Engebretson Et Al., 1985 PDF

Relative Motions Between Oceanic
and
Continental Plates in the Pacific Basin
David C. Engebretson
Department of Geology
Western Washington University
Bellingham, Washington 98225
Allan Cox
Department of Geophysics
Stanford University
Stanford, California 94305
Richard G. Gordon
Department of Geological Sciences
Northwestern University
Evanston, Illinois 60201
Ser.
PER
@ 1985 by The Geological Society of America, Inc.
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Printed in U.S.A.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-PublicationData
Engebretson, David C.
Relative motions between oceanic and continental
plates in the Pacific Basin.
(Special paper / Geological Society of America ;206)

Bibliography: p.
1. Plate tectonics-Pdc Ocean. I. Cox, Allan,
1926- . 11. Gordon, Richard G., 1953-
111. Title. IV. Series: Special paper (Geological
Society of America) ;206. 2
QE511.4.E54 1985 551.1'36'09164 8&&

ISBN 0-8137-2206-3
Contents
Acknowledgments .................................................... v
Abstract ............................................................ 1
Introduction ......................................................... 2
The Model .......................................................... 2
Method and Assumptions ............................................. 2
Reconstructions Used to Build the Model ................................. 3
Errors and Uncertainties ............................................... 17
Motion between hotspots ............................................ 17
Errors in determining plate-hotspot motions ............................. 17
Errors in determining plate-plate motions ............................... 17
Uncertainty in the location of boundaries between
oceanic plates ................................................... 18
Summary of errors .................................................18
Reconstructions ......................................................18
Method, Data. and Assumptions ........................................18
Detailed Reconstructions ..............................................27
Present configuration ...............................................27
20 Ma (chron 6) ...................................................27
37 Ma (chron 13) ..................................................27
56 Ma (chron 25). 65 Ma (chron 29). and 80 Ma
(chron 33r) ..................................................... 27
110 Ma (Albian. middle of Cretaceous normal superchron) ................. 28
140 Ma (Berriasian. chron M14) ......................................28
Comparison with Global Circuit in the Neogene ............................29
Plate Tectonic Interpretation ...........................................29
Age and Thickness of Subducting Farallon Plate ............................29
Variations in Bathymetry Parallel to the Trench ............................32
MendocinoEscarpment .............................................34
Velocity of Convergence ..............................................34
Trajectories of Plates .................................................42
Geologic Interpretation ................................................42
Pacific-North American Convergence beginning at 5 Ma ..................... 42
Convergence and Magmatism, ..........................................44
Laramide Orogeny ................................................... 44
Appendix A-Information for Tracing the Causes of
Changes in Relative Plate Motions ................................46
Appendix B-Azimuth and Speed of the Linear Velocities
of Oceanic Platesfor North America and Eurasia ................... 50
References ...........................................................58
...
Ill
Acknowledgments
Grateful acknowledgment is made to Cecil and Ida Green for fellowship support to
D.C.E.; to Shell Faculty Career Initiation Funds for support of R.G.G.; to the donors of the
Petroleum Research Fund, administered by the American Chemical Society, for partial
support of this research; to the National Science Foundation for support from grants EAR
79-19712 and EAR 8 1-07702; to Gulf, Mobil, Texaco, Arco, and Aminoil corporations for
support of this project through the Stanford Circum-Pacific Tectonics Affiliates Program; to
R. B. Hart for convincing us that the spreading history south of the Mendocino Fracture Zone
should be given serious consideration;to Michel Debiche for help in checking and revising the
tables; and to Benjamin Page and George Thompson for their encouragement and criticism
along the way.
2 Engebretson, Cox, and Gordon
INTRODUCTION thonous terranes great distances northward, as suggested by

paleomagnetic data from the terranes? (4) Are plate tectonic
A causal link with plate tectonics has been proposed for processes responsible for the widespread Pliocene orogeny re-
most of the major elements of Cordilleran tectonics, including corded at many localities along the western boundary of North
plutonism, episodes of strike-slip and normal faulting, basin for- America?
mation, terrane transport, and orogeny. The information needed
to test these hypotheses is a set of Euler poles describing the THE MODEL
former locations of oceanic plates relative to adjacent continents.
Because such a set of Euler poles can be used to generate maps Method and Assumptions
showing the former locations of oceanic plates adjacent to the
continental margin and relative plate velocities along the margin, This model is based on the assumption that the hotspots in
they provide the basic framework needed to relate plate tectonics the Pacific and Atlantic regions have remained fixed with respect
to Cordilleran geology. A full set of Euler poles describing the to one other, an approach first applied by Morgan (1972) to
history of displacement between Pacific basin plates and adjacent analysis of plate motions and by Coney (1972,1978) to analysis
continents has not yet been published. of the convergence history and tectonic evolution of western
Most attempts to link plate tectonics and geology along the North America during the Mesozoic and Cenozoic. Our relative
margin of North America are based on the important study of motion model (Tables 2,3, and 4) is based on previously deter-
Atwater and Molnar (1973) for the interval from 38 Ma to the mined reconstructions (Table 1). Once the displacementsof all of
present, which gives paleogeographic reconstructions (but not the plates relative to a common hotspot reference frame were
Euler poles) for the Pacific and North American plates. Similarly determined (Table 2), their motions relative to each other (Tables
Coney (1972) presented generalized reconstructions and conver- 3 and 4) were found by addition of finite rotations (Figure 1).
gence velocities for the late Mesozoic and Cenozoic but not the One advantage of this approach over that of constructing a global
Euler poles upon which these were based. Francheteau and oth- North America-Africa-India-Antarctic-Pacific circuit (Atwater
ers (1970) found the coordinates of Euler poles for Pacfic-Faral- and Molnar 1973) is that in the past one or more of these plates
Ion motion. Starting with these poles, Carlson (1982) estimated may have been divided by an undetected boundary into two
the angular rates of Pacific-Farallon motion and the rates of sub-plates (Gordon and Cox 1980; Suarez and Molnar 1980;
convergence of the Farallon and Pacific plates relative to North Morgan 1981; Duncan 1981) with an unknown amount of dis-
America during the Cenozoic, but no map reconstructions of the placement and unknown contributions to the global circuit. A
Farallon plate and no information about the Farallon plate were disadvantage of using a hotspot reference frame is that motions
given. In addition to these pioneering studies, many models have between hotspots in the Atlantic and Pacific basins and errors in
been presented for former locations of the ridges between oceanic plate-hotspot motions introduce errors into reconstructions, as
plates in the Pacific basin (e.g. Larson and Chase 1972; Hilde and discussed below. A comparison between reconstructions made
others 1976; Alvarez and others 1980). using the two approaches is given in a subsequent section.
In this paper we develop a quantitative plate tectonic model The important issue of whether hotspots move slowly
for the history of displacements between continental and oceanic enough with respect to one another to provide a useful mantle
plates in the Pacific basin during the past 180 Ma. Our results are reference frame has been the subject of active investigation during
expressed in the form of tables of Euler poles describing former the past decade. Morgan (1972) initially estimated that hotspot
locations of all of the known relevant plates, tables and diagrams motions of 5 km/m.y. were sufficient to explain the non-
of relative plate velocities, and map reconstructions showing parallelism of seamount chains on the Pacific plate. On the other
former locations of the North American, Farallon, Kula, and hand, Molnar and Atwater (1973), Burke and others (1973), and
Izanagi plates. In our analysis we emphasize how the bathymetry Molnar and Francheteau (1975) all concluded that the hotspots
and age of the ocean floor adjacent to the margin of North have had relative velocities of at least 15 km/m.y. However,
America have varied through late Mesozoic and Cenozoic time. Morgan (1981,1983) showed that, with only minor reinterpreta-
This plate tectonic model provides a basis for a discussion of the tion of the data from previous studies, plate reconstructions for
following questions about possible relationships between plate the last 200 m.y. are consistent with relative movement of only a
tectonics and major geologic events. (1) Do major episodes of few km/m.y. between the hotspots in the Atlantic and Indian
Mesozoic plutonism occur during times of unusually rapid plate Oceans. This is supported by Duncan's (1981) analysis of hot-
convergence? Are all episodes of rapid plate convergence asso- spots in the Atlantic and Indian Ocean basins and an analysis by
ciated with major plutonism? (2) Is the Laramide orogeny (80 to Henderson and Gordon (personal communication, 1981) of
40 Ma) due to a change in the absolute velocity of the North hotspots in the Pacific Ocean basin. Morgan's conclusion is
American plate, as suggested by Coney (1972), or is it more further supported by studies of instantaneous plate motions
closely related to changes in the rate of convergence and to a (Minster and others 1974; Chase 1978; Minster and Jordan
decrease in the age of the subducting plate? (3) Are displacements 1978) that detected no significant relative motion between the
derived from these plate models capable of transporting alloch- hotspots during the past 10 m.y., and by the observation that
Geological Society of America
Special Paper 206
1985
Relative Motions Between Oceanic

and
Continental Plates in the Pacific Basin
ABSTRACT
A model is presented for the displacement history between western North

America, eastern Eurasia, and adjacent oceanic plates (Pacific, Farallon, Izanagi, Kula,
and Phoenix) for the past 180 million years. The model is based on the assumption that
the hotspots in the Atlantic region have remained fixed relative to the hotspots in the
Pacific basin (but not necessarily relative to the spin axis). The model uses a new
determination for relative motion between the oceanic plates of the Pacific basin.
The results show that in a broad sense the Kula and Izanagi plates moved in a
general south to north direction through the Pacific basin, implying rapid subduction
beneath Eurasia and right lateral oblique subduction with respect to North America. In
contrast, the Farallon plate swept in a general west to east trajectory across the basin
and was accompanied by rapid subduction beneath North America. The Kula and
Izanagi plates were capable of transporting allochthonous terranes rapidly northward
toward the paleopole. The Farallon plate was capable of transporting terranes bearing
Tethyan fauna eastward across the Pacific basin and juxtaposing those terranes against
the western edge of North America, with moderate displacementstoward the paleopole.
A set of maps showing reconstructed plate boundaries for the past 140 Ma provides
the basis for interpreting terrane displacement histories. The reconstructions are also
used to estimate the ages of the plates that were consumed at convergent plate boundar-
ies throughout the late Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras. The following events and relation-
ships are noted: (1) fast (greater than 100 km/m.y.) convergence of the Farallon plate
with respect to North America during Late Cretaceous and early Tertiary times (75 to 40
Ma); (2) rapid trenchward migration of western North America over the hotspots during
this same time interval; (3) rapid decrease in age of the subducting Farallon plate within
this interval of fast convergence; (4) synchroneity of these three processes with the
Laramide deformation; (5) decrease in Farallon-North America and North America-
hotspot velocities at about 40 Ma as the age of the subducting Farallon lithosphere
decreased rapidly to less than 30 m.y.
Our analysis shows that the age and bathymetry of the descending plates varied
markedly along strike of the trenches. Fracture zones on the Farallon plate, across
which large age offsets occur, were characterized by shallow (young) and deep (old)
ocean floor on opposite sides of the fracture zones. As the fracture zones migrated north
with the Farallon plate along the continental margin, buoyant young lithosphere capable
of producing uplift and erosion existed immediately adjacent to dense old lithosphere
capable of forming a bathymetric low. We speculate that some of the basins that formed
along the continental margin during late Cretaceous and Tertiary times may have origi-
nated in these source-sink pairs.
The relative velocities between continents and adjacent oceanic plates are shown on
a series of maps as arrows representing velocity vectors at selected points of tectonic
interest around the Pacific margin. Significant changes through time in these relative
plate velocities offer insights into the mechanisms that control the diversity of tectonic
styles found in the geologic record at the margins.
Relative Motions Between Oceanic and Continental Plates
Figure 1. Global plate tectonic model showing the links between the major plates included in our
analysis. In addition, the motion of Eurasia (not shown here) was determined from that of North
America using the record of the opening of the North Atlantic (Srivastava 1978). South America and
Antarctica rotations (not shown here) are included in the tables. PA: Pacific plate. FA: Farallon plate.
KU: Kula plate. NA: North America plate. AF: Africa plate. HOT SPOTS: Those in the Pacific and
Atlantic basins, here shown schematically, are assumed to have remained at a constant distance from
each other.
when hotspots have shifted relative to the rotation axis, hotspots Morgan's Africa-hotspot motion. The motion of Eurasia with
on one side of the globe moved toward the rotation axis and those respect to the hotspots was then determined from North Ameri-
on the other side moved away, as if the mantle as a whole were ca-hotspot motion and the Eurasia-North America reconstruc-
moving relative to the rotation axis while the hotspots remained tions of Srivastava (1978). These reconstructions, as modified by
fixed and at the same distance from each other relative to the the interpretation of Cande and Kristoffersen (1977), showed that
mantle (Morgan 1981; Gordon and Cape 1981; Gordon 1983; the anomalies Srivastava identified as anomalies 31 and 32 are
Andrews in press). On balance, hotspots appear to us to form an actually anomalies 33 and 34. The timing of initial rifting of
imperfect but still useful mantle reference frame. Eurasia-Greenland from North America (-95 Ma) was esti-
mated by extrapolating the spreading rate between anomalies 33
Reconstructions Used to Build the Model and 34 out to the ocean-continent boundary as determined by
Srivastava.
The reconstructions used to build the model come from a The post-43 Ma Pacific-hotspot motion, that is, the motion
variety of sources. The motion of the African plate relative to the of the Pacific plate relative to the hotspots, is generally repre-
Atlantic hotspots (i.e. Africa-hotspot motion) was taken from sented by a single Euler pole (Jarrard and Clague 1977). The
Morgan (1983). The ages of these reconstructions were adjusted possibility that the Pacific plate began to move in a more north-
to be consistent with the magnetic reversal time scale of Harland erly direction several million years ago is suggested (Cox and
and others (1982), which is used throughout this paper. To obtain Engebretson 1985) by a difference between the Euler pole for the
the motion of North America relative to hotspots, the Africa-- Hawaiian trend (Jarrard and Clague 1977) and the Euler pole for
North America relative motion determined by Klitgord and oth- present plate motions, as determined from observations spanning
ers (1984 and personal communication) was combined with the past several million years (Minster and Jordan 1978). A
TABLE 1. Sources of Euler poles used for displacement model. Age (Ma) Latitude Longityde Angle
Reference
From 1 To ON (Deg)
Age (Ma) Latitude Longitude Angle
?rom 1 To ON (Deg) PACIFIC-FARALLON N.o.M.@)
--
---
5 0 -19 2 206 5 -3.1 11
PACIFIC-HOTSPOTS
9 5 -77.9 68.0 -5.0 11
5 0 56 5 -75.1 4.7 5 17 9 -88 0 252.1 -6.5 11
28 0 66.6 -71.0 22.8 2 28 17 -80 6 245.1 -7.5 12
43 0 67 4 -70.5 33.2 2 37 28 -79.7 31.9 -13.1 12
74 0 52.2 -90.7 49.1 1 43 37 -79 7 31.9 -11.0 12
100 0 48.8 -81.6 72.1 1 48 43 -79 7 31.9 -8.0 12
115 0 53.9 -79.8 77.1 1 56 48 -77.4 358.4 -10.6 12
135 0 56 1 -77.2 86.5 1 61 56 -66.0 244.2 -3.8 12
145 0 61.1 -78.8 87.3 1 66 61 -66.0 244.2 -3.4 12
74 66 -66.0 244.2 -5.7 12
AFRICA-HOTSPOTS 74
85 -66.0 244.2 -7.8 12
5 0 50.4 323.1 -1.3 6 100 85 -64.9 236.0 -13.1 12
9 0 50.4 323.1 -2.4 6 119 100 -64.9 236.0 -16.1 12
17 0 50.4 323.1 -4.5 6 127 119 -9.2 195.7 -7.4 12
37 0 46.3 43.1 -9.8 6 135 127 -9.2 195.7 -7.4 12
48 0 46.2 43.1 -12.8 6 145 135 -25.3 227.3 -5.9 12
85 0 34.7 -56.9 -22.3 6 163 145 -25.3 227.3 -11.3 12
119 0 26.0 -44.7 -31.8 6 PACIFIC-FARALLON s.o.M.^
145 0 23.9 -45.8 -34.1 6
180 0 .5 -71.4 -22.7 6 85 74 -66.0 244.2 -7.8 12
100 85 -64.9 236.0 -18.9 12
AFRICA-NORTH AMERICA 119 100 -64.9 236.0 -23.9 12
37 0 70.5 341.3 -10.4 3 127 119 -9.2 195.7 -7.4 12
66 0 80.4 -8.6 -22.5 3
PACIFIC-KULA
85 0 77.1 -19.2 -29.4 3
119 0 66.3 -19.9 -54.3 3 43 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 12
127 0 66.1 341.0 -56.4 3 48 43 -18.0 291.4 -6.5 12
145 0 66.1 341.6 -59 8 3 56 48 -18.0 291 4 -10.4 12
161 0 67.2 -16.0 -64.7 3 61 56 -18.0 291.4 -1.7 12
180 0 67.0 -12.0 -75.6 3 66 61 -18.0 291.4 -3.0 12
74 66 -18.0 29 1:4 -7.7 12
NORTH AMERICA-EURASIA 85 74 -18.0 291.4 -10.7 12
37 0 68.0 129.9 7.8 9 PACIFIC-IZANAGI I
48 0 50.8 142.8 9.8 9
53 0 40.0 145.0 11.4 9 100 85 48.0 182.7 -22.6 12
85 0 70.8 150.9 20.3 9 119 100 48.0 182.7 -27.8 12
95 0 75.7 153.8 24.2 9 127 119 48.0 182.7 -12 3 12
180 0 75.7 153.8 24.2 9 135 127 48.0 182.7 -19.1 12
145 135 14.7 267.5 -8.2 12
AFRICA-SOUTH AMERICA
PACIFIC-PHOENIX
37 0 57.4 -37.5 -13.4 8
85 0 63.0 -36.0 -33.8 8
119 0 46.6 -31.1 -52.4 8
135 0 44.1 -30.3 -56.1 8
180 0 44.1 -30.3 -56.1 8
1 ANTARCTICA-AFRICA
neianve Motions Between Oceanic and Continental Plates 5
TABLE 1. (Continued) probability that their pole was biased by the inclusion in their
Age (Ma) Latitude Longitude Angle analysis of hotspot tracks as old as 10 Ma. The motion of the
From 1 To O
E (Deg) Pacific plate relative to the hotspots for 43 Ma to 5 Ma was
determined using the Pacific-hotspot Euler pole of Jarrard and
Clague (1977). The 28 to 5 Ma angle was determined by requir-
123 -3.9 -27.8 45.5
145 -2.4 -32.7 55.4
ing that the Hawaiian hotspot lay beneath Midway Island at 28
Ma, its radiometrically determined age (Dalrymple and others
AUSTRALIA-ANTARCTICA 1980). The 43 to 28 Ma angle was determined by locating the
10 0 8.7 35.6 -6.7 10 Hawaiian hotspot beneath Yuryaku Guyot at the bend in the
20 0 9.0 12.1 -12.0 10 Hawaiian-Emperor Seamount Chain at 43 Ma, its radiometri-
37 0 11.7 31.8 -20.5 10 cally determined age (Dalrymple and others 1980). The pole of
43 0 11.5 31.0 -23.6 10 motion from 74 to 43 Ma is essentially the Emperor pole of
85 0 15 37.0 -28.0 4 Clague and Jarrard (1973), adjusted slightly to provide a match
PACIFIC-ANTARCTICA at the Emperor-Hawaii elbow with our track for 43 to 0 Ma.
Our rotations for 74 to 43 Ma and from 43 to 0 Ma move Tenji
10 0 72.0 -70.0 9.8 10 'Seamount from its present location in the northern Emperor
20 0 71.3 -73.2 15.4 10 Chain to the present location of the Hawaii hotspot.
37 0 74 8 -56.9 28.0 10
For motion from 74 to 100 Ma, we used a stage pole (36ON,
43 0 75.1 -51.3 32.6 10
56 0 71.6 -57.5 40.1 10 76OW) that Epp (1978) found by fitting small circles to the three
67 0 71.7 -41.0 53.8 10 northwest-striking seamount chains north of the Hawaiian Chain.
Small circles about this pole are also a good fit both to the
INDIA-AFRICA Emperor Chain north of 50 and to the northern Line Islands,
40 0 13.3 54.1 -20.8 7 which we assume to have been originally formed in Late Cre-
50 0 12.9 45 3 -30.1 7 taceous time (Schlanger and others 1984). The rotation angle for
63 0 18 8 26.2 -38 4 7 this stage was determined by finding the angle that placed the
85 0 18.7 25.8 -56 0 7 intersection of the Line Islands and the Mid-Pacific Mountains
123 0 24.5 33.5 -59 0 7 over the present-day location of Henderson and Gordon's (1981)
145 0 29.6 36.1 -56.8 7 Easter plate hotspot (22OS, 114OW).
(1) Based on spacing of isochrons north of the Mendocino Fracture For pre-100 Ma motion of the Pacific plate relative to hot-
Zone. spots, Morgan (1972) proposed a very simple model, a single
(2) Based on spacing of isochrons south of the Mendodno Fracture stage pole located at the present north pole. The model we used
Zone. Entries other than those listed are the same as for Farallon N.O.M.
(Henderson and Gordon 1981) resembles Morgan's but is some-
what more detailed. As in Morgan's (1972) model, the Mid-
References:
(1) Henderson and Gordon (1981); (2) Jarrard and Clague (1977); (3) Pacific Mountains are interpreted as the older continuation of the
Klitgord et al. (1982); (4) Koenig (1980); (5) Minster and Jordan Line Islands Chain, which is assumed to be a hotspot track.
(1978); point on error ellipse for Euler pole closest to equator; (6) However, the Mid-Pacific Mountains were not fit by a single
Morgan (1980); (7) Norton and Sclater (1979); (8) Sibuet and Mascle Euler stage pole (as in Morgan 1972) but by three sub-stages
(1978); (9) Srivastava (1978); (10) Stock and Molnar (1982); (11) corresponding to the west-southwest trend of the easternmost
Wilson et al. (1982); (12) this paper.
(and presumably youngest) Mid-Pacific Mountains (100-115
Ma), the northwest trend of the central portion of the Mid-Pa-
cific Mountains (115-135 Ma), and the southwest trend of the
possible consequence of this change in direction of motion can be westernmost (and presumably oldest) portion of the Mid-Pacific
seen in the trend of the chain through the islands Oahu, Maui, Mountains (135-145 Ma). These rotations are consistent with the
and Hawaii, which is rotated 5 to 10 degrees clockwise relative to interpretation that much of the Hess and Shatsky rises are the
the trend of the older islands. We do not know whether this trace of a single hotspot, active at the same time as the hotspot
change in trend is due to irregularitiesin the pattern of volcanism that formed the Mid-Pacific Mountains. The youngest pre-100
forming on a uniformly moving plate or to a recent change in the Ma segment of this hotspot track, corresponding to the eastern-
direction of Pacific plate motion. most Mid-Pacific Mountains, passes through the west-southwest
In the present analysis we have adopted the latter view and trending platform of the southern Hess Rise that lies just north of
divided the post-43 Ma motion into three stages. The motion for and sub-parallel to the Mendocino Fracture Zone. The interme-
the past 5 m.y. was based on Minster and Jordan's (1978) model diate segment of the hotspot track, corresponding to the central ,
AMI-2 for present Pacific-hotspot motion. For the present anal- Mid-Pacific Mountains, begins with Northwestern Ridge on Hess
ysis we selected a pole at the southern limit of the confidence Rise near the southwestern edge of the rise, crosses the Emperor
limit listed for the Minster and Jordan (1978) pole because of the Chain, and then joins Shatsky Rise where it meets the Emperor
Engebretson, Cox, and Gordon
TABLE 2. Stage poles and total reconstructions relative to the hotspots.

Stage Total ~econstructions(')
Age Lat Long Angle Lat Long Angle
(Ma) ON (D eg) ON (Deg)
- -
AFRICA [AF-AHS]^
5 -50 143 1.3 -50 143 1.3
9 -50 143 1.1 -50 143 2.4
17 -50 143 2.1 -50 143 4.5
37 -43 132 5.3 -46 137 9.8
48 -46 137 2.9 -46 137 12.7
85 -2 1 108 10.6 -35 123 22.3
119 -2 149 11.4 -26 135 31.8
145 0 116 2.6 -24 134 34.1
180 32 359 19.8 0 109 22.7
NORTH AMERICA [NA-AF-AHS]
5 35 122 .5 35 122 .5
9 35 121 .4 35 122 .9
17 34 119 .8 35 120 1.8
37 32 104 30 33 110 4.7
48 51 115 3.3 40 112 7.9
66 46 91 7.9 44 102 15.6
85 41 59 6.0 46 90 21.0
119 55 21 19.3 59 63 37.4
127 40 41 2.2 59 61 39.4
145 43 52 3.5 58 59 42.8
161 41 6 13.7 59 42 54.4
180 40 7 21.4 58 25 73.8
EURASIA [EU-NA-AF-AHS]
5 -85 70 .7 -85 70 .7
9 -83 66 .5 -85 68 1.2
17 -84 67 1.1 -84 67 2.3
37 -62 77 2.6 -72 76 4.9
48 42 10 3.0 -40 38 4.1
53 36 9 2.8 -10 27 5.3
66 -8 104 4.9 -13 64 8.0
85 -30 88 5.6 -2 1 73 13.2
95 15 51 2.5 -15 70 15.2
119 55 21 13.6 21 58 21.8
127 40 41 2.2 23 57 23.8
145 43 52 3.5 26 57 27.2
161 41 6 13.7 36 45 38 2
180 40 7 21.4 42 33 57.7
SOUTH AMERICA [SA-AF-AHS]
5 76 320 .5 76 320 .5
9 77 322 .4 76 32 1 .9
17 76 325 .8 76 322 1.8
37 70 47 2.6 76 21 4.3
48 77 60 2.2 77 34 6.5
85 53 58 12.6 61 52 18.6
119 22 347 11.2 54 13 26.2
135 3 360 3.5 49 9 28.4
145 0 116 1.O 49 12 28.2
180 32 359 19.8 43 3 47.3
TABLE 2. (Continued)
Stage Total ~econstructions(~)
(Ma) ON OR (Deg) ON Peg)
PACIFIC [PA-PHs]
5 57 285 4.7 57 285 4.7
28 69 289 18.2 67 289 22.8
43 69 289 10.4 67 290 33.2
74 22 269 20.2 52 269 49.1
100 48 299 24.0 49 278 72.1
115 68 162 8.0 54 280 77.1
135 75 273 10.0 56 283 86.5
145 24 162 7.0 61 281 87.3
180 - - - 61 281 87.3
FARALLON N.o.M.^ [FA-PA-PHs]
5 33 244 5.1 33 244 5.1
9 -64 2 2.1 12 255 4.1
17 -12 299 2. 3 27 1 6.0
28 10 295 4.1 5 281 9.9
37 -58 14 7.6 -30 301 11.8
43 -60 25 7.3 4 9 317 16.6
48 -70 340 6.5 -56 319 22.7
56 -55 333 8.8 -56 323 31 4
61 -27 288 4.8 -52 318 35.3
66 -23 290 4.5 4 8 315 39.1
74 -22 293 7.4 4 4 312 45.5
85 7 316 10.9 -35 318 53.0
100 1 325 15.9 -28 324 66.3
115 -14 14 6.5 -30 328 70.8
119 -12 355 2.4 -30 330 72.9
127 -8 280 6.8 -27 327 77.2
135 -8 284 6.8 -24 324 82.1
145 2 206 1.9 -23 323 81.2
163 -28 328 11.3 -24 323 92.5
180 -28 328 10.7 -25 323 103.1
FARALLON s.o.M.(')
(Ma) ON OE (Deg) ON (Deg)
IZANAGI I PZ-PA-PHs]
85 - - - 27 298 80.7
100 27 246 30.1 37 288 103.6
115 * 23 229 24.8 46 278 120.0
119 23 243 6.8 47 275 125.5
127 22 246 14.1 49 269 137.3
135 17 249 20.9 50 260 154.3
145 75 276 6.9 50 262 160.5
IZANAGI I1 [IZ-PA-PHs]
130 - - - 56 282 84.1
135 -22 302 8.9 50 278 86.1
142 -36 285 9.8 44 272 87.3
PHOENIX [PH-PA-PHs]
85 - - - 51 274 58.8
100 41 107 8.9 59 280 59.8
115 9 128 18.5 78 281 56.4
119 10 131 3.8 82 280 56.5
127 9 134 7.7 89 212 57.3
135 9 138 7.7 82 115 58.9
145 5 151 11.6 71 119 62.0
163 -2 1 140 15.1 57 114 62.8
180 -2 1 140 14.3 44 112 66.4
PACIFIC (GLOBAL PLATE CIRCUIT) [PA-AN-AF-AHS]
5 67 290 4.0 67 290 4.0
9 67 289 3.2 67 289 7.2
10 67 288 .8 67 289 8.0
17 59 280 2.8 65 286 10 8
20 65 28 1 1.2 65 285 12.0
37 76 334 10.0 71 302 21.8
40 72 338 1.8 71 305 23.5
43 84 218 2 ,O 73 304 25.4
48 54 252 2.5 72 296 27.6
50 74 255 1.1 73 295 28.7
56 63 30 1 4.0 71 295 32.6
63 70 9 9.6 72 312 41.6
67 61 3 5.5 71 319 46.7
ANTARCTICA [AN-AF-AHS]
5 -87 309 0.9 -87 309 ' 0.9
9 -90 297 0.7 -87 303 1.7
17 -87 280 1.5 -87 291 3.2
37 -8 1 86 3.3 -87 76 6.5
40 -90 165 0.5 -87 78 7.0
48 -23 174 2 .O -77 166 8.0
50 -2 139 0.5 -74 161 8.1
63 59 77 1.2 -70 148 7.2
85 0 5 4.5 -65 39 7.4
119 -4 1 324 17.4 -50 339 23.1
123 -27 328 2.8 -48 338 25.7
145 3 290 8.6 -36 326 30.2
(1) Stage poles in a fixed hotspot reference frame. The rotations given are those that will restore the
plates to their positions at times shown in the left-hand column from their positions at the next youngest
times shown in the left-hand column. For example, to restore Africa from its present position to its 5 Ma
position rotate 1.3O counterclockwiseabout the pole with lat. 50Slong. 143OE. Similarly, to restore
Africa from its 5 Ma position to its 9 Ma position rotate l.1counterclockwiseabout the pole with lat.
50Slong. 143OE.
(2) Total reconstruction poles describing the rotation necessary to restore the plates from their present
positions to their positions at the times given in the left-hand column relative to a fixed hotspot frame of
reference. For example, to restore Africa to its position at 85 Ma, rotate 22.3O counterclockwise about
the pole with lat. 3S0S,long. 123OE.
(3) Elements of circuits used to calculate poles are as follows. AF, African plate. AHS, hotspots
producing tracks on Africa and North America. AN, Antarctica plate. EU, Eurasia plate. FA, Farallon
plate. IN, India plate. IZ, Izanagi plates I and 11. NA, North American plate. PA, Pacific plate. PH,
Phoenix plate. PHs, hotspots producing tracks on the Pacific plate.
(4) See note (I), Table 1.
(5) See note (2), Table 1.
Chain at -37O N. The oldest segment of this hotspot track, cor- prior to Early Cretaceous time and if all of the numerous hotspots
responding to the westernmost Mid-Pacific Mountains, trends located near the spreading ridges of the Pacific that were active in
southwestward from 37ON and 162OEto the southwest comer of the Early Cretaceous were also active during the Late Jurassic,
Shatsky Rise, which we take to be the oldest comer of the rise. then we would expect to observe Late Jurassic hotspot tracks on
In summary, from 145 to 135 Ma the Pacific plate moved to the Pacific plate now, which is not the case. Our model for the
the southwest parallel to the western Mid-Pacific Mountains. interval 180 to 145 Ma, although highly speculative, has the
From 135-1 15 Ma the Pacific plate moved northwest, parallel to virtue of making specific predictions which, when compared to
the central portion of the Mid-Pacific Mountains. From 115 to the geology of the circum-Pacific margin, may permit substantia-
100 Ma the Pacific plate moved west-southwest, parallel to the tion or refutation of the proposed model.
eastern portion of the Mid-Pacific Mountains. From 100-74 Ma The relative motion of the oceanic plates (Pacific, Farallon,
the Pacific plate moved rapidly to the northwest, parallel to the Izanagi, Kula, and Phoenix) was determined by Engebretson and
northern Line Islands and the three northwest-trending seamount others (1984a) using the magnetic lineations and fracture zones
chains just north of the Hawaiian Chain. From 74-43 Ma the shown in Figure 2. These plate-plate motions were combined
plate moved rapidly northwestward, parallel to the Emperor with the Pacific plate-hotspot motions to obtain the motions of
Chain. From 43 Ma to the present, the Pacific plate moved the oceanic plates with respect to the hotspots. The relative mo-
rapidly in a generally west-northwest direction, parallel to the tions of the Pacific and Farallon (Juan de Fuca) plates younger
Hawaiian Chain, this motion being divided into three small sub- than 17 Ma are those of Wilson and others (1984).
stages as described above. The spacing between isochrons commonly changes across
The above model allows reconstructions of the Pacific plate fracture zones in the north Pacific because of ridge jumping or
relative to hotspots back only to 145 Ma, whereas reconstructions asymmetric spreading (Menard 1984). Where this has happened,
are available back to 180 Ma for most of the major plates of the spreading rates inferred from the isochrons are not consistent.
interest. In order to develop a specific model for pre-145 Ma plate In effect, the method of analysis used by Engebretson and others
interactions that can be tested against geologic observations, we (1984a) averaged the varying spreading rates and provided error
extended our Pacific-hotspot model back to 180 Ma by conjec- estimates based on data dispersion. The determination of Faral-
turing that the Pacific plate was fixed with respect to the hotspots Ion-Pacific spreading during the Cretaceous superchron was a
between 180 Ma and 145 Ma. The rationale for this assumption special case. Data available mainly from plate segments north
was based on two lines of evidence suggesting that the Pacific and south of the Mendocino Fracture Zone imply that spreading
plate had little or no absolute motion prior to mid-Early Creta- rates are quite different, Rather than find the average, we deter-
ceous time. First, Larson and Lowrie (1976) presented paleo- mined two different rates to bracket the range of uncertainty. The
magnetic evidence, based on the skewness of magnetic lineations, resulting Euler poles and quantities derived from them are listed
that the Pacific plate moved very slowly, perhaps with clockwise in the table under "Farallon N.O.M." for the rates determined
rotation about a local Euler pole, during latest Jurassic and earli- from isochrons north of the Mendocino and "Farallon S.O.M."
est Cretaceous times. Second, it appears that the spreading centers for rates determined south of the Mendocino Fracture Zone.
surrounding the Pacific plate migrated over several hotspots in In most of our analyses we use the preferred model of Enge-
earliest Cretaceous time, yet no hotspot tracks older than earliest bretson and others (1984a), which is based on the spacing of
Cretaceous now appear on the Pacific plate. If the Pacific plate isochrons on the north side of the Mendocino Fracture Zone
had not been approximately fixed with respect to the hotspots under the assumption that spreading from 118 to 83 Ma occurred
TABLE 3. Stage poles and total reconstructions relative to North America.

(Ma) ON OE (Deg) ON Peg)
HOTSPOTS [AHS-AF-NA~~)
5 -35 302 .5 -35 302 .5
9 -35 30 1 ,4 -35 302 .9
17 -34 299 .8 -35 300 1.8
37 -32 284 3.0 -33 290 4.7
48 -50 297 3.3 -40 292 7.9
66 -48 272 7.9 -44 282 15.6
85 -49 236 6.0 -46 270 21.0
119 -69 194 19.3 -59 243 37.4
127 -50 205 2.2 -59 241 39.4
145 -49 218 3.5 -58 239 42.8
161 -62 162 13.7 -59 222 54.4
180 -60 161 21.4 -58 205 73.8
AFRICA [AF-NA]
37 -71 161 10.4 -7 1 161 10.4
66 -85 233 12.4 -80 171 22.5
85 -67 140 7.1 -77 161 29.4
119 -55 150 25.9 -66 160 54.3
127 -57 171 2.2 -66 161 56.4
145 -64 169 3.4 -66 162 59.8
161 -66 205 5.1 -67 f64 64.7
180 -60 180 11.0 -67 168 75.6
EURASIA [EU-NA]
37 -68 310 7.8 -68 310 7.8
48 -6 330 3.4 -5 1 323 9.8
53 6 326 2.6 -40 325 11.4
85 -78 104 12.1 -7 1 331 20.3
95 -78 104 4.3 -76 334 24.2
180 - - - -76 334 24.2
SOUTH AMERICA [SA-AF-NA]
37 21 302 4.3 21 302 4.3
66 -9 302 4.9 5 301 8.9
85 60 230 1.2 11 298 9.3
119 -57 27 1 13.3 -29 283 18.4
127 -35 272 1.8 -30 282 20.2
135 -17 289 1.7 -29 283 21.8
145 -64 169 1.9 -33 279 22.4
161 -66 205 5.1 -39 272 25.7
180 -60 180 11.0 -49 252 33.0
PACIFIC [PA-PHs-AHS-AF-NA]
\
Stage poles^ Total ~econstructions^

A&e Lat Long Angle Lat Long Angle
(Ma) ON '3 Peg) ON '33 Peg)
5 28 248 5.2 28 248 5.2

9 ' -62 347 2.4 4 262 4.6
17 -17 299 3.3 -6 276 7.3
28 -2 29 1 5.4 -5 283 12.7
37 -56 358 8.3 -31 298 16.5
43 -59 7 8.6 -46 309 22.7
48 -64 333 7.9 -5 1 312 30 1
56 -53 315 11.6 -52 3 13 41.8
61 -33 281 6.9 -49 308 47 9
66 -30 282 6.6 -46 306 53.8
74 -29 277 9.2 -42 302 62.0
85 1 290 11.7 -36 304 70 8
100 -16 294 15.3 -31 305 85.2
115 -63 327 8.7 -35 303 92.4
119 -42 305 2.7 -35 303 95.1
127 -12 24 1 8.0 -3 1 300 99.3
135 -7 246 7.7 -27 298 103.8
145 -34 190 3.5 -27 295 104 0
161 -57 247 15.2 -27 288 115.0
163 -58 226 2.3 -27 287 116 4
180 -54 22 1 19.7 -25 277 128.4
FARALLON s.o.M.@)
85 1 290 11.7 -36 304 70.8
100 -22 304 20.0 -33 307 90 3
115 -49 332 14.2 -37 306 103 4
119 -38 316 4.25 -37 307 107.6
127 -12 24 1 8.0 -33 304 111.3
135 -7 246 7.7 -30 302 115.4
145 -34 190 3.5 -29 300 115.4
161 -57 247 15 2 -28 293 126.2
163 -58 226 2.3 -28 292 127.6
180 -54 22 1 19,7 -25 282 138.9
KULA [KU-PA-PHs-AHS-AF-NA]
43 - - - 56 284 32.0
48 -7 303 9.4 43 286 36.9
~1 2:;
56 -7
-6
-3
27
5
298
278
285
288
295
15.4
5.6
6.6
11.5
18.0
28
25
22
19
19
285
283
282
281
285
48.1
52.9
58.8
69.8
87 3
I
Stage poles(^ Total ~econstructions(~)
(Ma) ON (Deg) ON OR (Deg)
-- -- - - - -
IZANAGI I [IZ-PA-PHS-AHs-AF-NAI
85 - - - 19 285 87.3
100 4 219 31.2 30 269 103.4
115 -5 197 . 27.4 38 252 112.2
119 -1 204 7.3 40 248 116.0
127 9 206 15.2 43 240 126.4
135 9 209 21.6 45 230 142.4
145 54 188 6.1 47 230 147.8
PHOENIX [PH-PA-PHs-AHS-AF-NA]
85 - - - 32 261 59.7
100 -20 123 8.1 35 255 53.7
115 -25 Ill 20.6 43 236 37.8
119 -32 112 4.6 44 229 34.7
127 -19 112 7.9 47 211 31.2
135 -19 Ill 7.6 48 190 29.3
145 -23 121 11.9 38 162 30.7
161 -58 118 25.2 -1 137 35.1
163 -61 123 3.7 -5 134 37.0
180 -64 121 31.1 -30 121 58.8
PACIFIC (GLOBAL PLATE CIRCUIT) [PA-AN-AF-NA]
10 60 290 7.9 60 290 7.9
20 44 282 4.1 54 286 11.9
37 65 304 9.3 59 293 21.1
40 46 310 1.5 58 294 22.5
43 62 265 1.4 58 293 23.8
50 20 261 3.4 55 285 26.4
56 24 276 3.9 52 282 29.7
63 68 309 7.7 55 287 37.1
66 60 316 3.4 55 290 40.4
67 69 314 1.2 55 290 41.5
(1) Conventions as in Table 2.
TABLE 4. Stage poles and total reconstructions relative to Eurasia.
AFRICA [AF-NA-EU]
37 -22 151 6.7 -22 151 6.7
48 -49 169 5.6 -35 157 11.8
53 -4 1 164 3.5 -37 158 15.3
66 -2 1 276 1.6 -41 164 15.2
85 17 184 1.9 -36 168 16.2
95 -26 184 . 4.3 -34 172 20.3
119 -54 182 18.3 -44 173 38.0
127 -54 202 2.2 -45 174 40.0
145 -61 202 3.4 -47 175 43.2
161 -60 233 5.1 -50 177 47.4
NORTH AMERICA MA-EUl
INDIA DN-AF-NA-EUI
Stage ~ o l e s ^ Total ~econstructions(~)
(Ma) ON OE (Deg) ON Peg)
f
Stage poles^ Total ~econstructions^

(Ma) ON OE Peg) ON OE Peg)
PACIFIC [PA-PHs-AHS-AF-NA-EU]
43 - - - 69 282 36.9
48 7 255 3.4 65 273 38.5
53 -4 238 4.1 62 263 39.8
66 21 274 13.2 51 262 50.4
74 28 267 7.6 48 261 57.4
85 51 284 13.1 48 265 70.1
95 46 277 9.4 47 266 79.4
100 23 266 3.6 46 265 82.7
115 -10 186 7.6 48 258 83.0
119 -4 213 1.6 48 256 83.7
127 41 212 3.5 49 255 86.6
135 52 211 3.5 50 254 89.7
145 -10 162 7.2 54 247 88.9
161 -59 195 13.7 50 234 82.6
180 -58 194 21.4 41 215 76.5
FARALLON N.o.M.^ [FA-PA-PI-IS-AHS-AF-NA-EU]
5 38 244 5.6 38 244 5.6
9 -57 358 1.6 27 255 4.7
17 13 298 2.6 23 271 6.8
28 24 293 5.0 23 280 11.6
37 -53 11 6.6 -6 298 11.4
43 -71 32 7.9 -38 307 14.3
48 -75 322 7.2 -50 307 20.5
53 -69 29 1 6.4 -55 303 26.6
56 -37 316 3.8 -53 306 30.2
61 -12 289 6.4 -46 304 35.1
66 -8 290 6.2 -40 304 40.1
74 -5 29 1 8.9 -33 303 47.5
85 22 309 13.2 -23 310 56.0
95 8 316 10.7 -19 313 65.3
100 -11 315 5 .O - 19 314 70.2
115 -63 336 8.6 -23 312 76.3
119 -40 322 2.7 -24 312 78.9
127 -6 264 8.0 -20 309 84.4
135 -1 269 7.7 - 17 307 90.1
145 -30 216 3.5 -16 305 90.6
161 -51 268 15.2 -18 297 101.8
163 -52 250 2.3 -18 296 103.3
180 -48 245 19.7 -17 287 116.4
FARALLON s.o.M.^
Stage ~ o l e s ( l ) Total ~econstructions(~)
'Ma) ON OE (Deg) ON OE (Deg)
--
127 -6 264 8.0 -25 3 13 95.2

135 -1 269 7.7 2 1 312 100.4
145 -30 216 3.5 -20 309 100.8
161 -51 268 15.2 -2 1 302 112.1
163 -52 250 2.3 -2 1 301 113.5
180 -48 245 19.7 - 19 292 126.3
KULA [KU-PA-PHs-AHS-AF-NA-EU]
43 - - - 69 282 36.9
48 -5 305 8.0 57 284 39.6
53 -8 297 7.6 48 283 43.3
56 8 307 6.0 43 284 47.8
61 17 289 6.1 40 283 53.4
66 17 297 7.1 37 284 59.8
74 22 304 12.8 33 286 71.7
85 38 316 20.9 31 293 91.0
IZANAGI I [IZ-PA-PHs-AHS-AF-NA-EU]
IZANAGI II [IZ-PA-PHs-AHS-AF-NA-EU]
PHOENIX [PH-PA-PHs-AHS-AF-NA-EU]
85 - - - 48 265 70.1
95 28 139 4.8 52 264 70.2
100 -2 1 153 2.8 53 261 68.9
115 -28 138 20.5 62 236 57.1
119 -35 140 4.6 63 227 54.7
127 -22 137 7.9 64 208 52.6
135 -22 136 7.6 63 189 51.5
145 -26 147 11.9 54 168 51.9
161 -60 151 25.2 28 149 46.7
163 -62 157 3.7 24 147 46.8
180 -66 157 31.1 -9 136 55.9
PACIFIC (GLOBAL PLATE CIRCUIT) [PA-AN-AF-NA-EU]
10 70 287 9.4 70 287 9.4
20 65 278 5.3 68 283 14.7
37 77 317 12.0 72 295 26.5
40 75 257 1.2 73 294 27.7
43 60 198 1.6 74 290 29.0
48 29 229 2.4 73 276 30.5
50 18 205 1.1 73 270 30.9
53 33 227 1.5 72 264 32.0
56 49 291 2.8 71 267 34.5
63 71 338 10.3 71 282 44.2
Stage Total ~econstructions(l)
(Ma) ON Peg) ON (Deg)
(1) Same conventions as in Table 2.

Figure 2. Magnetic lineations discussed in text and shown in subsequent figures. After Figure 1 in
Engebretson and others (1984a), which lists the sources of data.
smoothly without ridge jumps. The model proposes that the opposite sides of the Mendocino Fracture Zone showed very little
spreading rate during the Cretaceous normal superchron is similar offset at the time of chron M29 and increasingly large offsets up
to that before 118 Ma and after 83 Ma. Picks of chron 34 (85 to and through the Cretaceous quiet zone and chron 32, subse-
Ma) on several ship tracks north of the Murray Fracture Zone are quent to which the offsets show no further systematic increase. If,
consistent with a spreading rate from chron 34 to chron 32b on the other hand, spreading on the south side of the Mendocino
(85-74 Ma) that is the same as that from chron 32b to chron 25 occurred smoothly, without ridge jumping, then the ridge north
(74-56 Ma). This model requires an eastward jump of the Paci- of the Mendocino Fracture Zone must have jumped during this
fic-Farallon ridge south of the Mendocino Fracture Zone during time and the true Farallon-Pacific spreading rate recorded on the
the normal superchron because the Cretaceous quiet zone on the south side was substantially greater than that proposed by our
south side of the Mendocino Fracture Zone is much wider than preferred model. The effect of this may be seen by comparing
on the north. This is part of a pattern in which isochrons on tables labeled "Farallon N.O.M." and "Farallon S.O.M."
Relative Motions Between Oceanic and Continental Plates 17
Errors and Uncertainties ica-hotspot reconstructions is 300 km at 50 m.y., 500 km at 100

m.y., and 700 km at 145 m.y. Errors for reconstructions of the
Confidence limits for the Euler poles describing displace Pacific plate with respect to the hotspots are probably similar to
ments between North America and adjacent plates are difficult to these values back to 74 Ma, substantially larger from 74 to 145
estimate because of the heterogeneity of the data and the uncer- Ma, and of unknown magnitude prior to 145 Ma.
tainty inherent in the assumption that the hotspots have remained Errors in determiningplate-plate motions. Because the
fixed. Previous workers addressed important aspects of the prob- Farallon, Kula, Izanagi, and Phoenix plates have been subducted
lem of calculating confidence limits for Euler poles and propagat- along with any hotspot tracks they may once have carried, de-
ing them through plate circuits (Atwater and Molnar 1973; termining their motions in the hotspot reference frame requires
Molnar and Atwater 1973; Hellinger 1979; Stock and Molnar using plate-plate motions between these plates and the Pacific
1982, 1983; Pilger 1981; Engebretson and others 1984a), but plate. Errors in these motions contribute to the total error in the
no one has presented a rigorous analysis of the total error in motion between these oceanic plates and North America and
reconstructions based on the global circuit or the hotspot refer- Eurasia.
ence frame. The following discussion is thus of necessity semi- In determining the relative motion between these oceanic
quantitative in nature. plates, the largest uncertainties are associated with attempting to
Errors and uncertainties of the following types will be dis- trace the motion of the Izanagi, Kula, Farallon, and Phoenix
cussed: (1) errors arising from the assumption that hotspots have plates relative to the Pacific plate through the Cretaceous normal
not moved relative to each other when, in fact, they have moved; superchron, a time from chron MO (1 19 Ma) to chron 34 (85
(2) errors in determining plate-hotspot motions; (3) errors in Ma) when recognizable magnetic anomalies were not recorded
determining plate-plate motions; and (4) uncertainties in the lo- on the ocean floor. For the Pacific and Farallon plates, the anom-
cation of boundaries between oceanic plates. alies and fracture zones that formed just before or just after the
Motion between hotspots. Several lines of evidence point Cretaceous normal superchron are connected by the through-
to an upper limit of 3 km/m.y. for the relative velocities between going Mendocino Fracture Zone and the relative motion poles for
the hotspots in one ocean basin like the Atlantic or Pacific where time intervals on either side of the Cretaceous normal superchron
multiple hotspot tracks on one plate provide a measure of the suggest that no great discontinuity in plate motion occurred dur-
internal consistency of plate-hotspot motion (Morgan 1983; ing the superchron (Engebretson and others 1984a). In the ab-
Henderson and Gordon personal communication, 1981). Since sence of similar data for Kula-Pacific, Izanagi-Pacific, and
several hotspot tracks are used to determine the motion of large Phoenix-Pacific motion, we simply extrapolated the known an-
plates like the Pacific, errors due to motion of these hotspots gular velocities of stages immediately before and after the Cre-
relative to each other will be cancelled partially by averaging. taceous normal superchron into the midpoint of the superchron.
Larger errors are probably introduced by systematic motions be- Having adopted the model of Woods and Davies (1982) for an
tween entire groups of hotspots in different ocean basins. If we 85 Ma beginning of the Kula plate, we extrapolated the Pacific-
assume that the mean position of the Atlantic group of hotspots Izanagi relative motion forward in time into the Cretaceous nor-
has moved with respect to the mean position of the Pacific group mal superchron and ended it at 85 Ma. The presence of a
of hotspots in a constant direction for 100 million years at 3 magnetic bight in the isochron pattern back to chron M29 (164
km/m.y., then the cumulative error in the displacements calcu- Ma) indicates that spreading occurred between the Pacific-Faral-
lated by our model will be 300 km. Ion and Pacific-Izanagi plates at least back to chron M29. Pacif-
Errors in determiningplate-hotspot motions. These er- ic-Farallon spreading before chron M26 was estimated by
rors may well be the largest in our analysis. The main uncertainty extrapolation from the next youngest stage, as was that for Pacif-
arises from the possibility that a hotspot track has been correlated ic-Izanagi spreading before chron M16. Any changes in relative
with the wrong hotspot. Moreover if the inaccuracy of the recon- motions that may have taken place during the extrapolated inter-
struction age is taken into account, this type of error probably has vals are unrepresented by our model.
a strong directionality. The motion along hotspot tracks is well Engebretson and others (1984a) estimated errors for the
defined because the tracks are narrow, whereas progression along angular velocities corresponding to their stage poles describing
the track is generally poorly defined because ages along the track the motion between the Pacific and adjacent oceanic plates, but
are generally poorly known. The motion of the Africa-North not for their finite rotations, each of which is the sum of a set of
America plate pair relative to the Atlantic hotspot system appears stage poles. Because the error in one stage covaries with the errors
to be reasonably well determined back to 180 Ma (Morgan 1981, in adjacent stages, it is impossible to combine these estimates of
1983). W. J. Morgan (personal communication 1981) estimates errors in a simple straightforward manner to yield estimates of
that the uncertainty in early reconstructions of North America errors in the displacements. Taking a different approach, Enge-
with respect to the hotspots is 500 km. Recognizing that smaller bretson and others (1984a) estimated the magnitude of the errors
errors are to be expected in reconstructions for relatively recent in their displacement model by constructing a synthetic Mendo-
times, and assuming an approximately linear increase in errors cino Fracture Zone using their finite rotation poles to rotate the
with increasing age, a plausible estimate of errors in North Amer- present intersection of the Gorda spreading center and the Men-
docino Fracture Zone back to earlier locations. Comparison of

this synthetic fracture zone with the observed location of the
Mendocino Fracture Zone and the age progression of magnetic
where OT is the total uncertainty and the or; are the individual
isochrons along it revealed a maximum difference between the
uncertainties listed above. This yields a combined uncertainty in
two of less than 200 km during the last 165 m.y. Because the
location of 900 km, our best estimate of the error in our recon-
Pacific-Farallon spreading center lay near the west coast of
structions for 100 Ma. We think that this error can be signifi-
North America, the errors are not multiplied by geometrical ef-
cantly decreased as more information regarding ancient hotspot
fects described by Stock and Molnar (1983). Therefore, 400 km
tracks is obtained.
at an age of 100 Ma is probably a pessimistic estimate of the Not included in the above analysis are the uncertainties in
errors in plate-plate displacements in our model.
the location of the boundaries between the Farallon, Kula, and
Uncertainty in the location of boundaries between other oceanic plate pairs for which isochrons and fracture zones
oceanic plates. The history of convergence along a continental are not preserved. For example, at 70 Ma the velocity of conver-
margin depends critically upon knowing which converging oce-
gence of an oceanic plate with North America at the latitude of
anic plate lay adjacent to the margin, yet this is commonly the San Francisco may have either of two quite different values,
least well-constrained element of plate models. This ambiguity in depending on whether the oceanic plate was Farallon or Kula.
plate geometry, although difficult to quantify, may be more signif-
The resulting uncertainty is difficult to express quantitatively. The
icant than the accumulated errors in the motions between plates
information needed to constrain the location of these boundaries
discussed earlier. Consider, for example, the Farallon-Kula di- lies not in the ocean basins but along continental margins where
vergent boundary, across which rates of divergence can be rea- the geologic record may reflect changes in the motions of oceanic
sonably well determined by combining finite rotations deduced plates and the passage of triple junctions. A first step in looking
from the Pacific-Farallon and Pacific-Kula spreading histories.
for correlations between plate motions and geology along the
Because all of the oceanic lithosphere produced by spreading
continental margin is to construct alternative models showing
from this boundary has been destroyed by subduction, the loca-
possible former locations of the plates and their convergence
tion of this boundary is almost totally unconstrained by direct
rates. One such model is described in the next section.
observation. Therefore at a given point along the west coast of
North America, the main uncertainty in the rate and direction of
convergence stems less from statistical errors in determining plate RECONSTRUCTIONS
velocities than from not knowing whether the Kula or Farallon
plate was adjacent to the point. Method, Data, and Assumptions
Summary of errors. To summarize, we estimate that the
different errors present in a 100 Ma reconstruction are the Plate reconstructions for the Pacific basin are shown in Figure
following: 3 in a reference system in which the hotspots are held fixed. These
(1) A 500 km error in the location of the North American reconstructions were generated by rotating magnetic anomalies
plate with respect to the group of hotspots in the Atlantic region and fracture zones from their present locations on the Pacific
due to imperfect knowledge of bathymetry and age progressions plate back to their earlier locations using the Pacific-hotspot
along hotspot tracks, poles listed in Tables 1 and 2. These and the other poles used in
(2) A 500 km error in the location of the Pacific plate with our reconstructions can be traced to original sources in Tables
respect to the group of hotspots in the Pacific region due to 1-4, which list the finite plate rotations that occurred between
imperfect knowledge of bathymetry and age progressions along stage boundaries-times of marked change in the motion of one
hotspot tracks; or more of the plates. Known plate boundaries based on iso-
(3) A 100 km (= 1 km/m.y. x 100 m.y.) error in the loca- chrons and fracture zones now preserved on the Pacific plate are
tion of the North American plate with respect to the hotspots due depicted with solid double lines (ridges) or solid single lines
to possible wander between hotspots in the Atlantic region; (transforms). Speculative ridges and transforms in regions where
(4) A 100 km (= 1 km/m.y. x 100 m.y.) error in the loca- neither of a plate pair is preserved are depicted with dashed lines
tion of the Pacific plate with respect to the hotspots due to possi- drawn perpendicular and parallel to tangents of small circles
ble wander between hotspots in the Pacific region; about the appropriate relative-motion pole for the time of the
(5) A 300 km (= 3 km/m.y. x 100 may.) error in relative reconstruction. The locations of these boundaries are highly
location due to wander between hotspots in the Atlantic and uncertain.
Pacific regions; and As we venture further and further back into the geologic
(6) A 400 km error in the displacements between the Pa- record, there are fewer and fewer constraints to guide the drawing
cific and adjacent oceanic plates. of ancient boundaries between once enormous plates of which
These uncertainties are all presumably independent and can only small remnants of boundaries have survived. We have been
be combined to obtain the total uncertainty from the following able to remove some of the arbitrariness in drawing these bound-
relationship: aries by making plots of velocity fields describing plate motions in
Engebreison, Cox, and Gordon
Relative Motions Between Oceanic and Conti~ntalPlates
140 180 220 260
Figure 3f
the hotspot reference frame. These have proved very useful in 56 Ma (chron 25), 65 Ma (chron 29), and 80 Ma (chron
determining whether the Mesozoic boundaries between paleo- 33r). The location of the Kula-Farallon boundary during the
plates like Izanagi and Farallon were ridges, transforms, or sub- Late Cretaceous and early Tertiary, which is not constrained by
duction zones. marine data, is crucial to the present analysis. We have adopted
In order to make successive reconstructions mutually con- Woods and Davies's (1982) interpretation that the Kula plate
sistent we have employed forward and backward modeling con- broke from the ancestral Farallon plate at about 85 Ma and that
sistent with first-order rules of plate tectonics. For example, if at a subsequent Kula-Pacific spreading produced the east-west mag-
given time we specify the location of a ridge between two diverg- netic lineations south of the Aleutian trench. From the broad
ing plates, for earlier and later times we use forward and back- range of possible locations for the Kula-Farallon boundary at the
ward modeling to find the location of the ridge, under the time of the break, we have considered two end members, a
assumption that spreading was symmetric and continuous. Maps northern option and a southern option, in which the boundary
of our reconstructions are presented in Figure 3 where the between the Kula and Farallon plates is placed either as far north
present-day outlines of continents serve as a familiar reference for or as far south as is plausible.
showing the displacements of continents relative to hotspots. Of For the northern option the location of the Kula-Farallon
course in early Tertiary and Mesozoic time, the actual margins of ridge was specified at 56 Ma on the basis of the following geo-
the continents were substantially different from the present ones. logic reasoning. In northern Washington and British Columbia
the presence of northwest-trending faults with large amounts of
Detailed Reconstructions
Cretaceous dextral motion suggests a tectonic driving force with a
Present configuration. The isochrons and fracture zones strong northward component. This would be consistent with a
shown on the Pacific plate in Figure 3a comprise the basic data Kula plate that extended at least as far south as northern Wash-
set used to make the reconstructions. These isochrons, which give ington in latest Cretaceous time (Plumley 1980). Accordingly, for
previous locations of the ridge system around the Pacific plate, the northern option the model constrains the Kula-Farallon
are reconstructed in Figure 3 using known motions of the Pacific spreading center at 65 Ma to intersect the continental margin in
plate relative to the Hawaiian (H in Figure 3) and other Pacific southern Washington and connected this control point to the
hotspots. North America was rotated back to earlier positions Pacific-Farallon-Kula triple junction with a single great circle
over North American and Atlantic hotspots including Y, the ridge. Using the known Euler poles for Kula-Pacific and Faral-
Yellowstone hotspot, under the assumption that these hotspots Ion-Pacific motion to derive a pole for Kula-Farallon motion
existed at these earlier times and remained fixed relative to Pacific and assuming symmetrical spreading, we modeled the generation
hotspots. Arrows showing the direction and velocity of plate of oceanic lithosphere by Kula-Farallon spreading and found that
motions in this and succeeding figures are scaled to show the the eastern termination of the Kula-Farallon ridge ranged be-
distance the plate would move in 10 m.y. based on the stage pole tween northern California and northern Washington from 85 to
angles listed in Table 2. The 0-5 Ma stage was used for Figure 3a. 56 Ma.
20 Ma (chron 6). The velocity fields for this reconstruction In exploring the southern option, we placed the initial break
are based on the Euler poles for the stage from 17 to 28 Ma between the Kula and Farallon plates along a set of ridges and
(Table 2). Note that the part of the Pacific plate being subducted transforms trending subparallel to the continental margin. Figure
beneath the Aleutian arc at this time was former Kula plate 3f shows a hypothetical boundary at 80 Ma, shortly after the
(Fig. 3b). The location of the extinct Pacific-Kula spreading presumed time of the break between the two plates. Because the
center, assumed to have died at 43 Ma, is shown by the (x-x-x-x-) orientation of the Kula-Farallon ridge inferred from velocity
pattern. This extinct ridge arrived at the Aleutian trench at - 10 analysis is approximately parallel to the trend of old Farallon-
Ma, and, since it would have been only 30 million years old at Pacific fracture zones on the Farallon plate, it is possible that
that time, might have been sufficiently buoyant to have produced Kula-Farallon spreading began along these fracture zones, as
compressive tectonics in the Aleutian arc. shown in Figure 3f. Beginning with the assumption that the break
37 Ma (chron 13). In our reconstruction, the Pacific plate was as shown for 80 Ma, the reconstruction at 65 Ma was found
first came into contact with North America at about 37 Ma using calculated Kula-Farallon Euler poles assuming symmetri-
(Fig. 3c). The Pacific-Farallon ridge, as shown in this reconstruc- cal spreading.
tion, lay slightly east of the present margin of the continent-an Between 65 and 56 Ma the Euler poles describing Kula-Far-
impossible plate geometry. However the amount of the overlap allon motion shifted markedly (Engebretson and others 1984a).
was smaller than the expected errors in reconstructions. More- A corresponding change in the orientation of the Kula-Farallon
over the overlap would have been smaller if, in the model, we ridge is shown between the 65 and 56 Ma reconstructions. In the
had closed the Gulf of California and restored the continental absence of data, no attempt was made to model details of this
margin to a more easterly 37 Ma location to account for the plate reorganization.
effects of Basin and Range extension. In a subsequent section, this The shaded areas in the 80 and 65 Ma reconstructionscould
result is compared to the analysis by Atwater and Molnar (1973) be either Kula or Farallon plate. The northern option places
based on the global plate circuit. Farallon plate adjacent to the western United States from 85 to
28 Engebretson, (.70% and Gordon
56 Ma, producing rapid plate convergence that may have been form the Kula plate. To the west lay the Izanagi plate or plates.
associated with Laramide tectonism (Engebretson and others, The following information is available concerning the nature of
1984b). The southern option places the Kula plate along the the boundaries between the three plates. The time of this recon-
continental margin, offering a mechanism for rapid northward struction, 110 Ma, lies within the Cretaceous normal polarity
transport of terranes. Further geologic consequences of selecting superchron (118 to 83 Ma), so no isochrons are available to mark
the southern option for the Kula-Farallon ridge are discussed by plate boundaries. However, well defined isochrons werepro-
Page (1984) and Page and Engebretson (1984). By 56 Ma the duced by Pacific-Farallon spreading both before and after the
part of the Kula plate adjacent to California in the southern Cretaceous normal superchron, so there is little doubt that the
option had been subducted and replaced by the subducting Faral- Pacific-Farallon boundary was a ridge at 110 Ma. Its location
Ion plate, shifting the locus of Kula-Farallon divergence to the was found by interpolation (Figure 3g). The Pacific-Izanagi
north and eliminating most of the difference between the north- boundary produced a magnetic anomaly at the beginning of the
em and southern options (Figure 3d). Cretaceous normal superchron and therefore was a ridge at 119
In our early Tertiary reconstructions (65-56 Ma) the Yel- Ma. Its location at 110 Ma as found by extrapolation from the
lowstone hotspot lies west of the continent in the vicinity of the 119 Ma position is shown in Figure 3g.
Kula-Farallon ridge. Although differing from each other in de- To investigate the nature of the Izanagi-Farallon boundary,
tail, several plate tectonic models advanced to account for the velocity fields in a fixed hotspot reference frame were plotted for
ages and distributions of early Tertiary seamounts in the Wash- both plates (Figure 3g). The two velocity fields converge along
ington and Oregon Coast Range (Simpson and Cox 1977; almost any boundary drawn between the Izanagi and Farallon
Duncan 1982; Wells and others 1984) have in common the plates except for a short segment of boundary south of the Izana-
presence of the Yellowstone hotspot and the Kula-Farallon gi-Farallon rotation pole (Figure 3g). Therefore the boundary is
spreading center at about the location shown in our reconstruc- dominantly convergent. To determine which of the two plates is
tion for 56 Ma. subducting along this boundary, we noted that the velocity of the
Similarly, the location of the Kula-Pacific boundary is not Izanagi plate in the hotspot reference frame was rapid and that it
constrained by ocean floor data. We have followed Hilde and was directed toward the boundary whereas that of the Farallon
others (1976) in making the boundary a northwest-trending plate in the vicinity of the boundary was low. Rapidly moving
transform. In our model, the trend of the transform (although not present-day oceanic plates are all attached to downgoing slabs
its location) is determined by the Euler pole for Kula-Pacific and are moving toward the trenches where the slabs are being
motion. An alternative model would be to extend the well- subducted (Gordon and others 1978), whereas present-day upper
documented short segment of Kula-Pacific ridge adjacent to the plates generally have small velocities relative to hotspots. There-
Kula-Pacific-Farallon triple junction westward as an east-west, fore it seems likely that the Izanagi plate was the subducting plate
dominantly ridge-type Kula-Pacific boundary. In this model, and the Farallon the upper plate at the boundary between them,
however, the motion of the Pacific plate relative to hotspots as shown in Figure 3g, although as noted earlier the location of
would be toward the Pacific-Kula ridge, an unlikely geometry this boundary is highly uncertain. The location of the Izanagi-
with no analogue in the present motions of plates. With the Farallon boundary is not well determined and could lie well to
Pacific boundary drawn as shown in Figures 3e and 3f, the Pacific the east of the position shown in Figure 3g.
plate was moving toward a subduction zone along its northwest Our reconstructions for 110 and 80 Ma suggest that a major
boundary where presumably a slab attached to the plate was pro- change took place in the plate geometry of the northwest Pacific
viding slab pull to drive the plate. This geometry is characteristic basin during this interval. One scenario consistent with the sparse
of all of the present plates that have rapid velocities relative to amount of available information would be for the Pacific-Izanagi
hotspots (Gordon and others 1978). ridge and the Izanagi-Farallon subduction zone to die at some
110 Ma (Albion, middle of Cretaceous normal super- time after 119 Ma (MO) and for the new Kula-Pacific transform
chron). Although magnetic anomalies older than 85 Ma in the boundary to originate in the general vicinity of the old Izanagi-
northwestern Pacific have been attributed to spreading between Farallon subduction zone. The timing of these hypothetical
the Pacific plate and an ancestral Kula plate, Woods and Davies events, which would have occurred at some time or times during
(1982) pointed out that there is no evidence that the post-85 Ma the Cretaceous normal superchron (118-83 Ma), is uncertain.
and pre-85 Ma plates were ever continuous in space or time. The onset of rapid Pacific-hotspot motion toward the northwest
They proposed that the older plate to the west be called the at 100 Ma suggests that at this time the geometry of the Pacific
Izanagi plate. The analysis of Enbegretson and others (1984a) plate was changed by addition of a subduction zone along its
supports this interpretation. In our reconstructions we will refer to northwest boundary. One possibility is that at this time the old
pre-85 Ma plates west of the ancestral Farallon plate as the Izanagi plate became part of the Pacific plate as the Izanagi-Pa-
Izanagi plate or plates. cific ridge died.
The following plate geometry is proposed for the northern 140 Ma (Berriasian, chron M14). The Pacific-Izanagi
Pacific basin prior to 85 Ma. To the east lay an ancestral Farallon and Pacific-Farallon boundaries are known to have been spread-
plate including the northern segment that broke away at 85 Ma to ing centers at this time because of the presence on the Pacific
plate of magnetic anomalies produced along these ridges. Veloc- PLATE TECTONIC INTERPRETATION
ity fields for the Izanagi and Farallon plates in a fixed hotspot
reference frame show that the motion of the two plates was Age and Thickness of the Subducting Farallon Plate
oblique, suggesting that the fcanagi-Farallon boundary was dom-
inantly transform in character (Figure 3h). In going from our The importance of the age and thickness of subducting
reconstruction for 140 Ma to our reconstruction for 110 Ma, we plates in determining the style of subduction has been recognized
were guided by a suggestion of Uyeda and Yamano (1984) that a by many workers. Comparing the present-day tectonic styles of
subduction zone may originate along the locus of an earlier the overriding plates at convergent plate boundaries with the age
transform. of subducting lithosphere at such boundaries, Molnar and At-
water (1978) found that interarc spreading tends to occur behind
Comparison with Global arCuit in theNeogene trenches subducting old lithosphere (>I00 m.y.) whereas
collision-like compressive tectonism tends to occur behind
A key event in the Tertiary plate tectonic history of western trenches subducting young lithosphere (<50 m.y.). This led them
North America was the first arrival of the East Pacific Rise at the to suggest that the age of the subducted lithosphere may be a
continental margin. The location of the rise at or slightly before principal factor causing different tectonic styles and geologic de-
the time of arrival is marked by anomaly 8 (28 Ma), the last to velopment in the overriding plates at subduction zones. They
form prior to the first contact of the Pacific plate with North further suggested that the compressional Laramide tectonic re-
America (Atwater 1970). Our model is compared with that ob- gime of western North America during the Late Cretaceous and
tained using the North America-Africa-India-Antarctica-Pacific early Tertiary orogeny was caused in part by subduction over a
circuit (Atwater and Molnar 1973)in Figure 4 and in Tables 2-4. long interval of time of young, presumably buoyant lithosphere of
The location of anomaly 8 is plotted in Figure 4 for our model the Farallon plate.
(solid line) and the global circuit (dashed line) relative to a fixed In order to determine the age of the Farallon plate as it was
North America. Both reconstructions show the ridge located east being subducted, we constructed a set of synthetic Farallon and
of the present coastline of North America at 28 Ma. (The present Kula plates using the anomalies on the Pacific plate and our poles
North American coastline is shown only for geographic refer- for Farallon-Pacific and Kula-Pacific motion, assuming symmet-
ence.) The next step (that we have not taken) will be to modify rical spreading. The maps of the synthetic plates reflect the pat-
the coastline to allow for Basin and Range extension, the opening tern of isochrons and fracture zones present on the Pacific plate.
of the Gulf of California, widespread strike-slip faulting, and For clarity in the following discussion, the complement on the
other tectonic events that have changed the shape of the continen- Farallon plate of the Murray Fracture Zone, for example, will be
tal margin. Because an error-free reconstruction would place described as the Murray-F Fracture Zone. From the resulting set
anomaly 8 just west of the continental margin restored to its of maps for different geologic epochs, we estimated the age of the
configuration at 28 Ma, an overlap of this type shows that the Farallon and Kula plates at the time when they descended into
error in the reconstruction is at least as large as the overlap. Even the trench. Age estimates for four locations are given in Figure 5.
without moving the continental margin eastward to account for At 65 Ma the Farallon plate being subducted was -100
the westward motion that occurred during Basin and Range ex- m.y. old. Before this, the age of the Farallon plate being sub-
tension, the amount of the observed overlap is, in fact, within ducted (if indeed the Farallon plate existed prior to 165 Ma) is
earlier error estimates in our reconstructions. unknown because no anomalies formed by Pacific-Farallon
The difference between the two reconstructions is less than spreading are preserved. Before 163 Ma, if Pacific-Farallon
their probable errors and therefore the two reconstructions are spreading occurred at the same rate as from 163 to 135 Ma, then
not significantly different. Within experimental errors both mod- the age of the subducting Farallon plate was as shown by open
els fit the Neogene history of northward migration of the Mendo- circles in Figure 5. Under this assumption the age of the subduct-
cino (Pacific-Farallon-North America) triple junction inferred ing lithosphere at 85 Ma just prior to the onset of the Laramide
-
from the history of volcanism, crustal thinning, and basin forma- orogeny was 150 m.y. If the rate of Pacific-Farallon spreading
tion in California (Dickinson and Snyder 1979; Pilger and He- prior to 163 Ma was lower than afterwards, then at 85 Ma the
nyey 1979; Fox 1981; Zandt and Furlong 1982), although the fit age of subducting Farallon lithosphere was less than 150 m.y. but
of the global circuit appears to be somewhat better. On the other probably still greater than the age of 4 0 m.y. that Molnar and
hand, in Paleogene time the global-circuit model is grossly incon- Atwater (1978) associate with compressive tectonics behind sub-
sistent with the hotspot model because the global circuit fails to duction zones.
predict the elbow- in the Emperor-Hawaiian seamount chain The rifting of the Farallon plate to form the Kula plate
(Morgan 1981; Duncan 1981). The large uncertainties in Neo- beginning at 85 Ma (Woods and Davies 1982) caused a major
gene reconstructions based on both the global-circuit and hotspot discontinuity in the age of Farallon lithosphere, with old Farallon
models point to the importance of acquiring geologic and paleo- lithosphere in direct contact with new Farallon lithosphere
magnetic data from the continental margin capable of further formed at the Kula-Farallon spreading center. When this discon-
checking and constraining the plate tectonic models. tinuity contacted the west coast of North America, the age, thick-
Figure 4 (this and following page). Reconstructions of the Pacific plate relative to a fixed North
America plate. Heavy solid line: the chron 8 (28 Ma) Pacific-Farallon isochron obtained using our fixed
hotspot model. Heavy dashed line: 28 Ma isochron obtained using the plate circuit through Antarctica.
Light dashed band: approximate location of the active ridge at the time of the reconstruction. The
rotations used in the global circuit (Table 4) are: North America-Africa, Klitgord and others (1984 and
personal communication 1984); Africa-Antarctica, Norton and Sclater (1979); Antarctica-Pacific,
Stock and Molnar (1982).
Northern
Vancouver
I
(m.y.1
10 laland -I Kula_^i_Paclflc ~ . 4
I
Farallon 1 a
Fnad
r a/ o
l lro n (a 1
Pacific
(m.y.1
100 0
'
1
- F a r a l l o n
I (b)
150-- G U Y ~
AQ*
lo*-
(m.y.1 P a c i f i c (d)
50--
a , .
fr u . 1 r . . , I v
1 0 id0 6'0
Figure 5. Age at the time of subduction of plate adjacent to the western edge of North America as a
function of time. Open circles: present ages of Farallon plate which, if it had not been subducted, would
have been > 163 Ma, as estimated by assuming that rate of Farallon-Pacific spreading before 163 Ma
was the same as from 163 to 135 Ma. (a) Northern Vancouver Island, Lat. 51NLong. 232OE, (b) Cape
Mendocino, Lat. 40NLong. 236OE, (c) Los Angeles, Lat. 34ON, Long. 242OE, and (d) Guaymas, Lat.
28ON, Long. 24g0E.
ness, and density of the lithosphere being subducted underwent a irregularly in age and thickness as Kula-Farallon transform faults
sudden transition from old, thick, and dense to young, thin, and arrived a t the trench.
buoyant as lithosphere created at the Pacific-Farallon spreading /
center was replaced by crust created at the Kula-Farallon spread- Variationsin Bathymetry Parallel to the Trench
ing center. If the northern option for the locus of the initial
Kula-Farallon break is correct, this major age discontinuity The age of the portion of the Farallon plate being subducted
propagated southward from Vancouver Island, reaching Cape at any given time varied greatly along strike, producing large
Mendocino at 65 Ma, as shown in Figure 5. If a more southerly variations in the depth of the Farallon plate adjacent to the
option is correct, young crust could have arrived at the subduc- trench. An example based on our reconstruction of the Farallon
tion zone starting at 85 Ma at any point from Vancouver Island to plate for 52 Ma (Figure 6 ) illustrates this point. The Farallon
Mexico. The region of young crust would slowly widen, jumping plate fracture zones, which mirror those now on the Pacific plate,
T KIII A - F A R A I I nu R I ~ G F a z f t
Figure 6. (a) Reconstruction of the plates at 52 Ma showing the age of the Farallon plate along line
A-A'. Arrows are linear velocities for the points located at the tails of the arrows. (b) Predicted depth of
the Farallon plate along line A-A' from (a) using the measured depth versus age compilation of Sclater
and others (1971).
offset isochrons by large distances, thereby juxtaposing oceanic t I I r I 50

crust of different ages. Ocean floor ages on the reconstructed
Farallon plate at 52 Ma were interpreted using curves of depth NORTH AMERICA
versus age for the North Pacific (~claterand others 1971) to
produce a profile of the bathymetry along the ocean floor adja-
-
cent to the continent (Figure 6b).
These bathymetric and plate reconstructions suggest a com-
plex sequence of events that may be related to the development of
- - 0 - 40
sedimentary basins. Consider a fracture zone like the Murray-F 4
on the Farallon plate with young lithosphere to the north and old
to the south, migrating northward along the coast. At a fixed
- 8
-
point along the margin the adjacent subducting plate was first
young and buoyant, producing uplift and erosion until the frac-
ture zone moved past the point. The subducting plate abruptly
-
became old and dense, providing subsidence conditions suitable
for the development of a sedimentary basin. This geometry ex- -
isted on the Farallon plate between the Surveyor-F and Mendo-
cino-F fracture zones and between the Murray-F and
Molokai-F fracture zones as they migrated northward with the , I I I I I I 1 620'~
220 230 240 250
Farallon plate along the continental margin. Local highs and lows a
along the trend of the fracture zones undoubtedly added to the
complexity of the process.
The direction of motion of the Farallon plate relative to
North America was nearly parallel to the trend of the fracture
zones, much as if the topographic escarpments of the subducting
oceanic plate had formed guiding indentations in the upper con-
tinental plate. As a consequence, the fracture zones appear to
have migrated very slowly along the continental margin during
the early Tertiary, providing ample time for the process of basin UJ
formation.
28 24 20 16 12 8 4 0
Mendocino Escarpment. Figure 7a shows the recon-
TIME (Ma) b
structed locations of the Mendocino Fracture Zone at 4 m.y.
intervals. The topographic relief across this escarpment is large Figure 7. (a) Palmlocations of the Mendocino Fracture Zone in fixed
because of the great difference in the ages of juxtaposed crust North America coordinates at times shown to the left of each paleoloca-
north and south of the fracture zone. To assess the changing relief tion. (b) Predicted height of the Mendocino Escarpment near the anom-
aly 8 lineation as a function age. The escarpment faces north for positive
of the Mendocino Escarpment as it migrated northwestward heights and south for negative heights. Numbers in parentheses are the
along the continental margin, we used the techniques described approximate palmlatitudes of the escarpment.
earlier to make maps of the Farallon plate reconstructed to its
positions at earlier times. At 28 Ma, the Farallon plate north of
the Mendocino was approximately 20 m.y. old while directly to Dickinson and Snyder (1979) and interpreted in terms of the
the south there was an active ridge. Depth versus age data for the geometric instability of the triple junction. Another relationship
North Pacific (Sclater and others 1971) indicates that the height that may have caused the formation of basins in the wake of the
of the escarpment was approximately 1.3 km with the north side triple junction is the presence of a younger, buoyant, bathymetri-
down. Successive locations of this plow-like escarpment as it cally high source region on one side of the fracture zone directly
migrated northward are shown in Figure 7b. With time the es- juxtaposed against an older less-buoyant, deep section on the
carpment became smaller and at about 12 Ma it switched polarity other side. The northward migration of this source-sink pair
(Figure 7b), so that today it faces to the south rather than to the astride the fracture zone may well have contributed to the
north. The age of the Pacific plate to the south of the Mendocino formation of basins along the continental margin.
Fracture Zone is approximately 28 m.y. whereas that of the Juan
de Fuca plate to the north is approximately 5 m.y., producing a Velocity of Convergence
south-facing escarpment about 1 km high adjacent to the conti-
nental margin. Also of geologic interest are the velocities of convergence of
The space and time association of sedimentary basins with oceanic plates relative to continental plates that were found from
former positions of the Mendocino triple junction was noted by the Euler poles given in Tables 2 to 4. Each stage pole describing
the displacement of one oceanic plate relative to a continent was continental margin shows the convergence velocity of the adja-
used to estimate a quasi-instantaneous angular velocity vector. cent oceanic plate at the time indicated, which is between the two
The orientation of this vector was taken as that of the stage pole, times that bound the stage used to estimate the velocity vector.
and its length was obtained by dividing the finite angle of the where there is some ambiguity as to which plate was converging
stage pole by the time spanned by the stage. An estimate of the with the continent at a given locality, two arrows show the con-
instantaneous velocity of the oceanic plate relative to a fixed vergence velocities of both oceanic plates. Numerical values of
point on the continent was then found as the cross product of the the azimuth and speed of convergence for selected localities
quasi-instantaneous angular velocity vector and the position vec- around the north Pacific basin are listed in Tables 5 and 6.
tor of the fixed point. Along the western margin of North America, convergence
The genealogy of the convergence vectors for all of the plate at mid-latitudes in the Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous was
pairs in the north Pacific basin is traced in detail in Tables 2 to 4 -
dominantly east-west at the high rate of 100 km/m.y. (Figure 8,
and in Appendix A. Because convergence vectors are found from maps for 175,150, and 125 Ma). In the Late Cretaceous, conver-
chains of linked plate and hotspot motions, the vectors change at gence was oblique in a northeast-southwest direction (Figure 8,
each time corresponding to a time boundary between stage poles maps for 100 and 75 Ma). In the Eocene, convergence was
that describe the motion of any of the relevant plates. For exam- oblique and at a more rapid rate than at any other time for which
ple, Farallon-North America convergence vectors were found by data are available (Figure 8, map for 50 Ma). From mid-
adding stage poles for North America-Africa-Atlantic hotspot Oligocene time to the present, the convergence rate of the shrink-
motion and Farallon-Pacific-Pacific hotspot motion. The Faral- ing Farallon plate was small and the dominant plate interaction
Ion-North America convergence vectors change direction and was that of strike-slip motion along the growing transform
length, at times corresponding to the stage boundaries for all of boundary with the Pacific plate.
these plate motions. Stages for short time intervals commonly The motion of the Farallon plate relative to North America
have poles that vary erratically from the poles of adjacent stages is displayed in another way in Figure 9, which shows the normal
because of the relatively large magnitude of the errors of short and tangential components of convergence at a fixed point near
stages. Where practical we reduced the number of small stages by present-day San Francisco. In resolving the convergence vector
eliminating or shifting stage boundaries in the input data sets so into normal and tangential components, it was assumed that the
that as many of the input stage as possible had common time trend of the continental margin was N40WSimilar diagrams
boundaries. This could be done without introducing large errors showing the normal and parallel components of motion for all of
where the poles for adjacent stages in the input data set were the oceanic and adjacent continental plates of the North Pacific
closely spaced but could not be done where input stage poles are in Engebretson (1982).
were widely spaced. The pattern that emerged is one of small, These normal and tangential velocities are fairly well con-
generally insignificant changes in the vectors over times of the strained during times when the geomagnetic field was reversing
order of 5 to 10 m.y. superimposed on larger changes over times (163-1 18 Ma and 83-0 Ma) but not during the Cretaceous nor-
of -20 to -50 m.y. It is the latter that we believe reflects true mal superchron (1 18-83 Ma) nor during the normal superchron
changes in the angles and rates of convergence between con- prior to 163 Ma. As noted earlier, the curves for ages > 163 Ma
tinents and adjacent oceanic plates. are based on extrapolation of the post-163 Ma Farallon-Pacific
The geologist interested in possible correlations between spreading rate. The curves shown for the interval (1 18-83 Ma)
geologic events on a continent and individual peaks and troughs correspond to the preferred model of Engebretson and others
appearing on plots of convergence velocity versus time will want (1984a) for Farallon-Pacific spreading during the Cretaceous
to begin by assessing the origin and the reliability of individual normal superchron (entries labeled "Farallon N.O.M." in the
features on the velocity plots. Tables 2 to 4 and Appendix A tables), which is based on the ocean floor record on the north side
provide the basis for making this assessment. In Appendix A the of the Mendocino Fracture Zone. If, on the other hand, the ridge
relative velocities for each plate pair in the circuits used to find jump occurred north of the Mendocino Fracture Zone during this
convergence velocities are displayed as plots of velocity versus time, then the true Farallon-Pacific spreading rate is substantially
time at a point appropriate for each plate pair. These plots show greater, (entries labeled "Farallon S.O.M." in the tables). The
the genealogy of the peaks and troughs appearing in the final result of using the spreading rates determined south of the Men-
plots of convergence velocity versus time. These genealogy dia- docino is an increase in the North America-Farallon convergence
grams show that some of the peaks and troughs probably describe rate of about 40 km/m.y. during the time of the normal super-
real changes in convergence velocity whereas others are probably chron, approximately 118-83 Ma.
artifacts resulting from some of the errors discussed earlier. Ex- The dashed line in Figure 9a shows the convergence velocity
amples of the use of these plots to trace the origin of apparent of the Kula plate if the southern option is taken for the locus of
changes in convergence velocity are given in Appendix A. the initial Kula-Farallon break. This places the Kula plate oppo-
Velocity vectors that show the direction and speed with site San Francisco beginning at 85 Ma, the time of the break. A
which oceanic plates have converged with North America and somewhat surprising result of the present analysis is that the
Eurasia are shown graphically in Figure 8. Each arrow along the subduction velocity of the Kula plate, that is, the convergence
Figure 8 (this and facing page). Convergence velocity vectors of oceanic plates relative to adjacent
continental plates. Each arrow at a point along a continental margin shows the convergence velocity of
the adjacent oceanic plate at the time indicated, which is between the two times defining the stage used
to estimate the velocity vector. Two arrows at certain points show convergence velocities of two oceanic
plates when either may have been adjacent to the point. P: Pacific plate. F: Farallon plate. I: Izanagi
plate. K:Kula plate. The Izanagi vectors (I) at 175 Ma are based on highly speculative extrapolations of
the oldest stage poles for Izanagi-Pacific motion from 145 to 135Ma. (a) Convergence velocities along
North American margin. (b) Convergence velocities along Eurasian margin.
TABLE 5. Linear velocities of oceanic plates relative to North America

plate at selected sites; azimuth in degrees, speed in km/m.y.
Site Site Site

Central Aleutian Arc Eastern Aleutian Arc KO< A Island
Lat. 52 * N 1 Long. 187'E Lat. 56 * N 1 Long. 202 ' E Lat. 58 * N Long. 208O E
Pacific Plate Pacific Plate Pa 1c Plate
Age(Ma) 1
Vector Age(Ma) 1 Vector Age(Ma) Vector
from 1 to 1
azimuth speed 1 'rom 1 to 1 azimuth 1 speed from to -ZZq&z
0 1 5 1 318 1 87, 0 1 5 I 329 1 77 0 5
5 9
9 17
17 28
28 37
37 43
*43 48
*48 1 66 1 29 1
100 *48 66 35 I 99
*66 I 74 1 12 1 90 *66 174 1 24 1 88 Kula Plate I< a. Plate
Kula Plate Kula Plate Vector Age(Ma) Vector
Age(Ma) 1 Vector Age(Ma Vector from to
from 1to 1azimuth speed1 43 48
48 56
48 56 347 203 56 61
66 61 66
66 74
160 74 85 347 1 167
74 1 85 1 319 1 179 Farallon Far allon late N.o.M.^
Izpnagi Plate Izanagi Plate Vector Age(Ma) Vector
Age Ma Vector from to
*74 85
85 100 12 Ill
100 115 36 32
115 115 110 21 59
119 119 127 57 108
127 135 50 102
*
*I35 1 145 I 281 2 I 135 145 105 39
Farallon Plate N.o.M.~') Farallon Plate N.o.M.~') 145 161 67 92
-
Speed
Vector 161
163 1180 178 1
120
161
163
163
180
80 115
Farallon Plate s.o.M.~~ Farallor

114 Age(Ma) Vector
Age Ma Vector
96
18 from 1 to azimuth speed
41
Ill 109 100 115
107 104 115 110
39
85
Ill
163 1 180 1 61 117 163 180 1 70 I 122 1
Farallon Plate S.O.1 fF= Farallon Plate s.o.M.^
Vector
azimuth speed
109
25
58
Site Site ite Site

Southern Chugach Mtns. Queen Charlotte Islands Juan d Puca Strait Klamatli Mountains
Lat. 60 'N 1 Long. 220-E Lat. 54 'N 1 Long. 228 * E Lat. 48 * N Long. 236' E ~ t42O. N 1 Long. 236' E
Pacific Plate Pacific Plate Pal c Plate Kula Plate
Age(Ma) 1 Vector Vector Vector Age(Ma) Vector
rom 1 to 1 azimuth 1 soeed
*37
'32836
izimuth speed
349I 37
rom
*43
*48
to
48
56
I<) Plate *56 61
Age(Ma) Vector *61 66 32 131
*66 74 24 138
rom to 358 1 140
*74 85
*43 48
Farallon ate N.O.M.~'J
*48 1 66 1 46 1 98 *48 1 66 1 53 1 94 *48 56
Age(Mal Vector
Kula Plate Kula Plate *56 61
qi!i ;:;1
rom -
- azimuth - speed
1 Age(Ma) 1 Vector
*61 66
Age(?) Vector
'rom 1 to, 1 azimuth 1 speed
-66
*74
74
85
PI:1 3 1 140
Farallon ate N.O.M.~~)
0
5
9
50
51
31
33
47
45
T Vect - 17 27 50
141 28 42 65
145 azimuth -speed
37 47 91
74 155 66 22 149 60 43 *43 55 135
74 85 358 157 74 150 46 43 *48 49 144
Farallon F iwallon Plate N.o.M.~" 32 46 152
- - Plate N.o.M.^ - *56 53
Age('M Vect a Vect - 29
36
51
59
*61
*66
51
54
145
126
rom
- azimuth -
rorn azimuth -speed 41 81 *74 25 106
"74 17 *74 23 113 52 125 *85 34 Ill
85 22 85 29 113 47 138 100 55 52
100 37 100 46 42 53 152 115 45 73
115 28 115 37 67 51 146 119 84 91
119 69 119 77 103 55 127 127 77 82
127 63 127 70 95 28 108 136 126 39
135 114 135 120 39 35 112 145 84 104
145 74 145 79 98 52 48 161 95 127
161 87 161 91 119 43 71
-
163 99 128
16] Farallon
180 90
late S.0.1
123
ate S.O.M. %==
-
85
78
126
97
89
39
-J
Farallon -F==
ate S.0.b
Vector
Vector Vector
azimuth azimuth 1 meed
84
96
102
123
azimuth speed
99 126
ate S.0.h 7 35 112
I
- Age1 Vector
-
'rom
85
100
-
115 33 110
Site Site Site
Los Angeles Basin Baja California Southwestern Mexico
Lat. 34 'N 1 Long. 242 'E Lat.26-N 1 Long.248-E Lat. 18 * N 1Long. 256.E
Pacific Plate c Plate Farallon Plate N.o.M!"
Age(Ma) 1 Vector Vector 4 4 a) 1 Vect -
1
- to azimuth speed
'rom
48 161
66 127
296 60 61 119
*17 I28 I 306 1 51 298 1 56 66 99
Kula Plate , Plate 74 72
Vector 85 87
Age Ma Vector 100 64
zq-&Z 115 73
119 62
127 49
135 38
348 1 122 145 102
*74 354 1 131 ate N.o.M.~') 161 127
Farallon ate N.o.M.^ [a)_ Vector- 163 1 180 I 111 126
&-
M -
Vect -to izimuth - w==
Farallon Plate S.O.M! -
Age Ma Vector
--
rom azimuth 37
43
52
56
*17 28 47
28 48 76 48 62
37 53 Ill 56 56 100 116 105
*43 59 151 61 60 115 119 46 116
*48 53 154 66 58
*56 57 148 74 61
*61 55 141 85 25
*66 58 121 100 38
*74 26 98 115 62
85 37 106 119 52
100 59 57 127 102
115 49 75 135 94
119 92 81 146 135
127 84 71 161 91
136 131 39 163 101
145 87 105 -180 106
161
163 180
98
103
129
129
-
allon late S.0.h
Vector
2
Id)
Farallon late S.0.t 7
- to
Vector 100
ZKZp-z 115
-119 118
*Presence of this plate at this place and time is questionable.

(1) Farallon plate velocity determined from isochrons north of the
Mendocino Fracture Zone.
(2) Farallon plate velocity determined from isochrons south of the
Mendocino Fracture Zone.
TABLE 6. Linear velocities of oceanic plates relative to fixed Eurasia

plate at selected sites; azimuth in degrees, speed in km/m.y.
Site Site Site Site
Eastern Koryakskiy Mtns. Shelikhova Sea Sakhalin Island Honshu Island
Lat. 62'N 1 Long. 175* E Lat. 60'N I Long. 155'E Lat. 53 'N 1 Long. 142' E Lat. 40 * N 1 Long. 140.E
Kula Plate Pacific Plate Pacific Plate Pacific Plate
Age(Ma) Vector Age(Ma) Vector Age(Ma) 1 Vector Age(Ma) 1 Vector
'rom to azimuth speed rom to azimuth speed -
rom rom 1 to 1 azimuth speed
43 48 325 164 0 5 299 94 0 0 1 5 1 288 114
48 53 334 158 5 9 290 72 5 94
53 56 319 . 220 9 17 289 72 9 94
56 61 331 135 94
-
17 28 292 73 17
61 66 32 157 28 37 292 65 28 84
66 74 316 177 37 43 319 42 37 55
74 85 301 203 $43 48 348 75 $43 73
Izaiiagi Plate $48 53 8 90 $48 89
Vector *53 66 325 112 $53 108
$66 1 74 1 328 I 102 $66 104
Kula Plate $74 I85 I 294 1125 $74 1 85 1 292 1 131
Kula Plate Kula Plate
'100 Vector Vector
"15
-
speed
153
"119 127 146
'127 135 213
'135 4 1 18 136 287
FE ate N.O.M.~~] 156 303 123
296 137
Vector -
azimuth
310
*
116 Izanagi Plate
177
208 159 .
Izai ci Plate Izanagi Plate

317 94 Vector
14 10 Vector Age(Ma) 1 Vector
328 37 azimuth 1 speed from 1 to 1 azimuth 1 speed
4 Ill 338 1 234
357 107 200
55 38 200 * 100
28 75 197
41 100 284 $119
41 108 *I35 I 145 1 344 1 29 $127
r
Farallon late S.O.1 -
Vector
Farallon Plate N.O.M>^
Vector -*
a
Far;
la)
327 1 (lJ39
ate N.O.M.
Vector
$135 1 145 1 314 1
Farallon Plate N.O.M..
d-a Vector -
I
--
from t o azimuth 1
speed from to azimuth speed
$85 95 276 1 104 $85 95 275 89
293 $95 100 $95 100 279 54
306 * 100 115 * 100 115 107 27
$115 119 $115 119 181 2
$119 127 $119 127 342 97
*Presence of this plate at this place * 127 135 * 127 135 333 93
and time is questionable.
(1) Farallon plate velocity deter- $135 145 * 135 145 31 38
$145 161 $145 161 35 64
mined from isochrons north of the
Mendocino Fracture Zone. $163 I 180 I 28 1 99 $161 163 $161 163 40 95
(2) Farallon plate velocity deter- Farallon Plate s.o.M.~) -180 - 26 1 180 35
rallon Plate s.o.M.~"
102
mined from isochrons south of the Age(Ma) 1 Vector Farallon late S.O.M. ,zJ 94
Mendocino Fracture Zone. Vector Vector
azimuth speed
267 112
264 84
182 29
brought these far-traveled terranes to their present locations.

Because terranes begin and end their journeys at different places
and different times and because they generally travel on different
sets of plates, a custom-made travel history is needed for each
terrane.
A few general observations are useful. The Kula and Izanagi
plates moved in a generally northerly direction through the Pa-
cific basin. They comprise a plate transport system capable of
moving terranes rapidly toward the paleopoles. Along the margin
175 150 125 100 75 50 25 0
of North America, intervals characterized by extensive dextral
faulting in the Late Cretaceous and early Tertiary may be asso-
Time (Ma) a
ciated with the presence of the Kula plate along the margin. In
contrast, the Farallon plate swept across the Pacific basin in an
" O easterly direction and was usually (but not always) characterized
by rapid subduction beneath North America. The Farallon plate
comprised a plate transport system capable of moving terranes
great distances from west to east across the Pacific basin, as
required for terranes bearing Tethyan fauna.
Plate motion can be characterized by a trajectory showing
the path of a point that is riding with the plate. One such trajec-
tory (Figure lOa) shows the motion of a point near present-day
San Francisco that has moved with the North America plate from
180 Ma to the present as seen from a fixed hotspot reference
frame. Seen at 10 m.y. increments the coastline of western North
Time (Ma) b America conveys an impression of the direction of motion of
North America and its speed over the hotspots, with wider spac-
Figure 9. (a) Solid line: component normal to a trench axis trending ing of the coastline curves corresponding to higher speeds. The
N40 of the convergence velocity of the Farallon plate relative to high velocity of the continent over the hotspot at about 60 Ma is
North America, shown for a point near San Francisco. Dashed line:
normal velocity of Kula plate during time when it was opposite San apparent in both Figures 9.and 10. The significance of this inter-
Francisco, assuming the southern option for the locus of the initial Kula- val of rapid motion is discussed in the last section.
Farallon ridge. Thick line: age of the Farallon plate that was entering the The trajectory of a terrane that formed near the Pacific-Far-
trench at the latitude of San Francisco, ages greater than 163 m.y. being allon ridge at 160 Ma and subsequently rode with the Farallon
an extrapolation to earlier times of post-163 Ma Pacific-Farallon spread- plate is shown in Figure lob. A general analysis of terrane trajec-
ing. Dots: motion of North America relative to hotspots. (b) Component
tangential to the trench axis of convergence velocities of Farallon and tories based on the present plate model is given by Debiche and
Kula plates relative to North America for a point near San Francisco. others (in preparation).
Some of the more rapid peaks and troughs may be artifacts resulting
from combining stage poles for slightly different time intervals and there- GEOLOGIC INTERPRETATION
fore may not be significant (see text).
In the present section we will review some of the more
obvious correlations between the present model for Pacific plate
velocity normal to the trench, is nearly as great as that of the
tectonics and major geologic events in western North America,
Farallon plate. Of course this result is sensitive to the trend of the
including the Laramide orogeny. Some of these correlations are
trench, which is not well determined. An interpretation of these
discussed in more detail by Engebretson and others (1984b), Page
results is given in the next section.
and Engebretson (1984), Wells and others (1984), and Wallace
and Engebretson (1984).
Trajectoriesof Plates
Pacific-North American Convergence Beginning at 5 Ma
From their stratigraphic records it is clear that many of the
allochthonous terranes found near the rim of the Pacific basin Our model incorporates a change in the motion of the Pa-
show that at least parts of their geologic histories were spent in cific plate relative to hotspots at 5 Ma from a west-northwesterly
open-ocean environments. Moreover, paleomagnetic and fossil direction to a more northwesterly direction (Cox and Engebret-
evidence from these terranes leave little doubt that they have son 1985). As a result of this more northerly motion, our model
traveled great distances since their origin. The displacement produces a component of Pacific-North America motion per-
model presented here can be used to determine whether known pendicular to the transform boundary between the two plates.
oceanic plates could haveacted as the transport system that The resulting component of normal motion between the Pacific
Figure 10. (a) Motion of North America with respect to the hot spots for
the past 180 Ma at 10 may.intervals. The dark line is the trajectory of a
point (S)near present-day San Francisco. Small dots show positions of S
at 5 m.y. intervals and large dots show positions at 30 m.y. intervals.
(b) Sequence of dots shows the trajectory of a point on the Parallon plate
as the, Farallon plate moved across the Pacific basin. This point is located
on anomaly M29 (164 Ma) where"e anomaly is offset by a small
fracture zone. Coordinates remain fixed relative to North America.
and North America plates during the Pliocene is consistent with convergence, but that a high rate of convergence does not neces-
the following geologic observations in California, which seem to sarily produce plutonism.
require compression transverse to the Pacific-North America Both of the above models assume the northern option for the
plate boundary at about this time (B. M. Page, personal commun- locus of the initial break between the Kula and Farallon plates. In
ication 1982); (1) withdrawal of the sea from the San Joaquin the southern option for the initial boundary, at the time of the
Valley and most of California around 3 Ma; (2) uplift of the break (-85 Ma) the Farallon plate became the Kula plate over
Diablo, Santa Cruz, and Santa Lucia Ranges, all parallel to the the latitude range of the Sierra Nevada. The approximate correla-
plate boundary, within the past 2 to 3 m.y.; (3) development of tion in time with the cessation of plutonism suggests the possibil-
many Pliocene or Quaternary folds in the Sur-Obispo belt paral- ity that the latter was due to a marked decrease in convergence
lel to the plate boundary; (4) rise of the nonbuoyant Mount rate at the time of change from easterly Farallon-North America
Diablo piercement in the past 2 to 3 m.y.; (5) rise of the Kettle- convergence to more northerly Kula-North America conver-
man Hills anticline with its axis parallel to the Pacific-North gence. Surprisingly, however, the convergence rate of the Kula
America plate boundary beginning around 1 Ma; (6) formation plate (dashed line in Figure 9a) was only slightly less than that of
of thrust faults, some of which are parallel to the plate boundary, the Farallon plate. Thus, whichever plate was opposite the Sierra
along both sides of the Santa Clara Valley within the past 1 m.y.; Nevada, the interval of time after the cessation of Sierra plu-
(7) thrusting of strata of the lower continental slope over Quater- tonism was characterized by a high rate of convergence (>100
nary sediments in the relict trench west of San Luis Obispo and km/m. y.).
Point Sur. The weakest link in the plate circuit that provides the basis
for the above analysis is motion of the Pacific plate relative to
Convergence and Magmatism hotspots. The rapid increase in convergence rate at 74 Ma is
primarily the result of a change in motion of the Pacific plate
Cretaceous plutons of the Sierra Nevada were emplaced relative to hotspots (Appendix A). The increase is not strongly
during the interval 120 to 80 Ma (Chen and Moore 1982). The dependent upon the model used for Farallon-Pacific spreading
important question of how this interval correlates with the rate of nor upon the location of the initial Kula-Farallon break. Because
Farallon-North America convergence depends critically upon Pacific-hotspot motion is well-documented after 74 Ma but less
the model used for Farallon-Pacific spreading during the Cre- welldocumented before that time, it seems likely that con-
taceous normal superchron (1 18-83 Ma). Figure 9a shows the vergence was rapid during the time interval after the episode of
convergence rate corresponding to the preferred model of Enge- intense plutonism (120 to 80 Ma) but it is less certain what the
bretson and others (1984a). As discussed earlier, this is based on rate was during the episode of intense plutonism.
the assumption that no ridge jumping occurred north of the Men-
docino Fracture Zone during the normal superchron and that the Laramide Orogeny
spreading rate changed smoothly. During the interval of intense
plutonism from 120 to 80 Ma, the rate of convergence, while Many causal links have been proposed between plate tecton-
moderately high (50 to 100 km/m.y.), was lower than during the ics and the Laramide orogeny, including a change in the absolute
subsequent pulse of very rapid Farallon-North America conver- motion of North America, a decrease in the age of the subducting
gence between 75 and 40 Ma (Figure 9a), which reached a peak plate, a change in the rate of convergence, a shallowing of the
convergence rate of 150 km/m.y. and was not accompanied by angle of subduction, and the arrival of allochthonous terranes. In
extensive plutonism. examining these possible mechanisms, we find that the question
The alternative model for Farallon-Pacific spreading dis- of the timing of plate tectonic processes offshore and continental
cussed earlier is based on the assumption that no ridge jumping tectonic processes onshore is crucial.
occurred south of the Mendocino Fracture Zone during the Cre- Between 75 and 40 Ma magmatism ceased in the arc along
taceous normal superchron. The latter requires a westward jump the western edge of the Cordillera but continued sporadically
in the Pacific-Farallon spreading center to the north of the Men- inland at distances up to 1500 km from the arc (Lipman and
docino Fracture Zone. The net result is to increase the Farallon- others 1972; Cross and Pilger 1978; Keith 1978; Dickinson and
North America convergence rate by about 40 km/m.y. during Snyder 1978; Lipman 1980, 1982). This magmatic lull was not
the normal superchron (1 18-83 Ma). As a result, the average synchronous throughout the western arc. It began first near the
convergence rate during the episode of Sierra Nevada plutonism latitude of Montana and Idaho (-45O N) and between 75 Ma
is - 100 km/m.y., with more rapid convergence from 100-85 Ma and 40 Ma, migrated south to the latitude of southern Arizona
than from 120-100 Ma. In this model the cessation of plutonism and New Mexico (-30 N). Magmatism resumed in the western
occurs at about the same time as a drop in convergence rate to arc in the north by -45 Ma and in the south by -25 Ma (Lipman
below 100 km/m.y., followed as before by a pulse of rapid 1980,1982).
convergence unaccompanied by extensive plutonism. A generali- The magmatic lull and increase in the arc-trench distance
zation consistent with both models is that plutonism is associated during the Laramide orogeny have been attributed to anoma-
with a moderate (>SO km/m.y.) to high (> 100 km/m.y.) rate of lously shallow-dipping subduction of the Farallon plate beneath
North America (Coney 1972; Burchfiel and Davis 1975; Coney to the Laramide orogeny. The first is the motion of the North
and Reynolds 1977; Cross and Pilger 1978; Dickinson and American plate relative to hotspots. The component of the mo-
Snyder 1978). This interpretation is supported by the paleodepths tion normal to and toward the trench along the western margin of
of the Benioff zone inferred from the geochemistry of Cretaceous North America (dotted curve in Figure 9a) was more rapid than
and Tertiary andesitic rocks (Lipman and others 1972; Keith at any time before or after the orogeny, in accord with the hy-
1978, 1982). pothesis that the Laramide orogeny was related to rapid motion
If the northern option for the locus of initial rifting between of the North American plate toward the trench (Coney 1978;
the Kula and Farallon plates is correct, the subduction of young Cross and Pilger 1978; Engebretson and others 1984b). The sec-
lithosphere began near Vancouver Island at about 85 Ma and ond is the age of the Farallon plate arriving at the trench, which
then migrated to the south (Figure 3). This correlates fairly well decreased rapidly during the Laramide orogeny. In a general way,
with the timing and the southward migration of the locus of the this result supports the hypothesis that the Laramide orogeny was
magmatic lull described above. However this model also predicts related to subduction of young lithosphere (Molnar and Atwater
the northward migration of an analogous magmatic lull in Can- 1978; Cross and Pilger 1982; Engebretson and others 1948b).
ada, and neither the pattern of magmatism observed in the United However, our model, using the northern option, indicates
States nor a lull in that pattern is observed in Canada (Lipman that at the beginning of the Laramide orogeny, the age of the
and others 1972). lithosphere arriving at the trench was 100 m.y. or more, an age
An alternative mechanism to account for shallow-dipping that Molnar and Atwater (1978) have associated with extensional
subduction associated with magmatism well inland from the arc tectonics, suggesting that the onset of the Laramide did not corre-
is the subduction beneath North America of an aseismic ridge late with the first subduction of young lithosphere. It was not
riding on the Farallon plate (Livaccari and others 1981; Hender- until half way through the orogeny that lithosphere as young as
son and others 1984). According to Henderson and others 50 m.y., the age associated by Molnar and Atwater (1978) with
(1984), the aseismic ridge first collided with North America near compressional tectonics, arrived at the subduction zone. The
the present-day location of Cape Mendocino. The ridge migrated onset of the Laramide event appears to be more closely associated
southward rapidly, accounting for the southward migration of with the rapid younging of the lithosphere arriving at the subduc-
tectonic and magmatic events associated with the Laramide orog- tion zone than with the first arrival of young ( 4 0 m.y.) litho-
eny. This model is consistent with both the northern or southern sphere when the northern option model is used.
option for the locus of initial Kula-Farallon rifting. The hypothesis that the Laramide orogeny was produced by
Our analysis (as summarized in Figure 9) supports Coney's the arrival at the subduction zone of thickened buoyant litho-
(1978) suggestion that the rate of convergence was high during sphere carrying aseismic ridges or oceanic plateaus (Livaccari and
the Laramide orogeny. An important new result is the steep rise others 1981; Henderson and others 1984) is consistent with ter-
in convergence rate beginning at -74 Ma, very close to the onset rane trajectories based on the present model.
of the Laramide orogeny, followed by a rise during the last pan of If our analysis had shown that only one of the plate tectonic
the Laramide orogeny to the remarkably high rate of 150 processes proposed as a cause for the Laramide orogeny had been
km/m.y. The rapid increase in convergence rate at 74 Ma was operating during the time 80 to 40 Ma, the single cause of the
primarily the result of a change in Pacific-hotspot motion at this Laramide orogeny would be obvious. Instead, our analysis shows
time, as noted earlier. This interpretation depends strongly on our that almost all of the proposed processes may have been occur-
model for Pacific-hotspot motion but not on the particular model ring simultaneously. Our conclusion is that more than one and
used for Farallon-Pacific spreading or the locus of the initial perhaps all of the above plate tectonic processes, acting simul-
Kula-Farallon break. taneously and in concert, produced the Laramide orogeny (En-
Two other relationships shown in Figure 9a may be related gebretson and others 1984b).
APPENDIX A: INFORMATION FOR TRACING Genealogy of the Linear Velocities

THE CAUSES O F CHANGES
IN RELATIVE PLATE MOTIONS The origin of calculated linear velocities can be traced to
observed plate-plate or plate-hotspot motions in Figures A1 and
Relative linear velocities between the selected localities in A2. Linear velocities are shown at selected sites for plate pairs of
North America and Eurasia and adjacent oceanic plates are listed interest. Each graph displays the direction and speed of relative
in Tables 5 and 6 and are shown in Appendix B. Some of the motion as a function of time for the labeled plate pair. Motions
apparent changes in velocity in these figures are real and some are based on direct observation are marked with stars. The other
probably artifacts resulting from errors of several types. To aid motions can be traced to these. The discussions that follow, which
the geologist who needs to assess the reliability of individual are specific to sites where the linear velocities were calculated,
features in linear velocity diagrams before attempting to correlate trace the origin of several types of change in plate interactions.
these with geologic events, the genealogy of the linear velocity The velocities cited refer to those shown in Figure Al. The fol-
plots is displayed in figures A-1 and A-2. Using these figures, the lowing abbreviations are used: NA-North America plate, SA-
geologist can trace changes in linear convergence velocities back South American plate, AF-African plate, FA-Farallon plate,
to their sources at different links in the plate-hotspot circuit. KU-Kula plate, HS-hotspot reference frame.
The basic element used in determining the history of plate
displacements and velocities is an Euler stage pole; a stage being a HS-NA Motion
time interval during which it is assumed that plate-plate or plate-
Feature: Between 161 and 145 Ma, a stepwise decrease in
hotspot motion was constant. Short stages in the poles used to velocity of NA-HS motion from over 100 km/m.y.
describe the convergence of a certain plate pair, for example, the
to less than 25 km/m.y.
Farallon-North America plates, are due to either the existence of
Genealogy: (1) Decreases in AF-NA spreading rates at 161 and
a short stage used to describe one plate pair in the circuit, or to the
145 Ma.
fact that two of the boundaries at different links in the circuit
(2) Moderate decrease in speed and abrupt direc-
happened to have times that are closely spaced. The latter cir-
tional change of AF-HS motion at 145 Ma.
cumstance would not arise if the same set of isochrons is used to
Feature: At 119 Ma an increase in velocity from less than 25
describe all plate motions in all basins. In practice, this is not the
km/m.y. to greater than 50 km/m.y.
case, either because the motion of different plate pairs changed at
Genealogy: Slow spreading rate in AF-NA motion between 145
different times or because, in different ocean basins, different
and 119 Ma followed by moderate increase at 119
isochrons could be identified more easily and these are used to
Ma.
determine Euler poles. Similarly the times used to define stage
Feature: Between 48 and 37 Ma, a stepwise decrease and
boundaries for plate-hotspot motion depended in part on when
counterclockwiseshift of NA-HS velocity, the speed
the direction of plate motion actually changed and in part on the
decreased from approximately 50 km/m.y. to less
quality of bathymetric data and radiometric dates along the hot-
than 10 km/m.y. with a shift from a westerly to a
spot track. When all of the plate pairs are combined, as in the
southwesterly direction.
North America-Africa-hotspot-Pacific-Farallon circuit, the
Genealogy: (1) Moderate decrease in AF-NA spreading rate at
number of stage boundaries in the resultant North America-
37 Ma in conjunction with a small directional
Farallon motion is the number of noncoincident stage boundaries
change.
for all of the links of the circuit.
(2) Moderate directional change in AF-HS motion
Because the Euler poles for short stages are found by sub-
at 48 Ma.
tracting two poles, each with its errors, the errors for short stages
are relatively large. Errors are probably increased by uncertainties FA-NA Motion
in dating. As a result, where stage boundaries are closely spaced,
the calculated stages tend to have erratic Euler poles and erratic Feature: Between 161 and 145 Ma a stepwise decrease in
linear velocities. Geologists using these tables should be cautious FA-NA relative motion from approximately 125
in interpreting stages as short as 10 m.y. and even more skeptical km/m.y. to less than 50 km/m.y.
about shorter stages. Genealogy: (1) Stepwise decrease in HS-NA motion at this time
Because the displacement histories presented in this paper (see earlier discussion).
were constructed using available stage poles from many sources, (2) Decrease and directional change in FA-HS mo-
it would be unwieldy to evaluate critically the significance of tion at 145 Ma resulting from the initiation of
each stage pole used as input for the model. The reader is referred PA-HS motion at that time (see text).
to the original sources for additional information (see Table 1). Feature: Between 145 and 100 Ma a period of moderately
1-1 HLUON d0 lSU3 '030
I- HLUON 40 lSU3 '030

slow (approximately 60 km/m.y.) FA-NA conver- with North America, and the Kula plate broke away from the
gence. Variations within this interval lie at the limit Farallon plate at 85 Ma. Therefore, after 85 Ma KU-NA and
of resolution of the method. PA-NA motion are of primary interest.
Genealogy: (1) Slow HS-NA motion beginning at 145 Ma (see
earlier discussion). Feature: Between 74 and 56 Ma stepwise decrease in
(2) Initiation of southerly PA-HS motion at 145 KU-NA convergence accompanied by clockwise
Ma. shift in direction.
(3) Directional changes in PA-HS motion at 135 Genealogy: (1) Stepwise (probably continuous) decrease in
and 115 Ma. KU-PA spreading rates at 74,66, and 61 Ma.
(4) Moderate directional change in FA-PA spread- (2) Change in PA-HS motion at 74 Ma as discussed
ing at 135 Ma. earlier.
(5) Small directional change and moderate increase Feature: Between 56 and 43 Ma an abrupt (approximately
in FA-PA motion at 119 Ma. 100 km/m.y.) increase in KU-NA convergence.
Feature: At 100 Ma a marked increase in FA-NA conver- Genealogy: Marked increase in KU-PA spreading rate between
gence from approximately 60 km/m.y. to greater 56 and 43 Ma, ending with the death of KU-PA
than 100 km/m.y. ridge.
Genealogy: Abrupt increase (nearly 100 km/m.y.) in FA-HS
motion resulting entirely from a change in direction NA-EU Motion
and velocity of PA-HS motion at 100 Ma.
Feature: At 74 and 66 Ma stepwise increases in FA-NA con- Feature: At 95 Ma abrupt changes in NA-EU (Figure A2).
vergence rates from approximately 100 km/m.y. to Genealogy: Initiation of spreading ridge in the Arctic, accom-
approximately 150 km/m.y. accompanied by a panied by a change in the direction of spreading.
clockwise shift in direction.
Genealogy: (1) At 74 Ma a small directional change in FA-HS HS-EU Motion
motion as a result of a clockwise directional change
and increase in velocity of PA-HS motion. Feature: Between 53 and 48 Ma a short-lived increase in
(2) At 66 Ma an increase in HS-NA velocity result- HS-EU velocity.
ing from an increase in AF-NA spreading rates. Genealogy: This feature, which is probably spurious, is the result
Feature: Between 43 and 28 Ma stepwise decreases in of combining a reported change in NA-EU motion
FA-NA convergence rates. at 53 and 48 Ma with a reported change in HS-NA
Genealogy: (1) Decrease in FA-HS velocity at 43 Ma that re- motion at 48 Ma.
sulted from the combination of an increase in
FA-PA spreading rates and a counterclockwise shift SA-NA Motion
in PA-HS motion marked by the bend in the Ha-
waiian-Emperor seamount chain. Feature: Between 85 and 65 Ma a markedly different direc-
(2) Decrease at 37 Ma in the FA-PA spreading rate. tion of SA-NA motion.
(3) Decrease at 28 Ma in the FA-PA spreading rate. Genealogy: (1) The anomalous direction of motion during that
(4) Decrease in HS-NA velocity at 37 Ma (see ear- period is probably not significant because the veloc-
lier discussion). ity is close to zero. The origin of the low velocity
during this period is a simultaneous change in
(IZ, KU,PA)-NA Motion NA-AF and SA-AF motion at 85 Ma.
(2) The 66 Ma increase in SA-NA velocity resulted
In our reconstructions the Izanagi plate was never in contact from a change in AF-NA divergence at this time.
APPENDIX B: AZIMUTH AND SPEED OF THE B2. These figures were developed to display when major changes
LINEAR VELOCITIES OF OCEANIC PLATES in plate interactions occurred. Because of uncertainty in the loca-
FOR NORTH AMERICA AND EURASIA tions of plate boundaries at certain times, velocity vectors for
more than one plate pair appear on some of the plots. Earlier
Tables 5 and 6 give the azimuth and speed of linear veloci- convergence velocities are known with much less certainty than
ties of the oceanic plates relative to North America and Eurasia are later convergence velocities.
respectively. This information is also plotted in Figures Bl and
Weotorn Aleutian Are Central Aleutian Are

at. 8 4 . 0 Long. 1 7 2 . 0 Lat. 83.0 Long. 1 0 7 . 0
Figure Bl (this and following pages). Speed and azimuth of linear velocities relative to North America at
selected sites. Where it is uncertain which of two plates was adjacent to a site at a given time, velocity
arrows for both plates are shown.
B a a t e r n A l e u t i a n Are Kodlak l a l a n d
Lat. 86.0 Long. 1 0 2 . 0 Lat. 5 8 . 0 Long. 2 0 0 . 0
Southarn Chugaah Mta. Quean C h a t i o t t e l a l a n d 8

L i t . 60.0 Long. 2 2 0 . 0 f t. 6 4 . 0 Long. 2 2 6 . 0
Juan de F u a a S t r a i t K l a m a t h Mto.
Lat. 46.0 Lonq. 336.0 Lat. 4 2 . 0 Long. 2 3 6 . 0
I
Low Angelem B8wIn
Let. 94.0 Long. 242.0
outhwee Mexleo
f t. 16.0 Long. 2 0 0 . 0
t. K o r y a k k l Mt
Lat. 0 2 . 0 Longd 1 7 6 . 0 8hellkhova 8 e a
r3 Let. 0 0 . 0 Long. 1 6 6 . 0
1 I
Figure B2. Speed and azimuth of linear velocities relative to Eurasia at selected sites. Where it is
uncertain which of two plates was adjacent to a site at a given time, velocity arrows for both plates are
shown.
8kRoll l o l n Honohu l o l a n d
Lot. 6 3 . 0 Long. 1 4 2 . 0 Lt 40.0 Long.140.0
I
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p. 169-209. MANUSCRIPT
ACCEPTED
BY THE SOCIETY
JUNE
11,1985
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Relative Motions Between Oceanic

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Published by The Geological Society of America, Inc.

GSA Books Science Editor Campbell Craddock

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-PublicationData

(Special paper / Geological Society of America ;206)

QE511.4.E54 1985 551.1'36'09164 8&&

INTRODUCTION thonous terranes great distances northward, as suggested by

Relative Motions Between Oceanic

A model is presented for the displacement history between western North

TABLE 2. Stage poles and total reconstructions relative to the hotspots.

TABLE 3. Stage poles and total reconstructions relative to North America.

Stage poles^ Total ~econstructions^

5 28 248 5.2 28 248 5.2

TABLE 4. Stage poles and total reconstructions relative to Eurasia.

NORTH AMERICA MA-EUl

Stage poles^ Total ~econstructions^

127 -6 264 8.0 -25 3 13 95.2

(1) Same conventions as in Table 2.

Errors and Uncertainties ica-hotspot reconstructions is 300 km at 50 m.y., 500 km at 100

docino Fracture Zone back to earlier locations. Comparison of

offset isochrons by large distances, thereby juxtaposing oceanic t I I r I 50

TABLE 5. Linear velocities of oceanic plates relative to North America

Site Site Site

Farallon Plate s.o.M.~~ Farallor

Site Site ite Site

*Presence of this plate at this place and time is questionable.

TABLE 6. Linear velocities of oceanic plates relative to fixed Eurasia

Izai ci Plate Izanagi Plate

brought these far-traveled terranes to their present locations.

APPENDIX A: INFORMATION FOR TRACING Genealogy of the Linear Velocities

1-1 HLUON d0 lSU3 '030

I- HLUON 40 lSU3 '030

Weotorn Aleutian Are Central Aleutian Are

Southarn Chugaah Mta. Quean C h a t i o t t e l a l a n d 8

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