Pioneers of Space

Pioneers
of Space

PROGRESS PUBLISHERS

MOSCOW
Translated f r o m the Russian b y Patricia Beryozkina
Designed b y Vadim Belkin
C o m p i l e d b y Victor Mitroshenkov
Photographs b y Igor Snegirev

" " , 1985

English translation of the revised Russian text
Progress Publishers 1989

Printed in the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

3500000000-182 QQ
6 1 - 8 9
0T4 (01)89

ISBN 5 - 0 1 - 0 0 1 1 0 9 - 3
 CONTENTS

Gherman Titov
Gagarin in Orbit 5
Yevgeni Karpov
Beginnings 13
Georgi Shonin
Y u r i Gagarin 40
Nikolai Kuznetsov
A Leader among Leaders 60
Yevgeniya Malakhovskaya
Tell Me A b o u t Him 123
Pave! Popovich, Alexander Nemov
Galactic Secrets 158
Georgi Beregovoi
Not to Be Forgotten 256
 GAGARIN IN ORBIT
Gherman Titov
The bus brought us to the base of the rocket.
In just a few minutes, Y u r i Gagarin would take his
place inside. He said goodbye t o the members of the
State Commission, scientists and fellow-cosmonauts.
We were both in spacesuits, b u t we embraced,
touching helmets.
"Dear friends, known and u n k n o w n t o m e ! " Gaga-
rin greeted those w h o had come to see him o f f .
" I n a few minutes this powerful spaceship w i l l carry
me into the vastness of the universe. Let me say
this before I go. My entire life up until now seems
but one glorious moment. Everything that I expe-
rienced and accomplished in the past was for the sake
of this journey. A l l of you no doubt understand how
d i f f i c u l t it is for me to gather my thoughts now that
the moment has arrived t o test that which we have
worked so long and hard t o achieve..."
Yuri sounded proud and excited. He was going
up, not I (I was what they now call the back-up).
But the words of my friend, w h o was honoured by
being chosen to be the first, seemed t o echo my own
feelings.
" A n d if I am still determined t o make this flight,"
Gagarin went on, " i t is because I am a Communist,
because I am following the example of the dauntless

5
 heroism of my compatriotsthe Soviet people. I
know that I w i l l gather all my willpower to fulfil
my task to the best of my ability. I understand the
importance of t h i s t a s k a n d w i l l do everything possible
to carry out the mission that the Communist Party
and Soviet people have given me."
We did not doubt that Yuri meant what he said.
A n elevator raised Gagarin up to the spaceship
hatch. Before he entered, he raised his arm once
again.
"See you soon!" And Gagarin disappeared inside
the cabin. The hatch slammed shut, and we remained,
transfixed, at the base of the rocket.
When Yuri reported, " I ' m well and ready," I re-
turned to the bus and quickly changed out of my
spacesuit into my "earth clothes". I joined my fellow-
cosmonauts at the communications centre where we
listened to the radio exchange between Yuri and
mission control as the rocket was prepared for
launch. Gagarin's voice sounded strong over the
speaker:
" I feel great. I'm doing as they taught me."
We all grinned: if a cosmonaut could joke, he
must really feel great.
A tense half hour or more passed before the final
command rang out over the steppe:
"Lift-off!"
The first time in the world that a manned space-
ship was being launched into space.
The engines roared and the base of the rocket
was enveloped in clouds of smoke. With each passing
second the noise of the engines increased and the
billows of smoke grew thicker and larger. Soon the
lower half of the rocket was hidden in the smoke
while a sea of fire raged below. The rocket shook
slightly and then slowly began to lift upward. Happy
journey, my friend!

6
 People often ask me: "What did you feel when
Gagarin went up?"
My feelings and thoughts were those of a pilot
who watches his comrade test a new plane. The
friends who remain on the ground carefully observe
the actions of the pilot, analyze them and draw
conclusions. That is what I did. During the immediate
preparations for lift-off, I was busy with technical
matters, and followed the issue of commands and
reports made by Gagarin. When the rocket lifted off
the launch pad and flew upward, I watched the barely
perceptible quivering of the rocket vehicle and was
thus able to judge the functioning of the jet vanes,
which guide the rocket along its trajectory.
As the rocket sped upward, the roar of its engines
grew faint. The cosmodrome seemed empty. It had
happened so many times beforeI w o u l d be standing
and talking to a comrade on the airfield, and the next
minute he would be far away. What was happening
t o him now? What would the next few minutes bring?
Every pilot has experienced this feeling of uneasi-
ness at the beginning of a flight.
The time was approaching when the rocket was
to break through the earth's atmosphere and then
eject its nose cone. We were all concerned about the
automatic ejection. Finally, Gagarin reported:
"Nose cone ejected. I see the Earth!"
" I t w o r k e d ! " We were all elated.
As the rocket consumed fuel and gathered speed,
the stages separated one after another. Yuri briefly
informed us that the rocket had entered orbit and
there was no gravity. A l l our attention was focu-
sed on the cosmonaut's transmissions from space.
How was he feeling? Was he taking weightlessness
well?
I had read a lot about weightlessness and tried to
imagine the condition. As a fighter pilot, I knew

7
something about it. A t certain moments during flight,
for example, when the plane is sort of "suspended",
the pilot is weightless, and we had experienced short
periods of weightlessness in our space training. Still
... it seemed fascinating.
On earth, man constantly feels the pull of gravity.
Our organisms develop under this condition and we
adapt to it: our hearts pump a certain amount of
blood, we orient ourselves in space, determine what
is up and what is down and move about in a normal
fashion. But what would it be like under conditions
of weightlessness, when there is no gravity?
In his science fiction book Dreams of Earth and
Sky, Konstantin Tsiolkovsky described the condi-
tion of weightlessness:
" I floated around the room, from the ceiling t o
the floor -and back again. I turned somersaults like a
clown, in spite of myself bumping into objects and
tangling up my arms and legs. Everything I hit was
set in motion. I felt I was constantly falling... Water
spilled out of a jug and floated in the shape of a vib-
rating sphere. Then it broke into droplets and began
to slide down the walls... Under such conditions a
stationary body will remain motionless unless it is
acted upon by a force, and a body in m o t i o n will
move forever."
That was an imaginative description. But what
would it really be like?
Gagarin reported from space: "The flight is pro-
ceeding smoothly. I feel fine. A l l instruments and all
systems are operating normally."
He was carrying out the mission, so the lack of
gravity was apparently not bothering him.
Gagarin's flight was useful in testing the extreme-
ly important automatic systems which controlled
the flight of the rocket and the functioning of all
its complex mechanisms and equipment. The rocket's

8
plotted trajectory, the operation of its engines, ejec-
tion of stages and its descent were all controlled auto-
matically, as were life support systems inside. We
were very happy to learn that all the automatic sys-
tems were functioning.
Then, no one was able to ponder the significance
of the first manned space flight. There simply wasn't
time.
" L e t ' s ride to the plane," Nikolai Kamanin sug-
gested. "We'll fly to the landing p o i n t . "
The plane took off and gained altitude. We all
listened attentively to the radio transmissions coming
over a speaker in the cabin. Only those who had
been training for such a flight themselves could un-
derstand the detailed bits of information coming
from space.
Gagarin reported:
"This is a routine report. It is 9.48. The orbit
correct. I feel fine."
He continued to make reports:
" I am switching to solar orientation..." "The
flight is proceeding normally. I am now over Ameri-
ca..." " I see the earth's horizon. It's a beautiful halo.
It's like a rainbow close to the earth surface. Beauti-
ful..."
Still ahead was the final, perhaps most important
and, in all probability, most d i f f i c u l t stage of the
flightthe reentry and landing. Would everything
work according to plan? Although the deceleration
and landing systems had been checked often in space
flights w i t h animals, there was always a possibility
that something unexpected might happen. Would
Yuri be able to land using manual controls? I thought
back to our joint training exercises... "Everything
will be fine," I assured myself. A t 10.55 the Vostok
spaceship landed successfully in the designated area.
Gagarin reported: "Please inform the Party and Gov-

9
ernment that the landing was normal. I feel fine and
am uninjured."
The first manned space flight had been a success!
We arrived at the landing area, and I ran to em-
brace Yuri. He was surrounded by people, but I began
to squeeze my way through the crowd. People
looked at me in surprise and irritation, but I continued
to make my way forward. Yuri noticed me when I
was just a few feet away and rushed toward me. We
hugged each other for a long time.
Later, at a rest resort, Yuri and I walked along
the shore of the Volga. The snow was melting, the
ground becoming dry and firm. Here and there
patches of bright green grass had sprouted, and frag-
rant leaves were budding on the trees. Dark-red cat-
kins draped the alders. The mighty Volga River had
begun to thaw, and chunks of ice were being swept
along by the murky water, in the tree branches,
rooks were busy repairing their old nests, starlings
flew to and fro. It was an enchanting scenea unique
hymn to spring.
This charming panorama of the awakening of
Russian nature pleasantly harmonized w i t h our
good spirits. Yuri shared his impressions w i t h me,
and we both thought about future flights.
Suddenly, Yuri grew silent and stared at the sky.
"What's the matter?" I asked. " A r e you thinking
about the time when we might be walking along the
shore of a Martian river, admiring the setting sun
and Earth?"
" T h a t would really be something!" he laughed.
Later there was that unforgettable day in Moscow.
Yuri stood together w i t h Party and Government
leaders on the platform of the Lenin Mausoleum.
Red Square was filed w i t h ebullient, happy throngs
of people. I and the other cosmonauts walked among
the files of demonstrators. We were yelling, clapping

10
and laughing. Yuri noticed us and waved. Voices
rang out above the Square: " G l o r y to the Party!
Gagarin!"
That same time the radio proclaimed the wonder-
f u l news: Yuri Gagarin had been named a Hero of
the Soviet Union.
The Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR
distinguished many of the specialists who had parti-
cipated in the launch programme w i t h awards. We
the first detachment of cosmonauts (later we came
to be known as the Gagarin group)were also given
awards. I received the Order of Lenin.
Now, when I think back on the time, I have a
clearer understanding of the profound significance of
those events and the role played by Gagarin. It would
be no exaggeration to say that after that dayApril
12, 1961the day which came to be k n o w n around
the globe as the Dawn of the Space Age, no other
man was so admired, not only in his own country
but throughout the world.
To the cosmonauts, Yuri was a colleague, t o many
of thema dear friend. He was an ordinary guy who
had travelled a d i f f i c u l t road before he was able to
reach for the stars. Thousands of young people in
our country are travelling similar roads and following
their dreams.
That it took one hundred and eight minutes to
circle our planet testifies to the speed of the Vostok
spaceship. But these weren't just ordinary minutes,
they were minutes in space. A n d that is why they
shook the world. It is not only the historians who
w i l l remember this time. Our great-grandchildren and
distant posterity will read and study about the birth
of a new era, how a trail to the endless universe was
blazed by the children of the Earth.
The achievement of the Soviet people was herald-
ed in newspapers around the world: " M a j o r Gagarin

11
and his Vostok spacecraft will go down in history",
"Man's most remarkable achievement", "Hats off
to the Russians". A n d it was only natural that when
Yuri's space flight was over, he should begin his
" e a r t h " travels: the whole world wanted to see the
first cosmonaut in space.
Gagarin read speeches at assemblies and meetings,
spoke in factory shops and laboratories, appeared
before schoolchildren and university students, and
gave interviews to numerous journalists. He was an
excellent speaker, as was evidenced by the avid atten-
t i o n of his audiences and their rousing applause.
Gagarin visited many countries around the world.
Still, his heavy social and political duties never dis-
tracted him from what had become his passion in
life. Yuri was excited by each new launch and wanted
t o participate in the missions. But we knew that deep
in his heart he was sad and envied us, for each flight
was more interesting than the last. As a professional
pilot, it was d i f f i c u l t for him to be on the sidelines,
though he continued to share his knowledge and
enthusiasm during preparations for each new mission.
He was present whenever a cosmonaut went into
space, sharing the experience w i t h him; he taught
others while he learned himself. He dreamed of the
time when our spacecraft would travel t o the planets,
when he himself w o u l d once again command a rocket
ship.
It was for this dream that Yuri Gagarin went into
space, it was for this reason that he worked and lived.
 Yevgeni Karpov

BEGINNINGS
A f t e r reading through m y personal records, once
again the memory of that t i m e rushes to m y mind.
In looking through m y cherished collection of photo-
graphs, souvenirs and mementos, I recall the many
events, meetings, interesting discussions and large
and small endeavors w h i c h I witnessed or played a
direct role in more than t w e n t y years ago.
M y recollections are those of the beginningof
the selection and training of the f irst cosmonauts and
the special nature of our w o r k . I w r i t e them d o w n f o r
those w h o wish t o learn more about the start of our
manned space programme. As w i t h everything in the
past, the details of this beginning can be reconstruct-
ed w i t h the help of those people f o r t u n a t e enough t o
participate in the programme. I suggest t h a t we
take as our starting p o i n t the late fifties and early
sixties of our t u r b u l e n t t w e n t i e t h century.
Each participant in the manned space programme
was, in m y opinion, a highly motivated and respon-
sible individual. Skilled specialists predicted a propi-
tious fate for the newly-created programme, w h i c h
w o u l d rely on the significant c o n t r i b u t i o n s of Soviet
science, the rocket industry and aviation.
The m a j o r i t y of specialists selected for the new

13
programme were young people who brought w i t h them
all the advantages of youth. The older specialists
were, as always, more knowledgeable, cautious,
thorough and experiencedexactly those characte-
ristics that the young "hot-heads" sometimes lacked.
But then the "oldsters" had to hand it to the young
when it came to daring and endurance.
Soon no one was bothered by the overwhelming
questions and problems or the grave responsibili-
ties that accompanied those first steps into a new,
untested sphere. The numerous difficulties and daily
exasperations did not dishearten anyone, they only
served to double and triple the scientists' endeavors
and to rally their efforts. The prevailing spirit of
enthusiasm was what helped overcome complicated
and often dangerous tasks in an incredibly short
period of time. A n d this spirit was shared not by a
few fanatics but by the many thousands of Soviet
specialists and workers who were called upon to
usher in the dawn of the space ageto begin what
Konstantin Tsiolkovsky had predicted would be the
era of starflight.
No one thought the job of selecting and training
men for a trip into space would be easy. I recall
how years before technological preparations for a
manned space flight around the earth had even
begun (preparations which included protection de-
vices against the harmful effects of space, life support
systems, and the safe landing of the pilot even under
emergency situations) the Academy of Sciences began
to receive what many considered at the time to be
rather curious letters. The people who wrote them all
firmly believed that the Soviet Union had earned
the right and that it was therefore the country's
duty to send the first man into space. They volun-
teered themselves for the first flight, the sincerity of
their wishes reflected by their ardent courage: many

14
were willing to be sent only " u p " (one way) in order
t o transmit information to earth. For the sake of
human progress and a better life, they would sacri-
fice themselves to science.
Such patriotism is worthy of admiration. But it
was not just a pioneer we needed to open this new
sphere of human endeavour. We would have to con-
struct a spacecraft that would function reliably from
lift-off to landing, to develop a rational and effective
method of selecting and training spacemen.
Everyone involved in the programme was imme-
diately concerned w i t h the task of selecting and
training the first group of Soviet spacemen. We re-
ceived many suggestions, and not only from specia-
lists and those directly involved in the programme.
Our discussions were not so much concerned w i t h
" w h a t " and " h o w " as the fundamental aspect of the
mission and its drawbacks. By the summer of 1959
the battle of words had quieted down. Instead of
indulging in intuitive searches, we began the real
work, which always leads to needed solutions. During
a routine meeting of the Academy of Sciences it was
decided to begin to subject a group of prospective
cosmonauts to medical screening. Training for the
flight was to begin no later than spring 1960.
As an aviation doctor and researcher specializing
in pilot recruitment, physical fitness training and
safety, I was asked early in 1959 to conduct similar
work for the manned space programme. After the
basic technical problems of space flight had been
solved, our attention turned t o new questionsthose
of a medical and biological nature. We needed to
know answers to many important questions: Can
the human organism withstand such an undertaking?
What technology is needed? What risks does the pilot
face? What specific traits must the selected cosmo-
naut possess? What is the best way to train the pilot

15
when so much about space remains a mystery?
These and numerous other " h o w s " and " w h a t s "
were t o be considered by the medical and biological
specialists. To be sure, we were unable to answer the
majority of questions initially. No one could know
for certain what might happen to a man during the
flight. The first spacefarer would have to learn much
for himself. But despite the uncertainty, the specia-
lists, particularly the aviation doctors, were obliged
to do everything possible to ensure the successful
outcome of this enormously important and risky
venture.
It seems unlikely today that anything should have
gone wrong w i t h the first manned space flight. No-
netheless, scientists then acknowledged that the
mission might prove impossible due to the human
organism's frailty. We did not know enough at that
time to be overly optimistic. Still experiments con-
ducted by Soviet scientists w i t h dogs and other
animals aboard rockets and the second artificial
earth satellite gave us reason to hope for the best.
But the data collected from these experiments told us
nothing of how space would affect the human organ-
ism and psychology.
A n unsuccessful mission might, first of all, cost
the life of the first man in space. Secondly, it would
considerably delay man's direct space exploration.
Much time w o u l d be spent in trying to determine if
the cause of failure was due to a technical flaw or
man's biological weakness.
American newspapers and magazines were repor-
ting that of 510 test pilots who had volunteered for
the space programme, Air Force doctors had in the end
selected seven. They were all in excellent physical
condition and had the necessary professional back-
ground for the programme: a degree in engineering
and no less than 3,000 flight hours, half of which

16 |
were logged in jets. The American astronauts were
between 35 and 40 years old.
American scientists did not consider it necessary
to create a permanent training base for the "Pheno-
menal Seven". Instead, they used facilities provided
by scientific research institutes, centres and labora-
tories, hospitals, clinics and companies involved in
space technology. As part of their training pro-
gramme, the astronauts were t o help design the
Mercury spacecraft and the A tlas booster as well as fol-
low a ballistic trajectory in a manned, suborbital flight.
Soviet scientists, particularly Academician Sergei
Korolev, the chief designer of the space rocket system,
thought differently. They wanted young, strong and
daring cosmonauts, and experience was of secondary
importance. These men would be chosen from among
fighter pilots whose professional skills were acknowl-
edged t o be-closest to those that would be required
of space pioneers.
" A fighter pilot is a versatile man," remarked Ko-
rolev. " D i f f i c u l t and risky missions are his j o b . "
Korolev recommended using three equally impor-
tant criteria to select the best fighter pilots: first,
the ability to carry out precisely programmed func-
tions (which we will refer to as reliable professional
skill); second, an aptitude for research which would
be necessary to help develop rocket technology (to
be called creative potential), and third, excellent
health and the ability t o withstand physical and
psychological pressures ("healthy as a horse" and
having "nerves of steel"), in other words, the candi-
date should have the psycho-physiological charac-
teristics that would make it possible to train him t o
f u l f i l a d i f f i c u l t mission.
In accordance with Korolev's instructions, during
the first few rocket flights the cosmonauts would
perform only a limited number of tasks, such as self-

17
2-S2;
monitoring, general flight observation, operating tech-
nical equipment, evaluating the functioning of au-
tomatic systems at each stage of the flight, and,
should automation fail, using the technical equip-
ment to bring the rocket out of orbit.
Korolev was personally involved in deciding which
qualities were important for all future cosmonauts.
And he came up w i t h his own "technical parameters",
as he called them: inquisitiveness, industriousness,
and ardent enthusiasm for the space programme.
He instructed the aviation doctors who were sent to
the air force units in summer 1959 to select men
between 25 and 30 years of age who were no taller
than 1 7 0 - 1 7 5 c m a n d w e i g h e d n o m o r e t h a n 7 0 - 7 2 kg.
The Chief Designer was especially insistent about
the latter t w o "technical" requirements, explaining
that a smaller cosmonaut would allow more room for
instruments (recorders) to register the parameters
of the flight. Korolev was certainly a cautious de-
signer: the rocket itself weighed more than 4.5
tonnes!
As for the age of the future cosmonauts, Korolev
had this to say: " A s has been repeatedly demon-
strated in our automated flights and those w i t h ani-
mals on board, our technology is such that we do not
require, as the American Mercury project does, that
our early cosmonauts to be highly skilled engineers.
The American astronauts must help control the
rocket systems at every phase of the f l i g h t . " Koro-
lev was openly proud of the technical advantages of
the Vostok. "The first cosmonauts," he explained,
"must be daring young men who have a great future
in space, whose entire working lives still lie ahead.
Lack of experience and knowledge in flight testing is
something that young enthusiasts can quickly make
up f o r . " A t the request of the Soviet Air Command,
aviation doctors personally interviewed a large

18
number of fighter pilots. Of these, approximately
one hundred and f i f t y were summoned for further,
more complete medical testing at the Moscow Avia-
tion Hospital, and one hundred men were tested.
After t w o phases of testing, which took from four
to six weeks, one out of five of these pilots was de-
clared physically f i t for space flight training. Thus,
twenty men were among the first detachment of
trainees at the Cosmonaut Training Centre.
A short while earlier, in August 1959, when the
future cosmonauts were still undergoing medical and
physical endurance testing at the Aviation Hospital,
a large tract of land in a forest-park zone was appor-
tioned for the construction of Zvezdny (Star) City
(at that time it was simply known as Zeleny (Green)
City). I was asked to take control of the territory and
begin the construction design w o r k .
I worked with the Cosmonaut Training Centre
from 1959 until the end of 1963. A group of scient-
ists gathered in Star City to work out the initial
training programme for the first recruitment of
cosmonautsthe Vanguard Sixwho successfully
completed the Vostok space flight missions. Building
facilities and communications were constructed on
the territory and t w o high-rise apartment complexes
went up in the city's future residential sector.
But the first group of cosmonauts did not begin
their training in Star City. Already by March 14,
1960, the future cosmonauts were undergoing train-
ing in two old converted buildings located on the
territory of the Frunze A i r p o r t on Leningradsky
Prospekt in Moscow. The trainees were twenty young,
exuberant, healthy pilots filled w i t h optimism and
enthusiasm. The instructors were specialists from
numerous scientific research institutes and the
design bureau which had developed space technology.
Some of these instructors quickly formed the core of
the team of specialists assigned to the Cosmonaut
Training Centre. The first phase of the training pro-
gramme required carrying out both traditional
aviation exercises as well as principally new and
original operations.
It was decided to regularly conduct physical
training and conditioning exercises, simulate flights
and hold medical examinations before and after
various tests and training operations. Sometimes
once, sometimes frequently, the future cosmonauts
were asked to parachute jump, spend time in compres-
sion, temperature and isolation chambers, and be
ejected (on land) f r o m a plane, they were tested for
equilibrium, spun around in a centrifuge and flew
specially equipped aircraft capable of inducing
weightlessness for a short period. On top of all this,
the trainees attended a number of special courses
(for the most part devoted t o theory) and visited
industrial and scientific research organizations. This
w i l l give some idea of what the first Cosmonaut
Training Programme was like.
Most of the trainees immediately understood
what was required of them. Despite the difficulties,
they patiently and persistently did whatever was
necessary for the new programme. Those first few
months revealed differences among the men, who
adjusted to their new regimen in various ways. Not
all of the twenty selected for that first training pro-
gramme successfully completed training.
The first Cosmonaut Training Programme was
extremely flexible. We had to quickly adjust t o
unexpected circumstances and conditions. In addi-
t i o n to their usual functions, many of the organiza-
tions assisting us began to help train the cosmonauts
as well. The programme had to be restructured for
this, and much time was spent on frequent and long
trips moving the traineesfrom one locationto another.

20
 The future cosmonauts were especially interested
in astronomy and rocket technology. As pilots, they
intuitively felt that their new profession was based
on this theory. It is worth noting that the specialists
who instructed the trainees were well-informed with
the latest developments in rocket construction and
the ideas of Chief Designer S. P. Korolev.
Without going into detail, I w o u l d like t o men-
t i o n that those first four months in Moscow at the
Cosmonaut Training Centre were characterized by
strict rules and regulations and an emphasis on aca-
demics. The daily intensive physical fitness and sport
programme was not initially popular and only late
did it begin helping the men t o comprehend the
complicated theoretical material they were being
taught.
Certainly the specialists at the Centre had more
than their share of difficulties, most of which were
due to the acute lack of space, equipment and instru-
ments. Certain instruments and devices had not yet
even been invented at that time or were not easily
portable.
By summer 1960, our staff and as yet modest
supply of equipment had moved to the permanent
training base in Star City. Some work facilities were
already operational, and apartments were ready for
the married cosmonauts and their families. The five
bachelors among the trainees were moved into a
comfortable dormitory, which was actually a three-
room apartment. Apartments were also made
available to the families of the programme directors.
It was gradually decided to divide the training
programme into different stages. The initial training
had been devoted to general programme orientation.
Now the future cosmonauts would learn the specific
skills needed for space flight.
It was not considered expedient t o put all the

21
trainees through a single programme. Instead, five or
six men were t o be selected for the Vostok missions,
while the others would take part in subsequent space
flights. Thus the future cosmonauts were divided into
groups before they had finished their initial training.
Beginning in the summer of 1960, the group of
cosmonauts including Gagarin, Titov, Nikolayev and
Popovich began intensive training for the Vostok
rocket missions.
Many organizations greatly assisted the Centre
at its new location in Star City. Academician Koro-
lev was especially interested in the Centre's work
and gave the future cosmonauts his personal atten-
tion.
Chief Designer Sergei Pavlovich Korolev was even
then a living legend. I first saw him in early 1959
at a meeting held at the USSR Academy of Sciences.
I was immediately impressed by his intelligence,
determination and insight, and our acquaintanceship
over the next seven years, both on the job and away
from it, would only strengthen my initial impression.
I consider myself most fortunate t o have had the
opportunity to work w i t h Korolev.
Sergei Pavlovich met the first detachment of cos-
monauts in summer 1960 at an enterprise where he
was directing work on the first spaceship. Korolev
frequently visited Star City, listened to the requests
and comments of the cosmonauts and programme
directors at the Centre and tried to assist and support
them in every way possible.
Hero of the Soviet Union and Lieutenant-General
of Aviation Nikolai Kamanin, who became director
of the Cosmonaut Training Programme the summer
of 1960, together w i t h his deputy, Hero of the Soviet
Union L. I. Goreglyad, did a wonderful job in orga-
nizing the introductory training and preflight testing
of the first group of future cosmonauts at the Cosmo-

/2
naut Training Centre. A great debt is owed to the
leading specialists at the Centre who worked directly
w i t h the cosmonauts. It was thanks t o them that the
entire training programme was completed at the
Centre and other bases.
The medical and biological programme was ex-
tremely important and in some respects risky. There
were t w o tasks: first, to uncover and develop to the
maximum the psychological and physical traits of
each cosmonaut in order to ensure his optimal per-
formance during space flight, and second, to re-
commend which trainees were best prepared for the
first and second flights.
Scientific researchers helped t o create laboratory
conditions to give the trainees an idea of how space
flight would affect the human organism. Thus the
cosmonauts would not experience the alarm each
individual feels when confronted w i t h the unknown.
This was the only way that each trainee could be
prepared for the weightlessness of space and its
attendant effects.
The cosmonaut trainees selected for the first mis-
sion were by no means meek and docile. On the
contrary, they were daring, determined and spirited.
But the extraordinary conditions of space flight, the
cosmonaut's heightened awareness of everything
taking place around him, the exhausting waiting for
each different phase of the flight, and, finally, the
constant threat of the unexpectedall these things
would put psychological pressure on even the most
experienced pilot.
I recall the three most unlikable medical-biologi-
cal procedures: standard medical examinations given
almost daily before and after each test; repeated
testing for temperature tolerance; and the unpleas-
ant, to say the least, equilibrium testing in a rotat-
ing seat. It took a lot of talk and effort for the in-

23
structors to convince some of the overtaxed trainees
of the need t o prepare their bodies for space flight
this way.
But of course it was necessary to conduct regular
tests to discover how the body reacted t o different
demands. Only by means of a living galvanometer,
the trainee himself, could scientists correctly l i m i t
the demands placed on the organism. In this way
the scientists could give specific recommendations
based on the individual abilities of each cosmonaut
and draw up distinctive plans and programmes to
help the men make the most of these abilities.
Highly skilled pilots gave the future cosmonauts
flight and parachute training. Flying and jumping
from planes were included in the training programme
primarily because these t w o skills reliably test each
and every psychological and physical aptitude of the
human organism. For more than f i f t y years pilots
have been improving their professional skills and
raising their level of emotional self-control and
physical coordination by such training.
We observed that whereas the trainees preferred
flying training planes and specially equipped aircraft
t o all their other activities (understandable since they
were all pilots), parachuting was a different matter
altogether. It took considerable time and much
persuasion on the part of the programme directors,
and also the personal example of masters of sport in
parachuting, t o change the trainees' attitude toward
parachute jumping. But gradually their interest grew,
and they came to love jumping so much it was hard
t o tear them away f r o m their parachutes.
Each time the trainees jumped (up to f i f t y times,
including free-falls, night and water jumps), they
gained strength and increased their courage and
optimism. Also, they learned a survival skill necessary
for every pilot, so well in fact that each trainee
earned the title of parachute instructor.
When the Vanguard Six had completed both their
theoretical and practical training, we were faced with
an unusual situation. Future pilots are of course
trained to fly in real airplanes. To start w i t h the
plane remains on the ground. Then, in the air, the
flight instructor gradually transfers control to the
trainee. In our case however, we did not have a space-
ship for training: it had only just been construct-
ed. Nor, unfortunately, did we have a mock-up that
could simulate the control system of the spacecraft.
Korolev suggested an alternative. Together w i t h
the director of one of the organizations which was
working t o equip the pilot cabin of the Vostok,
the Chief Designer decided t o construct simula-
t i o n facilities using a model that had already been
built. Certain aspects of the flight (motion of the
globe beneath, the crossing of the terminator, etc.)
could be recreated by the same group of engineers
which had developed, tested and installed the ship's
system of manual control.
The training programme on the space flight simula-
tor was largely based on the experience of teaching
p i l o t trainees. In comparing the training methodology
at that time, which could be typed on t w o pages,
w i t h the complexities and scope of that which exists
today, one nevertheless finds that the principles have
remained the same. Just as before, the emphasis is
on repeating ("replaying") each exercise from start
t o finish, both under normal flight conditions and in
any conceivable kind of emergency situation.
The complete automation of the Vostok space-
craft was a topic much discussed at the time the train-
ing programme for the space flight simulator was
being developed. Certain scientists w h o worried
about placing too much psychological stress on the
cosmonaut did not think it necessary to spend a lot

25
of time in training the first cosmonauts for manual
reentry. But the experience of pilots, particularly
test pilots, has shown how important it is to consider
beforehand all possible complications that might
arise and how they should be dealt with. Since nothing
is one hundred per cent reliable and sooner or later
even the most dependable automatic device w i l l
malfunction, it was necessary to devise an alternative
(back-up) system of control.
Later, after our first "pupils"Yuri Gagarin and
Gherman Titovhad already flown in space, we at
the Centre came up w i t h a useful rule of thumb for
both trainees and instructors: " B y the time the space-
craft is ready for lift-off, the cosmonaut must be
capable of accomplishing a much more complex and
d i f f i c u l t mission than that which he has been assigned."
Such advice will always be appropriate. Though
spacecraft are constantly being improved and made
more reliable, the number of emergency situations
which pilots and cosmonauts must necessarily train
for continues to rise. A n d this is not surprising con-
sidering the complexity of today's technology. As
a matter of fact, it wasn't long before manual con-
trols were needed for reentry. This occurred during
the Voskhod-2 mission. Cosmonauts Pavel Belyaev
and Aleksei Leonov were not instructed to use the
manual controls to bring down the rocket. However,
when the automatic reentry system failed, the cosmo-
nauts, who were prepared for just such an emergency,
successfully flew the spacecraft during the final stage
of the flight.
Now that cosmonauts are trained on highly realistic
simulators by dozens of skilled instructors, some of
whom have f l o w n in space, it is interesting to recall
how it all started.
Our training programme emphasized everything
that could improve the physical fitness and condi-
tioning of the future cosmonauts. Each morning,
year-round, regardless of the weather, they exercised
for half an hour, took cold showers, worked out on
gymnastic and specialized equipment and participated
in sports competitionsall for their health.
Not all the trainees eagerly adapted to this rather
intense exercise programme. A t any rate, at least
half of them lost their enthusiasm after the first
couple of weeks. Soon the men were complaining
about their heavy schedule, questioning the need
for performing so many different types of physical
exercises, protesting that the acrobatic exercises
could be dangerous, and so on. Gherman Titov, for
example, agreed to participate only in acrobatics,
which, by the way, he was quite good at (much better
than some of his fellow-trainees). But he had no
desire to take part in the strenuous morning exer-
cises and received quite a few reminders from his
superiors. Even the other trainees reprimanded him
in a wall newspaper which carried cartoons by Aleksei
Leonov, w h o was later to make the first "space w a l k " .
Those trainees who were immediately able to
overcome the hardships of that early period set a
wonderful example. Soon we had no serious com-
plaints about how the men were exercising. But
another problem arose. The invigorating competitive
games the men played were beneficial, but they
sometimes resulted in injuries. However, the instruc-
tors could not now object t o the bumps and bruises,
and the men w h o were injured just became more
cautious and improved their agility.
T w o highly skilled specialists, A. I. Susoyev and
E. D. Cherkasov, were responsible for constructing,
furnishing and equipping buildings in the Centre.
It was no easy task to start w i t h a tract of forest and
build from scratch special facilities, provide commu-
nal services and communications and equip labora-

i 27
tories and classrooms. A n d though individual organi-
zations did the actual construction w o r k , serving as
the contractor in this new field was a d i f f i c u l t job in
itself. After all, even the scientists working at the
Centre could not always clearly describe their needs.
For example, after construction on the first simula-
tors began, several omissions and errors were discov-
ered, and the initial designshad t o b e q u i c k l y redrawn.
Young, inquisitive and bright, the future cosmo-
nauts came in contact w i t h many people whose job
it was to help them to train for space flight. The
trainees quickly took stock of the situation and
discovered which instructors were smart and compe-
tent, which were mediocre and indecisive. I did ob-
serve this: the cosmonauts were immediately attract-
ed to strong-willed and talented individuals.
I have already mentioned the significant role
Chief Designer Academician Korolev played in the
character development of each future cosmonaut.
Immediately after meeting the first recruitment of
cosmonaut trainees, Sergei Pavlovich took an interest
in their affairs.
Korolev was a distinguished engineer-designer,
brilliant organizer of scientific research and an intelli-
gent, daring experimenter of original technology.
He was also a keenly observant psychologist and
remarkable influential leadera leader on whose
behalf people would walk willingly into fire.
I met the Chief Designer at a time when he was at
the height of his fame, and it is possible that this
situation influenced our joint endeavours. Looking
through my personal records, I recall my first impres-
sions about Sergei Pavlovich Korolev.
Talented and capable, Korolev was also invariably
strict and concentrated on the matter at hand. A
complicated and intense man, he kept others in a
state of suspense, wondering what he might do next.

28
 This, plus his relentlessly demanding character, was
what people remembered most.
In a matter of minutes, if not seconds, Sergei
Pavlovich could completely turn around what appeared
to be a f i r m opinion or decision. On the other hand,
he could just as easily resurrect a rejected proposal
(one that he himself might have rejected) and point
o u t the advantages that had been ignored previously.
.The man was incredibly capable, analytical and
perceptive. His logic was unassailable; his convic-
tionsunshakable. We are not speaking here of a
director's capricious nature in everyday affairs.
On the contrary, Korolev constantly had the final
say in the most complex matters dealing w i t h engi-
neering design, technology and organization.
It is probably apparent now why Sergei Pavlovich's
workers were apprehensive whenever they had to
enter his office. The Chief Designer was a director
who understood the gist of matters. He would take
personal offense against anyone who demonstrated
a careless attitude to his job. So those who worked
under him feared being classified as lazy, negligent
or (worst of all) unreliable.
But when the inexperienced young cosmonaut
recruits showed up in their air force uniforms, a
change came over Korolev. He showed concern for
the trainees and even took on the role of their guar-
dian. No one knew what the future held for these
first rocket test pilots. A n d Korolev, overworked as
he was, took the time to show patience, uncharacter-
istic tactfulness, warmth and concern.
A t first I couldn't understand why Korolev had
such a special relationship w i t h our young pilots.
After much thought, I decided that the answer must
lie in the past.
Even as a child Sergei Pavlovich grabbed for the
sky: the thrill of flying captivated him completely.
He realized early on that aviation had a great future,
and he eagerly studied everything connected with
flying machines and their testing. Exceptionally de-
termined and industrious, and also remarkably talent-
ed and persistent, Korolev managed both to study
engineering science and design gliders and airplanes.
A t the same time he received his diploma from a
flight school.
Sergei Pavlovich often spoke of his love of every-
thing to do w i t h aviation, especially piloting. But for
various reasons he was forced to discontinue flying
and concentrated on developing aviation technology.
Frustrated in his hopes to become a test pilot, Koro-
lev was unhappy at not having the opportunity to
evaluate in the air what he created on the ground.
A man of vision and experience, he deliberately es-
tablished contact w i t h those pilots fascinated by
aviation. It didn't matter if they were young and
inexperienced, as long as they were completely de-
dicated. Korolev realized that he would soon have to
trust them to test the new space technology. Though
he was by nature reserved and stern, Sergei Pavlovich
sought young men who would not be afraid to speak
their mind to any figure of authority.
The test pilot in Korolev allowed him to imagine
what space flight would be like. A n d he felt the need
to share his fantasies with the cosmonauts, whom
he himself had helped select and train. Whenever he
had the chance, Sergei Pavlovich would invite the
future spacefarers to fantasize along with him.
Korolev showed his concern for other pilots as
well. To the surprise of many, he invited the senior
cosmonaut-training instructor for spaceship control
systems, Mark Lazarevich Gallai, to witness the
launch of test rockets prior to the manned flight.
Yet it was the Chief Designer's cardinal rule that only
those directly involved in the test be allowed to ob-
serve the launch. Nonetheless, Gallai witnessed the
Vostok lift-off with Gagarin and all the other Vostok
missions. Mark Lazarevich had earned Korolev's
trust and in effect served as his consultant.
Korolev soon acquired a famous test p i l o t for an
assistantHero of the Soviet Union Sergei Nikolaye-
vich Anokhinwho was responsible for selecting fu-
ture cosmonaut-researchers and flight-engineers
among the young, healthy and courageous men.
Sergei Pavlovich believed that in the near future our
space programme would require not just pilots but
many different kinds of specialists.
Neither Gallai nor A n o k h i n had t o make an ap-
pointment to see Korolev. The Chief Designer receiv-
ed them and listened to their advice any time.
Everyone associated w i t h the Vostok space mis-
sions remembers who were the real heroes of the
Soviet space programme. A n d Academician Korolev
has always been the principal figure among this
illustrious group. He had a manly appearance, strong
facial features and an intelligent, piercing gaze; he
would clearly state his opinions, but he also carefully
listened t o what others had to say.
As perhaps no one else, Sergei Pavlovich clearly
visualized the end results of our work. He urged all
of us who were active in the space programme to
work together.
Korolev was never too busy to render assistance.
I don't remember ever having t o wait even for the
most important and weighty decision if it was needed
before work could proceed. We were amazed by his
engineering intuitiveness, his ability to always be in-
formed about numerous different projects, to demon-
strate a precise understanding of the work being
conducted in each separate division. Sergei Pavlovich
quickly and efficiently eliminated the obstacles and
difficulties that hampered our work. I don't recall
him ever forgetting to relate an important piece of
information or failing t o explain a task in detail t o
an employee at the Centre before checking up on
the work's progress. Korolev was a hard-working man
w h o did not spare himself. A dedicated worker him-
self, he relentlessly demanded the same of his col-
leagues and associates.
Sergei Pavlovich rarely wrote anything down, but
he forgot nothing. He could precisely formulate each
routine task of the overall project, visualize the final
result of a decision and find and hire competent
employees, instilling in each worker confidence in
his ability t o do the job entrusted t o him and in the
successful outcome of the whole grand scheme, of
which he, the worker, was now a part.
By the 1960s Korolev's prestige was so great
that it in itself was enough to guarantee a good deal
of success. Naturally, the work collectives directly
associated w i t h the new area of space research carried
out Sergei Pavlovich's orders. But the Chief Designer's
advice and wishes also became law.
Psychological support was given the cosmonauts
at meetings of the technology experts (Korolev,
himself the project's technical director, invited the
cosmonauts t o attend) and sessions of the State
Commission where reports were heard from the
directors of the larger collectives working on the
rocket. The ceremonious atmosphere of these meet-
ings and the presence of the documentary f i l m crew
reflected the importance of the venture and the enor-
mous responsibility of each participant.
it soon became a tradition for the cosmonauts
to meet w i t h the rocket maintenance crew before
lift-off. The meetings took place by the rocket, which
had been thoroughly tested and was ready for launch.
"These meetings," Korolev observed, "allow the
cosmodrome specialists and cosmonauts to look

3? |
each other in the eye and thus be assured that the
w o r k done on earth was carried out conscientiously,
and that the work to be done in space w i l l be carried
out just as conscientiously.
The evening before lift-off, the spaceship comman-
der and his back-up were moved out of the hotel and
into a separate house near the assembly and test
facilities and launch position. This gave the Chief
Designer, w h o lived in a small house nearby, the op-
p o r t u n i t y t o look in on the cosmonauts and wish
them well.
Sergei Pavlovich insisted that the rocket comman-
der and his back-up be prepared for launch in a cere-
monious fashion. Both cosmonauts were formally
driven by bus to the launch site, where the comman-
der, in accordance w i t h military decorum, stated his
mission t o the chairman of the State Commission.
Korolev thought it was psychologically beneficial
to have the back-up cosmonaut wait in a bus near
the rocket up to the time of the launch. The Chief
Designer understood that man is an emotional crea-
ture for whom moral education was more important
than technical training. Sergei Pavlovich firmly be-
lieved this, though he still considered training very
important. The cosmonauts used the same credo
pilots had held for years: " H o p e for the best, but
prepare for the worst." In addition to his w o r k in
the training programme, each employee at the Centre
was concerned with the moral and emotional condi-
tioning of the cosmonaut trainees.
In March 1961 (almost a year after we had moved
to Star City), we were visited by a high commission
that was t o evaluate what the first group of cosmo-
nauts had learned in their training and hold a "space
programme audition" for each of the first six. In a
manner of speaking, it was both the six cosmonauts
who were being tested and our young team of experts

33
3-825
at the Centre. We had to prepare a detailed dossier
for each cosmonaut. In addition to concrete f a c t s -
data, evaluations, observations d o w n to the milli-
seconds and milligramswe listed the findings and
conclusions upon which we based our evaluations of
each cosmonaut.
Each dossier included a character reference w i t h
information about the cosmonaut's professional and
Party history and medical (psychiatric and physical)
background, and indicated whether he was prepared
for space flight.
It had taken enormous effort and carried great
responsibility, but all six cosmonauts were recom-
mended for the first space launch...
After thoroughly studying all the material and
subjecting our cosmonaut trainees to extensive exa-
minations, the Commission was satisfied w i t h their
high level of knowledge and wholeheartedly agreed
w i t h the conclusions of the experts and managers
of the Cosmonaut Training Centre. This decision was
written into a protocol that has now become a part
of history.
Now the project's technical experts and the State
Commission in charge of the entire training program-
me requested that the Centre formally recommend
the first cosmonaut and his back-up. As a matter of
fact, we at the Centre had been preparing such a
recommendation since that day in late summer 1960
when we selected our Vanguard Six for preflight
training. Thus for over seven months the Centre had
been conscientiously and objectively considering the
selection of the candidate most suitable for the task,
one who would serve as an example for all other cos-
monauts (and not only them) and could cope w i t h
the fame that would follow the flight.
In comparing the six trainees, we concluded that
Yuri Gagarin was the most suitable candidate. The

34
choice was made honestly and objectively, w i t h o u t
reservations. Yuri was a man of character and integ-
rity. He was both kind and charming, not just on
happy occasions but under great stress as well. The
experts at the Centre recommended Gagarin as the
first cosmonaut and Titov as his back-up. Our deci-
sion was approved and upheld at all levels until it
was finally realized. Gagarin, as we all know, did not
let us down. He conducted the entire flight in an
exemplary manner.
The selection was based on an understanding of
the results of the cosmonauts' training. This was a
collective evaluation of the experts at the Centre.
Rejecting some and approving others, the experts fi-
nally agreed upon the data which in time would allow
them to make a well-grounded decision as to who
would be the most suitable and reliable candidate.
Not those who merely participated in some sec-
t i o n of the general programme, nor those who took
our decision on trust and approved it were actually
responsible for the final recommendation. The greater
share of responsibility was borne by the experts at
the Centre whose duty it was to make the timely
and competent decision.
Korolev came to love Gagarin as a son. He believed
that Yuri personified the eternal y o u t h of our people:
" I n him are fortunately combined natural courage,
an analytical mind and exceptional vigour."
Soon after the world was astonished by the news
of the first manned space flight, more of the cosmo-
naut's talents came t o lighttalents that we, and in
all probability Yuri himself, never suspected. He
graciously fulfilled his duties as a distinguished rep-
resentative of the Soviet Union and supported the
cause of peace. A n d he became the mentor of the
other Soviet cosmonauts. Gagarin was also named
deputy director of the Cosmonaut Training Centre,

35
 and his appointment was by no means a token one.
Konstantin Petrovich Feoktistov, a cosmonaut-
researcher and Hero of the Soviet Union, has warm
recollections of Gagarin: "Gagarin never even tried
to play the role of a unique individual. He clearly
understood that he was an ordinary man in extraor-
dinary circumstances. Few individuals have the gift
to be themselves no matter what happens. Gagarin
reacted calmly and rationally t o his head-spinning
fame and gained a reputation for being a modest
Russian fellow w h o was given the opportunity t o be
the first man in space."
Occasionally a journalist would ask, " D i d the
training of American astronauts, which had begun
a year before the Soviet programme started, influ-
ence the training of Soviet cosmonauts?"
It was not a coincidental question. Commenta-
tors abroad had begun t o try to downplay the signif-
icance of the Soviets' venture into space. Here the
reader should be given some background information.
The cosmonaut training programme primarily
depended on the type of available technology, and
provided for the acquisition of the specialized knowl-
edge and skills which would be needed by the cos-
monaut in flight. On the other hand, the Mercury
mission required the American astronauts to play
an active role at all stages of flight. For this reason
and in order to test the effectiveness of the space-
craft's manual controls, it was necessary to stage
preliminary suborbital ballistic flights. Admittedly,
the American astronauts and specialists faced a dif-
ficult task. Our cosmonauts, however, would be
flying the fully automated Vostok ship and would
not be required to constantly have it under manual
control. Therefore, our training programme proceed-
ed more rapidly, for we could dispense with subor-
bital flight testing.

36
 Another principal difference between the t w o
technological systems aboard the Soviet and Ameri-
can spacecraft existed: the astronauts in the Mercury
breathed pure oxygen at a significantly lower cabin
pressure, while the cosmonauts aboard the Vostok
breathed a mixture of gases similar to that of the
earth's atmosphere at normal cabin pressure. Thus,
the demands placed on the American astronauts
were greater than those on the Soviet cosmonauts.
However, our cosmonauts would be the first in space
and therefore were compelled t o prepare for the
unknown. Even the important information supplied
by scientists and the work of competent engineers
could not serve as a guarantee against unforeseen
circumstances. Our researchers were working with
incomplete information, yet they did everything
possible to lower the risks of the first space flight and
ensure the safety of the cosmonauts.
The fundamental difference between the Ameri-
can and Soviet selection and training programmes
was that the Americans were training a pilot who
could skillfully control the Mercury spacecraft while
we wanted a cosmonaut who could evaluate the capa-
bilities of the human organism in space. Additional
responsibilities were not considered at the start of
the space flight programme. This was something
that would require much careful consideration, re-
search and testing. The tasks assigned the first cosmo-
nauts were not difficult. But, again, it must be re-
membered that Soviet cosmonauts were the first
to orbit the earth, to spend one, three, four and five
days in space, t o include a woman in a three-day
flight. How could we have given them more difficult
tasks to fulfil when the nature of the initial under-
taking was so complicated in itself?
A f t e r the successful completion of the Vostok
missions, Soviet scientists were able to verify and

37
 analyze the information obtained. Moreover, expe-
rience revealed that the cosmonaut was able to play
an active role in space flight. Initially he maintained
only partial control with a parallel automated
back-up system and strictly programmed flight
control.
When the scientists and specialists working in the
space programme became convinced that man was
capable of living and working in space, they lowered
somewhat their initial stringent health requirements.
Journalists would tactfully ask: " I s it possible that a
bit too much caution was exercised in selecting and
training the cosmonauts?" In some ways, yes. But
with good reason. First of all, it should be remem-
bered that we knew nothing how the human organ-
ism would react to weightlessness, radiation, accele-
ration and deceleration, temperature changes and the
spacecraft's spinning on three axes. Second, unlike
engineers, who can if need be provide a back-up
technical system, physicians, unfortunately, have no
such reserve system for the human organism. This
was why it was so important to choose those individ-
uals strong in body and mind for the first space
missions.
I would like to address another issue that was
raised abroad. The allegation was made that Gagarin
was not the first cosmonaut the Soviets sent into
space. It was rumoured that others had died during
launches, and that Soviet scientists had managed to
conceal this information. Most of the foreign journal-
ists who touched upon this issue seemed themselves
embarrassed by the impertinence of the question.
But they wanted to know the truth, to look Gagarin
in the eye and hear the intonation of his voice. No
doubt these gullible people thought least of all about
who might want to spread such calumny and why.
Upon hearing these allegations, Korolev remarked

38
that no scientist or worker of integrity employed in
the space programme would have been involved in
such a despicable deed. Gagarin, who was standing
nearby, immediately added that although he was
not personally acquainted w i t h the American astro-
nauts, as a pilot and a cosmonaut he was certain that
his colleagues overseas were incapable of such ignoble
suspicions. Only those for whom the words " h o n o u r "
and "conscience" had long ago lost their meaning,
those who would denigrate anything if it pertained
t o the Soviet Union, had the talent to make such
allegations. As we see, sending the first man into
space also evoked an anti-Soviet reaction.
Fortunately, all over the world (which, as our
spacefarers tell us, is really quite small) the numbers
of those who are hostile t o the Soviet Union are
diminishing. There is a saying in the East: "The dogs
may bark but the caravan keeps moving." But it is
t o o bad that even today the gullible heed such
barking.
In drawing to the end of my recollections about
the training of the first cosmonauts, I must stress
yet again what an important role was played by the
Chief Designer of Rocketry, Sergei Pavlovich Koro-
lev. He was a brilliant scientist, engineer and organi-
zer. A n d the first Soviet cosmonauts felt the influ-
ence of his strong will and logic, and also his paternal
concern. A l l Soviet cosmonauts regard Korolev as
their wise mentor.
The names of Korolev and Gagarin have not only
come to symbolize the space age, which began w i t h
the launching of the first artificial satellites and the
first manned space flight, they stand for courage,
heroism and loyalty. As time goes on, the historic
date of April 12, 1961, will continue to gain in signif-
icance, and the achievements of Soviet science and
industry will shine even brighter.

39
 From the book The First Ones
YURI GAGARIN
Georgi Shonin

Four hours before lift-off on April 12, we were

all on the job. As the communications system was
being checked, I heard the nervous voices of my
friends. Some were just a few metres away, o t h e r s -
thousands of kilometres. As the hours passed, the
tension mounted: everyone was concerned and an-
xious. When the announcement came that it was
five-minutes until lift-off, my nerves were as taut as
guitar strings, ready t o twang if so much as touched.
In just a few minutes the irreversible countdown
would begin: the launching mechanism would be
switched t o automatic control. Who could predict
what awaited Yuri in the darkness of space? What
would happen on his pioneer voyage into the universe?
I closed my eyes and pictured t w o powerful
projectorsscience and technologycrossing their
beams, their union forming the cigar-shaped rocket
cone. There, sitting in the very t i p of the cone, was
Yuri. What was he feeling? Did he realize the impor-
tance of his mission? Would he be successful?
Of course! Yuri could do it. No one had any doubt
about that. A n d I am certain that at that moment
he was calmer than the thousands of us waiting and
watching. He, after all, had work ahead of him,

40
work for which he had carefully trained. The rest of
us w h o had prepared for the first manned space
flight, from the Chief Designer to the mechanic who
closed the Vostok cabin hatch, were now just passive
observers. We could only wait. The writer Konstan-
tin Simonov expressed the feeling well: "We do not
know the price of waiting, the lot of those left
behind on earth."
L i f t - o f f ! One hundred and eight minutes around
the world. One hundred and eight minutes of anxiety.
One hundred and eight minutes of agonizing waiting.
One hundred and eight historical minutes!
When we learned that Y u r i had landed safe and
sound, we threw ourselves into each other's arms.
We were deliriously happy. The tension built up over
the past few days had t o be let out. A n d it wasin
unbridled joy.
T o unwind a bit and discover how people were
reacting to the news, I got out of the car before I
reached my hotel and made my way through the
centre of the large Siberian city. I recall my dismay
at the indifference w i t h which people seemed to be
accepting the staggering news. The city was function-
ing as usual: trams and buses were running, and
people were rushing t o get somewhere. Only the
bright April day seemed to welcome the event. What
was wrong? I wanted t o stop each person I met and
yell: " D o you realize what has happened? Less than
t w o hours ago man conquered space!"
Later I understood. People had not been indiffer-
ent; the majority had just found it difficult to believe.
It was too incredible! After all, the mass media had
not covered the space programme or the launch.
But when the truth was realized, everyone was seized
w i t h patriotic fervour. I could see this for myself
standing on the platform of the Lenin Mausoleum
when Yuri greeted the Muscovites. The thousands of
41
people standing in Red Square seemed to me to be
one human organism, excitedly laughing and crying
for joy.

Much has been written and said about the first

cosmonaut, so much in fact that it w o u l d seem there
is nothing more to add. Novelists and journalists,
relatives and friends, those who barely knew him
all have w r i t t e n about this wonderful man. If only all
these words could bring him back to us!
" M y entire life up until now seems but one glori-
ous m o m e n t , " Gagarin said as he waited to be
launched into space. A n d for us, his friends and co-
workers, Yuri's life also seems to have been but a
moment. But that moment will live forever in the
hearts of those he touched. We cherish the memory
of our friend: And no matter where we arein our
own country or far beyond its borderswe speak first
of Yuri, the Pioneer of the universe.
I am grateful that fate allowed me t o meet Yuri
Gagarin. For over twelve years we, and a small group
of others like us, travelled the same road, working
to accomplish an important task. We were happy
and proud to participate in the start of the manned
space programme, to train for the first rocket launch
and be the first to " l o o k at our world from beyond."
We were lucky to have been born just at the right
time: five years earlier and we would have been too
old; five years later, and the path would have already
been blazed. One way or another, others would have
accomplished the great feat, not us.
Yuri and I met long before the cosmonaut train-
ing programme was started. I had gone to the Far
North t o continue my military service and was very
happy to find that many graduates from the Odessa
Flying School were serving there as well.
Misha Andreichenko, who had played first

42
trumpet in our school band (I was also in the band),
lectured me on the topic, " A l l about the N o r t h " .
A n d it was Misha I turned t o for an explanation
when I saw a small group of pilots dressed in air
force instead of black naval aviation uniforms.
" O h those guys. They're just a bunch of foot-
sloggers," Misha remarked. Andreichenko was Navy
and felt imminently superior to a member of any
other service branch. "They're just as green as you
are," he went on, " f r o m the Orenburg Academy."
He didn't even notice that he had offended me.
A n d I didn't like the way he dismissed those fellows
as "footsloggers" either.
Not that Misha didn't have every right to act
superior. He had been in quite a few predicaments
while serving in the Arctic and was a great pilot.
Some time later, when the garrison gym was inau-
gurated, Misha, who was a basketball team captain,
advised me before our game:
" A l l I want you to do is guard that little guy over
there," he nodded in the direction of the shortest
player on the opposite team.
"He's not very tall, but he's quick. A n d he has
sharp eyes. You'll be plenty busy."
After the game I approached my team opponent.
I liked him for not making a fuss about all the times
I nearly fouled him. It had been d i f f i c u l t trying to
guard him: he was the team's best forward.
" Y o u certainly made me run! Let me introduce
myself: Georgi. Just call me Zhora."
" I ' v e heard about you. Gagarin is my name. Yuri
Gagarin. Let me tell you something. I didn't play
my best today. Next time, you better watch out,
footslogger!" He said this w i t h a grin.
I was surprised that Yuri so casually accepted this
epithet. Later, among the other cosmonauts, we
grew used t o hearing him call the men "footsloggers".

43
A n d we were even able to tell how he felt about
someone depending on his intonation.
I remember once how Fyodor Demchuk, w h o was
teaching Y u r i how to drive at the Cosmonaut Train-
ing Centre, became irritated and shouted:
" I am not a footslogger. I've been behind awheel
my entire military career."
" F i n e w i t h me ... motor-footslogger!" Y u r i an-
swered. From that day on Fyodor Demchuk was
known as "motor-footslogger".
Gagarin and I didn't see too much of each other
at first. We would meet occasionally at the airfield,
the Officers' Club, the gym or out skiing: " H o w are
you?" " H e l l o ! " " H o w are things going?" " A l r i g h t . "
"So long!" "So long!" And we would continue our
separate ways.
The situation changed completely that memorable
autumn day when Yuri and I discovered we were
among the six selected to be examined by a medi-
cal commission in Moscow. We were uninformed
about the nature of the work, and that made it all
the more mysterious. Yuri and I became close friends
as we waited to be sent to our new assignment. We
were advised not to speak of it even to our friends,
so we relied on each other.
In Moscow, Gagarin immediately made friends
w i t h all the recruited men. I marveled at how easy
and natural it was for him, since I myself f i n d it hard
to get to know people right away. Yuri was at home
w i t h the bachelors as well as the married men. A n d
when a small group of men was selected t o begin
immediate training for the first space flight, no one
was surprised that Gagarin was at the head.
Y u r i passed all the tests and training procedures
with ease. Even when sitting in the plane a few mi-
nutes before parachuting, he was able to joke with
his suddenly silent comrades or would urge Pavel

44
Popovich to sing a song.
"Come on Valery, sing along," he would tease the
morose-looking Bykovsky sitting opposite him.
Bykovsky never sang along even when he was in the
best of moods. And, i n fact, no one felt like singing
then. We had only just begun to parachute and had
not yet come to love this daring sport.
When I compared my inner nervousness to Yuri's
outer high spirits, I began to doubt myself and turned
t o our dauntless trainer for advice:
" N i k o l a i Konstantinovich! I understand why you
aren't afraid t o jump. You've parachuted three thou-
sand times already, and have had some really close
calls. It scares me even to listen to you talk about
them! But I can't understand Yuri. He's just like the
rest of us; he hasn't even made ten jumps y e t . "
" Y o u simpleton! Yuri's joking and singing is a
defense mechanism. That's how he maintains control,
and helps the rest of you remain calm at the same
time. A n d who ever told you that I d o n ' t get nervous
before a jump! You think I'm made of steel? No one
is totally fearless except a fanatic or maniac, in other
words, someone with an abnormal personality.
Bravery means being able to control your natural
instincts. You've heard of the self-preservation in-
stinct? Without it the human race would have disap-
peared at its first stage of development. The reason
we are spending so much time training you men to
parachute is to help you learn how to control that
instinct. Understand?" He gave me a piercing look
and then added emphatically: " I ' l l make men of
y o u ! " To conclude our conversation, he jabbed me
in the shoulder w i t h his iron fist.
" A n d another thing," Nikolai Konstantinovich
wasn't finished: "When you meet someone walking
d o w n the street, make sure he's the one who moves
out of the way to let you b y . "

45
 A f t e r that conversation, I began to take a diffe-
rent view of Yuri's antics. I knew they weren't a
sign of a reckless nature but a calculated form of
behaviour. A n d this was demonstrated by his highly
successful completion of the testing and training
exercises. It was clear that Gagarin realized his po-
tential and had such confidence in his capabilities
that he would undertake a totally new activity with
total aplomb.
" I do it as they taught me," Yuri smiled, letting
us in on the secret of his success. There was nothing
egotistical or vain about him.
Generally, before one of us would go for a train-
ing exercise, he would seek the advice of the others
w h o had already been tested. So, when it was my
turn to stay in the altitude chamber for a prolonged
period, I turned to Yuri. I had heard that both the
physiologists and psychologists had praised him for
his composure and self-control, his strength of mind
and steady nerves.
"There's nothing to it. Just do what they taught
y o u , " Y u r i told me. Then, seeing that I really needed
some advice, he put his arm around m y shoulder and
quickly added: "Come on. Let's sit under that birch
tree and t a l k . "
We sat down on the pale grass under the yellowing
birch. Star City had many birches, and, like all
Russians, we were sentimental about them. For a
long time Yuri looked silently up at the clear but
dim autumn sky. Then he suddenly asked:
" D o you have a favourite state of mind you can
remain in for a long period?"
His question, which appeared to have nothing to
do with our conversation, surprised me and at the
same time made me think.
"Yes, of course, I can look at the sky for hours
on end or sit quietly on the shore listening to the

46
waves breaking. A n d I like to watch a fire."
" A n d do you talk or listen to your neighbours or
t o music at the time?"
" N o , I do not. I retire into myself. Everything
around me disappears. A n d it seems to me that I
alone face the sky, water or fire."
" A n d did you never think that each time you were
experiencing the same sensationsilence? You were
listening t o silence!"
I thought Yuri's observation a bit strange, but I
didn't contradict him. He went on:
" A t times I have given myself over completely
to silence. You can't even imagine it. I have always
loved the quiet. The quiet of contemplation, of
work... It's a pity that in our fast-moving twentieth
century we have less and less time for silence." Yuri
sighed and added in a different tone of voice alto-
gether:
" Y o u have the fantastic opportunity to spend
fifteen days thinking and working in absolute silence,
t o listen to its enchantment. So make the most of it.
Do you understand now what I'm talking about?"
Yes, I thought I did. I had just discovered another
side of Yuri's character. Now I understood why,
regardless if we were in class, riding a bus, walking
in a forest or even exercising, this fellow who was
always bursting w i t h energy would suddenly grow
silent and for a few minutes tune out everything
going on around him.
Gagarin was enthusiastic about the training pro-
gramme. A t that time we hadn't yet acquired the
equipment that could really simulate the conditions
of space. For this reason, the efficacy of training
depended to a great extent on the imagination of
the trainee, on how well he could visualize the pro-
cedures and conditions that could not be simulated.
In this as well, Yuri excelled.

47
 He shared his space flight training experience w i t h
us:
" O f course our simulators can train us to react
automatically to any situation. But we aren't
machines; we have minds. We must use them to
conceptualize what the simulator is incapable of. Ever
since I was a kid I've had a vivid imagination. When
I'm sitting in a test chamber or behind a simulator, I
pretend that I'm in a spaceship. I close my eyes and
see the continents and oceans passing under me, I
watch day turn into night, and somewhere far below I
see the golden patches of city lights shining in the
darkness.'"
Gagarin always saw his goal and strove purposely
to attain it. When, on December 1, 1960, one of the
unmanned Vostok test rockets crashed, killing the
t w o dogs on board, and causing much worry among
the space programme workers, Yuri merely com-
mented:
" I t ' s a pity that such an expensive rocket crashed.
But it's inevitable that such an ambitious undertak-
ing as this should incur loss."
We cosmonauts carefully followed the training
of the American astronauts. We knew all about each
of the seven brave men selected for the Mercury
missions.
Yuri expressed our common wish when he said:
"Sooner or later one of us will meet one of them and
discuss our observations and experiences. I'm sure of
this. Space flight will bring our t w o countries closer
together."
The joint space venture Gagarin had dreamed
about was made, but he didn't live to see it. Prepara-
tions for the mission and the flight itself greatly
helped to further detente: it showed that together
our t w o great countries could explore space more
effectively and set an example for the rest of the

48

I
!
world to follow, not only in the sphere of space
research but in all spheres of human activity.
The Cosmonaut Training Programme continued as
usual. The final Vostok test launch w i t h the mongrel
dog "Starlet" (Yuri had suggested the name) and
"Uncle Vanya", a mannequin comfortably seated
in the pilot's seat, was completed successfully. Yuri
and the five other cosmonauts trained for the first
flight made a trip, now a tradition, to Red Square
before leaving for the cosmodrome. They wandered
around the square, mingling w i t h the Muscovites.
No one had any idea that in a few days time an event
would take place that would shake the world, and
that the principal role in it would be played by one
of these senior lieutenants dressed in aviation uniform
nonchalantly strolling around Moscow that spring
day.
When later asked what prompted him to go to
Red Square before flying to the cosmodrome, Yuri
answered:
"Before embarking upon an important path in
life, the Soviet people have come to feel an inner
need to visit Red Square, the Kremlin, Lenin's Tomb.
Twenty years ago, the Home Guard marched in a
parade in Red Square and went straight to the front-
line to defend the capital. Young people come to Red
Square after they graduate from school. A l l Soviet
people and our country's foreign visitors come to
Red Square. Moscow is the heart of our Motherland,
and Red Square is the heart of Moscow."
Before leaving for the cosmodrome, all cosmo-
nauts now follow the path Yuri travelled on earth
as well.
When the first group of cosmonauts was ready to
leave, the entire detachment gathered to wish them
farewell. I spoke up as well:
"We envy you, but in a healthy, friendly way.

49
4-,
Though we will remain here on the ground, our
hearts will be w i t h the man selected to make the first
manned space flight in history."
I addressed my remarks to all the men, but we
assumed that Yuri would be the one to go.
Gagarin spoke too:
" I am happy and proud to be one of the first
cosmonauts. A n d if I am trusted w i t h making this
first flight, I w i l l accept the responsibility worthily
and w i t h great gratitude, and I w i l l fulfil my task
as befits a communist."
We all would have liked to have taken Yuri's place.
But those w h o had trained for this first flight along
w i t h him felt the desire even more keenly. Yet all
the men were on good, friendly terms, there was
no hint of rivalry or competition. A l l of us were in-
volved in a common and very important mission,
and we all subordinated our own thoughts and ac-
tions to the successful completion of that mission.
Gagarin's relationship with his back-up, Gherman
Titov, is illustrative. Yuri recalls their trip to the cos-
modrome in his book: "Gherman Titov was sitting
beside me, and I found myself studying the regular
features of his handsome, thoughtful face... He was
as well-trained as I was and, in all probability, more
capable. Maybe they were keeping him for the second,
more complicated flight."
When Titov went up in space, Gagarin was far
from the cosmodrome, in the western hemisphere.
But in his heart and mind, he was at Baikonur. Upon
hearing of the successful launch of Vostok-2, Yuri,
who was in Canada at the time, asked his host, Cyrus
Eaton, to arrange for his trip back to the Soviet
Union. A n d despite the unfavourable flying condi-
tions, Gagarin returned.
Not taking the time to rest after the exhausting
flight across the Atlantic Ocean and Europe, he

50 I
hurried on to the Volga, to the area where Titov had
landed.
Yuri later described their meeting:
" I found Gherman in the familiar two-storey
house where I had rested after my flight in space.
Lean and lithe, strong and incredibly agile, even
after spending an entire day in orbit he exuded
health. Only his wonderful, expressive eyes revealed
his fatigue, which even his smile could not hide. I
was overjoyed to see him. We embraced and kissed
like brothers, united by our experience in space."
Yuri showed much concern for all the cosmo-
nauts. We knew our friend and commander (after
his flight Gagarin was named commander of the cos-
monaut detachment) was interested in our work.
I recall how one day he asked me to stop by and
reminisce about the North. A b o u t nine o'clock that
evening, I met him at his home.
"Make yourself at hom^ while I put these two
magpies to bed," he said as he picked up his two
daughters. The girls kissed him loudly on both cheeks
and then went to bed.
" I asked you here on a serious matter," Gagarin
said. " A d i f f i c u l t flight is being planned. We have a
commander, and I'd like to suggest you as his partner.
I know both of you are strong-headed, and you might
have difficulty getting along. But I also know your
self-control and I think you could make a good crew.
Think about it a few days and then we'll talk again."
To signal the end of that discussion, he changed the
subject: "How's Andryusha getting on? And how's
Sofia Vladimirovna?"
When he heard that my mother was not feeling
well, he offered some advice and then suddenly asked:
"What's your favourite childhood memory?"
" I used to love to lay my head on my mother's
lap and listen to her sing while she stroked my hair,"
51
4
I admitted in some embarrassment.
" I used to love it when my mother kissed me
between the shoulder blades as she put me to bed,"
Gagarin said. "When she did that it seemed to me
that I was the happiest little boy in the w o r l d . "
We were all amazed by Yuri's wide range of in-
terests and deep emotions, and also by how he ex-
pressed them. Standing at the base of the rocket
minutes before lift-off, aware of the significance of
the momentous occasion, he spoke as only a true
patriot can speak. Using words he later acknowledged
he had never before spoken in everyday speech,
he touched the hearts of his friends and comrades,
the hearts of all his countrymen and people through-
out the world.
...Gagarin had his own special understanding of
beauty in nature and man. He saw it everywhere,
no matter how deeply hidden it was. He thought of
the unseen and unknown world he was to explore
as beautiful. Stepping from the bus which had
brought the cosmonauts to the launch site, Yuri
looked across the desert steppe bathed in the morning
sunlight and exclaimed: " L o o k at the beautiful sun!"
One of the other cosmonauts later wrote: "The
words were as unexpected as hearing a gun shot in the
quiet of morning. We all turned to the east. The sun-
rise was indeed magnificent,"
Gagarin informed the Chairman of the State
Commission that he was ready for his mission and
received the farewell wishes of friends, scientists and
engineers. He gazed for a moment at the rocket,
which, in the rays of the rising sun, reminded him
of a lighthouse. Again he was moved by the beauty
of it all. He later described his feelings: " I looked at
the rocket which would take me on an amazing
voyage. It was beautiful. More beautiful than all the
trains, boats, planes, palaces and bridges put together.

52
I thought this beauty was eternal and would remain
for the people of all countries for all future times.
I was not just standing in f r o n t of a magnificent
piece of technology, but an impressive work of
art."
In his first report after he had entered orbit, Yuri
admired our world:
" I see small clouds over the earth and their sha-
dows. It's beautiful!"
When we spoke w i t h him after his flight, we eager-
ly questioned him: " Y u r i , what does the world look
like from outer space?" Gagarin thought for a long
while, smiling distractedly. He was obviously think-
ing back to what he had seen from the window of
the Vostok. Finally he answered:
" I t is magnificent! There are no words to describe
how beautiful it is, you must see it for yourself. It's
blue!"
We weren't quite satisfied w i t h that answer, but
after our own trips into space, we realized that Yuri
was right. It is impossible t o reflect true beauty
through words or even the most expressive paintings.
It must be seen and felt by the individual. So it is
not surprising that space impressed each of us diffe-
rently. The paintings of outer space by Aleksei
Leonov do not much resemble my view of it, or
that of Nikolayev, Gorbatko, Sevastyanov, Khrunov
or Popovich.
Yuri was in truth a wonderful person, and he was
surrounded by people just as remarkable and inte-
resting. His friends included the composer Alexandra
Pakhmutova, test pilot Georgi Mosolov, the distin-
guished surgeon Alexander Vishnevsky and many
other exceptional Soviet people. In any gathering,
he was a sought-after and interesting conversational-
ist. People were attracted to him, and he met them
w i t h an open heart.

53
 The day after he went up in space, Yuri gave a
thorough account of the spacecraft's operation sys-
tems and described in detail what he had seen and
experienced. He spoke at length, for his impressions
were many, and he wanted to describe his unusual
experiences while they were still fresh in his memory.
We listened to him w i t h o u t interrupting, and when he
had finished, pelted him with questions. Yuri took
his time in answering each of us, aware that we did
not ask out of idle curiosity. Each question was
important for future work in developing new space-
craft and preparing for the next flights.
Yuri thought that once he returned to Star City
he would carefully contemplate his experience, make
certain recommendations and then take direct part
in preparing for the second launch. He knew that
his experience and the observations he had made
during his single orbit would be useful. But Gagarin's
plans were not to be fulfilled. His flight had astound-
ed the world, and people all around the globe wanted
to see the first Earthman who had travelled into the
mysterious universe. Y u r i received dozens of invita-
tions from different governments and social organi-
zations inviting him to come for a visit. He was writ-
ten about in newspapers and magazines: he had
become the most famous man in the world.
Three and a half months after his flight, Yuri
was making his second trip around the worldthis
time travelling by planes and trains. Czechoslovakia,
Bulgaria, Finland, Great Britain, Poland, Cuba,
Brazil and Canada gave a rousing welcome to the
world's first cosmonaut. It was during this time that
preparations were under way for launching Vostok-2.
Yuri was very disappointed that he was unable to
participate in the work and felt as if he had let
Gherman down. This was the only space launch
Gagarin missed. For all the subsequent missions he

54
was able to postpone his travelling and participated
directly in the launch preparations.
Yuri's experience, energy, confidence and friendly
concern inspired and helped the rest of us. He couldn't
sleep the night before Andrian Nikolayev's launch,
and spent the early morning hours of August 11 on
a bench in front of the house where Andrian himself
and his back-up, Bykovsky, were sound asleep. The
next day, when someone jokingly asked what thoughts
the moonlit night had provoked in him, he answered
in all seriousness:
" I t was the moon I was thinking about. About the
time when man will travel there. A n d it's not so far
in the future. A t any rate, it will be sooner than
when trade unions start to hand out vouchers for
rocket trips into space. A n d Korolev says that he is
sure he will travel on such a voucher himself."
Yuri was also present at the control centre when
Valery Bykovsky and Valentina Tereshkova flew into
space, and he helped train and launch the first three-
man space crew for the Voskhod-1 commanded by
Komarov. Relying on his experience and technolo-
gical knowledge, he correctly evaluated the situation
when the Voskhod-2 spacecraft w i t h Belyaev and
Leonov aboard, failed to begin its descent and con-
tinued along its orbital path:
" O n the eighteenth orbit you have permission to
use manual controls for descent," he informed the
cosmonauts w i t h o u t betraying the slightest emotion.
When Vladimir Komarov was launched into space
a second time, Gagarin was therethis time as his
back-up. To our great grief, this launch ended in
tragedy: Vladimir Komarov, a fine man and ex-
perienced cosmonaut, was killed. This was the last
launch Yuri worked on and attended...

A t home I have a picture of Yuri hanging in my

 study. Wearing a space helmet, his eyes are bright and
expressive, his mouth poised to break into that fam-
iliar smile. If I close my eyes, I can picture Yuri
in different times and situations, like stills in a doc-
umentary film.
...A small group of senior lieutenants headed by
instructor Yevstafi Tselikin crowds around the first
spacecraft control simulator. For several hours now
all our attention has been focused on the simulator.
Yuri is inside. He speaks calmly and unhurriedly,
giving precise commands and carefully controlling
the motions of his hands. Tselikin, who has never
been one t o flatter anybody, is very pleased: " N o t
bad," he observes. We all feel very happy for Yuri...
...Smiling a bit self-consciously, Y u r i describes
his flight at the Training Centre. He looks a little un-
comfortable, probably because he didn't expect such
sudden fame and glory. We are also ill at ease, and
can only stare at this young major w i t h a new Gold
Star and Order of Lenin pinned to his chest. It doesn't
seem possible that he is our same friend, the guy
someone tripped in a recent game of soccer. It's
as if a wide gulf suddenly appeared and we don't
dare or know how t o cross it. Y u r i is the one to
bridge the gulf and put everything right. He would
always be a figure of authority for us, but what we
remember about this meeting is his quiet joy, self-
conscious smile and inexplicable bashfulness...
...At the aerodynamic laboratory of the Zhu-
kovsky A i r Force Engineering Academy, a super-
sonic test is under way. Yuri and I have pressed our
faces against the small window of the aerodynamic
tube and watch the model spacecraft. We are obli-
vious t o everything else. From time to time Yuri
jots down a few notes. His attention is completely
focused on the experiment. When a laboratory
assistant asks him for his autograph, his voice is un-

56
characteristically harsh: "Wait!"...
...It's a hot Sunday in June. For the umpteenth
time I am reading over my notes on thermodynamics
t o prepare for an exam at the Academy. Yuri tele-
phones and asks:
"Zhora, have you finished studying? I have a
couple of questions. Can you help me?"
"I'll try."
"Then get your books and let's go to K h i m k i !
We'll swim and relax and then try to figure out this
enthalpy and entropy. A l r i g h t ? "
A n hour later Yuri is wearing swimtrunks and
standing behind the wheel of a boat. He has a rather
fancy hat on his head that looks African or South
American in origin. A r o u n d his neck is tied a brightly
coloured docker's scarf. Squinting at the glaring sun,
Valery Bykovsky and I begin to tease Gagarin:
"Hey, Captain! Are you sure this bucket w o n ' t
sink?"
"Need any deckhands? Captain? Too bad. We
w o u l d have signed on t o work for you."
"Captain! Where's your Jolly Roger?"
Y u r i likes the joking.
"What is this? A mutiny? I w o n ' t stand for it.
As soon as I find a desert island in this ocean I'm
going to leave you stranded. You'll be Robinson
Crusoe, Zhora, and w i t h your dark complexion, you,
Valery, will be Friday." Yuri smiles and at the same
time carefully watches the fairway, signalling left
and right w i t h waves of a flag...
...Fullscale preparations are under way at the
Centre for the first manned Soyuz mission. Gagarin
has done ithe is among the cosmonauts being
trained. For now, Komarov's back-up, he is none-
theless doing what he likes best. A n d he immerses
himself in classes, training, experiments, flights...
...One bright sunny day in spring we all go hunt-

57
 ing for grouse. Snow still covers the ground, but
spring is definitely in the air. We awoke early and
have been roaming the woods and fields, feeling
intoxicated w i t h the smell of spring and sound of
the birds. A n d we aren't at all upset that we have
had no opportunity to use our rifles or game-bags.
Yuri is the only one to return w i t h a catch. He and
Aleksei Leonov watched the grouse for a long time,
sneaking up on it while it sang and freezing in uncom-
fortable positions as soon as it stopped...
After the bus brings us home, Yuri, feeling un-
comfortable at being the only one w i t h a catch, pro-
tests our departure:
" I w o n ' t hear of it. I want you and your wives to
come over t o my place in an hour and a half. By
that time Valya will have cooked this beauty. I think
there's enough for everyone to have a taste."
It's a wonderful evening and all the guests (there
are twenty of us) enjoy the grouse. Once again we
listen first t o Yuri and then Aleksei describe how
they managed to bag that incredibly clever bird.
A n d then we sing, even Bykovsky. We used to love to
sing folk songs whenever we got together...
...One gloomy, grey day in March 1968, I was
sitting in the cafeteria. For some reason I din't feel
like eating. I kept looking out of the window at the
heavy clouds covering the sky. I felt as despondent as
the weather. Pavel Belyaev walked into the room w i t h
a stony expression on his face. Coming up to my
table, he said softly:
"Zhora, Yuri hasn't come back from his flight. He
should have been back an hour ago."
"What do you mean he hasn't come back?" I
asked Belyaev and immediately got to my feet.
I couldn't comprehend the terrible meaning of
Belyaev's words. "He probably landed at another
airport. What did he say over the radio?"
 "We haven't received any communication," Pavel
answered. "What if...?" He couldn't finish his phrase.
In a thick forest near Vladimir, Yuri's plane ex-
ploded, leaving on the ground a crevice surrounded
by scorched birch treesmute witnesses to the trag-
edy that took place on 27 March 1968.
The human memory is remarkable, both kind and
cruel. It carefully guards all experiences, and in a
matter of minutes one can look back on a dozen
years. But one also remembers the wonderful times
that then were taken for granted, the lost opportu-
nities to express to those who really deserved them
the words of love and friendship that now tear at
the heart.
 A LEADER AMONG
Nikolai Kuzrtetsov

LEADERS

A u t u m n that year was unusually sunny and warm.

Sometimes it would rain a short while at night,
cleansing and refreshing the air. The next morning I
w o u l d awake feeling vigorous and strong. After
breakfast the entire family headed for a day at the
Black Sea. It was pleasant to be vacationing in the
Caucasus, away from the stress of work. A n d I still
had more than t w o weeks of vacation to enjoy.
Unexpectedly, I received a summons from Mos-
cow. During a meeting at the CPSU Central Commit-
tee, an official spoke w i t h me.
" Y o u r military comrades have nominated you
for the position of head of the Cosmonaut Training
Centre."
Noting my surprised expression, he calmly assured
me:
"Yes, you are being asked to be the director of
our cosmonauts. There is no other organization like it
in the country, so you will always be out in the fore-
fronta d i f f i c u l t position."
In mid-October that same year, 1963, after putting
my affairs in order at my previous service post, I
took on m y new responsibilities.
A few days later Yuri Gagarin came to see me at
the Centre.

60
 " M a y we have your permission to go see S.P.
t o m o r r o w morning?"
" T o see w h o m ? ! "
" T h e Chief Designer, Sergei Pavlovich Korolev.
Everyone calls him S.P."
It was the first time I had heard the Chief De-
signer of Rocketry referred to in such a desultory fa-
shion, and I was visibly disturbed. My heart even
began t o race.
Gagarin noticed my reaction and smiled:
" Y o u should also make his acquaintance."
"Yes, but how?"
"Well, if you like, why not come w i t h us tomor-
row?"
I was happy to find out from Gagarin that Korolev
was a former pilot: a common profession always
made conversation easier and helped bring people
together.
A t the appointed hour our car passed through the
first electronic gate and then the second. A young
girl in a guard uniform greeted Gagarin w i t h a smile.
We went up to the second floor and walked into a
bright and spacious reception area. The young, attrac-
tive secretary rose to meet us:
" G o right in. Sergei Pavlovich is expecting y o u . "
The large office, w i t h a long table in the centre,
resembled a conference hall. Gagarin softly nudged
my elbow: a heavy-set man w i t h narrowed eyes
walked in from a side door. I stared: one day this
man, Sergei Pavlovich Korolev, would be k n o w n
throughout the world.
Sergei Pavlovich shook our hands and asked us to
sit down. I was surprised by the quietness of his
voice. After giving us a few minutes to organize
our thoughts, Sergei Pavlovich turned to me and
asked:
" Y o u have been appointed head of the Cosmonaut

61
Training Centre?"
" Y e s , " I answered, and rose from my chair by
force of habit.
" D o n ' t stand," he said, never taking his studious
gaze from my face, "we'll talk while sitting. You were
once a fighter pilot? On what fronts did you fight
and what planes did you f l y ? "
Before I could answer, a telephone rang.
Sergei Pavlovich excused himself and went to a
small table by the window. Apparently the conversa-
t i o n was not pleasant: Korolev was frowning. Some-
thing had clearly upset him, and he suddenly curtly
remarked:
" A l r i g h t . I'm on my w a y , " and hung up.
Shaking his head as he returned to us, Sergei
Pavlovich said regretfully:
"We'll have to finish our conversation another
time. Congratulations on your appointment. We'll
be working together. It's a d i f f i c u l t but interesting
project, and we'll meet and talk often. Goodbye for
now."
I thought about Korolev on the way home. "He
seems like an ordinary guy," I thought to myself,
" b u t incredibly strong-willed and even, at first glance,
tough. His eyes could pierce right through you.
I wonder what role he plays in selecting the cosmo-
nauts, picking the space crews and organizing their
training?"
I later learned from the cosmonauts that Sergei
Pavlovich Korolev made every single decision himself.
He would, I was told, ask the advice of others, but
he himself reached the final decision and saw t o it
that it was carried out. And his word was law for each
of the organizations working w i t h the design bureau
on this programme.
I remember an interesting occurrence. One day
Korolev summoned a young engineer to his office.

62 I
 "Valery Pavlovich, could you write a monograph
about the booster stage you're working on? Spe-
cifically, I'd like you to determine the possibility for
increasing the payload. I'm sure you understand the
importance of such research."
The engineer thought a moment: Korolev was
asking him to make a serious commitment. Nonethe-
less, he quickly agreed:
" I can do i t . "
" F i n e ! " Korolev beamed his approval. " G o o d
luck!"
The next day Valery's name w i t h the title of his
monograph and date for its completion was listed
along w i t h the names of the more experienced scien-
tists and their design bureau projects.
Busy as he was w i t h his own work, Valery didn't
think much about the monograph at first. A n d any-
way, he was sure he had plenty enough time to finish
it before the deadline. Unfortunately, the time passed
all too quickly. A n d when Valery finally sat down
to write the monograph he suddenly realized that it
wasn't going to be as easy as he had first thought.
He worked late into the night and on the weekends,
but he still couldn't finish. He asked to take his vaca-
t i o n and spent the entire thirty days and nights
working on the monograph. He made considerable
progress, but was nowhere near completion.
Korolev called Valery into his office on the dead-
line set for the monograph.
"How's the work going, Valery Pavlovich?"
Blushing w i t h shame, the young man explained
the situation.
"So you haven't fulfilled your obligation," Koro-
lev said w i t h a touch of sarcasm. " I t ' s the first time,
so you'll just receive a reprimand." He paused a mo-
ment and then added: "Before making a decision you
must carefully consider your capabilities and poten-

63
tial, determine how much time you'll need and by
all means allow yourself a few extra days. Only then
should you agree to something and give your word.
You yourself proposed the deadline w i t h o u t carefully
considering the difficulties of the task. I got the
impression that you were trying t o be accommodat-
ing. But that's not the role of a scientist."
The next morning the disciplinary measures taken
against Valery were listed on the bulletin board.
Valery was riot so much upset by the reprimand as
the terse wording of the announcement: " F o r failure
t o complete work on schedule..." Another rather
short deadline was set for the completion of the
monograph.
Valery Pavlovich pushed everything else aside,
worked every weekend and holiday, and this time
handed the folder to Korolev the evening of the
deadline. The following day the Chief Designer
called the young man into his office. Korolev was
sitting behind his desk as usual, looking as if he hadn't
moved since the evening before.
" S i t d o w n , " he t o l d Valery when the young man
timidly appeared. The engineer later recalled being
so nervous that some of his hair turned grey.
As Korolev leafed through the monograph his
face showed his satisfaction. Finally he put the folder
aside and said:
" T h i s is material for your doctor's degree."
" M y doctorate?" Valery stood in surprise. " I
don't even have my candidate's y e t . "
" I can see by the way you've tackled this project
and succinctly and clearly set forth your ideas that
you are capable of earning your doctorate."
A few days later Korolev appointed Valery Pavlo-
vich a group director and rescinded the disciplinary
measures: they had already served their purpose.
Korolev was extremely busy w i t h his work as an

64
engineer-designer, organizer and administrator, b u t he
also found the time t o check on the progress of the
experimental production section. He often visited
the shops and spoke w i t h the workers, taking an in-
terest in their lives at home and everyday needs.
Many of the employees he knew personally by name
and patronymic. And they were proud t o be working
under Korolev.
Once when he was visiting the production section,
Korolev stopped to study the board of honour and
noticed the photograph of a middle-aged woman
among all the men. The womana machine opera-
torconsistently over-fulfilled her production quota.
Trying not t o call attention t o himself or distract the
workers, Sergei Pavlovich found the woman bent over
a machine.
" G o o d day, Marina Borisovna."
L i f t i n g her head in surprise, the woman smiled:
" G o o d day, Sergei Pavlovich."
Picking up a machine part, the Chief Designer
turned it over in his hand, studying it carefully. He
laid the part down and asked:
" H o w do you manage to exceed your quota each
day and still achieve such excellent quality?"
" I love my w o r k , " Marina Borisovna answered
simply. "I've been w i t h the factory a number of
years, and I t r y not to waste a single minute. We have
a good, friendly collective here. Everyone helps
out whenever necessary."
" A n d how are things at home, Marina Borisovna?"
Korolev asked. " H o w ' s your family? A n d you must
have children?"
The woman's face fell. She turned away and wiped
a tear w i t h the edge of her headscarf.
"Have I said something to upset you?" Korolev
hastened t o ask.
" O h n o ! " Marina Borisovna tried to smile. " I t ' s

65
5-825
just that no one ever asked me before. The truth is
I w o u l d n ' t wish my life on my worst enemy."
The conversation was taking up quite a bit of time,
but Korolev didn't seem to notice. He walked around
the machine and asked the woman to sit down.
" I ' m trying to raise two sons," Marina Borisovna
continued. " M y husband was severely wounded in
the war and died soon after he returned home. I
was already over thirty when I came t o work at the
factory. While the children were young, I managed.
But now they are growing up and things are harder.
They do well enough in school, but there is noplace
for them to study. We have a nine-metre room in
a barracks. The water freezes in the winter. Once I
came home from work and found the boys almost
dead from inhaling carbon monoxide fumes from the
wood-burning stove. Fortunately, the doctors were
able to pull them through. I'm afraid they will fall
in w i t h the wrong crowd. But their teachers say they
have ability."
"Where are they now while you're at w o r k ? "
" O u t in the streets. It's not bad when I w o r k the
morning shift. But I'm worried sick whenever I have
to work in the evening."
Sergei Pavlovich thought a moment and then asked:
" D o you earn enough money?"
"Yes, money is no problem. A n d we receive regu-
lar bonuses so there's nothing to complain about."
A t that moment the production section director
and foreman walked up.
"We're discussing why things are so bad here and
what we can do to improve them," Korolev said in
a purposely harsh tone.
"Marina Borisovna is one of our best workers!"
the foreman exclaimed. "Even the men here can't
keep up with her, and she sets an example for the
young workers. A great example! Why, she manages

66
t o f i n d time to do everything."
"Marina Borisovna and the rest of the workers
are fulfilling the production target w i t h o u t trouble,"
the section director added.
"That may be," said Korolev as he rose from his
chair, " b u t Marina Borisovna believes that the work
could be better. Yes, better! If only more concern
w o u l d be shown for the workers. Have you ever
been to her home? Do you know in what conditions
her family, the family of a war veteran, is living? How
her children are being educated w i t h o u t a father?"
" T h e barracks where Marina Borisovna is living is
supposed to be torn d o w n , " the section director
quickly noted. "We have been promised..."
Korolev stared at the man:
"Today is Tuesday. Are you aware that on Friday
people will begin moving into a new apartment build-
ing in the city_ centre?"
"Yes, I know. But we weren't alloted any apart-
ments."
"Listen to me carefully," Korolev's voice had grown
harsh. " I want a two-room apartment on the third
floor of that building to be transferred from the
reserve fund to Marina Borisovna and her children."
The machine operator gazed up at Korolev, unable
to believe her ears.
"Marina Borisovna, thank you for your good
work. I wish you every happiness." Korolev shook
the woman's hand and left the room.
Marina Borisovna remained sitting for a long time.
A n older worker came up and said:
"Congratulations! You deserve this, Marina. A n d
you can believe the Chief, he's a man of his w o r d . "
A l l the workers were happy for this kind woman
who had experienced such suffering. The section
director alone refrained from offering his congratula-
tions.

67
 A m o n t h or so later, Sergei Pavlovich again visited
the production section to check on the work.
Marina Borisovna looked at him reproachfully
and then dropped her eyes.
"What's wrong?" Sergei Pavlovich asked w i t h con-
cern. " I s the work going badly or has someone
offended you? Have you moved into your new apart-
ment?"
Marina Borisovna sighed deeply and then softly
said:
"We've moved t o another apartment, but not that
one."
"What do you mean?" Korolev was clearly sur-
prised.
" T h e y gave that one to someone else, someone
closer to the director. A n d I moved into his old apart-
ment. It's a little better than the barracks. A t least
the dogs can't peer in the windows."
Korolev's eyes flashed and he clenched his jaw.
He turned sharply to the section director who had
just walked up.
" I ' m very sorry, Sergei Pavlovich. There seems to
have been some misunderstanding," the director
hastily sought to extricate himself from the situation.
" T o m o r r o w morning report to me that m y order
has been carried o u t , " Korolev commanded and
turned and left the building.
The next day Sergei Pavlovich arrived on the job
early, as usual, long before the start of the work
day. But the section director was already waiting in
his reception room. Korolev greeted the watchman
and proceeded to his office w i t h o u t so much as a glance
at his visitor. Not until an hour and a half later did he
ask his secretary to show the director in.
" Y o u r order has been carried o u t , " the man
quickly informed Sergei Pavlovich. "They moved in
yesterday."

68
 Korolev said nothing. He stared at the short,
swarthy fellow, w h o seemed to diminish in stature
under his gaze.
"We are at the beginning of a new age in science,"
Sergei Pavlovich said in a tired voice. " O u r large
group of workers is united by a single goal, a common
task and mutual trust. The lives of many people as
well as the prosperity of our country depend on the
w o r k of each of us. You are surely aware that space
flight is the goal of our work. Doctors sometimes use
the word "psychological compatibility", which
means, among other things, mutual understanding
regardless of circumstances. Those who are creating
the technology, preparing for and controlling these
flights possess everything needed for compatibility.
But you and I do n o t . "
...Sergei Pavlovich was well aware of the impor-
tance of the space programme and considered safety a
priority. Speaking at a meeting of directors of the
design bureau and production division, the Chief
Designer stated:
"We are crossing unexplored territory, and danger
lurks at each step. We must discover the danger and
avoid it in good time; this will require much effort
and knowledge. Many roads lead to error, but
only one to the truth. A n d this is the road we must
find. Because flight safety is our major priority,
we utilize reserve, back-up and double-back-up
systems. Yet despite this, space flight remains
problematic and considerably more complicated
than modern aviation. Pilots have an appropriate
saying: There is nothing trivial about aviation;
everything is important.' We should take this
as our m o t t o . "
Following this meeting a number of safety meas-
ures were introduced that improved working condi-
tions. But not all the workers greeted the ban on

69
smoking w i t h enthusiasm, and some even tried to ig-
nore it.
One day Korolev noticed a worker from the tech-
nical control section smoking.
" A r e you aware of the ban on smoking?" he asked.
"Yes, but it's my lunch break and I..."
" I n f o r m your director that as of tomorrow you
are no longer employed here," Sergei Pavlovich
calmly interrupted the man and left the factory
area.
After the Chief had returned t o his office, the
director of the technical control section, a veteran
worker at the enterprise, came to see him.
"Sergei Pavlovich," he began, "please don't fire
this man. It will never happen again, I can vouch for
him. He's a good worker... and, you see, he has seven
children..."
Korolev smiled and shook his head:
"Seven did you say? That's great! Tell him to
come to my office."
"He's here n o w ! " the director quickly spoke up.
"Shall I call him in?" he asked before hurrying to
the reception room and returning a few moments
later w i t h the culprit.
"Sergei Pavlovich! I'm sorry! I'll never smoke
again," the man declared fervently and held up a
crumbled cigarette pack in his hand.
" A r e the seven children all yours?" Korolev asked
w i t h a smile.
" N o , three are my brother's. He was killed in the
war."
" I see. Well, go on. Back to w o r k . "
It didn't take me long to discover that Sergei
Pavlovich wanted to be a part of everything that had
t o do w i t h space flight and rocket technology. The
conferences and meetings he held with the chief
designers and engineers were remarkably well-organ-

70
(zed. Korolev listened attentively to the opinions of
the engineers, scientists and various experts, asking
about the minutest details and then making an over-
all evaluation of the situation and the possible
changes that could affect it. Whatever decision he
finally reached was compulsory for everyone.
Due to the importance and urgency of the space
programme, Mstislav Vsevolodovich Keldysh, Presi-
dent of the USSR Academy of Sciences, as well as
many other leading scientists took part in the work of
Korolev's Council of Chief Designers. Sergei Pavlo-
vich usually invited t o such meetings those directors
from the Cosmonaut Training Centre and cosmonauts
w h o were working on the flight programme to be
discussed.
Korolev spoke in a quiet, assured voice and invar-
iably used facts and test results to back up his state-
ments. Once in the course of a discussion the ques-
t i o n arose as t o what type of surface a particular
lunar apparatus should be adapted for. Sergei Pavlo-
vich announced unequivocally: " A hard pumice-like
surface." Yet this was at a time when many scientists
in the world believed that the moon was covered
w i t h a layer of dust several metres thick.
I realized right from the start that Korolev liked
most to be surrounded by people like himthose w h o
devoted themselves entirely to their work. He had no
patience whatsoever w i t h slackers. He was a man of
charisma and talented young people believed in him
and his vision. Somewhat later I understood that it
was Sergei Pavlovich's strict and demanding nature
that ensured conscientious discipline, organization
and high productivity. But the more I got to know
him, the more interesting and mysterious I f o u n d
him: I wanted to learn everything about him.
Sergei Korolev was interested in aviation even as
a schoolboy. Working w i t h machinists at the Odessa

71
hydroplane section, he gained an understanding of
the complex (for the time) operation of the planes.
In 1922 Sergei, still a pupil, presented the Ukrainian
and Crimean Aviation and A i r Navigation Society
w i t h a design for a glider.
A f t e r graduating from secondary school, Sergei
Korolev enrolled in the Kiev Polytechnical Institute
to pursue the study of aerodynamics. Later, he
transferred to the Bauman Higher Technical School in
Moscow. The light engine aircraft he designed for his
graduation work under the guidance of his advisor,
Andrei Tupolev, was test flown in 1930.
In his time away from class, Korolev was doing
what he had always dreamed oflearning to fly.
Before long he had completed flight school and was
a pilot.
Together w i t h S. N. Lyushin, a designer and engi-
neer, Sergei Pavlovich constructed the Koktebei
glider and flew it in six national glider competitions.
For the seventh he had a surprise in storethe Red
Star glider he had designed and built to withstand
aerodynamic overloads involved in flight acrobatics.
But just before the start of the competition, Korolev
fell seriously ill and was hospitalized. Another pilot,
V. A. Stepanchenok, performed the aerobatics in
Korolev's glider and shared the fame and glory with
the craft's designer.
From 1931 t o 1935 Sergei Pavlovich developed
and proposed a number of original glider designs, one
of which, in 1940, was selected to be the first Soviet
rocket plane.
In the 1930s Korolev became one of the first di-
rectors of the country's newly established scientific
research and production organizations in rocket tech-
nology. In 1931 both he and Friedrich Tsander were
appointed to the Jet Propulsion Study Group. A n d in
May of the following year Korolev was appointed

72
head of the Group. A year later he directed the
launch of the first liquid propellant rocket designed
by Mikhail Tikhonravov (an outstanding scientist
whose theories on space exploration astounded the
leading specialists in the field) and constructed by
the Jet Propulsion Study Group.
Sergei Pavlovich considered the research conduct-
ed at the Jet Propulsion Scientific Research Insti-
tute, known by its Russian acronymRNIIto be the
first stage in the development of rocket technology.
Mikhail Tikhonravov had this to say about Korolev's
w o r k at the R N I I :
" T h e study of the stratosphere is not the ultimate
goal of the development of rocket technology b u t
merely the means for improving and reaching a state
of technological development which will make it
possible for man to reach the outer layers of the at-
mosphere and then travel further into space t o other
celestial bodies."
But despite the experience already accumulated,
rocket flight was a distant dream. Nonetheless,
Sergei Pavlovich and others like him believed that
man would travel into space w i t h i n the next genera-
tion.
Whereas . E. Tsiolkovsky may be generally con-
sidered the founder of theoretical cosmonautics,
Korolev and his co-workers must be given credit
for implementing and further developing his ideas.
The most d i f f i c u l t time for Korolev was during
the years of the war. Though conditions were far
from conducive t o creativity, he worked on the
problem of equipping military planes with boosters.
It wasn't until after the war that he was able to really
return to his ideas and designs.
In 1946 Korolev was named Chief Designer of
the long-range ballistic guided missile programme,
and in 1950 he took on the responsibilities of heading

73
a special design bureau. He put all his efforts into
the missile development programme, and already in
October 1948, the first Soviet ballistic missile was
successfully tested.
In 1951 Sergei Pavlovich and his team were the
first in the world to begin biological testing during
space flight. In a special container, animals were
lifted t o a height of one hundred kilometres and then
safely returned to the ground.
For his accomplishments in rocket construction, in
1953 Sergei Pavlovich was elected Corresponding
Member of the USSR Academy of Sciences. He
continued to selflessly dedicate himself to his work
and in 1956 was awarded his country's highest hon-
oursth e Order of Lenin and the title Hero of So-
cialist Labour.
By this time a whole series of rockets for geophys-
ic and biological research as well as a powerful
launch-vehicle had been designed and developed.
Then, in 1957, the first artificial satellite in the
history of man was launched, an event which further
consolidated Korolev's authority. For his great con-
tribution to the development of rocket technology,
Sergei Pavlovich was awarded the Lenin Prize and
elected an Academician and member of the Presidium
of the USSR Academy of Sciences.
Sergei Pavlovich built up a team of distinguished
scientists who were dedicating their careers to achiev-
ing manned space flight. The development of the
booster rocket was a first step to accomplishing
this goal. Even today the incredibly successful
venture seems remarkable for the simplicity, origi-
nality and reliability involved. It's hard to believe
that the booster rocket was designed more than a
quarter of a century ago.
Usually, the different aspects of complicated
scientific and technological questions are solved

74
individually by independent research and develop-
ment and production technology teams. But Korolev
favoured the integrated approach, building better
spacecraft and simultaneously improving multi-
staged boosters for them. He wanted to accomplish as
much as he could for his country in the shortest
possible period, as if he sensed that he did not have
much time left.
After five successful Vostok missions, cosmonaut
Valentina Tereshkova became the first woman- in
space. Already by this time a model of the three-
man Voskhod spacecraft, which would allow the
cosmonauts to work w i t h o u t spacesuits and effect a
soft landing on ground, had been constructed and was
on display at the testing station. Models for lunar
probes and other satellites were also located there.
A t the design bureau Korolev had set up a unique
museum which included exhibits of scientific equip-
ment and systems that had been successfully de-
ployed in space. To facilitate their study, these were
all displayed in strict chronological order and kept in
a special demonstration room, which became a school
for inventors of new spacecraft systems.
"Before you set about inventing the samovar and
wasting good time, look at what's already been
done," Sergei Pavlovich instructed his colleagues.
After coming up w i t h a new design, Korolev
assigned the talented young specialists w i t h the
most experience in working on the project to further
develop it. Meanwhile he went on t o work out new
ideas. In this way he created a new engineering design
organization w i t h its own technological facilities.
Together with his colleagues, Sergei Pavlovich
implemented Tsiolkovsky's ideas, further develop-
ing them and laying the foundation for space explora-
tion. A partial list of Korolev's achievements in-
cludes: the creation and development of a powerful

75
 booster rocket, artificial earth satellites, probes for
the study of the moon, Venus and Mars; the first
manned space flight, the first three-seater spacecraft;
cosmonaut space walk, soft lunar landing.
The space programme founded by Sergei Korolev
was not only concerned w i t h launching rockets b u t
also w i t h the complex system of ground flight control
and search and rescue operations. Working together
in this area were numerous scientific research estab-
lishments, testing organisations and technological
work teams.
The developments of the new space age, which
Korolev and his colleagues had ushered in, continued
t o evolve and expand rapidly. Hundreds of thousands
of people were involved in this work, and Sergei
Pavlovich was in charge of them all. The head of the
Council of Chief Designers, he was acknowledged,
as M. K. Tikhonravov so aptly put it, a "leader among
leaders". He was inundated w i t h w o r k , and some-
times entrusted his young assistants w i t h extremely
important tasks. But in matters both large and small,
he delegated control to no one.
Korolev's role and position of authority were, in
my opinion, best illustrated during preparations for
the launch of the newly designed Voskhod space-
craft. The Voskhod flight programme would differ
considerably from that of previous launches: for the
first time in history a spacecraft would have a three-
man crew. Also, the cosmonauts aboard would effect
a soft landing.
T w o crews were selected, and their commanders
appointed: Vladimir Komarov, an unassuming, li-
kable pilot-engineer, and Boris Volynov. Upon the
recommendation of M. V. Keldysh, President of the
USSR Academy of Sciences, a scientist from a
Moscow scientific research institute was to be includ-
ed in the crew. The engineers worried that the scien-

76
tist was too tall, but in the end decided they could
accommodate him w i t h a special seat.
Sergei Pavlovich had long considered bringing in
skilled engineers to w o r k at the design bureau testing
new technology in space. Concerning this proposal
he stated:
"Occasionally we w i l l allow specialists working
on systems that require testing for workability and
reliability during space flight to accompany profes-
sional cosmonauts into space. After making such a
flight, these specialists w i l l return to their usual work.
In this way we will obtain much information that
w i l l allow us to move quickly and confidently ahead."
Korolev had a lengthy discussion about this pro-
posal w i t h Yevgeni Fyodorov, a physician who helped
recruit cosmonauts. Afterwards he announced his
decision t o include engineer Konstantin Feoktistov
in the first Voskhod crew. Later, at a general meeting,
Sergei Pavlovich explained the reasons for his deci-
sion:
" T h e flights already conducted have confirmed
our initial assumptions: it is possible to engage in
f r u i t f u l work in space. This, however, does not mean
that we have achieved everything. Though up until
now things have gone along rather smoothly, the
perils of space still remain: danger lurks everywhere.
There is much we still do not know and are only in
the process of trying t o discover. We need facts,
facts about space itself, about the operation of the
booster rocket and the spaceship systems, about
man's physical condition and much else. We must
obtain this information w i t h a minimum of expen-
diture. It is important t o remember that each space
launch is expensive," here Korolev pounded the table,
" t o o expensive for the state. We must count every
kopeck." He paused for a moment and then contin-
ued, "This was what I was taught in my time, and I

77
am now sharing my experience w i t h you. In order
t o obtain the maximum amount of information from
each flight, the time has come to send into space
researchers, scientists, physicians, engineers, and
journalists." The audience laughed. "Yes, I'm serious.
Good journalists and other specialists capable of
objectively and eloquently describing space flight."
" T h e doctors won't allow i t , " someone in the
audience spoke up.
" I think that the doctors will have to change
their minds. We must utilize the knowledge of scien-
tists and specialists, and how many of them are in
perfect health?"
"We are against this proposal," a voice called out
from the door.
Startled, Korolev looked up. He frowned across
the table and said in a quiet voice:
" W h o is 'we', may I ask?"
A heavy man rose from his seat.
" O u r organization will not accept the risk," he
announced categorically. "We will not sign the doc-
ument."
"Have you been authorized to state this refusal?"
" N o , but I know the opinion of our specialists.
Considering the state of health..."
"Opinions will change w i t h t i m e ! " Korolev inter-
rupted. " T h e situation is improving. We will take
your remarks into consideration."
Sergei Pavlovich continued t o speak:
" N o one has ever before dealt w i t h these ques-
tions. As in every new venture, there is a certain
amount of risk involved. But our goal is worth it.
What we must do is minimize this risk, which is why
we plan to include scientists and well-trained spe-
cialists in our crews. The selection of specialists will
be conducted on a principled basis, strictly according
to work ability. There will be no gerrymandering!

78
As for health requirements, I believe they will be
changed, especially since flight conditions have im-
proved and landings are easier."
"Sergei Pavlovich, you mentioned scientists,"
Yuri Gagarin rose to speak. "We have excellent en-
gineers and candidates of science working w i t h us at
the Centre. Is it possible for them to participate in
space flights, too?"
Korolev looked reproachfully at his favourite
cosmonaut:
" I t ' s possible. But, unfortunately, not all candi-
dates are scientists, just like not all pilots are aces.
Many people work in the field of science, but only a
few leave their mark. We have been entrusted w i t h
responsible work, and we are obligated to leave man
a rich legacy."
Korolev had to fight a hard battle but managed
t o have the representative of his design bureau,
Konstantin Feoktistov, accepted as a member of the
Voskhod crew.
The State Commission, whose members were all
experts in their fields, noted the excellent training of
the cosmonauts in the first and the back-up crews.
Each cosmonaut demonstrated endurance, knowledge
and the ability to fulfil his assigned tasks. The final
test was a training exercise in the simulator that
duplicated conditions of the forthcoming flight,
lasting the entire period of time and utilising com-
munications and operative groups at mission control.
Again, the cosmonauts did exceedingly well. The
next day we boarded a plane for the cosmodrome.
As we stepped off the plane we immediately felt
the heat of the Kazakh steppe. Sergei Pavlovich was
among the welcoming group that had gathered on
the scorching pavement of the airport. There was
no sign of tension in his face, so no doubt everything
was proceeding according to plan.

79
 The cosmonauts began each work day with cal-
isthenics which they performed under the guidance
of special coaches. The cosmonaut team was still
young, having been formed less than five years earlier.
Nonetheless, certain traditions, humorous as well
as serious, had already been established. Sometimes
the sound of laughter would echo from the gym:
the cosmonauts would place one of their group in a
headstand on a handkerchief spread on the floor and
count the number of years old the birthday boy was.
Basic technical training took place in the assembly
and testing facility and its adjacent laboratories.
The cosmonaut crews were also to conduct several
training sessions in the Voskhod spacecraft. The men
had already become acquainted w i t h the ship during
the assembling and testing procedures. Now they
were t o settle into their work spots, test technical de-
vices, arrange and fasten d o w n portable equipment,
maps and map cases, logs and instruments. Under the
guidance of skilled experts, they tested the func-
tioning of switch systems. The cosmonauts were
also asked t o try out their reclining seats for comfort
and range of motion. Each man had a cushion for
his head and body that would be placed in his seat
before lift-off.
During the lengthy training sessions Korolev could
often be seen standing on the building berth next to
the rocket. Through the hatch, he observed the cos-
monauts as they trained and talked and joked w i t h
them.
Korolev usually watched the lift-off and the first
stage of the rocket flight from a bunker near the
launch pad.
A f t e r the launch, journalists, engineers and
members of the State Commission gathered around
Korolev to congratulate him on the successful lift-off:
" I t ' s too early for congratulations," he answered

80
in a preoccupied tone, " t h e ship still has to land."
Sergei Pavlovich carefully studied the telemetric
data and radiograms being relayed from mission
control. Aboard the spacecraft everything was pro-
ceeding according t o plan, and the crew felt fine.
But Korolev remained at the control panel, obviously
concerned about the mission and the cosmonauts.
It was, after all, the first three-man mission, the
first w i t h o u t spacesuits, the first soft landing...
Soon the spacecraft passed out of the field of obser-
vation of the Soviet control stations. Communica-
tions w i t h the crew were severed until the next morn-
ing.
When they returned in the morning, the members
of the State Commission found Korolev just as they
left him. An officer on duty quietly informed them
that Korolev had been at home for just a little more
than an hour.
The tension mounted w i t h each passing second.
The Voskhod had entered its final and most impor-
tant orbit where, at the precisely scheduled time,
the retrorockets were t o be fired. This was t o occur
on the other side of the world, so there was no com-
munication link. A l l we could do was wait.
According to our calculations, the appointed time
had passed. Everyone at mission control was sudden-
ly quiet. All eyes turned to Sergei Pavlovich, who,
though pale and wearing a look of concern, remained
calm. A communications worker slipped up t o Ko-
rolev and layed a radiogram on the table in front of
him. Quickly scanning the message, Sergei Pavlovich
smiled:
"The retrorockets fired and functioned the pro-
grammed time period."
Everyone was suddenly in good spirits, though the
most important test was yet to come: the engage-
ment of the deceleration and main parachute systems

81
that would effect a soft landing.
The waiting seemed unbearable. Finally, a voice
came over the loudspeaker:
" A pilot from the search and rescue team has
spotted an object w i t h a parachute."
But Korolev still looked preoccupied. He remained
sitting motionless next to the loudspeaker, trying
t o catch every sound. The minutes passed; the space-
craft should already have landed, but there had
been no communication. Smiles began to fade, and
everyone, once again, turned to Korolev.
Just when our patience had almost given out and
it seemed that measures would have to be taken,
another radiogram was placed in f r o n t of Korolev.
Sergei Pavlovich breathed a sigh of relief, leaned back
in his chair and smiled. He began t o read the radio-
gram: "Ship has landed on target. Soft landing system
worked great. Crew in good condition..." Before he
could finish reading everyone had begun to applaud
and congratulate each other.
...After a brief rest, Korolev met w i t h the cosmo-
nauts in their hotel to congratulate them on their
successful flight and welcome them home. The con-
versation continued for some time, and the cosmo-
nauts invited him to stay to dinner. Korolev was in
good spirits and joked quite a bit at the table. Then
he grew more serious and asked:
"What did it feel like when the soft landing system
w e n t into operation?"
Vladimir Komarov, whom Sergei Pavlovich had
come t o respect as much as Gagarin, answered: "We
assumed a crouching position and waited. It all
happened unexpectedly quickly. There was a slight
jolt and then we smoothly touched d o w n . "
The cosmodrome seemed deserted after almost
all the specialists left w i t h Korolev for Moscow.
Occasionally a white-coated figure could be seen

82
passing between the buildings: the doctors had
worked out a whole system of post-flight tests and
were busy carrying them out.
The success of the space laboratory aboard the
Voskhod confirmed the reliability of the spacecraft
and its operative systems. Now work could begin on
the Voskhod-2 mission. The cosmonauts selected for
the flight would have t o have a good knowledge of
technology and the flight programme as well as
excellent physical health, endurance, and self-control.
This time Pavel Belyaev and Aleksei Leonov were
chosen. They were t o be trained for an unprece-
dented experiment: a " w a l k " in open space at the
unbelievable speed of twenty-eight thousand kilo-
metres per hour.
Special problems and difficulties arose in training
the cosmonauts for this mission, the most serious of
which was simulating the flight. Everyone working
on the training programme was involved in solving the
d i f f i c u l t y . Initially the cosmonauts had been intro-
duced t o weightlessness in a two-seater fighter. But
the plane's cabin was too small for both instruments
and a man in a spacesuit. It was decided to remake
the Tu-104 plane into a flying laboratory that could
withstand the g-load that occurs when a plane pulls
out of a dive.
The passenger seats were removed from the plane,
and a model of the interior of the spacecraft, w i t h an
air lock, was placed on the floor. An identical model
was set up in the altitude chamber.
After the flying laboratory aboard the Tu-104 was
operational, the training programme began to move
ahead. Taking advantage of the qood weather, the
cosmonauts quickly mastered the standard program-
me and possible emergency variants. As the work was
strenuous, the doctors limited the flights t o t w o per
day, and later allowed only one.

83
 Meanwhile, V l a d i m i r Komarov and Valery Bykov-
sky along w i t h their colleagues began t o learn about
the operation of the Soyuz, a new, more modern
spacecraft.
The training programme was growing more
complex and time-consuming w i t h each flight. The
decision was made to create a new positiondeputy
director of the Cosmonaut Training Centre. Y u r i
Gagarin was nominated for the post, and he enthu-
siastically agreed to accept the responsibility. Per-
sonally, I was glad to have Gagarin as m y deputy. He
was broad-minded and could listen t o the o p i n i o n
of others. Though he was a man of principle and
knew how t o defend his position, he could be w o n
over by a convincing argument. W i t t y , bright and
sincere, he approached his w o r k w i t h all seriousness:
he never signed a paper he was not t h o r o u g h l y fam-
iliar w i t h . O f t e n he w o u l d tell his subordinates:
" A d o c u m e n t characterizes an organization and its
director."
As soon as he t o o k over his new duties, Gagarin
began t o study the paperwork. He was well acquaint-
ed w i t h the training programme organization and
q u i c k l y t o o k c o n t r o l of the training of the crew for
the Soyuz mission and the final stages of preparation
for the Voskhod-2 launch. The training programme
f o r the Voskhod-2 mission was similar t o the Vos-
khod-1, b u t preparing for the "space w a l k " made it
considerably more complex. Nonetheless, w o r k pro-
ceeded in an organized manner and strictly according
to plan.
The spacecraft was undergoing its final stages of
assembly and verification of systems operation.
Sergei Pavlovich w o u l d o f t e n m o u n t the rocket
where, under the supervision of Gagarin, Belyaev
and Leonov were already organizing their w o r k i n g
places. Korolev watched the cosmonauts as they

84
w o r k e d , talking and laughing w i t h them.
Korolev constantly sought i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m the
specialists about the f u n c t i o n i n g of the systems
after they had been assembled. If there was the slight-
est indication that something might be wrong, the
system had t o be checked again.
" I ' l l never forget the evening before the launch,"
Pavel Belyaev recalled later. "Sergei Pavlovich spoke
w i t h us a few minutes. His quiet voice and wise
advice raised our confidence in the successful out-
come of an extraordinarily d i f f i c u l t mission."
The next morning after breakfast and a medical
check-up, the t w o cosmonauts were driven by bus t o
a special building close t o the launch pad where
they w o u l d change into spacesuits. Meanwhile, at
another location also close to the rocket, the State
Commission had gathered for the pre-launch meeting.
Senior designers reported that all systems were " g o " ,
and the Commission gave permission for the launch.
...After a short farewell speech, the cosmonauts
m o u n t e d to the t o p of the rocket. In keeping w i t h
t r a d i t i o n , they waved their arms before entering the
hatch and settling into their seats. Soon the p l a t f o r m
was removed f r o m the rocket, and Korolev and Gaga-
rin headed for the underground bunker. Communi-
cations were established w i t h the spacecraft, and the
t w o men began t o watch w h a t was going on above
ground.
Finally the lengthy wait was over: the long anti-
cipated command sounded loud and clear"Lift-
off!"
Usually observers w o u l d break into spontaneous
applause after a launch. But this time a silent tension
filled the air: everyone knew that this was only the
beginning.
The members of the State Commission were also
present in the bunker. Korolev sat at a table, next

85
to him, Gagarin watched the control panel. A special
map lay unfolded on the table. While waiting for the
first report, the members of the Commission could
clearly imagine with each passing minute what oper-
ation the cosmonauts were performing. Time seemed
t o drag. A n d though everyone had been impatiently
listening t o the seconds tick by on the chronometer,
Belyaev's announcement, "a Soviet cosmonaut has
entered open space" sounded like a clap of thunder
over the loudspeaker and was immediately drowned
out by applause. A few minutes later the image of
a man in a spacesuit sailing over the earth alongside
the Voskhod-2 spacecraft appeared on the television
screen.
For the first time in history and to the astonish-
ment of the world, a Soviet cosmonaut had left his
spaceship and was flying over the world at fantastic
speed, travelling southwest t o northeast over the
Soviet Union. A n outside television camera attached
to the side of the ship monitored his every move.
Leonov smoothly moved away from the hatch and
then approached once again. Working in a cumber-
some and heavy spacesuit, he directed his right hand
to switch on the camera at his belt. Everyone at
mission control began to congratulate Korolev. His
concern was greater than that of anyone else, for he,
better than anyone, understood the danger Leonov
faced in returning to the spacecraft. A n y t h i n g could
go wrong.
Time passed slowly, then suddenly the sound of
Belyaev's strong voice drowned all conversation:
"We wish to inform the Central Committee of
the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and the
Soviet Government that the cosmonaut space walk
mission has been fulfilled. The crew feels fine. All
systems are functioning normally. Many thanks for
the confidence placed in us."

86
 For the first time Korolev smiled. Breathing a deep
sigh, as if a burden had just been lifted from his
shoulder, he sat down at the control panel and picked
up the microphone:
"This is T w e n t y , " he said. "Congratulations on
the successful completion of the experiment. I wish
you a safe flight and soft landing."
On one of the orbits, the necessary data for an
automatic reentry was transmitted t o the spacecraft.
The Voskhod-2 entered its final orbit and then passed
out of the communications zone. The members of
the State Commission carefully watched the needle
of the chronometer, occasionally looking at the
flight programme to see what task the cosmonauts
were carrying out at that moment.
The precise time came for the retrorockets to fire,
after which the ship w o u l d veer toward earth and its
stages separate. The ball of fire that would form
around the spaceship would sever all communica-
tions until the engagement of the parachute system.
From the moment the retrorockets were fired until
landing, the ship was under complete automatic
control.
The seconds ticked away. The ships in the ocean
tracking the flight remained silent. Korolev stared
at the loudspeaker, as if hoping to see something
there. Then the calm voice of Pavel Belyaev was
heard:
"The automatic system has malfunctioned. Do we
have permission to use manual controls?"
The room grew silent. Yuri Gagarin looked ques-
tioningly at the Chief, w h o nodded his head.
"Permission granted," Gagarin relayed in a strong
and confident voice.
A few minutes were needed for preparation.
Then Gherman Titov took the microphone in his
hand and began t o transmit number by number the

87
previously made calculations for manual landing.
But there was no confirmation from the spacecraft:
the ship had already passed beyond the reach of radio
communication. The information had t o be transmit-
ted several times.
Why did the automatic system suddenly malfunc-
tion after having passed all tests for reliability? Could
the sensors have been damaged when the air lock
was opened? No one could say, but we did know
that it would be difficult to guide the spacecraft
manually, especially since the men were in spacesuits.
Would the cosmonauts be able to accurately orient
Voskhod-2 when they entered the extra orbit? After
all, now they would be landing at a considerable
distance from the target area.
"Calculate where the landing area has been shift-
ed," Korolev instructed a specialist. Then, turning to
the director of the search and rescue operation, he
said: " G e t the weather forecast for the area."
Finally we received word that the retrorockets had
fired, and a little later got the report that an object
w i t h a parachute had been sighted.
Voskhod-2 landed in the taiga. A low cloud cover,
snow, thick forest of evergreens and approaching
darkness complicated the search for the spacecraft.
It was at this time that the cosmonauts' intensive
training for emergency situations paid off. Thanks to
the skilled action taken by the cosmonauts, rescue
helicopters were soon able t o establish communica-
t i o n with them and locate the ship.
The daring experiment had been successfully
completed. Without exaggeration this was the most
d i f f i c u l t and anxiety-provoking flight of all, for both
Korolev and the cosmonauts. A n d in importance it
ranked along w i t h Gagarin's flight. The Voskhod-2
mission showed that man could work outside a space-
craft in the inhospitable conditions of space. This

88
meant that cosmonauts w o u l d be able to assemble
large structures in space.
A f t e r the cosmonauts had enjoyed a lengthy rest
at the cosmodrome, filled out the necessary reports
and undergone medical check-ups, they flew t o
Moscow. The next day at a large meeting of Korolev's
design bureau, Aleksei Leonov and Pavel Belyaev
thanked the engineers and personnel for designing
and constructing the remarkable Voskhod-2.
A week later Korolev invited the cosmonauts t o
his home. There he t o l d them: " Y o u probably d o n ' t
yet f u l l y realize w h a t t h a t space walk means for
science. Your achievement w i l l go d o w n in h i s t o r y . "
During their conversation w i t h Sergei Pavlovich,
Leonov and Belyaev complained about the lack o f
c o m m u n i c a t i o n ties w i t h the earth when the space-
craft left Soviet territory. They said that not being
able to hear voices f r o m home made them feel a
little uncomfortable.
Korolev's face lit up. " T h a t ' s a good point. A n d
that's w h y we're going to establish several orbital
research stations." He showed the cosmonauts model
ships under glass. " T h e y are going to be equipped
w i t h new means of c o n t r o l . These ships w i l l provide
us w i t h uninterrupted c o m m u n i c a t i o n at any p o i n t o f
orbit."
Gagarin, w h o was also present, expressed his un-
certainty: " T h i s is probably something for the distant
future."
" N o more distant than in another t w o or three
years. We w o n ' t be able t o continue our w o r k w i t h o u t
such ships. Y o u cosmonauts were the first t o open
the doors t o the vast universe. There w i l l come a
time when man w i l l explore that vastness, and the
whole world will celebrate. Y o u have shown the
w o r l d that man can live and w o r k in space. The
space walk opens new opportunities for science to

89
use space for peaceful purposes. It will be a diffi-
cult undertaking, but one that can succeed. The first
steps are always the hardest, but we must make
themboth for science and for all mankind.
When the cosmonauts were leaving, Sergei Pavlo-
vich embraced them and said w i t h a smile:
" I envy you your youth and health. There was a
time when I, too, couldn't complain." Korolev sighed
and added: " N o w I'm in and out of hospitals...
They told me t o come in right away for some tests."
" T h e y subject us to tests almost everyday", Ale-
ksei said, trying to make the older man feel better.
" Y o u get used to it after a while."
" I t ' s d i f f e r e n t w i t h you. You're young and healthy.
You haven't had to live through..."
" Y o u ' r e probably just overworked," Gagarin said
soothingly. " A f t e r a little rest you'll be back to
normal. Stop by my place sometime."
"Thanks, I will. As soon as I have the time..."
...Their achievements had been impressive, but
Korolev's design and construction bureau and all
the laboratories and enterprises affiliated w i t h it did
not slow their pace. The work was interesting, and
everyone was excited about prospects for the future.
Moreover the tasks were precisely formulated, which
made it possible to work at a uniform pace.
Korolev was greatly interested in the exploration
of outer space and the moon. Lunar exploration had
long intrigued him, and one probe after another was
sent to collect information and effect soft landings on
its surface. Even in the hospital he continued his
w o r k in this area.
One day in winter, shortly before his birthday,
Sergei Pavlovich, accompanied by his wife, arrived in
Star City. Nina Ivanovna remained w i t h our wives
while we took Korolev on a tour of a new housing
construction area and simulation facilities. Next to

90
the simulator, where a training session had been in
progress since morning, several cosmonauts were
quietly talking. Behind the control panel sat instruc-
tor Alexander Voronin and his assistant. The train-
ing director was sitting behind another desk.
"Comrade Chief Designer, a training session in the
Soyuz mock-up is being conducted," the director
crisply reported after he had caught my signal.
" V e r y well. Continue," Sergei Pavlovich answered
and then walked up to greet the cosmonauts. He
warmly shook the hand of a young pilot and asked
w i t h a teasing smile:
"What are you doing here on a Sunday? What
about your family? Or did they call you in again?"
" A f f i r m a t i v e ! " the young man answered.
Korolev's face clouded. He was about to make
some pointed remark when another cosmonaut
hastened t o add:
"He's got it all wrong, Sergei Pavlovich. No one
called us in. It's just that we heard you were coming
and we wanted t o see y o u . "
" I ' m not here on official business," Korolev re-
plied. " I w o n ' t keep any of y o u . " But no one left.
Approaching the control panel, Korolev stood
behind the instructor and looked at the instruments.
"Who's in the ship?" he asked.
"Vladimir Komarov is working on orienting the
ship for reentry," the instructor answered.
Sergei Pavlovich pointed to the microphone and
asked:
"May I? I w o n ' t be disrupting?" When he was
told it was perfectly alright, he spoke into the mi-
crophone:
"This is Twenty. How do you read me?"
Silence. Obviously Komarov was wondering where
the Chief's voice could be coming from. Then he
answered:

91
 " I read y o u loud and clear, T w e n t y . Over."
" G o o d morning. H o w do y o u feel?"
" G o o d morning, Sergei Pavlovich. I feel great.
Everything is proceeding according t o p l a n . "
Korolev wished Komarov luck and then thanked
the instructor. He walked into a r o o m where the cos-
monauts were waiting and sat d o w n at a table.
Making himself comfortable, he said:
" I f my memory serves me right, most of you are
y o u n g cosmonauts. I w a n t y o u t o remember one
thing, comrades: the field y o u have chosen is new
and t o a large extent u n k n o w n . It is therefore diffi-
c u l t , risky and extremely expensive for the state.
A n y o n e counting on easy fame and glory w i l l be
sorely disappointed. A n y w a y fame doesn't care much
about the future; it only hinders development.
A n d we must constantly move ahead. We d o n ' t
have time t o sit back and bask in our glory. I advise
anyone w h o disagrees t o q u i t so as not t o waste
his time. There are others more w o r t h y t o take
his place."
Sergei Pavlovich paused and looked intently at
the cosmonauts w h o had been listening in silence.
He continued:
" O u r w o r k must be based on sound knowledge,
arduous, daily labour that reveals all human traits,
and strong discipline. I understand that y o u all have
a sound education?"
" A l l the newly recruited cosmonauts graduated
f r o m a m i l i t a r y academy," I answered.
" W h a t academy?"
" T h e officers finished either at the Zhukovsky
Air Force Engineering Academy or the Military
A v i a t i o n Academy. A f t e r graduation they all did
active d u t y in d i f f e r e n t positions."
" A n d how are our 'old-timers' doing on their
exams?"

92
 "Just fine, Sergei Pavlovich. Their instructors
are pleased with their w o r k . Andrian Nikolayev isn't
here now."
"Where is he?"
" I n Japan at the m o m e n t , " Gagarin answered w i t h
a smile. "When they gave the aerodynamic exam he
was in Italy. He's certainly strong-willed. He takes
his notes and textbooks w i t h him when he travels.
During the day he tours the country: at night, he
studies for his exams. He makes excellent marks on
all of t h e m . "
" G o o d for him! There's a man w i t h character,"
Korolev said enthusiastically. " L e t him be an
example t o the rest of you... Now, is there anything
I can help you w i t h ? "
"Tell us a little about your plans if you can,"
Gagarin had raised a topic of interest t o all the cos-
monauts. "What will we be working on in the fu-
ture?"
Korolev thought for a moment, as if to gather his
thoughts, and then answered:
" R i g h t now we're preparing for the launch of the
Soyuz, a new spacecraft that is very promising. It
has already tested well in unmanned flights. We are
also working on a space station. Your comrades have
already seen the wooden model. If any of you hasn't
yet seen it, I suggest you f i n d the time t o do so.
We are also working on effecting an unmanned soft
lunar landing and conducting research into outer
space. A t the same time we are still concerned w i t h
making all stages of space flight as safe as possible.
You'll learn more about the work once you become
involved in i t . "
Sergei Pavlovich paused and then said: " I have a
question for your director." Everyone listened atten-
tively. "Is there a general construction plan for the
Cosmonaut Training Centre?"

93
 " O f course, " I replied. "We couldn't build with-
out a plan."
I'd like you to make a report on the advantages
and drawbacks. Could you do that?"
"Yes, of course."
" I walked around your t o w n today and observed
the construction. The first thing I noticed was that
there wasn't enough space. A n d it isn't exactly the
best locationthere's no room for development.
The buildings are well-constructed, but the city
layout could be much better. Y o u have only your-
selves to blame: you left everything up to the con-
structors when it's you who will be living and work-
ing here. A n d it's clear that there has been a lack of
foresight. Work facilities are being constructed
w i t h o u t a thought for the future. But Star City is
unique! It should be exemplary."
" Y o u haven't seen it all, Sergei Pavlovich," Gagarin
spoke up. "Come look at the swimming pool and
gymnasium."
" Y o u want to try to change my mind?"
" N o , but you should see the whole picture."
" A l r i g h t , since no one has any questions, let's go.
As for y o u , " he turned to young cosmonauts, " w e
shall meet very often. I wish you t o have good
rest."
Korolev was pleased w i t h the clear water and
well-marked lanes in the swimming pool. He also
liked the gymnasium. For a while we walked in
silence. Suddenly Korolev remarked:
"What wonderful nature you have here. It's really
too bad there's so little space."
" I t will be enough for this century anyway,"
someone said with a laugh. "We'll have our work
cut out for us just trying to utilize what we have."
Korolev exploded:
" I t ' s not enough to live for the present, young

94
man. What are we going t o leave our children? A n d
their children? Everything that we possess is the
talent, work and scientific discoveries of many gene-
rations, of everyone w h o lived before us. It is on the
foundation that they laid that we are building our
house. Those who come after us will be able t o move
ahead quickly and confidently if we leave them a
worthwhile legacy. Our society is like a multi-stage
rocketconstantly moving into the future at a greater
speed. It is egoistical to t h i n k : ' A f t e r us the deluge'."
After lunch, when the cosmonauts began to leave,
Gagarin asked Sergei Pavlovich to go t o the gymna-
sium to watch a game. But Korolev wished them
good luck and declined. The doctors had reluctantly
released him from the hospital and only on the word
of his wife that he w o u l d soon return.
" I have to be back in my ward by 18.00," he
said. " I n a few days I'll have to undergo minor sur-
gery."
Gagarin looked up in surprise: " Y o u ' r e going t o
have to spend your birthday in the hospital?"
"Unfortunately, yes. No one knows about it, and
I'm not talking about it. I'll have the operation and
a week later, you can all come to my home. We'll
sit and t a l k . " Korolev turned t o me and said: " D o n ' t
come to see me now and d o n ' t send anyone."
As he was preparing t o leave, Sergei Pavlovich
asked Gagarin:
"Why didn't you go t o the gym?"
" I have a flight training session t o m o r r o w . "
"What are you going t o f l y ? "
" A fighter."
Korolev thought a moment and then asked:
" I s it really necessary? It requires some special
training as well as a lot of time to fly these modern
fighters. And from what I hear, your time is in short
supply."
95
 " I ' m a pilot and the deputy director of the Cosmo-
naut Training Centre. I can't very well teach others
if I d o n ' t have flying experience myself."
" M y dear boy, at one time you were a fighter
pilot. But now that you have become the world's
first cosmonaut you've probably lost some of your
skill."
" I ' l l regain it and fly as well as anyone."
As we said goodbye to Sergei Pavlovich, we joked
and laughed and talked about when we'd meet again.
We made plans and discussed what we would give
him for his birthday. Everyone was lighthearted, no
one ever dreamed that we would never again see
this wonderful man, the founder of our country's
space programme.
Sergei Korolev.
Six years o l d

Sergei Korolev, graduate

of t h e Odessa
c o n s t r u c t i o n vocational
school, 1 9 2 4
Sergei K o r o l e v and Boris Cheranovsky
next t o t h e BICh-8 glider. K o k t e b e l
1929

Sergei K o r o l e v , 1 9 2 8
Jet Propulsion S t u d y G r o u p ( G I R D )
On t h e right, Friedrich Tsander; second
f r o m t h e left, Sergei K o r o l e v , chairman
o f t h e G I R D Technical Council

" T h e Red S t a r " glider, constructed by

Sergei K o r o l e v , 1930
Sergei K o r o l e v w o r k i n g at G I R D

A c a d e m i c i a n Sergei Korolev
A c a d e m i c i a n Sergei Korolev and Yevgeni
Karpov, head of t h e Cosmonaut T r a i n i n g
Centre, 1961

Cosmonaut trainees together w i t h Sergei

K o r o l e v , Y u r i Gagarin, Yevgeni K a r p o v
and N i k o l a i N i k i t i n , their i n s t r u c t o r ,
May 1961
A c a d e m i c i a n Sergei Korolev, General
N i k o l a i K a m a n i n and Colonel V l a d i m i r
Y a z d o v s k y , May 1961

Academicians Sergei Korolev,

Igor K u r c h a t o v and Mstislav Keldysh
Y u r i Gagarin w i t h w i f e Valentina and
Sergei K o r o l e v w i t h w i f e Nina. Sochi,
May 1961
T h e house in Moscow where Sergei
Korolev spent his last years
Korolev's h o m e study
F u t u r e cosmonauts at parachute
t r a i n i n g , 1960

M o r n i n g of A p r i l 12, 1961. Y u r i Gagarin

and his back-up, Gherman T i t o v , head
f o r t h e launch pad
Y u r i Gagarin in f l i g h t t r a i n i n g . B a i k o n u r
c o s m o d r o m e , A p r i l 12, 1961

Preflight t r a i n i n g f o r a splash-down

Y u r i Gagarin and Sergei K o r o l e v .

B a i k o n u r cosmodrome, A p r i l 12, 1961
Y u r i Gagarin, t h e first
c o s m o n a u t - p i l o t o f the USSR

Y u r i Gagarin, 15 m i n u t e s after landing

Y u r i Gagarin in Gzhatsk (now Gagarin),
t h e t o w n of his b i r t h , 1961

Y u r i Gagarin, 1961
Y u r i Gagarin w i t h V l a d i m i r K o m a r o v
Y u r i Gagarin and Gherman T i t o v , 1961

Y u r i Gagarin watches Boris V o l y n o v

during preflight training
Y u r i Gagarin Cosmonaut T r a i n i n g Centre
The obelisk at the site of Y u r i Gagarin's
death in t h e V l a d i m i r region
 Natalia looked out of the window and watched
the rain. She felt inexplicably sad. It seemed to her
that the drops of rain were angrily dashing them-
selves against the glass, consciously terminating their
own existence, and then sliding downward until
they were blown away to oblivion by the wind.
This, then, was how objects ceased to exist. Per-
haps it was the same with people.
Natalia thought about the kamikazes, but it was
too depressing to dwell on them. She began to think
about the romantic knights of the Middle Ages.
Her mind drifted to the strong-willed people who
had fought in revolutions. This was self-sacrifice of
a different naturenot vengeful but idealistic and
noble.
The train continued to clatter down the tracks
and rumble through the crossings. The rain sense-
lessly beat against the window, making the day mel-
ancholy and grey.
A rainfall is never w i t h o u t character. Like people,
it has its own voice and colour. And, like people,
it is often capricious, coming at the most unpropi-
tious times.
It was freezing in the almost empty carriage.
Sitting opposite Natalia was a pleasant-looking wom-
an who was knitting with great concentration. She
probably didn't even hear the sound of the rain,
the distressing rumble of the train.
Natalia's eyelids began to feel heavy. She tiredly
rubbed her eyes to keep the image of the knitting
woman in focus.
The train rumbled on. The wind howled, and a
grey haze pressed against the earth.

Natalia rang the doorbellno answer. For some

reason she felt sure someone was home, so she rang
again. After the third try, she gave up. She leaned
against the wall and cursed her luck before pushing
the elevator button.
"Hello."
" H e l l o , " Natalia said, still keeping her eye on the
elevator button.
" Y o u rang my doorbell?"
"Oh, I'm sorry! I didn't recognize you, Valentina
Ivanovna," Natalia quickly replied as she scruti-
nized Yuri Gagarin's widow as closely as journalistic
etiquette permitted. "Please forgive me and allow
me t o introduce myself. I'm Natalia Chufarov-
skaya w i t h Alye parusa (Scarlet Sails) newspaper.
I've been assigned to write a story about Yuri
Alekseyevich."
"Come in," Valentina Ivanovna said, inviting the
reporter into her home.
Natalia nervously glanced around and then step-
ped inside the apartmentGagarin's apartment.
Valentina Ivanovna was clearly finding it hard to
conceal her irritation. She had an apron tied around
her waistNatalia had obviously interrupted her
housework. Nonetheless she graciously asked the
reporter to sit down. Leaning against the back of an
armchair, she asked:
 "What do you want to know, Natasha? So much
has been written about Yuri that most enterprising
reporters work w i t h already published material."
" I want to know everything. How you met, what
Yuri said to you... Oh, I'm sorry," Natalia brought
her hand to her mouth in confusion. " I d i d n ' t mean
to be disrespectful."
Valentina Ivanovna smiled. Suddenly, behind the
frames of her glasses, the cold, remote look in her
eyes was replaced w i t h warmth.
"Everyone called him that. Yuri knew it and
did n t mind. I think addressing someone by his
first name shows more respect than using the long
combination of a first name and patronymic."
" I d o n ' t know why I called him that. It just
seemed right."
" I t ' s perfectly alright. He has the privilege of re-
maining forever young," Valentina Ivanovna said
quietly and then sat down in the opposite armchair.
" I t ' s not that it's easier to pronounce," Natalia
hastened to explain, "it's just that ... how can I put
it? It's like I'm talking about an equal, someone
my same age, someone in the same dimension... I
guess I'm not making any sense."
" I understand. Your feelings for the world's first
cosmonaut are yours alone. I don't have the right to
be judgemental."
"Thank y o u , " Natalia said. "Would you like me to
tell you something about myself?"
"No."
Valentina Ivanovna reconsidered a moment and
then said:
"There might be a need for that later." Then,
speaking softly, she began to reminisce:
" I remember so many things. Of course the years
have dimmed my recollection of some of the details
of the past, but it still lives in my memory. I remem-
ber the dance at the military academy twenty-five
years ago: the music that could make you feel sad
or make you feel like dancing; the shy cadets who
bunched together to avoid the limelight. Each young
girl who attended the dance had hopes of meeting
her prince, meeting her future, as they say. Naturally
I had the same hopes. I had no idea that it would be
in the form of a young man wearing army boots
a cadet w i t h closely cropped hair, a jutting chin, and
flashing eyes.
" 'See you next Sunday,' Yuri said in a confident
voice. It never occurred to him that I might not want
to see him again. And I must admit that I liked his
sense of assurance. I timidly realized that he liked me,
that of all the girls there, he had chosen me. He
had claimed my friendship.
" I n his book, The Road to Space, Yuri described
our meeting this way: 'We met when they let us out
of quarantine. "Bald cadets," the girls at the academy
dance called us. She was wearing a plain blue dress
and looked shy and modest. I asked her for a waltz,
and that was the beginning of our close friendship.'
" B u t I think our second meeting was more signif-
icant. We discovered that our characters were not at
all alike: we felt differently about art, the cinema,
education, friendship and so on. Neither he nor I
tried to hide these differences. We defended our own
views, but we didn't quarrel. Later I found that he
had his own special appreciation for literature and
dreamed of writing a book. As I listened to him
talk, I suddenly found myself thinking: this is inter-
esting! I was intrigued with his frank statements and
opinions. The time slipped away and I began to look
nervously at my watch. Would he want to see me
again? After all, we had so little in common.
"The time had come to say goodbye. Yuri summed
up our discussion with the words: 'This is great;
it's just what I expected. Let's meet again next Sun-
day.' Then he looked at my face, as if trying to read
my feelings, and said: 'Let's go to your place.' '
my place?' I asked, trying to conceal my delight.
'Sure,' he replied.
" I t had all happened so suddenly that there wasn't
time to think. Some girls might have considered it
unwise of me to invite a young man I barely knew
to my home. But why did he want to meet my par-
ents? When I knew Yuri better I understood that this
was one of his most remarkable character traits. He
was so easy to get along with and always in control
of a situation; he just f i t right in.
" Y u r i came to see us often. He later told me that
he felt at home w i t h my family. A n d we looked for-
ward to his visits. Soon he was like a member of the
family. He could be happy and joking, or sad and de-
spondent, depending on the circumstances. He was
attentive, kind, implacable and enthusiastic, but he
was never boring. We lived together only a short
while: ten years. I don't feel I can say I knew him
well. But I probably knew him better than anyone else.
"Writers frequently turn to me for help and be-
come offended when I refuse to be interviewed. But
I'm afraid that if I shared my recollections I would
lead the writer into my world of personal experien-
ces, and Yuri's memory would be cheapened. Like
Aleksei Leonov, I believe that as the years pass ev-
eryone who knew Yuri Gagarin well and worked to-
gether w i t h him will share not only a feeling of nat-
ural pride and gratitude but also a growing respon-
sibility for each word spoken or written about him.
"Each detail of his life, each character trait, each in-
terest that you remember has ceased to be yours alone.
It is shared w i t h others, and with each passing year, Yu-
ri is less your friend, your comrade, your colleague-
people have a greater and greater need for h i m . "
 Valentina Ivanovna dropped her head and for a
long while was lost in thought. Natalia closely exam-
ined her face: there were wrinkles around her eyes
and on her forehead, her features were soft, but her
chin was strong. Grief had left its mark on her face,
but grief had also formed her character.
"Perhaps you should write your own book about
Y u r i , " Natalia suggested t i m i d l y , aware that the ad-
vice of a stranger was rarely heeded.
Valentina Ivanovna slowly raised her head. There
was sadness and reproach in her eyes.
" I t would be too difficult. Yuri's death is still
too painful. I can't write about him as if he's a part
of the past. They say that time is the best healer.
So far it hasn't made things any easier for me. The
years have only made me better understand his char-
acter, his strength, kindness and perseverance. But
in some ways he was always a mystery to me. I
never knew what he would say in a given situation,
how he would react in unusual circumstances. He was
sincere and forceful, never vain or boastful, and he
always spoke with intelligence and scathing wit.
He never repeated himself, and he never prepared
his answers beforehand. Did you want to say some-
thing?"
" I want to write a vivid, realistic story about
Yuri."
"Well, write it. You're a journalist. You can write
a literary biography."
" T o do that I must know more about him. His
likes and dislikes, that sort of thing."
Valentina Ivanovna was lost in her thoughts. She
stood up and took from a cupboard a blue parcel.
After looking inside, she turned back around to face
Natalia.
"Someone once asked me whom Yuri disliked.
I was at a loss for an answer. I thought about it but
couldn't name anyone. He was a man of principle,
simple and frank. He was never afraid to stand up
to anyone or face an argument; he never tried to be
like everyone else. He simply was what he was. He
told his friends and acquaintances exactly what he
thought of them. He didn't want to hurt or humi-
liate anyone. But if he felt he had the right and there
was a need, he tried to set them straight in time.
" A f t e r he graduated from the military aviation
academy, Yuri went to serve in the North. I had to
stay in Orenburg. He wrote me often, almost every
day until I was able to join him. He wrote about eve-
rything: the weather, his friends, how he spent his
free time, his f l y i n g and studies, i could tell by his
handwriting how things were going for him and if
he was lonely. He missed me as much as 1 missed
him."
Valentina Ivanovna took one of the letters from
the packet and began to read:
"Though it's late at night here and darkness en-
velops everything, it seems to me that I see more
clearly. These past days I have thought about and
experienced many things. The loneliness ( w i t h o u t
you) that I feared so much has had some benefit.
I will write you about everything. I have come to
have a clear perspective about our lives, about our
future. I want you to know that everything I do,
everything I achieve, I dedicate to you and do for
your sake. With you by my side I will endure any
trial, overcome the most severe obstacles to my goal.
I will spare no effort and never give up what I have
chosen. Like no one else, you correspond to my
ideal, my views, my dream. My love for you is eter-
nal and boundless."
"Sometimes Yuri would send me poems," Valen-
tina Ivanovna continued. " I knew that he was very
moved by them, so I read them carefully, searching
for the echo of his feelings. Everything that he ex-
perienced was concentrated in these poems."
She began to read again:
" Y o u w i l l like it here. It's now polar night, and I
have not yet seen the entire area. The old-timers
brag about their discoveries and say that this is an
incredibly beautiful place. There are some problems
here, but then every c i t y has t h e m . "
" I always answered his letters right away. Some-
times I'd post a letter during the day and then re-
member something else I wanted to say. T h a t even-
ing, after classes, I w o u l d sit d o w n and write again."
" I haven't seen any polar bears yet, and I haven't
wandered about in the snow drifts. So I must not be
much of a polar explorer. But I must tell you that
I've come to k n o w and love this region. Like every
military man here, I feel I can say: I have always
lived here. They say that when you are w i t h someone
you love, the most humble hut is a palace. I believe
that. I can't wait u n t i l you arrive. I know if I told
you to forget your studies and come, you would.
A n d I w o u l d be happy, but not for long. Work and
the children make your life interesting and f u l l ,
bring you happiness and a feeling of belonging to
a collective. But you must have a profession."
" I love my husband's letters. Unfortunately,
I d o n ' t have all of them. But those I do have reveal
Y u r i just as he was: impetuous, passionate and loving.
" I had planned to j o i n Y u r i in February 1958.
It was a short school vacation and it w o u l d n ' t be an
easy t r i p , but those five or six days we w o u l d be
together promised great joy. Yet it was not meant to
be: my father fell ill and I wrote Y u r i :
" 'He's sixty-four, w h i c h isn't really that old. But
he is already an elderly, sick man. Evidently his
hard life, the poverty and hunger he knew as a child,
the years of farm labour, have taken their toll.
I love Papa dearly and am doing everything I can
to ease his suffering. Darling, you must understand
and forgive me for not being able to be w i t h you
during the holidays. I am with you every minute
in my thoughts. I know it is my duty as your wife
to be w i t h you. I know how d i f f i c u l t it is for you
there in that land of severe cold. But I have another
duty as well.' "
" I know Yuri was very disappointed to receive
my letter, but he couldn't blame me: children always
have a duty to their parents. He tried to cheer me up
in his next letter:
" 'My superiors praise me. I don't know if I deserve
it; I don't have grounds for conceit. I want to be
a real fighter pilot, an ace capable of flying in the
most unfavourable weather. I want to fly around
the world just like the great Chkalov. But first I want
to take off and land at the designated airfield. Un-
fortunately, the cause of most plane crashes is never
discovered. But I have reason to believe that to a
large degree we pilots are responsible. I must study
very hard to learn the secret of skilful flying.' "
"Yuri's letters were so informative and detailed
that when I arrived in the North it seemed t o me that
I had already been there. It was very hard for me
without Yuri. When I was alone I realized what an
important role he played in my life. I wrote and told
him:
" 'I would go anywhere to be w i t h you. This year
without you has been a nightmare. I never want it
to be this way again. Never again will we be separat-
ed for such a long time. When they learned I was
going to join you in the North, they felt sorry for me
and advised me not to go and "live w i t h the polar
bears". How funny they are. I pity them. Only w i t h
you, together, can we reach our desired goal. I
will be a help to you, not a nuisance. I know how

4*
 much you will accomplish.' "
" A n d he did accomplish a great deal. But we
were often separated, sometimes for long periods.
" I joined Yuri in the summer. We didn't have
much time together in the North, but that short
period in our lives was memorable and very dear to
us. We made a lot of friends there. The word 'North'
made us emotional and brought back happy feelings
and romantic dreams. Later, pilots from the North
would often come and visit us. I could see how eager
Yuri was to question them. He wanted to know about
everything: the weather, duration of flights, skill
of the pilots, hunting and fishing. That would be
later, but just after I arrived we started to arrange
our living quarters. Our friends helped us to overcome
the many difficulties posed by life in the North.
They got us a room, furniture and dishes. We were
rarely aloneour friends would frequently drop by,
and we would sit around talking and laughing. You
couldn't live in the North w i t h o u t a sense of humour.
" I ' m often asked if I knew that Yuri was training
for the space flight. I knew as much as the circum-
stances allowed, as much as was possible for a wife
and friend to be told. I never questioned Yuri about
it, because I realized that he would tell me if he
could. If not, it was useless to ask. It was his duty
to keep a secret, and mine also."
But in all actuality, was there a secret? On June
15, 1958, Pravda published "The Realization of
Dreams", an article by science fiction writer Ale-
xander Kazantsev that read in part:
"Travel into space aboard a satellite or space-
craft is a dream. But is it a distant dream? It is close
and has almost been realized... A spacecraftsput-
nikalready circles the earth."
" Y u r i was following the same training programme
as the other cosmonauts. When he went to Baiko-
nur he d i d n ' t k n o w that he w o u l d be the first to fly.
He often remarked later that all the cosmonauts
knew each other well and that any of the six was
w o r t h y of becoming the First. Y u r i was right: all
the cosmonauts accomplished complicated missions
in space. T o this day I d o n ' t k n o w w h y Y u r i was
chosen for that first flight.
" I n answer to a journalist's question as t o how
Y u r i was selected. Hero of the Soviet U n i o n Georgi
Beregovoi replied that the man destined to make the
first f l i g h t into space must in a certain sense be an
emissary of all mankind, a citizen of the w o r l d and
in all respects w o r t h y of the high title of First Cos-
monaut. Yuri's excellent qualities were noticed both
by Chief Designer Sergei Korolev and Nikolai Kama-
nin, one of the men in charge of the Cosmonaut
Training Programme, and of course by all the engin-
eers, instructors, and many other specialists w h o
participated in preparations for the first launch. In
a secret poll, the cosmonauts themselves unanimously
selected Y u r i as their first choice. It should be stressed
that the selection was not made by one or even
several people. !t was the c o m m o n o p i n i o n f o r m e d
by many during their j o i n t work.
" I t has been said that Yuri's life after the f l i g h t
proved the correctness of the choice, that his atti-
tude towards w o r k , his relationship w i t h his com-
rades and his integrity will continue to serve as an
example for all Soviet cosmonauts. It's not for me
to say if this is so. I do know that Y u r i was both-
ered by a feeling of injustice. ' I t wasn't just me; there
were thousands of people w o r k i n g on the rocket
I flew. A n d that f l i g h t was a t r i u m p h of collective
thought and work." "
Valentina Ivanovna spoke w i t h conviction.
Y u r i Gagarin's letters! Somewhere she had read
that they no longer existed. But they did. Maybe
they contained a clue to the "Gagarin riddle".
The treasure was not buried; it was in a modest
blue packet. Gagarin's letters...
"Few people in the world experience the fame,
glory and respect that surrounded Yuri. This was
why when he returned from his first trip abroad he
commented: 'Earth travel is more trying than space
voyage.'
"We travelled to many different countries. Every-
where Yuri was shown love and consideration.
But he missed Star City. By the third or fourth day
he'd be saying he wanted to go home.
" Y u r i loved Star City and helped w i t h the con-
struction plans. Each apartment house, each build-
ing was discussed, and everyone had an opinion as
to what the city should be. Yuri believed that the
city of the future should include high-rise apartment
buildings, not single-unit cottages. He thought that
high-rises would reflect the times.
" Y u r i was happy in Star City. He would get up
early, exercise and take a shower. No matter how
busy his day, he always found time for his daughters.
He played with them, showed interest in their ac-
tivities, discussed their plans.
"Each time he made a trip, whether abroad or
in our own country, Yuri would carefully prepare
himself beforehand. He studied the itinerary, thought
out his speeches and went over the programme ar-
rangements for meeting scientists, workers and ser-
vicemen. He was always worried that he might dis-
appoint the people's expectations, and often turned
to others he considered more knowledgeable for ad-
vice.
" I frequently accompanied Yuri on his trips. I
could objectively observe his meetings and speeches
in the strange country. Despite the extensive prepa-
rations he made prior to a trip, which included stu-
dying the history, culture, traditions and contempo-
rary life of the particular country, sometimes an
unforeseen situation would arise that demanded
all of Yuri's good judgement, tact and political wis-
dom. But Yuri also prepared for his travels by reading
the works of Tsiolkovsky, Korolev and Keldysh.
He especially loved Tsiolkovsky and read his bio-
graphy several times, always discovering something
new of interest in it.
" Y u r i read Tsiolkovsky with passionate zeal,
with an unquenchable thirst. If he came across a
previously undiscovered work, he put everything
else aside and read it. Sometimes he would read me
passages f r o m his favourite author. I remember his
amazement to find a passage in the book New Con-
clusions where Tsiolkovsky writes that the cosmos
has been proved to be integral, endless and life-sus-
taining, and that higher life forms existed throughout
the universe. Yuri couldn't believe that the book
had been written in 1928."
Natalia remembered reading that Gagarin had been
an ardent admirer of Tsiolkovsky. He had wanted
to discover the reason foi the scientist's optimism,
why he was so certain that intelligent life existed
elsewhere in the universe and that human reason was
all-powerful. It must be remembered that during the
latter years of the nineteenth and the early twentieth
centuries, European intellectuals were generally pes-
simistic and tormented by their impotence to cope
with the catastrophic events that threatened the con-
tinent: the approach of the First World War, found-
ering economic situation in many countries, wide-
spread unemployment. Both scientists and science
fiction writers felt oppressed by the dire economic
conditions and lost all faith in human reason and its
ability to overcome the state of emotional and eco-
nomic depression. Predictions of a cosmic cataclysm
and the end of the world were heard more and more
frequently.
Then, suddenly, amid this chorus of doom, the
Russian scientist Konstantin Tsiolkovsky proclaims
his belief in the unlimited development of man and
even predicts that in the not too distant future man
will begin to explore the solar system.
Tsiolkovsky stated that based on the study of life
as a form of movement of matter, it was possible to
assume the existence of other inhabited worlds in
the universe and that all phenomena and processes
in the universe were so interconnected that, "our
lives are more cosmic than terrestrial since the cosmos
is endlessly more significant than the earth in volume,
mass and time."
Natalia's thoughts were interrupted by the voice
of Valentina Ivanovna:
" Y u r i believed there were many worlds in the
universe and that there were other civilizations. He
was keenly interested in the search for rational beings
and read everything he could about extraterrestrial
life. He often spoke to me about his own specula-
tions and enthusiastically defended his views. Later
I realized that he had been greatly influenced by the
works of Tsiolkovsky.
" Y u r i knew that he would never have been able
to travel into space had it not been for the research
and discoveries made by previous generations. In
his many speeches he never failed to mention Krya-
kutny, a minor official in eighteenth-century Rus-
sia and the first man to fly in a balloon, and also
the names of such great scientists as Mikhail Lomo-
nosov, Dmitri Mendeleyev, Konstantin Tsiolkovsky,
Igor Kurchatov, Sergei Korolev and the famous
pilot Valery Chkalov.
" Y u r i loved to read and collect books for our
home library. It was a great pleasure for him to
meet writers. He spoke with them for hours, asking
them detailed questions about their work and new
books. We have a great number of books, most of
which were presented to Yuri by the authors. Yuri
took books w i t h him whenever he had to travel and
kept them in his office.
"Yuri's friendship with writers developed soon
after he made his flight. I seem to recall that on
May 4, 1961, he was invited to the Central House
of Writers, where he was met by Konstantin Fedin
and Georgi Markov. Yuri was very impressed w i t h
these t w o men and the other writers he spoke with.
He often repeated the words of Mikhail Sholokhov:
" 'Yes indeed! That's all you can say. For you are
speechless w i t h admiration and pride before your
country's fantastic success in this unusual sphere
of science.' "
" Y u r i was very excited after meeting Fedin and
Markov. I could understand his feelings. After all,
it was the first time he had ever met any writers,
much less such famous authors. He always remem-
bered what Konstantin Fedin said to him: 'I can't
even imagine what word would describe your emo-
tion that day.'
" I t was at a meeting with writers that Yuri met
someone else f r o m his native SmolenskAlexander
Tvardovsky, who presented him with a poem entitled
Horizon Beyond the Horizon. When he was telling
Yuri goodbye, Tvardovsky said, 'Don't get conceited,
Yuri. Stay just as you are. Remember we're both
from Smolensk.'
" Y u r i jokingly replied: 'What are you talking
about? Can that happen to anyone from Smolensk?
Life isn't long enough to break the rules.'
"Tvardovsky promised to send us all the letters,
telegrams and postcards that had been sent to the
Writers' Union Board of Directors and the editors
of the newspaper Literaturnaya gazeta. He kept his
word. We were amazed by the number of letters
and cards we received f r o m Soviet and foreign wri-
ters, some of whom were very famous. We conside-
red it a great honour to have these poems, speeches
and article clippings dedicated to the event of Ap-
ril 12, 1961.
" Y u r i was very moved by the way writers celeb-
rated his flight and the attention they paid him
personally. But he also realized that the interest
would be only fleeting until the time when science
began to try to unravel the secrets of the universe.
" I t was easy for Yuri to get along with writers,
and he never hid the enormous amount of respect
he felt for them. He himself tried his hand at writ-
ing poetry while studying at the aviation academy.
"The editors of newspapers and magazines often
requested that Yuri write for their publications.
After the novel Cosmonauts Live on the Earth by
Gennady Semenikhin was published in the magazine
Moskva, Yuri expressed his admiration for the maga-
zine staff, praising them for their interest in the
space programme. He even invited the journalists to
Star City, promising to give them a ride in the centri-
fuge. When the editors asked him to write an article
for the journal or give an interview, he immediately
agreed. But due to his heavy work schedule he was
unable to fulfil that agreement. He felt guilty for
letting the journalists down, and managed to persuade
a few of his comrades to write articles instead.
Gherman Titov, Yevgeni Khrunov, Georgi Beregovoi,
Pyotr Klimuk and Pavel Popovich all wrote for the
magazine.
" A f t e r Yuri's death, Moskva published a sequel
to Semenikhin's book. I read it and couldn't hold
back my tears: these were the very pages the author
had read to Yuri, who had volunteered to help him
with his work. The magazine helped to preserve the
memory of the first cosmonaut. In its efforts to im-
mortalize the feats of Soviet people in the explo-
ration of space, it started a new literary tradition.
Among those who contributed to it was writer Mi-
khail Alekseye,/.
" Y u r i did not know Alekseyev personally. But
I remember that one cold winter night in the North
he began to read to me from a book by an unknown
author. I suppose it's not very fashionable to read
aloud anymore. But I did enjoy it. I was then expect-
ing our baby. Wrapped up in my husband's fur jac-
ket, I lay on the couch listening to his voice. I closed
my eyes and listened not so much to the words as
to the sound of his voice. I wanted nothing more
than the trust and respect of my husband. My well-
being depended on his love. He suddenly stopped
reading, and I opened my eyes. 'Are you tired?'
he asked me tenderly. 'No, I'm listening,' I told him.
And I wasn't lying. I was listening to the sound of
his voice, listening to his sincerity and warmth. I
thought about our life together and the baby. 'He
writes very well,' Yuri commented. 'You know,
our language is really very rich. This colonel is going
to be famous soon.' Then he began to read again.
"Years later when I was reading The Cherry Pool
by Mikhail Alekseyev, I realized that this was the
book which Yuri had read to me during those nights
in the North.
" Y u r i was very impressed with Mikhail Sholokhov.
They talked about many things and their conversa-
tions were always very educational. The evening
they met, Y u r i was the centre of attention right from
the start. There were many writers from Bulgaria,
Hungary, the GDR and Poland present. Sholokhov
questioned Yuri about his flight, space exploration,
and the Cosmonaut Training Programme. Then he
t o l d h i m that he envied the cosmonauts and suggested
that they write about their experiences.
" F o r Mikhail Sholokhov, Y u r i was a representa-
tive of a new generation, an individual w h o embodied
that generation's best features. Y u r i understood this,
and though he was nervous speaking w i t h the great
w r i t e r , he d i d n ' t try to impress h i m . "
Natalia suddenly looked at Valentina Ivanovna's
expressive and graceful hands. She knew that hand
movements could sometimes reflect a person's m o o d
and character.
The clock struck noon.
Valentina Ivanovna started, as if awakening, and
looked expectantly at her guest. Her routine of clean-
ing, washing and letter-writing had been disrupted.
" M a y I help y o u ? " Natalia asked.
" N o , of course not. Besides you have other w o r k . "
Natalia was disappointed and said apologetically:
" I d i d n ' t mean t o take up so much of your time.
I k n o w memories can sometimes be p a i n f u l . "
Valentina Ivanovna was standing by the bookcase.
" H o w long w i l l it take you t o w r i t e your s t o r y ? " she
asked.
" A s soon as I've collected all the material."
" A n d how long w i l l that take?"
Natalia felt uncomfortable. She had already de-
cided today that she had chosen the most d i f f i c u l t
profession in the w o r l d and that she was a failure
at it. A modern journalist had to be a little bit of
everything: knowledgeable, weil-read, clever, and
w i t t y , and have the skills of a diplomat, weightlifter
arid boxer. Perhaps a man might possess all these
qualities, but not a woman. She felt as if she were
manoeuvring obstacles while she raced down a ski
slope.
Nataiia had kept siient too long. She knew her
hostess was waiting for her answer. " H o w long w i l l
it t a k e ? " she repeated Valentina Ivanovna's question.
" I ' d like to finish t o d a y . "
" T o d a y ? Well, we can try. I think we can d o i t . "
A n d once again Gagarin's w i d o w began t o reminisce.
"The tragic death of Vladimir Komarov in A p i j |
1967 was the first fatality in the space programme.
A l l the cosmonauts, including Yuri, understood t h a t
space exploration was fraught w i t h danger, t h a t Ca-
sualties were almost inevitable. But Y u r i f o u n d t l , e
reality of Komarov's death hard to accept.
" V l a d i m i r was buried by the Kremlin wall in R I ! C |
Square the day before the May Day celebrations.
Moscow was already festive w i t h bright red bann(. r s
and flags waving in the brilliant A p r i l sun. Now
black crape. The colours of j o y and sorrowside l>y
side.
" Y u r i tried to c o m f o r t everyone, especially Ko-
marov's w i d o w and children. He controlled his emo-
tions and only at home showed how hard he t o ^ k
the death of his friend. Before they buried the cos-
monaut, Y u r i made a vow: 'We swear we w i l l leeirn
to f l y the Soyuz.'
" A n d they did. The So/ missions were success-
ful and a t r i b u t e to Soviet science. Y u r i used to
keep track of various records set during m a n n e d
space flights and was proud that the Soviet U n i o n
held all the records in the one-man spaceship class.
" F r o m the very start Y u r i got along well w i t h a l l
the pilots in the first cosmonaut detachment. I h.ive
often been asked w h y he held so much authority
among the others. This is a question I have never
been able to answer. Y u r i was never ingratiating.
He wasn't searching for fame or glory. He d i d n ' t
try to avoid it, b u t he believed that those w h o w 4 r e
w o r t h y w o u l d achieve it. A n d he d i d n ' t include him-
self in this category.
" A s a child he knew what it was like to be hungry
 and cold. A n d he went to school in hand-me-down
clothes. It was during and after the war, and times
were hard for everyone. Yuri was naturally gifted,
but it wasn't until later that he was able to develop
his talents.
"He wanted to acquire a skill, so he attended
a vocational school. The country spared no efforts
to encourage and assist its youththe new work
force. Yuri learned to work in a collective and had
genuine respect for the work of others. He was to-
tally w i t h o u t vanity and never tried to issue com-
mands or make himself a leader. He always showed
respect for his comrades and placed a high value on
friendship. These were the qualities he admired in
others, and they were the only ones he valued. He
didn't care at all what someone's job or profession
was. Yuri was always capable of seeing a man for
what he was.
" I t has often been written that Yuri was always
willing to help his friends. He was and he did. But
they, too, offered him their assistance. It was a mu-
tual relationship.
" Y u r i was strongly impressed by the extraordi-
nary men in the first cosmonaut detachment. I re-
member that he admired Gherman Titov for being
so well-read, Pavel Popovich, for being so sociable,
Andrian IMikolayev, for his strong character, Valery
Bykovsky, for always being so friendly, Aleksei Leo-
nov, for his artistic talent, and Georgi Shonin, for
being such a fine athlete. When Georgi Beregovoi,
a wonderful test pilot and fearless ace in the war,
joined the detachment, Yuri was elated: Beregovoi's
presence raised the moral atmosphere of the collec-
tive even higher.
" A f t e r Yuri made his flight into space, Aleksei
Leonov presented him w i t h a painting he had drawn
from Yuri's description. Yuri found it hard to believe
that someone could so accurately paint the colours
of the universe w i t h o u t ever having seen them.
'Thank you. Curly,' (Aleksei's nickname) Yuri told
him. 'You have great talent to be able to envision
what I was unable to find words for.'
" Y u r i often spoke about Leonov's talent, about
his aesthetic influence on his friends. Despite his
busy schedule, Aleksei found time to put out t w o
wall newspapers (The Syringe and Neptune), draw
friendly caricatures and prepare humorous good
wishes for special New Year's editions of the news-
papers. Leonov's paintings hung in almost all the cos-
monauts' apartments. Yuri said that Aleksei could
depict both the subtle colours of the earth's irides-
cent halo and also the distant stars in his paintings.
"Cosmonaut Andrian Nikolayev greatly admired
Yuri for his leadership qualities. He once said that
Yuri's talents as a strong commander, organizer
and psychologist seemed to grow w i t h each passing
year.
" Y u r i came to know many famous people who
greatly influenced his life. But there was one w i t h
whom he had a special relationship, one for whom
he felt filial loyalty and respect. Sergei Pavlovich
Korolev had a father-son relationship w i t h all the
cosmonauts and supported and assisted them in eve-
ry possible way. He was a very well-educated man and
advised Yuri to study science and write his disser-
tation.
"Space flight is complicated and risky. But if you
ask any cosmonaut: what is more difficult, prepara-
tions on land or the flight in space, you'll get pretty
much the same answer: both are difficult. Flight
preparations require concentrated effort and pains-
taking w o r k ; the flight itself is the culmination of
those preparations.
" I can't explain how Yuri found the time for all
his many responsibilities: he was a member of the
school Parent Committee and the head of the tech-
nical commission for the Waterskiing Federation,
a member of the Komsomol Central Committee
and chairman of Soviet-Cuban Friendship Society,
he wrote books and gave speeches over the radio,
he fulfilled his duties as a deputy and party member.
And he still managed to read, study and play w i t h
his children."
Natalia was dusting, listening to Valentina Ivanov-
na's story. Natalia knew this was a once in a lifetime
opportunity. Valentina Ivanovna would not want to
be troubled again.
Mechanically she dusted the crystal vasea present
f r o m the government of the Czechoslovakian Social-
ist Republic. It was a beautiful, unique work of art.
Natalia was fascinated w i t h the way the vase reflected
the light of the chandelier in the hall. She turned it
in her hand ... it slipped. She could have caught it,
but instead stood transfixed in childlike distraction
and watched it fall.

" Y u r i was a wonderful family man who adored

his children. They had an exceptional relationship
of trust and love. Play would easily give way to se-
rious discussions about behaviour, duty and respect.
Yuri didn't have any special training as a pedagogue,
but his intuition served him well. He was playful
with them, but took their actions and words very
seriously. The children loved him very much. I think
they even felt closer to him than to me.
" Y u r i didn't spoil the girls, but he often brought
them gifts, usually books. They would read a new
book together. I remember that after reading a collec-
tion of Pushkin's stories, Yuri took a liking to Rus-
sian folk tales. Later he and the girls read aloud the
stories of Nikolai Nosov. I was forbidden to inter-
rupt them with a call to dinner or to suggest that
the girls go outside to play. Other times they would
horse around, play outside or go for a ride in the
car.
" Y u r i liked to hear his daughters sing and some-
times asked them to perform before company. The
girls would do anything for their father and were
never shy about singing. Yuri recorded their voices
but only rarely listened to the tape: it was too spe-
cial.
"When the girls were older, Yuri read them Kon-
stantin Tsiolkovsky's autobiography. A t first I didn't
understand why he chose the chapter dealing with
the author's life from the ages of eleven to fourteen.
It is here that Tsiolkovsky states: 'My deafness makes
my biography of little interest, for it has deprived
me of social contact, observations and sharing. My
biography contains few descriptions of people and
events. It is unusual: the biography of a handicapped
man.'
"Much later when I carefully reread these lines, I
realized that Yuri had been discussing w i t h the girls
such serious topics as willpower and humanitarian-
ism.
" Y u r i was extremely honest and open w i t h his
daughters, and always kept his word. If an unfore-
seen circumstance prevented him from fulfilling
his promise, he would be sincerely apologetic and set
a later date.
"The girls asked his advice about everything:
what to read, what mittens to wear, what birthday
present to give to a friend. Instead of telling them
what to do, Yuri would ask: 'What do you think?'
and patiently discuss the issue with them. He was not
a strict parent: he never punished his daughters and
considered mischief to be a part of growing up.
" Y u r i loved the outdoors, fishing and hunting.

10-825
Communing with nature was one of the great pleas-
ures in his life. He wanted to share his love of na-
ture w i t h his daughters and often took them to the
forest.
"One of Yuri's most endearing characteristics was
his ability to show affection and concern for those
he loved. He always did everything he could to help
his parents, showing his love and respect for them
in more ways than just material support. Even after
he had become famous and thousands of people
listened to what he had to say, he continued to re-
spect the advice and wishes of his parents. His mother,
Anna Timofeyevna, exemplified industriousness, sin-
cerity and goodness. She was uneducated herself,
but her motto, 'Do as I do', was the best lesson she
could teach her children. She believed in the prin-
ciple of hard work. Her lot, like that of many Russian
women, was not easy: housework, children, and all
too soon, the monotonous routine of widowhood.
" Y u r i often travelled to Gzhatsk for two or three
days whenever possible to visit his relatives. He
was on friendly terms w i t h all the neighbours and
felt right at home sitting around a table with a group
of workers. Informal discussions would arise in which
Yuri would talk about space exploration and his
life and that of the other cosmonauts, and also listen
to the comments of others. Yuri was happy that al-
most everyone called him by his first name. It embar-
rassed him to be shown too much attention and ad-
miration.
" Y u r i dearly loved his sister, Zoya, and brothers,
Valentin and Boris. They often got together and re-
minisced about their childhood until after midnight.
Yuri was equally affectionate w i t h his nieces and
nephews. He used to bring them surprises and gifts,
exactly what they had always wanted. Sometimes
he wrote them letters filled w i t h friendly advice and
good wishes. When he saw them, he w o u l d dance,
sing and play games w i t h them, as if t r y i n g t o com-
pensate for the hardships of his own childhood.
" I continue t o receive many letters f r o m people
concerned about the welfare of the Gagarin family.
The letters come f r o m workers, farmers, writers,
journalists, artists and pupils. But the pioneers are
especially good about writing. Children are so special.
They will not tolerate deceit and keenly perceive
good and evil.
" Y u r i felt a special friendship for the K o m s o m o l
and Pioneer organizations. He seemed to draw energy
f r o m these young people and was infected by their
optimism. He talked t o them about flying, his w o r k ,
and the new discoveries in space exploration. A n d he
also listened to them.
" I remember how anxious Y u r i was when the au-
thorities were deciding if he should be allowed to
fly. Some t h o u g h t that he should be protected f r o m
the risk. But if y o u had k n o w n Yuri... He had a mind
of his o w n and always finished what he started. Fly-
ing was his whole life.
"When I tried to soothe him he turned to me im-
patiently and asked: ' H o w can I train others for
flight if I can't f l y myself?'
"So Yu ri began to fly...
" I n March 1968 I was hospitalized. I wasn't de-
pressed about it, but of course it was d i f f i c u l t to
leave my children. No one can take a mother's place.
Yuri was enthusiastic about his work and was enjoy-
ing flying. He talked about another spaceflight and
began to train for it. Everything seemed to be going
well for him; there were no problems.
" Y u r i came to visit me often, bursting into the
ward w i t h irrepressible energy and bringing w i t h him
the humid smell of spring. He brought me presents
and lovingly showed his concern.

hi-
 " I t isn't easy to be the wife of a world-famous
man. Whether they mean it or not, others, w i t h their
unbridled adulation, take him away from his family,
wife and work. Yuri himself was uncomfortable w i t h
his fame and popularity, after all, glory is not some-
thing one can become accustomed to or prepare for.
Sometimes it seemed to me that Yuri was becoming
less attentive and loving towards me. When I told
him of my fears, he looked at me apologetically
and said: 'It's my fault, Valya. Please, forgive me.'
"Yuri's birthday is March 9. I very much wanted
to be home, to invite some people over and bake a
cake. We always liked to celebrate at home, w i t h the
family and friends. Early spring is a time when
nature is awakening, when everyone feels more
friendly, kinder. But that year we were not able to do
it. Who could have known that it was to be Yuri's last
birthday, that we would never celebrate it w i t h him
again.
" Y u r i returned f r o m a travel assignment on
March 10 and immediately called me at the hospi-
tal. He asked about my health, and I, about his mood.
He wanted to come and spend the evening with me,
but I told him the girls needed him more: they
missed him terribly when he was away.
" I slept poorly that night and woke up feeling
worse than before. The doctors noticed my relapse
and poor appetite but d i d n ' t prescribe any addi-
tional medication. I was a medical worker myself, and
this negligence upset me.
" Y u r i came earlier than I expected. I began to
question him, but he just said, 'Later'. Then he leaned
over and whispered: 'Let's beat it.' I couldn't find it
in myself to scold him for being so childish. It was a
wonderful, sunny, spring day, and I gave in to the
temptation, even though I was the one who always
strictly adhered to medical advice.
 "As we drove down the wide Moscow streets Yuri
told me how much the girls missed me. My sister
had come to care for my daughters at home. But I
was always worried that she w o u l d n ' t be able to
manage both them and the housework. What else
could a sick woman and loving mother think? Lots of
women believe they are the best housekeepers, the
most concerned mothers, the most loving wives.
Several days later when I was home I found the house
in perfect order, and the girls claimed that they had
never eaten so many good things. Everyone in Star
City had helped look after them, giving them treats
and presents.
" B u t that day as Yuri and I were riding around
Moscow, I began to impatiently ask him to tell me
more about our daughters. Yuri looked at me and
said: 'I forgot to tell you. Sharik bit Lenka, and the
veterinarians think he has rabies. A n d Galka sprained
her ankle skiing.'
" I d i d n ' t ask any more questions. He, of course,
was just as concerned about the girls as I was. Yet
I had been claiming some kind of a monopoly. I
asked him to forgive me.
"We began to talk about his work and plans for
the future. He told me he would soon begin to fly.
This had always been his dream, what he lived for.
Whenever he talked about flying, I gave him all my
attention.
"So as not to distract Yuri from his driving, I
looked straight ahead. The streets of Moscow had
been dried by the spring sun, and the feel of spring
seemed to have stimulated the drivers: they sped up
and down the streets, blowing their horns and adding
to the joyous symphony of the day.
" Y u r i stopped the car in Revolution Square, got
out and bought a whole basket of flowers. He placed
them on my lap, pleased with the impression he had
 made, and then headed the car for Ring Boulevard.
Yuri loved Moscow and knew all the quaint spots
and side streets. The Boulevard was one of his favou-
rite streets. 'In April, when you're well, we'll go to
America, he told me.
" I wasn't too surprised. Y u r i often travelled out
of the country and had already been to America.
I recalled how excited he had been when preparing
for his trip to England (he had been invited to that
country by the executive committee of the Foundry
Section of Amalgamated Union of Engineering
Workers). He had diligently studied the country and
analyzed all the unforeseen events that had occurred
on his previous trips abroad. A n d now he was pre-
paring to go to America again.
"We stopped to have lunch in a restaurant. Y u r i
talked about the girls and gave me the presents and
letters they had sent. Lena wrote about school and
skiing; Galya sent me a picture of the rabbit she
had drawn. There was lots of news: Yuri told me
about his parents, about his visit to Sergei Pavlovich
Korolev and his training. He went into considerable
detail, apparently trying to take my mind off my
illness.
" I wasn't really that sick, but the doctors insist-
ed that I take a cure. Yuri had agreed, but now he
wished that I was back at home. The doctors were
recommending that I follow a strict diet and stay in
hospital for some time.
" I asked him about the speech he was to read at
a ceremonious celebration of Maxim Gorky's cente-
nary. He pulled it out of his pocket and read it to
me. I thought it was good but a little too elevated
and suggested that he tone down the rhetoric.
" Y u r i took my comments seriously and began to
study the speech. I didn't know then that I would
be the only one to ever hear it.
 "We returned t o the hospital and quietly walked
to my ward, t r y i n g not to be noticed. B u t the d o c t o r
on call suddenly appeared, and Y u r i began to apol-
ogize f o r taking me out, explaining t h a t he had just
wanted to show me Moscow in spring. The doctor
smiled and said that it had been such a fine day that
they purposely left the door open.
" I t was hard to say goodbye; we hadn't had enough
time to talk. Y u r i w o u l d not be coming the next
day: he had preflight exercises for his f l i g h t the fol-
lowing day. Somehow I had to make it through the
next few days.
" T h e day of Yuri's flight I thought of h i m : the
take-off, the mission, the landing. He phoned after-
wards and excitedly t o l d me all about it. I under-
stood his excitement and listened w i t h o u t interrupt-
ing. It seemed that his break in f l i g h t training had
not affected his ability. When he finished describing
his day, I asked h i m to try to spend some more time
w i t h the children. He had been travelling so much
that they hardly ever saw him. Y u r i agreed to spend
every free minute he had w i t h his daughters, t o take
them to the movies and for walks in the forest.
Then we agreed they w o u l d come t o see me on
March 17.
" T h e y burst into the ward, laughing and talking,
w i t h packages and flowers. The girls ran to kiss me
and both began talking at once, each demanding my
attention. A half hour later they were hungry. I sud-
denly t h o u g h t : 'What if he hasn't brought anything
to eat?' The time Y u r i w o u l d have to spend buying
something to eat w o u l d be time away f r o m us. But
Y u r i smiled and the girls clamoured even louder that
they wanted to eat.
" Y u r i began to pull things out of his bag: carefully
wrapped meat pies, baked apples, fried chicken,
homemade cranberry juice and even hot meat dump-
 lings. The appetizing food was laid out on the table,
bed and chairs. But the girls, impatient as they were,
held themselves back, looking expectantly at me.
They had a surprise for me: they had prepared all
the food themselves. I praised them for their culina-
ry talent, and they smiled, pleased by their accomp-
lishment.
" Y u r i talked about Star City and how much Ser-
gei Pavlovich Korolev was missed. I think Y u r i
meant not only the Chief Designer's contribution
as a scientist and his unswerving dedication to the
ideas of Tsiolkovsky, but also his great optimism,
willpower and organizing ability. Yuri told me that
some scientists were predicting that by the 1970s
there would be plasma engines and a lunar space sta-
tion where several cosmonauts could work. By the
1990s they envisioned building such a station on
Mars.
"The girls were playing, but stopped to listen to
their father as he talked about the far-reaching plans
for space exploration, about flights to other planets
in the solar system, a landing on Jupiter, flights tak-
ing generations in time, the colonization of other
planets... Fascinating prospects.
" I wondered why Y u r i had chosen this time for
such a discussion. It seemed to me he was preparing
me for something. I knew that he was eager to make
another space flight, so I assumed he was being given
that chance.
" Y u r i and the girls left in the afternoon. Yuri
had a flight on March 19, and we arranged to meet
on the 21st. Earlier that day, he was approached by
the director's secretary, Galina Koroleva, who asked
him to autograph his picture as a birthday present for
her daughter, Natasha. Yuri asked the woman the
date of Natasha's birthday, and she replied: 'April 1'.
And that was the date he wrote: April 1, 1968.
Natasha was to have an autographed picture of a
man who would no longer be living.

" D o you have any children?"

The question startled Natalia, who was already
deeply engrossed in her hostess's recollections. But
she understood why Valentina Ivanovna had asked it.
Children distract you from your grief, help you to
seek oblivion; children are an indissoluble link with
the past, our hope for the future.
"Yes, I have t w o . "
"That's good. A n d you're so young."
Natalia had prepared some questions for the in-
terview, but she wondered if she would ask them.
Perhaps she was purposely avoiding asking about
routine matters.
"Is it hard w i t h the children?" asked Valentina
Ivanovna.
"Yes, but it would be harder w i t h o u t t h e m . "
" D o you think conflicts between parents and chil-
dren are inevitable?"
Natalia answered immediately: " Y e s . "
" D o they exist in your family?"
"Yes."
" H o w do you settle them?"
" B y compromise."
" D o you think that's right?"
" I don't know. Time will tell."
"Have I tired y o u ? "
"No, I find it very interesting."
" A n d has it helped?"
" I think so. Shall we continue?"

" O n March 21 Yuri was told he could bring me

home for a few days. He and the girls came to pick
me up. We rode around Moscow for a couple of
hours and then headed for Star City. A t one of the
intersections Y u r i ran a red light. A militiaman w i t h
a weathered face stepped up to the car. Yuri apolo-
gized and handed him his license. The militiaman
studied it carefully and looked into the car w i t h a
stern expression. Then he returned the license and
Y u r i apologized again, explaining that he was bringing
his wife home f r o m the hospital.
" ' D o n ' t w o r r y about it, Y u r i Alekseyevich,' the
militiaman replied, his face still serious. 'Drive as
you please, as if you were in space. It's our d u t y t o
protect you. We all have our j o b t o do.'
" Y u r i turned my homecoming into a party. My
sister and other guests were waiting for us at home.
I walked around the apartment and stopped by Yuri's
desk. I began to read the speech he had started to
write for a UNESCO conference. I remember he
wrote that it was the nature of man to strive to
explore the u n k n o w n , to learn about his surround-
ings. A n d that this was the key to man's constant,
limitless development.
" Y u r i w o u l d never deliver that speech. Several
months later, at the request of the director of the
Cosmonaut Training Centre, I gave it to the Star
City museum.
" N o t h i n g unusual happened the day I was home.
Our friends came t o visit, asked me about my health
and talked about Yuri's birthday. Y u r i thanked
me for the hunting rifle I had given him. It was
the last time we were together. N o w I look back
and try to recall every detail. Y u r i gave me a wonder-
ful day.
" O n March 28 some people I knew well and res
pected came to the hospital. They stood by the door,
unable to break the news to me. I was a pilot's wife
and knew under what circumstances a superior offi-
cer and friends paid an unexpected visit to the fami-
ly of one of their own. I d i d n ' t even greet them.
Seeing their pale faces, I broke the terrible silence:
'Something has happened to Yuri?' They nodded.
I still maintained control and heard myself say:
'It can't be!' 1 refused to believe that Y u r i was dead.
'When?' 'Yesterday.'
" I closed my eyes but immediately opened them,
afraid I might lose consciousness. My doctor was
in the ward and I asked him to discharge me. I
turned to the military officers to tell them I wanted
to leave right away. They stood there, motionless,
w i t h tears in their eyes.
" I tried to stand b u t fell back in m y bed. Some-
thing had to be done, I had to leave. Y u r i was gone!
How was it possible?
" I managed t o pull myself together in the car.
A nurse gave me a shot and administered smelling
salts. The convoy of cars sped towards Star City.
"Some months later the cosmonauts w o u l d w r i t e
in detail about Yuri's last d a y . "

Natalia had heard several versions of what had

happened, some contradictory. No one could believe
that Gagarin was dead. They wanted to think it
was a mistake, even a bad joke.
The adults were the first to understand the tra-
gedy and cry. The young were griefstricken as well:
Gagarin had been their banner, and a banner always
flies.
Everyone wanted to know the t r u t h : how it had
happened, under what circumstances...

The residents of a collective farm in the village

of Novoselovo heard the explosion and ran into the
office of farm director Ivanov.
"Send a tractor to the crash site! Make an emer-
gency call to Moscow! Send some skiers into the
area!" Ivanov placed telephone calls and answered
them, but he himself had no idea who was in the
plane. He only hoped it wasn't too late.
Planes and helicopters flew in low over the area
until they spotted a big crater in the forest. The crash
site was cordoned off and searched thoroughly. The
men even brushed away the snow with their hands.
They kept looking...
Why had the accident occurred? Engineers were
convinced that the engines were operating and the
position of the instrument dials indicated that all
systems were functioning normally.

Once again Natalia heard the voice of Gagarin's

widow:
" Y u r i loved Star City. He thought it was a great
joke when they named him mayor.
"Everything that was dear to him is dear to me.
How could I leave Star City, the city that was a part
of Yuri and has become his memorial.
" I especially cherish the unusual photographs
I have of Yuri. For instance, I have some of him
doing volunteer work on a Sundaycleaning up the
grounds. He organized others for volunteer work,
and always did his share.
" Y u r i was disappointed that the city had no mo-
numents. He didn't know that Star City's first monu-
ment would be to him. Everyday I look at that
bronze figure of Yuri. He stands with his back to me.
In his hand he holds some flowers. He used to bring
them to us, just like he brought happiness, joy and
confidence. We miss him so much."

Natalia felt the touch of a warm hand. Someone

was calling her, but she couldn't recognize the voice.
It wasn't the voice of Valentina Ivanovna. Natalia
opened her eyes and saw the woman passenger
that had been sitting on the opposite seat leaning
over her in concern.
"We'll soon be in Monino," she said as she sat
down again. " I didn't want you to miss your station."
" I ' m getting off at Tsiolkovsky," Natalia said
in as dignified a voice she could manage.
" Y o u dropped your b o o k , " the woman said as she
looked at Natalia w i t h concerned eyes.
Natalia searched for the book she had laid on her
lap, but it was nowhere to be found. Her guidebook,
her dictionary of space terminology had disappeared.
" M y editors assigned me to write a story about
Yuriabout Gagarin." Natalia felt she could be open
with her travelling companion. "So I was reading
over my material all night long. But I seem to be so
confused right now. I hope Valentina Ivanovna can
help me."
Wheels grinding, the train came to a stop. The
warm rain splattered against the glass. A tired voice
announced "Platform Tsiolkovsky" and the train
doors opened.
The Approaching Storm

Whether it is called a hurricane, t y p h o o n or

tornado, the tropical cyclone is a dangerous nat-
ural phenomenon bringing w i t h it death and destruc-
tion.
Man has long dreamed of eliminating this danger,
but so far he is unable to direct the movement of
a cyclone let alone destroy it altogether. Yet even
if he should one day have this power, and this is a
reasonable assumption, it w o u l d not be feasible to
use it. Tropical cyclones move excess energy f r o m the
tropics to higher latitudes and thus help maintain the
planet's balance of energy and the existing climate of
the earth's moderate latitudes. The artificial destruc-
t i o n of tropical cyclones could lead to undesirable,
even tragic climatic changes.
But the situation is not hopeless. Experts estimate
that it is possible t o diminish by ten times the de-
struction w r o u g h t by a tropical cyclone if the storm's
appearance and behaviour can be accurately predict-
ed. But weather forecasting is extremely complex.
Nowhere in the w o r l d is it accurate enough to meet
man's needs. Meteorological forecasts for an extend-
ed periodmore than ten daysare just sixty to
seventy per cent accurate. Even the next day's fore-
cast is reliable only approximately 85 per cent.
Meteorological forecasts are sometimes inaccu-
rate because man does not yet fully understand all
the factors that influence the atmosphere. A n d there
are many such factors: the sun, amount of moisture
in the earth's cloud cover (a veritable sea), the oceans,
which cover three-fourths of the earth's surface,
temperature variations in altitude, and many more.
Meteorological satellites have made a significant
contribution to the solution of this problem by trans-
mitting valuable information, especially over those
areas lacking traditional observation posts: oceans,
deserts, taiga forests, mountain ranges. Suffice it to
say that during each ninety-minute orbit a satellite
provides a view of atmospheric conditions f r o m pole
to pole over a stretch of the globe up to fifteen hun-
dred kilometres wide. No other means of modern
technology is capable of providing such a vast amount
of observational data.
As they pass over data-receiving stations on earth,
meteorological satellites transmit so much weather
data so fast that only the most sophisticated compu-
ter is capable of processing it. Yet, though these sat-
ellites have opened a new age of meteorology (they
can observe the entire territory of the earth in a very
short period of time), they are still only machines.
They scan the earth along their programmed paths
and transmit each separate bit of information: the
cloud cover, surface conditions of the ocean, borders
of snow, etc. But they scan what they have been pro-
grammed to; any interesting phenomenon that falls
outside their paths, no matter how close, will remain
unobserved. But this phenomenon could be the cause
of extremely important events.
Cosmonauts observe much more than satellites.
Most important, they are able to judge, analyze and
compare what they have seen. Rather than merely
transmit data, they describe the phenomenon, answer
questions posed by specialists, repeat a scan to ob-
tain more detailed i n f o r m a t i o n , alter a camera's
aperture and exposure time.
Prolonged space f l i g h t allows cosmonauts to ob-
serve changes in weather conditions for sufficiently
long periods. It is not unusual to hear a cosmonaut
report f r o m a space station: " I t appears that a ty-
phoon is f o r m i n g in the A t l a n t i c . Clouds are in a
characteristic w h i r l i n g f o r m a t i o n and there's a spot
in the centre that looks like the 'eye' of the storm.
We'll determine the coordinates."
Here are just a few instances of how meteorolog-
ical data f r o m space have proved useful.
In 1973 the w o r l d press reported on the danger-
ous situation of the Ob, a Diesel-electric ship moored
in ice. Special meteorological photographs f r o m space
helped the ship eventually sail into free water.
In spring 1977 i n f o r m a t i o n transmitted by Meteor
weather satellites helped the m/s Vladimir Mayakov-
sky complete its d i f f i c u l t voyage across three oceans
while tugging a large floating dock. One can easily
imagine the dire consequences had the ship sailed
into a hurricane.
According to i n f o r m a t i o n supplied by UNESCO,
each year meteorological satellites help save f o u r
hundred ships.
Observations f r o m space have been useful in dis-
covering thawing glaciers and snow. The American
Nimbus-3 satellite, f o r instance, scanned the Alps
and certain regions of Canada. A study of the pictures
transmitted by the satellite revealed the beginning
stages of a thaw in remote areas of the world. In
mountainous regions, timely information concerning
the beginning of a thaw is i m p o r t a n t for f l o o d preven-
tion and the preparation of water reservoirs for pe-
riods of drought.
The economic benefit derived f r o m our country's
Meteor satellites, which were first put into operation
in 1967, has been enormous. Information transmitted
by these satellites and used to issue forecasts and time-
ly warnings concerning floods, snow avalanches, hur-
ricanes, and storms has contributed to an annual sav-
ings in material wealth of more than one billion
roubles. On a global scale, the services of weather sat-
ellites save an estimated sixty billion dollars per year.
Our discussion here of the weather is not coinci-
dental. There is reason to believe that in the future
climatic conditions will play an even greater role
in man's life.
Blizzards rage across the greater part of Europe
and the United States in the worst winter of the cen-
tury...
Earthquakes rock Japan and Arkansas ... volca-
nos rumble ... karst cavities swallow homes... The
number of such cataclysms has sharply increased in
recent years leading us to wonder if Mother Nature
has gone mad and if extreme climatic and tectonic
changes lie ahead.
Scientists have long known that the earth is in
a constant state of change. Today, armed w i t h the
most advanced technological equipment, they are
trying to answer these fundamental questions: when
and where will changes occur and how will they
affect man. Geologists beiieve that powerful earth-
quakes might bring death and destruction to huge
regions sometime during this generation. A n d many
inactive volcanos will one day erupt in full force.
Scientists also believe that within one or two gene-
rations the earth will undergo serious climatic chan-
ges. Several theories exist as to when and how this
will occur.
 In the last 10,000 years civilization had devel-
oped in favourable climatic conditions. There have
been periods of summer drought when not a d r o p
of water fell, and winters, like that of 1981, that
were unusually severe. But in general the weather has
not hindered man. T o d a y , however, specialists warn
that this cannot go on forever. Gradually but in-
evitably the climate w i l l change.
Climatologists are divided in their opinions con-
cerning what it is t h a t prompts climatic changes.
Some believe the major cause is the change in the
intensity of solar radiation reaching the earth. Others
t h i n k the change in the earth's o r b i t might be re-
sponsible: at times the earth rotates further away
f r o m the sun and also gently rocks on its axis, thus
influencing the amount of solar heat it receives. Some
cycles of climatic changes last millennia, o t h e r s -
much shorter periods.
Studies of changes in the earth's orbit show that
they coincide w i t h ice ages. This strengthens the hy-
pothesis that the earth's movement in space could
have a significant effect on weather.
Weather satellites have already been very bene-
ficial and in the f u t u r e w i l l provide scientists (and
not just climatologists) w i t h even more information.
We can only hope that i n f o r m a t i o n revealing the neg-
ative effects of man's activity w i l l allow us to take
appropriate measures, and that we w i l l no longer
need to speak about the acidification of rivers that
has resulted in the disappearance of valuable species
of fish or the extermination of insects and birds due
to acid rains. Scientists have determined that more
than two-thirds of the acid precipitation in Sweden
and Norway is due t o sulphur and nitrogen emis-
sions f r o m Western European countries located hun-
dreds of kilometres away f r o m the Scandinavian
peninsula.
 Finally, we should mention the problem w i t h the
ozone layer w h i c h protects life on earth f r o m deadly
ultraviolet solar radiation. It is now generally ac-
knowledged that an entire range of synthetic products
may decrease the concentration of ozone in the strat-
osphere to a low enough level to cause biological
damage. Such products include freon, w h i c h is wide-
ly used in agriculture, manufacturing and households,
nitrous oxides, emitted by airplane engines in' the
upper troposphere and indirectly into the strato-
sphere, and a number of other substances.
Perhaps man w i l l be able to prevent these dire
predictions f r o m coming true. But one thing is cer-
tain, action must be taken now to ensure his future.

Ensuring Future Supplies

Natural disasters seem to be occurring more and

more frequently. The severe drought that plagued
the Sahel region (Africa) f r o m 1968 t o 1973 destroy-
ed both crops and livestock. In one Nigerian region
alone, where the drought of 1972-1973 was the worst
in the c o u n t r y ' s history, approximately f o u r hun-
dred head of cattle were lost and crop destruction
was estimated at more than one m i l l i o n tonnes, i.e.,
f i f t y per cent of average annual production.
The w o r l d economy was seriously affected by the
1972 and 1975 droughts in the Soviet U n i o n and the
1976 drought in Europe. World grain reserves were
reduced by tens of millions of tonnes, and prices
doubled. In 1972 crop loss in the USSR due t o
drought amounted to 19 per cent of expected yields,
in 1 9 7 5 - 3 0 per cent. The 1972 d r o u g h t was the
longest in the country's history, the 1975affect-
ed the largest territory.
Frequent droughts pose t w o problems: first, in-

u*
sufficient food, and second, insufficient fresh water.
To a certain extent, available fresh water determines
the level of development of a country's economy.
The reason is simple. Those countries which have
insufficient fresh water reserves (and their number
is increasing) must construct facilities to produce
water. For example, one industry (metallurgy, for
instance) cannot operate w i t h o u t another industry
(a water desalination plant). Obviously, this is both
expensive and not very effective.
Is it possible to obtain the needed amount of fresh
water some other way? We can answer this question
only by utilizing qualitatively new methods of sur-
veying the planet's water resources. Some scientists
believe that observations from space are the best
way to do this. Equipment aboard space laborato-
ries can determine the size of a snow cover (or gla-
cier) before a thaw and then estimate the f l o w of
water through vast territories. Moreover, instruments
can detect in what region underground water will
surface. Though this information may not be able
to ensure a steady supply of water, it certainly
serves to help increase that supply.
Let us now turn to the world food problem.
It is estimated that by the year 2000 the global
population will reach 6.18 billion people. The ques-
tion arises: will the world be capable of feeding so
many people? Inasmuch as most arable land is already
under cultivation, virtually all the increase in f o o d
production must be derived from intensification of
agriculture: more fertilization, irrigation, improved
crop strains and breeds of animals. In other words,
the production of food w i l l to a significant degree
depend on energy production, and the real cost of
food could double by the end of the century.
The rapid disappearance of forests has become
a serious ecological and agricultural problem. The
peoples of many countries use w o o d for heating and
cooking, and in certain regions, the entire day is
spent collecting firewood. Timber c u t t i n g destroys
plant and animal life. Most of this destruction occurs
in tropical regions, w i t h the greatest damage taking
place in arid and borderland areas o n w h i c h local
varieties of i m p o r t a n t grain crops have acquired
such qualities as for high yield and disease resistance.
Replacing w i l d strains w i t h high-yield, commercial
seeds w i l l make it more d i f f i c u l t t o grow disease-
resistant strains in the future.
It is clear that we must begin t o look f o r new f o o d
sources. Many scientists believe, w i t h good reason,
that the ocean offers the best prospects in this area.
The total biomass of the world's oceans has been
estimated t o be tens of billions of tonnes. It is calcu-
lated that the A t l a n t i c Ocean alone can provide the
n u t r i t i o n a l equivalent of t w e n t y thousand annual
land harvests.
I t will, however, require an entire army of special-
ly equipped vessels to harvest the ocean. A n d when
we take into consideration that more than half the
time spent in the ocean w i l l be devoted to searching
for harvestable seabeds, the i m p o r t a n t role of wea-
ther satellites becomes clear: their use w i l l save bil-
lions of roubles.
Observations conducted by cosmonaut crews
aboard the Salyut space stations have demonstrated
that space technology can provide i n f o r m a t i o n about
global oceanographic, hydrobiological and bioindus-
trial conditions.

The Galactic Spiral

A p r i l 12, 1961. I t was a date that w o u l d change

his life. But he w o u l d not k n o w it u n t i l later. Pyotr
 K l i m u k was studying at a military flying school.
He heard the news about Gagarin's flight while in a
radio class. Man had conquered space; it was the be-
ginning of a new era where the secrets of the uni-
verse w o u l d be explored and amazing discoveries
revealed. But at that time, K l i m u k had no idea that
he w o u l d play a direct role in this great venture.
A f t e r graduation K l i m u k was assigned to an air
force unit. He flew more and more frequently, im-
proving his skills in d i f f e r e n t types of aircraft.
K l i m u k went before his first medical commission
(there w o u l d be many more) in Leningrad. He was
certain his close friend w o u l d pass, but he wasn't
so sure about himself. Yet the opposite happened:
his friend was sent back t o his u n i t , while he was
given the go-ahead.
After Gagarin's f l i g h t , there were many other
launches, each representing a new step f o r w a r d along
the d i f f i c u l t , u n k n o w n path of space exploration.
New heroes were being made...
Pyotr K l i m u k was training for a launch as well.
He was already familiar w i t h flying planes, but he
d i d n ' t much care for parachuting. Many others shared
his feelings, yet they continued to jumpover ground
and over water, day and night.
As part of the training programme, K l i m u k began .,
to study reports, attend classes and participate in
simulation exercises years before his scheduled launch.
The programme took all his timefrom early morning
till late at night. There was little left of his personal
life. Yet perhaps this d i f f i c u l t but at the same time
enjoyable w o r k had become his personal life.
When Pyotr K l i m u k was asked: "What's the most
d i f f i c u l t aspect of your w o r k ? " he answered: " T h e
training," and then added: "I've k n o w n some talent-
ed men w h o have almost completed the training
programme and right at the end called it quits be-
cause of some insignificant factor. Then it's goodbye
to space, Star City and all those years of hard train-
ing."
Klimuk went through all the stages of training.
Like the others, he found the going tough. More
than once he was a member of the back-up crew:
after watching the first crew go up in orbit, he start-
ed the training process all over again. Of course, on
such days he had second thoughts. Once, while com-
pleting a routine training exercise, he complained
about his luck. He had been w i t h the programme for
more than seven years, and it appeared he would
never go up. A young training assistant cheered him
on: " Y o u ' l l go u p . "
" I f I ever go up in space, I'll buy you two cases
of candy," Klimuk told the young woman.
A n d there came a time when Pyotr Klimuk was up
in orbit. During a routine communications hookup,
mission control asked if the crew had found the en-
velop marked: " T o be opened in o r b i t " . Inside was
Klimuk's written promise to buy t w o cases of candy.
The training programme was diverse, even includ-
ing classes at the planetarium. Konstantin Portsevs-
ky, Director of the Moscow Planetarium, talked
about how he met the first group of cosmonauts.
One day he was told that another group would be
joining the class of pilots already studying at the
planetarium. The planetarium director didn't consider
this at all unusual, but he was surprised to learn that
the new group was required to have several times the
usual number of lessons.
Portsevsky himself and B. A. Maksimachev, a sci-
entific researcher at the Moscow Planetarium began
to teach the new group, and they easily established
a friendly relationship with the young men. Teachers
are always happy to have bright students, and these
pilots proved to be very capable.
 The students continued to discuss what they had
been taught after the lesson was over. One day, when
the talk became especially heated, Portsevsky turned
to the nice-looking senior lieutenant who had so
ardently expressed his belief in interplanetary travel
and said: " Y o u speak as if you're ready to fly to the
stars straightaway." It was January 1961.
That spring, on April 1, the joke going around
Star City was that a man was in space. But twelve
days later, it was no longer a joke. The planetarium
director looked at the cosmonaut's picture in the
newspaper and recognized the senior lieutenant
w i t h whom he had argued.
Soon afterwards Y u r i Gagarin visited the Moscow
Planetarium and met w i t h his former teacher. " T h e
remarkable thing about it is," he said, " t h a t the stars
in the planetarium look so real that up in orbit you
start to think you're not in a spaceship but back in
the planetarium."
The classes Pyotr Klimuk attended at the plane-
tarium proved to be useful as well. One of his assign-
ments while orbiting w i t h Valentin Lebedev in
Soyuz-13 was to study the ultraviolet emissions of
distant stars and constellations through the Orion-2a
special telescope designed by Armenian scientists.
The instrument withstood the j o l t and g-pull of the
Soyuz spacecraft as it shot into orbit and later gave
the cosmonauts a clear " p i c t u r e " of the distant
stars' ultraviolet radiation.
Klimuk and Lebedev travelled to Armenia fre-
quently to learn the skills required for operating the
telescope. They studied and read as much for their
own interest and enjoyment as for learning practical
skills. But what they saw through a telescope could
not compare with their view of the vast and limitless
cosmos from the window of their spacecraft.
The Soyuz-13 mission lasted eight days, and the
cosmonauts obtained many spectrograms. By study-
ing t h e m , scientists were able to discover new phen-
omena that increased man's knowledge about space
and his w o r l d .
Pyotr K l i m u k continued his " s t e l l a r " studies
during his second space f l i g h t as well, this time w i t h
fellow cosmonaut V i t a l y Sevastyanov. The t w o men
operated a solar telescope w h i c h allowed them t o
view spectrograms of sunspotsflocculi and protu-
berancesimpossible to obtain on earth even on the
clearest day due t o atmospheric haze.
So it turned o u t that K l i m u k was able t o p u t his stel-
lar studies to good use: on his t w o missions in space
he was called upon t o w o r k w i t h astrophysicists.

In 1971 it was discovered that certain celestial

objects k n o w n as Markaryan galaxies emitted unu-
sual radiowaves. Many of the processes occurring
in these galaxies are inexplicable. For example, some
galaxies emit strong radiowaves f r o m their " a r m s "
as well as their nuclei.
It should be noted here that Soviet scientist Vik-
tor A m b a r t s u m y a n has long argued that, classical
theory t o the contrary, galaxies are b o r n as a result
of emissions f r o m super dense substances, not the
condensation of gases. According t o this hypothesis,
the nuclei of certain galaxies emit a substance w h i c h
eventually leads t o the f o r m a t i o n of their "sisters"
or satellites. The predominance of emissions close to
the ultraviolet range is one of the c o n f i r m a t i o n s of
this t y p e of activity. F r o m studying these spectra,
a colleague of Ambartsumyan, B. Markaryan, an
astrophysicist w i t h the Byurakan Astrophysical
Observatory, determined that a predominance of
ultraviolet emissions was characteristic of approxi-
mately one thousand galaxies, the m a j o r i t y of which
are spherical in shape.
 Markaryan's work quickly attracted the attention
of other scientists. Of special interest were three
newly discovered galaxiesall bright and encompas-
sing an area of approximately eighty thousand cubic
light years. Surprisingly, they had an irregular f o r m .
Pictures of the galaxies showed small, very bright
formations that looked like clusters inside them.
Scientists began to study these galaxies in earnest,
and many were aided by the galactic atlas compiled
by Soviet astrophysicist B. Vorontsov-Velyaminov.
Some of the most powerful observatories in the world
joined in the study of galactic optical spectra. It was
discovered that certain galaxies contained lines in
their spectra characteristic of pockets of interstellar
gases, particularly hydrogen.
The first conclusion made by the scientists stu-
dying Markaryan galaxies was that the clusters were
tremendous areas of ionized hydrogen, nidi for the
formation of stars on an unprecedented scale. Read-
ings showed that they had been in existence for
only tens of millions of yearsan insignificant period
in astronomical terms.
How did they form? Why did several clusters arise
in one galaxy? Did they result from a cataclysmic
inner process or were they produced due to an in-
ward f l o w caused by the gravitational pull of neigh-
bouring galaxies? Or could they be explained by the
collision of t w o galaxies? Perhaps the result of
capturing intergalactic gas? Or could it be that the
clusters were "cosmic fossils"the last trace of the
phenomenon which many galaxies shared at the early
stages of the formation of our universe? A l l these
hypotheses had to be tested.
If the galaxies w i t h clusters were huge stellar nidi
they should contain stars of tremendous massten
times or more greater than that of our sun. The fate
of such a star is k n o w n : a powerful explosion causes
the star to erupt in a supernova w i t h its "ashes"
becoming a neutron star. The first wave of such a
cosmic explosion heats the interstellar gas t o a tem-
perature where it begins to emit X-rays. Thus, the
discovery of X-rays in galaxies w i t h clusters could
supply certain i n f o r m a t i o n concerning how fast ex-
tremely massive stars are formed.
Scientists have observed not only increased density
of matter in the universe but also t e n u i t y of matter:
strange empty pockets in space. Scientists at K i t t
Peak Observatory, in Arizona measured red shifts
in the emissions of galaxies in six regions (three in
the northern celestial hemisphere and three in the
southern). T o their great surprise, they discovered
that in each of the three regions in the northern
hemisphere there were galaxies f r o m three to six hun-
dred m i l l i o n light years f r o m the earth and almost
empty space between them.
Most surprising, these regions are shifted at 35
f r o m each other; they are as wide as they are deep
and are approximately 3x1Q 2 5 cubic light years in
volume. The density of matter in these e m p t y pock-
ets is at least ten times less than usual.
A l t h o u g h these empty pockets represent several
per cent of the overall voiume of the observed uni-
verse, they are not significant enough in size to
violate the cosmic principle of the u n i f o r m i t y of the
basic properties of space in all directions.
A t some time in the future an interstellar space-
ship w i l l carry a group of pioneers and settlers f r o m
earth deep into the universe. In the f o l l o w i n g centu-
ries, their descendants will spread o u t into the galaxy,
inhabiting the planets they have discovered orbiting
around stars barely visible f r o m earth. When the time
comes for historians to write about this extraor-
dinary colonization, they w i l l trace the beginning
to our centurythe Golden Age of astronomy.
 Scientific perspicacity and technological genius
have joined forces to give rise to this Golden Age.
Radiotelescopes which can pick up cosmic emissions
invisible to the human eye have led to the discovery
of black holes, pulsars and huge clouds which may
represent the nidi of star formation. Man has also
uncovered relic radiationthe echo of the "big-bang",
which, according to many scientists, marked the ori-
gin of our universe.
Advances in the field of electronics have im-
proved the resolution of optical telescopes, allowing
astronomers to study galaxies millions of light years
away f r o m the earth. Until recently, they were sim-
ply unseen. Space probes w i t h sophisticated sensors
have made it possible to study the spectra of elec-
tromagnetic radiation invisible from the earthul-
traviolet, gamma and X-rays. It was in this manner
the discovery was made that the universe is permeat-
ed w i t h radiation. Instrumented capsules have also
studied the surface of Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter
and Saturn, transmitting close-up pictures and even
images from the surfaces of the planets. We now
have a new understanding of the planets in our solar
system.
These discoveries have radically altered tradition-
al views about the universe. No one now thinks of
the heavens as majestically serene and quiescent.
The cosmos is constantly changing: stars explode
and cataclysms reverberate through galaxies, black
holes appear w i t h a gravitational pull so strong they
emit no light rays, oceans of hot gas cool and con-
tract, giving birth to new stars...
Pyotr Klimuk and Vitaly Sevastyanov were in-
trigued w i t h their studies of the solar system and
outer space. In the middle of their flight, mission
control decided to allow the cosmonauts to conduct
a few experiments of their own choice each day.
This greater flexibility encouraged a more creative
approach t o the research and led to f r u i t f u l results.
A t one time a novice himself, Pyotr Klimuk be-
came one of the more experienced cosmonauts and
eventually began to help train others for space mis-
sions.

Two Suns

We have discussed distant suns and worlds. But

the road t o another world starts at one's own thresh-
old. A n d our homethe solar systemis of no less
interest than distant galaxies.
Before the Soviet lunar probes and American as-
tronauts brought back samples of lunar rock, man
knew nothing for certain about the history of the
moon. Extremely- sophisticated laboratory experi-
ments conducted on the rock revealed w i t h an accuracy
of roughly 100 million years that the moon and earth
are both almost 4.6 billion years old. In other words,
the moon, earth and small celestial bodies in the solar
system all formed at the same time. Moreover,
samples of lunar rock will help scientists learn what
took place in the interval between the beginning of
the formation of our planet to the solidification of
the oldest earth rocks, i.e., 3.5 billion years ago.
Compared w i t h Earth, Venus has always had lit-
tle water. On our planet, fossilized traces of carbon
are found in sedimentary rock (primarily limestone).
Interestingly, the amount of carbon roughly com-
pares to the amount of carbon in Venus's atmosphe-
ric carbon dioxide. Despite the great similarities be-
tween Venus and Earth, their atmospheres are quite
different. We can only be thankful that water creat-
ed favourable conditions for the development of
life on our planet. Of course, it would have been a
much more interesting state of affairs if Venus also
had water: perhaps man would have been able to ob-
serve an extraterrestrial civilization on a neighbour-
ing planet. But we must continue our search for in-
telligent life on distant stars in galaxies millions of
times further away.
A t one time man had considerable hope that there
was life on Mars. But the robot Viking spacecraft
that touched down on Martian soil dashed that hope
after conducting biochemical tests on the planet's
surface material. The presence in the Martian soil
or atmosphere of any type of living organism w i t h
biological processes even remotely similar to those
on Earth would have been considered a positive
result. As a matter of fact. Viking instruments did
register signs of activity. But it was later discovered
that the activity was due to the chemical properties
of the oxygen-poor Martian sand exposed to intense
cosmic radiation. The most conclusive negative re-
sults were obtained f r o m molecular analyses, which
revealed the total absence of hydrocarbons in those
areas where the Viking ships had landed.
The cosmos contains many riddles and mysteries.
A n d though science fiction fans retain little hope of
man discovering life w i t h i n the solar system, the fan-
tastic findings of scientific research have given us new
ideas about the nature of outer space in the vicinity
of our planet. We have taken a giant step forward in
gaining an understanding of our solar system and the
reasons why our world brought f o r t h life.

Calling All Intelligent Beings

Since we have been unable to find life within our

own solar system, logic dictates that we must expand
our area of search and improve our methods.
 The first congresses convened to discuss the pos-
sibilities of extraterrestrial intelligent life were op-
timistic about success. The reaction of the scientist
who discovered pulsars was indicative of the times:
he concluded that some form of intelligent life was
putting out the extremely regular emissions, and de-
cided not to disturb people w i t h the knowledge that
extraterrestrial beings had found our planet. Today
we know that pulsars emit regular radiowaves due to
natural causes.
The question arises: having found no sign of life
in our own vast universe, why should we hope for
success in more distant space? Could life on Earth
be unique?
The first to express this view was I. Shklovsky,
Corresponding Member of the USSR Academy of
Sciences. For years Shklovsky searched for intelli-
gent life on other planets, so he can by no means be
accused of harbouring preconceived notions. Con-
cerning his belief that life was a rare phenomenon,
the scientist had this to say:
" I believe the life of man is finite; this is why so
many call me a pessimist. Does this mean that the
day w i l l come when man will no longer exist? Yes,
he will no longer exist, just as if he never had exist-
ed. I cannot predict, nor can anyone, what concrete
form the final stage of rational life will be. There
was a time when not only was there no life on the
earth, there was no earth, no sun, no stars.
"Every form of material is a category of history,
existing w i t h i n a specific period of time. This is a
general rule and man is no exception.
" I believe that in failing to uncover any sign of
life on Mars, the final experiments of the Ameri-
can Viking mission in effect proved that even the
simplest life forms do not exist in our solar system.
It is not very likely that the other planets can sup-
port life. True, some scientists suggest that life may
exist on some of the satellites of the larger planets,
but I don't think there are any grounds for this hy-
pothesis. A n insignificant number of stars have plan-
etary systems and probably only a few of these
show signs of life. As far as intelligent life is con-
cerned, I believe we are a biological phenomenon. Yet
perhaps somewhere there are other civilizations.
In any case, after ten years of passionate involvement
in research on the problem, my interest has cooled
considerably."
Another Soviet scientist, P. Makovetsky, recent-
ly proposed directing the search for life primarily
at the source of powerful radio emissionspulsars
in the Crab Nebula, thus increasing the chances of
success. His suggestion is a good one in that it con-
siderably narrows the field of search. But we shouldn't
rule out the rest of the galaxy.
As for the failure to find any extraterrestrial civi-
lization, Soviet scientist V. Troitsky has come up
with a convincing explanation: even the most highly
developed civilization has access to only as much
energy as its star possesses (our star is the sun).
The powerful transmitter needed to emit cosmic
signals would have to be located far from the given
planet to protect its inhabitants from radiation ex-
posure and prevent burning up the atmosphere.
Since the cost for such a transport would be enor-
mous, a civilization would have to construct a trans-
mitter many times less powerful than its star. But
that means the signal it sends would be very weak.
And if the means for searching for this signal are
as unsophisticated and inefficient as those man pos-
sesses at the moment, there is little chance of success.
A comparison could be made to building a huge bon-
fire in Prague and hoping that someone in Moscow
or London will see it. Of course, it seems to those
w h o built '.l"e f f ire that it is visible f r o m everywhere.
Other seen.lists disagree w i t h T r o i t s k y and believe
t h a t -adiowsves can reach distant stars and even carry
w i t h them codled information.
The questio n is, how can this i n f o r m a t i o n be trans-
mitted? Many scientists believe the most suitable
wavelengtn is 21 centimetres. Such emissions can
travel throjgln interstellar space w i t h virtually no
impediment a n d should be, according to V. T r o i t s k y ,
" k n o w n to all civilizations."
The tas< i s by no means trivial, and scientists
f r o m a number of countries have w o r k e d together
t o try to solwe it. For example, the USSR Academy
of Sciences' scientific council o n radioastronomy
formed a section on "Searching f o r cosmic signals of
artificial orig i n " . Scientists w o r k i n g in this area have
established t h a t there is little chance of f i n d i n g in-
telligent life closer than hundreds of parsecs away
f r o m the e a r t h . A n d the greater the distance, the
more complex the task f o r radio astronomers.
In 1974 A m e r i c a n scientists w o r k i n g w i t h the
three hundred metre radio telescope in Arecibo,
Puerto Rico, beamed a "cosmic l e t t e r " in the direc-
t i o n of Messier-13 Nebula. The signal included coded
information a b o u t our solar system, man and im-
portant chernical elements, and w i l l cross the path
of hundreds o f thousands of stars. I t is conceivable
that one will be inhabited by intelligent beings capa-
ble of receiving and decoding the i n f o r m a t i o n . A n d
then we will perhaps be sent an answer. Of course,
it will take 2 4 thousand years f o r the signal to reach
the edge of o u r galaxy, so we cannot expect an an-
swer for another 48 thousand years, i.e., sometime in
the 500th c e n t u r y . Earthlings w i l l have t o develop
some patience.
In August-September 1977 the US launched t w o
Voyager spacecraft t o study Saturn, Jupiter and Ura-

;77
12-825
nus. After fulfilling their missions the spacecraft
will leave the solar system and begin their endless
voyage through the universe. Attached to the ships
are t w o identical capsules containing a gramophone
record on a guilded disk pressed from a special alloy
and a diamond needle. The quality of sound should
be preserved for billions of years. On the record are
greetings f r o m people in sixty languages plus a vari-
ety of sounds: the voices of whales, cry of a newborn,
howl of the wind, noise of a train, screech of auto-
mobile brakes, splash of water and, of course, music:
Bach, Beethoven, rock-and-roll, blues, folk songs.
The capsules also contain more than one hundred
different images: human anatomy, the molecular
structure of D N A , shapes of our oceans and conti-
nents, flowers, birds, animals, snowflakes and a man
depicting the position of the earth in the Milky Way.
If one of the Voyagers is discovered, extraterrestrial
beings will be able to gain some understanding of
our civilization.
As we can see, scientists are divided in their views
concerning the question of intelligent life on other
planets. Some believe that life such as ours can de-
velop only given a rare combination of extraordina-
ry circumstances, and that intelligent life is not the
rule but the exception: the chances of finding it
elsewhere are negligible, if they exist at all. Others
declare that out of f i f t y billion planets similar to our
own, at least t w o to three billion in our galaxy sup-
port life and several millionintelligent life.
This last claim has been undermined by recent
studies which reveal that all the stars similar to
our sun are binary. Thus the surface temperature
of any planets which might be revolving around them
would fluctuate between extremes too great to sup-
port life.
Therefore, in all probability life is exceptionally

178 !
rare. But how can we speak w i t h any authority about
life on other planets when scientists cannot agree
as to how it arose on our own? The suggestion that
living cells arose f r o m non-living matter does seem
far-fetched. B u t there are scientists w h o adhere to
a hypothesis about the cosmic origin of life. They
believe that spores could have become attached to
meteorites and thus transported to earth.
An even more fantastic proposal suggests that a
highly developed civilization transported microor-
ganisms to earth for the purpose of propagating
life. Supposedly our "ancestors" should be return-
ing shortly to pay us a visit and check on the success
of their experiment.
T w o leading Soviet scientists specializing in the
search for extraterrestrial civilizations. Correspond-
ing Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences
N. Kardashev and V. Troitsky, have said that the
majority of historians do not consider this hypothe-
sis seriously; however, there is no scientific basis
for excluding the possibility that earth might have
been visited by other beings sometime in the past.
Research in this area offers much of interest.
Many scientists have dedicated their lives to
searching for answers to the secrets of the universe,
the formation of worlds and the possibility of civi-
lizations on other planets. Konstantin Tsiolkovsky
was one of the most distinguished of these scientists.
In his works he tried to envision space exploration
in the near and distant future. Predicting that man
would travel into space in rockets, he showed the
necessity for this exploration. Tsiolkovsky described
the earth as the cradle of intelligence, but said that
we could not live in a cradle forever.
The earth, Tsiolkovsky said, is only one of the pla-
nets where life is possible. Space travel w i l l provide
the material basis for the future of mankind. People
179
12*
are weak today, but in a million years their power
will be such that they w i l l be capable of altering not
only the earth's surface but its oceans, atmosphere,
vegetation and themselves. People will learn t o con-
trol the climate; they w i l l rule beyond the solar sys-
tem just as they do on earth. In their search for light
and space, they will travel beyond the solar system,
reaching other suns and utilizing their fresh supplies
of energy to replace their own dying star. People
will also build structures on other planets and as-
teroids. In the event that the earth begins to cool,
the people of the future will save their world by tow-
ing it to another orbit nearer the sun or, w i t h the help
of jet rockets, transport it to another galaxy.
Tsiolkovsky believed that man's reward for space
exploration would be the eternal life of humanity.
He was a great humanist and optimistic about the
future. There was, in his mind, only one condition
to be met for man to f u l f i l his great destiny: the cos-
mos must be a realm for peaceful cooperation. Fai-
lure to meet this condition would bring general
destruction.
Space exploration in recent years has shown that
many of the predictions made by the great scientist
have already been realized or have at least become
real prospects.
Tsiolkovsky had many interesting views. Speaking
about rockets, he once said: "Many believe my con-
cern and interest in rockets is for the sake of rockets
themselves. But they are greatly mistaken. I consid-
er the rocket only the means, the method by which
we may penetrate into the depths of space. It is by
no means an end in itself... Unquestionably, we must
have rocket ships, for they will enable man to settle
other worlds. A n d my concern and interest is in that
settlement. If another means of movement in the
cosmos should be discovered, I w i l l accept it... What

180
is important is to resettle people in space. We must
adopt a 'cosmic philosophy'."
With profound philosophical cogency Tsiolkovsky
proved that large-scale space exploration was useful
both for scientific and practical purposes. Nor did
he divorce our planet from the processes at work in
the universe. He thought of the earth as an element or
particle in one enormous process of development, and
suggested that intelligent beings might be controlling
the development and structure of the universe. Tsiol-
kovsky believed the universe was inhabited and that
man would soon meet other intelligent life forms.

Ignition Sequence Start

The Soviet Union has achieved great success in

its space programme. This is a fact which makes the
history of Soviet rocketry of considerable interest.
One of the authors of this text met the Chief
Designer back during the period of the Vostok
construction. The designer of the spacecraft ex-
plained the construction himself and spoke about the
ships cosmonauts would fly in the future. After
Gagarin's flight, when other launches were being read-
ied, he suddenly appeared in Star City. Everyone
thought he was on vacation in the Crimea, and now
here he was walking down the street. Ten minutes
later everyone had been called to a meeting. Someone
asked what had happened to his vacation plans. He
scowled and replied w i t h a question of his own:
" H o w ' s the training programme?"
The complaints spilled out: there's not enough of
this; we're completely out of that. Most of the prob-
lems had to do with the lack of training apparatus.
Special equipment was hard to get, and simulators
were in short supply.
 "We'll think of something," the Chief said and
then left.
A week later t w o trucks w i t h the long-awaited
supplies rolled into the city.
People who met Koro/ev formed different, often
contradictory, views of his character. Some praised
his unpretentiousness and candour, others thought
him too gruff, and still others, who saw him only at
work, voiced their d o u b t that he had any kind of a
personal life. T o many it seemed that he never left
his job. There are no contradictions here. This was
a colourful, strong personality. True, Korolev was
touchingly sincere, unpretentious and accessible.
But he could also be mercilessly strict and demanding
whenever he came into contact w i t h slackers and
loafers. He exacted precision and order at all times
and in all things, and was intolerant of vanity.
When the first cosmonaut recruits met the Chief,
he told them w i t h characteristic frankness:
" I f you're here to achieve heroic feats, we aren't
going to get along. We have work to do. It is diffi-
cult but extremely interesting. This is what we must
prepare f o r . "
Later it became k n o w n that Korolev kept an otto-
man in a small room off his office. This was where
he slept during the long and d i f f i c u l t days before
launches. His heart was already giving him problems,
and his nerves were stretched to snapping. But
whenever he was needed, he could be found on the
job.
We provide here a few of the documents from
Sergei Pavlovich Korolev's personal records.
His personal history, written in 1952:
" I was born on December 30, 1906 in the city of
Zhitomir. Both my parents were teachers. My father
died when I was three. I was raised by my mother
until I was ten, and then by my step-father, an engi-

182
neer-mechanic. A t present my step-father, Grigory
Mikhailovich Balanin, is an assistant professor at the
Moscow Institute of Transportation Engineers and
my mother is retired. I have no brothers or sisters.
" I completed secondary school, the final t w o
forms at the construction vocational school in Odessa
where I acquired the trade of roof-tiler. I studied
another t w o and a half years at the aeromechanical
section of the Kiev Polytechnical Institute. In 1927,
when the KPI closed this section, I transferred to
the aeromechanical department of the Bauman
Technical Institute in Moscow. I graduated in 1929
after defending my graduation thesisthe design
of a two-seater plane that had already been con-
structed and was operational by that time. In 1930
I graduated f r o m the Moscow School of Pilots while
continuing my work.
"During the entire period of my studies I lived
on my job earnings. From 1924 to 1927 I worked
at various jobs (newspaper deliverer, carpenter, etc.)
" I n 1927 I began to work at a plant in the All-
Union Aviation Amalgamation...
" M y designs for light aircraft and gliders were
accepted for production, and several of my articles
on aviation technology were published.
"in 1929 I began to study rocket technology.
Continuing my work at the All-Union Amalgamation,
I also headed one of the first groups on rocket tech-
nology (formerly GIRDJet Propulsion Study
Group). In 1933 I went to work in this field full-
time and continue my work in this field at present.
" B y 1951 I had completed 40 scientific works
and project designs (see list)...
"Since 1947 I have headed the Special Design
Bureau."

In 1946 Korolev was appointed Chief Designer

183

i
i
i
for the construction of long-range guided ballistic
missiles. A t the same time, chief engineers were
named to head such divisions as jet engines, guidance
systems and logistics supplies.
The Soviet Union's rocket building industry was
launched under extremely d i f f i c u l t conditions. The
c o u n t r y had not yet recovered f r o m the aftermath
of the Great Patriotic War (1941-1945): both indus-
try and agriculture needed t o be rebuilt. Meanwhile,
the ominous threat of another war was in the air.
In the autumn of 1948 the first Soviet long-range
missile, the R-1, was ready f o r testing. On October 10,
it was successfully launched, f l y i n g a distance of 2 8 8
kilometres and hitting the target. The construction
and testing continued.
In August 1957 an intercontinental ballistic mis-
sile was launched successfully, a tribute to Korolev's
engineering genius. It was the start of a revolution
f r o m single- to multi-stage rockets. The Chief De-
signer's daring decision t o b u i l d a huge rocket elimi-
nated many problems. The incredible reliability of
all the rocket stages elicits admiration even today.
Throughout this entire period Sergei Pavlovich
remained didicated to achieving his dreamspace ex-
ploration. The first rockets b u i l t by his design bureau
had already been f l o w n to heights of one hundred,
t w o hundred and more kilometres w i t h scientific
instruments and animals on board. These were k n o w n
as "academic" rockets.
On October 4, 1957 the world's first artificial
satellite was launched, heralding the start of the space
age. Less than t w o years later, lunar probes were
sent into space.

In his f i l m " T h e Taming of Fire", director Leo-

nid Khrabrovitsky shows the Chief Designer of
long-range ballistic missiles at the most d i f f i c u l t p o i n t
in his lifethe establishment of the Soviet missile
and then space rocketry industry. The f i l m protago-
nist, designer Bashkirtsev, is a composite character-
ization, and his biography includes many aspects
f r o m the life o f yet another leading designer of Soviet
space rocket technologyHero of Socialist Labour,
Lenin and State Prize Winner, D. Sc. (Technology)
Aleksei Mikhailovich Isayev.
In order to give the reader a clearer understanding
of the type of person Isayev was, we reproduce here
some of the letters, documents and reminiscences
of the people w h o knew h i m well.

Aleksei Isayev's brother, . M. Isayev USSR State

Prizes Winner, D. Sc. (Technology), w r o t e :
"Aleksei inherited many of his character traits
f r o m our father. He was compliant in his personal
relations b u t just as f i r m in achieving his goals. He
was impressed that our father volunteered for the
f r o n t in 1915, even though as an assistant-professor
of the law faculty at Petersburg University he was
exempted f r o m service. He fought as the commander
of a cavalry machine-gun u n i t in the Caucasus. The
Revolution did not cause him to waiverin 1918
he became a member and professor o f a socialist
academy.
"We lived in a small apartment in Moscow. There
was one desk f o r all of us. Our father, Aleksei and I
t o o k turns using it. A t one time we were taught
mathematics in school by Andrei Kolmogorov (who
later became an academician) and physics by A. V. Fa-
leyev (the author of school textbooks).
"Each summer we w o u l d travel w i t h our father
through the Crimea, Caucasus and Central Russia.
Years later, while he was studying at the Mining Acad-
emy, Aleksei travelled independently, either by
himself or in the company of his close friend Y u r i
Beklemishev (Krymov). He was true to that friend-
ship for many years. On September 20, 1941, Yuri
Krymov, by that time a well-known writer, was
killed at the front.
" A f t e r graduating f r o m a ten-year school, Aleksei
enrolled in the electromechanical department of the
Moscow Mining Academy. In June 1930, t w o months
before he was to complete his studies, he was ex-
pelled. A number of widely different educational
reforms were under way at that time, many of which
were by no means well-founded or really necessary.
Aleksei had protested against one of these. A f t e r
his expulsion, he went to work on the construction
of the Magnitogorsk Iron Works."

Taken f r o m a letter written by A. M. Isayev to

Yuri Beklemishev (Krymov) on November 24, 1930.
" I am now back at the design bureau. Remember
how I beat my chest w i t h my fist and swore not to
design anything? But I had to. I chose the lesser of
two evils, which turned out to be the evil of design-
ing. A n d now, perhaps, and not even perhapsI'm
happy w i t h my work. Our design bureau consists
of our chief, me, a technical designer, and t w o drafts-
men-designers, not counting two silly young girls
and a slow, old copyist. I was able to demonstrate
that despite my inexperience, I knew more about the
work than all of them. So, undoubtedly, I will get
the most complicated work...
"The biggest problem now is living quarters.
I'm still living in a communal barracks where it is
impossible to do anything but tell anecdotes. A n d
I desperately want to take up the study of something
like electrotechnology or English. The problem will
soon be solved. I am fed up and angry. T o m o r r o w I'm
going to see the deputy head of construction and I
won't leave w i t h o u t the key to a hotel room.

186
 "Well, time to close. Please give this letter t o papa.
He w i l l f i n d it interesting."

. M. Isayev:
"Aleksei w o r k e d on the Magnitogorsk project
u n t i l October 1931. Then he q u i t his job, returned
to Moscow and re-enrolled in the Academy. In Janu-
ary 1932 he graduated and, in accordance w i t h his
request, was assigned a j o b at the Magnitogorsk Iron
Works. F r o m there the road w o u l d lead h i m to the
construction of the Zaporozhye Steel Amalgama-
tion."

F r o m a letter w r i t t e n by A. M. Isayev on A p r i l 7,
1932.
" I breathe in life, the smell of m y 23 years, my
remarkable 23 years. How w o n d e r f u l is the earth,
h o w bright the sun that bathes it, and the airthick,
sonorous, carrying the marvelous sounds emitted
by steam engines, cranes and excavators!
" T h o u g h everyone is stilt wearing a coat, I'm
walking w i t h o u t a hat and in my shirtsleeves, but
I still feel I have t o o much on. I w a n t to take o f f
my shirt and embrace the dry earth, to feel a boiler
plate against m y naked body, t o breathe, breathe
and sing.
"So what if there's no b u f f e t or canteen at the
plant, as long as you can take your 4 0 0 grammes
of b r o w n bread o u t of your pocket at noon and wash
it d o w n w i t h water.
"What's wrong w i t h waking up at half past five
f r o m the loud noise of the constructionthe dozens
of steam engines, cranes and excavators shoving their
sounds through your open w i n d o w ?
"What's w r o n g w i t h pouring o u t a glass o f cold
Dnieper water and drinking it (that way you d o n ' t
feel hungry) and latching on to the buffer of a w o r k

187
train that takes y o u along w i t h a c r o w d of other
people right f r o m a fantastic new c i t y to w o r k
drawings and w o r k dilemmas, to casings, iron and
concrete?
" W h a t ' s w r o n g w i t h suddenly getting a wonder-
f u l idea for raising an inclined bridge up to a blast
furnace, running across the steppe to it, and know-
ing that there, where larks are singing t o d a y , in six
months' time steel w i l l be pouring out? A n d w i l l
my f o o t slip as I stand at the very top of the blast
furnace under construction and mentally draw the
outlines of the bridge that w i l l be b u i l t here?
" A f t e r all, there's t o m o r r o w , and the day after
t o m o r r o w and many more days. Do y o u t h i n k I'll
build one Dnieper plant during this time? Y o u are
mistaken. I'll be everywhere, in many places, be-
cause I am 23, only 23!
" I s n ' t this the t r u t h , fellows?
A. Isayev"

From a letter w r i t t e n by A. M. Isayev on March

17, 1934 f r o m N i z h n i Tagil.
"Greetings m y lovely f a m i l y !
" I relax on m y days o f f , b u t the other five days are
spent in intensive w o r k . The days aren't very produc-
tive. There's a l o t of talk and d i f f e r e n t people come
by w h o need explanations, advice and instructions.
Visits to the director, lunchall this takes up preci-
ous time. The fact is, we d o n ' t k n o w how to organize
ourselves, our time and our w o r k , how to speak
briefly and t o the point. B u t when everyone goes
home at 6 o'clock, I remain alone in the large build-
ing. W i t h amazing speed, my designs are sketched on
paper. I sit u n t i l 11 or 12, sometimes u n t i l one
o'clock in the morning, and when I leave, the watch-
men stick their heads o u t into the long corridor,
wondering what I am doing there at such a late hour.
190
 "The biggest project I decided to work on here
is a district cement factory. I'm making sketches and
a technical drawing. The factory is a good one. I
like it very much. I put a lot of thought into it and
outdid the Americans. When it's built, I will be able
to take pride in it as the best thing I ever did...
" I have a house now. There are people living here
w i t h w h o m I spend the few hours that remain f r o m
my flights of fantasy in the construction sphere. They
feed me when I'm hungry and bring, whenever they
can get them, sweets. Frequently, we are filled w i t h
y o u t h f u l exuberancewe launch into horseplay
in the streets, wallow in the snow, climb over the
construction site, and go sledding.
" T h e evenings are sometimes melancholy. Yester-
day after a hard day at work, we fried potatoes and
drank tea, and then sat around hardly speaking. Each
was thinking what a great group of chaps we were
and how good it was to be together, that we would
soon be taking off in different directions and would
perhaps meet sometime in the distant future on
another construction site. A n d that we would never
in our lives live this time again.
Aleksei"

From A. M. Isayev's personal records.

"Dear Comrade Director,
"Circumstances compel me t o t u r n t o you direct-
ly w i t h the request to allow me to work in aircraft
construction.
" I have been interested in aviation for a long time
and can say that I am not entirely ignorant of the
subject. Work at the design bureau is my only way to
prove to you that I have designer ability. A t any rate,
you w i l l be risking less than what you have to gain,
for, as you know, it is those w i t h the ardent desire
who move any project ahead.

189
 "One year will be sufficient for me to become an
aviation engineer and take a 'legitimate' place in
the aviation industry.
" I am not asking for a large salary or even an apart-
ment. I am completely free now and can start work
immediately.
" I f my request has proved convincing, have the
secretary inform me at my home address.
Isayev"

Lenin Prize Winner, Cand. Sc. (Technology)

A. A. Tolstov:
"Isayev came to work at the V i k t o r Bolkhovi-
tinov design bureau in 1934. During those first years
our teams worked side by side and our desks were
next to each other. I observed how Isayev mastered
the aviation technology that was new to him. He
worked quickly, easily and confidently. It was clear
that he had a large and solid general technical back-
ground and remarkable engineering talent.
" I n the early thirties work was begun in the coun-
try on the construction of new types of engines for
airplanes and rockets. Isayev became interested in
this promising field.
" I n 1940 the Bolkhovitinov design bureau under-
went a real 'identity crisis'. It was evident that not
one of the projects already begun could be comple-
ted, and the Bureau's management could not find
new work. One of the engineers at the bureau, A. Be-
reznyak (a graduate of the Moscow Aviation Insti-
tute) developed an idea for creating a fighter-plane
('interceptor') w i t h a liquid-fuel rocket engine.
According to Bereznyak's calculations, such a plane
would have considerably greater l i f t velocity and
speed than the planes w i t h internal combustion en-
gines being constructed at that time. The faster,
more powerful jet engine planes would be more

190
effective in countering enemy bombers.
"Bereznyak shared his idea w i t h Isayev (whom
he evidently chose as the most likely to support
his project). And, indeed, Isayev liked the idea and
began t o help Bereznyak w i t h the design. Bolkho-
vitinov soon noticed that his t w o employees were
working 'on the side'. He declined to accept the
project, but allowed the t w o men t o continue the
work in their spare time.
" T h e start of the Great Patriotic War in 1941 w i t h
subseauent air raids and the threat and then actual
bombing of Moscow sped up the decision-makina
process: the State Defence Committee (SDC) issued
a resolution 'On the construction of fighters w i t h
liauid-fuel rocket engines'."

Chief Designer, D. Sc. (Technology), Lenin and

State Prize Winner A. Bereznyak:
" O u r friendship was not based on frequent meet-
ings or lively correspondence. Often all that was need-
ed was a telephone call to learn how the other was
doing, how his work was going, and, if necessary, to
offer to help.
"We came to appreciate each other almost as soon
as I transferred to work under him in the mecha-
nism maintenance team. We became even closer after
we began to work together on the interceptor project,
which, at the decision of V. F. Bolkhovitinov, would
later be k n o w n as ' (from the first letters of our
last names). A t first just the t w o of us worked on the
projectin the evening, late at night, and on our
days off. But once the Bolkhovitinov Plant was in-
formed of the SDC resolution, the entire collective
worked on the project day and night. One month
and ten days after the resolution was issued, the plane
was rolled out to the air field.
"Throughout this entire time practically no one

191
 left the plant. We snatched sleep whenever we could
and stood guard on the roof of the building, extin-
guishing the many fire bombs German planes dropped
when they failed to make it to Moscow. We also spent
time digging trenches and tank ditches, and setting
up antitank obstacles.
"This was how we lived and worked till the end
of October 1941. A t that time we received orders to
evacuate the plant to the Urals. In a matter of days
all the equipment had been dismantled and docu-
ments packed away. Aleksei Mikhailovich raced
through the plant w i t h everyone else, taking d o w n
machines and loading them into cars.
" O n October 25 the convoy started on its way.
On November 7 we arrived at our destinationan
old, half-destroyed tube-casting plant w i t h o u t floors,
windows or doors. We spent our first night in the
only large building in the villagethe churchsleep-
ing on the floor. The next day everyone began to
unload the cars and clean up the plant to make it
f i t for work as soon as possible.
"Our youth and the conviction that we were en-
gaged in very important work for the f r o n t gave us
inexhaustible strength, bolstered our confidence and
kept us from despairing, even when things d i d n ' t
always turn out the way we had hoped."

Chairman of the State Commission, Lieutenant-

General V. S. Pyshnov:
"Feeling the acceleration of the ', pilot Grigori
Bakhchivandzhi began to increase the angle of ascent.
From the ground, the plane seemed small. But the
flame behind the nozzle continued to burn. A t an
altitude of 1,500 metres, the plane banked a turn.
When it had nearly completed a semi-circle, the flame
disappeared. The active phase of the flight was over.
Now the plane glided soundlessly. It slowly descend-

! 92
ed and approached the runway. The landing was
a little rough, and the small landing gear broke. Bakh-
chivandzhi was unable to make a good approach. In
order to decrease his speed in time, he had to slide
along the wing.
"When the plane finally stopped, it was immedi-
ately surrounded by a ring of people. The pilot was
pulled out of the plane and carried. Many intuitive-
ly felt that they had witnessed a historical event."

Yuri Gagarin, the world's first cosmonaut:

" I f Grigori Bakhchivandzhi had not made his flight,
there would have been no flight on A p r i l 12, 1961."

A. A. Tolstov:
"The age of rockets had come. We were inundat-
ed w i t h orders from the developing new industry.
Isayev's group was not the only organization involved
w i t h engines, because many people were worried
the new work in engine construction was extremely
risky (there were certain grounds for this concern).
Managers thought it necessary to have the work dup-
licated, so separate groups were formed to work on
similar questions. But in time everyone realized that
such duplication was unnecessary and our 'compet-
itors' joined us.
"Here Isayev did everything he could to make the
former 'competitors' feel like f u l l and trusted mem-
bers of the j o i n t collective. He never hinted at a di-
vision between 'ours' and 'theirs', between the 'old-
timers' and the 'newcomers'."

A. V. Flerov, USSR State Prize Winner:

" I n 1949 there was a rumour that we were going
to join Isayev's group. We used to see him in the cor-
ridors, always wearing a worn leather jacket and w i t h
a smile on his face. His group seemed to be as casual

j 193
13-825
as he wasyou had trouble figuring out who was
the head and who were the subordinates.
"Just before the switch was made, we started to
make inquiries about him. We weren't very happy
when we heard him called a 'tyrant'. I tried to find
out what he had done that was tyranical. It turned
out that he had once reprimanded an engineer for
designing a mechanism w i t h o u t first verifying that
the necessary materials were available. As a result,
they had to be ordered from outside and valuable
time was wasted. But what really angered Isayev was
the engineer's statement: 'It's not my problem. There's
a state standard for the material: let them get it.' "
"This incident made a favourable impression on
me. I, too, could not tolerate formalism. I waited
to see what would happen.
"One day I was called up by Isayev who asked
me if I had heard our section would be joined w i t h
his. I replied that yes, I had heard this. Then he asked
me to be so kind as t o come to his office.
" I went w i t h , as they say, an uneasy heart. When I
opened the door I saw a strange scene: ten or so
people were sitting in a relaxed manner around a
large table. I d i d n ' t notice Isayev right away. He
was sitting to the side, straddling a chair faced to-
wards him, and immediately got down to business:
"Describe the main employees in your section,
not just their work but their personalities."
" I began somewhat nervously, but I gradually
felt more at ease. Everyone seemed so good-natured.
There wasn't a trace of anxiety left. Isayev concluded
the conversation by saying:
" 'We'll get along fine.'
" A n d we did g e t ' along for more than twenty
years."

V. F. Chebayevsky, D. Sc. (Technology):

194
 " I think I was lucky: as a young engineer I worked
under A. M. Isayev. We were a friendly family of en-
thusiasts w o r k i n g in a spirit of creativity, industrious-
ness and dedication.
"We were the builders, and we were the ones to
clean up the construction site. Aleksei Mikhailovich
took part in all this. He w o u l d place someone else
in charge and w o r k w i t h a handbarrow or shovel,
or load barrels, trusses and cisterns.
" O n e Saturday when Aleksei Mikhailovich was
helping in a general clean-up, he was t o l d a scientific
researcher f r o m another institute was waiting for him
in the reception area.
" 'Well, tell h i m to come here!' was the reply.
" A few minutes later a rather imposing gentleman
dressed in a neatly pressed suit and carrying a mackin-
tosh over his arm walked up. The t w o men greeted
each other. When Aleksei Mikhailovich learned what
his visitor was interested in, he t o l d him:
" 'Hang your coat over that door and pick up the
other end of this hand barrow. We'll talk as we w o r k . "
" T h e man could do nothing else b u t lend a hand.
For about t w o hours the t w o men carried rubbish,
sometimes stopping to draw something o n the ground
w i t h a stick. They w o u l d disagree, discuss the matter,
and once again pick up the handbarrow.
" I d o n ' t k n o w what k i n d of agreement they
reached, b u t I remember how w a r m l y they said good-
bye. The visitor left w i t h a friendly smile on his f a c e -
it was clear he was pleased w i t h how the meeting
had gone and wasn't a bit offended. Maybe he was
t h i n k i n g : 'When I get back I'll tell them I made a
personal c o n t r i b u t i o n to the construction of the re-
search facilities of Isayev's design bureau.

L. A. Pchelin, Lenin P r i z e w i n n e r :
" I once worked w i t h another design bureau. This

195
 was how things were set up: each engineer was given
an assignment and deadline for completion. If you
finished on time, you got your bonus; if not, accord-
ingly. A n d the bonuses, which were distributed each
month, were quite large. After an assignment was
completed, the blueprints were given to a control
group which looked for errors, classifying them into
eight categories. The first category, for example,
pertained to insignificant mistakesdrawing a border
of incorrect size around a blueprint, affixing a seal
slightly askew, etc. A t the entrance to the design
bureau building, a chart was hung where an engineer's
mistakes were listed beside his name. The result
was that if you made a bad design of a unit and want-
ed to fix it, you were taking a big risk. If you d i d n ' t
finish it on time, you could kiss your bonus goodbye.
And if in haste you drew a border around a blue-
print that was a millimetre off, you'd find yourself
listed with the botchers. Clearly, it was no use trying
to 'set the world on fire'. After all, it's easy to evalu-
ate the quality of a blueprint, but it's virtually impos-
sible to judge the quality of units that have never
before been designed.
"Isayev's design bureau was quite different. The
atmosphere was relaxed and friendly, and personal
initiative was encouraged. Everything was conducive
to creativity. We felt at ease, and the work was in-
teresting. Aleksei Mikhailovich had the wonderful
ability to get all his employees interested in a pro-
ject. When he gave an assignment he never set a strict
deadline. If the work was urgent he would say: 'As
soon as possible. The deadline is yesterday before
lunch.' Sometimes an engineer would get a better
idea for designing a unit and tear down from the
board the blueprints he had already drawn. Isayev
wouldn't get angry, he'd merely ask: 'What are you
doing?' 'It wasn't any good, Aleksei Mikhailovich.

196
I need to do it over.' 'And how are you going to do
it over?' A n d the two men would discuss new engi-
neering designs."

. V. Adianov, A. D. Slashchev:
"We were sent to A. M. Isayev's enterprise to pre-
pare for the testing of new parts. The day before we
were to leave, Aleksei Mikhailovich phoned to say
his Z I M (a model of car) would be waiting for us at
the train station.
"The Z I M was indeed waiting for us at the station,
and we quickly arrived at our destination. A meeting
was already in progress in his office. When it was
over we were taken to the shop floor. By the end of
the day all the preparations for the testing had been
made. We informed Aleksei Mikhailovich of this
and then told him we wanted to go look for a hotel,
promising to be back early the next morning.
" ' Y o u d o n ' t need a hotel,' he said. 'Here is the
key to a three-room apartment. I think it will serve
your needs.' A n d he handed us the key and a piece of
paper w i t h his address on it.
"We, of course, were flabbergasted and insisted
we w o u l d n ' t hear of it.
" 'Where do you think you'll f i n d a hotel now? My
apartment is empty: My relatives are at the country
cottage. That's where I'm going. Meanwhile, you
can rest w i t h o u t any bother or fuss. Take the
bedclothes and blankets and have a good night's
sleep. I'll see you at work in the morning.'
"We found the apartment quickly. It was as mo-
dest as its inhabitant."

Hero of Socialist Labour S. Ivanov:

"Sergei Pavlovich Korolev had faith in Isayev.
A n d Aleksei Mikhailovich appreciated that. A l l the
assignments were completed on time, " w i t h o u t a
hitch", as they say. It was no coincidence that Isay-
ev's design bureau was assigned to develop the retro-
rocket system for the Vostok, the spacecraft that
was to carry into orbit and return t o earth the world's
first cosmonaut. If the slightest error were made in
the system design, the spaceship would either be the
captive of the universe for ail eternity or burn up in
the dense layers of the atmosphere. And, whereas
it was possible to have a back-up (even double back-
up) automatic control system the Vostok construc-
tion design did not allow for back-up retrorockets.
Isayev could not make a mistake.
" O n April 12, 1961, Yuri Gagarin made his his-
toric f l i g h t . "

New ships and new cosmonauts continue to f o l l o w

Gagarin's path into space. Molniya automatic com-
munications satellites, Meteor meteorological satel-
lites, Progress cargo transport ships, and Salyut and
Mir orbiting research stations are exploring the mys-
teries of space. A n d each time a spaceship or satel-
lite travels beyond the clouds, we are reminded of the
pioneers of rocket technology, of those who stood
at its threshold, who did everything to make space
flights successful and a credit to the Soviet Union.

Launch after Launch

On October 4, 1957, what man had dreamed of

for centuries became a reality. A powerful rocket
lifted into orbit a device designed and constructed
in the Soviet Unionthe world's first sputnik.
Since that time people have grown accustomed to
cosmic scales, to new understandings of speed, alti-
tude and distance. The automatic devices launched
into space have given scientists and researchers a
store of information that has made manned space

198
flight possible. For many years such automatic
machines have reliably served man, sometimes being
the sole means by which he studied the universe.
But it is man alone who, whether orbiting the earth
or travelling on an interplanetary mission, has the
capability to solve the riddles of the solar system.
Once man acquired the ability to explore space as
reliably and confidently as he did the earth's at-
mosphere, it was just a question of time as to when
the first manned space flight would take place.
Any new undertaking presents difficulties, but
the manned space flight programme was excep-
tionally complex. The Cosmonaut Training Centre
that was organized in the Soviet Union was the first
of its kind in the world, which meant that everything
had to be built from scratch: the organization,
training systems, simulators, etc.
General Nikolai Petrovich Kamanin, one of the
Soviet Union's most distinguished aviators, was
charged w i t h heading the training programme. He
would meet Yuri Gagarin and become the first
cosmonaut's mentor. Yuri would turn out to be a
w o r t h y pupil.
General Kamanin liked to relate how he became
a pilot: " I got my start in the Borisoglebsk Aviation
School for Pilotsone of our A i r Force's first military
academies. Many men got their start in life there."
In November 1929 Borisoglebsk School gradua-
tion exercises were held. A t that time there was fight-
ing along the Chinese-Eastern Railroad, which White
Chinese forces in Manchuria were trying to seize. So
every graduating cadet was hoping to be sent to the
Far East, to be in the thick of the fighting. Three
young men, including Kamanin, were chosen. But
by the time their mail-passenger train arrived at its
destination 16 days later, the fighting was over.
Nikolai Kamanin became a member of the Lenin

199
wing that had been transferred to that region. It was
here that the young pilot really learned to fly. His
comrades and the more experienced pilots frequently
helped him out.
Kamanin was once t o l d t o fly a short mission over
Lake Khanka. It was a night flight, and the sky was
filled w i t h stars. Kamanin felt alone in endless space;
it was like a dream. Suddenly the p i l o t noticed that
where the ground should be, according to his calcula-
tions, there were more stars. The water in Lake
Khanka was reflecting their light. But to Kamanin,
it seemed that there were stars everywhereabove,
below, forward, to the right and to the left. The
young pilot lost his head. He veered right and left
at random, no longer trusting his intuition. Then he
remembered the words of his commander: " F l y by
your instruments."
But how could he trust those mechanisms if he
was finding it hard to trust himself, when he felt he
had lost all his pilot skill? He was frightened but
managed t o overcome his fear and fly by the instru-
ment needles. A n d he survived.
This incident served the pilot well: he learned that
he could not be an ace w i t h o u t experience and skill,
just as he would have to improve his self-control.
People like this are characterized by another quality:
the ability to do the impossible.
Kamanin couldn't quite understand why he was
named commander of the pilot rescue operation to
save the members of the Chelyuskin expedition 1 . He

' T h e e x p e d i t i o n headed by O t t o Schmidt w h i c h in 1 9 3 3

set sail aboard t h e Soviet steamer Chelyuskin to attempt a
voyage across the N o r t h Sea f r o m Murmansk t o V l a d i v o s t o k .
In February 1 9 3 4 , the Chelyuskin was crushed b y ice and
sank. The people o n b o a r d sought safety o n the ice and were
later f l o w n to land b y Soviet pilots.
was, after all, only 25...
When word went round the camp that efforts to
reach O t t o Schmidt by dogsled had failed and there
was no hope of using icebreakers, Kamanin resolved
to f u l f i l the rescue missionthere was no other way
to save the people.
The flight to the Schmidt camp was long and dif-
ficult. Frequently Kamanin had to land to repair his
plane. The pilot was facing the perfidious winds,
severe cold and hummocks o f the Far North. Finally
he had f l o w n to w i t h i n a few kilometres of the camp.
Impatiently he pulled back the cockpit hood and
peered outside. The freezing wind burned his cheeks.
Just ahead he could make out a black spot. A minute
later he saw smoke, then a wooden barracks, a pole
w i t h a red flag and tents f r o m which people came
running, waving their arms and clambering over the
hummocks.
Later Kamanin would recall the scene:
" A s soon as I landed people surrounded the plane.
I was just as emotional as they were. Then O t t o
Schmidt embraced me. He had tears in his eyes, but
of course they were tears of joy. The people had be-
lieved in their country, believed it w o u l d make sure
they were rescued. A n d I represented that Great
Power. A l l this made the d i f f i c u l t trip worth it. This
was what gave me strength."
Willpower and determinationthese are t w o char-
acteristics a pilot must have. A n d it was not by
chance that pilots were t o be the first cosmonauts:
only the strong and able could penetrate the mys-
terious and inhospitable world of the planets and
stars. Since the professional skills of pilots are sim-
ilar to those of cosmonauts, they had a better chance
of passing the stages of the recruitment than
representatives of other professions.
Sergei Pavlovich Korolev, who could well under-
 stand the soul of a military pilot, supported this
opinion. He and Nikolai Kamanin developed a close
friendship, which only helped their work. Kamanin
was involved in the organization of the Centre right
from the start.
Everyone participating in the Cosmonaut Training
Programme tried to get the set tasks accomplished in
as short a time as possible. Space exploration was
being conducted at such a rapid pace that manned
space flight, which until recently had seemed to be a
distant goal, now appeared to- be reachable within
a matter of months. In March 1960 the future pio-
neers of the universe had already been grouped
together in a single detachment. They arrived, greeted
each other and almost as quickly began t o study and
participate in training exercises.
Even the novices had to run f r o m one enterprise
and organization to another asking for necessary
equipment and class materials. After overcoming
their initial uneasiness, all the members of the detach-
ment began to make suggestions for teaching and
training the cosmonauts. They discussed class cur-
ricula and training facilities, and each understood:
time does not wait, what had to be done had to be
done quickly.
The days of the future cosmonauts were filled: at
the airfield, in the laboratories, in the classroom;
planes, catapults, simulators. A n extraordinary com-
bination of exercises, extraordinary tests, extraordi-
nary disciplines. Each new day was similar to the one
before only in the early morning: rising, exercise
programme and breakfast. The rest of the day was
spent in entirely different activities, and for a good
reason: during actual space flight the cosmonaut
faced enormous risks.
Finallya man in space.
Yuri Gagarin's flight proved the Cosmonaut Train-

202
ing Programme had been organized correctly: giving
the p i l o t endurance reserve that w o u l d enable him to
spend even more time in o r b i t around the earth.
Gagarin coped very well w i t h the g-load that ac-
companied the rocket's entry into o r b i t , and had no
real problem w i t h weightlessness during the f l i g h t or
the gravitational pull he experienced when the rocket
reentered the denser layers of the earth's atmosphere.
A f t e r Gagarin's flight, the cosmonauts, along w i t h
Sergei Korolev, spent some time relaxing at a sana-
t o r i u m on the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus.
Korolev informed the cosmonauts t h a t the next
spaceship, scheduled to be launched in August, w o u l d
n o t make just three orbits b u t spend t w e n t y - f o u r
hours in space.
Before making this announcement Korolev met
w i t h Kamanin and asked h i m :
" D o y o u t h i n k your pilots can d o even more?" He
was referring to the amount of time spent in space.
Kamanin replied he thought they could and asked
how (ong Sergei Pavfovi'ch t h o u g h t the next cosmo-
naut should sDend in o r b i t . The Chief Designer an-
swered:
" T w e n t y - f o u r hoursseventeen orbits. It w i l l be
d i f f i c u l t . B u t it w i l l be a great leap f o r w a r d for us."
Kamanin expressed his d o u b t :
" T h e physiologists w i l l strongly protest it. There
w i l l be a war w i t h the d o c t o r s , "
"We can't be afraid of taking risks, as long as we
have grounds for believing in the mission's success.
We'll meet w i t h the pilots and (et them decide."
The meeting was held and a few months later
Gherman T i t o v orbited the globe seventeen times.
A f t e r the Vostok-2 flight, Vostok-3 and Vostok-4
were launched. A n d in June 1963 Valery Bykovsky in
Vostok-5 and Valentina Tereshkova (the first w o m a n
in space) in Vostok-6 went up.

i 203
 This is how Nikolai Petrovich Kamanin describes
these launches and preparations for them:
" 1 1 June. Baikonur. 5.00 a.m.
Only t w o weeks have passed since I left Moscow,
but it seems like an entire year. There is so much
work...
The weather has been goodno hotter than thirty
degrees. Usually the thermometer shows more than
forty in June.
Yesterday at 22.30 I received some important
information: solar activity had sharply increased, and
it is expected that the radiation level in the earth's
orbital sphere w i l l increase as well. A t an emergency
meeting called by Academician Keldysh, many of the
scientists urged postponing the space venture. A t a
meeting of the State Commission, we came to the
same conclusion. So the world w i l l have to wait to
find out the name of the first woman daring enough
to travel to the stars... It has already been decided
who will be the principal candidate for the launch
and who w i l l be her back-up...
Safeguarding the cosmonauts f r o m radiation has
been a matter of great concern. And w i t h good rea-
son. Space is penetrated by all kinds of radiation, the
lethal effects of which man is protected f r o m by the
earth's dense atmosphere. It is still not entirely clear
how to protect the orbiting spaceship f r o m the
effects of cosmic rays.
Unfortunately, sometimes people can make a
dangerous situation even worse. A year ago, on July
9, the US exploded an atomic device in space, and a
few months later conducted another atomic test. The
resulting radioactive cloud came close t o harming
American astronaut Walter Schirra, who was in
orbit at the time. It is hard to comprehend such ac-
tions by the US Government.
In May 1962 Gherman Titov and I were in Amer-
(ca. Our trip was filled w i t h appearances and meet-
ings. I remember our meetings w i t h the astronauts.
They were modest men, dedicated to their profes-
sion. One day John Glenn invited us to his house
for dinner. He lived 60-70 kilometres f r o m Washing-
ton in a modest, two-storeyed house. We arrived
when Glenn's family (his wife and t w o children) was
at work. The table was quickly set, and we were
served "specialties of the house". The famous as-
tronaut said his dream was to travel to other planets.
A few days later at a scientific symposium where
both Glenn and Titov spoke, the t w o men were given
an unusual presentlarge Dutch clogs. As they were
given the gift, they were told:
" M r . Titov and Mr. Glenn, these clogs were made
out of the same tree. It would be wonderful if they
always walked together." Gherman was given the
left clog, Glennthe right.
June 14. A remarkably sunny and quiet morning.
Instead of exercising I swam for half an hour in the
river. I felt strong and invigorated afterwards. Today,
of all days, I will need to be.
This is the day Valery Bykovsky w i l l be launched
into space aboard the Vostok-5. A few days later, a
woman-cosmonaut will be launched. The solar activ-
ity has stabilized, and there are no obstacles to hinder
the venture.
T w o hours and fifteen minutes before the launch,
a bus drove the cosmonauts to the rocket. The
back-up cosmonaut stayed on the ground while
Bykovsky rode up to the top of the rocket in a lift.
Now began the most crucial phasethe last verifica-
tion before the launch. A forty-minute countdown
period was announced.
June 15. Slept about t w o hours. I was on duty at
mission control. Bykovsky's flight is proceeding
normally. But Bykovsky has already given us a scare.

; 20b
207
 During one of his orbits, he stopped answering our
calls. We hooked up the television connection and
saw him. The telemetry showed a pulse rate of 54
beats per minute. We had begun to worry, but on the
next orbit we learned that Valery had just gone to
sleep ahead of schedule...
It was a sleepless night I spent at mission control
with Korolev. He has looked pale and wane these
past few months. The tension of the work is having
an effect. Not too long ago Sergei Pavlovich was
seriously ill. For several days he ran a temperature
of just under forty. The doctors recommended
strict bed rest: his lungs were inflamed. But how
could he forget about work when there was a launch
scheduled shortly? From morning till night the phone
rang in his room, and Korolev talked until he became
hoarse.
I was asked to intervene. I tried to tell him the
sooner he got well the sooner he would be on his
feet and could return to work. But Korolev merely
answered: " B y the way, I also want to go up in space.
But you, Nikolai Petrovich, have become a bureau-
crat. You d o n ' t even think about f l y i n g . "
It was a strange conversation. I tried to tell him a
cosmonaut must be in excellent health and youngno
more than f o r t y . A n d he argued the opposite. The
result of our disagreement was that his temperature
rose. I walked back to my hotel room, regretting
that I had been unable to carry out my mission. A n d
I understood that, in principle, the Chief Designer
was right. Later the requirement for ideal health
would be lifted. As for my wish to fly, I would have
given anything to fulfil it...
June 16. A t exactly 12.15 the bus drove Valentina
Tereshkova to the launch site. She had been selected
by the State Commission to take the cosmonaut's
chair in Vostok-6. A t the base of the rocket she was
206
given some flowers, which she in turn presented to
Korolev.
The papers and magazines had a field day when
the TASS report about Valentina's flight came over
the wires.
June 20, Kuibyshev. Today at 11.30 the planes
that had picked up Valery Bykovsky and Valentina
Tereshkova arrived. The cosmonauts had fulfilled
their flight missions w i t h great success and deserved
to relax. But what kind of relaxation could there be
when the entire world was in a frenzy? The cosmo-
nauts were sent tens of thousands of telegrams and
letters.
Thousands of people came to meet Valya and Va-
lery at the airport. Of course they found it impos-
sible to contain their excitement. They broke through
the barriers and swarmed around the cosmonauts.
A t 15.10 Tereshkova informed the State Commis-
sion: "The launch went well; the pull was less than
five g's. After entering orbit, I saw the earth from
the left porthole, and f r o m the rightthe third
[rocket] stage. I experienced no unpleasant sensa-
tion in making the transition to weightlessness... I
photographed the earth, clouds and the moon.
" I could see thunderstorms over South America.
A t night I could easily distinguish the cities by their
lights...
"The first twenty-four hours I didn't feel the
weight of the spacesuit. But the second day, my
right knee began to ache. The helmet bothered me,
and was pressing against my shoulder. I got head-
aches from the telemetric sensors attached to my
head...
"The bread was dry so I d i d n ' t eat it. I wanted
some ordinary brown bread, potatoes and onion.
The water was cold and tasted good.
"The retrorockets fired smoothly. I flew towards

207
the earth backwards. The ship was steady, but oc-
casionally it rocked. The pull was approximately
eight g's. When the Vostok was burning in the dense
layers of the atmosphere, flakes flew past the win-
dow.
" I landed on soft ground. Immediately people
came running up to help me."
Valery looks good, Valyaa little tired. They did
a great job in space. It's nice that we d i d n ' t make a
mistake in choosing them...
Korolev is in a good mood. Once he introduced
me to an audience this way: " N o w to speak is one of
the first Heroes of the Soviet Union, my best friend,
who hardly ever becomes upset, even in the most
difficult situations. A n d if he does become upset,
just a little..."
When we were alone he asked me: " O n to new
work?"
In all honesty the leader of the mission was cos-
monaut-pilot Valery Bykovsky. He was in space al-
most five days, his ship making eighty-one orbits
around the globe and covering a distance of more
than 3,300,000 kilometres. It was only natural
that he set this record. While still in his aviation unit,
Bykovsky revealed himself to be a fighter-pilot
undefeated in air battle and the interception of air
targets. His work references contain many noteworthy
comments. For example: " H e fights energetically
in battle and knows strategy", "He endures g-load
very w e l l " , "He is extremely good at intercepting
air targets". The members of the Commission who
selected pilots for the Cosmonaut Training Centre
showed an interest in these qualities noted by the
young officer's flight trainers. A n d they were not
mistaken. During his training for space flight, Bykov-
sky showed himself to be a courageous officer who
easily mastered space technology. He was entrusted

208
w i t h carrying out the most d i f f i c u l t space venture
of all, and he fulfilled it honourably.
With her remarkable flight aboard the Vostok-6
spacecraft, Valentina Tereshkova increased the pres-
tige of Soviet women workers. Valentina confidently
passed the extensive specialized training programme.
Like the male cosmonauts, she went through all the
trainning sessions and testsin the rotation device,
centrifuge, altitude, temperature and isolation cham-
bers. She flew in the cockpit of planes, learned how
to control the plane wings and a parachute. A l l in all,
Tereshkova successfully passed the entire cosmonaut
training course. She developed in herself those qualit-
ies necessary for making an orbital flight. Like By-
kovsky she fulfilled her mission very well.
The single-manned Vostok spacecraft performed
successfully in space. But the time came when more
modern rockets appeared on the launch pad in Baiko-
nurthe Voskhod ships, which could contain an
entire crew. The Voskhod-1 flight, in which Com-
mander Vladimir Komarov, scientific researcher,
Cand. Sc. (Technology) Konstantin Feoktistov, and
medical doctor Boris Yegorov took part, marked the
beginning of a new stage in the w o r k of cosmonaut
crews.
A unique experiment was conducted aboard the
Voskhod-2; for the first time in history a man walked
in space. I t happened on 18 March 1965. The leg-
endary crew of the Voskhod-2 was in orbit just over
twenty-four hours. But this was long enough for cos-
monauts Pavel Belyaev and Aleksei Leonov to enrich
space research by their truly great accomplishment
Scientists, space technology engineers and cos-
monauts had long been interested in the possibility
of man's walking in space. If no danger to human
life existed outside a spaceship, if he could easily
move around in the airless environment and conduct

14-825
work there, the gates to space exploration would be,
figuratively speaking, thrown wide open. There
would be the possibility of replacing the ship's
worn-out exterior equipment, repairing it in space,
and helping crews in distress. Most important, it
would be possible to assemble in orbit an entire space
train composed of transport cargo ships and scientific
stations.
There, outside their ship, was a vast area of cosmic
questions that no one before had ever touched upon.
It was up to Leonov and Belyaev to invade this as
yet unknown world. They did everything to ensure
the successful outcome of the experiment.
Saying goodbye to Leonov, Sergei Korolev said:
"Just leave the ship and then immediately go back
insidenothing more." This one sentence spoken by
the Chief Designer said a great deal: space was still
largely unknown. A n y t h i n g could happen.
Leonov spent a few minutes in open space at a
distance of up to five metres from the ship. His con-
necting line to the ship was like an umbilical cord,
feeding him life. Commander Pavel Belyaev tensely
observed the space travel of his comrade, listening
to the crackling of the static in his earphones and
the thumping sound made by Aleksei when he
brushed against the side of the ship. The experiment
went smoothly, strictly according to plan. But it
could have been different...
It can be said of Pavel Ivanovich Belyaev that he
lived his entire life never wasting a single minute,
dedicating himself to fulfilling his dream of space
exploration. He was a teenager during the Great
Patriotic War. Like all his peers, Pavel dreamed of
the front. He applied to the Military Commissariat
many times and volunteered to be sent to the front.
But he was never accepted. He was too young. He did
manage to get what he wanted, however. He was sent

210
to an aviation academy.
He became a pilot and then a cosmonaut after he
demonstrated an interest in unusual flying missions.
As a member of the first group of cosmonauts, Be-
lyaev diligently and thoroughly studied the new
space technology. He trained for space flight and at
the same time helped his fellow cosmonauts. Soon he
was selected commander for the Voskhod-2.
Aleksei Leonov was just a boy in distant Kemero-
vo when the war began. But even there he felt its
breath. A large number of wounded were sent to that
small t o w n in Siberia. Aleksei met them at the sta-
tion and later helped out in the hospital wards. His
artistic ability was demonstrated at an early age. The
simple paintings he drew as a child were generously
presented to the neighbours. Aleksei was very interest-
ed in painting, but he d i d n ' t change his choice of pro-
fessionit was aviation all the way. A f t e r graduating
from the academy he served as a fighter pilot. It was
in his aviation unit that he was noticed by the cosmo-
naut selection committee.
Leonov has many good qualities: friendly, in-
quisitive, and w i t h the ability to notice details, ana-
lyze a situation and draw conclusions. According to
Sergei Pavlovich, it was Leonov's natural gifts that
led to his being selected a member of the crew that
would be responsible for carrying out a fundamental-
ly new mission. A n d the selection was completely
justified, just as it would be in the future when he
lived up to the hopes placed in him as a member of
the Soviet No. 1 crew and participant in the interna-
tional Apollo-Soyuz programme. For this second
feat in space Leonov was again presented the high-
est award of the International Astronomical Union.
But that would be later, in 1975, when the cos-
monauts would have Soyuz transport ships and
Salyut long-term orbiting stations. In 1965, how-

I 211
14*
ever, Pavel Belyaev and Aleksei Leonov flew the last
Voskhod.
The utilization of more modern space technology
marked the beginning of the next stage in space ex-
ploration.
Each rocket launch represented a significant step
in the process of understanding the universe and in
the development of the space programme. The
Cosmonaut Training Centre began work on a new
model of spaceshipthe Soyuz.
The Soyuz was a much different type of ship than
its precursors. It was more modern in every respect
with the ability to launch into orbit a crew of t w o or
three cosmonauts and allow them to w o r k in space
for a prolonged period. Working in conjunction w i t h
the Salyut scientific orbiting station and other
similar spacecraft, the Soyuz was capable of carry-
ing out serious scientific and technical tasks. It had
a docking device that would allow it to hook up
with other space vehicles, long-range radar equip-
ment. No other ship had ever had such devices.
The Soyuz was equipped w i t h additional, funda-
mentally new instruments, and these, together w i t h
the docking device, made the ship significantly more
modern, even unusual.
!n December 1966 a working docking device was
brought to the Cosmonaut Training Centre. The
cosmonauts, who had been divided into first and back-
up crews, began a new training programme. Each
group had its own specific and detailed flight plan.
The Centre had already been operating for six
years. It had become a well-organized institution,
and its team of experts continued to make scientific
advances. The programme used to train the cosmo-
nauts for the Vostok and Voskhod missions was
studied in detail and further developed; new doctors
and candidates of science joined the work team; the
cosmonaut-pilots themselves engaged in scientific re-
search. Much was done to improve the Centre's
training facilities, and new forms and methods of
training were introduced to prepare the cosmonauts
for the Soyuz flights.
The first launch drew near. Since the ship was
new, the first flight was in many ways a test. One of
the most well-trained cosmonauts. Colonel Vladimir
Komarov, was selected for the mission. The world
first heard his name t w o and half years prior to that
time when he flew aboard the Voskhod. Afterwards
Komarov had worked very hard, learning everything
about the Soyuz and its complex equipment. He had
spent many training sessions in the simulator and
working w i t h other special equipment. He had learned
the ship well, acquiring the necessary knowledge
and skills to f l y it. His years of study at the Zhukov-
sky Air Force Engineering Academy helped him to
gain a deep understanding of the new technology.
Vladimir Komarov was the first of the Soviet cos-
monauts to be launched into space a second time. He
faced the d i f f i c u l t mission of testing the Soyuz space-
craft. The launch took place on April 24, 1967.
Three weeks earlier, at the beginning of the
month, the cosmonauts met as usual to give an ac-
count of their training. Speaking at the meeting,
Yuri Gagarin stressed the d i f f i c u l t y of the coming
flight aboard the new manned spacecraft, saying that
there would be new aspects to the flight never before
encountered, and that the cosmonaut would have to
mobilize all his will, knowledge and skill to carry out
his mission.
" I t is virtually impossible to foresee everything,"
said Gagarin. " I t is evident that independent deci-
sions w i l l have to be made during the flight. A n d the
efficiency of the cosmonaut during the flight will
depend on his state of preparedness.

213
 Vladimir Komarov was well prepared for the
flight. He ran a full test of all systems while in orbit.
After completing his mission, he began to bring the
Soyuz out of orbit, confident in a successful out-
come. The ship performed well in passing through
the most d i f f i c u l t period of deceleration in the denser
layers of the earth's atmosphere and completely shut
down rocket speed. But when the main parachute
opened at an altitude of seven kilometres, the lines
became tangled, and the ship descended too rapidly.
This resulted in the death of the cosmonaut.
Despite the tragic outcome of its first flight,
Gagarin spoke highly of the new spececraft. Like
the other cosmonauts, he thought the Soyuz was an
excellent, modern ship w i t h a great future. Gagarin
did not want any unfounded suspicions to compro-
mise the new spacecraft. He defended it at every op-
portunity and himself prepared to fly it.
The engineers made some improvements and in-
creased the ship's reliability. Soon another cosmonaut
was sent up to test i t - H e r o of the Soviet Union and
Merited Test Pilot of the USSR Georgi Beregovoi.
When he first arrived at the Cosmonaut Training Cen-
tre, some of the employees thought he was just a
visitor or perhaps the representative of some avia-
tion unit sent to the Centre on business. After all
he was 44 years old and rather heavy. But one day
he was introduced to the cosmonauts as their new
colleague.
Beregovoi faced a d i f f i c u l t task: getting f i t for
space. Each morning he was on the track, using the
exercise equipment and trampoline. He was very
energetic and unusually industrious. Six months later
Beregovoi had reacquired his youth: he had lost al-
most ten kilogrammes, developed agility, and could
skillfully perform on the exercise equipment. He was
just as energetic in learning space technology and in

214
working w i t h the simulators. The Commission gave
him the go-ahead for the Soyuz-3 launch in October
1968. Georgi Beregovoi conducted a wide range of
experiments aboard the new ship. Using both au-
tomatic and manual controls, he approached another
Soyuz ship, this one unmanned, and positioned his
own ship in space. After stabilizing his position, he
turned on the Soyuz-3 engines and then fulfilled
even more experimental operations.
The morning of October 30, after four days in
orbit, Beregovoi confidently brought the ship down
for a landing. The descent from orbit was control-
led and the landing was soft and accurate.
The rewards of space flight increased significantly
during the era of long-term orbiting, and it was now
possible to seriously study the solar system. On the
other hand, even though scientists are optimistic
in predicting future space flights, it is clear that not
all the problems have been solved. Lengthy flights
entail a number of complexities which must be over-
come.
The Number One enemy remains weightlessness.
In conditions of space, the term "weightlessness"
is relative. One can think of the station and the cos-
monaut inside as both being in a condition of free
fall under the influence of the earth's gravity. They
fall w i t h equal acceleration, but due to the high
speed of orbit, "miss" and fly past the earth. A l l
the parts of the body and objects inside the station
move at equal speed, and forces are balanced. This is
how "objects" and "surfaces" act when there is actu-
ally no weight. This gave rise to the use of the term
"weightlessness".
Under such conditions the brainthe organ that
coordinates and controls man's actionsreceives
unusual bits of information. The sensory organs
react normally under the earth's gravity. But under

215
weightlessness, the signals from the skin, subcuta-
neous cells and blood vessels change. The brain must
try to understand correctly and utilize these signals,
assimilate and coordinate them. After long periods
of weightlessness, muscles forget to work to keep the
body upright as they do on earth.
Weightlessness develops new skills of coordination
previously undreamed of: the ability to float and
work suspended in the air. And this is not the mere
restructuring of man's physiology and psychology.
Cosmonaut Valery Ryumin said in one of his radio
transmissions: "Weightlessness teaches orderliness.
If you fail to put something where it belongs, you'll
spend a long time looking for i t . "
As the cosmonauts become used to weightlessness,
they develop new coordination skills. They become
quicker, more accurate and confident.
The already great experience acquired in space
flight reveals that long-term weightlessness most
affects the functioning of the cardiovascular, bone
and muscular, metabolic and circulatory systems.
Thus scientists have spent considerable effort in
trying to neutralize this effect.
During their lengthy space flight, cosmonauts
Alexander Ivanchenkov and Vladimir Kovalenok
took samples of their own blood. The tests revealed
a moderate decrease in the erythrocyte and hemoglo-
bin count, considerably less of a loss than what had
been noted in previous flights. This positive result
was connected w i t h the cosmonauts' using a wide
range of prescribed methods to preserve a sufficiently
high volume of blood circulation (which in part is
affected by the amount of water intake and physical
exercise).
One other fact should be noted: most people try
to get rid of excess body fat. In space an individual
involuntarily loses weight as a result of dehydration

216
and a decrease in muscle mass. A n d this is by no
means healthy. Interestingly, after spending 185
days in space, Leonid Popov and Valery Ryumin
not only did not lose weight but, for the first time
in the history of space flight, actually gained weight
while in orbit: the commander put on an extra 3,200
grammes, the flight engineer4,700. Both had an
excellent appetite, and both drank up to two litres
of water per day, mostly hot water. The volume of
calf muscle did not decrease by as much as that
noted in cosmonauts during previous flights, and the
muscular strength of the arms increased. The com-
mander could squeeze five kilogrammes more w i t h
his hand than before the flight, the flight engineer
eighteen kilogrammes more. This was a good sign
for the future.
Weightlessness a)so causes a change in taste. Usual-
ly the cosmonauts are given rations wrapped in indivi-
dual packages. Every six days the menu changes. But
the cosmonauts' requests for food are granted when-
ever possible. Items of food are sent to them by
transport ships and they are permitted to eat what
they want from the store of food on board the ship.
The cosmonauts are reminded to drink and eat suf-
ficiently, because living in space dulls feelings of hun-
ger and thirst. A n d if a body drinks an insufficient
quantity of liquid, this is immediately reflected in
the volume of circulated blood, which directly in-
fluences the quantity of erythrocytes, volume of the
heart chambers, vessels and other systems. A l l these
things are closely interconnected.
A n interesting phenomenon is observed. Once a
body has experienced weightlessness, it somehow
remembers it, making the second adjustment much
easier. This condition is being studied both theoret-
ically and experimentally. The influence of gravita-
tion on the development of the organism is being

217
studied not only in space flight but also on the
ground. For example, in one experiment, scientists
increased the gravitational pullcreating a condi-
tion of hypergravitation. For several months, start-
ing right f r o m birth, animals were spun around in a
centrifuge. For them, increased gravity was ordinary.
Simultaneously, a control group of animals observed.
The test animals which lived in a world of increased
gravity were smaller than those in the control group,
but the absolute weight of their bones increased. This
corroborates the theory of the linkage between
gravitation and growth.
Some scientists have suggested that since, as we
have already noted, the sense of taste and feelings
of hunger and thirst are dulled in space, perhaps
other senses are heightened. And, in fact, cosmonauts
sometimes report they can observe objects on earth
which would ordinarily be impossible to distinguish
at such a distance. Apparently visual acuity remains
the same, but this effect is produced due to changes
in the optical properties of the atmosphere. This
phenomenon requires further study.
Life in space is not easy. A n d no matter how
carefully a crew is trained, something unexpected
can always happen. For this reason it is important
that cosmonauts have quick reflexes and various work
skills. The training programme on earth requires
the development of these skills as well. For instance,
before Gagarin's flight, approximately one thousand
tests were made on the Vostok. Four times that
number were made on the Voskhod-2, and even
more on the Salyut space station.
The space research programme in the USSR and
abroad continues to developfrom automatic earth
satellites equipped w i t h simple instruments and
capable of performing only the most uncomplicated
scientific tasks, to complex space equipment and

218
manned space flight; f r o m manned spaceships w i t h
a limited flight programme to long-term scientific
orbiting stations w i t h rotating crewsspace labora-
tories equipped to handle the most sophisticated
research and experiments for scientific and economic
purposes.
Another point of interest concerning the cosmo-
nauts: unlike aviation pilots, they cannot make test
flights into space. A cosmonaut is launched into space
for the first time w i t h o u t an instructor and after only
training in a simulator. Nonetheless, he must perform
all the tasks envisaged by his flight programme.
This is why exacting requirements are made on the
forms and methods of training the cosmonauts.
In the first phase, all cosmonauts in the same de-
tachment are trained in accordance w i t h a single
programme. They are taught the fundamental the-
ories of space research, study the construction of
manned spececraft and their systems, make train-
ing flights in planes and parachute jumps, and par-
ticipate in a programme of physical and medical-
biological training. This general space training lasts
approximately two years.
During the second phase, the cosmonauts begin
to train in crews in accordance w i t h the specific
programme of the upcoming flight. The principal
crew as well as one or t w o back-up crews are trained
for the same programme. While engaged in specific
flight training, the cosmonauts study in detail the
systems, scientific equipment, and flight programme
of the spacecraft they will be flying. They must learn
to operate the spacecraft and all its systems, to
develop a close working relationship between them-
selves and also with the flight controllers and those
working in logistics.
Flying and parachuting are important in both
phases of the training. These exercises develop

219
aptitudes necessary for space flight: psychological
readiness for d i f f i c u l t conditions, emotional stability,
and the ability to quickly make the best decision.
Flying a plane can serve as a distant model for
space flight. When operating a fighter, the pilot
orients himself in space, conducts radio transmis-
sions, evaluates the situation and frequently has to
make quick decisions.
Health requirements for the future cosmonaut
trainee can be compared to a very fine sieve. Obvious
illnesses and problems that could rule out participa-
tion in the space programme, for example, vestibu-
lar disturbances, are uncovered through an out-
patient programme. In-patient tests are done to dis-
cover any hidden illnesses which may not show any
outward symptoms or be accompanied by complaints
but which could manifest themselves during flight.
Even after making sure that the candidate is in
good health, it is important to check his reaction to
different tests and reveal the limits of his function-
ing. A battery of tests has been devised for this pur-
pose. It is possible to evaluate the functioning of the
cardiovascular system, the vestibular apparatus and
other physiological systems. These tests are con-
ducted in the centrifuge and the pressure chamber
and w i t h special medical instruments.
Psychological testing is very important in prepar-
ing the cosmonaut for flight, for it can reveal how
the cosmonaut will act in unusual circumstances,
whether he w i l l reveal positive or negative emotions,
if he w i l l act in a calm and collected manner or give
in to panic.
Under the mattresses in the beds where Y u r i
Gagarin and Gherman Titov were sleeping the night
before the first space launch, doctors had placed
sensors which were to provide information about
the cosmonauts' sleep patterns. Peaceful sleep would

220
be indicated by an even curve, a broken curve would
show restlessness.
They say that Sergei Pavlovich Korolev, who
stayed in a house close to the cosmonauts' got up
four times during the night t o check on the recording
device (that was outside). He was amazed to see how
peacefully the cosmonauts were sleeping.
" I f I had been in their place I would never have
been able to sleep that soundly," he commented.
With the development of space technology, the
need to test it in space, and the growing complexity
of scientific research, it became necessary to include
engineers and other specialists in the space crews.
These individuals were called flight engineers and
cosmonaut-researchers. I t became necessary to adopt
a more flexible approach to the selection and training
process of this new group of candidate cosmonauts.
By space medicine standards, these were " n o longer
young" individuals who were not in the best physical
condition. So before a final decision was made,
these candidates underwent a " c u r e " to improve
their health.
Though the future cosmonaut might acquire a
good deal from the centrifuge and the temperature
chamber, he would not go far w i t h o u t reqularly
participating in sports or physical training, which
included a vigorous morning exercise programme
and team sports such as football, volleyball and bas-
ketball plus acrobatics and swimming.
Many examples can be cited to demonstrate the
cosmonauts' endurance and strength of character.
Take, for instance, Vladimir Kovalenok. Training
for the launch of the Soyuz-25 spaceship, the cosmo-
naut was working out on a bike exerciser. One day
he noticed he was working harder than usual, and the
doctor noted an increase in his pulse rate. But, since
he was a man of discipline, he completed his work-
 out. Later it was discovered that the pedals had been
set to turn at maximum resistance, much more than
usual. This incident reveals not only the character
of the cosmonaut but also his excellent physical
condition. Something similar took place w i t h another
member of the crewValery Ryumin. While moun-
tain climbing, he kept up w i t h his guide. But Ryumin
was also carrying a backpack containing lunch for the
entire group and weighing twenty kilogrammes.
Another medical factor should be taken into ac-
count. This is what doctors refer to as "psychological
compatibility".
Cosmonaut Aleksei Gubarev explains:
" Y o u can be reborn in space. I experienced this
during my flight w i t h Georgi Grechko in 1975
aboard the Salyut-4 space station. Working in condi-
tions of weightlessness is very difficult, especially
at first when one has not yet completely adapted
to it. During this time one observes certain devia-
tions from the norm: you don't feel well, you be-
come extremely tense and in general feel uncomfort-
able.
"So, the first three days of our work in orbit
Georgi and I got along just about the same as we did
on earth (we were friends). We had business-like,
cordial relationsthe best for getting work done
under such conditions. A few days later we began
to feel more irritable. Sometimes there was a dis-
crepancy in our evaluations of the same event. I soon
noted that Georgi had become short-tempered and
edgy. But on earth he had been known for his self-
control, modesty and equanimity.
"Some people will say, 'But what about your train-
ing? Isn't it supposed to prepare you for that?'
Maybe. But this never happened to us in the simula-
tor on earth.
"We both tried to overcome our new nervous

222
condition. We had to smooth out the rough edges,
so to speak, to forgive and accept the unusual beha-
viour of the partner. We were for the most part
successful...
" I think that this w i l l be even more of a problem
for future space expeditions."
Each space flight is a test of new space technology.
Also, it should be remembered that the cosmonaut
does not merely register occurrences and admire
the beauty of the galaxy. He analyses information
obtained by the ship's systems, evaluates situations
and is called on to react quickly to different situa-
tions. The ideal cosmonaut has a perfect knowledge
of the ship's instruments and is able to operate all
its systems. In short, he must be an experimenter.
A n d w i t h each flight the mission of the researcher
and experimenter becomes more complex.
As has already been noted, orbiting stations have
made it possible to conduct a significant number of
different tests and experiments. I t was aboard such
stations that successive records were set for man's
length of time in space. As manned flights have in-
creased in duration, the number of experiments
conducted aboard the station has also grown. New
experiments required new energy. But where to tap
it? When some experiments were being conducted, it
was possible to conserve some electricity at the ex-
pense of other "users". But another method had to
be found. It was clearly not feasible to have a Progress
cargo ship deliver charged batteries. Experts suggest-
ed equipping the station w i t h new solar batteries. But
this would have required construction and assembly
work in open space, something which had not yet
been tried in the history of manned flight.
Aboard the Sa/yut-7, Vladimir Lyakhov and Ale-
xander Alexandrov prepared to venture out into
outer space. The cosmonauts had carefully adjusted

223
the spacesuits left behind by Anatoly Berezovoi and
Valentin Lebedev. The importance of accurate adjust-
ment cannot be overemphasizedspace allows for no
mistakes.
The decisive day arrived. The "Protons" (the code
name given the cosmonauts by mission control) went
into the adaptor module and closed off the hatch
which kept the living quarters of the space station
hermetically sealed. When the command came from
Flight Control Centre, the men opened the hatch
into space. The first to leave the orbiting station
was flight engineer Alexandrov. He hooked up the
portable television camera which would allow earth
to watch the cosmonauts as they worked. The people
at Flight Control would not only be observing the
cosmonauts' activities but also carefully analyzing
them and comparing them to the movements used
to assemble a solar battery on earth. Commander
Lyakhov came out to assist the flight engineer. The
station was now empty; the Soyuz T-9-Salyut-7-
Progress-18 orbiting complex was now bieng operated
by Flight Control.
While one team of experts at the Centre was con-
trolling the orbiting complex, another, consisting of
all manner of specialists, from engineers and designers
to doctors, was observing the major eventthe
assembly of a new solar battery panel. The cosmo-
nauts' movements were very slow. Even what seemed
at first to be a simple operation took several tries to
complete. This was the effect of weightlessness.
Nonetheless, the t w o cosmonauts worked w i t h per-
fect precision. It was evident that the training they
had undergone in the hydraulic pool at the Train-
ing Centre in Star City (where conditions of weight-
lessness were simulated) had paid off. They removed
the pleated solar battery from the container. Flight
Control issued a command:
A n d r i a n N i k o l a y e v , c o s m o n a u t - p i l o t of
t h e USSR
Gherman T i t o v , c o s m o n a u t - p i l o t of the
USSR, skiing

Gherman T i t o v and his back-up, A n d r i a n

N i k o l a y e v , head for the launch pad.
Baikonur c o s m o d r o m e , A u g u s t 6 , 1961
Gherman T i t o v and A n d r i a n N i k o l a y e v ,
c o s m o n a u t - p i l o t s o f t h e USSR

C o s m o n a u t - p i l o t of t h e USSR Pavel
Popovich in space aboard the Vostok-3.
August1962

C o s m o n a u t - p i l o t of t h e USSR V l a d i m i r
K o m a r o v in p r e f l i g h t t r a i n i n g
Cosmonauts Y u r i Gagarin, G h e r m a n
T i t o v , V a l e n t i n a Tereshkova, A n d r i a n
N i k o l a y e v and Pavel Popovich, 1 9 6 4

Cosmonaut-pilots w i t h General N i k o l a i
K a m a n i n and General L e o n i d Goreglyad
Cosmonaut-engineer Aleksei Yeliseyev
describes t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e landing
capsule t o f u t u r e cosmonauts

Cosmonaut-pilots of t h e USSR Aleksei

Leonov and V a l e r y Kubasov
Cosmonauts-pilots of t h e USSR Pavel
Popovich and V l a d i m i r L y a k h o v
exercising in the space station

C o s m o n a u t - p i l o t o f t h e USSR Leonid
K i z i m at physical t r a i n i n g exercises
C o s m o n a u t - p i l o t o f t h e USSR
Georgi Beregovoi, t w i c e Hero
o f the Soviet U n i o n

Cosmonaut-pilots o f t h e USSR
Vladimir Dzhanibekov,
Svetlana Savitskaya and Igor
V o l k at a press conference

Cosmonaut-pilot
Gennadi Strekalov in
preflight t r a i n i n g at the Salyut
station
The assembly of t h e Vostok spaceship
at t h e cosmodrome's assembly-testing
b u i l d i n g , A p r i l 1961

A t t h e site of G h e r m a n T i t o v ' s landing,

August 1961
 "J

T o u c h d o w n o f t h e Vostok landing
capsule
Launch of t h e Vostok booster r o c k e t
 "Rest a bit. Protons. The station is going into a
shadow. You can resume work later..."
A special winch helped to straighten out the
pleats. A new "sail", 4.6 square metres in area, grew
over the station.
The cosmonauts slowly made their way back to
the hatch. They took one last look at the stars and
the planets and then entered the compartment,
testing to make sure it was hermetically sealed.
After finally removing their heavy spacesuits, they
could at last wipe the sweat f r o m their faces. They
had worked in open space for two hours and f i f t y
minutes. Flight Control gave them pleasant news:
"Great work! Congratulations!"
The assembly of a new solar battery panel was not
the usual type of experiment. It opened a new direc-
tion in manned space flightthe creation of huge
orbiting complexes from parts delivered by rockets
f r o m earth. These complexes could be new manned
orbiting stations capable of providing for hundreds
of cosmonauts, or giant solar energy stations supply-
ing the earth with energy by means of laser rays. Such
projects will be considered in the not too distant
future.
Vladimir Lyakhov and Alexander Alexandrov
completed their flight in November 1983. After being
in orbit one hundred and f i f t y days, the crew re-
turned to earth.
The space orbiting station has not only increased
the possibilities for conducting research of the earth,
space and the universe but has also made it possible
to carry out interesting international programmes.
Representatives of the participating countries in
the Intercosmos programme and also of France and
India have worked aboard the Salyut-Soyuz orbit-
ing complex. After returning from his space flight,
French cosmonaut Jean-Loup Chretien said: " M y

243
16*
 Soviet colleagues have made me an addict of space. I
want to go up again."
It should be noted that French scientists have a
number of interesting ideas about space. For example,
one project envisions launching into the earth's
orbit three "sail" satellites that will look like giant
kites. The pressure of light will cause these unusual
satellites to travel to the moon. The cosmic sails
will be made of teflon, a special synthetic material.
Concerning the Soviet-Indian space venture, the
following incident is of interest. After making his
historic flight, Yuri Gagarin received invitations from
the governments of many states. He visited many
countries throughout the world, including India.
Hundreds of thousands of people of this ancient
country turned out to greet him. During a meeting
w i t h members of international space and aviation
clubs in Calcutta, Gagarin was given a silver globe w i t h
a satellite. He observed then: "India will be in space."
The years passed. On April 3, 1984 at 17.09 the
Soyuz T-11 spacecraft was launched from the Soviet
Union. Aboard were Soviet cosmonaut-pilots Yuri
Malyshev, Gennadi Strekalov and cosmonaut-research-
er Rakesh Sharma of the Republic of India. Mean-
while, cosmonauts Leonid Kizim, Vladimir Solovyov
and Oleg A t k o v , who had been orbiting the earth
for months aboard the Salyut-7-Soyuz T-10 space
complex, awaited the crew of the Soyuz T-11. On
April 4, 1984 the docking occurred.
The work-filled days aboard the orbiting space sta-
tion began. Various medical experiments were con-
ducted, the condition of the cardiovascular system of
the cosmonauts was tested by measuring the bioel-
ectrical activity of the heart and registering the micro-
movements of the body caused by the heart's ac-
tivity.
Rakesh Sharma tested the effectiveness of special
yoga exercises in preventing some of the negative
effects of weightlessness on the human organism. The
results of this experiment are certain to be of great
interest to doctors.
In addition to medical experiments, the cosmo-
nauts aboard the orbiting space complex carried out
geophysical research. They observed and photo-
graphed the Nicobar and Laccadive Islands, the ice
cover of the Himalayas and the geological structure of
the territory of India.
The week passed quickly, and soon it was time to
leave. Leonid Kizim, Vladimir Solovyov and Oleg
A t k o v remained in space while the Soviet-Indian
crew returned to earth. On 11 April the cosmonauts
touched down safely.

Once, in answer to a journalist's question, Yuri

Gagarin said: "We are often asked why we need such
exhausting work, why we work so hard when we
know we are wearing ourselves out. But do people
facing an important task or a great goal think about
themselves, about how much their health is being
undermined, about how much strength, energy and
effort they can give and not ruin their health? A real
patriot, member of the Young Communist League
and communist never think about it. The most
important thing is to f u l f i l l the mission."
Gagarin's words reveal just how significant the
training programme on the ground is for space flight,
and how much of a workload and what responsibil-
ity the specialists and management of the Cosmonaut
Training Centre carry. A n d it is no coincidence that
the work of the cosmonauts and the employees of
the Centre have been highly commended by the Com-
munist Party and the Soviet Government. In 1968 the
Cosmonaut Training Centre was awarded the name
of the pioneer of space travel, Yuri Gagarin.
The Museum

The idea behind establishing a museum in Star

City arose when schoolchildren, who had come to
visit the training centre asked Yuri Gagarin to show
them the museum. Gagarin wondered: " A r e they
kidding or giving us a h i n t ? " The next day he ap-
proached his fellow-communists: "Let's build our
own museum. It will offer a unique account of our
work, and anyway, we need a museum for history
and the younger generation."
Today the museum contains more than eight thou-
sand exhibits. Some are the gifts the cosmonauts
received when travellingpresents from workers,
farmers, heads of states and governments and public
organizations. Here also is a wide collection of pho-
tographs, albums, paintings and personal belongings
of our space explorers, or objects they took w i t h
them into space. Yuri Gagarin's map case is today an
important exhibit. There is also a box of coloured
pencils that Aleksei Leonov used to draw his sur-
roundings while in space. They are mute witnesses
of man's first walk in space. Everything connected
with the history of the Cosmonaut Training Centre
has been collected here in this museum. A l l the
residents of Star City have become interested in the
museum, and new exhibits are acquired almost
everyday.
Yuri Gagarin's work study has been moved to the
museum, where it is kept just as it was. There is
nothing extraneous in the room: everything deals
with his work. His well-known handwriting is seen
on the desk calendar: "Flight training"; " F l i g h t train-
ing planning"; " I n f o r m a t i o n " .
Gagarin's whole life was dedicated to his work.
Also on the desk is the text of a speech Gagarin had
planned to give at a commemorative gathering celeb-

246
rating the 100th anniversary of the birth of Maxim
Gorky. There is also a bust of Tsiolkovsky, a lunar
globe and a bookshelf containing the autographed
works of famous and little-known writers in all the
languages known to man. Hanging in the closet is
a grey greatcoat and a capobligatory items for all
military men. On the wall is a stopped clocka frozen
moment in time. It happened on March 27, 1968. On
this day the Motherland lost one of her most glorious
and dedicated sons.
Gagarin's name has become a symbol for courage
and a measure of heroism. It is known throughout the
world. It is a name we first heard on an April day in
1961, and it will live forever. Gagarin accomplished
a great deal in his short life, but there was also much
he did not live to achieve.
Soon after making his flight, Gagarin addressed a
session of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR and said
that the Soviet cosmonauts were prepared to explore
space w i t h the American astronauts, to develop co-
operation for the good of world science and the
people. He did not live to hear the news announced
on radio and television: "The Soyuz-Apollo docking
has taken place."
But he had done much to make this event a re-
ality.
The Star City museum contains many exhibits
concerning preparations for and the mission of the
Soyuz-Apollo j o i n t space venture. Here are found not
only model spaceships, spacesuits and equipment,
but also the pennants and state flags exchanged by
the Soviet and American cosmonauts.
The significance of the museum is considerable.
It represents the history of the establishment and
development of the Soviet space programme and tells
about the heroic deeds of the space exploration
pioneers. For example, the Star City museum has on

247
display the life-support system that allowed Aleksei
Leonov to make man's first walk in space.
By studying the many displays of spacesuits in the
museum, it is possible to track the development of
the technological equipment provided for the flights.
There are "old-fashioned" spacesuits, such as the
one Gagarin wore, and the most modern protective
gear, which looks like a little house. The museum's
" w a r d r o b e " also contains the lightweight jumpsuits
worn by the cosmonauts aboard the Salyut station.
These have numerous pockets on the sleeves, chest
and waist.
But the major function of these work outfits was
to prevent the atrophy of muscles and bones, which,
in conditions of weightlessness, do not have to work
as they do on earth. For example, when Andrian
Nikolayev completed his 18-day flight, he compared
the feeling in his legs to that of a man whose "legs
were turned into a tail". But after spending 63 days
in space, Klimuk strode across the steppe w i t h o u t
problem. He and Sevastyanov had w o r n the special
work jumpsuits that kept them from " f o r g e t t i n g "
the earth's gravity.
The principle behind the jumpsuits is really quite
simple. Doctors had asked engineers at the construc-
tion bureau to make "weighted clothing". Light
weights sewn into the fabric constantly provide a
vertical pull on the body. Thus the cosmonaut's
muscles that provide vertical stability are in effect
continually working, although under conditions of
weightlessness there is no need.
Another item of space clothing was designed t o
help counter the effects of weightlessnessthe sports
suit, which is w o r n by the cosmonauts in their orbit-
ing " s t a d i u m " where they can walk, run, jump,
and l i f t barbells and hand weights. The only impor-
tant thing to remember is to fasten yourself secu-

248
rely to the floor before taking the first step on the
moving treadmill. If not, you'll f l y up to the ceiling
and wind up w i t h a bump on your head. For this
reason the cosmonauts' sports suits have special
straps for tying the body to the treadmill.
The first cosmonauts were given soft helmets to
wear, but they were found to be unnecessary: weight-
lessness quickly teaches by trial and error, and
already by the second day the cosmonauts feel like
fish in waterall they have to do t o get from one
place to another is move their " f i n s " .
Also in the museum are exhibits of the kinds of
foods the cosmonauts eat. It had been established
right f r o m the very first space flights that weightless-
ness did not interfere w i t h a person's ability to eat
food and drink water. Aboard the Vostok and Vos-
khod spacecraft, the cosmonauts were given rations
of pureed f o o d in tubes. Later the assortment of food
products increased considerably to include " r e a l "
foodcutlets, cooked meat, veal, and boneless
chicken. To facilitate eating and to prevent crumbs
f r o m forming, the food is prepared in bite-size
morsels. Each cosmonaut is given 1.6 litres of water
per day, the total amount of liquid, including that in
the food, is about 2.9 litres.
Just how complicated the eating process is in
space was demonstrated by the first American astro-
nauts. Scott Carpenter, for example, went hungry
after removing the cellophane wrapping from a
sandwich he was trying to eat and watching it turn
into crumbs that were impossible to eat under the
conditions of weightlessness. Gordon Cooper had a
d i f f i c u l t time trying to eat as well. Due to a mecha-
nical failure, he was unable to drink the water f r o m
a container specially designed to facilitate drinking
in space. A n d since his food was dehydrated and
packed in containers w i t h an attachment for adding

I 249
water to make the food edible. Cooper experienced
hunger as well as thirst. Though he was in orbit
only thirty-four hours, he lost almost three kilo-
grammes.
The museum has acquired as exhibits a model
of the Vostok spaceship and training equipment. Now
that we have an entire space station consisting of sev-
eral rooms in orbit it is d i f f i c u l t to praise the cramped
space, few instruments and minimum c o m f o r t of
this first spacecraft. But Soviet scientists put much
effort into the design and construction of this pro-
totype. Five satellites, more or less exact copies of
the ship that would carry the first man into space,
were launched f r o m May 1960 to March 1961 just
to further develop systems already designed.
By early A p r i l the Vostok was completely ready
for a manned flight. Weighing 4.73 tonnes, it was
composed of t w o compartments: the landing module
and the equipment section. These were connected
by four belts held together by a pyrotechnic lock.
The landing module, w i t h the cosmonaut's cabin,
was made in the form of a sphere 2.3 metres in
diameter, weighing 2.4 tonnes and covered w i t h
thermal insulating material.
The cabin had three portholes protected by heat
resistant glass and also an ejection seat for a cos-
monaut dressed in a spacesuit. The seat contained a
ventilation system for the spacesuit, parachute sys-
tems and an emergency landing kit. The seat also
served as a means of rescue should the launch be
unsuccessful. Special rocket engines attached to it
could eject the cosmonaut from the danger area to
a height sufficient for the rescue parachute system
to work.
Inside the cabin was the pilot's control panel for
operating the ship. With the aid of a miniature globe
attached to the instrument panel, the cosmonaut

250
could track the location of the ship w i t h respect to
the earth.
The air conditioning system inside the cabin al-
lowed for maintaining normal pressure and oxygen
levels and a temperature of 12-25C. There were
enough food and water supplies and sufficient chem-
ical substances to regenerate the air to last ten days.
The Vostok had radio equipment to keep the cosmo-
naut in contact w i t h the earth, a telemetric system
for monitoring the condition of the cosmonaut
and controlling the functioning of the systems,
the condition of the air and control panel instru-
ments, and also a television screen to permit visual
viewing of the cosmonauts.
On April 12, 1961, Gagarin's flight justified the
choice of design and equipment for the ship. In the
future the Vostok would serve as a prototype for the
construction of more modern spacecraft designed
for more complicated missions.
The museum's visitors' book includes some dis-
tinguished guests:
The Polish delegation of the United Workers'
Party: "We wish the cosmonauts of today and tomor-
row new great achievements."
The delegation of the Bulgarian Communist Party:
"The colossal achievements of the Soviet Union in
the exploration of space demonstrate the great his-
toric role of the CPSU and Soviet Union in the de-
velopment of human progress."
"Man's highest creative achievementthe con-
quering of space by Soviet heroeshas evoked the
admiration and respect of the creative p e o p l e -
writers, poets, artists and sculptors, composers and
actorswho have come here to demonstrate their
gratitude to those who have forever brought glory to
our c o u n t r y . "
A n d many, many others.

251
The Endless Roads in Space

We have tried not only to answer the question:

"Why should man explore space?", but also to des-
cribe the people who were the first to venture into
space. A n y movement ahead is based on man's
quest to gain knowledge.
In April 1968 the world's first cosmonaut. Hero of
the Soviet Union Yuri Gagarin was to address a UN
conference on the research and utilization of space
for peaceful purposes. He had wanted to speak about
the new profession of space exploration and the great
tasks space research would have to solve in the
interests of modern civilization. Killed in a tragic
airplane crash, Gagarin was unable to share these
thoughts.
The documents and papers of the first cosmonaut
reveal his thoughts and emotions. These few yellowed
papers are now priceless.
...It is in man's nature to seek the new and the
unknown; he has an unquenchable thirst to under-
stand his environment. This is the key to man's con-
tinuous and endless progress.
"Expeditions travel to all corners of the globe.
Scientists seek, find and seek again, searching for the
unknown in order to give it to the people. Restless
tribes of pioneers and discoverers walk the desert,
plough the oceans, descend to the b o t t o m of the sea
and fly beyond the clouds.
" A half-century ago KonstantinTsiolkovsky wrote:
'Our planet is the cradle of reason, but one cannot
live in a cradle forever... Man will not remain on
earth forever, he will race after light and space, at
first timidly penetrating the atmosphere and then
conquering the rest of the solar system.' Today we
are witnesses to the realization of those prophetic
words.

2
 " T h e rapid developments in science and technol-
ogy in the last decades made it possible to lauch an
artificial satellite into a circumterrestrial orbit in
October 1957. In 1961 man took the first step out
of his cradle into the endless expanse of the universe.
Four years later he left his spaceship and looked at
the earth through the thin glass visor of his space
helmet.
"Thus began the space age, the exploration of the
universe.
"Today hundreds of complex and ingenious ma-
chines circle the earth in their own orbits. They
help man study the structure of the earth, predict
the weather, navigate ships, maintain wireless com-
munication with the remotest spots on earth and
provide many other services. Yet despite the enor-
mous significance of these automated orbiting ma-
chines and interplanetary stations, it is man who
plays the decisive role.
"Even the most modern machine must be pro-
grammed beforehand, while man can alter a pro-
gramme in accordance w i t h circumstances and
observe those slight variations and nuances in his
surroundings that a mechanized system would over-
look. A n d it is d i f f i c u l t to overestimate the import-
ance of personal impressions and perceptions. Though
they may not always be precise, they are influenced
by emotions, which sometimes make them more
important than the dry data processed by a machine.
As the saying goes: better to have seen something
once than to have heard about it ten times.
"Today we can state w i t h confidence that the
duel between machine and man has been w o n by
man. The machine is his servant and helper, and in
some cases man cannot do w i t h o u t machinery. But
man's place in future space flight is assured."
The years have passed and experience has given

; 253
credence to Gagarin's ideas about man's new profes-
sion and its importanceinto space for the sake of
the earth, " t o extend our knowledge about the uni-
verse, to learn new laws and use them for the good
of man". "The profession of the cosmonaut must be
a peaceful profession and the results of research ...
must be used to make life flourish"this was Gaga-
rin's wish, this is his legacy to mankind, this is the
Soviet space exploration programme.
Our planet is small, a grain of sand in comparison
with the stars and galaxies. But the people who live
on this grain of sand are capable of reason, and their
thoughts have travelled far beyond the earth's limits,
beyond the invisible barriers of their own galaxy
into new galaxies discovered and named by the
inhabitants of earth. The years will pass and people
will no doubt reach other planets, perhaps other
worlds. A n d the answers to the most important
questions concerning the development of the uni-
verseis there life on other planets? is there some un-
known process in the universe whereby energy and
mass are transformed?are to be found in space ex-
ploration.
Man is great and powerful, and his endeavours are
great. We were not searching to set records when we
reached for other planets, sent probes to Mars and
Venus, orbited the moon, directed the soft landing
of lunar modules on its surface, devised a means of
guiding back t o earth containers filled w i t h lunar
rock...
Not too long ago we were dreaming of long-term
orbiting stations w i t h rotating crews. A n d now we
are planning the construction of space cities, astro-
polises w i t h well-developed industry and production
and living complexes.
In addition to solar energy, space colonies will
use thermonuclear fusion as a source of energy.

254
Clearly, these " f l y i n g cities" will make use of plasma
engines which offer an important advantage: the
expenditure of fuel is twenty to f i f t y times less than
usual. This has already been proven experimentally.
In short, much work lies ahead.
 NOT TO BE FORGOTTEN
Georgi Beregovoi

Time inexorably moves ahead. Just a short while

ago the entire world applauded the Soviet Union's
launching of the world's first artificial satellite, and
now dozens of countries have embarked on space
research.
The launch of the artificial satellite over t h i r t y
years ago opened a new era in the history of man.
It represents the fulfillment of man's bold dreams,
the triumph of science and technology. Just as Soviet
scientists had predicted, artificial satellites paved
the way t o the endless universe, opened the road t o
the planets of the solar system and laid the founda-
tions for organized and extensive scientific research
of our galaxy.
On October 4, 1957, the TASS report w i t h the
news about the launching of the first artificial satel-
lite disrupted the humdrum, highly organized exist-
ence of the cadets at the aviation academy. One of
them was Y u r i Gagarin. Everyone was excited. That
which had just a short while before seemed a dist-
ant fantasy, an impossible dream, had become
reality. The cadets gave flight t o their fancy and be-
gan t o dream about voyages t o the planets of the
solar system and wondered w h o would be the first

256
cosmonaut. The opinions varied. Later Gagarin
w o u l d say that he was afraid t o admit to himself
how strongly he was drawn to space. But that feeling
w o u l d never leave him; it w o u l d strengthen and en-
courage him.
Writing t o his family, Gagarin explained:
"Everyone was overjoyed by the news about the
launching of the earth's first artificial satellite. It is
a great victory for our country, for all mankind.
Now it seems a manned flight is not t o o distant. I
w o u l d love t o go myself."
Other satellites, interplanetary probes and rockets
w o u l d all be launched after this first satellite. On 12
A p r i l 1961, for the first time in the history of the
world, a man flew into space. Soon multi-manned
spacecraft were being launched, and space stations
w i t h rotating crews were orbiting the earth. Today
space exploration is making a contribution to the
solution of problems in such spheres as navigation,
communications, meteorology, agriculture, geology,
astronomy, geophysics, metallurgy, medicine, car-
tography and many others.
Space exploration has made it possible for man t o
see the other side of the moon and, in 1969, to set
f o o t on its surface, to reveal many of the secrets
of our solar system, discover the earth's radiation
belt, gain an understanding of the inexplicable
phenomenon of the Northern Lights, and learn more
about the mysterious neutrino particles.
Man's voyage into space accelerated scientific
and technological progress. Space research has given
birth to entirely new fields of modern science and
technology and stimulated the development of those
already in existence. Space research has given science
a number of complicated tasks t o f u l f i l , demanded
the quick solution to many scientific and practical
problems, and called for new methods of research.

257
I'-825
 A t present it is impossible to evaluate all the pros-
pects man now faces.
A short while ago the most important thing was
to learn t o live in space. Then we had to learn how
to work under conditions of weightlessness. Now,
our efforts are directed towards colonizing space,
obtaining the maximum benefit for man and for
our entire civilization.
The Soviet space programme is extensive, diverse
and long-term. It is also consistent and purposeful.
The Soviet Union considers space research essential
to gaining an understanding of the forces and laws
of nature and utilizing them in the interests of all
the people on earth.
The Soviet space programme has three clearly
defined goals. The first is general research of the
near-earth space, the secondwork to improve the
space technology necessary for research into the near-
earth space, outer space and other planets in our
solar system; and the thirdfinding ways t o utilize
space research for the benefit of the economy and
culture.
Soviet scientists believe long-term orbiting sta-
tions are essential to deriving benefits f r o m space.
One day these stations might become cosmodromes
in the skylaunch pads for spaceships travelling to
other planets. They w i l l make it possible for us to
construct huge orbiting scientific laboratories in order
to conduct research in space, and will play an import-
ant role in the development of geophysics, astrono-
my, biology, medicine, meteorology, geography,
geology and other important sciences.
Man's flight into space cannot be compared to
the discovery of a new continent or ocean. A n
entire w o r l d has been discovered. A n d one of the
most important objectives of the space programme is
to conduct scientific and technological research in

258
space in an effort to create new materials and de-
velop technological processes impossible or imprac-
tical t o create on earth.
The Soviet space programme creatively and suc-
cessfully combines numerous interconnected bran-
ches of research. It includes both manned space
flights and the launching of space probes. Using both
man and machine has raised the effectiveness and
scope of space research, making it possible t o conduct
studies in outer space as well as in the entire solar
system. Photographs taken f r o m space of the earth's
surface, especially the more remote spots, have been
of great interest to Soviet scientists and economists.
For example, recently a vast territory of the Soviet
Union (5.5 million square kilometres) w i t h diverse
natural and economic conditions was photographed
f r o m space. The importance of these photographs
is d i f f i c u l t t o overestimate: they reveal in one photo-
graph frame the zones where the greater part of
the country's known and potential mineral resources
are concentrated and where its most powerful eco-
nomic complexes are being built and are now func-
tioning and being developed. This information is
being widely used in the exploration of oil, gas and
minerals.
The space photographs of the Pamir and Tien
Shan Mountains and the Caucasus are being used by
specialists to help evaluate hydroelectric potential,
productive water reserves, seismic conditions and
the danger of landslides. Of equal importance are
the photographs of pipelines and other large-scale
construction projects and their adjacent territories.

The Road to Knowledge

For years now scientists have debated the exist-
ence of extraterrestrial civilizations or some form of

259
 life on other planets. Scientific treatises and hypothe-
ses have prompted a spate of science fiction novels
seeking t o convince earthlings of the existence of
life in other galaxies. After the launching of the
world's first artificial satellite, interest in this topic
flared. Each time a rocket orbits the earth or a probe
is sent t o a planet in our solar system, new hopes
arise. Scientists make "realistic" conjectures and writ-
ers describe the inhabitants of other worlds they meet
in their imagination.
Legends abound concerning visitors f r o m other
planets and spaceship crashes. To t r y to discover
the t r u t h , we t u r n t o scientific and geological sources,
to those gifted w i t h ESP, cosmonauts and astronauts.
Remembrances of the Future and Back to the
Stars, t w o sensational books by Erich Daniken,
helped increase the ranks of UFO believers. Imagina-
tions were stirred and needed new f o o d for thought.
Scientific discussions turned into long debates be-
tween believers and non-believers.
There were reports in the Western press about the
astronauts meeting aliens on the moon and seeing
UFOs while orbiting the earth. A n d f r o m time t o
time a story is printed about the sighting of a UFO
over Mexico.
" D o y o u believe in flying saucers?" a Mexican
journalist asked Frank Borman after he had orbited
the moon. The American astronaut replied that he
did not and that the existence of UFOs could not be
scientifically proven. But Borman went on t o say
that publishing houses and commercial businesses
would like us to believe in them.
Still, the debate about the existence of extrater-
restrial life continues.
Harlow Shapley, a West European scientist, main-
tains that intelligent life in our galaxy exists only on
earth. But according to American astronomer O t t o

260
Struve, there are f i f t y billion planets similar t o earth
in our galaxy. Some form of life exists on at least
t w o to three billion of them, and intelligent life on
several million. It should be noted, however, that this
assertion contradicts data which suggest that all
stars similar t o our sun are binary. Thus the tempera-
ture on the surfaces of the planets which might ro-
tate around such stars w o u l d fluctuate between ex-
tremes. In other words, the majority of planets are
not suitable for life.
Here I w o u l d like t o refer to the authority of Kon-
stantin Tsiolkovsky, who believed in the existence
of intelligent life forms on other planets. In answer
t o a student's letter, the Soviet scientist wrote in
1933: " I t is possible that higher intelligent beings
have tried to help us because they are continuing t o
do so. Meditations about the universe could also have
served as the basis for belief in higher life forms.
But this is not evident to all. People do not t r y t o
prove to animals that they are irrational. The dist-
ance between people and higher forms is hardly
less, if we take into consideration the masses of
average people. On the other hand, the Australians
and Americans waited thousands of years for the
Europeans. We w i l l not wait in vain either."
Many years ago Yakov Perelman, a Soviet popular
science writer, wrote that if we are fated to establish
direct contact w i t h other planets, bring them into
the sphere of our mining industry or perhaps even
colonize them, then astronomy will one day be
k n o w n as "celestial geography and geology".
In his w o r k Studying Interplanetary Space with
Rocketry, Tsiolkovsky wrote:
" T h e countless planets, including the earth, are
islands in the endless etheric ocean. Man occupies
one of them. But can he not use others as well and
also the power of the innumerable suns?"

261
 Scientists around the world are now involved in
the search for intelligent life in the universe. In De-
cember 1981 a symposium devoted t o this topic
was held in Tallin. More than t w o hundred scien-
tists from twenty countries presented reports re-
flecting not only the great interest in this area but
also the significant material that has already been col-
lected. In recent years methods of searching and the
major directions in this field of research have been
mapped out.
Earth is transmitting radio signals deep into space,
and scientists have constructed huge antennas and
other equipment to try to pick up signals from dis-
tant planets. We have not yet received any form of
communication from an extraterrestrial civilization.
Does this mean that our planet alone is inhabited by
intelligent beings?
I believe such a conclusion would be unscientific.
Of course I do not wish to call into question the
paths and methods used by scientists in their search
for other civilizations. But it is our right to ask the
question: w h y should radio signals be considered the
only reliable means of information?
Perhaps at our civilization's present level of de-
velopment radio communication is the most reliable
method. But we do not know the level of develop-
ment of the civilizations we are trying to contact. We
do not know at what frequency to search for signals
that may have been transmitted by our fellow intel-
ligent beings. We do not know from what direction
we should expect to receive a transmission, if indeed
there will be one. A t the Tallin symposium several
viewpoints concerning the possibility of making con-
tact w i t h extraterrestrial civilizations were discussed.
It was noted that though there is as yet no direct
proof of the existence of other inhabited worlds,
the search for other civilizations should continue.

262
 Most scientists believe the universe was formed
15-20 billion years ago; our solar system5-7 bil-
lion years ago. Scientifically, one cannot speak of
the beginning or end of the development of the
universe. It is constant and eternal. Our present uni-
verse, it is assumed, was formed as a result of a huge
explosion.
T r y to imagine a gigantic gas and dust cloud dis-
sipating into nebulae whose composition is 98 per
cent hydrogen and helium, the restsolid particles.
One of these nebulae is our future solar system. As
the nebula contracts in accordance w i t h the laws of
stellar mechanics, it becomes more flat, like the
central part of a lens. A layer of dust forms, but
it is unstable and dissipates into numerous dust clus-
ters. The clusters collide w i t h each other and unite
and contract to form bodies several square kilometres
in area. These bodies exert gravitational pull on each
other which gradually accelerates their flight. The
smaller bodies disintegrate upon collision while the
larger ones continue to grow until they reach the
size of the planets, forming a stable system that will
exist for billions of years.
The tremendous energy released by these collisions
was transformed into heat. A n d since large bodies
could penetrate hundreds of kilometres inside a
planet, that portion of heat released upon impact and
unable to reach the surface and radiate into space,
instead heated the surrounding rocks. Calculations
reveal the upper layers of the planets were formed
under high, even partial melting temperatures. The
central part of the earth, for example, was initially
colder and was only gradually warmed by the radio-
active heat and energy released upon the formation
of its heavy core.
A t first radioactive elements were dispersed more
or less evenly throughout the planet. The heat of
 small planets was easily radiated into space. But the
larger the planet, the more heat was unable to escape.
A t a certain stage in the formation of the earth, the
rock thousands of kilometres f r o m the surface
reached melting temperature. Light substances began
to rise to the surface while the heavier material sank
towards the centre. Eventually a core was formed.
Except for its very centre, the core is liquidmost
likely molten iron w i t h a mixture of a few other
substances at a temperature of five thousand degrees.
Konstantin Tsiolkovsky was convinced of the ex-
istence of life on other planets:
" T h e M i l k y Way contains hundreds of millions
of stars and billions of planets on which life could
arise. We have no doubt that it [life] is already there
and even in a higher form than that on earth (at any
rate, on the majority of planets). Perhaps some of
them have powers we cannot even imagine. Such
power helped them to propagate developed life, if
not on earth then on other planets... There are as
many planetary systems as there are suns. Thus
each is a cradle of life or a dwelling for intelligent
beings. The universe is filled w i t h higher forms of
life."
The question of extraterrestrial life directly bears
on our actions and psychology. Literature, science
and society as a whole must deal w i t h this question.
Much has been written about the riddles and
secrets of the earth. No doubt they do exist just as
unexplained phenomena of life. In the Arabian de-
sert, for example, structures of stone, "stone cac-
tuses" as they are called, have been discovered.
Scientists still have no explanation as to their origin.
A n d in the Pacific Ocean not far from Ogasawara
Islands, ships have been known to disappear into a
huge whirlpool under mysterious conditions. Scien-
tists have observed that the whirlpool has a radius

264 !
of approximately 100 kilometres, a depth of 5 kilo-
metres and 10 times the energy of the usual ocean
current. Every 100 days it changes the direction of
its movement.
These are but a few of the many strange occur-
rences that have been observed in the world.
We study spacethe moon and the planetsto
t r y t o discover how the earth, solar system and the
universe itself were formed and developed, how life
arose and evolved. The study of the universe is the
scientific seeking to understand cosmic laws. But
the system of knowledge-seeking itself is also based
on science. A successful outcome is more luck than
anything else and should not be overestimated:
conquering one frontier does not mean victory.
By seeking to understand the universe, studying
the laws of stellar mechanics and gaining an under-
standing of new, often near inexplicable phenomena,
man learns about himself as well as his world. The
extent of man's potential is as much a secret as the
origin of the galaxy.
Reason has no limits. Here I should like to discuss
a hypothesis of British astronomers. Recently they
discovered a strange solitary star eight light years
away from the earth. On studying the star, the
scientists determined it was a red supergiant located
far beyond any k n o w n galaxy. The unusual nature
of the object prompted many puzzling questions:
how could it have appeared outside a galaxy where
there are no conditions for the formation of stars?
A n d if it were formed w i t h i n the gravitational pull
of a galaxy, what forces hurled it out of the star
system?
The discovery of the object set off a heated scien-
t i f i c debate. One hypothesis contradicted another.
But more and more scientists came to accept the
possibility that the object had been created by a

265
distant and highly developed civilization.
The reality of life exceeds the limitless possibil-
ities of the imagination.
In the early 20th century Konstantin Tsiolkovsky
wrote:
" A t present, people are weak, still they have
changed the surface of the earth. In m i l l i o n years
this power w i l l have magnified t o such an extent
that they w i l l alter the surface of the earth, its
oceans, atmosphere, vegetation and themselves.
They w i l l c o n t r o l the weather and command the solar
system just as they d o the earth itself. They w i l l
travel beyond the planetary system, reach other stars
and use the material of planets, moons and asteroids
to build their structures and even create new life
forms."
As we can see, the earth and space hold many
secrets. B u t most of them w i l l be studied f r o m space,
and they w i l l be provided w i t h scientific explana-
tions.

Where Does the Wind Come From?

Theories about the earth's changing climate are

very popular at the m o m e n t . There are those w h o be-
lieve the earth is cooling, others maintain a warm-
ing trend has set in. As we see, the opinions are
diametrically opposed.
We are all accustomed to hearing complaints about
the unreliability of weather forecasts. Old people
say the forecasts used to be more accurate. A n d
they are right. The increase in technology has made
weather forecasting more d i f f i c u l t , not less. Weather
i n f o r m a t i o n is needed for ship navigation, airplane
flights, and t o predict natural disasters. But it is
also needed for harvesting, providing industry w i t h

."'66
raw materials and livestock raising. Yet the accuracy
of a twenty-four hour forecast is only 56-61 per cent,
and a long-term forecast is correct no more than
30 per cent of the time. Why?
Many scientists believe man plays an irreversible
role in making the weather so unpr t dictable. The
"greenhouse effect", which is due to increased levels
of carbon dioxide in the earth's atmosphere and the
formation of a "screen" that prevents the radiation
of heat into space, is cited most often. The tempera-
ture of the earth has risen as a result and drastically
altered the global temperature pattern.
The concentration of carbon dioxide in the
earth's atmosphere has increased significantly in the
past 100 years and continues to grow as a result of
deforestation, which has led to the direct contact
of the humus layer containing carbon-rich organic
substances w i t h the air. This in turn has resulted in
a rapid process of oxidation. The concentration of
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is also increasing
due to the burning of fossil fuels, particularly coal.
If the world's consumption of energy continues at
the present rate (especially that of fossil fuels), by
the year 2025 the concentration of carbon dioxide
in the earth's atmosphere w i l l have doubled, and the
average global temperature w i l l , according to many,
have increased by 2-3C. By 2080 there w i l l be a
4-degree rise in temperature which w i l l initiate a mass
thaw of the earth's ice cover and subsequent rise in
the level of the World Ocean. The warming trend w i l l
shift the climatic zones by 300-800 kilometres.
Deciduous forests w i l l appear on the shore of the
Arctic Ocean and the desert zone w i l l sharply expand.
The US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Ad-
ministration conducted a study on the effect of
industry on the weather and climate and came up
w i t h the following mathematical formula: if industry's
267
emission of heat energy reaches one per cent of solar
energy being utilized by natural processes the average
global temperature will increase by 1C. From 1950
t o 1982 energy production on earth increased by
approximately three times. Predictions are that by
the year 2000 the consumption of energy will in-
crease by 10 times. But even that amount is consider-
ably less than the solar energy absorbed by the earth.
American scientists believe the results of "heat
p o l l u t i o n " on the climate will not be felt until the
end of the century. The first region to be affected
will be the east coast of the US, the Great Lakes
area, the states of Florida and California and also
several regions in Western Europe. In the meantime
other equally alarming facts trouble the world.
In October 1982 after a t y p h o o n hit the Philip-
pines, many people were left homeless and much
damage was done to agricultural lands. In south-
eastern Spain, one hundred thousand people fled
their homes in the wake of flooding caused by tor-
rential rains. On the western coast of India a power-
ful cyclone pulled hundreds of fishing boats out into
the open sea, and more than t w o hundred men disap-
peared w i t h o u t a trace. A hurricane in Switzerland
disrupted highway traffic; forest fires broke out in
some areas and resulted in human casualties. A
hurricane in the capital city of Madagascar caused
street flooding, damage to homes and injuries to
people.
In December 1982 many newspapers around the
world reported about acid rain and its harmful ef-
fects. In the north-eastern regions of the US, in Canada
and Northern Europe, acid rain is transforming lakes,
rivers and ponds into transparent reservoirs devoid
of practically all forms of lifefrom fish to micro-
organisms. Each year acid rain causes millions of
dollars in damage to buildings and pipes, and it is

268
thought to pose a serious health hazard to people.
When it falls over water, this "precipitation"
changes the acidity level, over landit seeps into the
soil where it can dissolve natural minerals such as
calcium and potassium and carry them into the sub-
soil, thus depriving trees and plants of a major source
of nourishment. This process continues as the mois-
ture moves along the underlying rock and finally
makes its way t o the nearest reservoir, frequently
bringing w i t h it poisonous substances capable of
paralyzing or killing all forms of water life.
Almost one-fifth of Sweden's 100,000 lakes have
increased levels of acidity. Although some of these
are being treated w i t h large quantities of lime to
neutralize the acid, f r o m four t o nine thousand lakes
have already suffered serious biological damage. In
the Tovdalselv river region of Norway, 175 of 266
lakes are seriously affected. Ten per cent of the 226
largest freshwater lakes in the US suffer from acid
rain. Ichthyologists on the Cape Cod Peninsula of
Massachusetts no longer stock eight out of ten of
the region's largest fish reservoirs.
A million of dollars is spent each year on neutra-
lizing chemicals. In the past eighty years the amount
of acid rain falling over the state of Maine has in-
creased by f o r t y times. A high concentration of
mercury, lead and aluminium in contaminated rivers
has killed or mutated small salmon. In New York's
Adirondack mountains, acid rain has killed the fish
and water fauna in approximately 212 lakes and
ponds, i.e., six per cent of the total number.
In the FRG, one o u t of every thirteen trees has
suffered some damage. Out of a total forest area of
7.3 million hectares, 562 thousand hectares have
only leafless tree trunks standing. Spruce, firs and
pines have lost their cones, and the tops of deciduous
trees are diseased. In Bavaria alone 160 thousand

! 269
hectares of forest have been destroyed, in Baden-
Wiirttemberg130 thousand hectares, and in Lower
Saxony124 thousand hectares.
Natural disasters occur frequently, challenging
man's usual concepts about the weather. What does
nature have in store for usthaw or frost? It is hard
to be sure. A t an international symposium held in
the FRG, meteorologists conclude that it w i l l be
many years before science is capable of accurately
predicting the weather.
Every country in the world observes the weather
and tries to follow its patterns. In the USSR alone the
economic effect of the use of space meteorology ex-
ceeds a billion roubles a year.
Engels w r o t e that man must only understand him-
self. He must make himself the criterion for all rela-
tions in life, to evaluate them according to his es-
sence, to organize the world in a genuinely human
way, in accordance w i t h the requirements of his
nature. A n d then the enigma of our time will be
solved by him.

Extraterrestrial Settlements

Just recently it was thought impossible to launch

into orbit an entire scientific complex consisting of
research equipment, food supplies, water and fuel.
But the impossible was accomplished. The Salyut-6
orbital complex, which was launched on 29 Sep-
tember 1977, was operational for almost five years.
The complex made more than 25 thousand orbits
around the w o r l d and covered a distance of more
than one billion kilometres. Experts justifiably claim
the Salyut-6 mission was one of the most remarkable
achievements of Soviet and world space research.
Among all the Salyut space stations, the Salyut-6

770 !
was exceptional. Together w i t h the Soyuz clocking
ships, the station was 110 cubic metres in size. This
amount of space was enough room for a scientific
team to work w i t h a wide assortment of research
equipment. Five long-term expeditions worked
aboard the complex for periods of 96, 140, 175,
185 and 75 days. Soviet cosmonaut-pilot Valery
Ryumin holds the world's record360 days in space
aboard the Salyut-6.
Though we have grown accustomed to frequent
and significant achievements in space, I w o u l d like
the reader to know just what is entailed in making
these achievements possible.
Life support of the main and 11 visiting crews
requires food, oxygen (which is constantly being
depleted), scientific instruments, all kinds of inter-
changeable equipment, film, fuel, etc. According t o
calculations, several kilogrammes of such necessary
materials are needed for each member of the crew
each day. While the Salyut-6 was operational. Pro-
gress cargo ships ferried more than 20 tonnes of cargo
to the orbital complex. Imagine how much cargo
would be needed to provide for a space flight lasting
several years, especially considering the trend t o in-
crease the size of the crews.
During its time in space the t w o Salyut-6 docking
devices were used 35 times (docking w i t h 14 Soyuz
ships, 4 Soyuz T, 12 Progress cargo ships and the
Kosmos-1267 artificial satellite). The Soyuz ships
were changed f r o m one docking berth to another
four times.
In the scientific laboratory aboard the Salyut-6
more than 200 technological melting operations were
performed as well as hundreds of tests and extensive
visual observation and photographing of the earth. In
addition, 1,600 astronomical, medical and biological
experiments were conducted.
273
 Space experts were successful in rationally organ-
izing living conditions aboard the station, and estab-
lishing a precise regime of alternating w o r k and rest
periods almost identical to an ordinary work week
on earth.
The cosmonauts' diet was given great considera-
tion. The space station's large facilities made it pos-
sible to store f o o d products and heat them. A greater
variety of foods was made available, and their nutri-
tious content improved.
As I have already mentioned, the space station
was technologically equipped for both radio and
television reception and transmission. The psycholog-
ical support television offered the crew members
cannot be overestimated. Now they were able to see
as well as hear their partners in conversation. Tele-
vision allowed the cosmonauts to have contact
w i t h their families, flight directors, and press cor-
respondents, to watch various entertainment pro-
grammes prepared especially for them and be in
touch w i t h all the most important events taking place
in their country and the world. Though they were far
from their country, they never felt cut o f f .
A t some point the communication sessions w i t h
the cosmonauts began to be accompanied by back-
ground music. The orbital complex increased its own
supply of records and video cassettes, and concerts
and sports events were transmitted into space. Pro-
gress cargo ships brought packages from family and
friends, newspapers, vegetables and fruits. Above
all, the visits of other crews made up of old acquain-
tances from Star City and the design bureau pro-
vided a moral boost to the long-term crew.
Twenty-seven cosmonauts lived for varying periods
of time aboard Salyut-6 (six made t w o trips), and
eight envoys from the socialist community countries
visited the station.

272
 On July 29, 1982, the Salyut-6 orbiting station
ceased to operate. Those w h o created the station w o n
deservedly high praise in both the Soviet and the
foreign press. The systems aboard the Salyut-6
orbital complex functioned much longer than was
originally planned.
It was Konstantin Tsiolkovsky who first had the
idea for building an orbiting station, and Sergei
Pavlovich Korolev w h o later developed and planned
it.
In December 1961 Korolev was quoted in Pravda
as saying:
" I n the future orbital complexes w i l l be designed
for long-term use. It will be feasible to send a
spaceship to this type of orbital complex which w i l l
bring the personnel for control and maintenance and,
perhaps, a new replacement crew, as well as equip-
ment, fuel, etc. The docking, and later assembling, of
interplanetary ships in orbit under conditions of
weightlessness will open up new technological possi-
bilities for improving their design..."
The Salyut orbital complex was placed in orbit on
April 19, 1971. On June 7, Georgi Dobrovolsky,
Vladislav Volkov and V i k t o r Patsayev began their
w o r k aboard the station. This crew was the first t o
begin the long-term operation of a manned scien-
tific complex, to establish communications between
earth and the space station and to create a "space
settlement"Tsiolkovsky's long held dream.
Salyut-7 was placed in orbit on April 19, 1982.
It was similar to Salyut-6 in weight and size, but
many of its systems were improved to reflect recent
technological achievements and the experience of its
predecessor. Salyut-7 was built after carefully analyz-
ing the operation of the second generation space
stations and weighing the almost one thousand sug-
gestions proposed by the cosmonauts who had lived

! 2 73
IX-K25
aboard the orbital complexes.
The docking mechanism aboard Salyut-7 was
improved t o handle more massive spacecraft than be-
fore. Also, the station's energy supply system was in-
novated to allow the cosmonauts to increase the
power of the solar batteries by adding additional solar
panels in space. The spacesuits the cosmonauts wore
in open space were also improved (the cosmonauts
were now working up to five and a half hours outside
the orbital complex).
Many changes were introduced in the life support
systems, and living conditions were made more com-
fortable. For example, the interiors were painted
different colours and the decorative panels were
redesigned to make them easier to remove to provide
access to different systems.
The first crew of cosmonauts aboard Salyut-7
Anatoly Berezovoi and Valentin Lebedevset a new
record for space flight211 days. A f t e r landing, V.
Lebedev was asked by a correspondent f r o m Vecher-
nyaya Moskva if Salyut-7 had completely fulfilled
its mission. The cosmonaut answered:
"Yes, exactly so. It couldn't have been otherwise.
The station itself and the spaceship were built w i t h
the intelligence and efforts of talented scientists,
specialists and workers representing the peoples of
all the country's republics."
A. Berezovoi added:
"Salyut-7 is a very versatile laboratory. We con-
ducted experiments in geophysics, medicine, astro-
physics, meteorology, biology and metallurgy. Our
flight demonstrated the advantages of Salyut-7 over
its predecessor.
" M o r e systems were automated aboard the new
station, making it easier for the crew to control its
flight and also to conduct various scientific experi-
ments. Yet another advantage was the equipment we

274
worked w i t h : in addition to Soviet made instruments,
we had devices made in the GDR, Bulgaria, Czecho-
slovakia and France. This, plus the international
crews working aboard Salyut-7 provide an excellent
example of how the efforts of different countries and
peoples can be united in peaceful space research."
Valentin Lebedev and Anatoly Berezovoi per-
formed more than t h i r t y geological tests while aboard
the Salyut-7 orbital complex. Specifically, they
studied the borders of the Astrakhan Archa raised
area of the earth's crust. For several years studies of
gas reserves had been conducted here, but prospecting
was complicated due to a layer of sand on one side
of the Volga which blurred the border of the dome.
The cosmonauts were able to determine the border
of the gas reserve and help make exploration on
earth more effective.
The geological structures Lebedev and Berezovoi
observed between the Caspian and Aral seas generated
much excitement, for they revealed the possibility
of new oil and gas reserves in the area.
The second crew aboard Salyut-7Vladimir Lya-
khov and Alexander Alexandrovremained in orbit
150 days and also demonstrated the efficiency of
the orbital complex. The third crew, comprised of
Leonid Kizim, Vladimir Solovyov and Oleg A t k o v ,
worked in the orbital complex 237 days.
According to specialists, the space programme
provides information and services amounting to tens
of millions of roubles annually.
In February 1986 a new Mir station was launched
into orbit. A year later cosmonauts Yuri Romanenko
and Alexander Laveikin began their stay aboard the
complex. In addition to traditional scientific research,
the t w o men were the first to try out the new Kvant
orbiting module. The Kvant was equipped w i t h the
unique Roentgen astrophysical laboratory, which

i 275
made it possible to study distant stars and galaxies
usually hidden from astronomers by the dense layer
of the earth's atmosphere.
Many of the instruments aboard the Kvant were
designed w i t h international cooperation. For example,
the Foswich telescope-spectrometer was made in the
FRG, and a special telescope fitted w i t h a tinted
filter was designed by scientists in Holland and Great
Britain.
On A p r i l 5, 1987 the Kvant orbiting module was
scheduled to dock w i t h the Mir station. A t the
designated hour the t w o spacecraft began to approach
each other. Flight Control Centre was carefully fol-
lowing their movements. The t w o craft made con-
tact, but the final docking did not take place. To
investigate the cause of the failure, which threatened
to abort the entire mission, the cosmonauts left their
spacecraft. A f t e r several hours of working in open
space, they managed to correct the fault, and the
Kvant became one of the station's working blocks.
In June 1987, continuing w i t h their mission,
Romanenko and Laveikin again left Mir to attach
additional solar batteries. Their w o r k demonstrated
man's preparedness to colonize space.

Cospas-Sarsat

Several years ago the USSR, USA, France and

Canada reached an agreement to build a satellite
based system (Cospas-Sarsat) to aid emergency
rescue ships and planes. The question could be raised
as to why these powerful seafaring nations should
consider it necessary to enlist the aid of satellites
when they have already engaged the services of
dozens of specialized fields, including marine naviga-
tion, to provide ships w i t h accurate information.

?>h !
 Despite his enormous achievements in science and
technology, twentieth century man has not yet rid
himself of the many dangers encompassed in this
increasingly more complex technology. This includes
navigation, where the increase in sea traffic creates
numerous dangerous situations. Frequently a captain
trying t o manoeuvre, in stormy weather and foggy
conditions, a huge steel vessel several hundred metres
long through narrow straits and canals is unable t o
react quickly enough to the danger.
Clearly it is impossible t o prevent emergency
situations from arising on the high seas. Nonetheless,
thanks t o traffic regulation systems similar to those
enforced on highways, from 1970 to 1980 the
number of ship collisions in the most dangerous
areas of north-western Europe has been halved. In
the southern part of the North Sea, the number of
collisions has been reduced by four times, despite
a significant increase in the sea traffic.
Returning to our statistics we note that during
that same ten year period (1970-1980) more than 60
cargo vessels vanished w i t h o u t a trace. Lengthy
searches have not revealed, for example, where or
w h y a Norwegian oil tanker sailing under a Liberian
flag sank in late 1979 en route f r o m Brazil to Japan.
It is hoped the international Cospas-Sarsat satel-
lite system w i l l prevent such incidents from occur-
ring. The programme provides for equipping each
ship or plane w i t h a special emergency radio buoy
which can be fed detailed information concerning
the coordinates of the ship or plane that has suffered
an accident, the nature of the accident, etc. Signals
from the buoy are transmitted to the artificial satel-
lites circling over the planet at a height of 800 to
1,000 kilometres. A f t e r this information is processed
by coastal receiving stations, it is relayed t o the
ships and planes nearest the accident which take the
appropriate rescue measures.
Both Soviet and American satellites form part of
the international search and rescue satellite system
for saving lives on land and in the water anywhere
in the world. The success of the Cospas-Sarsat system
has already been reported in the press. For example,
information received by the Soviet satellite Kosmos-
1383 helped to determine the coordinates of several
air and sea disasters. As a result, Canadian, British
and American citizens were rescued from the sites of
crashes.
There has long been a need for an international
search and rescue satellite system, but it has only
just recently been introduced. However, in the short
time it has been functioning (and not yet at full capa-
city), the results have been positive. As the Cospas-
Sarsat system becomes fully operational, it will be
even more successful in fulfilling its most important
missionthat of helping man.
Space, as we see, is being studied, explored and
understood. New explorers continue to fly into the
universe. But the people will never forget the man
who paved the way t o spaceYuri Gagarin.

A Man in Space

Virtually every newspaper and magazine in the

world has at one time or another published an article
about the world's first cosmonautYuri Gagarin.
Writers continue to discover new biographical in-
formation and little-known facts, and to evaluate his
achievement in the light of the 1980s.
In a Pravda article entitled " T h a t Unforgettable
A p r i l " , Gennady Sokolov, director of physical train-
ing at the Saratov Industrial Teacher-Training College
is quoted as saying:
278
 "Gagarin studied here for four years. He was a
diligent student and avid athlete.
" T h e morning of A p r i l 12,1961,1 was at a meeting
of the City Committee for Physical Culture and
Sports. When I returned to the school, the teachers
told me: 'Our Gagarin is in space!'
"Soon people began to call from all over the
country and from Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, Poland and
Hungary. They asked: 'Who is this Gagarin?' A n d
since I knew him well, I could answer w i t h o u t hesita-
t i o n : 'A great guy.' "
It is d i f f i c u l t to overestimate Gagarin's achieve-
ment. Nor is it easy to describe the respect and admi-
ration the people of the world have felt for the
world's first cosmonaut since that April day. A l l the
members of this new profession have felt the love of
the people, but it was Gagarin who engendered it.
Yuri possessed precisely those qualities needed to
be the first man in space. He had all the attributes
required to be first among the few. For all of us he
will always remain the way we remember him: mo-
dest, sensitive, a talented pilot and gifted athlete. He
never boasted of his accomplishments and frequently
noted that in competing w i t h each other we should
not think of ourselves as competitors but as like-
minded individuals striving to achieve the same goal.
His comrades were certain he would be selected
to make the first flight. They also knew that there
would be work enough for them as well, that dur-
ing subsequent flights they would continue and de-
velop what the First had begun. One would make one
orbit around the world, another would make several,
still another would enter an orbital space complex
and another land on Mars. A n d all would be the
firstfor space is an endless road.
I did not become a cosmonaut-pilot immediately
I think that would have been too much to hope for.

279
 First I scaled the first height: I learned to fly. Then
there was the war w i t h its ferocious air battles. After
the victory I scaled the second height and became a
test pilot. Fate offered the third; and I was fortunate
enough to take it: I became a cosmonaut-pilot. This
period of m y life could not have become a reality had
it not been for my previous training.
I am not one of those rare lucky individuals who
determine their own fate by deciding upon a goal
early in life and steadfastly and confidently strive
to achieve it. I was able to do what anyone who really
wants something is able to accomplish. I was able to
weigh m y aspirations in order to control my actions;
I was able to concentrate all my efforts, never search-
ing for the easy way. This is my " t a l e n t " , and it has
served me well.
I d o n ' t want to give the impression I was some
kind of superman w i t h innate abilities that made it
virtually inevitable that I w o u l d take part in one of
man's most grandiose venturesspace explorationas
some newspapers have commented. I d i d n ' t dream
of this. This was the dream and achievement of
others like Konstantin Tsiolkovsky or Friedrich
Tsander, for example. This was their life's work. But
for a long time I didn't even know about the work
that had already been done in this field. My task
in life, as I saw it, was to find my o w n place among
others.
It was for this reason I tried not t o fall behind. I
always tried to live to the maximum of my abilities,
to test myself to the limit. I simply couldn't live any
other way. A n d I don't think life is w o r t h living any
other way.
For me and many of my comrades in Star City,
the life of Konstantin Tsiolkovsky represented loyal-
ty to a goal. His works, which have been acknowl-
edged around the world, became our work manuals.

/80
He had foresight and dedication, and the ability t o
think in galactic terms. He was, t r u l y , a gifted
scientist.
Tsiolkovsky wrote scientific monographs, political
treatises, and fiction. He also wrote instruction man-
uals for building dirigibles, bicycles and typewriters,
and illustrated his o w n works. But the major theme of
his ruminations was space flight. In his o w n words:
"The blue yonder, mysterious skies and example of
the birds everywhere in flight have always lured man
to l i f t himself into the air."
Tsiolkovsky was the first to state that the cosmos
offered limitless opportunities for exploration, just
as the universe itself was limitless. In his works he not
only supplied theoretical grounds for space explora-
t i o n but argued the necessity for it. And he always
connected space exploration w i t h the transformation
of the earthits land, seas and atmospherefor the
good of man.
A passionate dreamer, Tsiolkovsky had numerous
ideas about asteroids and the planets o f the solar
system, comets and near galaxies, supernovas and
quasars (although these terms were introduced much
later). He proposed utilizing the enormous energy
of the sun and dreamed of rocket flights, space
settlements, and friendship w i t h extraterrestrials,
in whose existence he believed his entire life.
Tsiolkovsky dedicated his life to astronomy. He
designed spacecraft for interplanetary flight and al-
ways remained loyal to his life's principle: serving the
people.
" T h e principal motive of my life", he wrote, "is
to do something useful for the people, not to live in
vain, to move mankind even the smallest step ahead.
This is why I became interested in something that
gave me neither bread nor power. But I hope that
my works, perhaps soon, perhaps in the distant fu-
ture, w i l l someday give society mountains of bread
and limitless power."
Dedicated, purposeful people, burning w i t h the
desire to make a contribution of their own to space
exploration come to Star City. After passing a dif-
ficult recruitment process, future cosmonauts bring
to the City the fresh air of their generation, their
optimism and inextinguishable faith in their star.
A n d no matter how long and d i f f i c u l t the path to the
stars, they never doubt they have chosen the right
course. Of this I am certain.
The cosmonaut's profession is interesting and, at
first glance, romantic. But our w o r k w o u l d be mean-
ingless w i t h o u t dedication and concentrated effort.
Space research and the study of the universe continue
to make new demands on our profession.
" T h e cosmonaut," Yuri Gagarin wrote, "is a man
whose activities take place under unusual circum-
stances, which actively influence his organism, often
bringing him to the limit of his endurance." Continu-
ing this thought, Gagarin added: "...for now space
flight, unfortunately, is the life w o r k of only a few.
Therefore these few must know and be capable of
much, in order to comb ine in their person both the
operator of a complex machine and the scientist who
conducts a large number of the most diverse scientific
experiments and observations."
If a cosmonaut even for a moment loses the feel-
ing of being a discoverer, if he succumbs to the il-
lusion that it is like any other job on earth, he could
be making his life very difficult w i t h o u t even realiz-
ing it. Y u r i Gagarin was right: every cosmonaut in
space is the first! After all, every flight mission is
different from the previous one.
Space remains a mystery for man. There are great
fluctuations in temperature, an absence of air, cosmic
rays and meteors and other celestial bodies speeding

.? 42
by. As for weightlessness, it remains a serious health
hazard for man.
The spaceship is a t i n y particle of our planet. Fly-
ing above the earth, the cosmonauts feel like they
participate in the m a n y events occurring there. Look-
ing at the earth f r o m space, admiring its sunrises
and sunsets, the cosmonaut sees the planet as a single
whole and thinks about the endless possibilities o f
the human mind t o explore the universe.
The earth is an incredibly beautiful planet, b u t
compared t o the constellations and entire galaxies, it
is but a grain of sand. Man, w h o lives on this grain
of sand, is capable of t h o u g h t , and his t h o u g h t has
already transcended far beyond the boundaries o f his
native earth, of his galaxy. Man is great and omnipo-
tent, and his deeds are tremendous. It was not f o r
the sake of setting records that he reached the m o o n ,
sent probes t o Mars and Venus and brought back
samples of lunar rock. He explores the universe so
that the knowledge he acquires in the vast ocean
o f stars can be used t o help the people on earth.
The small human habitat is not as immense, not as
eternal and secure as it once seemed. This is particu-
larly clear f r o m space. The mysterious secrets of na-
ture that have been discovered by scientists have
given man incredible powers to strengthen w o r l d
civilization and transform the earth itself.
Thought and reason k n o w no bounds, if o n l y they
d o not destroy themselves. A n d this could happen
only if man does n o t take a definite stand against
those w h o nurture plans for a nuclear war.
Cosmonauts have one unquenchable desire: to
f l y more often. Even now we cannot complain of
lengthy rest periods, and in the near future someone
w i l l always be w o r k i n g in space. This w i l l be in the
interests of science and space research. Man will
conduct impressive experiments in his study of the

233
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universe and the surrounding world, he will dis-
cover the laws of space that influence life on our
planet. One day he will understand how the solar
system originated: how and when our system of
planets was formed around the sun, how this system
evolved and how it will continue to do so in the fu-
ture. Most important, he will learn, using Venus and
Mars as examples, how to better understand the struc-
ture and evolution of Earth. The study of the planets
in the solar system w i t h the aid of rockets and space
technology has already made it possible to under-
stand those stages in the earth's history which were
erased or buried by time.
Much new information about the most distant
and mysterious points in the universe and about the
enormous cataclysms that occur there has been ob-
tained w i t h the aid of the telescopes located in orbital
space complexes. It is hoped that such astronomical
observations w i l l help reveal the age of the universe,
the cosmologic picture of the w o r l d and the type of
substances that comprised the young universe.
Science is standing on the threshold of new
discoveries and a more profound understanding of
the secrets of space. But the neutrino retains its mys-
tery. Neutrinos can be "invisible". These particles
have no rest mass and travel freely throughout the
universe. (Some Soviet scientists have suggested the
neutrinos do possess rest mass.) It is not an easy
matter to catch these particles. Recently a new
method was used to determine the f l o w of solar neu-
trinos, which have travelled to earth throughout the
geological ages. The concentration of different radio-
active isotopes of the element technetium, which are
found in molybdenum ore, was measured.
American scientists have established that the
brightest star in our galaxy. Eta Carinae (100 times
brighter than our sun) may soon explode and become
a supernova. Astronomers believe that the star has
expended its primary hydrogen " f u e l " and thus
opened a path for the vast amounts of nitrogen
formed in millions of years of thermonuclear reactions
in the core of the giant star t o make its way to the
surface.
Since Eta Carinae is located nine thousand light
years away from our solar system, it is possible that
the star no longer exists, that humans are only seeing
its light " p o r t r a i t " sent thousands of years ago. Eta
Carinae is a star in the southern hemisphere so it
cannot be observed f r o m the northern latitudes. It
is not as bright as Venus, but at times it can be seen
even during the day.
The scientific-technical industry in the space
field enables us to determine the history of planets
and predict their future. Some day it may be possible
to alter the climatic conditions of Venus and Mars,
to establish settlements on the moon and in open
space, and to use asteroids for scientific purposes.
The study of comets is continuing. In the 1980s
the comet Austin approached the earth. This is a rare
visitor of our solar system. A t any rate, until now
nothing was k n o w n about it. The comet is interest-
ing for its size: it is almost twice as large as ordinary
comets. The problem was that Austin was t o ap-
proach the earth f r o m the southern hemisphere,
making it impossible to observe from Soviet territory.
This was why Soviet and French scientists asked
A. Berezovoi and V. Lebedev to photograph the
celestial wanderer. The pictures the cosmonauts took
were sent to both French and Soviet scientific organi-
zations.
The international Venus-Halley's Comet project
undertaken in 1985-1986 contributed a great deal to
comet research. T w o Soviet interplanetary space
probes, Vega-1 and Vega-2, were equipped w i t h
scientific instruments from different countries and
transmitted to earth t w o hundred pictures of Hal-
ley's comet as well as additional valuable information
about the traveller.
Scientists believe that some time in the near future
man w i l l gain even more knowledge about the moon
and planets and interplanetary space. A n d he still
dreams of making a voyage to the distant planets,
of landing on Mars, seeing the rings of Saturn at
close range, and discovering the secrets of Jupiter.
For myself I'd like to add: finding intelligent life
somewhere in the vast universe. It is out there some-
where...
Space research is called upon t o help in the study
of our world. The earth's oceans must be more care-
fully and systematically studied, for they determine
the face of our biosphere. The enormous amount of
water on the earth's surface forms the climate and
serves as the source of atmospheric precipitation.
Half the supply of oxygen in the atmosphere comes
from the ocean, which regulates the amount of at-
mospheric carbon dioxide by absorbing any excess.
The ocean has played a valuable role in the de-
velopment of our civilization. Almost one-third of
the world's oil is obtained f r o m ocean oil rigs. By the
beginning of the 21st century, "sea" oil may com-
prise one-half the oil supply. More and more gas is
being extracted from the ocean shelf as well. Enor-
mous deposits of energy essentially untouched by
man are to be found in the ocean: tidal energy, sea
currents and waves, temperature fluctuations be-
tween surface waters and the sea depths, thermal
water energy, and finally, deposits of deuterium
which man w i l l need when he learns to control ther-
monuclear processes.
The southern seas are of particular interest to
scientists. This is the area of the world that holds

26 !
289
the most hope for providing man w i t h an inexhaust-
ible source of food. The ocean's greatest treasure is
krill which is rich in protein. There are hundreds of
millions of tonnes of it.
The continent of Antarctica will be studied in-
creasingly in the future. The research being con-
ducted there today, which was encouraged by the
International Geophysical Year, has become more
systematic. Already 26 Soviet expeditions have
travelled to the continent, and seven Soviet scientific
stations are now operating there. A wealth of geo-
physical information has been acquired, specifically,
about the properties of the magnetic pole and the
ionosphere in the polar region and about the Northern
Lights phenomenon. Glaciologists have learned a great
deal about the continent's ice cover, and work con-
ducted by geologists shows promising results.
Antarctica is a huge "reserve" of frozen fresh
water. The continent's ice cover contains 90 per
cent of the world's fresh water. Many scientists have
thought about how this frozen water can be used to
serve man. It has been suggested, for example, that
icebergs be towed to the shores of countries w i t h a
dry climate. For the time being though, the cost
of such a project is prohibitive.
The study of the Antarctic ice is helping to shed
light on the past climate and to predict future clima-
tic changes. Certain d i f f i c u l t questions remain t o be
answered: why do continents shift, mountains grow,
lands sink into the ocean and volcanoes erupt? Will
there be a cooling of the earth's climate? Will the
earth's position in the galaxy move?

A Woman in Space
In August 1982 Svetlana Savitskaya flew into orbit
as a member of the Soyuz T-7 crew. She was the
second w o m a n , after Valentina Tereshkova, in space.
A f t e r t h e f l i g h t was completed, a TASS report
n o t e d : "Medical-biological research was an i m p o r t a n t
part of the crew's w o r k and resulted in a great deal
of new scientific information. No significant dif-
ferences between the reactions of female and male
organisms t o space f l i g h t were observed. The suc-
cessful c o m p l e t i o n of the mission by the crew, w h i c h
included f o r the first time a w o m a n cosmonaut, rep-
resents a new and bright page in the Soviet space
programme. The scientific data acquired during the
f l i g h t w i l l be used in d i f f e r e n t fields of science and
the economy and also f o r the f u r t h e r development
o f manned space f l i g h t . "
Svetlana Savitskaya's f l i g h t provoked great interest
abroad. Western i n f o r m a t i o n agencies noted t h a t the
Soviet U n i o n had f o r the second t i m e in the history
of space research sent a w o m a n i n t o space.
Space f l i g h t is incredibly d i f f i c u l t , and any haste
or frivolous race f o r leadership could have unforeseen
consequences. The Soviet U n i o n was able t o include
a w o m a n as a member of a cosmonaut crew only after
installing a reliable life support system aboard the
orbital complex. A n d it was no coincidence that Svet-
lana Savitskaya was chosen t o make the d i f f i c u l t
f l i g h t aboard the So/ T-7.
Svetlana Yevgenyevna was the second test p i l o t t o
be launched i n t o space. Since I am a test p i l o t myself,
I can understand her character: strong-willed, dedi-
cated, ready t o take a risk for the sake o f a noble
goal, sincere and generous, and the desire t o be con-
stantly engaged in creative w o r k .
Svetlana Savitskaya had made more than 5 0 0 pa-
rachute jumps and f l o w n almost 1600 hours in
every type of aircraft, the m a j o r i t y of them jets. She
holds 18 w o r l d records for f l y i n g and parachuting.
Despite the difficulties of the technology and the
enormous physical wofk-loads, women have found a
place in aviation and now space flight. The names of
Russian women admired by their contemporaries for
their daring and courage remain a part of the history
of Russian and Soviet aviation.
Lyubov Galanchikova was one of the first women
pilots in Russian aviation history. In 1911 she graduat-
ed from the First Russian Air Navigation Associa-
tion, and her first public flights brought her fame
and recognition. Forsaking a career as an opera
singer, Lyubov Galanchikova demonstrated her
ability as an aviator and made exhibition flights in
many Russian cities. In 1912 she set new records fly-
ing in some cities in Germany in a new type of air-
plane constructionthe monoplane. Then she flew
from Berlin to Paris.
After returning to Russia, Lyubov Galanchikova
test flew Russian-made planes and prepared to make
a round trip flight f r o m Petersburg to Moscow. She
demonstrated her flying ability in America, Switzer-
land and France, and dreamed of opening a pilot
school for women in Russian cities. She also wanted
t o begin carrying passengers in planes. But her plans
were not destined t o be fulfilled. During the First
World War she and her husband travelled t o Paris,
from which she was not fated to return.
Lidiya Zvereva was a contemporary of Lyubov
Galanchikova. After marrying an aviator by the name
of Slyusarenko (a participant in the first flight f r o m
Petersburg to Moscow), she herself became interested
in aviation. She graduated from the Shchgtinin Avia-
t i o n School and acquired her pilot's licence. Lidiya
Zvereva was one of the most daring pilots of her
time. She organized exhibition flights in Petersburg,
Riga and Moscow, and encouraged women to enroll
in aviation schools, directed by the famous Russian
pilots Yefimov, Utochkin, Yevsyukov and others.

/',
1'i-s:?
 Courageous women aviators left their mark on the
years of the civil war and first five-year plan periods.
They daringly tested new technology and set world
records in the process.
In 1937 E. Mednikova set a w o r l d record in alti-
tude; Valentina Grizodubova, Polina Osipenko, and
Marina Raskova set records in flight distance and
broke other national and world records. Other wo-
men pilots became famous as well.
Women pilots fought heroically during the Great
Patriotic War of 1941-1945. The story of Yekaterina
Zelenko must be told. After first starting to fly in the
1930s, she received the order of the Red Banner for
her service in the Soviet-Finnish war of 1939-1940.
From the first day of the war against Nazi Germany
she flew combat missions, conducted bombing raids
and reconnaissance flights, carried troops into the
enemy rear, and had a successful air ram-attack to
her credit. She was killed on 12 September 1941 after
running out of ammunition.
Olga Yamshchikova was another famous war
pilot. She made 217 flying missions during the war
and received numerous military decorations. As a test
pilot in 1947 she was the first woman to test fly a
jet fighter. Today a number of women fly jet planes.
But at that time, it was a remarkable feat.
Svetlana Savitskaya quickly captured the attention
of the press. She has been written about in Soviet and
foreign newspapers and magazines, and radio and
television correspondents have interviewed her.
Still, she never changed, remaining the same modest,
composed and punctual woman her trainers and
instructors had always known her to be.
In November 1977 a Moscow paper wrote:
"There are people about whom many nice words
are spoken in advance. It is d i f f i c u l t for them because
this advance must be earned. A n d when fame ac-

290
companies an individual from the very start, more
is expected from him. It's not just that he musthe
is obliged to justify these hopes. This is even more
difficultto continue to be self-demanding, t o be
able to see oneself objectively, not to succumb to
praise, to do one's w o r k . Savitskaya understood: ex-
perience and skill exist side by side w i t h dangeryou
can acquire expertise but lose your soul. A n d so she
described her victory in the skies over Hullavington in
her own modest w a y : 'I w o n because I flew calmly.
Any of the young women in our team could have
won.' " (Hullavington is the name of the British air
base where the 6th aerobatics world championship
was held.G.B.)
The Soyuz T-7 mission was exceptional due to the
presence of Svetlana Savitskaya. Nineteen years after
Valentin? Tereshkova's flight, a woman was once
again in space. While Tereshkova's flight answered
the fundamental question as to whether the female
organism could endure space flight conditions, Sa-
vitskaya conducted a series of difficult but promising
experiments.
Perhaps the w o r k was not sensational, and journal-
ists did not write much about it. But let's take a look
into the not so distant future. After all, man w i l l
not just orbit around the earth for long. Ahead lie
flights to other planets of the solar system. A n d it is
more than likely that the crew on, for example, a
trip to Mars, will include members of the fair sex.
The men and women who will be leaving their native
planet for several years will bring the warmth of earth
relationships to different worlds.
To make this a reality we will need not only t o
solve many complicated technical problems but also
to understand how conditions in space influence the
female organism. A n d it would be no exaggeration to
say that Svetlana Savitskaya furthered space research
1
291
10-
in her w o r k aboard the orbital space complex.
The atmosphere aboard Salyut-7 changed con-
siderably when Svetlana arrived. The effect of a wo-
man's presence and Sveta's friendly nature made the
occasion festive.
Savitskaya and her colleagues conducted more
than 20 experiments, including medical research and
astronomical and geophysical surveys. Savitskaya
also observed the body's reaction to space flight.
Physiologists had little data to work w i t h before, so
her w o r k in this area was very important.
On September 13, 1982, at a reception in the
Kremlin where the crew of Soyuz T-7 was presented
w i t h the highest government awards, it was observed:
" F l i g h t experience is being accumulated, and
spacecraft are being improved and even made more
comfortable. Still, each step upward is unique. Each
step requires knowledge, courage, and more, daring.
These are the qualities belonging to the winged
daughter of our Motherland, Savitskaya, her space
knights, comrades Popov and Serebrov, and the cor-
dial hosts of Salyut-7, comrades Berezovoi and
Lebedev."

Crossing the Rubicon

A l l illnesses are bad, but there is one sickness

that defies classification. When we experience it, we
say, " m y soul aches". The individual who suffers a
great blow, is bereaved of a loved one or loses his
dreams, feels this way.
My soul ached. I suffered from an inferiority com-
plex and a loss of strength and confidence. When my
soul had reached the depths of confusion, I gave
myself over to meditation. But I still continued to
fly.
 The test flights were rigorously scheduled; I flew
one plane after another. The tension a test pilot lives
w i t h is only exceeded by long ground training ses-
sions, the study of blueprints and efforts to gain an
engineer's knowledge of new types of aircraft. I had
my share of success: I conducted many state control
experiments, flew sixty types of aircraft and received
all the titles possible for my position: Hero of the
Soviet Union, Merited Test Pilot of the USSR, etc.
I had a settled family life, all my needs were taken
care of. Still, I dreamed of space flight: I dreamed
of it and feared it, yearned for it and hesitated. I was
uncertain of myself due to my age, already determ-
ined flying skills and the psychological d i f f i c u l t y of
adopting a new profession.
For the members of the first detachment of cos-
monauts the future was completely unknown. They
were cosmonaut trainees but had only a vague under-
standing of their future profession.
I, on the other hand, knew a great deal and could
imagine the responsibility the job entailed and even
visualize the flight programme. But my predictions
would turn out t o be incorrect.
I couldn't help b u t think about my new vocation,
about my future life. I was leaving everything I knew
and had learned about test flying planes throughout
the years, and going to where I would have t o begin
all over.
Some people believe only the young have romantic
dreams, that only youths are daring and bold. I was
by no means a youth, but I had a dream about space,
and this inspiration gave me strength and that inex-
haustible store of energy that cannot be measured in
amount or length of duration.
By this time the Cosmonaut Training Centre in
Star City was already operating in accordance w i t h
established traditions and moral norms. I would

293
have to accept and acknowledge these rules. The
people at the Centre had their own views and cus-
toms, their own way of doing things. I was going
there to w o r k , to study and to fly. The first people I
met were the cosmonauts.
Yuri Gagarin and I did not form a close rela-
tionship. Like many of my friends, he did not ap-
prove of my decision. While he d i d n ' t say so directly,
he also failed to give me any outright encourage-
ment. He was outwardly composed, dignified, even
a little stiff.
We trained together, flew to the cosmodrome,
received guests and played volleyball, hockey and
football. Despite the difference in our ages (I was
thirteen years his senior), I didn't ask for any special
treatment during those games. We were all on a par.
In November 1963 Gagarin was made a colonel.
Remarkably, he had gone from a senior lieutenant
to a colonel in t w o and a half years. I congratulated
him, knowing how important military rank was to a
career officer. Gagarin seemed somewhat embar-
rassed when he shook my hand. He said something
about the war, recalling that then one wasn't promot-
ed for nothing. Recovering from his embarrassment
he said: " Y o u r rank, Georgi Timofeyevich, is more
meaningful than mine."
Now I was the one to feel uncomfortable. After
all, there was nothing wrong w i t h promoting the
world's first cosmonaut. His new rank, in my opin-
ion, was a reflection not only of his service and his
personal contribution to science, but also made it
easier for him to carry out his numerous social and
political duties by putting him on a more equal foot-
ing w i t h the many leaders of states and govern-
ments w i t h whom he met.
It was at this time that Nikolai Kamanin, head of
the Cosmonaut Training Centre and an ardent ad-

294
mirer of Gagarin, wrote in his diary: " I n t w o and a
half years Yuri has been promoted from a senior
lieutenant to a colonel, something that usually takes
15-20 years. T w o and a half years of unparalleled
fame have not spoiled Gagarin. He has grown much
in this time, acquired great experience in addressing
audiences. He can conduct the most d i f f i c u l t press
conferences and meetings with great skill. Having
travelled to more than thirty countries and parti-
cipating in thousands of meetings, he didn't have
much time to read, to think or study. But the trips
and meetings w i t h the peoples of different countries
have given him an education that even the best of
universities cannot o f f e r . "
A t first I had d i f f i c u l t y getting along w i t h other
members of the detachment as well. There were
certain problems and arguments, and some mistakes
were made. The members of the news media knew
I was there, but, quite honestly, they d i d n ' t exactly
pay me a lot of attention or compliments.
Our life was one long training session: mornings,
evenings, days, weeks and even months long. Exper-
ience and knowledge were gained, training methods
improved. Consequently, the professional skill of
the cosmonauts themselves increased.
Gagarin was seriously training for his second
flight. After becoming the deputy director of the
Cosmonaut Training Centre, he was daily involved in
organizing scientific research and flying exercises. It
was at this time that his talent as an organizer and
director was revealed.
Gherman Titov continued to test aircraft. He
unexpectedly proved to be a real "aviation tiger". His
test flights were highly evaluated not only by his su-
periors but his colleagues as well. As his authority
grew, the aviation designers began to carefully heed
his professional suggestions. He was a good friend of

295
many of the designers, was familiar w i t h their work
and admired their creative fervour.
Andrian Nikolayev dedicated himself to training
for a lengthy orbiting mission. Sometimes this staid
and determined man would talk about his dream of
flying to other planets. He was not alone. Many of
his comrades had the same dream.
For Pavel Popovich, science played the most
important role in his future w o r k . He eagerly helped
the scientists by compiling and analyzing data and
making comparative charts. Soon the scientists grew
to respect his opinion. Everything came easy t o him.
He flew well, quickly gained an understanding of ma-
chinery and instruments, easily transferred from one
programme to another and never regretted the wasted
time and effort spent on a mission he did not take
part in. He was the first to begin to write articles and
then books.
Valery Bykovsky was a man of few words and deli-
berate actions, but he was willing to participate in
any experiment. For the sake of science, he was pre-
pared, as he put it, to let the physicians "take him
apart". Before joining the cosmonaut unit, Valery
served in the Moscow Air Defence region. He re-
mained friends w i t h the men he had served w i t h ,
frequently inviting them to his home in Star City.
In a way he envied them: they were able to fly all
the time.
Valentina Tereshkova was generous in sharing her
knowledge w i t h other women training for space flight.
She spent all her time w i t h the women's cosmonaut
unit. Nikolai Kamanin advised her to dedicate herself
to public duties entirely, but she refused, firmly
believing she could do more good working w i t h the
cosmonaut trainees.
Valentina was so dedicated to her work that she
declined to take her annual vacation or travel abroad

296 !
i
for fear of missing a lesson or training session. We all
admired such tenacity.

In 1966-1967 we worked very hard in preparing

for the manned flight aboard the Soyuz. The craft
had been finished before Sergei Korolev's death, but
it still had to be tested in unmanned flight. Other space
probes and orbital stations were being developed at
the same time. In February 1967 the decision was
reached to launch a cosmonaut aboard the Soyuz no
later than April. A l l participants in the flight were
named.
A t the end of March, the cosmonauts training
for the Soyuz missions took their exams. The exam-
ining commission, comprised of leading specialists
and engineers, was rather strict in its evaluation of
the cosmonauts' abilities. But all the men demon-
strated their excellent knowledge and were given the
"go-ahead" for the missions.
On April 6, the cosmonauts flew to Baikonur. Ka-
manin permitted those of us not involved in the
Soyuz programme t o fly w i t h them. That evening
the engineers met the cosmonauts at their hotel t o
talk in a relaxed atmosphere about future flights and
life in general. We indulged in our fantasies and spoke
of the moon. Mars and Venus. It was unanimously
agreed that in twenty t o t h i r t y years a city w o u l d
be built on the moon.
A t Baikonur, w o r k was going on at a frenetic
pacetwenty-four hours a day. The cosmonauts
were learning the details of the flight programme,
studying the component charts, rehearsing emergency
situations, consulting w i t h the specialists, and w r i t i n g
down in their logs emergency procedures.
On April 24 at 3.00, Vladimir Komarov arrived at
the launch site. Kamanin walked with him to the l i f t
and said a few words in farewell. Gagarin rode up

297
w i t h him to the rocket hatch, and at the designated
time, the ship lifted off.
As usual, Gagarin stayed in the bunker and main-
tained contact w i t h Vladimir. He kept the cosmonaut
informed of the parameters of the orbit and data
about tracking stations. We were all happy to hear
Vladimir announce: "Everything is in order." A mo-
ment later he added: " I feel great; the flight is pro-
ceeding normally."
Komarov was well-liked among the cosmonauts.
Both the specialists and his comrades respected his
scientific knowledge, and his opinion was always
considered carefully. We rejoiced in his success and
wished him a safe trip home.
During the ship's final orbit, Komarov repeated
the landing instructions he had received and informed
Flight Control that they had been carried out. He
transmitted all the flight details; everything was pro-
ceeding according to plan.
Kamanin gave the order for the search plane to fly
to the landing target. While aboard the 11-18, Nikolai
Petrovich was informed that the Soyuz spacecraft had
been sighted 65 kilometres east of Orsk.
A t Gagarin's request, all the cosmonauts flew to
the area to greet Vladimir. But the meeting was not
what was anticipated.
The lines of the spacecraft's main parachute had
become entangled, and the ship crashed to earth at
great speed. The search team opened the hatch and
removed Komarov's body.
Yuri Gagarin and all the cosmonauts were stunned
by the first cosmonaut fatality in the USSR. On
April 26, 1967 the country bid a last farewell to an
intrepid explorer of the universe, our friend Vladimir
Komarov.
A t a memorial held in Red Square, Yuri Gagarin
spoke on behalf of the cosmonauts. A few days later,

298
Kamanin, who looked aged by the tragedy, called
us all together and laid out the future flight prog-
ramme. He told Gagarin straight out that there was
practically no chance he would be allowed to fly
again. Kamanin himself would recommend that
Gagarin not be permitted to participate in any other
flights. Yuri listened to this terrible pronouncement
in silence.
Some of the cosmonauts expressed their wish t o
fly the Soyuz and demonstrate its reliability and
great potential. Kamanin thanked the men for their
noble enthusiasm. He dismissed them but asked me
to remain.
" I want you to be the next," he said, looking me
in the eye. "This is not the whim or fancy of any
one official, it's ... well, you understand. Y o u ' l l have
a competitorFeoktistov. He's asking to be allowed
to test the spacecraft and has written a letter stating
his arguments.
"The design bureau is completing new work on
the ship. There w i l l be a number of tests and technical
launches, which w i l l probably take several months."
I began an intensive training programme. Not once,
before or after my flight, I was asked how Komarov's
death affected my training and state of mind. Super-
ficially, there was, of course, a connection. After all, I
would be flying the same spacecraft in which Koma-
rov was killed. But I didn't make the connection
inwardly. Of course I often thought of what a won-
derful person Volodya had been, but what I felt was
pain and human grief, not apprehension about my
own welfare.
It should be mentioned that there was much spe-
culation at that time about the tragedy that had oc-
curred at Cape Kennedy three months earlier: during
a ground test of the Apollo capsule three American
astronautsVirgil Grissom, Edward White and Roger

299
Chaffeewere killed in a flash fire.
It isn't surprising that quite a few people believed
this superficial analogy was sufficient reason for mak-
ing pessimistic conclusions and predictions. But
such views, I repeat, reflected only the outward,
formal side. Most of the people who directly partici-
pated in the space programme saw things as they
really were, not in gloomy colours. We knew our
technology and believed in it.
Perhaps "believe" is not the appropriate word; we
had confidence in it. Of course there can never be a
one hundred per cent guarantee of success when
testing new technology: risk is an inevitable factor
in the experimenter's profession. Regardless of how
many tests are conducted and how carefully prepara-
tions are made, there is always a chance that some-
thing might go wrong or that an entire sequence of
unpropitious events might occur. It is impossible to
foresee everything.
The man w h o has chosen to be an experimenter
prepares himself beforehand for the risks and emer-
gencies involved. Preparedness is based not only on
personal courage but, more important, on confidence
in the technology w i t h which one works. Courage
means being prepared to take risks, but it does not
free one from the feeling of alarm that accompanies
those risks. It is only a deep knowledge of the techno-
logy itself together w i t h the confidence this inspires
that eases the alarm by stripping away unjustified
fears. Thus, the individual becomes morally and
consciously prepared for the risk. If one lacks faith
in the technology, courage will not help; w i t h o u t
believing in success it is d i f f i c u l t to achieve it, to
perform to the best of one's ability.
In October 1968 it was my turn to go up in the
Soyuz.

3oo j
A Great Loss

It seemed impossible: Yuri Gagarin was dead. We

would never again hear his voice, see his face or clasp
his hand. Few people knew of his death; it was our
tragedy, but our grief was so great we could scarcely
conceal it.
Star City was immersed in blackness. No light
shone in apartment windows, no people bustled down
the streets, no cars sped down the roads. The silence
was terrible and oppressive. It was hard t o breathe
and difficult to see.
Only yesterday we were speaking of plans for the
future, confidently thinking about new launches, high
orbits and the "dusty paths of distant planets" as a
popular song went.
...I wanted to t h i n k , to concentrate, but my
thoughts were coming too rapidly, like the phrases in
a telegram. A n d my memories were sporadic and
unconnected...
We gathered in gloom and stood silently outside
the door to Gagarin's office. The head of the Cosmo-
naut Training Centre, Major-General Nikolai Kuz-
netsov, walked by quickly, his eyes downcast. He
stopped at the door, turned and said:
" D o n ' t just stand around together. Go to your
places. You might be needed..."
Nikolai Fyodorovich left w i t h o u t seeing to it that
his command was carried out. A n d anyway it wasn't
an order.
We were waiting for Nikolai Kamanin.
We already knew that, though Gagarin and Sere-
gin's plane was missing, the search planes and helicop-
ters sent to the area had not found any trace of the
crash. This news raced around the offices, labora-
tories and training facilities. Our hopes were raised:
they were alive.
Bringing t h e Soyuz booster r o c k e t t o t h e
launch pad
M o u n t i n g t h e Soyuz-2 booster r o c k e t on
t h e launch pad
T o u c h d o w n of t h e Soyuz TM-3 landing
capsule

C o s m o n a u t - p i l o t of t h e USSR V l a d i m i r
T i t o v (centre) d u r i n g t h e "survival in
the t u n d r a " experiment
Spaceship simulators
T h e Salyut o r b i t i n g station
Preparations f o r an open space
e x p e r i m e n t in t h e h y d r o - l a b o r a t o r y
Underwater t r a i n i n g in t h e
h y d r o - l a b o r a t o r y before space f l i g h t

The crew of the Soyuz TM-4 spaceship.

Flight engineer Musa Manarov and
C o m m a n d e r V l a d i m i r T i t o v (right)
before a r o u t i n e t r a i n i n g session in the
hydro-laboratory
Members of the crew o f t h e Soviet-Syrian
space e x p e d i t i o n , Alexander V i k t o r e n k o
(left) and M u h a m m e d Faris after landing

T h e Soviet-Syrian crew ( f r o m left t o

r i g h t ) : Alexander Laveikin, A l e x a n d e r
V i k t o r e n k o and M u h a m m e d Faris after
landing
Syrian cosmonauts M u h a m m e d Faris
(right) a n d M u n i r Habib d u r i n g f l i g h t
training
 Kamanin arrived and dejectedly walked into Kuz-
netsov's office w i t h o u t lifting his head or looking up.
Our new-found hopes were dashed. There was no
doubt: the plane had crashed.
Kamanin drove t o the airport where he was in-
formed by the launch control centre that a helicopter
had spotted a plane wreckage three kilometres f r o m
the village of Novoselovo. Nikolai Petrovich stood up,
looked around at the men present and said:
" Y o u , you and you come w i t h me." Looking at
Kuznetsov he ordered: " Y o u remain here. Get me a
helicopter immediately."
A l l kinds of thoughts came into our heads. Maybe
something had happened in the air: the engine failed,
sudden icing had occurred, the plane had collided
w i t h ... w i t h what? What could a plane run into at an
altitude of four thousand metres? But maybe the men
had bailed out or made an emergency landing.
Kamanin studied the snow-covered ground below,
looking for a parachute or a fire. He recalled how in
March 1965 Pavel Belyaev and Aleksei Leonov had
made a fire t o attract the search planes. But after
thoroughly reconnoitering the area, Kamanin could
find nothing suspicious. Again our hopes flickered:
Gagarin was alive.
Kamanin ordered the pilot to circle one more time.
The helicopter flew slowly, at times hovering in the
air. Suddenly Kamanin shouted: " L a n d ! " I t was the
first time he showed any impatience. The helicopter
circled and landed about eight hundred metres f r o m
the charred ground. Sinking in the snow, Kamanin
made his way t o the crash site. Standing up t o his
waist in the snow, he looked around at the thick
forest, which undoubtedly had a soft ground cover-
ing since the crater was several metres deep but was
already being slowly filled w i t h underground water
and melted snow.

317
 Aviation specialists w i t h torches and flashlights
were combing the site. It was dusk; the temperature
was falling. Every new object discovered in the forest
was reported to Kamanin, w h o was searching the
crater w i t h professional thoroughness. There could be
no doubt that the plane had crashed, but it was un-
clear what had happened to the pilots. After search-
ing the first few hundred metres nothing had turned
up. Again hopes were raised: the men had parachuted
f r o m the plane and were alive.
Suddenly the word went round that a pilot's
map case had been found. This was distressing news.
A f t e r returning to Star City Kamanin called
Moscow w i t h information about the first finds. He
asked that an emergency commission be formed to
include Pavel Popovich and that its first meeting be
held as quickly as possible.
The meeting was called for 12.30 a.m.
We saw Kamanin w i t h his lips pressed tightly
together, Kuznetsov struggling to control his trembl-
ing chin, Leonov w i t h his face t o the wall and Popo-
vich repeatedly leafing through flight documents.
Each one of these men had all the information avail-
able, but no one of them believed Gagarin was dead.
The circumstantial evidence pointed to his death, but
there was still an absence of irrefutable proof.
Kamanin ordered another helicopter to search
the area. The situation was such that no one dared
question the rationale for this. People still believed
Gagarin might be alive, and they wanted to help save
him.
A t 23.10, the cosmonauts who had seen and
spoken w i t h Gagarin and Seregin on March 26 or 27
were called together. Kuznetsov was the first to speak
about the preflight arrangements of the previous day,
about Gagarin's readiness, his mood and his plans.
He gave a detailed account of Yuri's final hours of

318
work and mentioned Gagarin's medical check-up,
which was completely normal: no problem sleep-
ing, no headaches and no feeling of exhaustion.
The cosmonauts, engineers and various specialists
came to tell about their last meetings w i t h Gagarin.
Listening to the details of these meetings, it was im-
possible to believe the tragedy had occurred.
Stepan Sukhinin tried to conceal his emotion as he
described the day before Yuri's flight:
" Y u r i Alekseyevich carefully wrote down every-
thing said at the preflight training session. He listened
to the reports of the navigator on duty and meteoro-
logist, and discussed the upcoming flight w i t h the
flight director. He was energetic and happy.
" A f t e r Gagarin and Seregin had climbed inside
their plane, I w e n t to the launch control centre and
listened to the radio transmissions and commands of
the flight director. The last radio transmission went,
something like this: Yuri Alekseyevich said. T h i s
is 625. Mission accomplished. Altitude 5,200. Re-
quest permission to approach.' The flight director
said, 'Check your altitude.' There was no answer.
The flight director asked for 625 on all the fre-
quencies. No answer."
Different people related their last meeting w i t h
Gagarin. There was nothing unusual or suspicious
in their accounts.
It was a tense time. Kamanin never raised his
voice to sound more like a commander. He knew
that at the first word his requests w o u l d be un-
derstood and immediately fulfilled. He asked that
skiers be thoroughly equipped and sent to the crash
site.
Preliminary w o r k was being done at the site. As
soon as dawn broke, the search team began to careful-
ly comb the wreckage. Twisted pieces of the plane
were removed from the snow, and water pumped out

319
of the crater. The crater was widened t o help make
it easier to reach the engine, which was buried deep
in the ground.
While looking over the area, Kamanin and the
other members of the emergency commission noticed
a piece of cloth hanging from a branch about ten
metres high. The fragment of material was taken
d o w n f r o m the tree and carefully examined. It was
the f r o n t section of a pilot's jacket. In the pocket
meal tickets w i t h Yuri Gagarin's name on them were
found. Gagarin was dead.
Kamanin immediately flew t o Moscow. A govern-
ment commission was formed to investigate the cir-
cumstances which led t o the deaths of Cosmonaut-
Pilot of the USSR and Hero of the Soviet Union
Colonel Yu. A. Gagarin and Hero of the Soviet
Union Colonel-Engineer V. S. Seregin.
That same day, at 21,15 the remains of the t w o
men were cremated. The relatives of the deceased
and all the cosmonauts were present.
The second night was endlessly long. In Star City,
no one slept. Some sat silently at home, some wand-
ered aimlessly down the streets, some stood in
f r o n t of Gagarin's sealed office.
On March 29 the Soviet papers announced Ga-
garin's death to the world.
The Krasnaya zvezda (Red Star) printed a letter
f r o m the cosmonauts under the caption "His Name Is
Immortal":
"We loved Yuri Gagarin. He was our leader, our
commander, our conscience. The years we spent
together w i t h him in one friendly family of cos-
monauts enriched each of us, helped us to become
better, more worthy and more broad-minded. He
seemed to charge us w i t h his energy. He helped us
become public-spirited and good Party members. His
experience, his knowledge, his manifold human quali-

320
ties were available for everyone, for those he was
with. We always learned from our Y u r i . "
The papers printed letters, articles and recollec-
tions about Yuri. Vasily Peskov, who knew Y u r i
well, wrote:
"Gagarin is dear t o all of us because the t h i r t y odd
years of his life represent a part of our common des-
tinya hungry childhood, tattered trousers and les-
sons by the light of a kerosene lamp; a postwar y o u t h
w i t h burning Komsomol passion; a maturity that al-
lows an individual to call himself a communist. Ga-
garin was our man. This explains the depths of our
feelings f r o m the day we first heard his name, and
the depth of our grief today when we stand w i t h
uncovered heads before a fresh grave."
A t nine o'clock in the morning the Red Banner
hall of the Central House of the Soviet A r m y (TsDSA),
which contained the urns w i t h the ashes of Y u r i
Gagarin and Vladimir Seregin, opened its doors t o
the public.
The line of people who had come to pay their
last respects t o their hero stretched f r o m TsDSA t o
Samotechnaya Square. Everyone knew, and they
were informed yet again, that the hours were limited.
But once the set time period had elapsed, no one
left. The government commission extended the hours
until midnight.
On March 30 Moscow accompanied the world's
first cosmonaut and his comrade on their final jour-
ney. The funeral was held at 14.30.
Newspapers all over the world reported the trag-
edy. The articles, reports and letters reflected pain,
suffering and disbelief.
" A f t e r crossing all the important thresholds of
danger and risk seven years ago, Gagarin returned t o
us safe. What could happen to him on earth? No
doubt many people thought this way, perhaps even

321
Gagarin himself. A n d perhaps that is w h y today there
is a sense of guilt: maybe we d i d n ' t protect him?
" . . . Y o u can't shut yourself off f r o m life. A man
cannot permit himself to be wrapped in a feather
mattress of solicitude, no matter how dear his life is
to others. Gagarin more than anything wanted to
remain Gagarin. A n d this had to be taken into ac-
count. He flew all the time, trained and spoke of new
flights. Was it possible to deny him this?"

The Cosmonauts' Mentor

Today the whole w o r l d knows the name of the fa-
mous Soviet pilot, one of the first Heroes of the
Soviet Union, Nikolai Kamanin. I t so happened that
I was fortunate enough to serve under him for many
years.
During the years of the Great Patriotic War, our
squadron was part of a mixed aviation unit under
Kamanin's command. As young pilots, we were proud
t o know we were serving under such a famous pilot.
Before the war Nikolai Kamanin had graduated f r o m
the military aviation department of the Zhukovsky
A i r Force Engineering Academy and commanded an
aviation brigade and later an entire division. His in-
telligence, strategic and tactical skills quickly made
him one of the Soviet A r m y ' s leading commanders.
Kamanin was fearless and had inexhaustible energy
and initiative. It seemed like he was never tired;
day and night were the same to him. Each time a
mission was completed, the General flew to the
squadron and w i t h the fastidiousness of an investi-
gator examined the operation. He didn't hand down
categorical decisions or consider his opinion infall-
ible. Rather, he listened to anyone engaged in mili-
tary actions. In our youth we considered this an ec-
centricity of the thirty-five year-old general.
 We were almost always at least partially success-
ful in our missions. But at times this success was
bought at a dear price. After studying the flight plan
and evaluating the tactics used, Kamanin was rarely
satisfied. He thought we were using yesterday's
methods. When he was sure of his point of view he
would criticize even the most superior officers. We
knew of one instance when, after he listened t o a
report made by A r m y Commander General Mikhail
Gromov, Kamanin addressed the meeting saying he
disagreed w i t h the conclusions and analysis of battle
casualties and thought that their major cause was the
low level of battle training of the commanding of-
ficers. With his characteristic resoluteness he refused
to countenance banality, conceit and self-aggrandize-
ment.

...Gradually, after passing all the necessary tests,

I approached my cherished goal. I d i d n ' t achieve
everything at once, and my scores were not the high-
est. My age and rank accorded me no special privil-
eges. A f t e r Nikolai Petrovich received the results of
the testing and selection, he didn't recommend a
softer regimen.
I was happy to have been accepted into the cos-
monaut unit. Kamanin congratulated me w i t h o u t
emotion and in the future never distinguished me in
any way f r o m the other cosmonaut trainees. He was
always considerate, composed and taciturn and never
gave way t o his emotions. His self-control and will-
power were admired during those sorrowful days
after Gagarin's death, for it was he w h o had the
responsibility of organizing a search of the crash site
and then making the funeral arrangements. He an-
swered the questions of Soviet and foreign correspon-
dents, wrote Gagarin's and Seregin's obituaries and
suggested ways t o immortalize their names. A t

| 323
the request of Central Television, he spoke to tele-
vision viewers about the tragedy.
Kamanin made a thorough study of all the docu-
ments pertaining to the plane crash, carefully read
all the reports and explanations and spoke w i t h any-
one w h o might be able to shed some light on the
cause of the accident. With the permission of the
individuals he was interviewing, he taped their con-
versations and later, when alone, carefully listened
to it once again.
Maria Kalashnikova, Valentina Gagarina's sister,
gave a detailed account of their home life. She re-
called that on March 26 she w o k e up the Gagarin chil-
dren at 7.00, and while they were washing and get-
ting dressed, she began to prepare breakfast.
Y u r i was sleeping. She never woke him up because
he always managed to wake up exactly at the time
he wanted. That evening he was calm and efficient,
as always, and spoke a great deal about Valentina.
That Sunday Valentina came home. Yuri was able
to persuade the doctors t o let her come home to be
w i t h her children. He laughed and said this was
treatment, too; home therapy, so t o speak.
On March 26 Yuri went t o see Valya in the hospi-
tal. That entire evening he spoke about her and about
his talk w i t h the doctors, and played w i t h the girls.
Then he asked for something to eat since he hadn't
eaten lunch that day. He asked his sister-in-law if
she needed him to do anything around the house,
and she gave him some knives to sharpen.
A f t e r eating dinner, Y u r i put the girls to bed and
then went to the garage. He returned home about
10.00 that evening.
These final minutes and hours of his life were now
terribly important, and Kamanin hoped that by anal-
yzing them he could discover why the accident had
occurred. But no matter how carefully he read

324
Maria Kalashnikova's account, he could f i n d nothing
unusual. Everything seemed normal, as it should
have been.
Cosmonautics Day was approaching. As always,
representatives f r o m Soviet and foreign radio and
television, newspaper and magazine correspondents
called Kamanin asking for his advice, material and
interviews. He was certainly not in a m o o d t o celeb-
rate, but Cosmonautics Day had become, quite
rightly, a national holiday. As only Kamanin could,
he hid his pain and received the journalists, telling
them about the cosmonauts' achievements and tasks,
sharing his plans, recommending stories and pictures
and setting u p meetings w i t h cosmonauts. He was
approached w i t h requests for advice and assistance,
and as busy as he was w i t h his own duties and respon-
sibilities, he never refused. He read articles, corrected
essays and suggested new outlines for books. In
other words, he splendidly fulfilled his d u t y .
In an article entitled " D a r i n g " , Kamanin w r o t e :
"The road to the stars is d i f f i c u l t and rigorous. We
have lost t w o talented testers of spacecraft along this
roadYuri Gagarin and Vladimir Komarov. Their feats
are immortal. They did not accomplish them for the
sake of glory or a comfortable life, or so that people
would repeat their names. They moved forward along
that untravelled road because their nation, all the
people on earth, science and progress, required it...
" I n our minds we realize that when mankind steps
into a new, u n k n o w n region, when daring explora-
tion of the universe is being undertaken, fatalities
are possible. But it is difficult t o accept this in our
hearts.
" B u t life goes on. The Soviet people w i l l inevitably
move on and discover the unknown for the good of
mankind. This was the way it was and the way it
will be."

325
 On the eve of Cosmonautics Day, General Ka-
manin called me into his office. He asked me about
m y training and how the men in the unit were get-
ting along. Then he began to speak about Gagarin:
" Y o u know, Georgi Timofeyevich, how much time
I spent w i t h Yuri Alekseyevich. We just about trav-
elled the w o r l d over, visiting all the largest countries.
A l l our trips were successful.
" Y u r i generally spoke 18-20 times a day and gave
interviews. No doubt this required an enormous
amount of effort. When he got back to the car, he
w o u l d fall into my arms half-dead and go to sleep.
I was happy then, both because a world-famous man
was sleeping as quietly as a child in my arms and
also because he trusted me and drew strength f r o m
our contact.
"We were able to w o r k so efficiently due to good
organization and strict discipline..."
Kamanin continued to speak about Yuri, about
his tremendous authority, w o r l d popularity, and the
desire of all types of people, regardless of position
or age, t o meet him. Then he t o l d me about prepara-
tions for the launching of the Soyuz spacecraft and
the Luna-14 space probe which w o u l d soon be in or-
bit around the moon.
" I w o n ' t be flying w i t h y o u , " Nikolai Petrovich
said softly. " F o r the first time I w o n ' t be w i t h you
at the cosmodrome." He was silent for a long time,
perhaps thinking once again about Gagarin. " A
group w i l l be formed and you w i l l be put in charge.
A n d one more thing: d o n ' t refuse t o fly. You must
test the Soyuz as soon as possible."
I stood and answered in military fashion: "Yes
sir!"
A day later we flew to Baikonur.
Gagarin Is with Us

Time passed, and those sorrowful days following

Gagarin's death faded into the past. Still, whether we
were training, watching a space launch at Baikonur or
trying on new spacesuits, we thought about Y u r i and
measured our efforts against the standards he had set.
We were asked t o speak and write about him, but
we couldn't. The pain was still too great. Newspapers
and magazines continued to publish the articles
Gagarin had w r i t t e n , the interviews he had given arid
the book introductions he had composed at the
request of the authors. The magazine Aviatsiya i
kosmonavtika (Aviation and Cosmonautics) printed
his article " O u r Country's Road to Space" in which
he stated:
"Many people abroad who have been surprised by
the Soviet Union's leadership in space exploration
have come t o realize that the launch of the first
satellite and then the first manned orbital flight were
by no means accidental or isolated achievements.
They were the logical result of the development of
socialist society, a result reflecting the great construc-
tive forces, economic might and tremendous creative
potential of our Motherland."
The w o r l d deeply respected the memory of the
first cosmonaut. Cities, villages, streets, boats, scien-
tific institutes, even children were named after him.
A museum was opened in his honour, statues erected,
memorial plaques and medals inscribed and festivals
organized in his name. Pavel Barashev, a journalist,
wrote an article about him entitled " S o n of Earth".
Some time later Nikolai Kamanin repeated: "Son
of Earth! That is the best description of Yuri. He
was the first t o penetrate space and safely return t o
earth. Mankind has deemed this feat i m m o r t a l . "
But this was later, much later. A t first we d i d n ' t

iI 327

I
I
I
write about Gagarin, for no one could come to
speak of him in the past tense or describe that which
we could not yet totally comprehend.
Gagarin himself had tried his hand at writing. His
style was clear and concise, and he was eloquent in
his descriptions of the cosmonauts and their work.
He wanted to write a number of books about his
profession and his friends, like Gherman Titov,
Pavel Popovich, and Valery Bykovsky, and he left
notes and outlines for numerous articles which were
never completed.
The first t o write about Y u r i Gagarin was Gher-
man Titov:
" Y u r i left us all too soon. This man could have
accomplished vastly more for the space programme
than he did; he had only started d o w n the great road
of his profession. The age has lost its hero. It was an
unexpected loss, and our grief, the grief of all the
people of the world, was truly boundless. People
f r o m all corners of the globe paid tribute to the man
of the universe, the man who fulfilled their dreams
w i t h his heroic deed, who demonstrated on our
behalf before the history of civilization what we had
achieved in our development, revealing that the
thoughts and deeds of the world's scientists from an-
cient times up to the present had been realized108
minutes of space flight; one orbit around the planet
Earth!"
Andrian Nikolayev later wrote:
" H e always said what he thought, what he deeply
believed in. A l l of us who were in Yuri's unit recall
how he gained in confidence before our eyes. Each
year his talent grew as a thoughtful, strong-willed
commander and organizer, a wonderful psychologist
and remarkable comrade. Yuri combined a comman-
der's exactingness w i t h responsiveness and w a r m t h . "
The missions were becoming increasingly more

328 I
complex, the orbits and interplanetary routesmore
distant. In the years following Gagarin's death,
dozens of Soviet cosmonauts flew into space, and a
number of interplanetary probes were launched,
including the Luna, Venus and Mars projects. A l l
these new achievements in space exploration we
dedicated to Gagarin's memory.
Vitaly Sevastyanov met Yuri Gagarin in 1960 and
watched him become Cosmonaut Gagarin:
" Y u r i was one of those people w h o seem to be
born for society, who do social good as naturally
as breathing and moving. He was an exceptionally
good person. In my opinion, this was his most impor-
tant character trait. He was concerned about every-
thing: if it was a small group of people, just friends,
he was attentive to everyone; if it was a w o r k col-
lective, like his cosmonaut unit, he showed concern
for each cosmonaut; if it was our entire society, he
served it as a true citizen, a true public figure.
" Y e t I must emphasize that, first impression to
the contrary, Yuri was not an easy person to un-
derstand. He was very complicated, complicated in
a good way. Like a sponge, he drank in everything
that was good. A n d this ceaseless accumulation of
spiritual values and knowledge seemed t o occur with-
out effort. Each time we met I became more con-
vinced of how well he understood the operation of
many spacecraft. He grew before my eyes, and this
happened at a time when he was continuously work-
ing, when he could easily not have had the time t o in-
crease his knowledge or worry about spiritual values.
"One other thing I'd like to add: Y u r i carried the
burden of fame remarkably well. Though he had
many opportunities, he never did anything to increase
his fame."
Valery Bykovsky went through the cosmonaut
recruitment process w i t h Gagarin and was one of the

329
six trainees the journalists justifiably called "Gaga-
rin's detachment". Bykovsky wrote:
" M u c h has already been w r i t t e n about Yuri Gaga-
rin, and grateful people w i l l continue t o write about
him. T o those of us who knew him well, it often
seems that writers about Gagarin t r y to emphasize
the spectacular about this remarkable man. But
Y u r i Gagarin was, above all, a good workerinquisi-
tive and stubborn, avid in his desire to understand
the world, a worthy son o f his people."
Yevgeni Khrunov, a happy-go-lucky energetic
fellow w h o was known to his friends as the "walk-
ing computer", wrote that Gagarin had become a
legend in his own time, a symbol of what man was
capable of. " I consider it my duty to say that Ga-
garin should never be depicted as a dashing fellow
w i t h a perpetual smile on his face. It is true, he loved
life and people; he knew how to have a great time
and was incredibly sensitive. But in his workand
this played a large, important role in his lifehe
was unusually concentrated and when necessary-
exacting and strict, both to himself and others. So
to always be talking about his smile is to cheapen
his image."
Understanding the unquenchable interest in Ga-
garin, many authors began to write about him. We
cautioned against their being t o o hasty and writing
w i t h o u t sufficient information, but our advice was
not heeded. These literary experiments were not
successful and remained unfinished.
Those of us who knew Gagarin well, w h o had seen
him at work everyday, w h o felt his irresistible influ-
ence, quailed before the greatness of his name. His
self-control, discipline, remarkable industriousness,
optimism, intelligence and purposefulness were those
qualities which made him a recognized leader.
Yuri never tried to impress anyone w i t h his know-

|
ledge or authority, and he was never afraid t o speak
the truth. W i t h o u t subterfuge, he w o u l d admit he
hadn't read a book, though he very much wanted to,
that he hadn't seen a performance, even though he
had been invited t o the premiere, that he hadn't been
to an exhibition of the works of a well-known artist,
though he had been asked to attend the opening.
It was interesting t o work and train w i t h him.
Despite his y o u t h , he had acquired a great deal of
experience, the kind of wisdom which allowed him
to avoid f r i c t i o n in his work group and conflicts
w i t h his comrades.
I d o n ' t by any means wish to idealize Gagarin,
but these are the character traits which determined
his authority. He was incredibly busy, but never fus-
sy; he was engaged in important professional and
social affairs, b u t he never turned away f r o m a
friend; he was capable of doing many things, but
he never used his abilities for personal gain.
Gagarin dreamed of the time when an interna-
tional crew w o u l d fly in space. When travelling ab-
road, he often spoke of this and urged all the countries
of the world t o j o i n in a more thorough and better
planned programme of space exploration. In the
spring of 1968 he was preparing to address a UN con-
ference on the research and utilization of space for
peaceful purposes. His tragic death prevented him
from making his speech. Among the questions he
wished the conference to consider was international
cooperation in space exploration, the launching of
an international crew and changing the name of the
Soviet Cosmonaut Training Centre to the Interna-
tional Cosmonaut Training Centre.
In 1973 the Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Centre
became an international centre. American astronauts
came here to train. In 1976 future cosmonauts from
the socialist countries arrived. The Communist Party

i 331

i
t i o n about the first cosmonaut.
A f t e r his orbital flight, cosmonaut Sigmund Jahn
of the GDR remarked:
"We have become accustomed to new lift-offs,
orbital dockings and space laboratories. Today this
all seems routine. Still, after centuries and millennia
have passed, man w i l l never forget the name of the
resident of the planet w h o freed himself of the earth's
gravitational pull and for the first time looked
d o w n upon our planet. I t was Gagarin w h o called
it the 'blue planet', and we still use that term today.
While I was in space I remembered Gagarin's words
about the beauty of the earth. Our most important
concern right now is to do everything possible t o
preserve the earthly beauty of our blue planet, im-
prove the people's lives and free them of the threat
of atomic destruction."
Gagarin had proposed building a museum in Star
City, and this was finally done. The museum is
unique, and the exhibits reflect this. Rather than
provide information about the history of the Soviet
space programme and the creative efforts of space
engineers and scientists, the museum reflects the life
of Star City, particularly the practical activities of the
cosmonauts. There are also many exhibits dedicated
to the Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Centre's many
international contacts.
The USSR's leading role in space exploration is
reflected in many exhibits, and the gifts presented
t o the museum by foreign and Soviet w o r k collectives
and leaders of states and governments have become
unique items of world history.
Long before the 20th anniversary of Gagarin's
flight, articles appeared in the press about its last-
ing significance and tremendous contribution t o
world civilization. Georgi Ivanov, a Bulgarian cos-
monaut wrote:

33
 " I w i l l always consider Gagarin a legendary figure,
a living example beckoning us t o the future. On a
visit t o our country Yuri Alekseyevich remarked that
soon Bulgaria w o u l d travel into space. I am exceed-
ingly proud of my country, proud that these pro-
phetic words spoken by the world's first cosmo-
naut came t r u e . "
Gagarin headed the Soviet-Cuban Friendship
Society. He had a number of friends in Cuba and
expressed a great deal of interest in the w o r k and
revolutionary life of this friendly c o u n t r y . It was
his dream one day t o travel into space together
w i t h a Cuban cosmonaut. Some time after his death,
Cuban cosmonaut Arnaldo Mendez spent several days
aboard an orbiting space station conducting scientific
research. A f t e r he returned to earth, Mendez said:
"When Y u r i Gagarin visited Cuba in 1961, he said
that the time w o u l d come when a Cuban w o u l d f l y
into space. His words were prophetic. Seventeen years
later, in March 1978, I came to the Soviet Union
to begin training for a space flight together w i t h my
friend Jose Lopez.
"We were very impressed w i t h the Gagarin Cos-
monaut Training Centre. It had the best technolog-
ical equipment, and the people w h o met us there
and became our friends were attentive and helpful.
The language was d i f f i c u l t for us at first. But teach-
ers, instructors and our cosmonaut friends, and our
active involvement w i t h them during lessons, train-
ing sessions and relaxation soon helped overcome
this d i f f i c u l t y .
"...Gagarin's courage, his confidence in success
of the flight and his winning smile were w i t h me at
the Cosmonaut Training Centre and during the j o i n t
flight aboard the orbital complex."

As told by Yevgeniya Malakhovskaya

 "PIONEERS OF SPACE" IS A
COLLECTION OF DOCUMEN-
TARY ESSAYS WRITTEN BY.
COSMONAUTS, SCIENTISTS
AND JOURNALISTS ABOUT
THE ORGANISATION OF THE
SOVIET SPACE PROGRAMME.
OFFERS INFORMATION

Pioneers of Soace
ABOUT THE ESTABLISHMENT
OF THECOSMONA UT TRAINING
CENTRE, THE DIFFICULTIES
THAT SOVIET SCIENTISTS,
ENGINEERS, PHYSICIANS AND
RESEARCHERS FACED IN PRE-
PARING FOR THE FIRST SPACE
LAUNCH, AND DESCRIBES THE
CHARACTER OF THE WORLD'S
FIRST COSMONAUT-YURI
GAGARIN.
f

THE BOOK SHOWS THE

PEACEFUL NATURE OF THE
SOVIET SPACE PROGRAMME
AND DISCUSSES EXCITING
MYSTERIES OF THE UNIVERSE
AND THE POSSIBILITY OF THE
EXISTENCE OF LIFE ON OTHER
PLANETS.

ISBN 5-01-001109-3

P R O G R E S S P U B L I S H E R S