participant had also worked for a private com- farmers have been developed, such as the issuing of forest tenure
pany, but was unable to use this experience in the current position. certicates. In addition, at the local level, forestry property markets
According to the study participant, as the process of privatizing have been established to engage all farmers (including those
forest land developed, there was evidence of a reduction in illegal marginalized, less-educated and illiterate) in the process and to
logging and timber thefts, and greater nancial investment in forest allow them to benet from the reforms. Through close collabora-
land. As a result, the local economy and forest industry had been tion between central and local governments, promising outcomes
enhanced. In addition to the economic development, the forest have been achieved, such as forest tenure certicates being issued
ecosystem was considered to have been better protected. The for more than 95% of the transferred forest land in Yongan and
establishment of Tonggu Wood and Bamboo Trading Centre Tonggu.
 J. Chen, J.L. Innes / Journal of Environmental Management 129 (2013) 206e215 213

4.2. Transferrable land tenure and legitimate forest management 4.4. Local voluntary economic cooperative organizations

Longer forest tenures were perceived by the participants as The tenure reform process allocated a small area of forest land
enabling them to engage in SFM and forest certication, which (usually less than 2 ha) to individual farmers. SFM and certica-
would also enable them to make long-term forest management tion are much more difcult for small forest owners due to their
plans. Clear and secure forest land tenure and legitimate forest limited capacity to respond to market opportunities quickly and
management authority are key elements for the improvement of the inadequate economic incentives (FSC, 2009; PEFC, 2009). Such
livelihoods and the introduction of SFM and forest certication. limitations include low product volumes and a low quality timber
Insecure property rights have been reported as undermining sound supply, inadequate market information, poor management sys-
forest management and as a critical driver of deforestation tems, and inadequate human resources (FSC, 2009). Moreover,
throughout the world, mostly due to the lack of incentives to invest managing small-scale forest management units is labour-
in the land (White and Martin, 2002). The nature of collective intensive and more costly when applying professional forest
ownership requires shared responsibilities, with the benets management practices. A means of countering these problems is
associated with forest resources accruing to the whole village. In group certication, which is tailored to meet the needs of small-
China, the benets are not genuinely shared amongst all constitu- holders and has been introduced by two major certication
ents within the village, discouraging individual farmers from standards, including the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) and the
tending their forest land responsibly. In addition, farmers do not Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certication (PEFC).
have equal access to the resources and lands, making sustainable Certication is more accessible to smallholders when the costs
forest use and protection difcult. As a result, illegal logging has and benets are shared among all the participants. This phe-
become a long-standing and recurrent issue. nomenon is apparent in China, with farmers voluntarily forming
Massive forest loss is also considered as the dominant driver of groups (called voluntary cooperative organizations) to achieve
many ecological problems. The new forest tenure reforms have economies of scale. In addition to the cost-benet sharing, such
empowered local farmers by providing them with property rights cooperative organization also strengthens access to the market by
over the forest land, greatly reducing the occurrence of illegal providing stable and large-volume timber supplies and shared
logging and timber theft. Such rights include land and tenure risks.
transfer, giving farmers full control over the resources. By issuing
ofcial forest tenure certicates, effective for 50e70 years 4.5. Awareness and knowledge
depending on the areas and local regulations, farmers have formal
proof of tenure and rights of use over the forest land. They are able An extremely low level of awareness and knowledge of SFM
to renew the certicate beyond the tenure period as long as the and forest certication was identied among the participants,
required documents are provided. Economic gains derived from the including small-scale forest farmers and market ofcials. This has
land have been reaped by individual owners, enabling them to also been identied amongst other groups of stakeholders around
improve their lives. As a result, additional personal capital is the world, including forest industry, retailers, government ofcials
available to invest in forest operations, making SFM and certica- (Ebeling and Yasu, 2009), and consumers (Archer et al., 2005).
tion more feasible. There is a need for more comprehensive education and publicity
activities to raise the general awareness of SFM (Archer et al.,
4.3. Finances and physical infrastructure availability 2005; Kozak et al., 2004). Not surprisingly, farmers in China
were even less aware of SFM and certication than most, despite a
Inadequate nances and minimal infrastructure are also major series of public workshops and seminars associated with the
impediments to SFM and certication (e.g., Yang et al., 2010). SFM release of Chinas forest certication standard in 2007. A stepwise
and certication could be costly due to the management upgrades approach to publicity is needed, moving from the state down
or corrections required to meet the certication standards (Chen through the various levels of government. Forest farmers consid-
et al., 2010; Murray and Abt, 2001). Such upgrades could include ered that university professors and forest technicians have an
professional expertise, new management and operation systems important role to play in this education because of the trust
(such as environmental management system), and human re- associated with these positions. The forestry property markets
sources (Merry and Carter, 1997). The costs could be extremely should also contribute to the education of forest farmers through
high, particularly for small forest owners in developing countries their training centres.
(Fischer et al., 2005; Innes and Hickey, 2005; Leslie, 2004). This is
the case for China, as most forest farmers received much less than 4.6. The ultimate goal e sustainable forest management
2 ha of forest land and are still living in poverty. Sustainable eco-
nomic rewards were reported by the participants as their major Managing commercial and ecological forests responsibly and
incentive for adopting SFM and forest certication. They lack the sustainably is the ultimate goal for forest owners, as it will not
nances necessary to purchase equipment and other materials only generate incomes but it will also alleviate the detrimental
needed for forest operations, and are not in a position to incur the environmental consequences resulting from past deforestation.
additional costs associated with being certied. In addition, most Achieving the goal will involve many interrelated challenges,
forests in China are located in remote areas, and the transport which means that overcoming one challenge may help with
system and infrastructure remain poorly developed; these add another one. For instance, consistent and supportive forest po-
additional challenges to SFM and certication. Yet, due to the new lices may result in greater security of tenure and in improved
forest tenure reforms, farmers incomes have been dramatically legality of forest management. Greater availability of nance
increased, and great improvements to the infrastructure have would not only make certication more accessible to small-
occurred. Moreover, forestry property mortgages provide an op- holders but would also improve the transport and infrastructure.
portunity for individual farmers to raise capital, making certica- Forest tenure reforms and forestry property markets, despite not
tion more accessible to smallholders. Other approaches underway being aimed at SFM and certication, provide promise for the
include the abolition of forest-related taxes and payments and further expansion of SFM and certication into new niches in
distribution of free fertilizer. China.
214 J. Chen, J.L. Innes / Journal of Environmental Management 129 (2013) 206e215

4.7. Some remaining challenges management. Farmers in Yongan and Tonggu are living in poverty
despite having abundant forest resources. Reducing this poverty is
In addition to the promising consequences of the forest tenure often associated with increased timber harvesting. In view of this,
reforms, special action is needed to avoid some common pitfalls. other sources of income-generating forest-related activities with
The rst is to avoid elite capture (Liu and Zhao, 2009). The early- lower environmental impacts should be encouraged as an alter-
adopters of forest tenure reforms have been set up as models, native to timber harvesting, such as the collection of non-timber
and they have better access to land and resources and have strong forest products (e.g., bamboo shoots).
connections with the forest authorities. Thus, they are better Economic compensation is the key to better promotion of SFM and
positioned to acquire further land. It could be very damaging if certication among Chinese forest farmers with small forest holdings.
more and more land was concentrated in the hands of a few elites More concerns would be directed towards ecological wellbeing once
(e.g., village chiefs and the existing model groups). During this adequate economic incomes were in place. In addition to economic
study, it was evident that some participants were aware of this rewards, some key elements have been identied from the study
danger and that it was inuencing the degree to which they trusted relevant to SFM and forest certication, including the need for longer
the reforms and forest authorities. forest tenure ownership, long-term forest management plans,
Elite capture triggers a second inevitable problem e the consistent forest-related policies, and the support of various levels of
widening gap between the rich and poor. Although this gap already government and forest industry associations. The new forest tenure
is widespread, it is becoming more evident in rural areas. A third reforms have been able to improve these issues. Moreover, the reforms
challenge is the informal trade of forest tenures and land, largely and their associated supporting mechanism, the forestry property
caused by private agreements between buyers and sellers without markets, have also assisted with the elimination or mitigation of some
the knowledge of the forest authorities. Such agreements can easily of the other challenges facing the adoption of SFM and forest certi-
lead to disputes, especially when equivalent information is not cation amongst Chinese small-scale forest farmers. For example, the
available to both parties. Such disputes often revolve around land emergence of local voluntary cooperative organizations is providing a
evaluations. Forestry property markets are intended to facilitate fair vehicle for group certication.
trade and reduce the potential for disputes by providing guidance The provision of forest property mortgages is enabling small-scale
and formal procedures. forest farmers to better access nance to initiate their forest man-
Finally, the documentation requirements associated with de- agement practices. The training centre in the forestry property
tailed management plans are currently quite onerous, and are ac- markets offers forest farmers a wide range of forest-related tech-
companied by bureaucratic approval processes. This may limit the nology and knowledge transfer. Above all, the state and local forest
capacity of farmers to liquidate their resources into cash, as the authorities have collaborated with university professors and forestry
majority cannot prepare the management plans by themselves. technicians to hold various workshops and seminars to inform and
educate smallholders about better forest management. Considering
5. Conclusions that both decentralization and sustainable forest management are at
an early stage in China, it is however uncertain whether this type of
Overall, the ongoing forest tenure reforms have achieved their forest decentralization will facilitate SFM adoption, or vice versa.
initial goals, such as stopping illegal logging by privatizing forests and Although forest sustainability is the ultimate goal, it will be not
authorizing the rights of use over forest land, providing greater se- achieved without the sacrice of some economic gain from timber
curity of resources through forest tenure certicates, dramatically harvesting. Although the reforms will assist in overcoming several
increasing farmers incomes through cancelling timber-related taxes of the barriers to SFM and certication, many challenges still exist,
and payments and by adopting other market mechanisms, and better such as the extremely low awareness and understanding of SFM
and legitimate forest management. Individual farmers have also been and forest certication among the smallholders. It is therefore too
empowered through better access to the resources and by the ability early to conclude that sustainability will be achieved in the near
to transfer their tenure and land. The forestry property markets are future or what path it will take in China.
perceived to have fullled their original missions, with some of the
services being particular important, such as forestry property regis-
tration and the provision of mortgages. In addition to the six key Acknowledgements
services, other context-specic services have been identied and
formulated during the process of forest tenure reforms. For instance, Support for this work is gratefully acknowledged from the Social
Tonggu heavily subsidizes forest re insurance, ensuring that it is Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada.
equally accessible to all farmers.
Given the promising outcomes revealed in this study, the References
decentralization of forest management to individual farmers has
had immense impacts on poverty reduction. The increase in in- Agrawal, A., Ribot, J., 1999. Accountability in decentralization: a framework with
comes together with the observed improved life quality (e.g., new South Asian and West African cases. The Journal of Developing Areas 33 (4),
473e502.
houses, new vehicles, and higher education) in Yongan and Tonggu Agrawal, A., Chhatre, A., Hardin, R., 2008. Changing governance of the worlds
have lifted many farmers out of poverty. Although farmers and local forests. Science 320 (5882), 1460e1462.
governments are still in favour of the immediate short-term eco- Anderson, K., Gibson, C.C., 2007. Decentralized governance and environmental
change: local institutional moderation of deforestation in Bolivia. Journal of
nomic rewards that could stem from unsustainable forest use, there Policy Analysis and Management 26 (1), 99e123.
are opportunities to inform farmers and other interested groups Anonymous, 2008. Fujian Yongan Forestry Group got the rst FSC certication in
about the benets of SFM and certication as well as the disad- southern China. International Wood Industry 07, 9.
Archer, H., Kozak, R., Balsillie, D., 2005. The impact of forest certication labelling
vantages of unsustainable use. This is particularly true for those
and advertising: an exploratory assessment of consumer purchase intent in
individuals who have started to notice deterioration in the quality Canada. The Forestry Chronicle 81 (2), 229e244.
of the environment. Bailey, K.D. (Ed.), 1994. Methods of Social Research, fourth ed. The Free Press, New
The study revealed that poverty reduction is the rst step on York, NY, USA, pp. 169e170.
Capistrano, D., Colfer, C.J.P., 2005. Decentralization: issues, lessons and reections.
the way to sustainability in China, given that economic rewards are In: Colfer, C.J.P., Capistrano, D. (Eds.), The Politics of Decentralization: Forests,
still the pivotal concern of forest farmers undertaking forest Power and People. Earthscan, London, UK, pp. 296e313.
 J. Chen, J.L. Innes / Journal of Environmental Management 129 (2013) 206e215 215

Cashore, B., 2002. Legitimacy and the privatization of environmental governance: Ostrom, E., Nagendra, H., 2006. Insights on linking forests, trees, and people from
how non-state market-driven (NSMD) governance systems gain rule-making the air, on the ground, and in the laboratory. Proceedings of the National
authority. Governance 15 (4), 503e529. Academy of Sciences 103, 19224e19231.
Chen, J., Innes, J.L., Tikina, A., 2010. Private cost-benets of voluntary forest product Pattberg, P.H., 2005. The forest stewardship council: risk and potential of private
certication. International Forestry Review 12 (1), 1e12. forest governance. The Journal of Environment & Development 14 (3), 356e374.
Cheng, Y.H., 2005. The research on the reform of woodland property rights system Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certication (PEFC), 2009. Signicant
in collective forest zone. World Forestry Research 18 (4), 75e79. Achievement in Certifying Family-forest Owners. Available from: http://www.
Durst, P.B., Mckenzie, P.J., Brown, C.L., Appanah, S., 2006. Challenges facing certi- pefc.org/news-a-media/general-sfm-news/news-detail/item/467-signicant-
cation and eco-labelling of forest products in developing countries. Interna- achievement-in-certifying-family-forest-owners (accessed 20.10.10.).
tional Forestry Review 8 (2), 193e200. Rametsteiner, E., Simula, M., 2003. Forest certication e an instrument to promote
Ebeling, J., Yasu, M., 2009. The effectiveness of market-based conservation in the sustainable forest management? Journal of Environmental Management 67,
tropics: forest certication in Ecuador and Bolivia. Journal of Environmental 87e98.
Management 90 (2), 1145e1153. Ribot, J.C., Agrawal, A., Larson, A.M., 2006. Recentralizing while decentralizing: how
Feng, C., Xue, L., Lu, Y., 2009. Preliminary discussion on forest management iden- national governments reappropriate forest resources. World Development 34
tication of Hunan province. Forest Inventory and Planning 34 (1), 98e100. (11), 1864e1886.
Ferguson, I., Chandrasekharan, C., 2005. Paths and pitfalls of decentralisation for Rozelle, S., Huang, J., Benziger, V., 2003. Forest exploitation and protection in reform
sustainable forest management: experiences of the Asia-Pacic region. In: China: assessing the impact of policy, tenure, and economic growth. In:
Colfer, C.J.P., Capistrano, D. (Eds.), The Politics of Decentralization: Forests, Po- William, F.H., Belcher, B.M., Xu, J.T. (Eds.), Chinas Forests: Global Lessons from
wer and People. Earthscan, London, UK, pp. 63e85. Market Reforms. Resources for the Future, Washington, DC, USA, pp. 109e134.
Fischer, C., Aguilar, F., Jawahar, P., Sedjo, R., 2005. Forest Certication: Toward Scherr, S.J., White, A., Kaimowitz, D., 2004. Making markets work for forest com-
Common Standards?. Discussion paper 05e10 for the Foreign Investment munities. In: Zarin, D.J., Alavalapati, J.R.R., Putz, F.E., Schmink, M. (Eds.),
Advisory Service of the World Bank Group. Working Forests in the Neotropics: Conservation Through Sustainable Man-
Forest Stewardship Council (FSC), 2009. FSC User-friendly Guide to FSC Certication agement? Columbia University Press, New York, USA, pp. 130e155.
for Smallholders. Forest Stewardship Council, Rep. FSC Technical Series No. State Forestry Administration (SFA), 2007. Chinas Forestry Development Report
2009eT003. 2007. Forestry Publishing House, Beijing, China.
Forest Stewardship Council (FSC), 2010. FSC Certicate Database. Fujian Yongan State Forestry Administration (SFA), 2010. Spell over the true meaning of collective
Forestry (Group) Joint Stock Co., Ltd. (accessed 1011.10.). forest tenure reform e report on collective forest tenure reform in Fujian
Forest Stewardship Council (FSC), 2012. Global FSC Certicates: Type and Distri- province. Forestry Economics 4, 17e20.
bution. Available from: http://www.fsc.org/facts-gures.19.htm (accessed Sunderlin, W.D., Angelsen, A., Belcher, B., Burgers, P., Nasi, R., Santoso, L., Wunder, S.,
18.07.12.). 2005. Livelihoods, forests, and conservation in developing countries: an over-
Gibson, C.C., Lehoucq, F.E., 2003. The local politics of decentralized environmental view. World Development 33 (9), 1383e1402.
policy in Guatemala. The Journal of Environment & Development 12 (1), 28e49. Tacconi, L., 2007. Decentralization, forests and livelihoods: theory and narrative.
Green China TV (GCTV), 2012. Forest Tenure Reforms Paved the Way to Happiness. Global Environmental Change 17 (3e4), 338e348.
Available from: http://www.greenchina.tv/news-191.xhtml (accessed 24.08.12.). Tonggu Statistical Bureau, 2012. Statistical Report on Tonggu Economic and Social
Hong, Z.S., Zhang, C.X., Xie, Z.Z., Huang, A.S., 2006. Disquisition on development of Development in 2010. Available from: http://www.tjcn.org/tjgb/201203/24019.
private forest as collective forest property right being reformed in Fujian. Sci- html (accessed 13.12.12.).
ence Technology and Industry 6, 6e10. United Nations, 1992. Report of the United Nations Conference On Environment and
Huang, L., Lv, J., 2010. Empirical analysis of the impact of collective forest tenure Development. Rio de Janeiro.
reform on farmers forestry income e based on 332 households survey data, 8 Wang, G.Y., Innes, J., Lei, J.F., Dai, S.Y., Wu, S., 2007. Chinas forestry reforms. Science
counties in Liaoning province. Forestry Economics 2, 45e49. 318, 1556e1557.
Huang, X.L., Xie, Z.Z., Huang, S.W., Yang, J.Z., 2009. The empirical study on the Wang, X.Q., 2006. The efcacy of forest tenure reforms and their supporting
motivations of forestry companies to implement of forest certication. Tech- mechanism. Forestry Economics 6, 15e16.
nology Economics 28, 41e47. Wang, Y.L., Liu, S.L., Ding, L.X., 2010. Evaluation studies on reform of collective forest
Huo, X.Y., 2009. Discussion about the problems facing the adoption of sustainable right system in Sichuan province by the farmers. Forestry Economics 2, 50e53.
forest management and measures in China. Heilongjiang Technological Infor- White, A., Martin, A., 2002. Who Owns the Worlds Forests? Forest Tenure and
mation 18, 131. Public Forests in Transition. Forest Trends, Washington, D.C.
Innes, J.L., Hickey, G.M., 2005. Certication of forest management and wood Wollenberg, E., Moeliono, M., Limberg, G., Iwan, R., Rhee, S., Sudana, M., 2006.
products. In: Innes, J.L., Hickey, G.M., Hoen, H.F. (Eds.), Forestry and Environ- Between state and society: local governance of forests in Malinau, Indonesia.
mental Change: Socio-economic and Political Dimensions. CAB International Forest Policy and Economics 8 (4), 421e433.
Wallingford, England, pp. 143e168. Xi, M.T., 2007. 14 Provinces in China Have Undergone the Forest Policy Re-
Jia, Z.B., 2009. Advancing the Construction of Modern Forestry to a New Stage of forms. Available from: http://www.chinanews.com.cn/cj/hgjj/news/2007/11-
Scientic Development. Available from: http://www.gov.cn/gzdt/2009-01/15/ 13/1076282.shtml (accessed 12.01.09.).
content_1206407.htm (accessed 20.01.11.). Yan, P., Chen, H.Y., 2010. Brief analysis on the relationship between efciency and
Kozak, R.A., Cohen, D.H., Lerner, J., Bull, G.Q., 2004. Western Canadian consumer equity in forest right reform in China. Forestry Economics 06, 57e59.
attitudes towards certied value-added wood products: an exploratory Yang, X.J., Ming, L., 2006. Reform of forest property and forestry factor market
assessment. Forest Products Journal 54 (9), 21e24. construction. Commercial Research 04, 187e190.
Larson, A.M., 2003. Decentralisation and forest management in Latin America: to- Yang, X.S., Geri, L.T., Wei, B., 2010. Tracing effects and problems of collective forest
wards a working model. Public Administration and Development 23 (3), 211e property reform in southern China. Forestry Economics 6, 46e49.
226. Yi, M., 2004. How to carry out forest certication in state-owned forestry region of
Larson, A.M., 2005. Democratic decentralisation in the forestry sector: lessons Northeastern China. World Forestry Research 17, 52e55.
learned from Africa, Asia and Latin America. In: Colfer, C.J.P., Capistrano, D. Yin, R.K., 2009. Case Study Research: Design and Methods. SAGE Publications.
(Eds.), The Politics of Decentralization: Forests, Power and People. Earthscan, Yongan Statistical Bureau, 2011. Statistical Report on Yongan Economic and Social
London, UK, pp. 22e62. Development in 2010. Available from: http://www.tjcn.org/tjgb/201109/20410.
Leslie, A.D., 2004. The impacts and mechanics of certication. International Forestry html (accessed 13.12.12.).
Review 6 (1), 30e39. Yongan Forestry Bureau, 2005. Perspective of forestry factor market construction in
Liu, J.L., Zhao, L.X., 2009. Have Decollectivization and Privatization Contributed to Yongan. Forestry Economics 04, 18e19.
Sustainable Forestry Management and Poverty Alleviation in China?. Forestry Yongan Forestry Element Market, 2010. An Overview of Yongan Forestry Element
policy and institutions working paper 23 Food and Agriculture Organization of Market. Available from: http://www.yafefm.com/document.asp?docID40
the United Nations, Rome. (accessed 10.11.10.).
Merry, F.D., Carter, D.R., 1997. Certied wood markets in the US: implications for Zhang, H.P., 2010. Reforms of the system of collective forest property rights per-
tropical deforestation. Forest Ecology and Management 92 (1e3), 221e228. formance evaluation: a survey. Forestry Economics 2, 39e44.
Murray, B.C., Abt, R.C., 2001. Estimating price compensation requirements for eco- Zhang, H.P., Xu, J.T., 2009. Collective forest tenure reform: assessment of motivation,
certied forestry. Ecological Economics 36 (1), 149e163. characteristics and performance. Forestry Economics 45 (7), 119e126.
NVivo. Available from: http://www.qsrinternational.com/products_nvivo.aspx Zhang, S.G., Xiao, W.F., Jiang, Z.P., 2002. Sustainable forest management in China;
(accessed 20.11.10.). the basic principles and practices. Plant Biosystems 136 (2), 159e166.