C H A P T E R O N E

Taking Stock
Energy Challenges Facing the United States

A
merica’s current energy challeng­ lack of careful planning and lack of a com­
es can be met with rapidly im­ prehensive national energy plan. The United
proving technology, dedicated States faces serious energy challenges: elec­
leadership, and a comprehensive tricity shortages and disruptions in Califor­
approach to our energy needs. nia and elsewhere in the West, dramatic in­
Our challenge is clear—we must use tech­ creases in gasoline prices due to record-low
nology to reduce demand for energy, re­ inventories, a strained supply system, and
pair and maintain our energy infrastruc­ continued dependence on foreign suppliers.
ture, and increase energy supply. Today, the These challenges have developed from years
United States remains the world’s undisput­ of neglect and can only be addressed with
ed technological leader; but recent events the implementation of sound policy. There
have demonstrated that we have yet to inte­ are no easy, short-term solutions.
grate 21st-century technology into an ener­ Our increased dependence on foreign
gy plan that is focused on wise energy use, oil profoundly illustrates our nation’s fail­
production, efficiency, and conservation. ure to establish an effective energy policy.
Prices today for gasoline, heating oil, Between 1991 and 2000, Americans used 17
and natural gas are dramatically higher percent more energy than in the previous
than they were only a year ago. In Califor­ decade, while during that same period, do­
nia, homeowners, farmers, and businesses mestic energy production rose by only 2.3
face soaring electricity prices, rolling percent. While U.S. production of coal, nat­
blackouts, increasing financial turmoil, ural gas, nuclear energy, and renewable en­
and an uncertain energy future. Our na­ ergy has increased somewhat in recent
tion’s dependence on foreign sources of oil years, these increases have been largely
is at an all-time high and is expected to offset by declines in domestic oil produc­
grow. Current high energy prices and sup­ tion. As a result, America has met almost
ply shortages are hurting U.S. consumers all of its increased energy demand over the
and businesses, as well as their prospects past ten years with increased imports.
for continued economic growth. U.S. energy consumption is projected
Our national energy policy must be to increase by about 32 percent by 2020.
comprehensive in scope. It must protect Unless a comprehensive national energy
our environment. It must also increase our policy is adopted, Americans will continue
The U.S. economy depends on re­
liable and affordable energy. In supply of domestic oil, natural gas, coal, to feel the effects of an inadequate electri­
PHILADELPHIA CONVENTION & VISITORS BUREAU

the coming months, we face sev­ nuclear, and renewable energy sources. cal transmission grid, a pipeline system
eral serious long-term energy Our failure over the past several years to stretched to capacity, insufficient domestic
challenges: electricity shortages
and disruptions in California
modernize our energy infrastructure—the energy supply, and a regional imbalance in
and the West, dramatic increases network of transmission lines, gas pipe­ supply sources. It is important that we
in gasoline prices due to record­ lines, and oil refineries that transports our meet these challenges with a comprehen­
low inventories, a strained sup­
energy to consumers and converts raw ma­ sive energy plan that takes a long-term ap­
ply system, and continued depen­
dence on foreign suppliers. terials into usable fuels—is a result of the proach to meeting our energy needs.

1-1 NATIONAL ENERGY POLICY

 California’s Energy Challenge operator expects more than 30 days of
Recent and looming electricity black­ blackouts.
outs in California demonstrate the problem California officials have warned that
of neglecting energy supply. They also fore­ the crisis may last several years. Though
tell the consequences of failing to imple­ California’s efforts to increase generation
ment a long-term energy plan for our nation may not suffice to prevent blackouts this
as a whole. Though weather conditions and summer, if continued and strengthened,
design flaws in California’s electricity re­ they promise to limit the duration of the
structuring plan contributed, the California crisis.
electricity crisis is at heart a supply crisis.
Since 1995, California’s peak summer Recommendations:
demand for electricity has risen by at least ★ The National Energy Policy Devel­
5,500 megawatts (MW), while in-state gen­ opment (NEPD) Group recommends
eration has failed to keep pace. California’s that the President issue an Executive
generation shortfall did not stem from a Order to direct all federal agencies to
lack of interest in building capacity. Since include in any regulatory action that
1997, power producers filed applications to could significantly and adversely af­
build an additional 14,000 MW of new ca­ fect energy supplies, distribution, or
pacity in California. use, a detailed statement on (1) the
In addition to a lack of new genera­ energy impact of the proposed action,
tion, a crucial transmission bottleneck in (2) any adverse energy effects that
the middle of the state—called Path 15— cannot be avoided should the propos­
prevents power in the south from being al be implemented, and (3) alterna­
shipped to the north during emergencies. tives to the proposed action. The
This year, reduced hydropower avail­ agencies would be directed to include
ability due to low rainfall, higher than ex­ this statement in all submissions to
pected unplanned plant outages, and the fi­ the Office of Management and Budget
nancial problems of California’s utilities ex­ of proposed regulations covered by
acerbated this growing supply–demand im­ Executive Order 12866, as well as in
balance. As a result, California’s supply all notices of proposed regulations
problem turned into a crisis, resulting in published in the Federal Register.
soaring electricity bills for homes and busi­
nesses and rolling blackouts. ★ The NEPD Group recommends that
In part due to the interconnected na­ the President direct the executive agen­
ture of the western electricity grid, Califor­ cies to work closely with Congress to
nia’s critical electricity shortages have implement the legislative components
helped to drive up electricity costs in the of a national energy policy.
West.
Unfortunately, there are no short-term
solutions to long-term neglect. It can take Conservation and Energy Efficiency
new power plants and transmission facili­ Conservation and energy efficiency
ties years to site, permit, and construct. De­ are crucial components of a national ener­
spite expedited federal permitting, Califor­ gy plan. Energy efficiency is the ability to
nia’s emergency efforts to increase new use less energy to produce the same
generation by 5,000 MW by July appear to amount of useful work or services. Conser­
be falling short. Less than 2,000 MW of new vation is closely related and is simply using
generation is expected to be in place by less energy. Improved energy efficiency
summer. Even with aggressive conserva­ and conservation reduces energy consump­
tion measures, peak demand this summer tion and energy costs, while maintaining
is projected to outstrip supply by several equivalent service in our homes, offices,
thousand megawatts. The California grid factories, and automobiles. Greater energy

1-3 NATIONAL ENERGY POLICY

efficiency helps the United States reduce energy efficiency is projected to continue to im­
energy imports, the likelihood of energy prove between 2000 and 2020. A decrease in de­
shortages, emissions, and the volatility of mand from 1.8 percent to 1.5 percent would re­
energy prices. duce the need for new generating capacity next Measures of
Over the last three decades, the Unit- year by about 2,000 MW. Extending that reduc­ Electrical Power
ed States has significantly improved its en- tion over the next 20 years would reduce the A watt is a measure of the
ergy efficiency by developing and expand- need for new generation by 60,000 to 66,000 MW. amount of energy that
ing the use of energy efficient technologies. While this projection shows that conser- can be produced during a
Although our economy has grown by 126 vation can help ensure the United States has ad­ specific period of time.
percent since 1973, our energy use has in- equate energy supplies for the future, it also 1 kilowatt (KW)= 1,000 watts
creased by only 30 percent. Had energy use shows that conservation alone is not the an­ 1 megawatt (MW)=1million watts
kept pace with economic growth, the na- swer. Even with more conservation, the U.S. 1 gigawatt (GW)=1 billion watts
tion would have consumed 171 quadrillion will need more energy supplies. Today, new 1 terawatt (TW)=1 trillion watts
British thermal units (Btus) last year in- technologies offer new opportunities to en­
stead of 99 quadrillion Btus. hance our energy efficiency. As these technolo-
About a third to a half of these savings gies gain market acceptance, they will help en­
resulted from shifts in the economy, such as sure a reliable and affordable energy and elec­
the growth of the service sector. The other tric power supply for the nation. U.S. Energy Efficiency
half to two-thirds resulted from greater en­ Is Improving
ergy efficiency. Technological improve- Energy Intensity • New home refrigera­
ments in energy efficiency allow consumers The energy intensity of the U.S. economy tors now use about one­
to enjoy more energy services without com- is measured by the amount of energy used to third less energy than
mensurate increases in energy demand. The produce a dollar’s worth of gross domestic they did in 1972.
rate at which these efficiency improve- product (GDP). It now takes only about 56 per­ • New commercial
ments are made varies over time, depend- cent of the energy required in 1970 to produce a fluorescent lighting sys­
ing on the extent to which factors—such as
tems use less than half
energy policies, research and development,
Figure 1-1 the energy they did dur­
prices, and market regulations—encourage
U.S. Energy Use per Capita and per Dollar of ing the 1980s.
the development of new, efficient products GDP: 1970–1999 • Federal buildings
and consumer investment in these prod- (Index: 1970 = 1)
now use about 20 per­
ucts. An increased rate of improvement in
1.2 cent less energy per
energy efficiency can have a large impact
Energy Use per Capita square foot since 1985.
on energy supply and infrastructure needs,
• Industrial energy
reducing the need for new power plants
use per unit of output de­
and other energy resources, along with re­ 1.0 clined by 25 percent
duced stress on the energy supply infra­
from 1980 to 1999.
structure.
• The chemical indus­
Load management is the ability to adjust 0.8 try’s energy use per unit
energy loads to reflect immediate supply condi­
of output has declined by
tions. In the very short term, direct appeals for

roughly 40 percent in the

conservation can ease strained energy supply
past 25 years.
markets for a time. Over the longer run, the abil­
0.6 Energy Use per
Dollar of GDP • The U.S. govern­
ity to adjust demand on an as-needed basis can
ment has reduced its en­
be an important source of energy reserves, re­
ergy use in buildings by
0
sulting in lower energy bills for participating

1970 75 80 85 90 95 99

over 20 percent since

customers. 1985.
The impact that improvements in energy The energy intensity of the U.S. economy is measured by the • The amount of ener­
efficiency can have on energy supply markets amount of energy used to produce a dollar’s worth of gross
gy required to generate 1
grows over time. Electricity demand is project- domestic product (GDP). By that yardstick, U.S. energy in­
tensity declined significantly between 1970 and 1985, and kilowatt-hour of electric­
ed to rise by 1.8 percent a year over the next 20 has continued to decline, albeit at a slower rate. ity has declined by 10
years, requiring the addition of some 393,000 _______
Source: U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information percent since 1980.
MW of generation capacity. At the same time, Administration.

Chapter 1 • Taking Stock: Energy Challenges Facing the United States 1-4
 dollar of GDP today (Figure 1-1). This reduc­ Electricity supply conditions in the
What Causes tion is attributable to improved energy efficien­ Southeast are expected to be tight in the
Transmission summer of 2001, much as they have been the
Constraints? cy, as well as to structural changes in the econ­
omy, particularly the relative decline of energy­ previous two years. The Northeast may also
When additional elec­
intensive industries. face supply shortages. If the temperatures of
tricity flow from one
The decline in the nation’s energy intensi­ the summer of 2000 had been normal rather
area exceeds a circuit’s
ty accelerated between 1999 and 2000, a period than unseasonably cool, New York and New
capacity to carry that
when nonenergy-intensive industries experi­ England would most likely have experienced
flow to another area,
enced rapid growth. Energy intensity is project­ electricity supply shortfalls and price spikes.
the overloaded circuit
ed to continue to decline through 2020 at an av­ Critical supply problems could arise if the
becomes congested and
erage rate of 1.6 percent a year. This is a slower weather in the summer of 2001 is unusually
blocks a steady flow of
rate of decline than experienced in the 1970s warm or if plant outages rise above average
power. To prevent
and early 1980s, which was characterized by levels.
transmission bottle­
high energy prices and a shift to less energy­ Our nation’s most pressing long-term
necks, system opera­
intensive industries, but is a more rapid rate of electricity challenge is to build enough new
tors curtail transactions
decline than experienced on average during generation and transmission capacity to
between areas or in­
the latter part of the 1980s and the 1990s. meet projected growth in demand. Across
crease generation on
the country, we are seeing the same signs
the side of the con­
straint where the elec­ Challenges Confronting Electricity Supply that California faced in the mid-1990s: sig­
Our nation’s electricity supply has nificant economic regulatory uncertainty,
tricity is flowing and re­
failed to keep pace with growing demand. which can result in inadequate supply. This
duce generation on the
level of uncertainty can vary across the
opposite side. Trans­ This imbalance is projected to persist into
the future. The adverse consequences have country, depending on state and local regu­
mission constraints re­
lations. Of the approximately 43,000 MW of
sult in price differences manifested themselves most severely in
the West, where supply shortages have led new generating capacity that power compa­
between regions that
to high prices and even blackouts. In other nies planned in 1994 for construction from
exceed differences due
1995 to 1999, only about 18,000 MW were
to line losses, because regions, inadequate supply threatens the
reliability and affordability of electric pow­ actually built. Although plans have been an­
electricity can no long­
nounced to build more capacity than the
er flow freely to the af­ er.
Large amounts of new generating ca­ country will need over the next five to sev­
fected area.
pacity are slated for installation around the en years, this new construction assumes
market and regulatory conditions that are
country from 2001 to 2004. However, there
is a geographic mismatch between where not yet assured. Over the next twenty years,
the United States will need 1,300 to 1,900 new
we will generate energy and where it is
needed. For example, little capacity is be­ power plants, which is the equivalent of 60 to
ing added where it is most needed, such as 90 new power plants a year (Figure 1-2).
But even with adequate generating ca­
in California and eastern New York.
pacity, we do not have the infrastructure to
ensure reliable supply of electricity. Invest­
A pressing long-term electricity
challenge is to build enough new ment in new transmission capacity has
generation and transmission ca­ failed to keep pace with growth in demand
pacity to meet projected growth in and with changes in the industry’s struc­
demand.
ture. Since 1989, electricity sales to con­
sumers have increased by 2.1 percent annu­
ally, yet transmission capacity has in­
creased by only 0.8 percent annually. As
electricity markets become more regional,
transmission constraints are impeding the
movement of electricity both within and be­
tween regions.
The price spikes in the Midwest in the
summer of 1998 were in part caused by trans-

1-5 NATIONAL ENERGY POLICY

Figure 1-2 remain the dominant fuel in meeting in­
The U.S. Needs More Power Plants creasing U.S. electricity demand through
2020, energy policy goals must be carefully
4,500
integrated with environmental policy goals.
High Electricity Demand Case
4,000
The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 and
related state regulations require electricity
generators to reduce emissions of sulfur di­
3,500 Reference Case oxide and nitrogen oxide.
Electricity Generating Capaciity
3,000
Nuclear Energy
Nuclear energy is the second-largest
2,500 Existing Capacity Minus Future Retirements source (20 percent) of U.S. electricity genera­
0
tion. Nuclear power is used exclusively to gener­
2000 2010 2020 ate electricity. Nuclear power has none of the
The nation is going to require significant new generation
emissions associated with coal and gas power
capacity in the next two decades. Depending on demand, the
plants, including nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide,
United States will need to build between 1,300 and 1,900 new

power plants—or about one new power plant a week.

mercury and carbon dioxide. Costs of electricity
________
generation by nuclear plants compare favorably
Source: U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information

Administration. with the costs of generation by other sources.

While the number of nuclear plants has
mission constraints, which limited the region’s declined due to retirements, nuclear electricity
ability to import electricity from other regions generation has steadily increased in recent
at a time of high demand. Transmission bottle­ years. Several factors have created a more fa­
necks contributed to the blackouts in California vorable environment for nuclear energy: safe,
over the past year, and have been a persistent standardized plant designs; an improved li­
cause of price spikes in New York City during censing process; effective safety oversight by
peak demand. Constraints on New England’s the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC);
ability to import low-cost power from Canada the advent of new technologies; and uncertain,
could raise electricity prices during periods of volatile natural gas prices. This more favorable
high demand. environment has resulted in increased re-li­
Electricity is a secondary source of energy, censing of nuclear plants and the consolida­
generated through the consumption of tion of several plants in the hands of fewer,
primary sources (Figure 1-3). The largest source more experienced operators.
of U.S. electricity generation is coal, followed by
nuclear energy, natural gas, hydropower, oil, and Figure 1-3
non-hydropower renewable energy. Fuel Sources for Electricity
Generation in 2000
Coal
Renewables
Coal is America’s most abundant fuel 2%
Oil 3%
source. The United States has a 250-year
Hydropower
supply of coal. Over 1 billion tons of coal 7%
were produced in 25 states in 2000. About
99.7 percent of U.S. coal production is con­
sumed domestically, with electricity genera­
Natural Coal 52%
tion accounting for about 90 percent of coal Gas
consumption. 16% Nuclear
After peaking in 1982, coal prices 20%
have generally declined. This trend is pro­
Electricity is a secondary source of energy, generated through the
jected to continue through 2020, reflecting consumption of primary sources. Coal and nuclear energy account
an expanding shift into lower-cost western for over 70 percent of U.S. electricity generation.
______
coal production and substantial increases
in productivity. While coal is expected to Source: U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration.

Chapter 1 • Taking Stock: Energy Challenges Facing the United States 1-6
 timely long-term storage of spent nuclear
fuel and high- and low-level radioactive
waste. Currently, no plans exist to construct
any new nuclear plants. However, due to
more favorable conditions, the decline in nu­
clear energy generation has not been as rap­
id as was predicted only a few years ago, as
evidenced by increased re-licensing.

Natural Gas
Natural gas is the third-largest source of
U.S. electricity generation, accounting for 16
percent of generation in 2000. Under existing
policy, natural gas generating capacity is ex­
pected to constitute about 90 percent of the
projected increase in electricity generation
between 1999 and 2020. Electricity generated
by natural gas is expected to grow to 33 per­
cent in 2020—a growth driven by electricity
restructuring and the economics of natural
gas power plants. Lower capital costs, shorter
construction lead times, higher efficiencies,
and lower emissions give gas an advantage
over coal and other fuels for new generation
in most regions of the country.
However, natural gas is not just an
electricity source. It is used in many differ­
ent ways, including as vehicle fuel, as indus­
trial fuel, and in our homes. In addition, nat­
ural gas is used as a feedstock during the
manufacturing process of such products as
chemicals, rubber, apparel, furniture, paper,
The nuclear industry is closely regu­ clay, glass, and other petroleum and coal
Many Americans received high lated by the NRC, which provides over­ products. Overall, natural gas accounts for
heating bills this winter as a re­ 24 percent of total U.S. energy consumed
sult of sharp increases in natural sight of the operation and maintenance of
gas prices. these plants. This oversight includes a and for all purposes 27 percent of domestic
comprehensive inspection program that energy produced.
focuses on the most significant potential Eighty-five percent of total U.S. natural
risks of plant operations, and features full­ gas consumption is produced domestically.
time resident inspectors at each plant, as The import share of consumption rose from 5
well as regional inspectors with special­ percent in 1987 to 15 percent in 2000, and net
ized expertise. In addition to rigorous in­ imports have comprised more than 50 percent
spection criteria, the installation of new of the growth in gas demand since 1990. Cana­
design features, improvements in operat­ da, with very large gas supplies and easy pipe­
ing experience, nuclear safety research, line access to the lower 48 states, accounts for
and operator training have all contributed nearly all U.S. natural gas imports. Unlike oil,
to the nuclear industry’s strong safety almost all natural gas is produced and sold
record. within the same region. Therefore, prices are
An important challenge to the use of determined by regional, rather than global,
nuclear energy is the issue of safe and markets.
In 2000, natural gas prices moved

1-7 NATIONAL ENERGY POLICY

sharply higher after fifteen years of generally about 10 percent of U.S. production, and
flat prices. Futures prices surged by 320 per­ federal offshore production contributes
cent in 2000 to an all-time high of $9.98 per about 26 percent.
million Btus in late December 2000—nearly The most significant long-term chal­
five times higher than the $2.05 per million lenge relating to natural gas is whether ad­
Btu average from 1991 to 1999. While prices equate supplies can be provided to meet
have declined since the beginning of 2001, sharply increased projected demand at
they remain much higher than recent levels. reasonable prices. If supplies are not ade­
Between 2000 and 2020, U.S. natural quate, the high natural gas prices experi­
gas demand is projected by the Energy Infor­ enced over the past year could become a
mation Administration to increse by more continuing problem, with consequent im­
than 50 percent, from 22.8 to 34.7 trillion cu­ pacts on electricity prices, home heating
bic feet. Others, such as Cambridge Energy bills, and the cost of industrial production.
Research Associates, expect gas consump­ These concerns will redouble if policy de­
tion to increase by about 37 percent over cisions sharply reduce electricity genera­
that period. Growth is projected in all sec­ tion by any other source, since it is doubt­
tors—industrial, commercial, residential, ful that natural gas electricity generation
transportation, and electric generation. More could expand to the extent necessary to
than half of the increase in overall gas con­ compensate for that loss of generation.
sumption will result from rising demand for To meet this long-term challenge, the
electricity generation. United States not only needs to boost pro­
Although high natural gas prices have duction, but also must ensure that the nat­
negative effects on consumers, businesses, ural gas pipeline network is expanded to
industries, and the economy as a whole, they the extent necessary. For example, al­
also promote more rapid development and though natural gas electricity generation in
adoption of new energy efficient technolo­ New England is projected to increase by
gies, investment in distribution systems, and 16,000 MW through 2000, bottlenecks may
greater investment in exploration and devel­ block the transmission of necessary sup­
opment. Although these market responses do plies. Unless pipeline constraints are eliminat­
not occur rapidly enough to prevent near­ ed, they will contribute to supply shortages and
term price spikes, over time, they help to high prices, and will impede growth in electrici­
hold down prices. ty generation.
As a result of the sharp increase in natu­
ral gas prices, many consumers received his­ Hydropower
torically high utility bills this winter. The price Hydropower is the fourth-largest
spike has had a particularly severe impact on source of U.S. electricity generation, ac­
low-income consumers who use natural gas counting for about 7 percent of total gener­
for heating. In recent months, 5 million con­ ation in 2000. In some regions of the coun­
sumers have applied for federal and state as­ try, such as the Northwest and New York,
sistance to pay their heating bills—an in­ hydropower makes a much bigger contri­
crease of 1 million consumers over last year. bution to electricity generation. Although
The projected rise in domestic natural the United States is second only to Canada
gas production—from 19.3 trillion cubic feet in hydropower generation, hydropower
in 2000 to 29.0 trillion cubic feet in 2020— generation has remained relatively flat in
may not be high enough to meet projected the United States for years.
demand. In the near term, incremental pro­ Hydropower has significant environ­
duction of natural gas is expected to come mental benefits. It is a form of low-cost
primarily from unconventional sources in electricity generation that produces no
the Rocky Mountain, Gulf Coast, and mid­ emissions, and it will continue to be an im­
continent regions; the North Slope of Alas­ portant source of U.S. energy for the fu­
ka; and the offshore Gulf of Mexico. On­ ture. Given the potential impacts on fish
shore federal lands currently contribute and wildlife, however, it is important to ef-

Chapter 1 • Taking Stock: Energy Challenges Facing the United States 1-8
 demand, especially in the Northwest and
the West. Hydropower projects operate
with multiple purposes, such as electricity
generation, flood control, navigation, and
irrigation.
Although most potential for hydro­
power has already been developed, there is
some undeveloped hydropower capacity in
the United States. Much of this capacity
could be expanded without constructing a
new dam.
The most significant challenge con­
fronting hydropower is regulatory uncer­
tainty regarding the federal licensing pro­
cess. The process is long and burdensome,
and decision-making authority is spread
across a range of federal and state agencies
charged with promoting different public
policy goals. Reforms can improve the hy­
dropower licensing process, ensuring bet­
ter public participation, ensuring that effec­
tive fish and wildlife conditions are adopt­
ed, and providing interagency resolution
before conflicting mandatory license condi­
tions are presented. The licensing process
needs both administrative and legislative
reforms. In addition, FERC should be en­
couraged to adopt appropriate deadlines
for its own actions during the process.

Oil
Oil accounts for approximately 3 per­
cent of electricity generation. Oil is used as a
primary source to fire electricity generation
plants in some regions. Specifically, oil is an
Hydropower is the fourth-largest ficiently and effectively integrate national important source of electricity in Hawaii,
source of U.S. electricity genera­ interests in both natural resource preserva­
tion. The most significant chal­ Florida, and some northeastern states. Oil
lenge confronting this source of tion and environmental protection with en­ can also be used an additional source of fuel
energy is regulatory uncertainty ergy needs. for electricity generation in plants that can
regarding the federal licensing There are two categories of hydro­
process. use either natural gas or oil. However, elec­
power projects in the United States: (1) tricity generation from oil is projected to de­
those operated by federal electric utilities, cline to about one-half of one percent of total
such as the federal power marketing ad­ electricity generation by 2020.
ministrations (Bonneville, Western, South­
western, and Southeastern); and (2) the ap­ Renewable Energy: A Growing Resource
proximately 2,600 non-federal hydropower
dams licensed or exempted by the Federal Renewable energy technologies tap
natural flows of energy—such as water,
Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC).
The federal utilities have large hydropower wind, solar, geological, and biomass sourc­
es—to produce electricity, fuels, and heat.
systems operated by the Bureau of Recla­
mation and Army Corps of Engineers, and Non-hydropower renewable electricity gen­
play an important role meeting electricity eration is projected to grow at a faster rate

1-9 NATIONAL ENERGY POLICY

than all other generation sources, except Figure 1-4

natural gas. These sources of energy are U.S. Per Capita Oil

Consumption: 1970–2000

continuously renewable, can be very clean,

(Barrels per Year)

are domestically produced, and can gener-

ate income for farmers, landowners, and
35
others. Although its production costs gener­

ally remain higher than other sources, re­

newable energy has not experienced the

price volatility of other energy resources.

Non-hydropower renewable energy 30

sources currently account for only about 4

percent of total energy consumption and 2
percent of total electricity generation. The
sources of non-hydropower renewable elec­ 25
tricity generation are biomass (the direct
combustion of plant matter and organic res­
idues, such as municipal solid waste use);
geothermal (use of naturally occurring 20

steam and hot water); wind; and solar. Bio­

mass and geothermal account for most re­
0
newable electricity generation.
The most important long-term chal- 1970 75 80 85 90 95 00
lenge facing renewable energy remains eco- Per capita oil consumption reached a peak in 1978 of 31
nomic. Renewable energy costs are often barrels. it has fallen by 20 percent since then to 26 barrels
greater than those of other energy sources. per capita.
_______
However, these costs have declined sharply Source: U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration
in recent years, due to improved technolo­
Renewable energy technologies tap
gy. If this trend continues, renewable ener­
natural flows of energy to produce
gy growth will accelerate. By 2020, non­ electricity, fuels, and heat.
hydropower renewable energy is expected U.S. DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY, NATIONAL
RENEWABLE ENERGY LABORATORY
to account for 2.8 percent of total electrici-
ty generation.

Transportation Energy Needs

Oil is the nation’s largest source of
primary energy, serving almost 40 percent
of U.S. energy needs. In 2000, the United
States consumed an average of 19.5 million
barrels of oil every day. Transportation fu­
els account for about two-thirds of our oil
consumption, and the industrial sector for
25 percent. Residential and commercial
uses, such as heating oil and propane—im­
portant fuels in the Northeast and Mid­
west—account for most of the rest.
The share of oil in U.S. energy supply
has declined since the early 1970s, the re­
sult of growth in other fuels, particularly
coal and nuclear. Per capita oil consump­
tion, which reached a peak in 1978, has fall­
en by 20 percent from that level (Figure 1-4).

Chapter 1 • Taking Stock: Energy Challenges Facing the United States 1-10
 Figure 1-5 In 2020, oil is projected to account for
Dependence on Foreign Sources of Oil roughly the same share of U.S. energy con­
sumption as it does today.
(Millions of Barrels a Day)
The United States has been a net im­
20 porter of energy since the 1950s, and U.S.
dependence on imports has grown sharply
since 1985 (Figure 1-5). Today, oil accounts
for 89 percent of net U.S. energy imports.
Consumption Net oil imports account for most of the rise
in energy imports since the mid-1980s, and
15
have grown from about 4.3 million barrels
per day (bpd) in 1985 to 10 million bpd in
2000.
World oil prices have been marked by
notable price volatility over the past sever­
10
al years. For example, the average initial
purchase price of crude oil rose from $8.03
a barrel in December 1998 to $30.30 a bar­
rel in November 2000. Spot prices rose
even higher. This dramatic price swing was
Net Imports
5
the product of several events. A series of
production cuts by the Organization of Pe­
troleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) in
1998 and 1999 sharply curtailed global oil
supplies. At the same time, rebounding de­
0 mand for oil in Asia following roughly two
years of economic weakness, and rapid
1970 80 90 00
U.S. dependence on oil imports is a serious long-term chal­ economic growth in the United States
lenge. The economic security of our nation and our trading boosted oil consumption and squeezed
partners will remain closely tied to global oil market devel­ supplies even further. By September 2000,
opments.
_______
oil prices peaked as markets faced limited
Source: U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information
supply of crude and petroleum products
Administration.

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION

Domestic oil supply cannot be increased unless several access and infrastructure challenges are addressed. For
example, U.S. refining and pipeline capacity has not kept pace with increasing demand for petroleum products.

1-11 NATIONAL ENERGY POLICY

ahead of the winter season, when demand
is typically higher. In December 2000, oil
prices fell after the market absorbed the im­
pact of a series of OPEC production in­
creases.
This recent price volatility illustrates
the effect of intermittent market power ex­
erted by cartel behavior in a global petro­
leum market. Moreover, prices are set in a
market where supply is geographically con­
centrated. Almost two-thirds of world prov­
en reserves are in the Middle East. Else­
where, Central and South America account
for 9 percent; Africa, 7 percent; North
America, 5 percent; Eastern Europe and the
former Soviet Union, 5 percent; the rest of
Asia, 4 percent; and Western Europe, 2 per­
cent. OPEC’s huge oil reserves and produc­
tion capacity and its periodic efforts to in­
fluence prices add to volatility in the mar­
ket.
Oil prices are expected to remain high
through 2002, affecting the cost of transpor­
tation, heating, electricity generation, and
industrial production. High oil prices mean
high prices for petroleum products, such as
gasoline, diesel fuel, heating oil, propane,
and jet fuel. The summer 2001 base case av­
erage gasoline price from the Department
of Energy Short-Term Energy Outlook is
$1.49 per gallon. However, prices have risen
more rapidly than anticipated since the re­
port’s release, and a much higher summer
average in the range of $1.50 to $1.65 per
gallon is likely. Some areas have already ex­
perienced gasoline prices above $2.00 per
gallon. Gasoline inventories going into the
driving season are projected to be lower
than last year, which could set the stage for
regional supply problems that once again
create significant price volatility in gasoline
markets.

Because the United States is a

Price Volatility in Gasoline Markets cluding ethanol, doubled in about six weeks, mature oil-producing region,
During the early summer of 2000, low from 83 cents per gallon on April 25 to $1.65 production costs are often higher
on June 7. Spot prices then fell back over than in foreign countries.
inventories set the stage for a gasoline price
run-up in the Midwest. Several pipeline and the next five weeks to 84 cents on July 12 as
refinery problems sent marketers scram­ extra supply began arriving. Retail regular­
bling for limited supplies of both reformu­ grade RFG prices in the Midwest rose from
lated gasoline (RFG) and conventional gas­ $1.47 on April 24 to just over $2.00 per gal­
oline, driving prices up rapidly. In Chicago, lon on June 19, before falling back to $1.43
the spot price for blend stock for RFG, ex- by July 24, showing the typical tendency of

Chapter 1 • Taking Stock: Energy Challenges Facing the United States 1-12
 retail prices to lag spot price changes. lowering production costs.
Refiners face additional challenges as Our projected growing dependence
a result of various state and local clean fuel on oil imports is a serious long-term chal­
requirements for distinct gasoline blends lenge. U.S. economic security and that of
(“boutique fuels”). These different require­ our trading partners will remain closely
ments sometimes make it difficult, if not tied to global oil market developments.
impossible, to draw on gasoline supplies Without a change in current policy, the
from nearby areas or states to meet local share of U.S. oil demand met by net im­
needs when the normal supply is disrupted. ports is projected to increase from 52 per­
In 2000, very low inventories of gaso­ cent in 2000 to 64 percent in 2020. By 2020,
line and other refined products on the U.S. the oil for nearly two of every three gallons
East and Gulf coasts increased the mar­ of our gasoline and heating oil could come
ket’s susceptibility to external shocks, such from foreign countries. The sources of this
as operating problems in refineries or pipe­ imported oil have changed considerably
lines, or short-term surges in demand. Last over the last thirty years, with more of our
winter, heating oil prices were at near­ imports coming from the Western Hemi­
record levels. During 2000, the federal gov­ sphere. Despite progress in diversifying
ernment reduced the vulnerability of the our oil suppliers over the past two decades,
Northeast to heating oil shortages, such as the U.S. and global economies remain vul­
those experienced in January 2000, by cre­ nerable to a major disruption of oil sup­
ating a 2-million-barrel heating oil reserve plies.
in New Jersey and Connecticut. The Strategic Petroleum Reserve
Because the United States is a mature (SPR), the federal government’s major tool
oil-producing region, production costs are for responding to oil supply disruptions,
often higher than in foreign countries, par­ has not kept pace with the growth in im­
ticularly OPEC countries. In addition, ac­ ports. The number of days of net oil import
cess to promising domestic oil reserves is protection provided by the Reserve de­
limited. U.S. oil production in the lower 48 clined from 83 days of imports in 1992 to 54
states reached its peak in 1970 at 9.4 mil­ days of imports today. Net domestic oil im­
lion bpd. A surge in Alaskan North Slope ports have increased significantly since
oil production beginning in the late 1970s 1992, while the SPR’s oil inventory actually
helped postpone the decline in overall U.S. decreased.
production, but Alaska’s production Domestic oil supply cannot be in­
peaked in 1988 at 2 million bpd, and fell to creased unless several access and infra­
1 million bpd by 2000. By then, U.S. total structure challenges are addressed. U.S. re­
oil output had fallen to 5.8 million bpd, 39 fining and pipeline capacity has not kept
percent below its peak. pace with increasing demand for petroleum
By 2020, U.S. oil production is pro­ products. Unless changes take place, the
jected to decline from 5.8 to 5.1 million net effect will likely be increased imports,
bpd under current policy. However, oil con­ regionally tight markets, and circumstances
sumption is expected to rise to 25.8 million in which prices for gasoline, heating oil,
bpd by 2020, primarily due to growth in and other products rise independently of
consumption of transportation fuels. Given oil prices.
existing law, production from offshore Greater price volatility for gasoline,
sources, particularly the Gulf of Mexico, is diesel fuel, heating oil, propane, and jet fuel
predicted to play an increasingly important is likely to become a larger problem over
role in the future, accounting for a project­ time, unless additional refining capacity
ed high of 40 percent of domestic oil pro­ and expanded distribution infrastructure
duction by 2010, up from 27 percent today. can be developed at the same time cleaner
Technological advances can mitigate the products are required. Increasing domestic
decline in U.S. oil production by enhancing oil production and reducing demand, par­
recovery from domestic oil reserves and ticularly for transportation fuels, will re­

1-13 NATIONAL ENERGY POLICY

quire adoption of a comprehensive national tribution
energy policy. The success of the federal alternative
fuels program has been limited, however.
Alternative Transportation Fuels The program focuses on mandating that cer­
tain fleet operators purchase alternative fu­
Development of alternative fuels such
eled vehicles. The hope was that this vehi­
as ethanol and other biofuels (liquid fuels
cle purchase mandate would lead to ex­
derived from organic matter, such as
panded use of alternative fuels. That expec­
crops), natural gas, and electricity, can help
tation has not been realized, since most
diversify the transportation sector that is so
fleet operators purchase dual-fueled vehi­
reliant on oil.
cles that operate on petroleum motor fuels.
Ethanol, a biofuel based on starch
Reforms to the federal alternative fuels pro­
crops such as corn, is already making a sig­
gram could promote alternative fuels use,
nificant contribution to U.S. energy securi­
such as expanding the development of an
ty, displacing more oil than any other alter­
alternative fuels infrastructure.
native fuel. Other biofuels, such as biodie­
sel, which can be made from soybean,
canola oils, animal fats, and vegetable oils,
are making an increasingly important con-

Summary of Recommendations
Taking Stock: Energy Challenges Facing the United States
★ The NEPD Group recommends that the President issue an Executive Order to di­
rect all federal agencies to include in any regulatory action that could significantly and
adversely affect energy supplies, distribution, or use, a detailed statement on: (1) the
energy impact of the proposed action, (2) any adverse energy effects that cannot be
avoided should the proposal be implemented, and (3) alternatives to the proposed ac­
tion. The agencies would be directed to include this statement in all submissions to the
Office of Management and Budget of proposed regulations covered by Executive Or­
der 12866, as well as in all notices of proposed regulations published in the Federal
Register.

★ The NEPD Group recommends that the President direct the executive agencies to
work closely with Congress to implement the legislative components of a national en­
ergy policy.

★ The NEPD Group recommends to the President that the NEPD Group continue to
work and meet on the implementation of the National Energy Policy, and to explore
other ways to advance dependable, affordable, and environmentally responsible pro­
duction and distribution of energy.

Note: All recommendations in this report are subject to execution in accordance with applica­
ble law. Legislation would be sought where needed. Also, any recommendations that involve
foreign countries would be executed in accordance with the customs of international
relations, including appropriate diplomatic consultation.

Chapter 1 • Taking Stock: Energy Challenges Facing the United States 1-14
Regional U.S. Energy Challenges

MIDWEST
Energy consumption in the Midwest is dominated by the industrial sector, the sector with the fastest-growing consumption rate
through 2020. The transportation sector has the second-fastest consumption growth rate through 2020. States are affected by higher
prices for natural gas, propane, and gasoline, and they expect gasoline price spikes this summer. Electricity supplies in some parts
of the region may be tight during peak summer demand. High energy prices will drive up farm operating costs, particularly for
fertilizer, irrigation, grain drying, and fuel for tractors.
Illinois consumers are reeling from high heating and cooling costs. Landlords are forced to pass on these costs in the form of higher
rents. Farmers face low commodity prices, high fuel costs, and dramatically higher fertilizer costs. A key refinery is closing in part
because of the cost of meeting cleaner-burning gasoline requirements.
Minnesota’s residential electricity use has increased due to population growth and a healthy
economy.
Iowa imports over 90 percent of its energy. Farmers are paying twice the 1999 price of fertilizer
because of higher prices for natural gas, which is a major component in the fertilizer production.

WEST
Energy consumption in the West is dominated by the transportation sector,

which is followed closely by the industrial sector. The region’s drought emer­

gency is exacerbating an already challenging energy picture. California is

likely to experience more severe electricity blackouts this summer. The Pacific

Northwest faces a major shortage of hydropower generation due to low water

levels. Electricity prices will remain high in the West until more supply is

added. Gasoline could be in short supply this summer in California and other states.

California’s energy consumption has grown by about 7 percent a year, while production has remained flat. The point has been
reached where demand is occasionally exceeding supply, which has caused rolling blackouts. The situation is likely to worsen this
summer when demand will peak.
Oregon’s lowest snow pack in history will result in the most severe short-term electricity problem in decades. The state will face high
spot market prices and reports the highest gasoline prices in the country.
Washington businesses are closing down or cutting back on production. Electricity costs of $400 per unit compared to $35 a year ago
contributed to the closure of a major paper plant employing 800 employees.
Colorado small business are suffering as well. A 169 percent jump in natural gas prices in one year may force small businesses to close.
Idaho utilities are offering to pay their irrigation customers to not farm portions of their fields to reduce electricity demand and make
that saved power available for other local customers. The low snow pack has reduced water in river systems needed for hydropower
generation.
Hawaii’s geographic isolation contributes to its many energy issues, such as importing 100 percent of its energy, its disproportionately
high consumption of jet fuel and heavy reliance on tourism, and its dependence on imported oil for over 90 percent of its primary
energy, the majority from sources in the Asia-Pacific region. Electricity is produced mainly from oil, including residuals and distillates
from refineries and coal. Because the Islands’ electric grids are not interconnected, electric utilities must operate with high reserve
margins.
Nevada is covered in large part by federal lands that require federal approval for permitting new transmission and generation facilities.
The permitting process can be protracted and cumbersome, despite efforts by federal agencies to streamline and coordinate. The desert
climate requires both heating and cooling, the cost of which can be burdensome. While the desert climate is also conducive to geother­
mal, wind, and solar technologies, additional work is needed to make these technologies economically competitive.

1-15 NATIONAL ENERGY POLICY

NORTHEAST
Energy consumption in the Northeast is dominated by the transportation sector. Forecasts developed by the Energy Information
Administration indicate that the transportation sector will also remain the dominant sector with the fastest-growing consumption
rate through 2020. Northeast states’ energy challenges include reducing vehicle pollution and interstate transport of power plant
emissions. Heavy dependence on heating oil results in disproportionate impacts during cycles of high prices. Energy supplies in
the region are limited by electric transmission and gas pipeline bottlenecks.
New York is rushing to complete 11 small natural gas turbines to avoid blackouts in New York City this summer, where customers pay
market prices.
Delaware needs upgraded transmission lines to handle increasing loads.
Traditional distributed generation using diesel generators may address these
shortfalls, but could raise environmental problems.
Connecticut expects no power shortages this summer, but brownouts are possible
if there is a prolonged spike in energy use while power plants are shut down for
routine maintenance.
New Hampshire must conserve power on hot days to avoid summer blackouts.
New Jersey regulators have had to allow utilities to raise natural gas rates by 2 percent a
month through July 2001 to make up for money lost during the winter due to high fuel
prices.

SOUTH
Energy consumption in the South is dominated by the industrial sector, followed by the
transportation sector. The transportation sector, however, is expected to grow faster than the
industrial sector through 2020. While no state in the region anticipates summer power
shortages, electricity supplies in parts of the region may be tight during peak summer
demand.
Arkansas’ costs of natural gas and propane have doubled and then tripled, contributing to employee layoffs.
Oklahoma’s second-largest industry is the oil and gas industry. The volatility of oil and gas markets can severely affect Oklahomans
and the state’s economy.

Chapter 1 • Taking Stock: Energy Challenges Facing the United States 1-16