CIN-TRACTS

A JOURNAL OF FILM, COMMUNICATIONS. CULTURE, AND POLITICS

FILM/TECHNOLOGY/IDEOLOGY
JOHN BERGER
STEPHEN HEATH
DUSAN MAKAVEJEV
IDEOLOGY & MEDIA MESSAGES
ETHNO-HERMENEUTICS

NO. 1 MIDDLE OF THE EARTH $2.50 /1.50

EDITORIAL COLLEC TIVE Ron Burnett
Matha Burnett
Hart Cohen
Chandra Prakash
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ADVISORY AND SUPPORTING EDITORS:

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John Fekete (trent university)
Jacqui Levitin (ryerson)
Bill Nichols (queens)
Peter Ohlin (mcgill university)
Don Theall (mcgill university)
Martin Walsh (university of western ontario)

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Ron Farr
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 CIN-TRACTS A JOURNAL OF FILM, COMMUNICATIONS. CULTURE, AND POLITICS

FILM/TECHNOLOGY/IDEOLOGY
JOHN BERGER
STEPHEN HEATH
DUSAN MAKAVEJEV
IDEOLOGY & MEDIA MESSAGES
ETHNO-HERMENEUTICS
 CINE-TRACTS
Vol. 1 - NO. 1 Spring 1977

CONTENTS

Editorial ................................................................ 3

Film / Technology / Ideology

Ron Burnett ...................................................... 6

On Middle of the Earth

John Berger ...................................................... 15

Screen Images Film Memory

Stephen Heath .................................................... 27

The Ideological Dimension of Media Messages

Marina Heck ..................................................... 37

Makavejev: in Conversation. .............................................. 48

Ethno Hermeneutics: Ethnography as Anomaly

Hart Cohen ..................................................... 54

Review: "A History of Cinema" by Eric Rhode ................................ 63

UNSOLICITED MANUSCRIPTS SHOULD BE ADDRESSED TO CINE-TRACTS, IN DUPLICATE, CLEARLY TYPED

AND DOUBLE-SPACED, ON ONLY ONE SIDE OF THE PAGE,

1
 COMMUNICATION STUDIES AT McGILL UNIVERSITY

The Graduate Program in Communications offers courses and directs project

research in preparation for the M.A. and the Ph.D. in Communications.

The Program is concerned with the study of communications phenomena

through an interdisciplinary activity that includes both theoretical and prac-
tical considerations of the various modes and media of communication. The
special theoretical interest of the Program centres on the nature and scope of
human communications as related to cognitive, social and aesthetic problems.
Degree candidates explore these aspects of communication studies by draw-
ing upon the resources of the various departments throughout the university
with whom the Program has established close working relations.

Inquiries regarding the Program should be addressed to:

The Director, The Graduate Program in Communications
McGILL UNIVERSITY, ARTS BUILDING
853 Sherbrooke St. West,
Montreal, P.Q.
Canada H3A 2T6

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EDITORIAL

Cine-tracts is a journal that intends to intervene in the current issues of social

theory and cultural practice. This intervention is premised on the desire to
examine how knowledge is used, who uses it, and to what purpose. The
production of knowledge is at least partially predicated on the specific ways
in which theory relates to practical action; on the inter-connections between
social theory and political practice.

The function of criticism as knowledge must, in some way, be informed by

these relations between theory and practice. For this reason we have at-
tempted to both understand and give meaning to the notion of "praxis" a
term whose central tension resides in the dialectics of theory and practice.
The elaboration of "praxis" within cultural theory is difficult; ultimately we
are attempting to find a notion that would express both the normative and
practical means of approaching the understanding and transformation of
culture and society.

In what manner can CINE-TRACTS "intervene" in the current debates on

cultural theory? Our first principle is that all criticism is ideological that
its present voyeuristic and consumerist positioning masks its ideological
character. Our second principle follows naturally from the first. It is the
incorporation of the "critique" of ideology within the fabric of our critique
of culture. The critique of ideology within cultural criticism is the unmask-
ing of criticism's real terms of response; it is specifying the conditions and
circumstance of the response as a practice and as it is situated within a
complex of competing and interacting practices e.g. institutionalized frame-
works that characterize the socio-cultural process.

What form would this criticism take? What are its priorities?

3
We can define our position initially by making explicit the kinds of theore-
tical work we would reject (critically). We would be most critical of theory
that is reduced to dogma; theory that trivializes concepts e.g. economism,
operationalism, mechanical determinism. We are also conscious of the need to
criticize the tendency towards academism in cultural theory this is criticism
that is most often ahistorical and which makes its claims within a value-free
universe thereby abstracting its real terms of response.

These forms of criticism do not need further imitation. Culture as praxis

strives to revolutionize; criticism as revolutionary practice intends to generate
a rhythm of change; change which is communicated as both crucial and
drastic but which preserves within criticism that which is still useful. This
form of critical analysis intends to explore methods of posing questions
about culture questions that would include the historical and ideological
tensions we spoke of earlier.

The emphasis on tradition, change, and inter-subjective understanding pre-

supposes a rejection of "pure" documentary/descriptive forms of cultural
analysis and ideal/empirical forms of explanation. Our cultural analysis must
go beyond these forms of interpretation for they do not recognize the collu-
sion that exists between the interpreter and the phenomena under interpre-
tation that the interpreter knows the phenomena he wishes to understand
and that to a large degree he knows and is of the world in which these
phenomena occur. Socio-cultural studies, therefore, have to deal with the
consequences of social organization and a critical analysis of culture should
formulate criteria by which these consequences can be evaluated. The
evaluation of consequences is linked to the realization of social ideals
through political activity. The critical moment, then, is the juncture of
theory and practice wherein the objects of study are always influenced by
and influencing the studies themselves. In bracketing the issues of interpre-
tation, object relations and action, we define the field of cultural criticism as
a series of dialectically posed relationships between theory and practice.

One such relationship is the positioning of the subject within the socio-
cultural process and within the institutions that make up this process. This
crucial dimension of cultural theory (the subject) is wrought with paradox
and contradiction. The living process through which the subject constitutes
himself is open to objectification and reductionism. The deeply interiorized
contradictions that are posed between the self and society are refracted into
empirical schemata and the subject ceases to be a dialectically acted upon
being who acts and struggles with reality. In speaking of the positioning of
the subject and of the constitution of the subject we are not speaking of the
atomized individual in bourgeois societies but are rather trying to raise the
question of subjectivity within an overall analysis of the socio-economic
structure.

Where is the subject in relation to this context and what is his nature? The
subject is located within the framework of consumption/production but is
not passive. His capacity for self-reflection makes him active and that
activity is the basis upon which the subject produces and reproduces himself.
The subject's constitution of self is thus predicated on an ambiguous rela-
tionship of struggle with a pre-existent social whole whose very exteriority
masks its presence within the subject. Thus the subject is seen as crossed by
contradictions while at the same time producing contradictions.

4
 In linking together the issues of self-reflexivity, subjective positioning, and
hegemonic social structure, we are proposing the outline of a possible theory
of culture which embraces both the 'critique of ideology' and the problem-
atic of praxis. This work is largely incomplete and thus far, poses far more
questions than it answers. It is towards these questions that we hope the
journal's contributors will address themselves.

THE EDITORS

Working Papers in Cultural Studies 10

ON IDEOLOGY
The first part of the 1977 issue will analyse different concepts of ideology
within the marxist tradition. The theorists considered will include Gramsci,
Althusser, and Poulantzas. A series of case studies are presented in the second
part. These involve the ideological aspects of the crisis in education, a critique
of sociological notions of working class 'community', and a commentary on the
problems of ideology in marxist aesthetics.

AVAILABLE APRIL 1977 1.75

CENTRE FOR CONTEMPORARY CULTURAL STUDIES

UNIVERSITY OF BIRMINGHAM
BIRMINGHAM 15

5
FILM /TECHNOLOGY / IDEOLOGY

by
RON BURNETT

One of the major problems faced by film teachers, film viewers, and film-
makers is that there are a series of implicit rules that govern the filmmaking
process-rules whose visibility is distorted by their seemingly natural structure.
These natural rules make it seem as if the technology of cinematic produc-
tion is neutral, that is, without ideology. The cinematic production process
is elevated to a level of professional scientism and this further depletes the
possibilities of understanding the ideological determinants of filmic creation.

6
 "Have you noticed how all the many discourses on the cinema assume the a priori exist-
ence of a non-signifying apparatus/producer of images which gives impartial service in any
situation. . ." ". . . filmmakers would be well advised to think about the ideology pro-
duced by the basic apparatus which defines the cinema. The film camera is an ideological
instrument in its own right . . . it produces and reproduces a directly inherited code of
perspective, built on the scientific model of the Quattrocento. What needs to be shown
is the meticulous way in which the construction of the camera is geared to 'rectify' any
anomalies in perspective in order to reproduce in all its authority the visual code laid
down by renaissance humanism . . ." (Marcelin Pleynet in Cinthique).
The camera does not record what it sees. It constructs a spatial and temporal configura-
tion to conform to the trained eye of an observer who wishes to generate the feeling that
the camera is recording. The industry of film is made up of specialists trained to create
the effect of the camera as a transparent device in the generation of cinematic narratives.
As an instrument the camera's technological characteristics affect what we see both as we
look through it and as we gaze at the screen.

The process through which messages are encoded (i.e., the production process) and the
technology which is used to do the encoding are dialectically interelated and interdepen-
dent. Film is a consumer product created in a specific economic context (labour and
materials being the primary cost) bringing together a certain number of technical staff
whose prime function is to successfully construct a sellable item. It is a piece of merchan-
dise having exchange value-sold through tickets and contracts dependent upon an
intricate system of distribution and credit. In order to understand the production process
we have to examine the socio-economic structure which, in part, determines film. We
have to understand what profit means, what surplus-value means, how credit is arranged,
how the large conglomerates package entertainment, how certain filmmakers come to be
seen more than others, etc. . . .
"The optical apparatus, camera obscura, will serve to
elaborate, in pictoral work a new mode of representa-
tion, perspectiva artificalis. This system, a recentering
or at least a displacement of the center (which settles
itself in the eye) will assure the setting up of a
'subject' as the active center and origin of meaning.
One could doubtless question the privileged position
which optical instruments, seem to occupy on the line
of intersection of science and ideological products.
Does the technical nature of optical instruments,
directly attached to scientific practice, serve to con-
ceal not only their use in ideological products but
also the ideological effects which they may provoke
themselves? Their scientific base assures them a sort
of neutrality and avoids their being questioned."*
* Jean-Louis Beaudry, Ideological
Effects of the Basic Cinemato- "But, already a question: if we are to take account of
graphic Apparatus in Film Qua-
terly, Vol. xxviii, no. 2, Winter the imperfections of these instruments, their limita-
1974-75. p.40 Henceforth to be tions, by what criteria may these be defined? if, for
referred to as Beaudry. example, one can speak of a restricted depth of field
as a limitation, doesn't this term itself depend upon a
particular conception of reality for which such a
limitation would not exist? Signifying productions
are particularly relevant here, to the extent that ins-
trumentation plays a more and more important role
in them and that their distribution is more and more
extensive. It is strange, (but is it so strange) that em-
phasis has been placed almost exclusively on their in-
fluence, on the effects they have as finished products,
their content, the field of what is signified, if you like;
the technical bases upon which these effects depend
and the specific characteristics of these bases have
been ignored, however. They have been protected by
* Beaudry. p.40 the inviolability which science has tried to provide."*

7
 The camera as a machine, is reflective of a certain way of approaching life; (like Godard
says, the camera does not give us a reflection of reality but the reality of that reflection)
it reveals a certain way of trying to respond to, and recreate experience. Given the
breadth and scope of the technological achievements of the twentieth century, the
camera, even in its most sophisticated variations has not changed much since the middle
of the nineteenth century. We can say that it fulfills the purpose for which it was de-
signed, that is, to generate motion out of still pictures, to capture in as real (?) a fashion
the life patterns around us, but that doesn't clarify why things have remained the same.
But, by looking more deeply into the production process, that is, by examining those
forces which maintain an established way of defining experience and a very particular
way of presenting those definitions we can perhaps come to a clearer understanding of
how dominant ideologies work and how they create the technology to re-enforce and
uphold that dominance.

"Dominant ideology is an extremely plastic, diffuse and apparently ahistorical structure.

Ideology as Gramsci argued seems to consist of a set of residues or pre-constituted
elements which can be arranged and re-arranged bricoleur fashion in a thousand different
variations. The dominant ideology of a society thus appears to be redundant: we know it
already, we have seen it before, a thousand different messages and signs seem to signify
the same ideological meaning. It is the very environment in which we live and experience
the world the necessarily imaginary distortions through which we continually represent
to ourselves the imaginary relationship of individuals to the relations of production and
the relations that derive from them" (Stuart Hall)*.
*Stuart Hall, Encoding and De-
coding in the Television Dis-
course, Paper for the Council of The limitations that define how a camera sees what it sees are the result of a historical
Europe Colloquy on Training in process of selection and an ideological process of definition. It is quite clear though, that
the Critical Reading of Television practitioners of film have always known about the particular limitations of the camera and
Language Center for Cultural
Studies, University of Birming- have designed an industry to overcome those limitations. They have thus made extensive
ham, Sept.. 1973. p.14. use of the camera's ideological structure in order to mask ideological choice.

Due to the sensitivity of the camera as an instrument (the camera, when hand-held will
respond to the nervous system of the user and to his/her breathing rhythms) the industry
had to invent a tripod which would hold down the camera and contribute to that all im-
portant effect of their being no camera-man present as an element in the experience of
the viewer. "Never set out intentionally to shoot a film without a tripod. You will be
constantly hampered and severely limited in what you shoot. The tripod will give you a
* Kenneth H. Roberts and Win firm support that will produce steady pictures . . ."*
Sharples Jr., A Primer For Film-
making, Pegasus, N.Y. (1971), p. The absence of the cameraman is, for the viewer, an essential component of the recording
137. Henceforth to be referred function of the camera. The subject-viewer is fixed into a position where he/she 'sees'
to as Primer.
without the apparent mediation of the camera. The less the mediation the more it appears
to be a record and the more recorded it appears to be the less visible are the stylistic and
ideological choices that are being made.

If the cameraman were to shake his camera in the middle of a scene which calls for a still
camera it would disrupt the viewer's attention. The disruption would make a certain styl-
istic restraint visible and produce a disjuncture between the 'real' (which we experience as
natural) and the 'conventional' (which we make real by a process of naturalization). As
subjects we contribute to a 'making real' of what is so clearly 'unreal' by participating
with filmmakers in the maintenance of the illusion.

". . . the spectator must be placed in a possible position. The creative director who has
placed his camera inside of a fireplace to view the action taking place in front of the fire
has certainly not selected a possible position. How many people sit inside a fireplace?
Who wants a burned backside? As a result, the impossibility of the camera angle signals to
the audience the unreality of the action taking place in front of the camera, and the un-
welcome knowledge that contrivance is present."*
* Primer, p.137.
The camera's position is thus determined by the 'eye' of the viewer and by need on the
part of the filmmaker to maintain a logical structure for viewing and for the unfolding
of the narrative. But the resultant structure makes it seem as if there is no camera and no
contrivance present in the creation of the scene. The absence of what is so clearly present
serves to obscure the technical base and to obscure the effects brought about by that base.

8
 "Central in the process of production of the film, the
camera an assembly of optical and mechanical ins-
trumentation carries out a certain mode of inscrip-
tion characterized by marking, by the recording of
differences of light intensity (and of wavelength for
colour) and of differences between the frames.
Fabricated on the model of the camera obscura, it
permits the construction of an image analogous to
the perspective projections developed during the
Italian Renaissance. Of course the use of lenses of
different focus lengths can alter the perspective of
the image. But this much is clear in the history of
cinema: it is the perspective construction of the
Renaissance which originally served as the model.
The dimensions of the image itself, the ratio between
height and width, seem clearly taken from an average
* Beaudry, p.41. drawn from Western Easel painting."*

The construction of a narrative film consists of making sure that the Renaissance per-
spective is maintained. This ensures that the spectator will continue to believe that the
action taking place on the screen is real. "Since the filmmaker is working in a two-dimen-
sional medium but attempting to create a three dimensional effect, his compositions
should be arranged in depth. His control of perspective is essential for in depth composi-
tions. He can control perspective with his lens selection combined with his positioning
of the subjects in relation to the camera, or, in exteriors by utilizing atmospheric
* Primer, p.166. conditions."*

It is quite obvious from the above, that the camera, almost by definition generates dis-
continuity and disjuncture. Yet we experience film in terms of continuity. The projection
process reconstitutes a procedure that fragments and tears up the world into pieces. This
reconstruction and reconstitution is something that we are hardly aware of because we
are all "ideal" spectators participating through our acceptance of a number of constraints
in the maintenance of the continuity. We want to sustain the effects of being in an illu-
sory universe. "The filmmaker must consider the overall action of the scene and how it
can be joined to the next scene, allowing the action to flow smoothly. Without continuity
a film would be a series of jumbled images lacking meaning and purpose. As each shot
came on the screen, the audience would have to be concerned anew with what the action
was, where the action was taking place, what the relationship of each image was to the
one preceding, and what the particular image meant to the film as a whole. Continuity
answers such questions easily and instantly."*
* Primer, p.145.
It is thus undesirable to make the audience aware that they are watching a work that is
the product of a set of activities. Since twenty-four frames make up one second of
viewing time and since each frame can be filmed in a separate fashion it is essential that
the differences between each frame be minimalized so as to maintain the illusion that
reality is transferable from three into two dimensions. "Thus on the technical level the
question becomes one of the adoption of a very small difference between images, such
that each image, in consequence of an organic factor (presumably persistence of vision)
is rendered incapable of being seen as such. In this sense we could say that film lives on
the denial of difference: the difference is necessary for it to live, but it lives on its
* Beaudry, p.42. negation."*

Paradoxically, the camera is a device which it appear as if it does not frame the objects it
films. Individual images disappear and we are left with a totality which seems to be a
product of the unification of its parts. The presence of an image on the screen is in fact
a denial of what is absent. In order for the cinema to be effective (in commercial terms) it
must operate at a level which denies those fragmented parts which give it its meaning.

The effectiveness of film though, is not simply a function of the camera and the ideology
that it produces. It is also a function of how that series of ideological effects are edited
and presented. The darkened hall of a cinema palace, the hidden projector, the large
screen, are all elements of a total environment designed to support and give substance to

9
 the effects generated by the camera. ". . . thus the spectator identifies less with what is
represented. the spectacle itself, that with what stages the spectacle, makes it seen,
obliging him to see what it sees; this is exactly the function taken over by the camera as
* Beaudry, p.45.
a sort of relay."*

Let me re-emphasize that the camera is not perceived as an ideological instrument and
that the rules which govern its use are looked upon as natural to the medium. Thus the
cinema environment is also looked upon as the only place to screen and view films.
Many of the elements that I have been describing are acutely linked to the narrative
Hollywood film. It is common practice to teach film using the primer from which I have
been quoting. The question that we have to ask ourselves is how a particular style
acutely linked to the creation of the narrative Hollywood film becomes the dominant
form and is taught as if it were the only form.
Part of the answer can be found in the development of the industry of film. As the
cinema grew in the early part of the twentieth century its technical development was
almost totally bound up with what was then called the photo-play. Cinema was an indus-
try and the technology of film developed in response to the needs of the industry. New
techniques of film were invented to heighten dramatic effect and capture audience inter-
est. Inventors developed shorter focal lengths and Griffith started using close-ups all to
service the rapidly expanding and highly profitable business of film.

New camera focal lengths helped improve the clarity and depth of focus giving a strength
to the background which hadn't existed in earlier films. (This is all happening in the era
of 1910-1920.) Problems of perspective could now be resolved more easily but with that
came other hindrances. Sets had to be constructed more carefully and with greater
attention to detail. Lighting had to develop a more sophisticated set of techniques to
handle both foreground and background. Vast and extremely expensive sets were cons-
tructed to make it seem as if what was being filmed was real and to give the various narra-
tives a coherently transparent look.

We do not have place here to develop this analysis of the history of film suffice to say
that the Primer is the product of an industrial history intimately linked to the growth and
spreading power of corporate and monopoly capitalism. The primer is a catalogue of the
dominant ideological concepts which have made film what it is, a consumer product.

Thus by 1919 many books appear on the techniques of creating the photo-play and all
the books make it seem as if there is a specific methodology available for the generation
of a film a methodology as distinct from a particular style!

"The placing of the cinema within US. models even

in the formal aspect, in language, leads to the adop-
tion of the ideological forms that gave rise to precisely
that language and no other. Even the appropriation of
models which appear to be only technical, industrial,
scientific, etc. leads to a conceptual dependency
situation, due to the fact that the cinema is an indus-
try, but differs from other industries in that it has
been created and organized in order to generate
certain ideologies. The 35mm camera, 24 frames a
second, arc lights, and a commercial place of exhibi-
tion for audiences were conceived not to gratuitously
transmit any ideology but to satisfy in the first place
the cultural and surplus value needs of a specific ideo-
logy, of a specific world view: that of U.S. financial
capital.

The mechanistic takeover of a cinema conceived as a

show to be exhibited in a large theater with a stand-
ard duration, hermetic structures that are born and
die on the screen, satisfies to be sure, the commercial
interests of the production groups, but it also leads to
the absorption of forms of the bourgeois world view

10
 which are continuation of nineteenth century art, of
bourgeois art: man is accepted only as a passive and
consuming object; rather than having his ability to
make history recognized he is only permitted to read
history, contemplate it, listen to it, and undergo it.
The cinema as a spectacle aimed at a digesting object
is the highest point that can be reached by bourgeois
filmmaking. The world, existence, and the historic
process are enclosed within the frame of a painting,
the same stage of a theatre, and the movie screen;
man is viewed as a consumer of ideology, and not as
* O. Getino and F. Solanos. Towards the creator of ideology."*
a Third Cinema, in Afterimage
no. 3, Summer 1971, p.20.
What this means is that when the conceptual base for the analysis of film is predicated on
an understanding of the industry and how it developed then we discover that history of
film has in fact never been written. (Certainly the work of Cahiers du Cinema and Cine-
thique has started the process.) The development of film is presented by bourgeois
historians as a series of accidental discoveries as if inventors and filmmakers suddenly at
a given moment, were inspired to create and maintain specific forms of representation.
The inter-relationship between their practice and the socio-economic structure is rarely
touched upon. When economics is dealt with it is in the following terms: "Elaborate sets
run up into the thousands of dollars. A good restaurant scene may cost from $2,000 to
$5,000, depending upon its elaborateness and size. A setting calling for intricate electric
lighting effects sometimes exceeds the $5,000 mark . . ." "It is in the outdoor sets, how-
ever, that the film artisan finds his biggest field of endeavour. For under the open skies
his undertakings are not hindered by space limitations and therefore assume the most
gigantic proportions. Here again the question of realism is the first consideration. Perhaps
the greatest set that has ever been constructed up until the time of writing was one repre-
senting the ancient city of Babylon, used in a gigantic production. One front of this huge
setting the side that faced the motion picture camera there rose high walls painted to
stimulate stone, 100 feet in height and adorned with reliefs of strange winged birds and
creatures. For more than six months the carpenters, masons, concrete workers and
painters were busied with the set, and the cost of the work is estimated to have been in
*A.C. Lescaboura, Behind the excess of $50,000."*
Motion Picture Screen, B. Blum
Inc., (1971). N.Y., Reissued in What is the ideological message contained in this quote?
1919, p.120.
1. Movies are money. We all know that. In fact, the
more money that is spent, the greater is the epic. It is
a popular pastime (of the media) to quote figures on
how much this or that star makes and to see which
film is winning the all-time race for the greatest
money-maker.
But where does the money come from?
Why invest so much?
What distribution structure is needed to return a profit?
And in a broader sense what economic structure
creates and gives credibility to these strange shylocks?

2. Another ideological imperative contained in this quote

is that the common person needs a fairly coherent set
of illusory devices in order to experience the reality
of the message. But as we have seen that reality is
constructed on, and is determined by, a whole series
of specific artifices. Thus the deeper message that we
are dealing with is, that it is actually possible for
reality to be transcribed unto film. This basic and om-
nipresent mystification of the production process
makes it seem as if the camera is spontaneously react-
ing to a value-free natural environment and that what
it shows is somehow different from what is said. The

11
 message generated by the camera, that is, the way in
which it transforms the real, has to be suppressed in
order for the real to be experienced. What the camera
sees is dependent in the first instance on why it is
being used and in the second instance on how it is
being used. This brings us back once again to the pro-
blem of understanding the ideological intent of media
messages.

The next question that we have ask ourselves is, can we understand the connotative level
of the visual message through an understanding of the production process? In part, as
Stuart Hass says, there are a series of dominant or preferred meanings which act as a
connotative map for the cultural and social order. These dominant meanings are not
mechanically deterministic but do form the basis for our common sense constructs of the
world around us. "The domains of preferred mappings have the whole social order
embedded in them as a set of meanings, practices and beliefs, the everyday knowledge of
social structures, of how things work for all practical purposes in this culture, the rank
order of power and interest, and a structure of legitimations and sanctions. Thus, to
clarify a misunderstanding at the denotative level, we need primarily to refer to the imma-
nent world of the sign and its codes. But to clarify and resolve misunderstandings at the
level of connotation, we must refer through the codes, to the rules of social life, of history
and life-situation, of economic and political power, and, ultimately, of ideology. Further,
since these connotational mappings are 'structured in dominance' but not closed, the
communicative process consists, not in the unproblematic assignment of every visual item
to its position within a set of pre-arranged codes, but of performative rules rules of
competence and use, of logics in use which seek to enforce or prefer one sematic
* Stuart Hall, Encoding and Deco- domain over another, and rule items in and out of their appropriate meaning sets."*
ding in the Television Discourse,
p.14. Certainly, if we are to begin to de-code film we have to begin with the praxis that created
it. This does not mean breaking a film down into its technical components (pans, close-
ups, long shots) and then attaching some meaning to the use of a particular technique.
It means understanding the context in which the praxis exists and upon which it is de-
pendent. It means that the visual code at its connotative level has been mapped and
outlined by a process of selection and exclusion and that the dominant or hegemonic
code has to be duplicated in order for a film to survive the various levels of economic and
political pressure which accompany its creation. The production process is a mediator
between a deeper organization or semantic rules and a seemingly value-free denotative
level. But all of these, the semantic rules, the production process, the denotative and
connotative codes, have certain conditions and practices as their basis. It seems, because
of the hermetic nature of the film product, that all of these factors exist outside of what
is being seen-experienced. This is, in fact one of the prime ideological functions of present
day commercial cinema.

A primary question that we are still left with is how the historical process generates
certain dominant codes. This is not a question that we can answer in depth here, but we
can make the following tentative assertions.

1. Hegemony deeply saturates the consciousness of a

society: it sets limits and exerts pressures but it is not
valuable to talk about hegemonic control in mecha-
nical terms since the concept itself implies something
that is all embracing but is not in absolute control.
". . . if our social and political and cultural ideas and
assumptions and habits were merely the result of a
specific manipulation, of a kind of overt training
which might be simply ended or withdrawn, then the
society would be very much easier to move and to
*Raymond Willlams. Base and
Superstructure in Marxist Cultur- change than in practice it has ever been or is."* As
al Theory, New Left Review, no. with all other cultural institutions in existence right
82, Nov.-Dec., 1973. p.8. now film is a product of a hegemony. It reproduces

12
 the ideas of that hegemony and its specific contribu-
tion is to make the relationship between dominant
ideas and their products a mystified one, that is, to
disconnect and create disjunctures between the pro-
duction of ideas and the institutions which produce
them. (Film historians have called this magic.) So, the
history of film can be seen as a process of solidifica-
tion of this disjuncture, through the maintenance and
elaboration of many of the codes which this paper
has examined.

2. ". . . we can only understand an effective and domin-

ant culture if we understand the real social process
upon which it depends. I mean the process of incor-
* Ibid. p 9. poration."* The first part of this paper went into
great detail about education as an instrument of a
dominant culture. It also examined all the subjective
crises which come about when trying to deal with
the effects of that dominance. My central conclusion
was that education functions to alienate the student
from searching for the root causes of any situation.
Once the student is incorporated into this mode of
thinking (and I think William's use of the word incor-
poration is important to emphasize here because he is
trying to get away from a mechanical model of mani-
pulation.) Common-sense ways of seeing reality
become attached to the dominant culture. This is
not as Williams says simply a case of an imposed ideo-
logy, but is the consequence of the effect of hegemony
upon consciousness.

3. "It is not only the depths to which this process

reaches, selecting and organizing and interpreting our
experience. It is also that it is continually active and
adjusting; it isn't just the past, the dry husks of ideo-
logy which we can more easily discard."*
* Ibid. p.9.
A key characteristic of the dominant culture is the
way it adjusts and co-opts and in fact incorporates
possible changes in its structure. The Primer on Film-
making is a highly developed 350 page book. It is an
inventory of dominant codes. It seems to present all
the possibilities for cinematic creation. It is important
to note that it, and books like it, are in use in schools
throughout North America. Since the book supports
accepted ways of seeing and experiencing film it helps
to maintain the way students go about viewing films
in theaters.

4. "Dominant definitions connect events, implicitly or

explicitly, to grand totalizations, to the great syntag-
matic views of the world: they take large views of
issues: they relate events to the 'national interest' or
*Stuart Hall, p.17. to the level of geo-politics . . ."* "The definition of a
hegemonic viewpoint is (a) that it defines within its
terms the mental horizon, the universe of possible
meanings of a whole society or culture; and (b) that
it carries with it the stamp of legitimacy it appears
coterminus with what is 'natural', 'inevitable', 'taken
for granted', about the social order."* The ability
* Ibid. p.17.
to decode a series of dominant codes implies that the
codes have been learned and that they are necessary

13
 for understanding and participation in the life of the
society. Ideological representations are reproduced
through the actual process of decoding.
So it is in the opposition between encoding/decoding
that we can begin to postulate a model that will pro-
vide some understanding of how the historical process
generates and then maintains dominant cultural codes.

If the relationship between a film and an audience were a direct and unmediated one
(unmediated that is, by the theatre environment, the screen texture, the type of audience,
the class position of the viewer, etc.) then its effects would be clearly visible and film
would be a behaviourist's utopia a place where the meaning of the objects on the screen
would be immediately understood transferred as it were directly onto consciousness.
But the viewers of a film see many ideological intent and framework of the film has to be
understood.

Between the space created by what is said and what is understood lie the possibilities for
the transformation of how we approach our comprehension of film. For it becomes clear,
then, that film is not a pure form of communication but is really a sort of mythic
noisemaker.

If there is any myth about film that needs to be unmasked it is that the sound and images
emanating from the screen affect people in a total way. This undialectical but central
notion imputes a power to the medium that it cannot have unless those watching it are
not using what is presented to help construct an experience. It is precisely this type of
objectification that sustains the idea and status of film as an experience different and
more special than any other. By making it appear as if the audience is not aiding in the
construction of what it is seeing (in a dialectical fashion) the perceptual and cognitive
activity of each viewer is obscured and what we are left with is (according to bourgeois
critics) magic. But that notion of magic is a carefully constructed myth which viewers
bring to the theater. It allows them to deny to themselves to work that they are doing
to make the experience happen.

In the act of viewing the viewer brings their 'tre de classe' into dialectical conflict with
the 'object de classe' that is being presented. Hollywood films are powerful precisely
because, they make it seem as if that conflict is peripheral. The existence of that disjunc-
ture though, is a grammatical necessity without it, the basically repetitive pattern of
experience that Hollywood films offer would lose their attractiveness.

14
EDITOR'S NOTE:

The following are two unpublished letters written by John Berger to the
principal actors (Olympia Carlisi and Philippe Lotard) of the Swiss film
"Le Milieu du Monde", which was co-scripted by Berger and directed by
Alain Tanner.

The letters explore the nature of passion and, by contextualizing the male and
female roles in the film, the author enters male and female consciousness and
sexuality. The letters are not documents to be looked at solely in terms of
the film to which they refer, they are, rather, a clarification of creative
intent; they reveal the preparatory complexities of role-building and the
intricate relationships both internal and external to film. A sense of "process"
is written into the letters, in terms of what constitutes the creation ("'realiza-
tion") of a film, and the depth intrinsic to social, political and historical
analysis. The value of these letters lies in the fact that they are both subject-
ive and critical. Via the letters, the author seeks to clarify his own episte-
mology for the actors as well as his own understanding of script-relations.
The actors' interpretations of their own particular roles reveals the degree to
which they have understood and integrated their understanding of the
scenario into their work in the film.

The two letters are paradigmatic. On the one hand they are an inventory of
dialectical elements (from author-actor, script-screen to active-passive,
mind-body, male-female, sex-passion, peasant-proletariat, Swiss-Italian). On
the other hand, the "totality" of the film experience and the envelopping
nature of the spectator-screen relationship is closely aligned with the author's
analysis of passion (that is, to construct a metaphor, what is referred to in
the letters as "Lovers' totality," "subjectively the lovers incorporate the world
in their totality" and "...and this is the promise passion makes to the
imagination...")

The major reason for Cin-Tracts' printing of these two letters is that, in
addition to their great sensitivity, they deal with the relationship of the
production process to final product, and this is a basic concern for the
journal.

The work of John Berger, author, critic and film-maker will be discussed at
length in a future issue of Cin-Tracts.

15
 JOHN BERGER, ON

"MIDDLE OF THE EARTH"

Geneva, 1973.

Dear Philippe:

The last thing I want to do is to tell you how / think Franois should be played. I don't
even know how he should be played. But what I would like to do is to explain what I see
in his story especially the story of his passion for M. I think this is worth doing because,
although there have been tens of thousands of films about love stories, remarkably few
have shown any understanding of the nature of sexual passion. For the most part they
rely on stereotypes of "Love" and (more recently) on appeals to the spectator's eroticism
(voyeurism). What we are concerned with is Franois' whole world the world of which
he is the centre and its transformation by his passion for the Italian waitress.

Franois, as I see him, is a man who cannot contain his passion. This has at least two con-
sequences. He cannot contain his passion in the sense that he cannot disguise or suppress
it: in his pursuit of M. he is heedless: with scarcely a second thought (as soon as he recog-
nizes his passion for what it is) he risks his marriage and his political career. His friends
say that he has gone mad and, at the beginning, they try to rescue him from "the power"
that is driving him mad: the power, as they see it, of the unscrupulous Italian waitress.
There is, however, a second sense in which he cannot contain his passion: he cannot meet
its demands, he cannot live, despite his heedlessness, according to its dictates; and so his
passion leads to his disintegration. He does not "go to pieces". He is not in the least like
the schoolmaster in the Blue Angel. He does not abandon his own moral categories. He
remains, as he understands it, the master of his own life and actions. There is nothing
obviously self-destructive in his behaviour. But this "mastery" of his own life prevents his
passion from developing, it prevents him being transformed by his passion. And so his
passion ceases to be his own: in other words, it ceases to be a passion and becomes a force
outside him, an obsession. It might be tempting to call this incapacity impotence.
(Although clearly F. is not impotent in the immediate sexual sense.) Yet to assess F.'s
incapacity in terms of a personal power (or potency) is already to use the terms of the
incapacity itself. The clues lie in the nature of sexual passion at its most essential. What
does passion do? What does its advent mean?

16
At a certain moment, which we witness in the film, F. becomes aware of being in love
with M. Yet that is already wrongly formulated. For the state of being in love is the state
of being aware of it. The state cannot precede the awareness. The most that can precede
it is an interest or an attraction. There is a crucial moment at which F. falls in love with
M. At this moment she responds to him in a certain way: her response carries with it a
limited promise: (Perhaps she just appears to be more apparently ready to listen to him
than anybody else. Perhaps it is the way she caresses him in bed the first time.) His
imagination seizes upon this promise and totalises it, transforming it into the promise of
all that he is not (or has not) and therefore all that he desires. Such an imaginative act of
totalisation is "the fall" into love.

M., as any woman would be, is aware of what has happened. She registers his passion as
an invitation and as a warning. Meanwhile it offers her opportunities. (We shall study the
course of her reactions later). She has not fallen in love with him.

To return to F., and the nature of passion.

Passion begins with the self. It is necessary to emphasize this because the contrary may
quickly appear to be true: the lover may appear to leave himself and to be entirely direct-
ed towards the beloved. He (or she) may well put the well-being of the other before his
(or her) own; genuine self-sacrifice (that is to say sacrifice made without thought of moral
virtue) is not uncommon in passion. But this is because the loved one represents the
lover's completion. The beloved is the self's potential; The self's own potential for action
is to be loved by the beloved again and again. Thus love creates the space for love. The
love of the beloved "completes" as though we were talking of a single action instead of
two the love of the lover. This is the scene in which passion begins and ends with the
self. Only Christianity has pretended otherwise. Passion seeks the completion of the self.
It does not seek a fellow-self: it seeks the opposite of the self.

Think of the Caravaggio painting of Narcissus. The boy gazes with longing at his own
reflection in the water. According to the legend he has fallen in love with himself. But
this painting transforms the legend. In purely visual terms, we are confronted by the
boy desiring the exact opposite of himself. And this is the more striking because of
Caravaggio's unique ability to paint the facial and gestural expressions of sexual desire.
(There is a loosening of the mouth which gives such an expression a look of dismay or
even disgust but which is belied by the eyes and their inexhaustible impatience.)
Paradoxically but diagrammatically, the painting demonstrates the the loved one is a//
one is not.

Sexuality is the physical proof of this. Feminine and masculine. Sexuality simultaneously
differentiates and joins. It creates the opposition and offers the means of temporarily
transcending it. Each time the reawakening of desire is the reconstituting of the opposite.

With all those with whom we are not in love we have too much in common to be in love.
Passion is only for the opposite. There is no companionship in passion. But passion can
confer the same freedom on both lovers. And their shared experience of this freedom
which is astral and cold and gives rise to an incomparable tenderness.

Franois' incapacity can be located here. He refuses this freedom. We shall see why in a
moment.

It may be argued that lovers often appear to be complementary, sharing many common
interests and attitudes. And this is often the case given the social hierarchies and
categories which exist, and given the confusions created by the institution of marriage.
But, in fact, the existence of apparently common interests, if passion is involved, becomes
irrelevant. What is relevant is that the loved one is thought of and desired by the lover as
his or her unique opposite. The fact that so many legendary love stories are concerned,
like Romeo and Juliet, with love between "enemies" is usually quoted to prove the power
of love over all obstacles and prejudices. I would suggest that such stories reveal, in situa-
tional terms, the nature of all passion. Passion is always for the opposite.

In the case of Franois and M. the opposition is fairly obvious: it concerns nation, tradi-
tional religion, class (M. is proletarian in origin as opposed to F. who is peasant), climate,
experience, etc.

17
The actual modalities of the opposition are not, however, easily calculable from the out-
side by a third person. What is more they are continually undergoing processes of trans-
formation within the lovers' shared and subjective relationship. Each new experience,
each fresh aspect revealed of the other's character, makes it necessary to re-define the
lines of opposition. This is a continual imaginative process. When it ceases, there is no
more passion. Another kind of love may remain.

I will give an example. A crude one to reveal the process crudely. They both like honey.
The Same kind of honey? Yes, even. Eaten the same way? Even that. With the same child-
hood memories? Sooner or later they will be able to discover or assume an opposition
that seems all the more fundamental because of the similarities already noted. Finally the
honey was tasted on a child's tongue about which there was nothing so important as the
fact that it was not yours. For it is the tongue yours now seeks.
As Franois shows M. the countryside, St. Croix, the village where he was born, the Lac
de Joux, etc., their dialogue expresses this to F.'s evident delight. The more different
she proves herself to be, the more amorous he becomes. She has only to speak of some-
thing different in her experience and he starts embracing and kissing her so that she
cannot continue. He does not actually want to hear her when once she has established her
difference. All he wants to do is to tell about himself and (physically) love her. It is
almost as though he cannot understand the language she speaks. As though she were a
kind of Woman Friday.

To conceive of the loved one as all that the self is not means that together you form a
totality. Together you can be anything and everything. This is the promise which passion
makes to the imagination. And because of this promise the imagination works tirelessly
drawing and re-drawing the lines of opposition.

What is the relation between the lover's totality and everything which, for a third person,
would seem to be outside it? Between it and the world? Subjectively the lovers incorpo-
rate the world into their totality. All the classic images of love poetry bear this out. The
poet's love is "demonstrated" by the river, the forest, the sky, the minerals in the earth,
the silk worm, the stars, the frog, the owl, the moon.

". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .those mountains

Hilled with snow, whence milky fountains
(Sugared sweets, as syrup's berries)
Must one day run, through pipes of cherries:
O how much those breasts do move me"
(Carew)

(Franois copies out a poem he learned at school and sends it to her by post, a poem by
Hugo?)

The aspiration towards such "correspondence" is expressed by poetry, but it is created by

passion. Passion aspires to include the world in the act of love. To want to make love in
the sea, flying through the sky, in this city, in that field, on sand, with leaves, with salt,
with oil, with fruit, in the snow, etc., is not to seek new stimuli, but to express a truth
which is inseparable from passion. Perhaps the material basis for this correspondence
between the natural world and passion is to be found in the nature of sexual energy itself.
Wilhelm Reich tried to establish this connection, and if his findings were unscientific, the
intuition was surely correct.

In several of the love-scenes we see this. But it is on M.'s initiative, It is she who puts
segments of oranges on her breasts, rubs snow into his hair, puts an apple between her
legs, etc.

The lover's totality extends, in a different manner, to include the social world. Social
action, when it is voluntary, is undertaken for the sake of the beloved; not because the
results of that action directly affect the beloved; but because that action, that choice, is
inevitably an expression of the lover's love; anything that the lover changes in the world
pertains to the beloved. The Freudian theory of sublimation interprets this truth in a
particular way. The medieval code of chivalry was a complex systemization of the same
truth.

18
Oppressive social reality, enforced action or restraint, relates to the beloved in another
way. The beloved redeems the suffering of it. I do not use the word redeem in a religious
sense. Within the context, within the totality of passion, the beloved because the
beloved is all that the lover is not represents what is beyond the oppression. Thus
passion, when it occurs, breaks out of the totalitarianism of oppression. Nazim Hikmet
wrote to his wife from a Turkish prison:

"I read a book:

you are in it
Hear a song:
you are in it
I've sat down to eat my bread
you're facing me
I work:
you're facing me
Although you are present everywhere
you cannot talk to me
We can't hear each other's voices
you, my eight-year old widow."

The lover's totality overlays (or undermines) the world. Lovers love one another with the
world. (As one might say with their hearts or with caresses.) The world is the form of
their passion and all the events which they experience or imagine are the imagery of their
passion.

There is no simple analogy to make the relation between the lover's totality and the
world clear. Perhaps the nearest is the relation between an ideal language and the uni-
verse. The state of being in love signifies the universe: the universe is its "signified". The
lover, like the madman (how often has this been noticed in proverbs, stories and speech?)
is at one remove from the thereness of most things or the contingency of most events.
Both lover and madman operate within a total system for finding meaning in the world,
and that system, unlike formal systems of religion, refers directly to their own history,
to what they believe has happened to them. Passion emanates from the heart. It consti-
tutes its own centre. And that centre becomes the centre of the world.

We see this in F.'s comportment even when he is by himself. He is "lighter", more confi-
dent than his colleagues. Or more serious. At one moment he shocks his colleagues by
talking frankly about death. Afterwards, when he is gone, they say that the waitress is
driving him out of his mind.

Many attitudes are incompatible with passion. But this is not a question of temperament.
A cautious man, a mean man, a dishonest woman, a lethargic woman, a cantankerous
couple may all be capable of passion. What makes a person refuse passion or be incapa-
ble of pursuing a passion which has already been born, thus transforming it into a mere
obsession is his or her refusal of its totality. (I take obsession to mean a persistent idea
or emotion provoked by something outside the self and against the self's will: whereas
passion encompasses the will and arises from within the self.)

Why refuse its totality? Let me simply restate the process we have observed. The loved
one is seen as all that the lover is not. Thus lover and loved one propose to one another a
totality. But within that totality as within any there is the unknown: the unknown
which is also conjured up by death, chaos, extremity. If a person has been conditioned or
has conditioned himself to treat the unknown as something exterior to himself, against
which he must continually take measures and be on his guard, that person is likely to
refuse passion. It is not a question of fearing the unknown. Everyone fears it, it is a
question of where it is located. In our culture today most things encourage us to locate
it outside ourselves. Even disease is thought of as coming from the outside: which is a
necessary, pragmatic truth, but an incomplete one. To locate the unknown as being out
there is incompatible with passion. Passion demands that the unknown be recognized
as being within.

19
This is why in the end F. cannot "contain" his passion, cannot allow it to develop. It has
nothing to do with the intensity of his immediate feelings or attraction towards M. It is
to do with his own view of his own life. And this is true, despite the fact, as we see, that
he is ready to sacrifice aspects of that life for his passion for M. He is ready to abandon
his political career, his marriage, his reputation in the canton where he was born and
brought up; what he cannot abandon is his control, his "executive" function. The more
obstacles he encounters, the deeper his "disgrace" in the town, the more he insists that he
can see a solution, a way through, picturing himself as the master, the agent, of his own
fate. Yet the more he can manage his passion, the more his passion escapes him.

Retrospectively, this is perhaps evident from the first moment that he falls in love with
M. He sees her as all that he is not. But he tends to define her "opposition" negatively
i.e., that she is not what he is. She is no Calvinist: she is not bourgeois: she is not inhibited
about eating: she is not secretive, etc. (All the things that he is conscious of himself being:
all the things that he would like to change in himself.) What she positively is all that is
truly unknown to him about her her Catholic upbringing in Italy, her marriage to a
trade union militant, her experiences as a waitress, her time in hospital when she was
burnt all this he avoids, or immediately translates into his known terms. For instance,
he will say, I know how men treat waitresses and I don't want you to be treated like that.

As his relationship with her develops, we see more and more clearly that he fluctuates
between two attitudes, two ways of behaviour towards her. These should be highly con-
trasted, and he can change from one to the other in a moment. But the contrast must not
be comic: rather, it is absurd.

When he is entirely concentrating upon and astounded by, her physical existence, he loses
himself completely in the immediate, and the delight he finds in it. This delight and his
ways of expressing it are childlike. (That is not to say innocent: but spontaneous and
single-minded.) For example, naked in the bedroom, he takes two teaspoons and using
them like castanets, pretends that their convex surfaces banging together are like her
buttocks. For example: he invents a game whereby they play with the musical box he has
given her: every time it stops she must "freeze" in that position, and likewise him, when
she is controlling it. Whilst she is frozen, he begins to kiss her. She responds. No, he says,
not until the music starts. It is only within this artificial childishness that he can acknow-
ledge what is uncontrollable, mysterious daemonic in his passion. According to his other
way of behaviour, his other mood, he is the man in charge. It is not that he is then parti-
cularly authoritarian towards her. It is simply that, for both their sakes, he must assume
that he has everything under control. He makes much of using his gadgets: radio, camera,
car, map-holder, etc., etc. He plans excessively how they will spend the following
hours they have together. He talks a lot about techniques. He makes elaborate proposals
about their future. He proposes going to the states. He wants to learn to fly. She will do
it with him, he says. In this mode, he is like a man planning an expedition and training
his team. Almost in mid-sentence he can change again to become the child overwhelmed
with delight. When they make love, the two expressions alternate. Neither way of beha-
viour corresponds to how he is with other people. So in fact there are three Franois:

1) Franois the politician of the small town: frank,

popular, shrewd, likeable, warm, local;
2) Franois the dreamer-planner of his passion: extra-
vagant, obsessional, cosmopolitan;
3) Franois the child: funny, inventive, affectionate,
entirely lost in the moment.

The drama, at the first degree, is between the public face of the man and the private one.
But the underlying drama, at the second and third degrees, is that the self behind the
private face is split, divided against itself, in defence against its own passion.

Franois' tragedy is that, unable to face the unknown, he splits himself to refuse his
passion or, to be more exact, to refuse the possibility of tragedy.

Yours,
John

20
MIDDLE OF THE EARTH

21
 27th February 1973

Dear Olympia,

I write this letter as much to explain to myself as to explain to you why M. is the kind
of character she is at the moment: Naturally she can and will change as you give her
form and self-consciousness. This letter is no more than a way of releasing her from
generality, of allowing her to begin to become particular both in terms of herself
and of the film.
Since the story of the film concerns passion, it is essential that M. is as specific, as
particular as possible. The reason why so many love stories fail to convince in the
cinema is that the protagonists are stereotypes (or idealisations) and so can never be
imagined as provoking the first demand of passion: I want him (or her) because he
(or she) is as distinct from everybody else as I am.

22
M. comes from Vicenza. Her mother came from Bari. As a child she sometimes went
to the south for the summer. Her father was a worker from Bologna. During the lat-
ter part of the war he was a Partisan. Then a communist. Her mother was not in-
terested in politics but was loyal to her husband. In this, M. is not unlike her mother.
She is not a political being, but she has a consciousness of class and a familiarity
with certain Marxist categories. Her husband was a communist and trade union
militant. She is a little over thirty. She has no children. Her husband was killed in an
industrial accident six years ago. A year later, she herself was burnt in a fire in the
block of flats in which she was living. Since the death of her husband she has lived
and worked in Vicenza and, for a time, near Sion, where she learnt French. This is
her second trip across the Alps.
Franois falls passionately in love with her. (See Letter to Philippe). The film to a
large degree is about Franois' passion. A passion which intrigues M. and which,
finally, she does not return. This means that in terms of the drama portrayed, M. is
more passive than Franois. Yet in the film as a whole (the whole which includes
more than the drama) she is crucially active. The function of her action is to de-
monstrate and to reveal to the spectator the limitations of Franois and his world. It
is her presence and her decisions which constitute a critique of this world. A strong
but extremely subtle critique. She never directly formulates this critique in words,
and, for most of the time, she is both gentle and tender to Franois. It is her being
which mounts this critique, and in mounting it, forces the spectator to see Franois'
world which is probably not unlike his own as if from a distance. The form of
the film, commentaries, etc. will help to achieve this aim. But no devices in them-
selves would be adequate. M.'s critical role must be founded in her character, and
we need to understand how and why both in general and specific terms.
The general first:
1. Geographical.
She comes from a different climate. This implies a different attitude to many
everyday things: foods, clothes, nature, sun, architecture, streets, time, etc. As
a result of this, she walks slightly differently, sleeps slightly differently, handles
things slightly differently. Perhaps worth bearing in mind here that in their
movements, the Italian worker or peasant resembles more than any other
European the Indian. And this is somewhat more true of women than men.
Should not be exagerated. But sometimes there is a striking affinity. Watch a
woman peeling an orange. Her hands and fingers. The incline of her head. (Nor-
mally time is longer for an Italian than for a Swiss and this allows for a greater
variation of rhythm in speech, gesture, mood, etc.).

2. Social-historical
Given a woman of M.'s background, the social-historical difference between her
and the Swiss she now finds herself amongst, is the result of what "the de-
veloped'' call "under-development". This means that she lives in terms of at
least part of her experience at a different historical stage. In some respects
she belongs to the 19th century rather than to the 20th American century. She
is still, to a degree, outside the controls of the managerial consumer society.
When she crosses the Alps, she crosses several other thresholds. It's not wor-
th going into the multiple causes for this: role of the family, in Italian life, Italian
catholicism, Italian regionalism, etc. etc. What we need to know is how this
distinguishes her from the people of Lausaurne, Zurich, etc. (and, by implication,
from those of Cologne, Brussels, London, Frankfurt and so on.) The fact that
she is a woman preserves this historical difference a little more clearly. If she
were a man, it would be less marked. However crudely let me try to list some of
these differences. They begin with her attitude to herself and they extend to her
attitude to others.
a) She believes in the story of her own life. She does not need somebody else
to tell it to her. She has a sense, however much she is exploited, of
possessing her own life. And nothing can challenge her pride of ownership
about this. She is not secretive about her attitude to herself. It has never

23
 occurred to her that to remain unnoticed is the safest way. She can well be
competitive. But her soul is not involved in the competition.
b) The roles of men and women are more clearly defined for her as an Italian.
In many ways her freedom as a woman is less. But, at the same time, the
confirmation of tradition, makes her actual relations with men simpler. This
is absolutely not the same thing as naive. It means that she accepts sexual
differences more easily. This in turn means that she is more easily op-
pressed. But it also means that she is surer of herself. For example: her
modesty (physical) has nothing to do with a lack of confidence. (And she
has no need of deliberate immodesty.) The first few times she and Franois
make love at night, she insists upon it being in the dark. But what follows in
the dark in no way suggests that she is inhibited.
c) Her thinking is less security-oriented. Or, to put it another way, pleasure oc-
cupies a different place in it. Her sense of life is more immediate. Her fear of
the future is less pronounced. The future does not threaten her identity
and so she is not forced to continually insure against it. Her sense of the
past is stronger. All this is expressed in, for example, her attitude to money.
She is not careless with money. But she never spends it for the future. She
spends it for pleasure now. Or she spends it to re-create something she has
once enjoyed. Likewise in her talk. She talks of the present and the past.
Franois talks all the time of the future.
d) Her allegiance is always to individuals, never to organizations. She accepts
the social contracts employment, marriage, law etc. because she can
see no way round them. But they have no moral weight or interest for her.
(To this extent she is Machiavellian.)
e) All these things are most visually manifest in her physical presence: in how
she inhabits her body. And perhaps here we need to make a distinction. She
is perfectly capable of theatre: of dressing-up, showing-off, playing a role,
creating drama. (Although all these on a very modest scale: she has neither
the temperament nor the means to be a prima donna.) But prior to "the
theatre", she has a relation to her own body which is different and which is:
coarser
less anxious
fuller
more modest
more spontaneous
and yet:
more traditional.

She is not conventionally beautiful, she is not consciously seductive, she

dresses carelessly. Physically, her bearing is like that of a woman walking
along a country road, past houses or groups of people whom she believes
know nothing about her.
So much for the general factors which differentiate M. from her new surroundings.
(This differentiation is profound but subtle: after a number of years abroad it will
become less obvious.) Now for the personal, biographical factors.
M. is an unusual woman. Yet she represents many thousands of Italian women of
her age and class. She is not unusual in any way which provokes immediate
idealisation. She is not unusually beautiful. She is not unusually comic. (Though she
has a gift for miming, which she uses when recounting her story.) She is not unu-
sually sexy-looking. Her unusualness lies in her independence. And it is through this
independence that, through her, we see Franois and his world as from a distance.
How did she gain this independence? It is implicit in all her biography after the death
of her husband. Why did she not settle down? Remarry? Live with a friend? Take a
steady job? Improve herself?
Her independence came from something which is not so usual amongst young
Italian women, or young women anywhere a profound and accepted experience

24
of solitude. In fact two such experiences the first following the death of her hus-
band. (Her parents were by then dead.) The second when she was burnt and was in
hospital for several months. (During this period her eyes were bandaged.) But
perhaps more important than the darkness, was her realisation then that she might
be gravely disfigured. (As things turned out: the disfiguring was not bad. A little on
her face and back.) She then had to come to terms with the space between how she
would always appear to most people and how she was for herself. Or, to put this
another way, her responsibility for her own life became interiorised; it no longer
depended upon visible roles. This does not mean that she is shy or withdrawn. She
can be exuberant even. But what she does or how she looks, no longer constitutes
an appeal. This might alter perhaps if she fell in love, but during this film we do not
see her in love. (Once she talks about it as something that might happen in the
future.) It is this independence of M.s which makes her potentially a tragic charac-
ter. (Though not in this film.) She is capable of tragedy. Franois is not.
How does she re-act to Franois?
At first she is flattered and intrigued by his attentions. She has never met a man like
him before.
His discretion strikes her as gentleness.
She accepts the opportunities he offers her. (Opportunities of going out, knowing
him better, good meals, etc.)
She finds him attractive.
He becomes a focus of attention for her in her otherwise rather eventless life.
The fact that the old woman in the cafe knows him and speaks well of him also
influences her.

I. ALL THE ABOVE IS FOR THE FIRST 4 or 5 DAYS OF THEIR ACQUAINT-

TANCESHIP.
Their relationship then changes. It is the first time they spend a whole day
together. (Her day off work).
She becomes aware of how passionately he feels for her. Not because he wants
to make love to her. Not because of what he says. But because of how he
presents her to a friend of his whom they meet. She realises then how heed-
less his passion has made him. That afternoon they make love for the first time.

II. WHAT FOLLOWS IS A PERIOD (OF ABOUT 5 DAYS) DURING WHICH SHE
ACCEPTS HIM AS HER LOVER AND DOES NOT YET KNOW FOR HERSELF
THE OUTCOME.
One might describe this period of five days as the idyllic period of their relation-
ship. But nevertheless it is no; an idyll: or, if it is, it is a very incomplete one. She
is tender towards him. (At other times we have seen her capable of considerable
gruffness and impatience.) She is tender towards him because she is tender
towards her own destiny, and during these few days she believes that he may
become her destiny. She is not in love with him. On the other hand, she is not
testing him. She wants to know him because he interests her. She can only
know him by accepting his passion. He represents what circumscribes her
world. She would like to enlarge this world of hers. It is possible that through
this process he might become the centre of her world. But she knows all the
while that this has not yet happened.
This so-called idyll is a strange one and needs to be very clearly seen.
In a sense because she is endeavouring to go beyond the world that she knows
and because she is not frightened of him, she is like a child. The more intimate
their situation, the more simple she becomes.
At the same time, his incapacity to be whole, his sudden changes of role (see
Letter To Philippe) render him far more childish than her. It is she who is forced
to maintain the continuity.

25
 Sometimes she does this by repeating the same thing the same words. His
reactions to these same words, at different moments, in suddenly different
moods (roles), become more and more contradictory.
She makes him appear mad. But not mad with passion.
He is continually inventing different solutions for their two lives. She is trying to
see what he is as a whole.
It is not that she is calm and he is nervous. He is always more or less in control.
It is more that he can never answer her questions. She becomes slower and
slower: he becomes faster and faster.
She is seeking her passion and never finds it.
He has found his and cannot accept it.
The question of time actually becomes an issue between them. She is always
wanting everything to continue longer than it does: yet he usually interrupts it to
talk in some way about the future.
It should be made clear that during this five day "idyll" their physical at-
tractiveness for each other, their caresses, their mutual sexuality, is strong.
Through this she is trying to discover him: if she discovers him, she may love
him. He is trying to incorporate into his life what he is certain he has discovered
in her: what he has not discovered does not exist for him.
He is the teacher. She is the learner. But what he teaches is not what she wants
to learn. Sexually she is freer than him. But she is also less experienced. And his
experience refuses the unknown.

III. AFTER THE IDYLL SHE REALISES THAT IT IS IMPOSSIBLE. HE SENSES

THIS AND BECOMES MORE AND MORE POSSESSIVE IN THE SENSE THAT
HE TRIES TO TAKE HER OVER, TO IGNORE ALL THAT HE DOES NOT
KNOW ABOUT HER.
For example: he buys her clothes exactly as he might for a woman of his own
milieu. He actually insists that she dresses up like this and comes out to dinner
with him. Then he has a photograph taken of her. When he makes love, he says
he wants her to be the mother of children.
She begins to emphasise the difference of her background. She does this con-
sciously, even comically. She exagerates her "simplicity", "origins", etc. Not
cruelly. She turns their "destiny" into comedy. Occasionally they laugh at the
same thing together. When this happens, she is affectionate. When it does not
happen, she become coarser and coarser. She begins to behave almost like a
prostitute. Their scenes now are comic. But he is usually unaware of the
comedy.
When the old woman dies, she seizes the opportunity to leave. Death returns
her to everyday life. The funeral is the last time they see each other.
When she retells the story of her love affair with Franois she tells it, without
bitterness and without rancour. She tells it like a traveller's tale. They said he
sacrificed his career for me, she says, but he only wanted to make another one
with me! He loved me without a new hope.
Dear Olympia there's almost nothing of the story in this. But is there not the
silhouette of a profile?

Yours,
John

26
 SCREEN IMAGES, FILM MEMORY

by
STEPHEN HEATH

To specify drive (Trieb, pulsion), Psychoanalysis finds the same term that for
* J. Lacan in Le Sminaire, vol. XI, cinema renders the process of filmic construction montage: "if there is
Editions du Seuil, Paris, 1973,
p. 154.
something that drive resembles, that something is a montage"*. The montage
of drive, however, has no finality: its force is a set of partial drives regulating
tensions (drives with multiple vicissitudes and objects) and that force is cons-
tant, without end (except death, confronted by Freud in connection with
drive in Beyond the Pleasure Principle). Thus "drive is precisely that montage
* ibid, p. 160.
by which sexuality participates in psychical life"* and "what characterizes
* ibid, p. 156. Drang, the pressure of drive, is constancy maintained"*.

27
 So described, drive is seen in a dynamic system that defines a flow on a constant energy
surface, a process of conservation where the conservation is exactly the constancy of a
certain functioning of positions and moments throughout the system's motion. Such a
system has its "openness" according to that mode of articulation which is the absolute
specificity of psychoanalysis in its aim to be the science of the construction of the indivi-
dual: flow and constancy are bound in the history of that construction to ideational re-
presentatives which are the location of objects and modes of satisfaction for pressures of
drive. As Freud stresses in the 1915 metapsychological paper on "The Unconscious",
drive is never known but through representation (drive is a limit-concept between the
psychical and the somatic, the representative is the "turn" of drive from the one to the
other and it is on this that repression bears) and this representing also joins individual and
subject, psychic and social in a complex and concrete history. It is round that history, its
determinations and effects, that psychoanalysis becomes important in an undetstanding
of cinema and film.

A film has a very definite finality: it exists to end. There are, of course, challenges to this
ending of film the work of Rivette, for example but they remain challenges: in our
common experience films move to the end that is their very closure as "films", acheived
commercial units. At the same time, however, it has also to be seen that a film must never
end, that it must exist and even before it begins, before we enter the cinema in a
kind of englobingly extensive prolongation. The commerce of film depends on this too,
recognized in a whole host of epiphenomena from trailers to remakes, from weekly
reviews to star magazines, from publicity stills to mementoes (rubber sharks, tee-shirts).
More crucially, since the individual film counts for little in its particularity as opposed to
the general circulation which guarantees the survival of the industry and in which it is an
element, a unit, film is a constant doing over again, the film as an endless variation of the
same (genres are one term in this play of repetition).

A film, then, holds the (apparent) paradox of the termination of the interminable, the
endless brought to an end (to be begun once more), and this paradox is the very move-
ment of the individual film, the point of its developed finality. Film turns on a dual meto-
nymy: a film as the shifting flow of discretely contiguous images and shots, a film as the
ordering of that flow of images and shots in a coherent relation. Classically (commercial-
ly), the articulation, the determination of the overlay, is narrative basis for montage
and editing, guardian of the possibility of images (figured out in scenario and shooting-
script). In short, narrative is film's secondary revision, the passage of intelligibility; always
remembering that, as in dreams, such secondary revision is there from the first, contem-
poraneous with every moment of a film.

As a mode of communication, film can be said to have no particular sector of meaning

no particular portion of the matter of content in Hjelmslevlan terms. Yet narrative is there
immediately in film, in cinema, to map out the images, to support the frame against its
excesses, to suggest laws for holding flow to ensure continuity, to be "cinematic form"
("the total rejection of a story and the accompanying denial of syntax or artangement,
*J.H. Lawson in Film The Crea-
tive Process. Hill and Wang, New can only lead to the breakdown of cinematic form").* Developed and exploited as a form
Yolk, 1964. p. 289. of narrative, film is implicated dominantly in a constraining logic: Suspicion the father's
interdiction the father here as character, name (General MacLaidlaw) and image (the
inescapable gaze of the portrait) hangs over an action in which a woman marries the
baby she wants and suffers the guilt of transgression as doubt; Letter from an Unknown
Woman a woman without a father conceives the son of the man before whom she has
been as an adoring daughter (the day he enters her life as a young girl is counted as her
real birthday) and to whom she becomes a mother (the son replaces the lost lover-father),
a man pursues the plenitude of the original woman, mythically encapsulated in his fetish
reference to the Greek bust and unknowably glimpsed in the image of Lisa at the opera
now known through the letter to be impossibly gone, a knowledge that sends him out to

28
 hls death. The graffito ("Pappy x") on the stairway after the bloodbath in Taxi Driver is
not simply by chance or by way of a simple ironic reference; it is the crease of an oedipal
fold that defines the "hang" of the whole of the film's action (considet the repeating
movement in loops round the images for Bickle-Robert de Niro of the two women, Betsy
Cybil Shepherd and Iris-Jodie Foster).

This oedipal logic does not exhaust all of the narrative effects in a film but it is as it
were, the set of a film's narrative mapping, the mattrix of its movement of exchange, the
constant point of symbolic blockage (demonstrated by Bellour in his study of North by
Northwest).

"Let's go and see ... / No, I've already seen it." The problem of "already" in this sense of
"once", "one time" is the problem of films insofar as narrative (outside the terms of
commercial production and consciously against narrative, independent cinema will
achieve films that it is impossible "to have seen once"). Narrative contains a film's mul-
tiple articulations as a single articulation, its images as a single image (the "narrative
image", which is exactly a film's currency, how it can be talked about, what it can be sold
and bought on, itself represented as in the production stills displayed outside a cinema,
for instance), its sounds as a single register of the image (thus a fundamental political
question will be the relation of images and sounds: how do you hear a film? the question
of all Straub's work). In order to see a film again, you need to forget it so as to have once
more so as once more directly to be the memory it constructs you. The time of
(narrative) film is that of Identity, centre, perspective, oneness, of the vision of the
unified and unifying subject. The oedipal logic of its narrative is the expression form
and content of that vision.

If the traditional opposition be maintained, then the work of narrative in film lies in the
juncture of fol-m and content; narrative here is a series of operations which finally run
across such an opposition, producing chains, bindings, Implications. The place of the
series, it; for-figure, is the subject as the held coherence of the relation of film and specta-
tor: following the film, the spectator makes the relations the film relates in a reciprocal
process of intelligibility (the clarity of sense), within which process he or she is entertained
as subject countenanced and occupied, kept going, held in (the etymology of "enter-
tainment"). Narrative film, in other words, invites the individual to come as subject;
coming in the film, the individual finds, ceaselessly, his or her (?) Image, the projected
position, the vision of the subject.

The terms of this narrative relation of vision are those of a memory, the constant move-
ment of the retention of the individual as subject, framed and narrated.

To say this is not, in the first instance at least, to insist on the degree to which memory
has been so crucial a topic for film think of Secret Beyond the Door or Marnie (it is to
be noted that the examples that come most strikingly to mind are films themselves expli-
citly coloured by psychoanalysis), of Letter from an Unknown Woman, organized as a
memory, or Suspicion, where the problem is the absence of any memory of Johnnie-Cary
Grant and the accumulation for Lina-Joan Fontaine of memory fragments that can never
be resolved but in suspicion, the psychological category that fixes the film for the specta-
tot., supports the fiction (hence a factor in avant-garde activity is a breaking with this kind
of past in film, the dismantling of a unity of memory and of memory in film into the
*By Peter Wollen and Laura
Mulvey contradictions of its construction Penthesilea*). Nor is it to insist on the apparatus of
cinema itself as specific memory system, cinema as a certain regime of absence with
everything recorded, a series of "direct mnemic traces" (necessarily Penthesilea explores
this, referring to Freud's paper on the "magic writing-pad", using video to go over work
through the film). Rather, it is a matter of stressing the memory force of the narrative
in its operation of the film. In classic cinema, there is a kind of potentially free play with-
in the frame the set of the narrative. Like a protective rail, the narrative edges the
ramifying flow of images and sounds in a single direction, constructs a legality (what is to
be seen and heard, what is to be related, a contest of rightness), regulates a point of view.

29
 Noise, intensities, traces are brought into narrative line so as to reach the image of the end
(strength of the convention of having "The End" over the final image is not without its
significance); narrative operates once and for all (the mode of consumption of narrative
film) a continuous memory, the spectator as though "remembered" in position, in
subject unity, throughout the film (which is why, within this process, images of dismem-
berment provide such a powerful and lucrative theme, as witness Jaws).

From the very start of its history, human figures enter film, as though of right, spilling out
of the train at La Ciotat, leaving the Lyons factory or the photographic congress (is the
fascination with people arriving and departing simply coincidental?); human figures that
can only be evacuated with great difficulty, as in certain (duly classified) "experimental"
films.

With regard to the human figure and the body in film, we can recall a celebrated antho-
logy piece:

"Mr. Griffith turned to a young actor... 'Let's see some distrust on your face '

The actor obliged.

'That's good!', Griffith exclaimed. 'Everyone will understand it.'

Billy Bitzer objected, as he was often to do when Griffith attempted something

new: 'But he's too far away from the camera. His expression won't show up on the
film.'

'Let's get closer to him, then, Let's move the camera.'

'Mr. Griffith, that's impossible! Believe me, you can't move the camera. You'll cut
off his feet and the background will be out of focus.'

'Get it, Billy', Griffith ordered...

After the rushes were viewed, Griffith was summoned to the front office. Henry
Marvin was furious. 'We pay for the whole actor, Mr. Griffith. We want to see all
* Lillian Gish in The Movies Mr.
Griffith and Me, Englewood of him.'"*
Cliff, New Yolk, 1970, p 59-60 What matters in the anecdote is not its historical veracity but its symbolic truth: cinema
can and does fragment the body (the hands over the piano in Letter from an Unknown
Woman, the movement up over the body of Lina-Joan Fontaine, from feet to face, at the
beginning of Suspicion) but the human figure, the total image of the body seen, is always
the pay-off (as the examples indicate: the hands express the pianist; the movement up is
the appraising sweep of the male gaze fixing the woman for the film) Within limits, those
of narrative again, film plays on the passage between fragmented body and the image
possession of the body whole, making identifications, remarking identity.

"The audience's identification with the actor is really an identification with the camera"*,
*Walter Benjamin in Illuminations,
Jonathan Cape, London. 1970, "the spectator can do no other than identify with the camera"*. Convention holds that
p. 230 the actor should never look at the camera, that is, at the spectator.
* Christian Metz in 'The Imaginary That convention says something about the particular nature of cinema's voyeurism (a
Signifier', Screen, Summer, 1975,
p. 52. spectacle that lets itself be seen without any immediate marks of the complicity of pre-
senting itself to be seen) and in so doing it raises the question of address. Conventionally,
in other words, film addresses no one, unfolds itself on the screen under the gaze of the
spectator, running the symbolic, the order of address, into the imaginary, the sufficiency
of the specularized image.
Such a relation is the contrary of a distance; the image is near, the spectator is bound to
it, which is precisely that work of narrative as it contains the symbolic in its terms of
cohesion. Instituted (developed and exploited) thus, cinema gives the experience of film
as a kind of dream screen, the satisfying projection of a basic oneness the "no-oneness"
of the non-contradictory patterning of identity in identification carried over and
ramified in the specific movements of this or that film, its actions, its human figures, its
Images

30
* Le Cinma Scholaire et Educa- "Framing, that is to say, bringing the image to the place it must occupy"*. Against the
teur Paris, 1926, p. 50. divisions of address, the frame holds the spectator as subject in view of the image, con-
verting signifier into signified, seen into scene. In this, frame and narrative go together,
the latter the major determination of the former's positioning (the historical links
between narrative constraint and conventions of framing have often been stressed);
narrative is the perspective of the images, that vision of the subject.

According to a report by Nijny, Eisenstein had it that metaphor was the key to solution
of difficult problems in framing, in what he called globally mise en cadre. In fact, the
metaphor of the frame is the fiction of the subject, perspective univocally maintained and
centered. Or, to put it another way, the frame is itself the metaphor, the transfer of image
and subject as the constant point of suspension of the signifying chain, the metonymic
flow "point of suspension where the screen-memory is immobilized, where the fascinat-
* Jacques Lacan in Ecrits, Editions ing image of the fetish is set up"*.
du Seuil, Paris, 1966, p. 518.

The screen is at once ground, the surface that supports the projected images, and back-
ground, its surface caught up in the cone of light to give the frame of the image, contour
and base (in the absence of light from the projector, there is no idea of the frame; Malcolm
Le Grice's Spot the Microdot is one exploration of this). Probably, the screen is one of
the most stable elements in cinema's history: once its position has been determined,
between 22 March and 28 December 1895, then commercial cinema begins. It is also
noteworthy in this respect that the very term itself is fixed from the start, with neither
challenge nor fluctuation; the first official cinematographic usage of the word cran
occurs in the Lumire programme-prospectus for the Grand Caf shows ("the apparatus
permits the subsequent reproduction of the movements by projecting their images, life
size, on a screen in front of a whole audience").

The 180 rule serves to match screen space and diegetic space (the space represented in
the articulation of the images), ground and background; with its help, "one will always
* 'Apprendre le Cinma', special find the same characters in the same parts of the screen"*. The 180 line that the camera
issue of Image et Son, May 1966, is forbidden to cross answers exactly to the 180 line of the screen behind which the
p. 142.
spectator cannot and must not go, in front of which he or she is placed, fixed in the apex
of a triangle of representation, the space of the image, that is repeated in the very terms
of the fiction of the imaged space.

Psychoanalysis insists on the division of the subject in the symbolic, which division is
indeed the veritable theatre of the subject, the scene of its production: "a signifier repre-
sents a subject for another signifier": "To accord this priority to the signifier over the
subject is to take account of the experience opened up for us by Freud, the experience
that the signifier plays and wins before the subject realizes: so much so that in the play of
the Witz, the joke, for example, it surprises the subject. What it illuminates by its flash is
the division of the subject with itself. But that it reveals that division to the subject must
not hide from us that the division stems from nothing other than the same play, the play
* Jacques Lacan in Ecrits, op. cit., of the signifiers..."*. Bound to the signifier, the subject, as it were, takes place in the
p. 840. movement of repeated difference, the concatenations of signifiers, the discursive chains,
and that place taking is simultaneously a perpetual division, the subject expelled and
propelled in the endless movement. The imaginary here is then this join of the subject,
the suture of the relation of the subject in the chain of discourse, is so far as it is held as
an image against the division it includes; the dialectic of the subject, in and out of place,
place of that process, turn between symbolic and imaginary, collapsed into a specularity
(the sacrifice of desire to an object as opposed to the radical heterogeneity of a desire
that exceeds the subject and object it structures).

Cinema and film can be posed with reference to their own elaboration of a suturing
effect: the apparatus of cinema functions is perfected to function on the basis of the
reconstitution of continuity from a succession of differences; film with narrative's control
lays out the images as an uninterrupted direction of sense, the narrative image. The latter
returns us to the organization of space. In its narrative layout, film moves against hetero-
geneity; the elsewhere of every image, every shot, must be recaptured for the film as the

31
JAWS

32
THE EXORCIST

33
unbroken alignment of desire and subject. The screen immobilizes Images, grounds them;
the rules of filmic construction for the screen (180 rule, matching on action, eyeline
matchting, field/reverse-field etc.) background the Image flow into a unified subject-space,
immediately and fully continuous (there is something of a reflection on this in Jacob's
Tom, Tom The Piper's Son with its refilming procedures, its attention to the hidden
surface of a film on screen in movement).

Shots at once replace and, according to the rules, continue one another; the succession
destroys and conserves The critical point of this Aufhebung is that of the articulation
the cut, the joint, the moment of the montage. A constant phasing out and in, film is the
production not just of a negation, the continuous teplacement of Images, but more
crucially again of a negativity, the excessive foundation of the process itself, of the very
movement of the subject in the film, which movement is then stopped in the succession,
the negation, the phasing. Such a negativity is the disphasure of the subject position the
subject-fading as "flickering of eclipses", and "time between that the film seeks to
eradicate, to render "invisible" as guarantee of the vision of the subject, the fullness of its
memory, but that can never be so eradicated, film's possibility depending on it.

Something of the structural effect the montage of this complexity can be understood
by thinking of the two theories of fiction to be found in Freud's writings the juncture of
the two being the idea of play. In the first, play is stressed as the production of new,
different worlds, as a pleasingly free rearrangement, an opposition to or correction of
reality; this productive imaginative activity being constant fol- Freud in fantasy, day
dreaming, art and neurosis (one constituent of which is precisely a luxurious elaboration
of fantasy). The fantasy of play, the play of fantasy, stands in opposition to the reality
principle as a kind of remnant of the original force of the pleasure principle ("With the
introduction of the reality principle one mode of thought-activity was split off: it was
kept free from reality-testing and remained subordinated to the pleasure principle alone.
This is the act of fantasy-making, which begins already in the games of children, and later,
continued as day-dreaming abandons its dependence on leal objects."), as a fulfilment of
wishes in its liberties vis vis actual life. All these terms emerge, for example, in Freud's
account of family romances the fantasies in which the subject is staged in modified and
corrected relations with its parents; the fictioning production serves to regulate and unify,
to hold tight in the Imaginary. The second of the theories of fiction is that which is im-
plied in the discussion of the fort/da game in Beyond the Pleasure Principle in so far as
the fiction of that game, the fort/da itself, displaces the aim of a simply coherent mastery;
the fort/da functions not only to master absence but also to repeat it (hence Freud's
doubt, the impact of the observation of the game as starting point for the new account of
drive in Beyond the Pleasure Principle). Fiction, play is seen more radically, not just in its
constructions but in the process of those constructions; not just in the joy of mastery,
the illimiting correction of reality, the fantasy supremacy of "His Majesty the Ego", but
in the returning loss, a slipping that ceaselessly refinds the movement of absence across
the subject that the illimitation seeks to negate. A year before Beyond the Pleasure
Principle Freud had located this unsuring of the subject as the effect of "the uncanny",
produced "by effacing the limits between imagination and reality, such as when some-
thing that we have hitherto regarded as imaginal-y appears before us as reality, or when a
symbol takes over the functions and significance of the symbolized, and so on", this
effacing of limits is not a correction, the cohesion of a position-image, but a disturbance,
a perpetual slide of signified into signifier and, in that process, of the subject's representation
tions What Beyond the Pleasure Principle then does is to pose the process directly in its
negativity and thus pleasure itself as in play, fiction as an alternating, contradictory
force, a time that contains its own beyond (for Freud, "the pleasure principle seems in
fact to be in the service of the death drives" which are nevertheless the very breakdown
of the pleasure principle).

It is this difficult "time" that is important in relation to film. Straub often quotes
Cocteau as having described cinema as "la mort au travail" ("death at work"): the space
articulated in film is punctuated at every moment by the heterogeneity of its process
(over framing, camera movement, sound/image lays, shot joins...), of its montage (in the
widest sense of the term; the sense in which Godard-Gorin could talk of montage as "the
principal political notion", in which Vertov working for heterogeneity as against the

34
 unity of subject representation, could talk of a Kino-Eye film as being constantly "in
montage"). Negation on negativity. phasing on disphasure, cinema as fiction-machine
knows in its films something of the bipolarising tension grasped by Freud in the move-
ment of the fort/da game: film runs across the subject that runs through the film, as the
game loses its experience of a central presence in a radical excentering. It is this run that
narrative is used to hold, to suspend in image and representation.

What narrative? what hold? what image? what representation? If the "privilege of the
subject" is established from a "reflexive relation" which has it that "the moment I
* Jacques Lacan in Le Sminaire. perceive, my representations belong to me"* then what is the content of the "me"?
vol. XI, p. 76. Why "cinema"? Why "film"?

There is no subject outside of a social formation, outside of social processes which include
and define positions of meaning, which specify ideological places. Yet this inclusion,
definition and specification does not exhaust the subject: at once because it says nothing
concerning practice and also because it says nothing about the concrete history of the
construction of the individual for such inclusion, definition and specification. It is this
latter area that psychoanalysis effectively identified and opened up (the new "continent"),
that it takes as its province. Yet, to turn back round again, the history with which psycho-
analysis thus deals is still directly and immediately social, not "before" or "elsewhere" to
social processes, ideological places. There is a concrete history of the construction of the
individual as subject and that history is also the social construction of the subject; it is
not, in other words, that there is first of all the construction of a subject for social/ideolo-
gical formations and then the placing of that constructed subject-support in those forma-
tions, it is that the two processes are one, in a kind of necessary simultaneity like the
recto and verso of a piece of paper; psychoanalysis itself has found it difficult to respond
to the implications of this. A corollary of the simultaneity, moreover, is that the con-
struction is never finished, is interminable on both sides (psychoanalysis is not just to do
with the first three or four years in the life of an individual); entry into language, for
example, crucial in psychoanalysis's account of the construction of the individual as
subject, is not "once and for all", though it has particular and describable "historical"
stages: the individual is always entering, emerging, as subject in language (the lapsus is
an explosive demonstration); the process of representation is permanently remade in
language at the point of individual/social articulation (the process together in which "a
sign represents something for someone" and "a signifier represents a subject for another
signifier").

The individual is always a subject in society, the point of social and ideological formations,
but is always more than simply the figure of that representation, the excessive turn of
such formations. An important determining part of ideological systems is then the
achievement of a number of machines (institutions) that can move the individual as
subject, shifting and placing desire, realigning negativity and contradiction, in a perpetual
retotalisation of the imaginary in which the individual-subject is grasped as identity. It is
in terms of this "double bind" the statement of social meanings and the holding of the
individual to those meanings, the suturing of the enounced and the enunciation, what
above was called "the vision of the subject" that the institution of cinema, film as
machine, can be understood.

"When the bourgeoisie had to find something else besides painting and the novel to
disguise the real to the masses, to invent, that is the ideology of the new mass communi-
cations, its name was the photograph".* Godard's remark serves to emphasize this at
* J-L. Godard in 'Premiers Sons
Anglais' in Cinthique, No. 5, least: that film is developed and exploited like the novel, which it relays, as a production-
1969. reproduction of the "novelistic". In a real sense, the sense of this development and
exploitation, novels and films have one single title (the title of the novelistic) Family
Romance (or, as recently, Family Plot). Narrative maps a memory in film from the
novelistic as the reimaging of the individual as subject, the very representation of identity
as the coherence of a past reappropriated the past "in" the film (once again, the
thematic returns: memory itself; childhood, Citizen Kane: nostalgia, Meet me in St. Louis;
and, constantly, the oedipus a film about possession by the devil? The Exorcist cannot
but fold in the question as to the possessed girl's missing father) and "of" the film (the
join of the images, the holding of the spectator as the unifying position of their relation).

35
 Godard puts this clearly in Numero Deux with its family story as home movie (test: the
projection of Numero Deux side by side with Adam's Rib), its contradictions of image-
frame-screen ("Un film cran"), its problems of memory (beginning with the position of
women: "la mmoire sort du trou?" ("Does memory come out of the hole?"), questions
the little girl in the bath; certainly film has blocked the hole with its memory-images of
women, Letter from an Unknown Woman is explicit enough).

It is to Freud that we owe the expression "family romance" (Familienroman) and this, of
course, is in no way fortuitous: effectively, psychoanalysis is the novelistic from the other
side, the production in it of a critical knowledge of its terms, its instances, its movements,
its reasons. Indeed, what are the Dora, Rat Man or Wolf Man case histories as Freud
writes them but the novel overturned (where "overturned" indicates a work in and
against)?

To say this is simply to point to the implications with respect to psychoanalysis itself of
the argument concerning the individual/social subject and to stress a stress that is
crucial for any political understanding that psychoanalysis specifies an area for
historical materialism that has an absolute importance but that the forms under which it
has encountered, specified and described the area are articulated socially and ideologically,
are thus susceptible to variation, change and transformation.

The novelistic is the category of the realization of narrative in novel and film (and photo-
graph and television...), the terms of its memory. One part of the particularity of film in
such a realization can be seen to lie in an extreme pull towards coalescence, an economic
tightness of totalisation; the film is caught up in rimes in which elements are included,
shifted, and turned back, as in a mirror take Taxi Driver, shut in to the return at last
of its initial images, contained in the two loops of exchange which pose the one woman
and the other and set the structural equivalences that give the movement of the film, en-
closed in a vision with its "dramatic references": rear-view mirror, cab windscreen as
the knot of "significance", the loops' "meaning". In short, film is determined as
memory-spectacle.

It will have become evident in the course of these notes that "film" has often been used
as an abbreviation for "film in its dominant historical development and exploitation".
The question is open, in other words, as to alternative practices, other cinemas.

With regard to that open question, three brief remarks. Firstly, from the perspective of
what has been said here, narrative remains a necessary and directly avant-garde concern:
to transform narrative and its narration of film is to render problematic the relation
established between spectator as subject and work in the images of the novelistic, the
memory-spectacle. Secondly, this is not, cannot be, some simple "destruction" of
narrative, some "emptying" of meaning or whatever; rather, it is an insistence of the
production in film of contradictions, including the contradictions of that production, on
balancing the complexity described by Freud in the two theories of fiction differently,
productively. Thirdly, to attempt such a production, such a radical balance, is to pose
film exactly as montage in its multiple possibility of engaging drive, its critical potential
for pleasure.

Freud is given to commenting (for example, in "Remembering, Repeating, and Working-

Through") that, descriptively speaking, the aim of psychoanalysis "is to fill in gaps in
memory". The memory thus constructed, however, is not the retrieval of a unity of the
subject but the demonstration of difference and structuration and division and hetero-
geneity, of the dynamic eccentricity of the subject in process, out of true, out of image.
Perhaps film should take up from here for its other memories.
* This article originally appeared
in Edinburg 76 Magazine, num-
ber 1 and is reprinted here by
permission of the author.

36
EDITOR'S NOTE

The Concept of a Working Paper: A "working paper" is an inquiry that

openly declares itself as a process. It invites critiques, not at the level of ab-
solute judgements, but rather as they can extend and elaborate the commit-
ments of the paper itself. A working paper is therefore able to speculate
about issues in a way that does not bind it to the preferred styles and modes
of a "finished" paper the structure of which generates a sense of finality
with respect to the issues even if the content pronounces its conclusions as
'open'. A working paper is therefore a particular response to the pedagogical
problems that arise in the communication of ideas within and outside the
academic context. It de-emphasizes the intellectual as the producer of a kind
of knowledge that must be adequately refined and packaged solely for aca-
demic consumption. Instead it emphasizes the intellectual as he/she is situ-
ated within his/her community and makes crucial the capacity of that
community to develop as its priority the inter-relationships between its
members. A working paper, then, may best be understood as a pedagogical
tool that ties the process of knowledge production to the process of inter-
subjective critique. It provides a specific moment in which the problems of
this relationship can be surfaced. Finally, the concept of a working paper
makes primary the ethos of collective work and criticism over individualistic
models of academic interaction and therefore is tied to possible ideological
responses to the problems of communication and critique within the
academic discourse.

"Working Papers In Cultural Studies" is the journal of the Center of Contem-

porary Cultural Studies, University of Birmingham. It is a self-conscious
attempt to make the working paper model a locus for understanding the
relations of theory and practice within cultural criticism. The work carried
on by student collectives is highly committed material argued in speculative
terms but within a highly directed set of ideas.

Marina Heck's article was produced in the context of WPICS and is published
here with their permission. It is within the above understanding of a working
paper that we support both the range and style of this work. In attempting
to clarify the relations of semiology to ideology, Hecks article addresses itself
to issues that are central and problematic to ongoing work in communications
and cultural theory.

37
The Ideological Dimension of Media Messages

Marina Camargo Heck

I want to start by posing some questions about the concept of ideology as

such, in order, to get a clearer sense, and perhaps common agreement, on
what I understand by the ideological instance of the message. On the other
hand, I have neither the intention nor pretension to solve any of the sub-
stantive problems of this delicate field of sociology, and I certainly cannot
offer a theory of ideology. I'll pick up here and there the bits and pieces
which I have found useful when dealing with ideological content of the
media.

38
To try and link the phenomena of mass communication with the sociological proble-
matic of ideologies is a very delicate and difficult enterprise. However I am con-
vinced that, when we establish the relation between both fields and clear up some of
the problems implicit in trying to establish this relation, we will have achieved a very
positive step towards a reconceptualisation of the sociology of communication. The
introduction of a relatively complex model of ideology will give firmer theoretical
basis to the investigations on mass communication. On the other hand, the
profound technological transformations of the structures of communication in
urban-industrial societies seem to require a revision of the classical sociological
methodology for the study of ideological processes. As usual in these cases, the dif-
ficulties begin when we have to decide what exactly we understand by 'ideology'
and 'ideological'.
What classical sociology of knowledge called ideology is not in fact what this term
denotes in more recent work in, say, the sociology of public opinion or political
science. A change has occurred in the problematic, so that the definition of the con-
cepts which determine the two fields are not the same. For example, the attempt to
identify the concept of ideology with that of 'opinion' dilutes the notion of domi-
nance which was always there in the more classical approach. In current political
science, the sociologist who examines ideological material works with opinions,
usually those given in interview, which are responses to very precise questions, such
as: what party do you vote for? why? etc. These opinion researchers have moved
from the comprehensive concept of ideology to a far more limited concept of
'opinion' i.e. from the study of the philosophy of ideas and culture to the opinions
of the man in the street. This appears as more 'operational', and it can certainly be
more easily quantified: but it tends to take the whole framework of ideas within
which individuals express 'opinions' as given, and neutral, and therefore unpro-
blematic: all that requires pin-pointing is where individuals position themselves in-
side this framework, or how their position has changed as a result of exposure to
certain 'stimuli'. Thus, the shift in the theoretical perspective has also been followed
by a methodological change, leading to the introduction of new techniques of
research and modern ways of measuring effects and attitudes. In a way, these new
techniques support a completely new perspective in the analysis of cultural
phenomena from that indicated by the concept, ideology. This change can itself be
seen as 'ideological', since, by taking the ideological framework in which opinions
are ranked as 'neutral', it proceeded to analyse the field as if 'ideological communi-
cation' in the more classical sense could not exist at all. That is it produced, as its
result, a new state of things, already operating inside its problematic: the 'ideology
of the end-of-ideologies,

This process could lead us to discuss the related sociological mythology of mass
society, this peculiar social system where ideologies seem to have become invisible,
but where, in fact, far from having disappeared, ideologies now impregnate all the
fields of social communication, and its self-reflection in communication research.
In marxist analysis and in other recent developments in the sociology of knowledge,
what is called the 'ideological forms' covers a very extensive area; in works of the
young Marx, it tends practically to coincide with the concept of superstructure as
such, i.e. it comprehends the basic aspects which usually classify the cultural con-
tents of a society or social formation. This idea no doubt brings many problems with
it: but what we mean here is that, according to Marx, the theory of ideology (which
he unfortunately never finished) should include all of what we would call today the
'sociology of culture'. This comprehensive intention has been very much reduced in
later developments in positivistic sociology, and the area has split into various
specialized disciplines, such as the sociology of art, the sociology of literature, of
religion, etc. where the notion of ideology, linked to a global model of culture and
the productive system is no longer in evidence. Nowadays, the concept of ideology
is limited to the field of political science, though the marxist model didnt imply that
the notion of ideology was more significant in the area of political ideas than in other
areas of culture.

39
The important point is that, in marxist analysis, though the account of the system of
dominant ideas, as developed say in the German Ideology is highly abstract, it is also
very far reaching and comprehends the whole general interpretation of social reality
and aspects of culture in history available in a particular society. Currently, the con-
tents which seem to interest the sociologist are much reduced: they no longer form
an inclusive totality or 'mental horizon. They are limited to very specific and limited
aspects of social reality. The great bulk of current research in, for example, political
sociology and opinion formation, measures merely the degree of acceptance or
refusal of the ideological content of particular messages, with respect to quite
specific beliefs or issues. In short, the link between 'ideology' and 'communication'
has already been made in current mainstream positivistic research, but it has been
incorrectly formulated formulated in such a way as to disguise the problem or
conceal its real dimensions.
The fundamental difference between this kind of research and a marxist analysis is
that the latter, when studying ideological systems, sets out to uncover the con-
ditions and rules of organization of the 'representations of individuals. Two things
are involved here: (1) the idea that social processes, conflicts, the social relations of
production etc. are only appropriated by social individuals via the forms in which
they are 'represented' (2) The fact that, though these 'representations' freely and
openly circulate, the 'conditions and rules' which allow them to be generated never
appear on the level of consciousness.
Ideological representations are produced by social processes. We can say that they
are the 'manifest forms' of these processes. These 'manifest forms' what Marx
called the "phenomenal forms of the appearance" of social processes determine
the "spontaneous perceptions" which individuals have of these processes. These
perceptions are 'spontaneous in the sense that they seem to be the 'natural ways in
which processes are to be understood. They constitute our 'common sense
awareness or 'consciousness of social processes. However, since some part of the
content of these processes are, at the same time, hidden or concealed in our spon-
taneous perceptions of them, they serve both to show, and to obscure what is going
on, and our relation to it. Spontaneous perceptions constitute our everyday con-
sciousness of social processes. When these spontaneous perceptions are socially
objectivated, and extended into the form of a discourse, then we may say that we
have arrived at the 'ideological instance.
Althusser defines ideology as "a 'representation of the imaginary relationships of
individuals to their real conditions of existence." (Ideology and the State, p. 153,
NLB) Of course, the imaginary character of this relation determines and explains the
distorting character of ideology. According to Poulantzas:
"This social-imaginary relation, which performs a
real practical-social function, cannot be reduced
to the problematic of alienation and false con-
sciousness.
It follows that through its constitution ideology is
involved in the functioning of this social-imaginary
relation, and is therefore necessarily false; its
social function is not to give agents a true knowl-
edge of the social structure but simply to insert
them as it were into their practical activities sup-
porting this structure. Precisely because it is deter-
mined by its structure, at the level of experience
the social whole remains opaque to the agents."
(Poulantzas, Political Power and Social Classes, p. 207)
Marx shows that the fundamental basis of the capitalist economic structure (i.e. sur-
plus value) hides itself completely from the consciousness of the agents of produc-
tion (i.e. capitalists and workers). From this it is assumed that the agents of produc-
tion necessarily have a false and distorted perception of the economic process. We
must insist that this distortion (ideological) cannot be explained by way of a type of
bad conscience or wish to cheat of the dominant classes, but is due to the

40
necessary obscuring of the social realities. In short, our 'spontaneous perceptions',
which take off from the distorted level (where 'surplus value' is hidden), must, them-
selves be distorted. There is, therefore, a level of 'deep structure', which is 'invisible'
and 'unconscious', which continually structures our immediate conscious per-
ceptions in this distorted way. This is why, in ideological analysis, we must go to the
structuring level of messages, not just to their surface forms that is, to the level
where the distortions are coded. It is also why we need a scientific analysis which
Marx said must penetrate from the 'phenomenal forms' to the 'real relations' below,
in order to disclose what has been 'hidden', or expressed only in a distorted form.

In For Marx, Althusser agrees:

"It is customary to suggest that ideology belongs
to the region of 'consciousness'. We must not be
misled by this appellation which is still con-
taminated by the idealist problematic that pre-
cened Marx. In truth, ideology has very little to do
with 'consciousness', even supposing this term to
have an unambiguous meaning. It is profoundly
unconscious, even when it presents itself in a
reflected form (as in pre-Marxist 'philosophy').
Ideology is indeed a system of representations,
but in the majority of cases these representations
have nothing to do with 'consciousness': they are
usually images and occasionally concepts, but it is
above all as structures that they impose on the
vast majority of men, not via their 'conscious-
ness'.''
"So ideology is a matter of the lived relation be-
tween men and their world. This relation, that only
appears as 'conscious' on condition that it is un-
conscious, in the same way only seems to be sim-
ple on condition that it is complex, that it is not a
simple relation but a relation between relations, a
second degree relation. In ideology men do indeed
express, not the relation between them and their
conditions of existence, but the way they live the
relations between them and their conditions of
existence: this presupposes both a real relation
and an 'imaginary', 'lived' relation. Ideology, then,
is the expression of the relation between men and
their 'world', that is the (overdetermined) unity of
the real relation and the imaginary relation bet-
ween them and their real conditions of existence."
(Althusser, For Marx. p. 72).
We will take up this question of the 'unconscious' level of ideology and its relation to
'code' and 'structure' in a moment. First there is another aspect of the Marxist
notion of ideology which needs further clarification. This is the question of ideology
as 'dominant' and of the role of ideology in maintaining the dominance or
hegemony of particular social classes.
In recent marxist analysis we find that the role of integrating and unifying, the func-
tion of the cohesion of social forms, is precisely attributed to the ideological in-
stance. In such cases, ideology is the level which has the function of preserving the
unity of the whole social system (i.e. the status quo). This position sees the
ideological level as the over-determining instance in the process of social for-
mations. In this case, ideology is, by definition, 'dominant' a distortion: hence the
important distinction is not between dominant and dominated ideologies, but bet-
ween ideology, as such and theory, or science. Much of Althusser's references to
ideology in For Marx make use of this ideology / science distinction.

41
In other places, and especially in later formulations, Althusser seems to have refor-
mulated his position. There can be a theory of ideology 'in general', which tells us
about the "mechanism" of ideology, and which is thus "abstract with respect to
every real ideological formation". In this sense, ideology is, like Freud's uncon-
scious, "eternal" and "without a history", since its structure and function is similar
whenever and wherever it appears. This usage is not very clear, and Althusser him-
self is tentative about it (p. 152): in so far as we understand it, it refers to the func-
tions which ideology (singular) always serves, whatever its historical location. There
can be, second, a theory of particular ideolo gies (plural). These are always specific,
always "express class positions" (p. 152), always "depend in the last resort on the
history of social formations, and thus of the modes of production combined in the
social formations and of the mass struggle which develop in them." What there can-
not be is a theory of ideolo gies (plural) in general. For this would be to assume that
there was a common content, or common characteristics to the different,
historically-determined ideologies: and this would be to falsely abstract some
'universal core' to all ideologies, and rob them of their historicity. It is clear,
especially from the postscript to Ideology and The State, which he added to clarify
matters after Poulantzas's criticism, that Althusser does not conceive of a dominant
ideology ruling throughout without contradiction. (See Ideologie et l'Appareil dEtat, la
Pense Juin, 1970).
Barthes, in Le Plaisir Du Texte, says,
"... (It is) (Commonly said: "dominant ideology". This expression is incongruous.
For what is ideology? It is precisely the idea insofar as it dominates: ideology can
only be dominant. Correct as it is to speak of an "ideology of the dominant class",
because there is certainly a dominated class, it is quite inconistent to speak of a
"dominant ideology", because there is no dominated ideology: where the "domi-
nated" are concerned there is nothing, no ideology, unless it is precisely and this
is the last degree of alienation the ideology they are forced (in order to make sym-
bols, hence in order to live) to borrow from the class that dominates them. The
social struggle cannot be reduced to the struggle between two rival ideologies: it is
the subversion of all ideology which is in question). (Bathes: Pleasure of the Text, p .32)
But in the same passage, Barthes himself is quite ambiguous about the non-
existence of other ideological significations apart from those emitted by the "domi-
nant ideology"; but this is to want a text without productivity, a sterile text. The text
needs its shadow: this shadow is a bit of ideology, a bit of representation, a bit of
subject: subversion must produce its own chiaroscuro. (Barthes: Pleasure of the Text, p.
32).
Well, I would ask, doesn't this chiaroscuro in fact point to some sort of oppositional
ideology? Elisio Veron, commenting on the above quotation of Althusser's
("Ideology is indeed a system of representations . . . they are usually images and oc-
casionally concepts but it is above all as structures that they impose on the vast
majority of men,") says: . . .
". . . if Ideologies are structures in the sense structuralism uses this expression then,
they are not 'images' nor 'concepts' (we can say, they are not contents) but are sets
of rules which determine an organization and the functioning of images and con-
cepts." (E. Veron, Semanticization of Violence).
We can here already see the first foundations for the introduction of the notion of
code.
"Ideology is a system of coding reality and not a
determined set of coded messages ( . . . )
Ideology becomes autonomous in relation to the
consciousness or intention of its agents: these
may be conscious of their points of view about
social forms, but not of the semantic conditions
(rules and categories of codification) which make
possible those points of view." (my translation)
("Semanticization of Violence")

42
 In another text Veron illustrates his point with an analogy: he imagines that there
was a computer prepared to receive as input a certain type of message and to emit
as output a classification of each message as consistent or not with a certain
ideology. He concludes: ". . . we shall call the ideological system, not the input or
the output of the machine, but the programme according to which the computer
emits and/or recognizes ideological systems. From this point of view, then, and at
this level of analysis as 'ideology' may be defined as a system of semantic rules to
generate messages." (Ideologia y Communicacion De Masas my translation.) In
many ways this perspective coincides with Eco's, when he writes about ideological
meanings. Eco understands ideology to be the 'universe of knowledge of the
receiver and of the group to which he belongs'. He thus makes ideology more or less
coterminous with his 'culture in the anthropological sense'. Before this universe of
knowledge is communicated semiological analysis will not be able to detect it; it will
therefore be necessary for it first to be "reduced to a system of communicate con-
ventions." "However, to achieve this, it is necessary that the system of knowledge
becomes a system of signs: the ideology is recognisable when, once socialized, it
becomes a code." (Umberto Eco, La Structure Absente)
From this observation Veron develops his argument:
"Ideology is not a particular type of message, or a
class of social discourses, but it is one of the many
levels of organization of the messages, from the
point of view of its semantic properties. Ideology
is therefore a level of signification which can be
present in any type of message, even in the scien-
tific discourse. Any material of social com-
munication is susceptible to an ideological read-
ing." (Veron, Ideologia y Communicacion de Masas)
For Veron, this ideological reading "consists in the discovery of the implicit or non-
manifest organization of the message." For the analysis of this latent organization it
would be necessary to study the mechanisms of that organization that is, of
selection and combination. "From this perspective we can define idealogy ( . . . ) as
a system of semantic rules which express a certain level of organization of
messages." It would be only through the disentangling of these semantic rules that
we can get to the core of a message. However, in the analysis of the ideological
meanings, the 'core' does not refer only to the content of the message or its 'non-
manifest organization'.
When a message is emitted, it isn't only what is said that has a signification but also
the way it is said, and what is not said and could be said.
The significations in a message are established by means of a code and it is this code
which permits the message to be organized, i.e. permits the selections and com-
bination of the signs which actually constitute the message. The coding and
decoding of a message implies the usage of the same code; that is, in cases where a
message is organized and emitted in one code to a group which receives it and
decodes it using a different code, the meaning of the message will differ completely.
This is what Eco calls 'aberrant decoding'. These assertions refer to the denotative
meanings which are the ones that are defined by the code in general, while the con-
notative meanings are given by subcodes or lexicons, common to certain groups
and not to others.
Barthes in Elements of Semiology, referring to Hjelmslev, observes that
significations consists of a plane of expression also called signifier and a plane of
content or signified, and that the signification is the relation of the two planes. This
first system of signification is the plane of denotation. For example when in the
system the work / pig / signifier has the content of the notion, "a useful animal that
produces meat, bacon, etc." (signified), the relation between the signifier /pig /
and the signified "very useful animal that produces meat", gives us the signification
"animal, pig". In Saussure, it is not the morpheme/ pig /, nor the actual animal in
the farmyard, but the relating of the two together signifier / signified which
gives us this sign.

43
At a second level, the above relation between signifier and signified, i.e. the whole
system of denoted meaning, becomes the plane of expression or the signifier of a
second system. For instance, in the context of North American black movement the
word pig does not mean the relation between the material object (animal) and what
it signifies, but becomes the signifier of a new sign: policeman This level is that of
connotation.

As we said above the connotative meanings are defined by lexicons or subcodes

used in certain contexts within certain groups. We have seen that though a message
might be emitted and received in a common code, the connotations in this message
would be decoded according to the lexicons of the receivers. This means that a con-
notation can be decoded originating different significations. For example, the same
denotative system pig is the signifier of a second system where again the signified is
the concept of pigness which originated the signification of our previous example:
pig-policeman: now, read in the context of womens movement, this same animal
quality of pigness connotes male-chauvinist quality in men.

Another level of signification is called metalanguage. We may say that this level is
parallel to that of connotation because, again, we have the whole first system
(denotation) performing the role of just one element of the total meaning. But this
time the whole denotative meaning fills in the box of the signified rather than the
signifier of the second system.

44
This second system, derived as above, is called metalanguage. Metalanguage is a
discourse about other systems which provide its content: it is communication about
communication. Semiology is a metalanguage, since it 'talks' about what it signifies.
Another type of second-order system is what Barthes calls myth. We suggest that
myth should be thought of as a special type of connotation. This is because, ac-
cording to Barthes, the mythical system is generated in the same way as con-
notation. The real soldier saluting the flag (signified) the photograph of him
saluting (signifier) gives us the denotation negro saluting flag (sign). At the
second level, this sign (negro saluting flag) the concept of French imperiality
gives us the second order connotation which is 'France is a great empire, and all her
sons without colour discrimination faithfully serve under her flag.' Barthes does not
make it clear why this second order meaning, which he calls myth, is different from,
rather than a special case, of connotation. We would like to suggest that the dif-
ference between myth and connotation depends on the amplitude of the lexicons
from which the concepts are drawn. The connoted meaning in 'pig-policeman' and
in 'pig-male-chauvinist' are clearly linked to the lexicons of identifiable sub-groups.
By contrast, myth seems identifiable with the lexicons of very ample groups, if not
of the society as a whole. Myth therefore differs from connotation at the moment at
which it attempts to universalize to the whole society meanings which are special to
particular groups. In the process of universalizing its meaning, these meanings,
which in the last instance are particular to a certain group, assume the amplitude of
reality itself and are therefore naturalized. Thus, we might say, myths are con-
notations which have become dominant-hegemonic.
I think that, in part, the problem is to define what exactly is understood by level of
signification. In relation to hegemony, Veron observes: ". . . ideology is a level of
signification which operates by connotation and not by denotation." (my emphasis).
The fact that we, following Veron, asserted that ideology operates by connotation
inside the message, was probably one of the reasons why T. Lovell assumed that we
though there was a pre-ideological, neutral, state of the message, which she iden-
tified with denotation. To this argument, Stuart Hall replied that to retain the
denotation / conotation distinction is not the same thing as thinking the denotative
levels was 'pre-ideological'. The denotative process cannot be identified with a
'neutral state'; there can be no 'neutral' state because denotation, also, must be
produced by the operation of a code. Thus we cannot be accused of searching for,
or subscribing to, Barthes' idea of an 'empty text'. The distinction denotation / con-
notation is, however, not only useful but indispensable, since the second can only
exist through the first. This doesn't mean that there is no ideology at all in the
process of denotation. I do not subscribe to the idea of a 'zero degree writing' nor to
a text absolutely free of any ideological meaning; but I can see that there is a
moment, like our first encounter with the message, where we have the impression of
the absence of ideological meanings even though to decipher this message we are
using a code, which is already ideological. If we can imagine such a moment where
there are only denotative meanings, that in fact would be the moment where
conotation is present at its minimum, tending to zero. This minimum, however, is
present through the fact that ideology is a code, i.e. not a code in the sense of the
immanent universe of the message, but a codified system of social reality. In this
sense ideology is beyond and involves the whole universe of the sign as such
denotative or connotative. It is inside the coded sign that a distinction can be main-
tained, between denotation and connotation. And at this level of the analysis of the
message, "the connotative / denotative distinction ( . . . ) remains pivotal". In
Stuart Hall's reply to Lovell, this point is made more clearly: "I believe the method
requires a distinction between the level of organization of the sign, at which, by
means of a certain signifying codes, the sign can be produced at all (and a minimum
level of perceptual recognition guaranteed ( . . . )): and the ideological level of
organization, where the sign is given a privileged reading within the larger
ideological syntagms of meaning." (This passage refers to a debate that took place between T
Lovell of screen and working papers in cultural studies specifically Marina Heck and Stuart Hall.)

45
Barthes, himself, in S/Z elaborates his concept of denotation from the definitions
he offered in Elements of Semiology: "Denotation is not the first sense, but it
pretends to be. Under this illusion in the end it is nothing but the last of connotation
(where the reading is at the same time grounded and enclosed) the superior myth
thanks to which the text pretends to return to the nature of language ( . . . ) we must
keep denotation, old vigilant deity, crafty, theatrical, appointed to represent the
collective innocence of language." *(Barthes. S/Z, p. 816)
The semiologists contest the hierarchy of the denotation and connotation, saying
that any language, with its dictionary and syntax is a system just like all others and
therefore there is no reason for reserving denotation as a privileged first level neutral
in itself, which originates all the others. Barthes however justifies his adoption of the
distinction in an argument based primarily on Hjelmslev, a fact which demonstrates
his loyalty to linguistics, at least as far as the Elements period was concerned:
". . . nous sommes encore soumis au prestige de la linguistique. . ."
The destruction of the connotation /denotation distinction is made through the
identification of denotation with connotation and the fact that ideological meanings
are present in both processes. Baudrillard, in Critique of the Political Economy of the
Sign, also does this; though he distinguishes the different degree of ideological in-
terference in each instance, he refuses the general distinction as it is usually used.
"Denotation is totally supported by the myth of 'objectivity' (either concerning the
linguistic sign, the analogous photographique, iconic sign, etc.) the direct adequacy
of a signifier and a precise reality" (see p. 190). And further on: ". . . denotation is
distinct from other significations (connoted) by its singular function of effacing the
traces of the ideological process in restoring it to the universal and the 'objective' in-
nocence. Far from being the objective term to which connotation is opposed as the
ideological term, denotation is thus, because it naturalizes this ideological process,
the more ideological term" . . . (my translation).
Though using arguments which appear to defend Semiology, I think Lovell's criticisms about our lack of
scientific rigour, 'pace Barthes', is very close to the linguist's type of attack on Barthesian researchers,
though mounted from a much more traditional sociological position. What I mean is that she doesn't
argue based on the traditional linguistic distinction between semiology of communication and semiology
of signification (distinction which I have never been fully able to understand) and she definitely does not
accept the distinction denotation / connotation. But on the other hand she suggests that semiology
should limit itself to the study of the structural organization of language, "how it is coded" (semiology of
communication???) and leave sociology to sort out "the very meaning of Ideological artefacts"
(semiology of signification???) In one way or the other, Lovell's attack, which is made in terms of our
'non-scientificity', is really mounted in the name of the 'non-ideological science' of sociology a
position which l am very sceptical about.

Linguistics has always refused to be ideologically compromised and claims to be the

only possibility to scientifically study language processes. As a "social science,
linguistics should study, prior to anything else, the status of language itself in
society; its role in the class struggle, its ideological determinations, etc. However, it
contents itself to study (language as a) closed system, as one studies a mecha-
nism, once again because the phonological model weighs heavily on it. The current
impasse of linguistics with respect to semantics is proof that this model (of language
as a closed system) is inadequate. But at the same time linguistics appears to be an
enterprise which ideologically bleaches the language: treated simply as a com-
munication instrument, linguistics will regard language as a neutral 'instrument', ex-
cluded from the field of social and political relations, the field of class conflict."
(my translation. R. Barthes, Louis-Jean Calvet).
Once agreed that the ideological instance refers to the connotative meanings of the
message, our problem is how to detect it. In Barthes this preoccupation with the
connotative-ideological instance is constant, and this is one of the reasons we find
him extremely useful (in spite of his 'fortuitous genius'). According to Calvet:
". . . this hunt for false evidence is what constitutes the continuity of Barthes'
thought, this wish to unveil ( . . . ) the historical commitment (i.e. political) of all
discourse . . ." Barthes' project of unmasking false appearances (which he says is
the function of the mythologist of today) implies a description of the situation
tomorrow and therefore implies a political position. "The unveiling which it carries
out is therefore a political fact: founded on a responsible idea of language,
mythology thereby postulates the freedom of the latter." ("Myth Today" in Barthes,
Mythologies,p.156).

46
For Barthes, ideology and rhetoric are closely associated. Both of these concepts
lead us to readings at the level of connotation. It is through the analysis of the
rhetoric that we reach the ideological level. "This common domain of the signifieds
of connotation is that of ideology, which can only be unique for a given society and
history, whatever may be the signifiers of connotation on which it draws. There are
signifiers of connotation which correspond to general ideology and which are
specified according to the substance chosen. We shall call these signifiers con-
noters, and the set of these connoters a rhetoric: the rhetoric thus appears as the
signifying aspect of ideology," (Barthes, Rhetoric of the Image Communications No. 4)
In Eco the couplet, rhetoric/ideology, is also basic to the process of 'poetic de-
coding. For him, ideology is hidden under the rhetorical apparatus of the author of
the message. Usually a code corresponds to an ideology; and, in many cases, a
rhetoric is formally incorporated in a certain type of ideological information. The
example he gives is the phrase: 'workers should remain in their posts. This could,
technically, be 'read from two different lexicons; but in practice it would be rather
unusual to find it in a revolutionary newspaper and quite commonplace to find it in a
conservative newspaper. The fact that a rhetorical phrase fits one lexicon better
happens because "a certain way of using the language is identified with a certain
way of thinking society. Ideology has generated a rhetorical premise which has
assumed a styled and recognisable form." (Eco, La Structure Absente)
Veron emphasizes that the key to understand the ideological dimension of the
message lies in the organization of the semantic rules of these messages and not in
their explicit content. This non-manifest character of the message does not result
from the intentional hiding of a certain content. When these contents are com-
municated directly, or when the organization of the message is manifest, Veron
prefers to talk about propaganda, and not ideology. The manifest function of the
messages should not be confounded with their ideological function.
This non-manifest, hidden or veiled content and organization of the message refers
to what we have been calling the ideological level of signification.
In this paper, we have been working, broadly, within a semiological framework. The
paper is not intended as a defence of semiology as such, about which we have many
criticisms. Apart from more detailed criticisms, semiology is often presented simply
as a technical kind of linguistic analysis: and, very often, it treats language and
communication too linguistically as closed, formal systems, requiring an im-
manent analysis. It tends to abolish the historical dimension. The detailed defence or
critique of semiological methods is not what is really at issue. There is, however,
something basic and central, which semiology as a method does clearly bring into
view, and this question is worth arguing about. Ideology is often understood essen-
tially as the free floating, and biased ideas which float about in society, and which
skew things in favour of the ruling class. This suggests that it is this free-floating
thing which we really need to analyse: and that it is only occasionally, and in-
cidentally, that these ideas take root in language and communication. From the per-
spective of this paper, ideology is only present in so far as it can be shown to exist in
and through the way language and communication is structured and produced.
Ideology is not hiding inside language ideology is the name we give to the struc-
turing which language and communication undergoes. It is a dimension of, or bet-
ter, an instance of all social communication. We can only grasp it, analyse and un-
mask it, because we can pin-point its mechanisms in the production of meaning
through language that is, fundamentally, at the level at which language requires
the operation of social codes to be produced. Whatever are the shortcomings of
semiology, or semiologies, as a method, this outlook is basic to it, and distinguishes
it from most other types of ideological analysis. It is in this sense, above all, that the
paper is semiological in its basic perspective.

47
INTRODUCING MAKAVEJEV

The Yugoslav film-maker, Dusan Makavejevs work from "Man is not a Bird"
to "Sweet Movie" has been sympathetically received amongst the New Left
and alternate-society oriented groups. His appeal is, at least, partially,
explained by the fact that Makavejev, like much of the New Left, has severely
criticized Stalinism and the consequent disappearance of the 'individual' in
an objectivist problematic of politics and history. His films, therefore, as he
has often said, are an effort towards the 'repossession' of 'individual' and
"de-alienation of politics". Cin-Tracts feels that Makavejev's effort at the
"repossession", by and large, degenerates into a bourgeois individualism and
an existentialist notion of politics and freedom.

Last Fall, Makavejev was in Montreal and Cin-Tracts talked to him; what
follows, is excerpted from that conversation.

You must understand my cultural/political background and that the New

Left is not well regarded in Yugoslavia today. I can talk about the tradition
of Polish and Hungarian films in the late 1950's and how in Yugoslavia there
evolved a good short feature film industry concerned with social criticism.
We were fighting hard to "get reality", so to speak, onto film. I was there-
fore very interested in close-ups of people working, which I wanted done in
such a way as to be able to feel grains of sand under the teeth of a worker.
These kinds of sensuous images are very important to me.

48
The state of documentary film in my country was
quite bad, and if you got support from anywhere to
do good documentaries, part of that support came
from the Grierson tradition, because N.F.B. films
were about real people; they were the only films
about old people, poor people, people who didnt
speak good English, etc.

Grierson inspired documentary films in England, the

first real documentaries films about the working class
fishermen, coal miners, postmen. Of course, these
films are terribly artificial, almost unreal, especially,
when people speak. At the same time these films were
really quite carefully constructed, quite honest about
the working process. The coal miners faces, for
example, had a tactile quality, a reality. I think that
the use of train rhythm in Night-Mail was an ingenious
way of communicating how the postmen were really
LIVING on the trails, working to its rhythm. You
begin to understand the role that the sound plays in
this film it can be poetic and terrible at the same
time. You realize that the postmen are spending their
working lives in these shaking, moving boxes which
make their way through such beautiful landscapes. CINE-TRACTS . . .
They really work hard. I think that these films did
something very important it is as if they are the
I think it is a cultural thing because when I look at a
opening chapters of a book, explaining to film-makers
film made by the N.F.B. in 1956 on old people, what
all over the world how people live, how people work,
it tells me is this: these old people are so fucked up,
and that the nature of the working process deserves
so miserable, so without thought creativity, energy or
full attention . . .
meaning these poor and oppressed people and
the film never says, why or how come they are like
that . . . It is fundamental false factuality. You show
someone who is suffering, but not why the suffering
is there in the first place. The model that Grierson
constructed made it seem as if film were a window,
a window on the world. It re-inforced, for a long time
(because his documentaries are also the basis for the
development of newsreels and TV news) a concept,
a model, that said: "l, in using my camera, can
provide a window on the working lives of people; I do
not interpret what there is, I only mirror life as it is".
And so, Grierson provides the basis for the ultimate
mystification of the screen by making it seem as if
reality can be 'redeemed', re-created, rerecorded and
imprinted. Since Grierson the mystification has
intensified. He began by constructing a logic that
obliterated editing for the viewer and this has been
perpetuated at the N.F.B. The film-makers themselves
came to interpret their own activities as the transfer-
ance of actuality onto celluloid; they failed and didnt
see that 'reality' is as much artifice as in film.

My own reference point is that Grierson, historically,

left a very questionable, a very difficult model for the
portrayal of the working class on film. There is a kind
of romanticization of working class people, of people
like the Indians, that transforms real people and real
situations into aesthetic objects. This, I think, is a
very important problem which must be dealt with,
especially in considering what are called 'political'
films.

49
The Czech films of the 1960's were quite different from anything else, and these socialist
films, had a special meaning for people in the west. We started recognising each other, East
and West. The question: what's the identity/role of the radical intellectual? was raised
both in the west and in the socialist countries, though not quite in the same way. The
films I made (as well as films made by people in similar cultural situations in the 50's and
60's) were the first justification of socialism after many years of sterile, Stalinist produc-
tion pure desert. People were quite deprived of anything meaningful, unless, of course,
you were heavily romantic, and liked films full of glassy-eyed people looking into the
future. The critical films (mostly from Eastern Europe) which came out of the 50's and
60's represented complicated inter-relationships between people and society, between
power and society and between the different levels of power and the kinds of myths
which had been guiding people's lives. . .

I have destroyed as many fences as possible, fences

between private and public, neurotic, psychotic and
normal . . .

My conscious activity has been a repossession of politics, a de-alienation of politics... You

don't have to leave politics to politicians; politics belongs to everybody. Politics should
be integrated into everyday processes, making people judge everything. I think that my
films are political in content fragments of political life, ideology I am using politics
as material. I was happy when I forced political subjects into movies in my country. I
have made a short on the First of May parade; and as a critic I fought for movies about
reality, movies that discuss political issues. I believe I was legitimizing the subject of
politics as content for films, without actually saying anything about politics.

I was one of the rare examples of those who managed to fight Internal censorship. I was a
rare example of creative freedom in my own country. I felt much more restricted when I
made my films in the west. Here I was up against private interests, facing people who
were investing their own money. Not only that, but, people who were investing money
and then trying to steal from their own films. That was incredible; it really surprised me!
I thought that once these people had decided to spend money on a film, they should use
this money to get the best quality possible, because they wanted to make the film
marketable. But these investors were ready to squeeze money from the production and to
deprive me of money that had already been agreed upon. They were not concerned with
the product itself, they were concerned about the amounts of money invested... So you
have this incredible schizophrenia. Investors do not understand the nature of the product
they are financing. If you are a capitalist, you are thinking about the product in terms of
breaking ingredients into it that are going to make it more marketable; you are not think-
ing positively, not thinking about making the product an expression of creativity.

Hollywood films are not about capitalism, there's no

capitalism in them. They rarely speak about money or
property, they rarely show the 'psychosis' of private
property . . .

Now, if we want to speak about real socialism, we must be open enough to recognize the
socialist ingredients in whatever is being done... Look, the whole of the production
process in the world is capitalistic but that does not mean, for example, that capitalist
publishing houses are not capable of printing good books sometimes. Whatever is concern-
ed with real truth, whatever is concerned with real human situations, whatever tells us
about the real human condition, contributes, one way or another, more or less, to what I
consider to be socialism. People generally, see it more militantly vis vis the system etc.;
my concept of socialism is much broader.

Within so-called capitalist film production, whatever is creative, belongs to the socialist
tradition whatever, has been well-produced in the last 80 years, Socialism is going to take

50
51
52
that is its heritage. But the question about film being used as a tool, as an agent of
change... Is there a film which ever really affected social change? I remember some films
that were quite melodramatic, which effected people. But how far can films go? Can films
ever meaningfully participate in solving socio-economic problems? I think that the nature
of movies is images that are more concerned with our desires than any other part of
reality. The nature of movies is to connect with our unreal selves. Freud said that every
unexplained dream is a letter from the unconscious which is not opened. Dreams can put
us in touch with deep realities, and films are very good nightmares.

People of property cannot live without fences, fences

are their flesh, a part of their body . . .

The REAL cinema is the jump from one style to another so that people know that they
are watching the work of a particular film-maker. In this sense, films fiction films
may be closer to reality than the documentary. I believe that films deal with ways of
seeing, not ways of living...

53
 ETHNO HERMENEUTICS: ETHNOGRAPHY
AS ANOMALY
* Anomaly generates crisis in
which the discovery process is
converged upon by invention.
This crisis demands recourse to
by
philosophy and debate over fun-
dementals that have previously
been assumed under normal
science . . . The existence of
HART COHEN
anomalies create the sense that
the existing paradigm is inade-
quate to meet the problems
posed by the environment and
the paradigm itself. Kuhn charac-
terizes the switch to a new para-
digm as a revolutionary change.
See Kuhn T., The Structure of
Scientific Revolutions, 2nd
edition, Chicago, 1970.

The attempt to create a theory of critical ethnography and the process of

understanding the constitution of such a notion can here be termed ethno-
hermeneutics.
As critique, ethnography would retain the function of anomaly as articulated
* Murphy, The Dialectics of Social
by Kuhn in The Structure of Scientific Revolutions i.e. altering the axis of
Life, Basic Books, N.Y. 1971. the tradition / innovation continuum.*

54
 Ethnography is an activity that fixes human action in the form of texts. As such, the
ethnography of human activity may be said to be hermeneutical in that 1) the object
of interpretation is situated in a text or a medium that displays textual features i.e. a
category of signs fixed by language; and 2) that the method of interpretation reflects
and continually surfaces a subject-object dichotomy e.g. the objectivity of the scien-
tist versus the subjectivity of the writer. The language of ethnography is always
contextualized and thus constitutes the totality of relations at the level of signifi-
cation and relationship on the one hand, and meaning and identity on the other. This
totality is a synthesis that proceeds from the negation of a negation:
1) The subject / object split stems from the subject's inability to understand the
locus of reality that lies in the mind (first negation) but
* Goldmann, L., lmmanuel Kant,
NLB, 1971, p. 155. 2) The mind is not free unless it recognizes and exists within the truth of a rational,
social order." (second negation).*
The appropriation of reality within and by ethnography proceeds via its self-reflexive
understanding in the context of a perceived reality in transformation.
Traditionally, in anthropology, direct observation tends to corroborate the power of
norms based on data collected in the field. The scientists' (subject) objectivity
arises in his mind through designation of the object. This position posits a pheno-
menology of mind and of the world external to it. Mind is teleological to society
whose end is the maintenance of social structures. Language, when used in this
context (as a device for objectification) produces reification the illusion of natural,
(eternal), and formal human relationships.
Critical ethnography is skeptical of 'received' truth such as the 'established facts' of
positive scientific discourse. Through reason and argument it seeks knowledge,
both by paying tribute to the autonomy of human identity and by defining an area
where it can speak with special authority e.g. the relationship of an ethnographic ac-
count to its social context. Reason, then, is completed by knowledge whose interest
is emancipatory and whose language, as it evaluates human practices, is itself
worked upon by practice. Because the relationship between the "namer" and the
"named" is a changing one, the fixating act of language can be seen as a modifying
and temporary activity. While the boundaries of knowledge and language do not
contain the criteria of truth which is both material and universal, the reconciliation of
explanation and values may be expressed as a relation between identity and the
object: The transformation of the object by human action.

In freeing the a priori from reification, in relating it

to the real human community, we know that this
community can only be based upon human activi-
ty, upon the common action of man. Now all ac-
tion involves the transformation of the external
world. It must relate to a common object. The
function of theoretical knowledge is precisely to
transform the unformed immediate given, which
* Hawthorn, J., Identity and Rela- differs from individual to another, into a common
tionship, Lawrence and Wishart, object.
1973, London, p. 148.
The logic of empirical science is here implicitly criticized through the distinction of
an experienced world from that of a phenomenal world; through the understanding
of both as the mutual interpenetration of the realm of thought and the realm of ac-
tion.
As critique that intends to rework the relations of subject and object, ethno-
hermeneutics integrates two paths of criticism in its process. The first path in
moving 'away' from the object is concerned with its linguistic and significatory
dimension the relationship aspects of the object. The second path moves
'inwards' to the object. It is concerned with the object's identity and meaning. The
relation between the two critical paths is a dialectical one i.e. one cannot be reduced
to the other but interact to surface different forms of subject-object contradiction.

55
 Critical ethnography recognizes the embeddedness of the objective in subjective un-
derstanding and the corollary subjective reworking of the external world. In doing
so, it seeks to replace the structural and functional paradigms of positivist thought
with a normative one that intends, through understanding and explanation to
generate change.
One of the most important ideas in dialectical
philosophy is that thought is always an attempt to
discover a meaning in life under certain concrete
conditions and to establish a praxis which will
* ibid. p. 101.
tend to change reality in the direction of the hopes
of human groups.*
The problem can now be posed for the ethnographer on two levels: At the level of
consciousness his model explanation of a social practice may be constructed
without any recourse to the persons involved i.e. they have no awareness of a
systematic totality from which can be derived their particular actions. At the level of
reality, the ethnographer may have to take into account models constructed by the
society i.e. the praxis of the society. In Marxian thought this is the intrusion of in-
dependent consciousness into historical materialism but qualified by the interest of
revolutionary change through praxis.
* Lefevbre, H., The Sociology of The mind is an active factor in Marxism despite
Marx, Random House, 1969, the primacy of praxis, for it transforms social
N.Y., p. 86-87.
action into object, image, and ideology.
In refuting the notion of a passive mind that simply reflected society, Marxian
epistemology emphasized the subjective re-working of the external world. It jux-
taposes idea and action, culture and society, in the interests of surfacing ideology;
the illusions and inversions of reality as they are thought through and misappre-
hended by man.
It is on the basis of conscious revolutionary praxis
that thought and action are articulated dialec-
tically, and that knowledge "reflects" praxis i.e.
is constituted as reflection on praxis. Until then
knowledge was characterized precisely by its
failure to "reflect" reality namely praxis; it could
* Knight, E., A Theory of the Clas- only transpose it, distort it, confuse it with
sical Novel, London, 1970, p. 44.
illusions in short knowledge was ideological.
The critical ethnographer, on the basis of this dialectic of thought and action, per-
forms a counter-transformation. It is the process of moving from a reflected
ideology to a reflecting praxis. His critique stands midway between the world-view
of the people themselves and the action as observed by him / her self. When ethno-
graphy becomes practical i.e. a reflecting praxis, it functions as anomaly (Kuhn)
constituting a radical challenge to certain conventional relationships in the social
sciences. Through the insertion of both praxis and world-view, the ethnographer is
led to a structuring of its object; a structuring that is derived not from a fixed, im-
mutable human nature (read Levi-Strauss), but from a history of the existing
relations of the object. As anomaly, ethnography discovers in its object relations its
own structuring of the object. In this sense a higher unity of subject and object is
reconstituted through the ethnographers re-thinking his own thought and relating it
to how the situation of the object conditions its perception of itself. At this point,
one is necessarily bound up with the problems of domination, and, thus, to give a
literary reading of this problem is insufficient. There is however a further dimension
to critical ethnography that I wish to pursue. There is a curious co-relation between
the distance that separates the ethnographer and his object, and the way in which
he fragments the relationship between culture and society.
... the (ethnographer), by placing himself at a dis-
tance ... creates the identity he sets out to portray.
Not being a participant in the reality which in-
terests him, he is obliged to introduce from

56
 elsewhere some principle of intelligibility. If things
and people are to be taken in isolation from the
other, then they must be supposed to possess a
'built-in', self-contained identity...

The importance of the relation between things and people is the way in which
things are transformed through culture to connect the person to social life. In
traditional ethnography, things express the identity of an individual or a society and
thus signify the continuity of culture. In stressing the relationship aspect of identity
and things, traditional ethnography had lost the negative tension within its notion of
culture i.e. viewing things as a system of constraints pre-existant in a social context
within which identity struggles to express itself.
The following passage from James' Portrait of a Lady expresses the duality:

... When you've lived as long as I you'll see that

every human being has his shell and that you must
take the shell into account. By the shell I mean the
whole envelope of circumstances. There's no
such thing as an isolated man or woman; we're
each of us made up of some cluster of apperte-
nances. What shall we call our self? Where does it
begin? Where does it end?
It overflows into everything that belongs to us-and
then it flows back again. I know a large part of
myself is in the clothes I choose to wear. I've a
great respect for things. One's self for other
people is one's expressions of one's self; and
one's house, one's furniture, one's garments, the
books one reads, the company one keeps these
things are all so expressive...
... I don't agree with you. I think just the other way.
I don't know whether I succeed in expressing my-
self, but I know nothing else expresses me.
Nothing that belongs to me is any measure of me;
* James, H., Portrait of a Lady, everything's on the contrary a limit, a barrier, and
Edel, London, 1968, p. 230. a perfectly arbitrary one ...*

In assuming a positive relation between things and identity, ethnography asserted a

social reality based upon what was thought to be the common sense relationship of
the part to the whole. This position may explain traditional ethnography's difficulty
in the areas of social change, for it is the notion of constraints that is a pre-condition
for understanding the need and desire for change.
Edmund Leach's ethnography "Political Systems of Highland Burma" represents a
different view of the relation between things and identity that makes it an anomaly
within the tradition of ethnography. Leach argues that instead of viewing the world
as composed of separate and discrete objects (a condition he attributes to language)
that become related to each other, reality itself may be continuous event that
becomes "torn apart".

... He goes on to demonstrate that the Kachin look

upon what we call 'social relationships' as social
distinctions. Brothers are distinguished from each
other as "brothers". Their unity, it would seem, is
* Murphy, op. cit., p. 56. assumed, and it is their separateness that must be
glossed. The Kachin are "theorists" in that they
''start off with formal models and work down to
the facts of the case . . .

57
 By inverting the traditional anthropological world-view, Leach represents anomaly,
but not a paradigmatic change in the Kuhnian sense. Leach's social anthropology is
characterized by an eclecticism that modifies and re-thinks old material (data). Leach
has emulated Hegel's cunning of reason but at the expense of Marx's 'cunning of
history'. In his analysis of the Kachin, the dialectics are situated in both the
ethnography itself (the ethnoscience of the Kachin) and in the method of the
ethnographer. They are, however, dialectics that do not proceed beyond their initial
formulation. Every thesis is its antithesis rather than every thesis having an an-
tithesis. Thus Leach has blunted a crucial effect of dialectical reasoning: Its ability to
destroy the common sense reality of naturalistic social science to assert time. This
can now be extended to stand as a critique of structuralist epistemology to which
Leach subscribes (albeit critically).
In structuralist epistemology, a 'conceptual scheme of structures' derived from the
brain structures praxis here reduced to raw action, a unity of form and matter.
While Levi-Strauss asserts that praxis can transform the use of thought and reason,
the primacy of "the objective structure of the psyche and the brain" makes praxis an
outcome of logical (Formal) and not historical priorities.
In both Leach and Levi-Strauss, ethnographic theory has come to be increasingly
estranged from either intrinsic or identity elements within cultures. This is less so in
Leach's case who has maintained links with the empiricist tradition. The situating of
'idea' within an objective entity that has, to this point, only a metaphysical identity,
dissolves the tension between subjective and objective sensibilities. The objectivity
of the scientist has subsumed the subjectivity of the writer; an objectivity that rivals
the rigorous objectivity of the positive anthropology.
"The idea of "objective" in metaphysical mate-
rialism would appear to mean an objectivity which
exists even apart from man; but when one affirms
that a reality would exist even if man did not, one
is either speaking metaphorically or one is falling
into a form of mysticism. We know reality only in
* Hawthorn, J., Op. Cit., p.
relation to man, and since man is historical
becoming, knowledge and reality are also a
becoming and so is objectivity."
The 'metaphysical objectivity' of structuralism collapses a crucial tension between
subject and object for a basic distinction of the social sciences is that it studies a
refractory object that thinks about him /herself and as well, about the scientist. In
positing an eternal 'human nature', structuralism does away, not only with the in-
dividual as a synthesis of subject-object relations, but the history of those relations
themselves. Gramsci expresses the conviction that not only can human nature
change, but that it can be changed in a particular way through man's conscious ef-
forts this in turn altering and profoundly reconstructing the subjective and ob-
jective universe. In thus re-constituting subject and object in the process of tran-
sforming both praxis and world-view, a scientific advance at the level of a
paradigmatic revolution may be said to have taken place.
"The basic innovation introduced by the philo-
sophy of praxis into the science of politics and of
history is the demonstration that there is no ab-
stract "human nature" fixed and immutable (a
concept which certainly derives from religious and
transcendant thought), but that human nature is
the totality of historically determined social
relations, hence a historical fact which can, within
certain limits, be ascertained with the methods of
* Gramsci, A., Prison Notebooks,
N.Y.: progress books, n.d. p. 133. philology and criticism.*
The basic error, then of structuralist epistemology as emphasized by its critics is the
abstraction of knowledge from its historical and social context. This aspect of the
critique of structuralism is intimately tied to the status of anthropology within struc-
turalist practice and as a social science which makes of man an object of practical
knowledge. The refusal of this kind of social scientific practice to recognize itself as

58
 part of the social world produces knowledge that bypasses man himself
specifically the human condition of man acting upon himself through his works.
Structuralist explanation is scientific explanation that posits a world before con-
ciousness, outside which the ethnographer stands. The critique of structuralism
makes problematic the empiricalstudy of man by positing that the study of man is
simultaneously man's act upon himself as subject and object. If man's un-
derstanding of himself is defective, then the development of a fruitful anthropology
can only proceed through a complementary praxis of reflection and critique. This
praxis is both necessary and appropriate to the production of 'objective' and 'scien-
tific' anthropological knowledge because the procedural problems within
ethnographic experience and ethnographic practice turns on the problems of com-
munications; the process of encounter, exchange, and understanding constitutive
of ethnographic practice possesses intentions and reasons both which explicate
the capacity to understand the 'other' as a social and human phenomenon. Reflec-
tion and critique as it subjects anthropological thought itself to ethnographic des-
cription and ethnological understanding would proceed and infom ethnographic
practice. Critical ethnography is ethnography that examines itself, and therefore
remains open. Through testing and resistance it seeks its own boundaries for its per-
tinence in the object. Thus directed, ethnographic practice can be said to be based
on human inter-subjectivity rather than on techniques of data collection.
... the relationships we form with the subjects of
our work for whatever reasons we settle upon
those relationships control the kind of knowl-
edge that the material we gain will yield and also
* Jay R.. "Personal and extra- control how we exercise whatever responsibility
personal Vision in Anthropolo-
gy", in Reinventing Anthro- we may feel to our subjects and to ourselves as
poloqy, ed. Dell Hymes New persons.*
York: Vintage, 1974, p. 372.
Because ethnographic practice embraced the personal sensibilities of both the field
worker and his subjects, the methods of description and analysis have tended to
become strategies towards uncovering the native's artistry at disguise in order to
evaluate the credibility of his or her information. It was at this very juncture that a
theory of culture subsumed a theory of persons (a distinction used by Geertz) in the
attempt to surpass the alienation within which the fieldworker exists. The value of
'instrumental knowledge' submerges the human element within anthropology, and
in the process alienates field worker and informant alike. The critique of 'in-
strumental anthropology' points a way out of alienation by founding anthropology
on "man himself, not as an object of practical knowledge, but as a practical
organism producing knowledge as a moment of its praxis." (Sartre: 1963: 179)
The convergence of the problems of intersubjectivity and language within
ethnography identifies ethnography as a particular problem within communications.
... Communication presupposes that each person
transform his own immediate given, his own mat-
ter, in such a way that the other understands what
is communicated to him and can relate it to his
own given, to the matter of his own immediate ap-
prehension; but it also implies that each should be
able to understand the matter of his acquaintance
as a special case of knowledge held in common
and his own knowledge as dependent upon that
of other men. Experience is the name given to the
result of this transformation of matter which, it
must be stressed, leads at least to the possibility of
* Goldmann. L., Op. Cit., p. 149.
communication.*
Ethnographic practice, then, is a process in which people from differing cultures try
and communicate with one another. This process is mediated by the social cir-
cumstances in which these people find themselves and is the means that cultural
praxis can at all be connected to human thought. It is therefore "...Because inter-
subjective knowledge is concretely situated and existentially constituted in

59
 ethnographic praxis ... that ... it entails and requires both self-awareness and an un-
derstanding of social mediation." (Sholte: 1974:440)
If communication is an epistemological pre-condition to any anthropological
knowledge, then ethnographic practice is a special case within the problems of
discourse in communications theory. Ethnography must absorb both the in-
strumental and representational interests of scientific description and observation
and the constitutive and articulatory interests of literary discourse. (Sholte: )

The identification of the problems of ethnography with the problems of communi-

cations takes place from two points of view. In terms of the above (See quote).
ethnographic practice is characterized by the interaction of a subject and object
presupposing a "dialectical and constitutive relation of exchange and com-
munication." (Sholte: 1974: 440). The structuralist position, on the other hand,
utilises a communicational framework to link the problems of exchange and
signification ultimately unifying systemic (information and systems theory) and
structural (semi-logical) modes of analysis.

The logic of La Langue is the same as that of

the unconscious and it is similarly grammatical
(as opposed to substantive): regulatory prin-
ciples as such, the necessity of exchange, and
the synthetic integration of transferred values.
The laws of La Langue are identical to the prin-
ciples of signification, exchange, and sym-
* Sholte, B., Structural Anthro- bolisation... (making) structural anthropology
pology as an Ethno-Logic, in The
Unconscious in Culture, ed. Ino one of the semiological sciences ... a logical syn-
Rossi (New York: Dutton, 1974), tax commensurate with the concept of language
p. 433. as "unreflecting totalization"...*
The greater importance of symbols over the phenomena they symbolize in Levi-
Straussian structuralism can be attributed to the semiological character of
"things" in the world. The condition of non-symbolization is commensurate with
non-communicability in semiology thus establishing the world of "things" as
semiological. In that the mind is considered as an objective "thing" in semiology,
it is said to function absolutely at the symbolic level. As Simonis puts it:
A thing is the object of science to the extent
that my mind communicates with it, rather than
* Simonis, Y., "Group Dynamics" solely with itself. If the mind communicates with
and Levi-Strauss' Structura- things, it is, in the final analysis, because things,
lism'', in The Unconscious in
Culture, ed. Ino Rossi (New contrary to ordinary conception, have, like the
York: Dutton, 1974). p. 379. mind, physical and semiotic properties.*
In applying linguistic models to social and cultural phenomena, Levi-Strauss
seeks to eliminate the conventional questioner-questioned (subject-object)
paradigm, which in effect, constitutes the negation of all ethnography hitherto
produced. In its place structuralism posits a study of the symbols produced by a
universel function of exchange to assess the unconscious structures by which
social life generates its own significations.
A critique of the structuralist enterprise may be founded on the particular way in
which the analysis of language has come to function as both theory and method
within its paradigm. In the attempt to "operationalize" the linguistic model for
cultural theory, the reflexive and ultimately emancipatory interests of the speaking
subject is lost. The structuralists either ignore and forget that:
The linguist is a linguist thanks to the fact that
* Pos, H.J., quoted in Sholte, Op.
Cit., p. 431 there is (and he is) a speaking subject, and not
despite this fact.*
A critical ethnography asserts the sociological treatment of language as it would
contribute towards a theory of the speaking subject. In so doing it seeks to retain a
referential and constitutive system for subject-object relations within ethnography

60
 elevates the negative to a paradigmatic role within its theory. The use of the
negative surfaces discontinuity between the subject and object in terms of the
socially mediated context of their relations. Critical ethnography interposes itself
between past ethnographic practice and future ethnographic theory thus in-
troducing into the theory of ethnography the variability of time. In this respect it
stands as a critique of structuralism: It is the attempt to open the analytic process to
structuralism: It is the attempt to open the analytic process to the value of history
through which a self-consciousness then becomes possible.
All history is contemporary history: not in the or-
dinary sense of the word, where contemporary
history means the history of comparatively recent
past, but in the strict sense: the consciousness of
one's own activity as one actually performs it.
History is thus self-knowledge of the living mind.
For even when the events which the historian
studies are events that happened in the distant
past, the condition of their being historically
* Griemas, A.J., Du Sens, Paris, known is that they should vibrate in the historian's
Seuil, 1970, p. 13.
mind.*
In order to reconcile the synchronic analysis of structuralism with the self-
consciousness of a critical hermeneutics, history (as defined above) must be con-
sidered as a meaningful element of the interpretive process. The extreme struc-
turalist position turns away from attributing such historical meaning to in-
terpretation and instead posits an object-language whose transformations are con-
stitutive of both signification and meaning:
Signification is thus nothing but such transposi-
tion from one level of language to another, from
one language to a different language, and
meaning is nothing but the possibility of such
transcoding.
The attempt by structuralism to uncover its form of self-consciousness takes place
in the works of Roland Barthes, a renowned ethnographer of myth and popular
culture. Barthes' form of critique points towards a self-conscious understanding of
the subject-object dilemma within the structuralist position. Barthes' work as
ethnography is the documentation of that dilemma; an ethnography of the language
of the subject examining itself:
The use of a metalanguage is precisely the form
* Jameson, F., The Prison House that self-consciousness takes in the realm of
of Language, Princeton U. Press, language: it is language speaking of itself, a set of
1972, p. 207.
signs whose signified is itself a sign system.*
Barthes points out that by identifying truth with language, structuralism will
necessarily have recourse to a never-ending series of formal languaging systems,
one which would ultimately absorb structuralism itself.
The semiologist is he who expresses his future
* Barthes, R., Systme de la
Mode, Paris, Seuil, 1967, p. 293. death in the very terms in which he has named
and understood the world.*
The self-consciousness of structuralism, then,
cannot point to any referent other than its own
demise. In this respect it is a kind of false self-
consciousness that fails to surface the mutual
dependence and conflict of the subject-object:"...
to reckon the place of the observer into the ex-

The self-consciousness of structuralism, then, cannot point to any referent other

than its own demise. In this respect it is a kind of false self-consciousness that fails
to surface the mutual dependence and conflict of the subject-object:"... to reckon

61
* Jameson, F., Op. Cit., p. 208. the place of the observer into the experiment, to put an end to the infinite
regression."*
The ethno-hermeneutic, as defined at the outset, is characterized by certain inter-
pretative functions based on contextual information and mediated texts i.e. ac-
counts from which are derived ethnographic descriptions and ethnological analyses.
The function of metalanguage within the ethno-hermeneutic is to disclose the
presence of pre-existant codes and models and to re-emphasize the place of the
analyst himself within the construction of the various paradigms. If so constructed
the ethno-hermeneutic could then re-open the text and analytic process alike to
fulfill its other functions: To extend the comparative understanding of the subject-
object achieved through reflection and self-awareness to emancipatory and nor-
mative interests. The restoration of these interests back to comparative un-
derstanding (through praxis) completes the hermeneutic circle.

If there is ... any point at all... in embarking upon an

attempt to establish communication and co-
understanding with cultures, religions, etc. not
ones own, the following pre-conditions must ob-
tain: one is in a position, despite ones history-
boundedness to philosophize from a platform that
is not wholly bound to ones historical (cultural)
situation. If one accepts the bringing about of in-
ter-subjective co-understanding and content as
the super-imposed (i.e. emancipatory and nor-
mative) research-guiding interest of the human
* Radnitsky, G., quoted in Sholte, sciences: i.e. if one places the human sciences in
B., Toward a Self-Reflexive and the service of the historical (and cultural) dialogue
Critical Anthropology, in Rein-
venting Anthropology, ed. Dell which humanity has been conducting with the
Hymes (New York: Vintage, aim of ever increasing emancipation, then the pro-
1974). p. 448. blematic of historicism is transcended.*

62
BOOK REVIEW

A History of the Cinema From its Origins to 1970, by Eric Rhode, Allen Lane
Press, 674 pp., 1976.
What is a historical fact? Though this question is basic film historians rarely
ask it. Most film histories are inventories of directors and stars and most
equate the growth of film with changes in its technology. The difficult task
of constructing a methodology for investigating film and its past for
coming to grips with the social, political, and economic forces which are the
motor for its history this task has been laid aside and the end result are a
series of books that catalogue almost all the same things. Most film
historians rarely if ever ask questions about their own epistemology. The
givens of film history are transmuted into "fact" by repetition.

". . . the facts of history never come to us 'pure' since they do not and can-
not exist in a pure form: they are always refracted through the mind of the
recorder. It follows that when we take up a work of history, our first concern
should be not with the facts which it contains but with the historian who
wrote it." (E.H. Carr)

Most film historians accept the very arbitrary division that has been created
by film practitioners between "fictional narratives" and "real documen-
taries". Consequently, most film histories are about the development of the
narrative cinema and about changes in style; about shifts in the use of cer-
tain conventions and most of all about "expression" ". . . expressions of
an era, expressions of a culture, expressions of individuals etc. . . ." (Sam
Rhodie).

63
 Eric Rhode's book begins as if it is going to break out of the categories used
in most film histories. He makes no effort to explain his methodology and
raises no questions about why he has chosen one fact (?) over another but
he tries in the early part of the book to inter-relate the socio-economic con-
ditions of a given period to the films and events he examines. He analyzes
the role of nickelodeons in the period from 1905-1914 and traces with clarity
the way in which monopoly capital destroyed this phenomenon. But he
doesn't go into the functioning and structure of monopoly capital per se and
the picture we get is incomplete because the causes which enframe the rise
and growth of capitalism in the early twentieth century are not talked about.
It is this radical separation between 'history' and the history of an art (?) that
makes Rhode's emphasis on Griffith so problematic. In the history of film
Griffith is a deity. He seems to have invented the epic narrative and the
technology that goes with it. What are the criteria for making his into the
major figure of the early twentieth century in film? Rhode mentions his
'visual sensitivity' and 'taste for melodrama'. He made close to 450 films. He
used close-ups and tracking shots. Are these adequate as criteria? Rhode
spends three pages discussing Griffith's racism in Birth of a Nation. Griffith
is so above criticism that his racism, though central to the film's meaning, is
ultimately made to appear peripheral (much as Leni Riefenstahl somehow
ceases to be a Nazi in film histories). Rhode make it appear as if Griffith was
enacting a subjective scenario over which he had no control. "It is probable
that Griffith's blindness to the way others would react to his racism reflects
not so much his Southern obtuseness as a failure to recognize how in-
ternalized his feelings about the negro were." Yet, there is a 'history' to
racism and to exploitation, and Griffith cannot be exonerated from respon-
sibility for contributing to more racism. If anything Birth of a Nation
documents the sensibility of the white property owner and surfaces the at-
titudes that made slavery an essential cog in the development of capital in
the United States.

Rhode's book never really recovers after the first section. Early questions
about the social origins of cinema and the psychological needs that films
fulfill are subsumed under a gathering symphony of descriptions of
narratives from around the world. The book just takes on too much trying to
cover the Soviet Union, France, Weimar, Scandinavia and Hollywood all in
one section of 180 pages.

What influences a film's creation? What role does the production process
play in the development of a particular aesthetic? In fact how do films come
into being and what gives them such broad appeal? How do we deal with
the ideology of the Hollywood film? What methods are available for doing
that kind of theoretical investigation? Can one speak of the history of a
medium without referring to history in general? What are some of the
premises that guide the investigation of history?

These are a few of the questions that film historiography has to address it-
self to. In the final analysis this short review cannot do justice to many of the
more positive qualities of Rhode's book. Though he makes use of traditional
'aesthetic' criticism and though his critical model is never surfaced or
revealed the book still asks many important questions about the effect of
cinema upon society. Ultimately, Rhode's project is limited by his
unquestioning acceptance of the narrative as 'representative' of cinema in
general and by his unself-reflexive approach to history.
R.B.

64
SUBSCRIBE! SUBSCRIBE! SUBSCRIBE! SUBSCRIBE! SUBSCRIBE!
 IN NEXT ISSUE NO. 2

"THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES IN CINEMA"

FILM AND PERFORMANCE .................................. by Stephen Heath

THE FUNDAMENTAL REPROACH (BRECHT) .......................... by Ben Brewster

SOME PROBLEMS OF TECHNOLOGY, PERCEPTION

AND REPRESENTATION IN CAMERA MOVEMENT .................... by David Bordwell

REFLEXIVITY IN FILM AND BROADCAST DOCUMENTARY ............... by Jeanne Allen

KINO-TRUTH AND KINO-PRAXIS,

VERTOV'S MAN WITH A MOVIE CAMERA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . by Judith Mayne

THE CONCEPT OF CINEMATIC EXCESS .......................... by Kristin Thompson

Published in collaboration with the Center for Twentieth

Century Studies of the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee.

Some of these papers were presented at the Center's Interna-

tional Conference on Film/Theatre/Video (Feb. 16-19/77)
which was supported by a matching grant from the National
Endowment for the Arts.