Environmental Economics For Non-Economists PDF

ENVIRONMENTAL
ECONOMICS FOR
NON--ECONOMISTS
Techniques and Policies tor Sustainable Development
ENVIRONMENTAL
ECONOMICS FOR
NON,ECONOMISTS
Techniques and Policies tor Sustainable Development
John Asafu-Adjaye
The University of Queens! and, Australia
1~ World Scientific
NEW JERSEY LONDON SINGAPORE BEIJING SHANGHAI HONG KONG TAIPEI CHENNAI
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ENVIRONMENTAL ECONOMICS FOR NON-ECONOMISTS (2nd Edition)

Techniques and Policies for Sustainable Development
Copyright 2005 by World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd.
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CONTENTS
Preface xi
1. Introduction 1
1.1 The Role of Environmental Economics 2

1.2 Defining the Natural Environment 4
1.3 Overview of this Book 4
References 6
Part I. Introduction to Environmental Economics:

Theoretical Foundations 7
2. Incorporating the Environment into the Economic System:

Introduction to Ecological Economics 9
2.1 Introduction 9
2.2 What is Ecological Economics? 10
2.3 Economy-Environment Systems 13
2.4 Thermodynamics and the Environment 18
2.5 Modelling Economy-Environment Interactions 26
2.6 Summary 30
Key Terms and Concepts 32
Review Questions 32
Exercises 33
References 33
3. How Markets are Supposed to Work 39
3.1 Introduction 39
3.2 The Competitive Market 40
3.3 Consumer Behaviour and Demand 41
V
vi Environmental Economics
3.4 Producer Behaviour and Supply 49

3.5 Market Equilibrium in the Competitive Market 50
3.6 Consumer and Producer Surplus 55
3.7 Applications of the Competitive Model 56
3.8 Summary 58
Review Questions 60
Exercises 60
Further Reading 61
4. Why Markets 'Fail' 63
4.1 Introduction 63
4.2 Types of Market Failure 64
4.3 Externalities 70
4.4 Type of Market Structure 74
4.5 Policy (Government) Failure 77
4.6 Solutions to Environmental Pollution Problems 77
4.7 Government Policies 83
4.8 Choosing the Right Policy Instrument 95
4.9 Summary 97
Review Questions 99
Exercises 100
References 101
Appendix 4.1 Customary Marine Tenure Systems in
Papua New Guinea 103
Part II. Tools for Environmental Policy Analysis 107
5. Environmental Valuation 109
5.1 Introduction 109

5.2 Types of Economic Values 110
5.3 Non-Market Valuation Methods 112
5.4 Summary 132
Review Questions 134
Exercises 134
Contents vii
References 137
6. Cost-Benefit Analysis 141

6.2 Utility, Benefits and Costs 142
6.3 Defining Objectives and Project Scope 146
6.4 Identifying and Screening the Alternatives 148
6.5 Identifying the Benefits and Costs 148
6.6 Valuing the Costs and Benefits 151
6.7 Calculating Discounted Cash Flows and Project
Performance Criteria 158
6.8 Concepts of Risk and Uncertainty 164
6.9 Sensitivity Analysis 165
6.10 Risk Analysis 168
6.11 Summary 172
Exercises 174
References 175
Appendix 6.1 An Application of Cost-Benefit Analysis (with Risk
Analysis) to a Climate Change Abatement Strategy 177
7. Cost-Effectiveness Analysis, Impact Analysis,

and Stakeholder Analysis 185

7.2 Cost-Effectiveness Analysis 186
7.3 Impact Analysis 191
7.4 Damage Assessment 195
7.5 Stakeholder Analysis 195
7.6 Summary 199
Exercises 200
References 200
viii Environmental Economics
8. Multi-Criteria Analysis 203

8.2 The Multi-Criteria Analysis Approach 204
8.3 Steps in the MCA Process 206
8.4 Limitations ofMCA 214
8.5 Case Study: Application of MCA to Resource Management
in Cattle Creek Catchment, Far North Queensland 215
8.6 Summary 222
Exercises 223
References 224
Part Ill. Global Environmental Issues 227
9. Population Growth, Resource Use and the Environment 229

9.2 Growth Pessimists and Optimists 230
9.3 World Population Growth and Trends 235
9.4 Population Growth and the Environment 237
9.5 Gender Issues 245
9.6 Policy Responses to the Population Problem 247
9.7 Summary 249
Exercises 251
References 252
10. Economic Growth and the Environment 255

10.2 Economic and Environmental Trends 257
10.3 Energy Consumption, Economic Growth and Welfare 259
10.4 The Benefits of Trade: Theoretical Arguments 263
10.5 The Relationship Between Economic Growth and Pollution 266
10.6 Economic Growth and Biodiversity 279
10.7 Conclusions and Policy Implications 285
Contents ix
10.8 Summary 291

Exercises 293
References 293
Appendix 10.1 List of Countries for Study in Section 10.6 299
11. Sustainable Development 301

11.2 What is Sustainable Development? 303
11.3 Conditions for Sustainable Development 308
11.4 Measuring Sustainable Development 310
11.5 Operationalising the Concept of Sustainable Development 317
11.6 Constraints to the Implementation of Sustainable
Development 320
11.7 Summary 322
Exercises 323
References 324
12. Green Accounting and Measurement of Genuine Saving 329

12.2 Green Accounting 330
12.3 Genuine (Extended) Saving 334
Exercises 34 7
References 348
13. Assessment of Global Environmental Trends and

Policy Implications 351
13.2 Policy Implications 352
References 356
X Environmental Economics
Useful Internet Resources 357
Answers to Numerical Exercises 361
Index 365
Preface
A second edition of this book has become necessary for two main reasons.
Firstly, the book has established a broad readership base and has been well
received, judging by the strong patronage over the last three years. I have
received valuable feedback from various people which I have utilised in
improving the presentation of the material. I would like to express my
sincere gratitude to all those individuals who have provided reviews of the
book, as well as the many readers who have made unsolicited comments.
Secondly, a second edition offers an excellent opportunity to make a few
editorial corrections, update the statistical information, and include
additional material.
A number of changes have been made to enhance the usefulness of this
book. Firstly, each chapter now contains a summary of the key terms and
concepts used. This is meant to serve as a checklist for readers to ensure that
they have obtained a firm grasp of the terminology and concepts. Secondly,
solutions to all the numerical exercises have been provided at the end of the
text. Thirdly, useful websites where the reader can access further information
have been provided at the end of the book. This section would be particularly
useful for readers engaged in research projects.
While the basic structure of the book has been retained, much of the
material has been updated. The material in Chapter Two (Introduction to
Ecological Economics) has essentially been retained. However, the
discussion on Modelling Economy-Environment Interactions has been
expanded to include the deficiencies of the input-output model, as well as
information on the input-output econometric model. Given that one of the
principal targets of this book is the non-economist who wants to know about
environmental economics, Chapter Three (How Markets are Supposed to
Work) retains its basic characteristic of trying to explain economic principles
in simple terms. In the spirit of making the concepts comprehensible to the
non-technician, the earlier material on indifference curves has been judged to
be unnecessary and has therefore been removed. The discussion in Chapter
xi
xii Environmental Economics
Four (Why Markets Fail) has been augmented with material on the topic of
government (or policy) failure. To further elaborate on the solutions to the
problem of market failure, an Appendix on the use of customary marine
tenure systems in resource management has been added to this chapter.
In Chapter 10 (Economic Growth and the Environment), a section has
been added on the relationship between economic growth and biodiversity
loss. This issue has been virtually ignored in the current debate on the
environmental effects of economic growth. Here, results from an empirical
study are presented and discussed. The definitions of sustainable
development (Chapter 11) have been expanded to include a wider range of
perspectives. Finding appropriate indicators of welfare (or economic
development) is essential in order to measure progress towards sustainable
development. It is now widely accepted that the traditional measures (Gross
Domestic Product and Gross National Product) are seriously flawed. In this
regard, Chapter 11 contains a discussion on alternative measures of welfare
that could be used to assess national progress. A new chapter (Chapter 12)
has been added on Green Accounting and the Measurement of Genuine
Saving. The discussion is complemented with case studies to illustrate the
basic concepts.
This book is not only aimed at non-economists, but also economists who
would like to learn about current environmental issues and possible
solutions. As such, it tries to strike a balance between theory and
applications. Although it is written from an economics perspective, the limits
of analysing environmental problems using a purely economic analysis are
acknowledged. For this reason, I have canvassed a multidisciplinary
perspective, as evidenced by the inclusion of topics such as ecological
economics, stakeholder analysis and multi-criteria analysis.
Once again, I would like to express my sincere thanks to those who have
offered comments and suggestions for improving the book. I would also like
to thank World Scientific Publishing Company, especially Joy Quek, for
excellent work in all aspects of commissioning and providing general
support for this and the previous edition.
John Asafu-Adjaye
July, 2004
1. Introduction
Within the past three decades, the world has witnessed a period of
unprecedented economic growth. Total global output of goods and services
increased from US$9 .4 trillion to over US$25 trillion between 1960 and
1990 (UNDP, 1996). The benefits of this growth have not been evenly
distributed. In 1993, the developed countries accounted for US$22.5 trillion
of the total global gross domestic product (GDP) of US$27.7 trillion.
Although some developing countries, especially those in South-East Asia,
have shared in this growth spurt, others have missed out on the bonanza.
Large parts of the developing world have been bypassed by the past three
decades of economic growth. Since 1980, about 100 developing countries
have experienced economic decline or stagnation; in 70 of these countries,
average incomes in the late 1990s were below the 1980s (UNDP, 1997).
The impressive performance of the world economy has come about
mainly as a result of globalisation. 'Globalisation' is a term that was coined
in the 1990s to refer to the integration of the global economy brought about
by the rapid developments in information technology and the reduction of
international trade barriers. Globalisation has created a near 'borderless'
world and has facilitated free trade and flows of private capital between
countries. Global trade increased from US$4,345 billion to US$6,255 billion
between 1990 and 1995. Transfers of net private capital into low-income and
middle-income countries amounted to US$180 billion in 1995, compared to
official development assistance ofUS$64 billion (World Bank, 1999).
The growth of the global economy has brought with it several benefits
such as improvement in health and living conditions in many developing
countries. For example, in many developing countries, infant mortality rates
have declined, life expectancy has increased and illiteracy rates have
declined over the past three decades. However, disparities in poverty and
income distribution persist between regions and within countries. Absolute
poverty in parts of Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean has increased,
and the gap between the developed and developing countries has widened.
Economic growth is required to meet the needs of a growing population.
However, rapid growth has serious implications for our physical
environment. Expansion of agricultural land is essential to produce more
2 Environmental Economics
food. 1 Activities such as land clearing and the use of pesticides have
potential adverse environmental impacts. Industrial production is required to
house, clothe and feed the population. However, some industrial processes
result in the production of air and water pollution, as well as the generation
of toxic waste products.
Energy is a vital input to transportation, industrial production and
agricultural production. It also provides other important domestic services
such as heating, cooling and lighting. At the present time, the developed
countries account for about 70 percent of carbon dioxide (C0 2) emissions
even though they account for less than 20 percent of global population (UN,
1997). Energy demand is projected to increase rapidly in the developing
countries. It is estimated that developing country share of world energy
demand will increase by almost 40 percent by 2010. This demand on world
energy resources will come about as a result of rapid economic expansion,
especially in the South-East Asian region (lEA, 1996).
The unrestrained use of fossil fuels poses a serious threat to the
environment. There is the potential to increase greenhouse gas emissions and
global warming. Although the precise impacts of climatic change are not
quite clear, some possible outcomes have been identified. If current trends of
energy use continue, the average global temperature is expected to increase
by 1.0C to 3.5C over the next century (WHO, 1996). There will be rise in
the sea level of about 30cm; there will be accummulation of ice and snow in
polar ice caps; and there will be severe storms, drought and flooding due to
the climatic changes. There could also be an increase in insect-borne
diseases such as malaria, and some animal and plant species could become
extinct.
1.1 The Role of Environmental Economics

This book is concerned with the application of economics to the solution of
global and local environmental problems. 'Economics' may be defined as a
study of choice given limited financial and natural resources. In a world of
unlimited resources, the choice an individual or society makes has no
implications whatsoever. However, in view of the finiteness of resources,
1
Of course, with improved technology more food could be produced without necessarily
expanding agricultural land. However, the fact of the matter is that most developing countries
do not utilise high technology in agriculture.
Introduction 3
every possible choice has an associated cost. We refer to this in economics

as opportunity cost. This term is defined later. Consider a situation in which
the government wants to construct, say, an airport on pristine land. In this
case, given limited funds and natural resources, a decision to go ahead with
the project precludes the use of the land for other purposes.
As will be explained in the next chapter, the economy is a complex
system and when modelling such a system simplifying assumptions need to
be made. Due to the wide range of issues relating to economic systems,
various specializations have arisen within the economics profession.
Microeconomics is the study of the economy at the individual or firm level,
whereas macroeconomics is the study of the economy at the aggregate level.
Examples of the former include the behaviour of economic agents
(consumers and producers) and effects on demand conditions and prices,
whereas examples of the latter include issues such as changes in employment
(or unemployment), inflation, savings, investment, and so on. The
subdiscipline of econometrics uses economic concepts and statistical
methods to carry out quantitative analyses of economic issues.
Traditionally, the study of natural resource economics was concerned
with the application of economic theory and quantitative methods to
determine the optimum allocation and distribution of natural resources.
However, with the rise of environmental concerns in the 1960s,
environmental economics has evolved as a subdicipline of economics
which not only includes aspects of natural resource economics (e.g.,
allocation and distribution of resources) but also broader issues such as the
interactions between the economy and the environment. Environmental
economics also deals with institutional and ethical issues associated with the
conservation and use of natural resources. Tisdell (1993:3) defines
environmental economics as the 'study of the impact of economic activity on
the environment as well as the influence of the environment on economic
activity and human welfare'. This broad definition includes man-made
environments such as built (urban) environments, historical and cultural
environments. Within the last decade or so, ecological economics has
emerged as a new subdiscipline of environmental economics. Ecological
economics emphasises the constraints that the natural ecosystem places on
the economic system. The subject of ecological economics is discussed at
length in Chapter 2.
1.2 Defining the Natural Environment

In view of the fact that the environment is a major focus of this book, it
would be useful to define the natural environment in order to set the
discussion in an appropriate context. Broadly speaking, the natural
environment comprises two types of resources: renewable resources and
non-renewable resources.
As the name suggests, renewable natural resources are biological
resources that have a capacity for regeneration. Examples are forests,
animals and micro-organisms. In theory, renewable resources have the
capacity to provide infinite services. However, we demonstrate in the next
chapter that there are some ecological constraints to this possibility.
Non-renewable resources are finite in terms of supply. There are three
major types of non-renewable resources: exhaustible resources, recyclable
resources and non-renewable resources with renewable service flows.
Examples of exhaustible resources include coal, crude oil and bauxite.
Examples of recyclable resources include most metals such as tin, copper,
aluminium and gold. Examples of non-renewable resources with renewable
service flows include land, seas and rivers.
It is important to emphasise that the above classification is not static. A
renewable resource can become non-renewable if poorly managed. For
example, indiscriminate fishing could reduce the population to a level where
the species cannot reproduce. A piece of land is a finite non-renewable
resource that could be used to provide a renewable service such as
cultivation of crops.
The approach adopted in this book is to consider resources not in
isolation but as a system-the ecosystem. In this regard, interactions within
the system are important. For example, although a stand of forest timber
would be valued for its timber in the traditional economic approach, the
approach taken here would be to also consider the contribution of the
biological functions of the forest cover, the wildlife, the biodiversity
functions, and so on.
1.3 Overview of this Book

The material is presented in three parts. Part I presents conceptual issues that
are required to analyse how the economic activities impact on the
Introduction 5
environment. Part I leads off, in Chapter 2, with an introduction to the

relatively new subdiscipline of ecological economics. The adjective 'new' is
used here because even though some of the ideas have been around since the
the 181h Century, they are only now being applied in the area of
environmental economics. Many people would agree that the concept of free
markets does not work well for environmental resources. In Chapter 3, we
demonstrate how markets are supposed to work under traditional
(neoclassical) economic theory. We then go on to explain, in Chapter 4, why
markets fail to work the way they should in the case of environmental
resources.
Part II of the book presents various tools for environmental policy
analysis. It begins with techniques for valuing environmental damage and
benefits. In recent years, as environmental issues have grown in importance,
governments have been forced to legislate laws protecting the environment.
Measures of environmental damage are now sought to assess penalties and to
determine compensation levels in litigation cases. In many countries, the law
requires project developers to conduct an environmental impact assessment
and part of this process requires an estimate of the amount and value of any
potential damage. Chapter 5 discusses recently introduced techniques that
could be used to estimate the value of environmental damage and benefits. A
consistent framework is required in development planning and policy
analysis. Chapter 6 introduces the methodology of cost-benefit analysis
(CBA), with particular emphasis on public projects. Cost-benefit analysis is
not always adequate, or even appropriate, in certain situations. Therefore,
Chapter 7 introduces additional methods--cost-effectiveness analysis
(CEA), impact analysis (lA) and stakeholder analysis (SA)-that could be
used to complement a CBA. Techniques such as CBA and CEA are designed
for decisions with single objectives. To complement these approaches,
Chapter 8 introduces Multi-Criteria Analysis (MCA) which is applicable to
decisions involving multiple objectives that may be conflicting or
competing.
All forms of environmental degradation, whether local or regional, have
global implications in the long term. Part Ill of the book examines global
environmental issues. Chapter 9 discusses the effects of population growth
and resource use on the environment and the policy implications. Chapter 10
reviews the debate on the relationship between economic growth and the
environment. This chapter also includes the effects of economic growth on
biodiversity. Chapter 11 adresses the issue of sustainable development.
'Sustainable development' is, perhaps, the most widely used term in both
governmental and non-governmental organisations. However, it could be
among the least understood terms in use today. In this chapter, definitions
from various perspectives are presented. Practical issues such as
measurement of sustainable development and implementation constraints are
discussed. Chapter 12 delves deeper into practical tools that could be used to
assess progress towards sustainable development. Finally, Chapter 13
concludes with an assessment of current global environmental trends and
their policy implications.
References
International Energy Agency, lEA, (1996). World Energy Outlook 1996.
Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development, Paris.
Tisdell, C. (1993). Environmental Economics: Policies for Environmental

Management and Sustainable Development. Edward Elgar, Aldershot, UK.
United Nations, UN (1997). Critical Trends: Global Change and Sustainable

Development. United Nations, New York.
United Nations Development Programme, UNDP (1997). Human Development

Report. Oxford University Press, New York and Oxford.
United Nations Development Programme, UNDP (1996). Human Development

Report. Oxford University Press, New York and Oxford.
World Bank (1999) World Development Indicators 1999CD-ROM. World Bank,

Washington, D.C.
World Health Organization, WHO, (1996). Climate Change and Human Health.
World Health Organization, Geneva.
Part I. Introduction to Environmental
Economics: Theoretical Foundations
2. Incorporating the Environment into the
Economic System: Introduction to
Ecological Economics
Objectives
After studying this chapter you should be in a position to
l:l explain the basic functioning of the traditional economic system and its
limitations as far as the environment is concerned;
l:l explain the relationships between the economic and environmental

systems;
l:l explain the laws of thermodynamics and their implications for the
economy-environment system; and
l:l describe various approaches to incorporating environmental concerns

into economic models and their limitations
2.1 Introduction
As concern for the environment has increased in the past few decades, so has
the need for sustainable development or 'sustainability' policies. In general,
many decisions relating to development policy have been determined on the
basis of economics. However, we argue later in this chapter that traditional
economic models have tended to ignore the role of the environment. In order
to make effective plans for sustainable development, there is the need to
consider the interactions of the environmental and economic systems. In this
regard, the purpose of this chapter is to demonstrate the limitations of the
traditional economic model and to introduce the reader to the relatively new
9
discipline of ecological economics which attempts to link the environment to

the economy.
The chapter is divided into six sections. The next section presents the
traditional economic system and discusses its main limitations. Section 2
defines the meaning of 'ecological economics'. Section 3 describes the
economy-environment system, while Section 4 introduces the laws of
thermodynamics. Section 5 considers approaches to modelling environment-
economy interactions, while the final section contains the summary.
2.2 What is Ecological Economics?

Ecological or 'green' economics means different things to different people.
It can be defined from various perspectives such as biology, chemistry,
physics, engineering, mathematics, sociology, politics and economics.
Before we say what ecological economics is, it may be helpful to first say
what it is not. Ecological economics is not synonymous with environmental
economics or natural resources economics, although both ecological
economics and natural resource economics are subsets of environmental
economics. 'Ecology' can be defined as the science of the self-organisation
of nature (Faber et al., 1996). 'Nature' or the environment is a broad concept
that encompasses the universe-plants, animals, ecosystems, materials and
humans. Webster's New World Dictionary defines 'ecology' as 'the branch
of biology that deals with the relations between living organisms and their
environment'. 2 According to Costanza et al. (1991 ), ecological economics
sees the human economy as part of a larger whole. Its domain is the entire
web of interactions between economic and ecological sectors.
Ecological economics is therefore concerned with how environmental (or
ecological) and economic systems interact. On the other hand, natural
resource economics is mostly concerned with the best way of exploiting
renewable and non-renewable resources. The main difference between
ecological economics and natural resource economics is that, in addition to
looking at the exploitation of resources, the former also considers social and
ethical issues, as well as placing emphasis on ecological processes.
2
The Greek word 'oikos' is the common root for the 'eco' in both economics and ecology.
Oikos means 'household' and so it could be argued that ecology is the study of nature's
housekeeping, while economic~ is the study of human housekeeping.
Incorporating the Environment into the Economic System 11
To give an example of how ecological economics and natural resource

economics differ, consider a natural resource such as a tropical rain forest.
Typically, natural resource economics will look at the optimum rate of
harvest to achieve objectives such as maximum sustained yield, given
parameters such as stumpage prices and interest rates. 3 On the other hand,
ecological economics will consider the issue of how exploitation affects the
rights of future generations, as well as the rights of other forms of life in the
ecosystem.
Ecological economics also differs from traditional or neoclassical
economics in several ways. For example, neoclassical economics is based on
the assumption of 'rational' economic behaviour based . on utility
maximisation or profit maximisation. 4 Although neoclassical economists
view environmental problems as an externality problem, the 'purists'
amongst them would recommend limited government intervention. For
example, they would advocate that all the government needs to do is to, say,
tax the negative externality and allow market forces to deal with the problem
of allocation. However, ecological economists would say that neoclassical
economics provides only a partial view of a complex problem and as such
ecological factors should be included in the analysis of such problems.
A key concept in ecological economics is the concept of evolution. This
concept can also be interpreted from different perspectives. Thus, for
example, one can speak of geological, biological, social, political and
economic evolution. Faber et al. (1996) define evolution as the process of
the changing of something over time. In the biological sense, evolution of a
species can be described as change in the gene pool that is common to a
group of organisms belonging to the same species. 5 In general, evolution or
evolutionary processes enable a species to adapt to its environment through
the selective replacement of weaker individuals in the population. This
process of replacement of individuals (also referred to as natural selection)
ensures that the fitter individuals in the population make a genetic
contribution to future generations. A number of prominent economists have
attempted to extend the concept of evolution in biology to the economic
3
Maximum sustained yield is the largest possible average yield of wood sustainable over an
indefinite period. Stumpage price is the sale price of logs.
4
The basic foundations of neoclassical economic theory are discussed in some detail in
Chapter 3.
5
Mayr defines a 'species' as 'a group of actually or potentially interbreeding populations that
are reproductively isolated from other such groups' (Mayr, 1942: 120).
system. For example, Norgaad (1984) has used the concept to explain
environment-economy interactions as processes governed by feedback and
learning. 6
The idea of a relationship between the economy and the environment is
not new. In his seminal book, Principles of Economics, the economist Alfred
Marshall drew parallels between economics and biology (Marshall, 1930).
However, Marshall's views on economics and biology were never taken
seriously by economists until Boulding ( 1966) resurrected the issue with his
concept of the 'Spaceship Earth'. He used the 'Spaceship Earth' to make
the point that human beings live in a closed system, the earth, and are
dependent on it for sustenance. The earth does not receive anything from the
outside except the sun's energy. Other forms of energy must be produced
from the resources available to it and the same system must also absorb the
waste products generated by consumption and production activities.
Ecological-economic models began to emerge about three decades ago in
response to the limitations of traditional economics in tackling
environmental problems. The first people to present a systematic framework
for integrating economic and ecological systems were Ayres and Kneese,
with their concept of 'materials balance' (Ayres and Kneese, 1969; Ayres
et al. 1970). The basic foundations of the materials balance model is the
Conservation of Mass Principle, borrowed from the First Law of
Thermodynamics. This approach is discussed in a little detail later. Hannon
(1986, 1991) attempted to link ecological theory to economic behaviour and
the price system, using input-output analysis. The input-output framework
was extended to include the emission of waste residuals (e.g., James 1993).
Crocker and Tschirhart (1992) and Crocker (1995) attempted to include
ecological functions such as the food chain into a general equilibrium model.
In recent years, neoclassical growth theory has also been extended to
7
incorporate environmental issues such as sustainability (Toman et al. 1994)
and global warming (Nordhaus, 1990, 1993). Attempts have also been made
to account for the environmental impacts of international trade (Barbier and
Rauscher, 1994). Finally, some researchers have attempted to incorporate
environmental concerns using systems analysis and systems dynamics (e.g.,
see Bergman, 1991; van den Berg 1993; van den Berg and Nijkamp, 1994).
Some of these models are discussed later in this chapter.
6
See, other contributions by Boulding (1981), Nelson and Winter (1982) and Clark and Juma
(1987).
7
The issue of 'sustainability' is discussed in Chapter 11.
A major obstacle impeding progress in attempts to incorporate ecological

functions into economic models is how to value the goods and services
provided by the ecosystem in monetary terms. This problem arises because
the common denominator in economic models is price and most often
ecosystem 'goods' and services are not traded in markets and therefore have
no prices. Recently, methodological advances have been made that allow
such goods to be valued. These methods are discussed in some detail in
Chapter 5 of this book.
To summarise the discussion so far, it must be emphasised that
ecological economics is a sub-discipline of environmental economics. The
main thrust of ecological economics is how the ecosystem interacts with the
economic system. Ecological economics attempts to model these
interrelationships in order to draw conclusions for policy making. Ecological
economics cuts across a wider domain than neoclassical economics,
embracing such diverse fields as the natural sciences, philosophy, political
science and sociology. In the following sections, we introduce simplified
representations of an economic system, an ecosystem and an economy-
environment system.
2.3 Economy-Environment Systems

A 'system' comprises a collection of objects or entities that are bounded in
terms of space and time. The entities interact with each other through various
'processes'. There are three types of systems: isolated, closed and open
systems. Given that we will discuss thermodynamics later, it is useful to
define these types of systems in terms of their thermodynamic properties.
In an isolated system neither energy nor matter is exchanged

with the surrounding environment;
In a closed system energy is exchanged with the surrounding
environment but not matter, and
In an open system both energy and matter are exchanged with
the surrounding environment.
In the following sections, we consider a traditional economic system, an

ecosystem and an economic-environment system.
2.3.1 A Traditional Economic System

A traditional economic system comprises producers, consumers and markets
(Figure 2.1). Firms produce goods and services, using inputs of capital and
labour supplied by consumers. These goods and services are offered for sale
in the market and are purchased by consumers. Consumers who supply
labour and capital to firms are rewarded with wages, profits, interest or rent.
This simple model can be extended by including a government sector that
controls the market by setting rules and regulations. The economic model
presented below is a closed system in the sense that its boundaries are
limited to consumption, production and exchange between economic agents.
It completely ignores the flow of materials and energy that cross the
boundaries of the system. Activities or resources that are unpriced are not
considered to be of value in the economic system. For example, the
harvesting and sale of plants for food will be considered as a valuable
activity in the economic system. However, the production of complex
organic molecules in plant material will be ignored. The main reason for this
anomaly is that markets do not exist for the complex organic molecules used
in the production of plant material.
2.3.2 An Ecosystem
An example of an open system is the ecosystem. The 'ecosystem' can be
defined as the environment in which organisms (including humans) live. The
environment, in this case, includes both the physical (abiotic) and the
biological (biotic) conditions in which the organism lives. Figure 2.2 depicts
a simplified representation of an ecosystem. The main characteristics are the
flow of low-entropy energy from the sun into the ecosytem. The organisms
in the ecosystem capture and transform this energy, combining it with other
raw materials such as water and C02 to provide for the growth, maintenance
and reproduction of the species. The conversion of low-entropy energy into
other forms of energy (e.g., heat) is not 100 percent efficient and therefore
there is release of high-entropy energy or waste back into the ecosystem.
An important feature of the ecosystem not shown in Figure 2.2 is
'feedback'. Feedback processes are means by which the various components
of the ecosystem interact and achieve a state of equilibrium. There are two
types of feedback processes: positive feedback and negative feedback.
In a positive feedback the eventual response of the species is in the same
direction as the initial stimulus, whereas in negative feedback the response is
in an opposite direction. To give an example of negative feedback, consider a

predator-prey relationship in an ecosystem.
Figure 2.1 A traditional economic system
PRODUCERS
production
labour, wages,
MARKET capital interest,
(goods & rent,
services) profit
consumption
...(
,.. CONSUMERS
An increase in the density of the prey species initially stimulates an

increase in the density of the predator. However, over time, the increase in
the density of the predator will cause the density of the prey to decline. Thus,
in this case, negative feedback causes equilibrium to be achieved in the
ecosystem.
Ecosystems may be broadly classified into two main components:
autotrophs and heterotrophs. Autotrophs are green plants that use the sun's
energy to build complex organic molecules from simple inorganic
molecules. On the other hand, heterotrophs are higher order organisms
that feed on autotrophs in order to obtain energy. A good example of
heterotrophs is the human species which consumes agricultural products in
order to gain the necessary energy reserves to provide labour inputs for
production activities within the economic system. Once again, it must be

pointed out that the conversion of food into other forms of energy is not 100
percent efficient. As such, as depicted in Figure 2.2, high-entropy energy or
waste is released into the ecosystem.
Figure 2.2 A schematic representation of an ecosystem
g low
entropy
energy
ECOSYSTEM
high
entropy
energy
To conclude this brief discussion on the ecosystem, a couple of points

about the ecosystem are worth noting. First, the 'productivity' of the
ecosystem is dependent on how efficient the species is in capturing and
transforming energy and other raw materials for maintenance, growth and
reproduction. Second, 'equilibrium' in the ecosystem is not static. As a result
of feedback, ecosystems move their equilibrium position over time and
changes occur in the composition and abundance of the species. These
changes form part of the evolutionary processes (alluded to earlier) that
continually occur in ecosystems.
2.3.3 An Economy-Environment System

An alternative portrayal of the economic system is an open system where
there is interaction with a distinct environmental system. Both the economy
8
and the environment are open sub-systems of a larger system, the universe.
Such a system is depicted in Figure 2.3.
8
Note that this broad definition that includes the universe is, in effect, a closed system.
Figure 2.3 An economy-environment system
solar UNIVERSE
energy ENVIRONMENT
Producers
Consumers
Firms produce goods and services using raw materials such as minerals,
agricultural products, timber, fuels, water and oxygen that are extracted from
the environment. These goods are sold in the market as either consumer
goods or as intermediate goods for the production process.
Nearly all the material inputs to the production and consumption
processes are returned to the environment as waste. The waste products are
mainly in the form of gases (e.g., carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, nitrogen
dioxide, sulphur dioxide), dry solids (e.g., rubbish and scrap), or wet solids
(e.g., wastewater). Both solid and liquid waste products from the household
and production sectors may go through a further processing stage before
being returned to the environment as waste. However, as we shall see later,
processing only changes the form and ultimate destination of the residual
flows. Consequently, the total amount of materials returned to the
environment will remain unchanged. This approach to viewing economy-
environment interactions is based on the principle of 'materials balance' that

we will discuss later under the laws of thermodynamics.
The environment in the above system can be seen as playing four
important roles:
As a provider of energy and raw materials inputs to producers

and consumers;
As a receptacle for the waste products of producers and
consumers;
As a provider of amenities to consumers (e.g., recreation); and
As a provider of basic life-support functions for humans.
Two important points are worth noting about the economy-environment

system shown above. First, there is a strong interrelationship between the
three types of support provided by the environment. For example, there is a
limit to the extent of the environment's capacity to assimilate waste.
Pollution and environmental degradation begin to occur when this
assimilative capacity is exceeded. Furthermore, once this limit is exceeded
the ability of the environment to provide other services (e.g., provide inputs)
is compromised. Second, we need to view the natural environment not only
as a resource but also as an asset similar to traditional assets such as land,
labour and capital. The value of this resource must therefore be integrated
into the economic system. In traditional accounting practice, the depreciation
of capital assets is taken into account when assessing financial performance.
The same consideration must be given to environmental assets when
analysing economic performance. That is, we need to ensure the
maintenance of the quality of the natural environment in the same way that
we would maintain fixed assets such as plant and equipment.
2.4 Thermodynamics and the Environment

Thermodynamics can be described as the science of energy. Energy can be
defined as the potential to do work or supply heat. Work is involved
whenever matter is changed in terms of physical or chemical structure, or in
terms of location. The two major laws of physics are the First and Second
Laws of Thermodynamics. In this section, we briefly outline these laws and
consider their implications for the economy-environment system. The First
Law is also known as the Law of Conservation of Mass and Energy,

whereas the Second Law is often referred to as the Entropy Law. In this
section, we provide a brief sketch of the historical origin of these laws.
2. 4.1 The First Law of Thermodynamics

The science of thermodynamics originated in the engineering discipline as a
result of efforts to understand the functioning of heat engines during the 18th
Century. The French engineer Sadi Camot was the first person to analyse
how heat could be transformed into mechanical work using a heat engine. He
made comparisons between a heat engine and a water wheel at a mill: as the
water produces work by flowing from a high to a low elevation, so does heat
produce work by 'flowing' from a high to a low temperature within a heat
engine. Although Camot himself did not use the word 'entropy', the Entropy
Law, which is defined below, is believed to have originated from his
observation that the potential amount of work that heat can produce depends
only on the difference in the temperatures of two entities between which heat
is exchanged.
Camot's observation about the equivalence between work and heat as
different forms of energy was confirmed several years later by both
theoretical and experimental physicists. This led to the establishment of the
principle of conservation of mass and energy or 'The First Law of
Thermodynamics'. According to this law, energy cannot be created or
destroyed, although it can be transformed into different forms such as heat,
chemical energy, electrical energy, kinetic energy, and so on. The First Law
is also referred to as the law of conservation of mass and energy because it
implies that, although the form of energy may change, the total amount of
energy in the system remains constant. The First Law applies to a closed
system in which only energy crosses the boundaries (e.g., see Figure 2.2).
To give an example of the First Law, consider the burning of firewood to
provide heat in an insulated room. After all the wood has been burnt, the
chemical energy in the wood would have been transformed into a higher
room temperature. Because the air temperature would have increased by the
same amount as the decline in the energy content of the firewood, the total
energy in the room would be constant. The main implication of the First Law
is that raw materials cannot be consumed or used up after they have been
extracted from the environment.
2.4.2 The Second Law of Thermodynamics

Although it was Camot who introduced the notion of 'entropy', Rudolph
Clausius is credited with formalising the concept in 1854. Before stating the
Second Law, it is useful to make a distinction between work and heat. Work,
including all other forms of energy except heat, can be converted into heat
completely. However, the converse (i.e., conversion of heat into work)
cannot occur with 100% efficiency. The reason is that the process of
converting heat into work entails loss of heat. This observation forms the
basis of the Second Law of Thermodynamics, or the Entropy Law which
states that in an isolated and closed system entropy always increases or, in
reversible processes, remains constant. This implies that heat will always
flow from a hotter to a colder body, and that heat cannot be transformed into
work with 100% efficiency. Another way of describing this phenomenon is
to say that an isolated system reaches a state of internal equilibrium when the
entropy reaches a maximum level. Clausius used this property of systems to
explain why different types of gradients such as temperature, pressure, and
density tend to level off or disappear over time.
Entropy can be defined as the amount of energy available for work. It
can be used as a measure of the quality of heat in the sense that low-entropy
raw material is 'more useful', but high-entropy waste material is 'less
useful'. Ayres (1998) has argued that this definition of entropy could be
misleading and that a more useful term is 'exergy'. Exergy can be defined as
the 'potential work that can be extracted from a system by reversible
processes as the system equilibrates with its surroundings' (Ayres,
1998:192). Exergy can therefore be described as the 'more useful' part of
energy. Thus, for example, work has 100% exergy whereas heat has much
less exergy. There are four types of exergy:
kinetic exergy, which is associated with relative motion,

potential field exergy, which is associated with gravity or
electromagnetic field gradients,
physical exergy, which is associated with pressure and
temperature gradients, and
chemical exergy, which is associated with chemical gradients.
The laws of thermodynamics can be re-cast in terms of exergy. Thus,

regarding the First Law, we can say that in an isolated system energy
consists of exergy and unavailable energy and the sum of the two remains
constant within the system. In terms of the Second Law, we can say that the
exergy of an isolated system decreases over time.
2.4.3 Interpretations of the Second Law of Thermodynamics

The concept of entropy has led to the development of other concepts about
nature and natural systems. For instance, the property that entropy always
increases in an isolated system led Sir Arthur Eddington, an astronomer and
scientist, to introduce the notion of 'time' in describing a system. He referred
to it as 'The First Arrow of Time' (Layzer, 1976). According to Eddington,
the direction of time is the direction in which entropy increases. 'The First
Arrow of Time' concept implies that time is irreversible. This is in
contradiction to Sir Isaac Newton's Laws of Motion which imply that time is
reversible. Newton's laws are assumed to hold even when the direction of
motion of a body (or bodies) is reversed. That is, in the absence of energy
losses, the motion of bodies can be described as symmetrical in the sense
that a forward motion is equivalent to a backward motion. An implication of
time reversibility is that the future is merely a continuation of the past, and
that change or evolution does not occur. This view is embodied in the
concept of 'Laplace's Demon' which states that, given the present positions
and velocities of all particles in the universe, one can infer the past and
predict the future (Prigogine and Stengers, 1984). In general, neoclassical
economic models appear to have adopted the Newtonian view of time.
Another outcome of the Entropy Law is the concept of 'order' in
systems. For example, as already indicated above, heat will flow from a hot
to a cold body. However, the reverse can never occur. This implies that a
process such as temperature gradient equalisation is irreversible in time.
Many scientists interpret this property to mean that a system has the
tendency to increase in 'disorder' due to increase in entropy. Clausius argued
that because heat flows from hot to cold bodies, differences in temperature
and concentration of matter in all bodies in the universe (i.e., planets, stars
and galaxies) will eventually level out, resulting in the maximisation of
entropy in the universe. He referred to this as the 'heat death' of the
umverse.
The accuracy of these predictions remains to be tested. Strictly speaking,
our planet is not a closed system because we receive energy from the sun.
However, solar energy can be considered as a major constraint to the flow of
sustainable energy. Therefore, in the long run, economic growth will be
limited by solar energy and our ability to convert it to work.
A third interpretation of the Second Law of Thermodynamics has been in

terms of its relationship to biological systems. Simple life forms such as
algae are hypothesised to have developed out of basic molecular structures,
from which even more complex structures evolved. This phenomenon in
which a system tends to develop a more complex organisational structure has
been referred to as 'The Second Arrow of Time'. The Second Arrow of
Time also implies that time is irreversible because there is a distinction
between the past and the future. During the 191h Century, it was felt that the
Second Arrow of Time concept contradicted the Second Law because self-
organisation implies an increase in 'order' (i.e., decrease in entropy) rather
than an increase in 'disorder' (i.e., increase in entropy). However, in the
early 1940s, Erwin SchrOdinger, a physicist, explained that living organisms
operated within open systems in which there is exchange of matter and
energy with their immediate environments. He went on to argue that in open
systems that are far from thermodynamic equilibrium, entropy could
decrease through the importation of low entropy from the surrounding
environment and export ofhigh entropy (SchrOdinger, 1944).
The concept of the second arrow of time has been used to describe how
economic systems evolve over time by means of capital goods, institutional
structures and technical progress. This particular aspect of self-organisation
in economic systems has led to the development of a new discipline in
economics referred to as evolutionary economics (Dosi and Nelson, 1994).
Brooks and Wiley (1988) have undertaken theoretical work to explain
evolutionary processes using models of thermodynamics.
2.4.4 Implications of the Laws of Thermodynamics for the Economy-

Environment System
The two laws of thermodynamics have, on the basis of both theoretical and
empirical evidence, been proven to hold consistently. Economic activities
such as the production and consumption of goods and services require
energy as a major input. At issue is whether the economic system is also
subject to the laws of thermodynamics. If the economic system is considered
as a sub-system of a larger system, the universe, which itself is a closed
system (see Figure 2.3), then it can be argued that the economic system must
be subject to the laws of thermodynamics. We consider below, the
implications of the laws of thermodynamics.
Implications of the First Law

The First Law of Thermodynamics has two important implications for the
economy-environment system. These implications can be considered under
two headings: conservation of energy and conservation of mass (the mass
balance principle). Under conservation of energy, the law implies that
energy inputs must equal energy outputs for any transformation process
because energy cannot be consumed or used up. For mass conservation, the
law implies that mass inputs must equal mass outputs for every process. This
implies that any raw material inputs used in the production and consumption
process must eventually be returned to the environment as high-entropy
waste products or pollutants. Recycling can help to reduce the amount of
waste, to some extent. However, as indicated above, recycling cannot be
100% effective and therefore cannot fully convert the unavailable energy to
work.
In the next chapter, we will discuss how the market system works in
neoclassical economics and how efficient allocation of goods and services is
achieved through the price system. This is followed, in Chapter 4, by a
discussion of 'externalities' or 'market failure'. Externalities occur because
the economic system fails to recognise the value of goods that are not sold in
the market place (i.e., non-market goods). Most environmental goods fall
under this category of goods. The outcome of externalities or market failure
is inefficient allocation of resources. Thus, for example, excess pollution is
produced because the cost of pollution is not included in the production (or
consumption) decisions of economic agents. Neoclassical economics
prescribes policies such as taxes to 'internalise' externalities in an attempt to
create incentives for reducing externalities in the economic system. This has
been referred to as a posteriori correction for externalities (Ruth, 1993). It
has been suggested that in an economy-environment model that takes
account of the materials balance principle, the notion of 'externalities' does
not exist. This is because all the factors in both the economic and
environmental sub-systems (e.g., material and energy flows) are accounted
for.
Implications of the Second Law

The Second Law implies that economic processes (i.e., production and
consumption) are time irreversible in the sense that waste material cannot be
fully converted to useful energy. This has led some economists such as Daly
(1991) to propose a transition to a 'steady state' economy. A steady state
economy is one in which there are constant stocks of people and physical
wealth that are kept at a desired level. Maintenance of a steady state implies
that:
use of (conditionally) renewable resources should, within a

specific area and time span, not exceed the formation of new
stocks. Thus, for instance, yearly extraction of groundwater
should not exceed the yearly addition to groundwater reserves
coming from rain and surface water; and
use of relatively rare nonrenewable resources, such as fossil
carbon or rare metals, should be close to zero, unless future
generations are compensated for current use by making available
for future use an equivalent amount of renewable resources.
Georgescu-Roegen may be regarded as the first economist to formally

advocate a link between entropy and economics. Most stocks of natural
resources (e.g., crude oil) are found in states of low entropy and after
utilisation in the production/consumption process, are released into the
environment in the form of high entropy (e.g., C02). Georgescu-Roegen
argues that production and consumption processes are time irreversible.
According to him, 'the economic process is entropic: it neither creates nor
consumes matter and energy, but only transforms low into high entropy'
(Georgescu-Roegen, 1971:281). That is, the stocks of natural resources are
permanently reduced or degraded by economic activities, and the stocks of
waste products released into the atmosphere are permanently increased.
Thus, in the absence of any intervention, it is implied that externalities will
continue to increase as economic growth proceeds.
Georgescu-Roegen has extended the laws of thermodynamics by
proposing a Fourth Law that considers the concept of material entropy in a
closed system. The 'Fourth Law' of Thermodynamics states that in a
closed system it is impossible to completely recover the matter involved in
the production of work or wasted in friction. This implies that material
entropy will always increase even if exergy (i.e., available energy) is
plentiful. In the long run, material entropy will be maximised and will thus
be unavailable for work. Georgescu-Roegen postulates that in the long-term
there will be a 'material death' of the economic system, which is similar to
Clausius' heat death referred to earlier. The Fourth Law suggests that
economic activities simply serve to increase entropy and that recycling is
impossible. The Fourth Law implies, therefore, that economic growth is not
sustainable because it degrades both energy and matter and leaves little
available energy and matter for future generations.
Not everyone agrees with Georgescu-Roegen's views about economic
growth and sustainability. In Chapter 11, we review both sides of this debate.
Robert Ayres has taken issue with Georgescu-Roegen's Fourth Law of
Thermodynamics. Ayres contends that the Fourth Law is not consistent with
the laws of physics. He argues that given enough energy, any element can be
recovered from any source and cites the recovery of gold from seawater as
an example (Ayres, 1998). According to Ayres, 'in a closed system with a
continuing supply of exergy, enough degraded (i.e., average) matter can be
recycled and upgraded to maintain an effective materials extraction and
supply system indefinitely' (Ayres, 1998:198).
In recent years, some economists have expressed caution about
interpretation of the Second Law of Thermodynamics. 9 The point has been
made that although non-renewable resources are finite in supply, they are not
the constraint for the survival of humanity and the ecosystem. Many believe
that technological progress could facilitate a shift from reliance on non-
renewable to renewable energy. This would happen once we reach the point
where the costs of extracting and refining natural resources exceed the cost
of recycling.
Due to the fact that unavailable energy cannot be converted into exergy,
exergy is a scarce factor and is more valued by economic agents. Some
researchers have suggested that exergy should be used as an aggregate
measure of environmental pollution. For example, Faber (1985), Ktimmel
(1989), and Ayres and Martimis (1995), have suggested that the exergy
content of raw material inputs could be used as a measure of potential
pollution from human economic activities. Goran Wall has used the exergy
concept to measure the quality of all resources (renewable and non-
renewable) in Sweden (Wall 1986).
Ayres (1998) has proposed a measure called 'exergetic efficiency'
which he defines as the ratio of exergy outputs to total exergy inputs
including utilities. According to him, this measure could be used to provide
an indication of the potential for future improvement of a process. Thus, for
example, low exergetic efficiency would imply that process improvement
could be used to reduce raw material and fuel inputs as well as waste
products associated with the process. On the other hand, high exergetic
9
See, for example, work by Ruth (1993, 1995); Biancardi et al. (1993a, 1993b); and Ayres,
(\998).
efficiency would imply that the scope for future improvement is limited.
Finally, Ayres suggests that exergetic efficiency could be used as a common
measure (e.g., similar to say, GNP) that could be used for comparing
different activities and processes. Other related measures such as 'heat
equivalents' (the amount of heat that is inevitably produced when cleaning
the environment from the respective pollutant) and 'net energy' have also
been proposed.
Some ecologists (e.g., Ulanowicz and Hannon, 1987; Amir 1991) have
gone a step further to suggest that entropy (or, rather exergy) should be used
as a measure of the value associated with energy flows in the economy-
environment system. 10 Under this proposal, the value of energy flow to the
ecosystem would be calculated in terms of ecosystem prices and used to
evaluate the efficiency of resource use. This idea has been roundly criticised
by many economists, including Georgescu-Roegen himself. The main reason
for their objection is that 'value', as used in economics, depends on the
preferences of economic agents and not on the physical characteristics of
material such as the level of entropy. To illustrate this important point,
Georgescu-Roegen gives the example of a poisonous mushroom which has
low entropy and yet is considered to be of value. To clarify his views on
entropy and value, Georgescu-Roegen states that 'low entropy ... is a
necessary condition for a thing to have value. This condition, however, is not
also sufficient' (Georgescu-Roegen, 1971 :282).
2.5 Modelling Economy-Environment Interactions

A model can be defined as a simplified representation of reality. Parallels
can be drawn between a model and a map. Like maps, models have different
possible objectives and uses, and it is difficult to have a model that can serve
a wide variety of uses (Robinson, 1991). Models are an abstraction from
reality. In view of the fact that the real world is complex, abstraction is
required in order to focus on the key variables. Thus, the level of complexity
in a model is dependent on the purpose for which it is to be used. Costanza et
al. (1995) have suggested that three criteria of models should be: realism,
precision and generality. Realism is achieved by simulating the system
behaviour in a qualitatively precise way, while precision is achieved by
10
Odum (1971) and Costanza (1981) have also proposed the use of energy as the basis for
market valuation.
doing so in a quantitatively precise way. Finally, generality is achieved by

representing a broad range of systems' behaviours in the same model.
However, in general, it is virtually impossible for a single model to capture
all three criteria because there are trade-offs amongst them. For example,
increasing precision will be at the expense of realism and vice versa.
Models can be classified according to their level of aggregation, starting
from the individual or firm level, to the regional level and to the national or
global levels. Economic models can also be classified into two broad
categories: partial equilibrium and general equilibrium models. Partial
equilibrium models consider the effect of changes in one explanatory
variable on a single variable, holding all other variables constant. On the
other hand, general equilibrium models consider the impact of changes in
one (or many) variables on all other variables in the model simultaneously.
For example, multiple regression models used to estimate supply and
demand functions fall under the first category, whereas input-output (10)
models, computable general equilibrium (CGE) models, linear programming
models, and system simulation models fall under the second category. 11
In view of the fact that ecological economics involves the study of the
interrelationships between the ecosystem and the economic system, the
input-output framework proposed by Leontief ( 1941) was the popular model
of choice in earlier economy-environment modelling work. In the 10
approach, the environment is treated as one of the many sectors in the
economy. Cumberland (1966) was among the first to apply the 10 approach
to the economy-environment system. He developed a model for estimating
the cost of environmental utilization and purification. In subsequent studies,
others (e.g., Ayres and Kneese, 1969; d'Arge and Kogiku 1973; Ayres and
Noble, 1978) applied the mass balance principle within the 10 framework.
Input-output models, based on the law of conservation of mass and
energy, have been used to analyse the energy efficiency of production
techniques, energy aspects of recycling and alternative sources of energy . 12
These models are useful for investigating the direct and indirect effects of
material and energy substitution in the production processes. The 10 model
is consistent with the law of conservation of mass and energy because it
requires inputs to be equal to outputs.
11
General equilibrium and input-output models are referred to as 'economy-wide' models
because they consider impacts on all sectors of the economy simultaneously.
12
For example, see studies by Ayres (1989); Herendeen and Plant (1981) and Cas1er and
Wilbur (1984).
Although the 10 approach is useful for investigating aspects of the

economy-environment interactions from the production side, it is not
sophisticated enough to model economic behaviour. For example, it does not
capture the preferences of economic agents which ultimately affect their
consumption and production choices. Furthermore, the 10 approach does not
adequately account for the price system and changes in technology. Other
restrictions ofiO methodology are as follows:
the input functions are linear and therefore do not allow for substitution
between inputs;
there is a one-to-one relationship between inputs and outputs, i.e., joint
production is not allowed;
in the static 10 model, there are no capacity or capital restrictions. That
is, the supply side of the economy is ignored.
Following the development of the 10 model, there have been attempts to

integrate both 10 and econometric models into a single model. Such models
are know as Input-Output Econometric (IOE) models (also referred to as
Micro-Macroeconometric Models or Integrated Models. One of the
earliest IOE models was constructed by Lawrence Klein (the 1980 Nobel
laureate) in the early 1960s. The integration is achieved in the form of output
from the 10 component providing inputs to the econometric component.
Current IOE models range in scope from cities to states (or regions) to
countries, and to the global economy.
The deficiencies of the 10 approach can be mitigated to some extent by
specifying economy-environment interactions within a CGE framework. A
recent trend in CGE modelling of economy-environment systems is to
account for environmental aspects in the following two ways: (i) by
modifying the model equations to account for the environmental effects; or
(ii) by developing an environmental module to link to the economic module.
An example of the former approach is work done on Sri Lanka (Bandara and
Coxhead, 1999), the Philippines (Coxhead and Shively, 1995), and Indonesia
(Strutt, 1998). An example of the latter approach is work done by Wiig et al.
(2001) on Tanzania. In this study (see Box 2.1), a model of the nitrogen
cycle in the soil was incorporated in a CGE model of the Tanzanian
economy.
The major obstacles to developing economy-environment models
include data acquisition and computational effort. The latter problem has
Box 2.1 An example of an economy-environment model
In this study, a model of the nitrogen cycle was linked to a CGE

model of the Tanzanian economy, thus establishing a two-way
link between the environment and the economy. The model
consisted of 342 equations, of which 66 constituted the soil model
and 276 described economic features of the CGE model. The
economic model covered 20 production sectors, of which 11 were
agricultural sectors. The equations in the soil model described the
soil degradation process which is caused by soil mining and soil
erosion. For a given level of natural soil productivity, it was
assumed that profit-maximising farmers choose inputs (and hence
production volumes) which in turn influence soil productivity in
the following years through the recycling of nitrogen from the
residues of roots and stover and the degree of erosion. The model
was used to simulate the effects of typical structural adjustment
policies such as a reduction in agro-chemical subsidies, reduced
implicit export tax, and so on. Projections from the model
indicated that after 10 years, Gross Domestic Product falls by
more than 5% in the model with endogenous soil degradation,
compared with a traditional CGE model with constant soil
productivity.
Source: Wiig et al. (2001).
somewhat been lessened with the recent decline in the cost of computing
power. However, the data requirement problem remains formidable. In order
to link the environment to the economic system, one must be able to place
a value on the goods and services provided by the ecosystem. There is an
ethical problem here in the sense that some people think it is improper, or
even immoral, to place a monetary value on things such as human life and
biodiversity. However, many economists will argue that we need a common
basis for comparing ecosystem goods and services with economic system
goods and services. Also, as indicated earlier, most environment goods and
services are often mistaken to be 'free' because they do not command a
market price. 'Valuing' the environment enables us to more accurately
evaluate competing alternatives.
The process of valuing ecosystem goods and services is in itself a

controversial issue. We have already indicated above that ecologists' view of
the value of the ecosystem, which is based on the laws of thermodynamics,
is different from the economists' view, which is based on individuals'
preferences. Costanza (1991) has suggested that what is needed is a
pluralistic approach to valuation because a single approach yields imperfect
information. In Chapter 5, we discuss the various types of values associated
with the environment and recent methods that have been developed to
estimate such values.
Norgaard (1989) has proposed the idea of an 'integrated, multi-scale,
transdisciplinary, and pluralistic' (IMTP) approach to economy-environment
modelling. The objectives of IMTP include the following:
predicting the impacts of human activities on ecosystems;

assessing the economic dependence on natural ecosystem
services and capital, and
modelling the integrated interdependence between ecological
and economic components of the system.
IMTP models would allow policymakers to evaluate the temporal and spatial
effects of, say, regional and global ecosystem response to regional and
global climatic changes, acid rain precipitation and other environmental
impacts. As already indicated, the data requirements for this type of
modelling are massive. However, technological advances such as remote
sensing and geographic information systems (GIS), as well as rapid
developments in computing power and speed, have made it relatively easier
to develop such models. What is required to make this happen is
interdisciplinary co-operation and research funding.
2.6 Summary
In this chapter ecological economics has been defined as a sub-discipline of
environmental economics that deals with the interrelationships between the
economic system and the ecosystem. In addition to the emphasis on
ecological processes, ecological economics considers social, ethical and
political issues associated with resource use. The traditional (neoclassical)
economic model was presented as a closed system that fails to properly
account for flows from the environment. The main reason why the flow of
goods and services provided by the environment tends to be ignored in
economic models is that most environmental inputs are not traded in markets
and therefore are often underpriced or unpriced. Traditional economic
models also ignore the evolutionary and feedback processes associated with
ecosystems.
An economy-environment system that accounts for flows of energy and
materials was presented as a more realistic representation of economy-
environment interactions. The environment in this system plays three
important roles: as a provider of raw materials, as a receptacle for waste
products and as a provider of amenities. The ability of the environment to
assimilate waste products and provide additional services is severely
restricted by indiscriminate creation of pollution.
The two major laws of thermodynamics were introduced in the chapter.
The First Law ofThermodynamics, or the Law of Conservation of Mass and
Energy, states that energy cannot be created or destroyed. The Second Law
of Thermodynamics, or the Entropy Law, states that in a closed system
entropy always increases. The concept of exergy, the maximum potential
work that can be obtained from a system, was also introduced. The two laws
were redefined in terms of exergy. In terms of the First Law, it can be said
that the sum of exergy and unavailable energy remains constant. For the
Second Law, it can be said that the exergy of an isolated system increases
over time.
After defining the laws of thermodynamics, we considered their
implications for the economy-environment system. The First Law implies
that energy inputs equal energy outputs and that any raw material used for
economic activities must eventually re-enter the ecosystem as waste
products. Recycling cannot fully recover waste products. The Second Law
implies that economic processes (i.e., production and consumption) are time
irreversible in the sense that waste material cannot be fully converted to
work. Because exergy is a scarce factor, some ecologists have suggested that
it should form the basis of 'value' in economics. However, the concept of
'value' in economics is dependent on the preferences of individuals.
The 10 approach (i.e., inputs equals outputs) is widely used in economy-
environment modelling because it is consistent with the law of conservation
of mass and energy. The computable general equilibrium approach was
suggested as an improvement over the 10 approach because it enables the
economic sector to be modelled in a more realistic manner. The main
difficulties in economy-environment modelling are data availability and

computing resources to solve complex models. However, technological
improvements such has GIS and satellite systems, as well as advancements
in non-market valuation have made it more feasible to model economy-
environment interactions.
In conclusion, the following points need to be stressed. Traditional
economic models tend to ignore environmental effects. The laws of
thermodynamics used within the context of economic models allow
environmental effects to be accounted for. However, the laws of
thermodynamics must be used with caution. For example, entropy by itself is
incapable of fully explaining economy-environment interactions. There is
therefore a need for a multidisciplinary approach in efforts to develop
realistic models to assist sustainable development planning.
Key Terms and Concepts

autotroph heterotroph
closed system input-output econometric model
computable general equilibrium input-output model
ecological economics isolated system
economic system law of conservation of mass and
economy-environment system energy
entropy law material death
evolution materials balance
exergetic efficiency micro-macroeconometric model
exergy natural selection
first arrow of time net energy
first law of thermodynamics open system
general equilibrium second arrow of time
heat equivalent second law of thermodynamics
Review Questions
1. In your own words explain the meaning of the terms 'economic system'
and 'ecosystem'.
2. Explain the difference between 'low-entropy energy' and 'high-entropy

energy'.
3. Explain what is meant by isolated, closed, and open systems.
4. Explain the First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics.
5. Explain what is meant by the First and Second Arrows of Time.
Exercises
1. Explain the meaning of 'feedback' processes in an ecosystem. Give an
example of positive and negative feedback within an ecosystem.
2. Select a large economy-environment system in your area. The ecosystem

could be a bay, river, lake or forest. Construct a chart of material flows
within this economy-environment system.
3. Read and summarise the views expressed by Ulanowicz and Hannon

(1987) and Georgescu-Roegen (1971) concerning the use of entropy as a
measure of value in the economy-environment system.
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3. How Markets are Supposed to Work
Objectives
After studying this chapter you should be in a position to:
o explain the characteristics of a competitive market;
o define a demand curve;
o explain the use of willingness-to-pay as a measure ofbenefit;
o define a supply curve and how it is derived from marginal cost;
o explain how equilibrium is achieved in a competitive market; and
o explain the concepts of consumer surplus and producer surplus
3.1 Introduction
Markets play an important role in our individual lives as well as in national,
regional and global economies. In Chapter 2, we discussed how the activities
of economic agents contribute to the generation of pollution. The operation
of the market system is intimately related to the nature and amount of
pollution generated. The purpose of this chapter is to introduce readers with
a limited background in economics to the basic concepts of economic
analysis. The intention is to give the reader an understanding of how markets
work. This introduction is necessary in order to have a better appreciation of
why markets tend not to work well for many environmental goods and
39
services. The knowledge acquired would be useful in formulating solutions

to environmental problems.
The following section describes the characteristics of a perfectly
competitive market and the underlying assumptions. A brief discussion of
consumer behaviour and the derivation of the demand curve follows. After
that we take a look at the production side and how the supply curve is
derived. Next, we bring together the demand and supply curves to explain
how they interact to establish market equilibrium. Finally, we consider
practical applications of the theory, including the notions of consumer and
producer surplus.
3.2 The Competitive Market

A market can be defined as the coming together of consumers (or buyers)
and producers (or sellers) to exchange goods and services for money. 13 In
this technological age, the buyers and sellers do not have to be physically
present to carry out transactions. Usually a market exists for a single good or
service. However, it is common to find markets in which goods with similar
characteristics are being offered for sale. Markets may be classified
according to the numbers of sellers and buyers. In a perfectly competitive
market, there are many buyers and sellers. A monopoly is one in which there
is a single seller. An intermediate case is an oligopoly in which there are a
few sellers. Monopolistic competition is a type of market structure in which
there are many firms selling products that are close substitutes. Finally, a
monopsony is a market in which there is a single buyer.
An example of a monopoly is the utilities sector in many countries where
the government is often the sole provider of water and electricity. The
Australian domestic car manufacturing market is an example of oligopolistic
competition because there are four main sellers: GM Holden, Ford, Toyota
and Mitsubishi. An example of monopolistic competition is the fashion
industry where there are many firms selling similar items of clothing that can
only be differentiated by brand name. An example of a monopsony is that of
a small town where there is only a single major industry, say, a mine. In this
case, the mine is the sole buyer of labour and other goods and services.
The competitive market has the following characteristics:
13
There could also be third parties such as brokers and agents who are considered as an
essential part of a market.
How Markets are Supposed to Work 41
there are many buyers and sellers and none of them are
influential enough to affect the market price or output;
the buyers and sellers are free to enter and leave the market in
response to price changes;
the goods and services being offered for sale are identical (i.e.,
homogeneous). This implies that buyers do not care from whom
they buy, provided prices are identical; and
all the participants in the market have perfect knowledge. That
is, consumers know product prices and producers know input
prices.
3.3 Consumer Behaviour and Demand

In this section, we consider the behaviour of an individual consumer which
gives rise to an individual demand curve. We discuss how the demand curve
can be used to value benefits. Finally, we consider the case of market
demand which is essentially an aggregation of market demand.
3.3.1 The Individual Demand Curve

The term 'consumer' is used here to describe a typical person who has to
decide what combinations of goods, services and amenities to purchase,
given a fixed budget of money income and time. In this chapter, we will be
concerned with private goods. These are goods that are rival in
consumption. That is, one person's consumption precludes consumption by
another. In Chapter 4, we will consider public goods, where one person's
consumption does not does not diminish another's ability to consume.
We will assume that consumers derive 'utility' or satisfaction from
consuming goods and services. We will consider a 'benefit' to be the value
or gain in utility that a consumer obtains from consuming a good or service.
Let us presume that the consumer's utility function can be represented by the
following equation:
(3.1)
where qJ, .... qn are quantities of the goods, services and amenities that yield
satisfaction to the consumer. This function will be unique for each
individual. We make further simplifying assumptions about the consumer.
1. The consumer has full information about alternative bundles of

goods, services and amenities he can choose from.
2. The consumer has the ability to consider all the alternatives and
develop a consistent preference ranking among them. For
example, if she prefers good A to good B, and prefers good B to
good C, then, to be consistent, she must prefer A to C.
3. The consumer's preference ranking for a good is stable, at least
in the period of the analysis; and
4. The consumer's preferences are consistent with the relative
amounts of utility that each alternative yields.
The last assumption is necessary to ensure that the consumer's preference

relationships referred to in (2) are also consistent with her utility rankings. 14
For example, in (2), it can be inferred that A's utility will be greater than B's
utility; B's will be greater than C's, and A's will also be greater than C's.
We assume that the consumer chooses a combination of goods and
15
services so as to maximise total utility subject to an income constraint. The
result of this choice problem is a demand function, which is essentially a
schedule or a curve that indicates how much of a good a consumer will buy
at various prices. For example, Table 3.1 presents a demand schedule for
doughnuts. Let individual A's demand for doughnuts be expressed by the
function, qf = -2p + 10. Using this function, we can determine how much
individual A will buy at various prices. For example, if doughnuts are free, A
will demand 10 doughnuts. However if the doughnuts cost $5 or more each,
she will not buy any. To plot A's demand curve, we use the inverse form of
the demand function, that is, p = -0.5q 0 1 + 5. This function generates the
curve in Figure 3.1.
14
Some of these assumptions are quite strong and others may be unrealistic in some
situations. However, it is an example of modelling whereby we simplify reality in order to
account for complex phenomena.
15
We return to this choice problem in Chapter 6.
Table 3.1 A hypothetical demand schedule for doughnuts
Price per doughnut Quantity demanded

($) (qDl:: -2p + 10)
0.00 10
0.50 9
1.00 8
1.50 7
2.00 6
2.50 5
3.00 4
3.50 3
4.00 2
4.50 1
5.00 0
Figure 3.1 A hypothetical individual demand curve for doughnuts
Price per doughnut ($)
5.00
A's demand
0 10.00
Quantity of doughnuts
Note the inverse relationship between price and quantity demanded. This is
referred to as the Law of Demand. That is, given income, preferences and
prices of alternative goods, an individual will be willing to purchase
decreasing amounts of a given good (or service) as its price increases.
In addition to the downward slope, there are two other points to note
about the demand curve:
1. The individual's demand for good q 1 is defined given that all other
goods, in this case, q2 , and income remain constant.
2. The demand curve is defined for a given period of time. Thus, the
demand curve in a different period of time will have a different
shape and position.
We began this section by saying that a benefit is the value or gain in utility
the consumer obtains from consuming a good or service. For this reason,
points on the demand curve represent the maximum amount of money the
consumer is willing to pay for different quantities of the good. Willingness-
to-pay (WTP) is a measure of satisfaction or utility. In Figure 3.1, as the
individual consumes more doughnuts, her WTP for an extra doughnut
declines. The WTP curve also defines the benefits to society from
consuming the given good or service. We return to this issue later in the
chapter.
3.3.2 The Concept of Elasticity

The term 'elasticity' refers to the responsiveness of quantity demanded (or
supplied) to changes in other variables (e.g., price and income). The concept
of elasticity is important because a key factor in the functioning of the
economic system is the reaction of economic agents to price incentives. The
extent to which consumers (producers) react to price signals depends on the
magnitudes of the elasticities of demand (supply).
Own-price elasticity of demand is the ratio of the change in quantity
demanded of a given good to the change in its own price. That is,
% change in quantity of q 1demanded

= (3.2)
% change in price of q 1
Depending on the magnitude of the elasticity parameter, own-price elasticity

of demand can be:
perfectly elastic
relatively elastic
relatively inelastic or
perfectly inelastic
1. If lc 0 l=oc, demand is perfectly elastic. The demand curve, in this case, is

horizontal (Figure 3.2, Panel a). A small increase in the price of the good
will cause quantity demanded to fall to zero. In practice, no good has
perfect price elasticity.
2. If lc 0 l> 1, demand is relatively elastic giving rise to a relatively flat
demand curve (Figure 3.2, Panel b). In this case, a small change in the
price of the good causes a relatively large change in quantity demanded.
In general, most luxury goods tend to be relatively price elastic.
3. If lc 0 l< 1, demand is relatively inelastic. The demand curve in this case
is relatively steep (Figure 3.2, Panel c). In this case, a change in the price
of the good causes little change in quantity demanded. Necessities such
as food and utilities (e.g., water and energy) tend to be relatively price
inelastic.
4. If lc 0 l= 0, demand is perfectly inelastic, the demand curve is thus
vertical (Figure 3.2, Panel d). A change in the price of the good does not
lead to a change in quantity demanded.
Cross-price elasticity of demand measures the responsiveness of the

quantity of q1 demanded as a result of changes in the price of another good,
for example, q 2 Cross-price elasticity of demand is given by:
% change in quantity of q 1 demanded

cPz = % change in price of p2
= (3.3)
The magnitude of cross-price elasticity allows us to classify goods as

substitutes or complements. For example,
1. cP2 > 0, implies q1 and qz are substitutes. That is, an increase in the price
of one good causes consumers to switch to the other, resulting in an
increase in the quantity demanded of the second good. Examples of
substitute goods are sugar and nutrasweet, bus and rail transportation,
and so on.
2 cPz < 0, implies q1 and qz are complements. Complementary goods are
consumed together and therefore an increase in the price of one good
leads to a reduction in its consumption, and hence a reduction in demand
for the other good. Examples of complementary goods include bread and
margarine, beer and nuts, and so on.
Figure 3.2 Elasticity of demand
Panel (a) Perfectly elastic demand Panel (b) Relatively elastic demand
Price($) Price($)
1-------o
Qumticy Qumticy
Panel (c) Relatively inelastic demand Panel (d) Perfectly inelastic demand
Price($) Price($)
Quantity Quantity
Income elasticity of demand measures the responsiveness of the quantity of

a good demanded given a change in income. It can be defined as:
%change in quantity of q 1demanded ~q 1 I q1

f/y = % change in income
= ~Y I Y
(3.4)
1. l1Y > 0, implies the good is a normal good. Most goods are normal
goods because an increase in income leads to an increase in quantity
demanded.
2. 'llY < 0, implies the good is an inferior good. That is, an increase in Y
leads to a decrease in q1 There are not many practical examples of
inferior goods. However, a low-income family that currently consumes
dried vegetables might reduce their consumption and switch to fresh
vegetables in response to an increase in household income.
3.3.3 Market (Industry) Demand

The market demand curve for private goods is obtained by a horizontal
summation of the individual demand curves for the particular product. For
example, suppose that the market for doughnuts comprises two individuals,
A and B. We have already defined A's demand function. Let B's demand
function be defined by qn 2 =- 2p + 12. Market demand is obtained by
adding up the quantities demanded by A and B at each price. This is referred
to as horizontal summation. For example, when p > $6.00, market demand
will be zero; at $5 < p ::; $6 , A's demand will be zero and market demand
will be given by B's demand which is:
At p ::; $5, market demand function is given by:
A's demand: qDl =-2p + 10
+ B 's demand: qDz=-2p+12

= Market demand: qD= -4p + 22
The quantities demanded at various prices are shown in Table 3.2. It can be
seen that if doughnuts are free, A will demand 10 and B will demand 12,
resulting in a total demand of 22 doughnuts. However, at a price of $6.00
each, none will be demanded.
At a price of $5.00, A will purchase none, whereas B will purchase 2
doughnuts. Market demand is therefore 2 doughnuts. This exercise is
repeated for every other price to obtain the remaining points on the market
demand curve. Figure 3.3 presents the inverse market demand curve
generated from Table 3.2.
Table 3.2 A hypothetical market demand schedule for doughnuts
Market
Price per A's quantity B's quantity demand
doughnut ($) demanded demanded (A+ B)
0 0
(got= -2E + 10) (g z = -2E + 12) (g = -4E + 22)
0.00 10 12 22
0.50 9 11 20
1.00 8 10 18
1.50 7 9 16
2.00 6 8 14
2.50 5 7 12
3.00 4 6 10
3.50 3 5 8
4.00 2 4 6
4.50 1 3 4
5.00 0 2 2
5.50 0
6.00 0 0 0
Figure 3.3 A hypothetical market demand curve for doughnuts

6.00
5.00
0 10 12
3.4 Producer Behaviour and Supply

Suppose a producer uses inputs (raw materials and other goods) to produce
one good or service for sale. We can express the production by means of a
mathematical equation or production function. That is:
(3.5)
where x 1, x2, ......... , Xn are various inputs (e.g., labour, land and capital) used
in producing the good, q. We will assume that the producer's aim is to
maximise profit subject to the constraint of the above production function.
Given the profit motive, the producer will increase the output of q if its price
rises so as to increase profits. A supply schedule indicates how much of a
good a producer will supply at various prices. Let the supply function for
doughnuts be given by the equation, q8 = 2p- 2. Table 3.3 shows how many
doughnuts will be supplied at various prices.
Table 3.3 A hypothetical supply schedule for doughnuts
Price per doughnut Quantity supplied

($) (q8 =2p-2)
1.00 0
1.50
2.00 2
2.50 3
3.00 4
3.50 5
4.00 6
4.50 7
5.00 8
5.50 9
6.00 10
Figure 3.4 shows the supply curve generated from the data in Table 3.3. The
supply curve may refer to an individual producer or all producers in the
industry. Let us assume that this particular curve is the industry supply
curve. We can make the following observations about it:
1. It is upward sloping (i.e., positively sloped) because producers

are willing to supply more as price increases.
2. The supply curve refers to a given point in time. In this example,
the supply curve for doughnuts for a different period may have a
slightly different shape and position.
Figure 3.4 A hypothetical supply curve for doughnuts
Price per doughnut($)
Market supply curve

(Marginal cost curve)
0 Quantity of doughnuts
The supply curve is also the marginal cost (MC) curve. That is, it indicates
the cost of producing each additional unit of the good. In order to maximise
profits, the producer will increase production up to the point where marginal
revenue (MR), the price per unit of output in a competitive market, just
equals marginal cost.
3.5 Market Equilibrium in the Competitive Market

In this section, we bring together the demand and supply curves to explain
how market equilibrium is attained. The interaction of supply and demand
forces in the market determines the equilibrium or market clearing price,
and the equilibrium quantity demanded. The equilibrium price, in turn,
determines the price for each unit of output, that is, marginal revenue. We
assumed in Section 3.2 that in the perfectly competitive market, producers
cannot affect the market price. Thus, in this case, the marginal revenue curve
will be a horizontal line, which is the same as the price line. In Chapter 4, we
show that this assumption is not valid in the case of a monopoly.
Table 3.4 puts together the market demand and supply schedules. Note
that market equilibrium is achieved at a price of $4.00 at which market
demand (6 doughnuts) is exactly equal to the quantity the market is willing
to supply. To explain why $4.00 is the equilibrium price, suppose the price
per doughnut is as high as $5.00. At this price, the producer will be willing
to supply 8 doughnuts but consumers will demand only 2 doughnuts.
Therefore there will be a demand deficit (or excess supply) of 6 doughnuts in
the market. To clear the excess supply, the producer will be forced to mark
down the price of doughnuts. As the price falls, consumers will increase their
purchases, and producers will reduce supply. At $4.00 per doughnut, prices
clear the market as quantity demanded will be equal to quantity supplied.
Table 3.4 Market demand and supply schedules for doughnuts
Price per Market Market Demand

doughnut ($) demand supply surplus(+)
or deficit (-)
(qD =-4 + 22) (qs = 2p- 2)
0.00 22 0 22
0.50 20 0 20
1.00 18 0 18
1.50 16 15
2.00 14 2 12
2.50 12 3 9
3.00 10 4 6
3.50 8 5 3
4.00 6 6 0
4.50 4 7 -3
5.00 2 8 -6
5.50 9 -8
6.00 0 10 -10
Now suppose the market price per doughnut falls to $1. At this price,
consumers will demand 18 doughnuts but producers will not be willing to
supply any doughnuts, resulting in surplus demand of 18 doughnuts. Given
that the amount demanded is greater than the supply, there will be a shortage
of doughnuts in the market. This will put upward pressure on prices and the
producer will respond by putting more doughnuts on the market. As the price
goes up, consumers will reduce their purchases until the price reaches $4.00,
at which point, quantity demanded will be equal to quantity supplied.
Figure 3.5 shows a graphical representation of the market equilibrium.
Note that equilbrium is at the point of intersection of the demand and supply
curves. Factors that can shift the demand curve include income, prices of
substitutes/complements and consumer tastes and preferences. An increase
in income, with all other factors held constant, causes an upwards (i.e.,
rightward) shift in the demand curve for a normal good, whereas a decrease
in income will shift it downward (i.e., leftward).
Figure 3.5 Equilibrium in the market for doughnuts

6.00
For example, an increase in per capita income in a given population (with all
other factors constant) will shift the demand curve for mobile telephones
upward (Figure 3.6, Panel a). However, due to the excess demand, the price
of mobile telephones will rise to re-establish equilibrium.
A decrease in the price of substitutes for a good will cause the demand
curve for the good to shift downward; a decrease in the price of
complements for the good will cause the demand curve to shift upward. For
example, a decrease in, say, the price of oil will cause a downward shift in
the demand curve for natural gas (Figure 3.6, Panel b). The quantity of
natural gas demanded falls and the price also falls to re-establish
equilibrium.
Figure 3.6 Shifts in the demand curve
Price per unit ($) Price per unit ($)
Panel (a): increase in Panel (b): decrease in

income price of oil
Pt
Pt P2
Quantity of mobile phones Quantity of natural gas
Factors that can cause the supply curve to shift include price of inputs, taxes,
subsidies, improvements in technology and weather (for agricultural
products). A decrease in the price of inputs for making good q will cause the
supply curve for q to shift outward, whereas an increase in the price of inputs
will cause an inward shift. Improvements in technology will cause an
outward shift because more output can be produced with the same level of
inputs. For agricultural and other forms of production that are weather
dependent, deterioration in weather conditions will cause a leftward shift in
the supply curve. For example, a fall in the price of computer chips will shift
the supply curve for computers outward (Figure 3.7, Panel a). Given the
excess supply, the price for a computer will fall and the quantity demanded
will increase.
Figure 3.7 Shifts in the supply curve
Price per unit ($) Price per unit ($)

Panel (a): fall in price of Panel (b): severe
computer chips drought
Pz
PI
Pz
Quantity of computers Quantity of coffee
Another example is the world supply of coffee. A prolonged drought in a

coffee growing area will shift the world supply curve for coffee inward.
With the reduced supply of coffee, there will be excess demand and
therefore the world price of coffee will rise to re-establish market
equilibrium.
The example of equilibrium illustrated above is highly simplified in
order to convey the basic concepts. In real life, equilibrium does not tend to
be static. The demand curve is constantly shifting due to changes in tastes
and incomes, while the supply curve also shifts in response to resource
constraints and technological advances. Nevertheless, the analysis we have
presented is useful in trying to predict the direction of change of prices and
quantities. One important assumption underlying the market equilibrium
analysis above is that property rights are well defined. That is, the seller
owns the rights to the good or service and can therefore appropriate any
benefits from the sale. We argue in the next chapter that this assumption
breaks down in the case of environmental goods due to lack of well-defined

ownership rights or the public goods nature of such goods.
3.6 Consumer and Producer Surplus

Consumer surplus is the maximum amount of money consumers are willing
to pay for the good or service less the market price. To give an example of
consumer surplus, let us revisit the doughnut example (see Figure 3.8).
Consumer surplus is given by triangle abc, which is made up of two triangles
and a rectangle whose areas are shown in the figure. The value of consumer
surplus is therefore given by:
1 + 2 + 2 = $5.00
This example shows that consumer surplus is a measure of net benefits or

welfare and that reliance on only the market price could result in an under
estimation of benefits.
Figure 3.8 Consumer and producer surplus

6.00 a
Market supply
5.00
4.00
4
2.00
1.00 d
0 2 6
Producer surplus is the net benefits received by the producer and is given by
the difference between the market price and marginal cost, area bed. The
producer surplus is given by:
4 + 4 + 1 =$9.00
Total benefits to the society (consumer plus producer surplus) are

therefore given by area abe plus area bed, which is equal to area abd. That is,
$5.00 + $9.00 = $14.00. Now, suppose the government decides to set the
price of a doughnut at $5.00. At this price, 2 doughnuts will be purchased
and consumer surplus will be reduced to area aef, or $1.00. Producer surplus
is now given by the area defg, or 2 + 4 + 1 = $7.00.
The net benefits of this policy are therefore given by sum of consumer
plus producer surplus. That is, $1.00 + $7.00 = $8.00. Under this government
policy, there is a net welfare loss of $14.00- $8.00 = $6.00. This is referred
to as a deadweight loss to society, and is defined by triangle.fbh.
3.7 Applications of the Competitive Model

In this final section, we apply the basic economic principles to real-life
economic problems. We consider two problems: (a) the socially optimal
level of forestry; and (b) the effect of pollution abatement costs on
employment.
3. 7.1 The Socially Optimal Level ofFores try

Clear felling of timber has several undesirable effects on society. Examples
include loss of forest cover and associated problems such as increased soil
erosion, loss of soil nutrients, loss of biodiversity and so on. In Chapter 4, we
attribute this problem to market failure. That is, the stumpage price (i.e.,
price charged per log) only considers the private marginal cost and does not
include the external costs imposed on society. In this section, we analyse a
policy of trying to address this problem by including environmental (or
external) costs in the stumpage price.
Assume that the stumpage price is currently p 1. At this price, q1 logs will
be harvested. Now suppose that the government charges an extra $5 per log
to cover the environment damage. This policy will result in an upward shift
in the supply curve from S to s* by a vertical distance of $5 (Figure 3.9).

Assuming the demand for logs remains constant during the period of the
analysis, the quantity of logs harvested will decline and equilibrium will be
16
re-established at q*, the socially 'optimal' level.
Figure 3.9 Socially optimal level of forestry

Stumpage price ($)
s'
p
.
PI
q
. ql
Number of logs harvested
3. 7.2 The Effect of Pollution Abatement Costs on Employment

Suppose the supply curve for labour in an industry is SL and the demand for
labour is DL. We consider the effect of increasing emission standards on
employment under two scenarios: a flexible labour market and fixed wage
(i.e., minimum wage) market. Let us first consider the situation where the
government has set a minimum wage policy (Figure 3.10, Panel a). In this
case the supply curve for labour is w2aS. With the imposition of stricter
environmental standards, the demand curve for labour shifts from DL to n'L
and the equilibrium employment level falls from L1 to L2 . Next, consider a
labour market where wages are flexible. The equilibrium wage rate is
initially w1 and the equilibrium employment level is L 1 (Figure 3.10, Panel
b). If the government raises the emission standard, some firms will be forced
to leave the industry because they can no longer afford to cover their
16
'Optimal' is used here in an economic efficiency sense and does not necessarily mean this
level is just or equitable.
variable costs. Consequently, the demand for labour will shift from DL to
o'L The downward shift in the demand curve will cause a surplus of workers
looking for work at the old wage rate, w 1, resulting in a decline of the wage
rate to w2 and a new equilibrium employment of L2.
Figure 3.10 The effect of emission standards on employment
Wage rate Wage rate

Panel (a): Fixed wage policy Panel (b): Flexible wage policy
Number employed Number employed
In terms of welfare effects, job losses under a minimum wage policy are
greater than under a flexible wage policy. The two scenarios may also be
compared in terms of the size of the consumer surplus. The consumer
surplus in the case of minimum wages is smaller than in the flexible wage
scenario.
3.8 Summary
In this chapter we have presented a model of how consumers and producers
behave in a competitive market system. This system is characterised by
many sellers and buyers such that no particular economic agent has influence
in the market and everyone has perfect knowledge or information.
Consumers seek to maximise their utility or satisfaction, whereas producers
maximise profits. The outcome of the consumer's maximisation problem,

given prices and income, is a demand function which is negatively sloped.
The outcome of the producer's maximisation problem, given input prices
and the production function, is the supply or marginal cost curve which is
positively sloped. That is, the producer is willing to supply more given
higher prices. Market equilibrium is achieved when quantity demanded
exactly equals quantity offered for sale.
We explained that the demand curve is defined, in a given period, by
income, prices and consumer tastes and preferences. A change in any of
these factors will cause the demand curve to shift. The supply curve is also
defined, in a given period of time, by input prices and technology. A change
in any of these factors will cause the supply curve to shift. A change in
product prices, will, ceteris paribus, cause a movement along the demand or
supply curve. Finally, it was explained that the correct measure of social
benefits is the sum of consumer and producer surplus. Consumer surplus is a
measure of net benefits to the consumer and is defined by the difference
between the maximum amount a person is willing to pay for a good over and
above the market price. Producer surplus is a measure of net benefits (or
profit) to the producer and is defined by the difference between the market
price and marginal cost.

consumer surplus monopoly
cross-price elasticity of demand monopsony
demand function normal good
horizontal summation oligopolistic competition
income elasticity of demand oligopoly
individual demand own-price elasticity of demand
inferior good perfect competition
law of demand private goods
marginal cost producer surplus
marginal revenue production function
market demand supply elasticity
market equilibrium supply function
monopolistic competition willingness-to-pay
Review Questions
1. State the differences between perfect competltlon, monopoly,
monopsony, oligopoly and monopolistic competition and give a practical
example of each.
2. Explain the principle underlying the negative slope of a demand curve.
3. Explain the terms 'normal good' and 'inferior good'.
4. What is the meaning of the term 'elasticity' in economics?
5. Explain why the supply curve is also referred to as the marginal cost
curve.
6. What factor (or factors) causes a movement along the demand curve and
a demand shift?
Exercises
1. Indicate whether the demand for each of following goods is relatively
price elastic or relatively price inelastic. State your reasons.
(a) Electricity.
(b) Mobile telephones.
(c) Liquefied petroleum gas with respect to the price of oil.
(d) Petrol.
(e) Compact disc players.
2. Give a rough indication of the magnitude (i.e., whether greater than or

less than 1.0) of the income elasticities of demand for the following
commodities, stating your reasons.
(a) A trip to Disneyland.

(b) A trip to see the dentist.
(c) Bread.
(d) Pizza.
3. Suppose the demand for and supply of water treatment equipment in a

certain city can be represented by the following equations:
Demand: p = 180 - 4q0

Supply: p = 6q5
(a) Determine the equilibrium price and quantity.

(b) Describe what will happen in the market if the price of water
treatment equipment is $40 per unit.
(c) Suppose the government decides to impose a sales tax of $20 on
each unit. Describe what will happen in the market and determine
the new equilibrium quantity.
(d) Suppose that before the sales tax the government decides to make
the equipment affordable and therefore legislates a maximum price
(price ceiling) of $48. Describe what will happen in the market.
4. Is it true that whenever a tax is introduced producers pass on all of the

tax to consumers? State your reasons. Under what conditions would this
be possible?
5. Explain why the market price of a good is not an accurate measure of the
benefits derived from consuming a good.
6. Referring to Question 3, suppose the government imposes a carbon tax

of 10%. Calculate the following:
(a) Consumer surplus.

(b) Producer surplus.
(c) The net benefits of the policy.
(d) Deadweight loss.
Further Reading
Frank, R.H. and Bemanke, B.S. (2004). Principles of Microeconomics. Second
Edition, McGraw Hill, Irwin.
Mankiw, N. G. (1998). Principles of Microeconomics. Dryden Press, Fort Worth,

Texas.
Pindyck, R.S. and Rubinfeld, D.L. (2001). Microeconomics. Fifth Edition, Prentice-
Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.
4. Why Markets 'Fail'
Objectives
Q explain what is meant by property rights
Q explain the meaning of an externality
Q explain why market failure occurs
Q explain why policy (government) failure occurs
Q propose solutions to the problem of market failure
4.1 Introduction
In the previous chapter we explained how a market functions to allocate
resources efficiently. A number of assumptions were made in order to obtain
this result. It was implicitly assumed that the market price of a good (or
service) reflects its opportunity cost. Opportunity cost is defined here as the
value of a resource in its next best alternative use. 17 It was assumed that both
consumers and producers have perfect information about prices and other
relevant variables. It was also implicitly assumed that sellers in the market
have well-defined ownership or property rights to the goods and services
offered for sale. Given these conditions associated with a perfectly
competitive market, the pursuit of self-interest by both consumers and
17
Suppose a piece of forestland has two possible uses: harvesting the forest for its timber or
leaving it as a natural environment. If the first use is chosen, the opportunity cost of the timber
is the benefits that would have accrued if the forest had been left in its natural state.
63
producers results in an efficient allocation of resources. 'Efficiency', in this

sense, is also referred to as Pareto optimality. That is, when the market
reaches equilibrium, it is impossible to make anyone better-off without, at
the same time, making at least one person worse off. In other words, at the
equilibrium point it is impossible to reallocate or redistribute resources in
more efficient ways. This chapter discusses the issues of market and policy
failure, focussing on why they occur and what can be done about it. The
chapter is organised into seven sections. Section 2 outlines the various types
of market failure, followed by a brief discussion of each type in Sections 3 to
5. Section 6 conducts discussion of some solutions to address the problem of
market failure, while the final section contains the summary.
4.2 Types of Market Failure

As indicated above, markets work well when prices reflect all values, that is,
opportunity cost. 'Market failure' is said to occur when some costs and/or
benefits are not fully reflected in market prices. The market system fails to
function properly for many kinds of environmental goods because such
resources, including the services they provide, are often not traded in
markets. Thus, in general, market prices do not fully reflect the value of
environmental goods and services. We demonstrate below that market
failure results in an inefficient allocation of resources. Market failure can
occur due to any or all of the following:
lack of or weak property rights

public goods and/or common property characteristics
externalities, and
type of market structure
4.2.1 Lack of or Weak Property Rights

Imagine a society where there is public ownership of all means of transport.
An individual may drive any available car he or she sees on the roads, drive
to their destination, and abandon the car by the roadside for use by other
users. Under this scenario, people are likely to purchase just enough fuel to
carry them to their next destination and only basic or inexpensive repair
work, if any, would be carried out on a car. It is not difficult to envisage that
Why Markets 'Fail' 65
after a while, there would be a lot of broken down cars by the roadside. This
idealised example illustrates that when property rights are not well-defined
or absent in the economic system, there is no incentive for a 'rational'
individual to invest in an asset because they cannot appropriate the full
benefits. 18
Characteristics of property rights

When one purchases an asset such as a motor vehicle, it comes with a set of
well-defined ownership rights and responsibilities. These ownership rights
and responsibilities have the following general characteristics:
Well-defined: You have title to the car in the form of a motor

vehicle registration certificate and/or a purchase receipt. In some
cases the entitlement may be informal and may have been
institutionalised by social or cultural norms.
Exclusive: You are the only one who has the right to use the car,
although you may choose who else may use it and under what
conditions. It is important to note that restrictions accompany
ownership rights. You can drive on different sections of the
roads at specified speed limits.
Transferable: You may transfer permanent rights to the car to
someone else by selling it, or you may transfer temporary rights
by renting it. Note that the concept of completely transferable
rights carries the notion of 'divisibility'. That is, different types
of rights associated with the asset may also be transferable. For
example, your ownership rights to a block of land may be
divided into parcels and each transferred. In this case you can
choose to lease, rent or sell outright different parcels. It is also
important to bear in mind that acquiring ownership rights to an
asset involves a transfer of rights rather than a physical transfer
of the asset. For example, when you buy a piece of land you do
not take it home with you.
Secure and enforceable: Your title to the car is secure and
enforceable because if someone steals it, you have the right to
18
The economic model assumes that each economic agent acts in his or her self-interest and
that altruistic motives are absent. In Chapter 5, this assumption is relaxed to include situations
where other motives underlie preferences.
notify the police and have the person arrested. Effective

enforcement involves the following: effective detection and
apprehension of violators and application of an appropriate
penalty. To be effective, the penalty must exceed the actual or
anticipated benefits ofviolation.
Property rights regimes

In practice, there are different types of property rights regimes. The complete
set of property rights that we have described above is at one end of the
spectrum and is typical of private goods. At the other end of the spectrum,
there are public goods, with congestion goods in between these two
extremes. Public goods can be classified into pure public goods, semi-
public goods, and open access or common property goods (Figure 4.1).
We define these different types of goods later.
Figure 4.1 A taxonomy of environmental goods
Goods &
I Services
I I
Private Congestion Public
goods goods goods
I
J
Open access Semi-public Pure public
and common goods goods
property goods
Most environmental goods fall under the category of pure public goods or
open access/common property goods. In such cases lack of well-defined
property rights results in market failure. A consequence of market failure is
inefficient allocation of resources (e.g., excessive pollution). For example, a
farmer has the right to prevent someone from polluting his or her land, but
cannot prevent anyone from polluting a nearby river. Furthermore, he or she
may have no legal right to receive compensation from the upstream
polluters. The upstream polluters, who do not bear the costs of their
activities, have no economic incentives to limit the amount of pollution

especially when they know that the farmer has no property rights. This type
of market failure has led to calls for governments to intervene in the market.
We consider these solutions later in this chapter.
4.2.2 Public Goods

In this section we first define three broad categories of goods: private,
congestion and public goods. We then go on to discuss the different types of
public goods.
Private and pure public goods

As defined above, a private good has characteristics such as exclusivity,
transferability, security and enforceability. In addition, a private good has a
positive marginal cost. That is, the cost of supplying one additional unit is
above zero. As was indicated in Chapter 3, a private good is rival in
consumption. That is, once someone consumes the good, another person
cannot consume it. On the other hand, a pure public good is non-exclusive
and non-rival in consumption, and has zero marginal cost. 'Non-exclusive'
and 'non-rival' mean the good is available to everyone and that one person's
consumption of the good does not reduce the amount available to others.
Finally, 'zero-marginal costs' means the cost of supplying an additional unit
of the good to any particular individual is zero.
Examples of pure public goods are national defence, biodiversity, clean
air, flood protection, noise and visual amenities. A distinctive characteristic
of a pure public good is that consumers do not have the option of not
consuming. As suggested earlier, a pure public good will be under-provided
because the owner cannot appropriate the full benefits.
Open access and common property goods

Open access goods are rival in consumption, non-exclusive, non-
transferable, and often non-enforceable even when ownership rights exist.
Examples of open access goods are ocean fisheries and migratory wildlife.
Common property goods (e.g., common grazing land) are rival in
consumption and are exclusive for a group of people (e.g., a local
community). Rights of use may be transferable by individuals or the group.
There may not be legal or formal title to ownership but the group may be
able to enforce their ownership rights by means of social sanctions.
According to Hardin's 'tragedy of the commons', under open access or

common property rights regimes, the resource will be overexploited (Hardin,
1968). However, the point is made in Chapter 11 that under some forms of
common property systems (e.g., customary marine tenure), resource
management is likely to be more efficient because it is based on communal
rules and customs.
Semi (or quasi) public goods

Semi-public (or quasi public) goods are non-rival in consumption, have a
zero marginal cost of provision and are non-exclusive although ownership
rights exist. An important distinction of semi-public goods is that even
though the owner or the providers of the service cannot exclude others from
consumption, consumers can choose not to consume. Examples of this
category of goods include radio and TV broadcasts and a lighthouse. In the
case of radio and TV broadcasts, the signal strength does not depend on the
number of consumers (i.e., zero marginal cost). Consumers cannot be
excluded (although with cable TV, signals can be encoded), and they may
choose not to receive signals by turning of their TV or radio sets. In the case
of a lighthouse, ships cannot be excluded from using the beam, although
some ships may choose to ignore it.
Congestion goods
Congestion goods are exclusive and and can be either non-rival or rival in
consumption. Such goods do not fall neatly into any of these categories and
may exhibit characteristics of private goods or public goods at different
levels of consumption. An example of this type of good is a campsite (Figure
4.2). At the level Ob, a certain number of people can enjoy the amenities
without reducing other peoples' enjoyment. At this point the marginal cost of
an additional person using the amenity is zero and the good exhibits the
characteristics of a public good. After point b, congestion sets in and the
marginal cost becomes positive. After point c, the marginal cost (MC) tends
to infinity as congestion reaches a maximum. Examples of congestion goods
include roads, bridges, an art gallery, fishing and boating sites, and a historic
site.
Figure 4.2 An example of a congestion good
Cost($)
MC
0 b c
Quantity (q)
4.2.3 Market Demand for a Public Good

Individuals consume different amounts of a private good. It was explained in
the previous chapter that the market demand for a private good is derived by
a horizontal summation of the individual demand curves. However, in the
case of pure public goods, individuals consume equal amounts. Therefore
the market demand curve is obtained by vertical summation of the
individual demand curves.
Suppose we wanted to estimate the demand for air quality. Let us use
abatement of C02 emissions as a proxy for air quality. Given that air quality
is a non-market good, there would be no market prices and therefore we
would have to ask consumers their WTP for given percentage reductions in
COz emissions. Table 4.1 presents the data for this hypothetical survey. For
each given level of COz abatement, individual A's demand is added to B's
demand to obtain the market demand. Let the inverse demand curves be
defined as follows:
A's demand: P! = 10-0.05q 0

+ B's demand: p 2 =20-0.lq 0
=Market demand: p = 30-0.15q 0
Table 4.1 A hypothetical demand schedule for air quality

(C02 abatement)
Quantity of air A's WTP for B's WTP for Market demand
quality demanded air quality air quality price for air quality
(% C02 reduction) ($) ($) ($)
(qD) (p,=10-0.05q 0 ) (pz=20-0.1q 0 ) (p=30-0.15q 0 )
0 10.00 20.00 30.00
5 9.75 19.50 29.25
10 9.50 19.00 28.50
15 9.25 18.50 27.75
20 9.00 18.00 27.00
25 8.75 17.50 26.25
30 8.50 17.00 25.50
35 8.25 16.50 24.75
Notice that for each given level of COz abatement, individual B is willing to
pay more than individual A. This difference could be explained by B having
a higher level of demand as a result of a higher income or being more
environmentally aware. However, there is the likelihood that B may
understate his or her true preference for the good. This problem is referred to
as strategic behaviour, or the free-rider problem, and is discussed in
Chapter 5.
Figure 4.3 presents graphs for the individual and market demand curves
for air quality. For a given point on the market demand curve, the
corresponding price is given by the vertical summation of the individuals'
willingness-to-pay for that level of demand.
4.3 Externalities
In this section, we formally define an externality and outline the causes of
externalities. We then proceed to discuss different types of externalities.
Figure 4.3 A hypothetical demand curve for air quality(% C0 2 abatement)
Price($)
30.00
28.5 0
2 0 0 0 f-.=-co::: .. "i
0
19.00 M ark et d em and

(A's + B's demand)
B's demand
I 0.00
9.5 0
A's demand
0 10
Quantity of air quality(% carbon dioxide abatement)
4. 3.1 Definition of an Externality

As the word suggests, an externality is an effect that is 'external' to the
causing agent. That is, the person causes an effect that impacts on other
people. An externality is said to exist when the utility of an economic agent
is affected by the actions of another.
An externality is often negative (also referred to as an external
diseconomy or external cost). This occurs when the affected person suffers
a loss in utility that is uncompensated. Examples of negative externalities are
air, water and noise pollution. A positive externality (external economy, or
external benefit) occurs when the effect is beneficial to the affected person.
An example of a positive externality is immunisation. Immunisation of
people in a population helps to reduce the outbreak of an epidemic and
therefore benefits those who are not immunised. Another example of a
positive externality is where one firm's technological breakthrough benefits
other firms in the industry who have not contributed to the research costs.
4.3.2 Causes of Externalities

The following factors give rise to externalities:
1. Interdependence between economic agents: the activity of one

agent affects the utility or production function of another.
However, the market system fails to 'price' this
interdependence, as a result of which the affected party is
uncompensated;
2. Lack of or weak property rights: due to lack of or weak property
rights, the affected party is unable to demand that the externality
be reduced or ask for compensation.
3. High transactions costs: the cost of negotiating, implementing
and enforcing an agreement between the parties may be high.
If the affected agent is compensated for his or her loss of welfare, the
externality is said to be 'internalised', and society is better off by the gainer
compensating the loser.
4.3.3 Classification of Externalities

Externalities can be classified m a variety of ways. For example,
externalities can be grouped into
Relevant externalities
Pareto-relevant externalities
Static or dynamic externalities, and
Pecuniary externalities
Relevant externalities
An externality is not relevant so long as the affected person is indifferent to
it. It becomes relevant when the affected person is made worse off by the
activity and wants the offending person to reduce the level of the activity.
For example, if the chicken farm in my backyard interferes with the
satisfaction you derive from sitting in your front porch, then it is a relevant
externality. On the other hand, if the high decibel music from my stereo does
not bother you then the externality is not relevant.
Pareto-relevant externalities
A Pareto-relevant externality exists whenever its removal results in a Pareto
improvement. A Pareto improvement is a situation where it is possible to
take action such that the affected person is made better off without making
the offending person worse off. This means that when the level of an
externality is optimal, it becomes Pareto irrelevant. To give an example,
suppose a telephone company erects a tall transmission tower near a forest.
The tower is unsightly and reduces the scenic value of the forest. In this
case, a Pareto-relevant externality exists because it is possible for the
telephone company to paint the tower in colours that would blend with the
foliage. Such a strategy would not interfere with the functioning of the tower
and at the same time minimise the impact on the scenic values.
Static and dynamic externalities

To illustrate static and dynamic externalities, take the example of two fishers
who are operating under an open access or property rights regime. A static
externality is when one creates an externality for the other by overfishing.
However, the externality can become dynamic if the offending party is
harvesting fish that may have some future value. This could happen, for
example, if the offender is harvesting juvenile fish species. In this case, the
opportunity cost of the fish reflects a forgone value in the sense that there
will be adverse impacts for the future.
Pecuniary externalities
This is a form of externality that is transmitted through the price system. An
externality is usually an 'unpriced' effect. However, a pecuniary externality
occurs when the externality is transmitted through higher prices or reduced
costs. An example of the latter is when a large business moves into a
residential area and immediately drives up rental prices. The rent increase
creates a negative effect for all those who pay rents and therefore causes a
negative externality. An example of the latter is when a manufacturer
benefits as a result of a supplier reducing the cost of a product. In a strict
sense, the externality in both cases is not a result of market failure. For
example, in the first case the resulting increase in rents reflects the scarcity
of rental units. Pollution, on the other hand, is not a pecuniary externality
because the effect is not transmitted through higher prices. In many cases,
the penalties that polluters pay do not reflect the amount of damage inflicted
on the environment.
4.4 Type of Market Structure

The type of market structure or organisation can also cause market failure.
We consider the following two cases: a perfectly competitive market with
external costs and a monopoly.
4. 4.1 Resource Allocation in a Perfectly Competitive Market

Consider a gold mining company that dumps mine tailings into a nearby
river without paying for clean up or treating the waste. In this case,
production at the mine includes the production of gold as well as pollution.
Or to put it differently, the river water is an unpriced input in the gold
production process.
Let us define the following variables: D = demand curve for gold; MCP =
marginal private cost of producing gold (i.e., the firm's supply curve); MSC
= marginal social cost (Figure 4.4). We assume that MSC is greater than
MCP at any level of output because society considers both the costs of
pollution as well as gold production, but the company considers only its
marginal private cost. The marginal social cost of gold production is
therefore given by the marginal external cost, the cost of disutility caused
by the externality, plus the marginal private cost. That is:
C = MCp + MEC (4.1)
Under a perfectly competitive market structure, the company maximises its

producer surplus by producing q 0 units of gold. However, from society's
point of view, q 0 is not the efficient allocation. Society's net benefits could
be maximised by producing less gold, that is, q * units. The triangular area
abc represents a deadweight loss to society.
Note the following observations about Figure 4.4:
1. The socially optimal level of pollution (which is assumed to be

proportional to gold production) is not zero. This implies that it
may not be socially optimal to have zero pollution.
2. In a perfectly competitive market where pollution is unpriced

(i.e., there is no pollution abatement), production results in more
output than is socially desirable, resulting in excessive pollution.
3. If pollution abatement is enforced, the company will reduce
pollution but raise the price per unit of output, resulting in
reduced output of gold. However, in this case, the reduced
output is the socially efficient level and the higher price is also
the efficient price.
Figure 4.4 Resource allocation in a competitive market with externalities
Price/Cost ($)
p
.
Po
Quantity (q)
4.4.2 Resource Allocation in a Monopoly

Assuming a perfectly competitive market and a system of private property
rights, the price mechanism will combine to result in an efficient allocation
of resources. However, the presence of monopoly rights causes market
failure or inefficient allocation of resources from society's point of view.
Take the case of a single monopolistic firm with a marginal cost curve, MC,
facing a market demand curve, D (Figure 4.5). Under perfect competition, q
units of the good will be supplied by setting: price = marginal revenue (MR)
= marginal cost (MC).
Note, however, that in the case of a monopoly, the demand curve is
above the marginal revenue curve and therefore price is not equal to
marginal revenue.
Figure 4.5 Resource allocation in a monopoly
Price/Cost ($)
Pm
p
.
D
Quantity (q)
Monopoly profit is maximised by setting MR equal to MC. This results in

less output, qm, and a higher price, Pm Consumer surplus under a monopoly
is apmb, which is less than consumer surplus under perfect competition, ap c.
Recall that the demand curve (D) represents the marginal benefit of goods to
consumers. Figure 4.5 indicates that for a monopolist, marginal benefit
exceeds marginal cost and therefore the level of output (qm) is inefficient.
Consequently, there is a deadweight loss to society represented by triangle
bdc.
The monopolist's production decision may be somewhat unexpected
because it seems to suggest that less pollution will be created in a monopoly
than in perfect competition. Furthermore, the monopolist's higher initial
price (pm) suggests that, given a fixed stock of natural capital, the price path
will be less steep over time than in perfect competition (Pearce and Turner,
1990). However, caution must be exercised in making such comparisons
19
because other factors (e.g., elasticity of demand) affect the outcome.
19
Stiglitz ( 1976) argues that the extraction and price paths may be identical for monopoly and
perfect competition, given a constant elasticity of demand for the resource.
4.5 Policy (Government) Failure

Policy (or government) failure occurs when the government creates
incentives for the prices of certain goods and services to be lower than the
actual cost of production per unit. An example of policy failure is a
government subsidy on pesticides which provides incentives for farmers to
use more pesticide than is socially efficient, resulting in adverse
environmental impacts. This type of subsidy is referred to as an input
subsidy and other examples include energy, fertilizer and irrigation
subsidies. Other types of subsidies include guaranteed prices for agricultural
products and subsidies for land clearing which tend to encourage large scale
production and loss of forest cover. Sometimes, the subsidies could be put
on consumer products. In this case, if the particular product, or the input
used in its production, is environmentally damaging, then the net effects on
the environment could be negative.
Table 4.2 presents rough estimates of subsidies worldwide. Among other
things, the figures indicate that subsidies worldwide are substantial,
amounting to about 4 percent of the world's GNP. This is estimated to be
about US$25 trillion. The subsidies are about 14 times Overseas
Development Assistance (ODA) flows in any given year. It is interesting to
note that the highest subsidies are in the Organisation for Economic
Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries. In general, subsidies in
the developing countries are on the decline as most of them have adopted
structural adjustment programs over the past two decades.
4.6 Solutions to Environmental Pollution Problems

Two main approaches have been proposed for dealing with externality
problems (Figure 4.6). The first approach, known as the property rights or
market solution, was proposed by Ronald Coase and involves allowing the
free market system to solve the problem through bargaining between the
affected parties. The second approach is by means of government
intervention. Government pollution control policies can take two main
forms: market based instruments (MBI) and command-and-control (CAC)
instruments. We begin the discussion with the Coasian or market solution.
Table 4.2 Provisional estimates of world subsidies (US$ billion)
Sector OECD Non-OECD

Water:
Irrigation 3+ 20
Sanitation ? 5
Supply ? 28
Fossil Fuel 34-52 100+
Nuclear Power 9-14 0?
Agriculture:
Pesticides 0? 2?
Fertilizers 0? 4
Outputs 336 0?
Transport 79-108 ?
Total 461-513 159
Source: Pearce and Ozdemiroglu (1997).
4.6.1 The Property Rights or Coasian Solution

According to the Coase Theorem (Coase, 1960)20 , negotiation between two
parties involved in an externality will eliminate Pareto-relevant externalities
and result in an efficient solution if property rights are well specified. The
final allocation does not depend on the initial assignment of property rights
and the only effect is the distribution of costs and benefits. This theorem is
illustrated with the aid of Figure 4. 7.
Consider two parties, one is a factory which is polluting a nearby river
with industrial effluent. The other party is a community which utilises the
river water for drinking purposes. The community has a downward-sloping
demand curve for pollution abatement. This is referred to as the marginal
benefit (MB) curve because it indicates the consumer's benefits from
consuming an additional unit of clean water.
20 Ronald Coase won the 1991 Nobel prize in economics for his use of property rights
regimes to highlight institutional issues and the functioning of the economy.
Figure 4.6 Pollution control instruments
Pollution
Control
Approaches
Property Government
Rights Policies
Approach
(The Coa:sian Solution)
Market Command-and- Other

Based Control Instruments
Instruments (CAC) '
(MBI) Instruments
r Charges l rSubsidies rMarket~blel f Other f- ambient f- voluntary

Permits MBis I standards
L- emission
incentives
1- liability
t'"'"'"'""
standards legislation
1- emission charges 1- deposit-refund 1- education
1- user charges schemes 1- zoning
1- product charges 1- ecolabelling 1- fines
based standards
L...... administrative charges 1- perform anee '-bans
technology-based
bonds standards
L...... trad1t!onal property
rights
The factory has an upward sloping supply curve for pollution abatement
which reflects the marginal cost of increasing levels of pollution abatement.
This curve is also the marginal external cost (MEC) curve. Note that in the
absence of a legal requirement to abate pollution, the factory has an
incentive to supply zero pollution abatement (q=O%) because this is the point
at which profits will be maximised.
According to the Coase Theorem, the socially optimal level of pollution
abatement will be q*=60%. Let us first consider how this solution is achieved
in the case where the community has the property rights to the river.
Figure 4.7 The Coasian solution to the externality problem
Price of pollution
control($)
p*
20 q* =60 80 100
Quantity of pollution abatement(%)
Case 1: The community has the property rights

Assuming the community has the property rights to the river, it would like to
have zero pollution or 100 percent pollution abatement. Therefore the
starting point will be q=JOO%. Let us bear in mind that the downward-
sloping demand curve for pollution abatement implies that at zero percent
pollution abatement the community's WTP for pollution abatement is
initially high. However, as the units of pollution abatement increase the
community's WTP declines. Thus, at the level of q=lOO% the community's
WTP for pollution abatement is lower than the polluter's marginal cost of
supplying pollution abatement. There is therefore a possibility for a trade.
To illustrate, let us consider the point q=80%. At this level, the
maximum amount the polluter is willing to pay to supply an additional unit
of pollution is c, which is higher than the minimum compensation, d, that the
community will demand per unit of pollution abatement. In this particular
case, the factory would be willing to offer compensation of up to cd per unit
to the community to induce them to accept less pollution abatement. The
community would be willing to accept this amount because even though it
suffers a welfare loss from having less pollution abatement, this is offset by
the compensation which exceeds their minimum demand price of d.
The move from q= I 00% to q=80% is a Pareto improvement because at
least one party is better off and no one is worse off. The factory could
negotiate less and less pollution abatement. However, it would not offer a
level of pollution abatement less than q =60%. This is because below
q =60% the minimum compensation demanded by the community (a)
exceeds the marginal cost of supplying pollution abatement (b). Therefore,
the factory will choose to supply pollution abatement.
Case 2: The factory has the property rights

When the factory has the property rights to the river, the starting point is
q=O% because it has the right to pollute. However, once again there is
potential for a trade because the community's WTP for pollution abatement
exceeds the factory's marginal cost of pollution abatement. Suppose the
community wishes to increase pollution abatement to q=20%. It could offer
a 'bribe' of ab per unit to the factory to induce it to supply more pollution
abatement. The factory would be willing to accept this amount because it
exceeds the marginal cost of supplying pollution abatement at that level. The
factory has no incentive to provide pollution abatement beyond q =60
because the marginal cost of supplying pollution abatement exceeds the
maximum unit bribe the community is willing to offer.
From the foregoing, it can be seen that, irrespective of who has the
property rights, equilibrium is achieved at a quantity of q and a price of p .
The outcome of this market solution is an efficient allocation of resources
and the removal of the Pareto-relevant externality. However, the distribution
of costs and benefits is different in each case. For example, when the
offending party has the property rights, it is the affected party who makes the
payment, and vice versa.
Limitations of the Market Solution

The Coasian analysis has made a number of contributions to our
understanding of externalities and the concept of property rights, in
particular, trade in rights. However, the theorem is based on the following
key assumptions that may not apply in the real world.
zero transactions costs

well-defined property rights

perfect competition, and
no income (or wealth) effects
no free-rider effects
Zero transactions costs

Transactions costs refer to expenses that are incurred in the process of
negotiating. Examples include legal fees, the cost of organising and bringing
the parties to the bargaining table, and so on. These costs can be high
especially when the population of affected people is large and scattered.
These costs can be large enough to discourage some parties from seeking a
negotiated settlement to the externality.
Well-defined property rights

The Coase Theorem implicitly assumes that either one of the two parties has
a complete set of property rights. However, in many cases, property rights
are either poorly defined or non-existent. Lack of property rights is probably
one of the most significant obstacles to bargaining. In large resource
development projects, it is often difficult to know precisely who the
landowners are. This opens the way for speculators and activists to influence
the negotiations.
Perfect competition
The Coasian solution assumes a perfectly competitive market. The affected
party's 'bargaining curve' is its marginal benefit curve, from which it can
determine how much to pay and how much compensation to demand.
Likewise, the offending party's 'bargaining curve' is its marginal external
cost curve. Under these conditions, the equilibrium solution is obtained by
setting price equal to marginal cost. In the absence of perfect competition,
the factory will set marginal revenue (and not price) equal to marginal cost,
in which case q is no longer the optimum solution.
Income effects
The theorem assumes that there are no wealth or income effects. However,
the assignment of property rights to one party, in reality, results in an income
transfer to that party. The equilibrium level of pollution abatement will be
more than q when the affected parties have the property rights, and less than
q when the offending party has the property rights. It is also possible that
when the offending party has the property rights, it may be tempted to
increase pollution so as to increase the size of the bribe.
Free-rider effects
When there are many affected parties the free-rider problem may make it
difficult to negotiate an efficient solution. An example of free-rider effects is
when several communities have to negotiate with a big multinational
corporation over resource development. It has been suggested that in such
cases the government could facilitate pollution abatement by means of
legislation and regulation. We discuss government policies in the following
section.
4. 7 Government Policies
The Coasian solution relies on negotiation between the parties to eliminate
the inefficiency created by the externality, upon specification of property
rights. However, as we have seen above, there are various reasons why the
Coasian solution may not work in practice. There is therefore a need for
government policies to correct the externality problem. As shown in Figure
4.6, there are two main categories of government pollution control
instruments: market-based instruments and command-and-control
instruments. Market-based instruments include charges, subsidies,
marketable permits, and deposit-refund schemes. The CAC approach, also
known as standards or regulation, includes ambient standards, performance-
based standards, and technology-based standards. We begin the discussion
with CAC approaches, which are, by far, the most commonly used approach.
4. 7.1 Command-and-Control Systems

Command and control mechanisms are the oldest forms of pollution control
policies in existence. As the name implies, the CAC mechanism consists of a
'command', which sets a standard (e.g. the maximum level of pollution
allowable), and a 'control', which monitors and enforces the standard. In
general, there are three types of standards: ambient standards, emissions
standards and technology standards (Figure 4.8).
Ambient standards
Ambient standards set the minimum desired level of air or water quality, or
the maximum level of a pollutant, that must be maintained in the ambient
environment. For example, an ambient standard for dissolved oxygen in a
certain river may be set at 3 parts per million, meaning that this is the lowest
level of dissolved oxygen allowed. Ambient standards are normally
expressed in terms of average concentration levels over some period of time.
In general, they cannot be enforced directly. What can be enforced are the
emissions from various sources that can lead to ambient quality levels.
Emission standards
Emission (or effluent) standards specifY the maximum level of permitted
emissions. They can expressed in terms of quantity of material per unit of
time (e.g., grams per minute, or tons per week), total quantity of residuals,
residuals per unit of output (e.g. so2 emissions per kilowatt-hour), or
residuals per unit of input (e.g., sulphur content of coal used in power
generation). Emissions standards are also referred to as performance
standards because they refer to end results to be achieved by the polluter.
Technology standards
Technology-based standards specifY the technology, techniques or practices
that a firm must adopt. This type of standard could be in the form of 'design
standards' or 'engineering standards'. Other related types of standards
include product standards that specifY characteristics that goods must have,
and input standards that specify conditions that inputs used in the production
process must meet. Technology-based standards not only specifY emissions
limits, but also the 'best' technology that must be used. The main difference
between a performance standard and a technology standard is that the former
sets a constraint on some performance criteria and then allows individual
firms to choose the best means of achieving it. On the other hand, the latter
actually dictates certain decisions and techniques that should be used to
achieve the criteria.
Referring to Figure 4.8, the socially optimum standard and penalty will
be q and p , respectively. Let the actual standard applied be represented by
the vertical line, qs. The usual practice is to impose a penalty for polluting
beyond the standard. Given the penalty, p, the efficient level of pollution
abatement for the firm will be q, and there will be a dead weight loss to
society of abc.
Although standards are widely understood they have serious deficiencies

in terms of providing incentives to reduce pollution. Standards have a
number of disadvantages. First, firms have no incentives to reduce pollution
beyond the standard. Second, penalties for violating standards tend to be too
low and enforcement tends to be weak. Third, to set an optimum standard
and penalty, the government must know the demand (marginal social
benefit) and the supply (marginal social cost) curves for pollution abatement.
However, since air (or water) quality is a non-market good, the demand
curve is not directly observable21 Also, it is difficult for the government to
know exactly the industry's marginal abatement (or external) cost curve,
given the large number of polluters. In light of the above reasons, it is likely
that the government will set the standard at a point other than q .
Figure 4.8 An emission standard
Price($)
Standard
s
D Optimum standard t ~
~~
Optimum penalty
p* m~
p
Penalty
0 q q* q'
Output(q)
Fourth, to be effective, standards need to be revised frequently in response to

rapidly changing circumstances. However, in practice, legislation tends not
to keep up with the pace of change. Fifth, the financial costs of setting
21
Chapter 5 reviews methods for estimating the value of non-market goods.
standards will be high if there are many polluters. These costs include the
administrative cost of implementing the system of standards and the
monitoring and enforcement costs. Six, there could also be political costs if
the standards are stringent and businesses are adversely affected.
By far the most serious defect of standards is the fact that they are
uniformly applied to all firms and regions. This takes flexibility away from
polluters. The fact of the matter is that pollution abatement costs differ
between firms and regions, and forcing high-cost abaters to reduce pollution
as much as low-cost abaters, results in more resources being used to achieve
a cleaner environment. The community can achieve cost savings by having
more abatement undertaken by firms who can do so at a relatively lower
cost.
On the positive side, standards are a more widely understood form of
environmental policy. They are more pragmatic and, perhaps, more socially
acceptable than MBis, especially when there is the possibility that a
pollutant will affect human health. A good example is the disposal of nuclear
or human waste. In this regard, standards are considered to be consistent
with the Precautionary Principle (Ramchandani and Pearce, 1992) which
takes account of intergenerational and intragenerational concems.Z2 Finally,
the political costs of standards are lower compared to market based
instruments such as taxes and subsidies as setting standards does not incur
direct budgetary implications.
4. 7.2 Market-Based Instruments (MB/s)

Market-based instruments use price or some other economic variables to
provide incentives for economic agents to abate pollution. As described in
Figure 4.6, MBis include charges, subsidies, marketable permits, deposit-
refund schemes, and performance rating schemes.
Charges
A charge or tax is, in effect, a negative price that is levied in proportion to
the amount of pollution. This type of tax is also referred to as a Pigovian tax
after the British economist, Arthur Pigou, who proposed the idea in 1920
(Pigou, 1920).
22
The issues of intergenerational and intragenerational equity are discussed in Chapter I! in
relation to sustainable development.
There are at least four types of charges: emission charges, user

charges, product charges and administrative charges. A product charge is
a variation of emission charges whereby taxes are levied on goods produced
with polluting inputs. An example of a product charge is a carbon (fuel) tax.
User charges are fees levied for using an environmental resource. They are
often not directly related to the level of pollution but rather aim to recover
some portion of the abatement cost. Finally, administrative charges are
service fees levied by a government authority for implementing or
monitoring a regulation. Charges are based on the 'Polluter-Pays Principle
(PPP)' which asserts that the polluter should bear the cost of any abatement
taken to maintain an acceptable level of environmental quality (OECD,
1989).
To give an example of a Pigovian tax, suppose the demand curve for
pollution abatement is D and the supply of pollution abatement is S (Figure
4.9). The government would try to set the charge at p , where demand equals
supply. However, this approach faces a similar constraint as standards in the
sense that both the demand and supply curves are not known with certainty.
In practice the charge is likely to be set at a point p < p at which the level of
pollution abatement will be less than optimum.
Pearce and Turner argue that attempting to calculate an 'optimal' tax is
unrealistic. What is needed is 'the kind of information that would tell us
whether we are very wide of the mark in taking a particular pollutant or
whether we are in the right ballpark (Pearce and Turner, 1990:97).
Economists prefer charges to other pollution abatement alternatives
because charges offer firms an economic incentive to reduce pollution.
Different firms have different pollution abatement costs. By imposing a
charge per unit of pollution, emission charges induce firms to lower their
emissions to the point where the marginal cost of abatement equals the
charge. Unlike standards, which are applied uniformly to all polluters,
charges enable firms to adopt a cost-effective solution to pollution
abatement. Compared to standards, there is a stronger incentive for firms to
adopt new technology in order to lower the charges they have to pay.
In spite of the above advantages, charges and taxes do have some
disadvantages. The problem associated with setting an optimum tax due to
uncertainty about the demand and supply curves has already been discussed
above. In addition, the costs of monitoring emissions could be high.
Furthermore, there are a number of equity issues arising from such a tax.
First, firms could pass on a portion of the tax to consumers in the form of
higher product prices?3 If the product is a necessity, then low-income

households who spend a high proportion of their income on such goods
would be adversely affected.
Figure 4.9 An example of a Pigovian tax
Output (q)
Second, imposing a tax could also lead to job losses as firms minimise their
costs in order to increase pollution abatement. 24 Finally, the costs of
monitoring compliance may be high if the charges are based on the
emissions and the number of pollutants is high.
Subsidies
An alternative to taxes is for the government to subsidise the polluter per
unit of reduction in the level of pollution. The subsidy could also be offered
for the purchase of pollution abatement equipment or technology. Referring
to Figure 4.9, the amount of the subsidy will be p * per unit of pollution
23
See Exercise 5, Chapter 3 for a problem based on this issue.
24
See Section 3.7.2 for an analysis of the employment effects of an emission standard.
abatement. In this case, the optimum level of pollution abatement will be q

units.
In theory, both taxes and subsidies should result in the same optimum
level of pollution abatement. However, if there is unrestricted entry into the
industry subsidies could attract more producers. Therefore, in the long run
aggregate pollution could increase under subsidies but decrease under
charges. Also, subsidising pollution abatement may be seen as socially
'unjust' because what it effectively does is to redistribute income away from
society to polluters. In general, subsidies are politically attracted to the few
people who tend to receive them.
Marketable Permits
Marketable (or tradeable) pollution permits are a relatively new approach to
controlling environmental pollution. Marketable permits were first
introduced in the U.S. in 1977 as part of the Clean Air Act. Under this
system, the government issues a fixed number of permits or 'rights to
pollute' equal to the permissible total emissions and distributes them among
polluting firms in a given area. A market for permits is established and
permits are traded among firms. Firms that maintain their emission levels
below their allotted level can sell or lease their surplus allotments to other
firms or use them to offset emissions in other parts of their own facilities. A
variant of marketable permits is the Individual Transferable Quota (ITQ)
system that has been used in Australian and New Zealand to manage
fisheries (Box 4.1). It was first used in New Zealand in 1986, and has since
been used in Australia to manage the Southern Bluefin tuna fishery and in
the U.S. to manage the Atlantic surf clam industry. A new form of MBI that
is similar to marketable permits is Offset-Banking (Box 4.1).
To demonstrate how permit prices are determined, let the socially
acceptable level of emissions in a given geographical area be qa (Figure
4.10). The supply (s) of permits is therefore fixed at qa. The demand for
permits, in this, case is equal to firms' marginal abatement costs (MAC). The
price of a permit, p , is determined at the point of intersection between the
demand (i.e., MAC) and the vertical supply curve. After the aggregate level
of emissions and the permit price have been determined, firms are then free
to trade in permits. Firms with MACs below the permit price, p , have an
incentive to sell permits to those with MACs above the permit price.
Box 4.1 Individual transferable quotas in fisheries management:

the case of New Zealand
In an effort to combat the problem of declining fish stocks, the New Zealand
government in 1983 introduced an ITQ system. The ITQ system is a form of
marketable permit system. In the case, the government freely distributed
quotas among the industry participants based on historical catch. Each quota
allowed the owner to harvest a certain quantity of fish to be harvested. The
total tonnage associated with the quotas was made to equal the total allowable
catch (TAC) that had been determined by the government to be sustainable.
The Fisheries Board was empowered to monitor the fish catch through sales to
retailers. Initial assessment indicated that there was an improvement in fish
stocks. However, in 1989, it was found that the initial distribution of ITQs was
excessive and the government decided to reduce the TAC. Despite some
teething problems, the ITQ system has proven to be an effective tool to
manage fisheries resources in New Zealand's exclusive economic zone.
Source: Based on Clark (1991).
The flexibility in allowing trade in permits makes the marketable permit

system a more cost effective way of getting firms to comply with a given
standard compared to the the CAC approach (Tietenberg, 1985).
Marketable permits have some advantages and disadvantages. The
advantages include:
1. The permit system is transferable. Innovative firms can profit from
selling their permits. There is therefore an incentive for firms to
invest in pollution abatement.
2. The system makes allowance for industrial development. New
polluters are able to purchase unwanted permits from established
firms. Both new and old firms are encouraged to acquire efficient
pollution abatement capabilities.
3. The system can generate revenue for the government, although the
cost of enforcing penalties must also be considered. The income
generated from the scheme could be considered as a form of
compensation to the public.
Box 4.2 Offset banking
Offset banking is a new form of MBI that is in a way similar to permit trading
which has good prospects for use in urban areas. The basic concept underlying
offset banking is that if a developer is proposing a project that will create
additional pollution in a given location, it must first 'offset' this increase by
reducing pollution elsewhere. For example, the developers of a new golf
course might be required to fund best management practices in nearby
agricultural areas in addition to on-site best management practices. Or a new
housing development might only be approved if, as part of the development,
septic tanks in an existing development are installed. The basic intent of offset
banking is to ensure that development proceeds without any net environmental
impacts.
An offset bank can be privately or publicly owned. It is not a bank in the
usual sense of the word. Rather, it involves completion of one or more projects
in which environmental remediation is carried out. By completing these
environmental projects, the offset bank earns 'credits' that can then be sold to
developers who are creating net-impacts on the environment.
Offset banking has been applied in the United States. Examples include
wetland mitigation banking (US Corps of Engineers et al., 1995), mitigation of
streambank impacts, and in controlling air quality impacts. The main
advantage of offsets is that they can generate substantial cost savings for
businesses compared to having to fully mitigate any impacts on-site. Thus, the
system has the potential to reduce environmental risk and at the same time
encourage investment.
Source: Morrison (2003).
The disadvantages include the following:
1. The market for permits may not be perfectly competitive if the

number of polluters is small. In this case, the bigger firms may be
able to exert some market pressure on permit prices.
2. The scheme may involve high transactions costs such as
administrative, monitoring and enforcement costs. Huber et al.
(1998) suggest these costs could be higher than under the CAC (see
Box 4.3). This is due to the fact that the monitoring may be as much
as in CAC, but there would also be additional costs.
3. Marketable permits are difficult to operate when there are several

pollutants in the area. With several pollutants, it is more difficult to
measure aggregate emissions and to monitor compliance.
4. There have been low levels of trading permits in some of the U.S.
systems.
Figure 4.10 Marketable permits
Permit price,
costs ($)
p
.
0 q.
Quantity of permits, q
OtherMBis
Other types of market-based incentive instruments include deposit-refund
schemes, ecolabelling and performance rating, performance bonds, and
traditional property rights.
Deposit-Refund Schemes
As the name suggests, a deposit-refund scheme involves a 'deposit', which is
a front-end payment for a potential polluting activity, and a 'refund', which
is a guarantee of a return of the payment upon proving that the polluting
activity did not take place. Deposit-refund schemes have some of the
economic incentive characteristics of charges. The 'deposit' is an attempt to
Box 4.3 Exploding a myth: MBI or CAC?
A common assumption regarding MBis is that they form a ready

substitute for outdated or inefficient CAC regulatory procedures. At
least, in the case of Latin America and the Caribbean, the implemen-
tation of MBis will not provide a quick panacea for the problems
associated with CAC approaches. Although there is definite scope for
the gradual implementation of MBis, there are significant constraints
in three areas.
1. Institutional constraints: in most countries, institutional weak-
nesses (e.g., underfunding, inexperience, or lack of political will)
limit the effective implementation of MBis.
2. High administrative costs: monitoring requirements and other
enforcement activities associated with CACs not only apply to
MBis, but also there are additional costs related to the required
institutional changes.
3. Macroeconomic reforms may hinder or help MBI implementa-
tion. For example, deregulation often strikes down regulations
necessary for MBis to operate, and 'downsizing' of the public
sector may limit the amount of institutional strengthening required
for MBis to be effective.
Source: adapted from Huber et al. (1998).
capture the marginal external cost of improper waste disposal. The consumer
is forced to account for the external cost of pollution by making an up front
payment. However, the 'refund' is a reward to properly dispose of waste.
The deposit-refund scheme is one type of MBI that is well established in
both advanced and developing countries. In the latter, collection of paper,
plastic and other recyclable material is a source of informal occupation for
unskilled workers.
Deposit-refund schemes have the following advantages:
1. It is a voluntary system that tries to change environmental behaviour

at least cost to the government. The monitoring and enforcement
costs are minimal because it requires limited supervision.
2. The system can be used to encourage recycling and more efficient

use of raw materials. That is, the 'deposit' is a tax that encourages
firms to use raw materials more efficiently during the production
process. On the other hand, the 'refund' encourages them to properly
dispose of the waste products.
Ecolabelling and Performance Rating

In this approach, the government supports an ecolabelling or performance
rating program that requires the firm to provide information on the final end-
use product in order to give consumers more market information. The
performance rating is on the basis of ISO 14000 voluntary guidelines that
includes the following: zero discharge of pollutants, adoption of pollution
abatement technology, submission of mitigation plans. Ecolabels are
attached to products that are judged to be 'environmentally friendly'.
Performance Bonds
The performance bond system requires a company to deposit a certain
amount of money in the form of a bond before commencing a project. The
money is returned to the company if it complies with regulations concerning
rehabilitation or clean up of the project site after the project is completed.
Performance bonds vary in the terms and conditions of the penalty clauses.
In some cases, the bond forms part of a permit issued by the relevant
government agency, setting out the type of activity allowed and the location
of the activity.
Traditional Property Rights

It has been shown that integrating traditional or customary communal rights
systems with western systems of natural resource management can assist in
the process of sustainable development (see case study below). In the past,
resource managers in developing countries have concentrated their
management efforts on licenses and quotas in order to prevent
overexploitation of natural resources such as fisheries and forests. In many
cases, these efforts have been unsuccessful. Customary communal rights
systems, whereby local people manage their own resources through the
establishment of private or communal ownership over common property
resources, have better chances of success. This is because the 'owners' of the
resource have an interest in its current and future productivity and would be
inclined to control exploitation so as to maximise the net benefits.
Traditional property rights have been used to manage coastal fisheries in

various Pacific island countries such as Papua New Guinea, Fiji, and
Vanuatu (see Appendix 4.1).
4.8 Choosing the Right Policy Instrument

Before an appropriate instrument can be chosen, each country needs to
carefully consider the following issues: (i) is the instrument economically
efficient? (ii) is it effective (or dependable)? (iii) is it adaptable (i.e.
flexible)? (iv) is it equitable?, and (v) is it politically acceptable?
4. 8.1 Economic Efficiency

Efficiency or 'allocative efficiency' refers to the use of society's resources in
an optimal way, i.e. without any wastage or additional costs. For a policy to
be considered 'efficient', the total costs (including costs to the government,
individuals and firms) involved in implementing the policy must outweigh
the total benefits. Thus, improved efficiency is associated with cost savings
to firms or net benefits in terms of improvement in environmental quality
and natural resource stocks. For natural resources, examples include
increases in sustained yields in fisheries and forestry. Policies such as MBis
do have associated costs and these costs must be weighed against any
benefits to determine whether they are a worthwhile venture for a specific
country. It could very well be that for some countries, MBis may be too
costly due to additional factors such as the possibility of low compliance and
costs of installing monitoring equipment.
4.8.2 Effectiveness
'Effectiveness' refers to the degree to which the policy or measure achieves
the environmental objective of protecting the environment or natural
resource. For example, with regard to a pollution abatement policy, the issue
is whether the policy actually results in a reduction of pollution. Different
instruments will have different levels of effectiveness and should be
compared. For example, in the case of controlling highly hazardous
chemicals, CACs may be more effective than MBis since the former has
more certainty in terms of the quantity of abatement. While MBis may be
more effective with other types of environmental damage (e.g. biodegradable

waste).
4. 8. 3 Adaptability
A good instrument should continue to be effective in the face of changing
circumstances (e.g. changes in prices, environmental conditions and
technology). In this respect, a policy instrument such as CAC is not
adaptable or flexible since the standards are often not revised frequently.
Also it does not give firms the incentive to adapt to changing technology.
4. 8. 4 Equity
An important consideration in assessing policy instruments is the issue of
equity or 'fairness'. This has to do with the distribution of the costs and
benefits among different groups in the population. Impacts on low-income
groups may be a concern, as well as effects on the profitability and
competitiveness oflocal industry. Before a particular policy is adopted, there
is the need for a distributional analysis to identifY the various groups
(consumers and producers) who will be adversely affected. In some cases, it
might be appropriate to use revenues raised from the policy to address
inequalities in income distribution resulting from the policy.
The OECD has recommended the following checklist for conducting
distributional analysis (OECD, 1994).
1. What is the benchmark for comparison of different policy tools?
The two options here are to compare the new instrument against the
old one, or where there is no existing instrument, to compare the
instrument with the 'no regulation' case (i.e. the status quo).
2. Will the economic instrument lead to government revenues and to
what use will these revenues be put?
3. What are the initial impacts of the instruments?
4. What are the relevant groups for which impacts will be addressed
(either quantitatively or qualitatively)?
5. What empirical steps are needed to determine the final impacts
(taking into account the shifting of costs and benefits to other
groups)?
4.8.5 Political Acceptability

As indicated earlier environmental policy instruments such as taxes tend to
be unpopular. Opposition to particular instruments could also stem from lack
of knowledge. For example, establishing a system of tradeable permits could
be misconstrued as giving people a 'license' to pollute. Thus, one of the
ways to increase political acceptability is through a program of public
education and consultation. Other ways to promote political acceptability
include gradual implementation of the policies and explanation of how any
revenues raised would be used.
4. 8. 6 Concluding Remarks
Market-based instruments have been shown to achieve the same
environmental objectives at a lesser cost than CAC mechanisms (Tietenberg,
1991). They can also generate significant revenues for the government.
These revenues could then be used to address any equity issues if that is a
political concern.Z5 Given their limited resources, developing countries
would need to consider the introduction of MBis in the long run in order to
maintain their external competitiveness. MBis may be costly in some
countries due to technical reasons, while in others the economic and
institutional framework needed to support them are either weak or non-
existent. In general, MBis are more likely to be successful in the region if
they are introduced gradually and, where appropriate, in combination with
CAC instruments. A mix of CACs and MBis is also important for the overall
success of environmental policy if the institutional/legal framework is poor.
There is also the need to educate industries and the general public about
MBis. In particular, it is important to stress that MBis provide incentives for
reducing pollution rather than simply being a tool to punish polluters.
4.9 Summary
In this chapter it has been demonstrated that the market system fails to fully
incorporate the value of environmental goods and services because such
goods are often not traded in markets and therefore tend to be underpriced or
25
It has been argued that in some cases, the total distributional impact of MBls can be less
than CACs. Evidence from the US suggests that CACs can be regressive. That is, the poor
bear a greater burden of the cost relative to their income compared to the rich.
unpriced. Market failure can occur due to the following factors: lack of or
weak property rights; public goods and/or common property characteristics;
externalities; and type of market structure. When there are weak or no
property (or ownership) rights for an environmental good there is a tendency
to overexploit it. There are few incentives to conserve such goods because an
individual (or group) cannot expect to appropriate all the benefits. Market
failure can also occur because a good displays public goods characteristics.
A pure public good is a good that is non-exclusive and non-rival in
consumption, and has a zero marginal cost of provision. The owner of a
public good will not supply the optimal amount because he or she cannot
exclude others from consuming it.
The third type or cause of market failure is due to externalities. An
externality is said to occur when one person's actions affect the welfare of
another, but the affected person is not compensated. Market failure also
occurs when, due to lack of (or weak) property rights, the affected person
cannot demand compensation from the offender. Finally, market failure can
occur when one person exerts monopoly influence in the market place. In
this case, the equilibrium price is higher and the equilibrium quantity is less
than in a perfectly competitive market. In the case of some non-renewable
natural resources, such a situation may actually result in more conservation.
We considered two main approaches to the solution of environmental
pollution problems: the market (Coasian) solution and government
intervention. The Coasian solution relies on the market system to resolve the
externality problem through bargaining between the affected and offending
parties. The outcome of the negotiation will be the elimination of the Pareto-
relevant externality irrespective of who has the property rights. However, it
was explained that the Coasian solution is based on some strong assumptions
including zero transactions costs, well-defined property rights, perfect
competition and zero income effects. Since all or some of these assumptions
may not hold, it is argued that there is a need for government intervention.
We discussed two main types of government pollution abatement
instruments: command-and-control (CAC) and market-based incentive
mechanisms. The advantages and limitations of these two approaches were
addressed. MBis are generally preferred over CAC approaches because they
offer an economic incentive to reduce pollution. However, CAC approaches
are more appropriate when there is uncertainty about health effects.
Although MBis are more cost-effective and provide revenue for the
government, their administratuve costs could be higher than CAC

(see Box 4.1).
In conclusion, the point must be made that each pollution abatement
strategy has particular strengths and weaknesses, as well as associated costs.
When considering options for dealing with particular pollution problems, the
expected benefits must be compared with the costs. In particular, it is
important to ensure that a chosen instrument(s) is economically efficient,
effective, and adaptable. In order to gamer community support, it is also
essential to ensure that the instrument is equitable and politically acceptable.

ambient standards market-based instruments
characteristics of property rights open access goods
charges opportunity cost
command and control pareto optimality
common access goods Pareto-relevant externality
congestion goods pecuniary externality
deposit-refund schemes performance-based standards
dynamic externality polluter pays principle
ecolabelling precautionary principle
emission charges product charges
emission standards public goods
externality pure public goods
free-rider effects relevant externality
income effects rival in consumption
marginal external cost static externality
marginal private cost semi-public goods
marginal social cost subsidies
market (Coasian) solution technology-based standards
market failure user charges
marketable permits vertical summation
Review Questions
1. Explain the meaning ofthe following economic terms:
I 00 Environmental Economics
Opportunity cost
Pareto optimality
Perfect competition
2. Describe the properties of a fully specified set of property rights.
3. Describe the properties of the following goods:

Private good
Congestion good
Common access good
Semi-public or quasi good
Pure public good
4. Define the following terms:

Externality
Pareto-relevant externality
Pecuniary externality
Precautionary Principle
5. Explain the meaning of the term 'internalising an externality'.
Exercises
1. What is meant by 'market failure'? Explain the causes of market failure.
2. Explain how the Coase Theorem can provide an optimal solution to an

externality problem such as pollution. State the assumptions of the
theorem and explain why it is unlikely to lead to an efficient outcome.
3. Compare and contrast market-based incentive approaches (e.g., charges)

with command-and-control approaches, using the problem of air
pollution as a point of reference.
References
Clark, I. (1991). New Zealand's Individual Transferable Quota System for Fisheries
Management-History, Description, Current Status and Issues, in T.
Yamamoto, and K. Shorts, (eds.), International Perspectives on Fisheries
Management, Tokyo.
Coase, R. (1960). The Problem of Social Cost. Journal of Law and Economics, 3: 1-
44.
Hardin, G. ( 1968). The Tragedy of the Commons. Science, 168: 1243-1248.
Huber, R., Ruitenbeek, J. and Seroa da Motta, R. (1998). Market-Based Incentives

for Environmental Policymaking in Latin America and the Caribbean: Lessons
from Eleven Countries. World Bank, Washington, D.C.
Morrison, M. (2003) Offset Banking- A Way Ahead for Controlling Nonpoint

Source Pollution in Urban Areas. Paper presented at the inaugural national
workshop of the Economics and Environmental Network, Australia National
University, 2-3 May, Canberra, ACT.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, OECD (1989).

Economic Instruments for Environmental Protection. OECD, Paris.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (1994). The Distributive

Effects of Economic Instruments for Environmental Policy, OECD, Paris.
Pearce, D. and Ozdemiroglu, E. (1997). Integrating the Economy and the

Environment: Policy and Practice, Economic Paper 28, Commonwealth
Secretariat, London.
Pearce, D.W. and Turner, R.K. (1990). Economics of Natural Resources and the
Environment. Harvester Wheatsheaf, Hertfordshire, U.K.
Pigou, A.C. (1920). The Economics of Welfare. Macmillan, London.
Ramchandani, R. and Pearce, D.W. (1992). Alternative Approaches to Setting

Effluent Quality Standards: Precautionary, Critical Load and Cost Benefit
Approaches. WM 92-04, Centre for Social and Economic Research on the
Global Environment (CSERGE) Working Paper, University of East Anglia and
University College, London.
Stiglitz, J.E. (1976) Monopoly and the Rate of Extraction of Exhaustible Resources.
American Economic Review, 66: 656-661.
Tietenberg, T. (1985). Emissions Trading. Johns Hopkins University Press,

Baltimore, Maryland.
Tietenberg, T. (1991). Economic Instruments for Environmental Regulation. In D.

Helm (ed.), Economic Policy Towards the Environment, Blackwell, Oxford.
Appendix 4.1 Customary Marine Tenure Systems in

26
Papua New Guinea
The traditional model used for fisheries management in Papua New Guinea
(PNG), as is the case in most countries, is based on the 'tragedy of the
commons' advanced by Hardin (1968). According to this model, if people
weigh their private benefits against private costs, they will overexploit
common resources when given free access. In terms of fisheries resources,
this model predicts that where access is free, there will be intense
competition resulting in overexploitation and extinction of the fish stocks.
In line with this model, the focus of fisheries management has been to limit
fishing effort by imposing rules. Here, it is argued that a system of
customary marine tenure (CMT) is a more effective management strategy
because it is based on community participation in decision-making and is
derived from kinship and lineage structures. This case study is organised as
follows. Firstly, the concepts of sea tenure and customary marine tenure are
defined. Secondly, we describe the nature ofCMT systems in the study area.
Next, we consider the issue of whether CMT systems are sustainable.
Finally, we conclude with the implications for government policy.
The term 'customary marine tenure' was first coined by Hviding (1989)
when he used it to refer to particular forms of sea tenure practiced in the
Pacific Islands.Z7 Hviding uses the term 'customary' to refer to a system
founded on traditional roots and with links to the past; 'marine' refers to the
fact that the system deals with coral reefs, lagoons, coast and open sea,
including islands and islets; and 'tenure' refers to the fact that the system
deals with access to marine areas and regulation of exploitation. Although
CMT systems are widespread in Pacific Island countries, including
Australia, there have been few studies that have attempted to document or
research them. In recent years, the governments of PNG, the Solomon
Islands, Vanuatu and Fiji have formulated policies, which explicitly
recognise 'tradition' and 'custom' in the process of economic development.
For example, Section 5 of the Customs Recognition Act of the PNG
26
This section draws heavily on Asafu-Adjaye (2000).
27
See, for example, studies by Hviding (1989), Ruddle et al. (1992) and Hviding et al. (1994).
constitution confers rights over water, reefs, and seabed to traditional

owners. The section states:
the ownership by custom of rights in, over

or in connection with the sea or a reef; or in
or on the bed of the sea or of a river or lake,
including rights offishing; or the ownership
by custom of water, or of rights in, over or
to water.
Thus, PNG law acknowledges traditional rights of ownership to coastal

water and fisheries resources. However, in reality, the government only
recognises CMT when it is practised within three miles of the coastline. The
problem is that such boundaries are often in conflict with those of CMT
systems. CMT systems use the estuaries of rivers, seashores and mangrove
swamps as landward reference points. From these points, the sea territory
extends outwards to include ocean-facing submerged reefs 28
Coastal communities have connections with their marine environments
that extend beyond three miles of the coastline. These areas are referred to as
'home reefs'. Communities often have folklore that asserts that their
ancestors were the original inhabitants and users of these particular areas.
Indigenous coastal communities have a holistic connection to the sea and
certain marine sites are of special religious and cultural significance. For
these and other reasons, some CMT systems may not have well demarcated
boundaries. For example, some species of socio-cultural significance (e.g.
dugong and turtle) are migratory and regarded as an inseparable component
of the seascape. Therefore, the community's connections to these animals
and the manne environment may transcend government-imposed
boundaries.
A major issue, which has been the subject of some debate, is whether
traditional resource management systems, of which CMT systems are a part,
are inherently sustainable. A popular but mistaken view among many
resource managers and government policy-makers is that traditional resource
management practices today are no longer sustainable because modem
economic forces have undermined them. One of the arguments that have
been used to support this view is that indigenous societies are no longer in
28
In one Solomon Islands coastal community, the marine boundary is defined as the
farthest point one can see from the tallest coconut tree.
balance with their environment since they now use upgraded technology
such as outboard motors and guns rather than canoes and bows and arrows.
Such views and misconceptions are based on lack of knowledge or ignorance
about how indigenous communities interact with their natural environments.
Another common misconception is that poor or marginalised communities
do not hold strong environmental values because they are only concerned
about survival. However, the fact of the matter is that tradition is not static.
CMT systems, like the societies from which they come, are dynamic and
highly adaptive. Over time, CMT systems in the study area have changed to
reflect the changing social and economic circumstances. The evidence
suggests that CMT systems thrive on an impressive body of local
environmental knowledge amassed over a long period of time. This
knowledge also includes an awareness of ecological interaction between land
and sea. Decisions about resource use are made on the basis of such
knowledge and there is little doubt that, in terms of resource management in
local areas, CMT systems are capable of sustaining marine resources.
Obviously, as economic conditions worsen, CMT systems are put under
pressure. In the study area, there is evidence of increasing commercialisation
of certain common property resources. Also, the dire economic
circumstances of the people have caused some to abandon or overlook
certain CMT rules. However, these developments do not necessarily mean
that CMT systems have failed and must be abandoned. On the contrary, the
government must make efforts to strengthen them. CMT systems are
communal, exclusive access collective property systems. They are self-
managed and self-regulated systems that change according to local
circumstances. The World Conservation Strategy recommended CMT
systems as one way of enhancing common property resources (IUCN,
1990:33), and they were also given a prominent role in Agenda 21 and the
Rio Declaration (UN, 1992).
CMT systems meet the requirements for social equity since all members
of the community are given input in decision-making. In particular, CMT
systems support multi-purpose and diversified exploitation strategies. This is
in line with the fact that most village households operate mixed production
strategies. CMT systems involve not only controlling access to resources,
but also policing and monitoring. It may be argued that they constitute a
sustainable management tool.
Customary marine tenure systems have a potential role to play in the
sustainable management of fisheries and marine resources in Papua New
Guinea, as well as in other PICs. In the past, fisheries managers and

government policy-makers have wrongly applied the fisheries management
model advanced by Hardin's (1968) 'tragedy of the commons'. According to
this model, where access to a fishery is free, it is not in the interest of anyone
to limit his or her effort. To prevent overfishing and eventual destruction of
fish stocks, fisheries managers have tended to impose rules based on limits
on fishing effort. Such methods have not been successful as management
tools because they have been imposed on the community by outsiders. CMT
systems are more likely to succeed in the management of local fisheries
resources because they are community-based and are derived from kinship
and lineage structures. It is advocated that government and fisheries resource
managers must recognise and strengthen the functioning of CMT systems to
enable them play their role in the sustainable management of fisheries
resources.
References
Asafu-Adjaye, J. (2000). Customary Marine Tenure Systems and Sustainable
Fisheries Management in Papua New Guinea: The Case of the Western
Province. International Journal of Social Economics 27 (7/8/9/10):917-926.
Hardin, G. (1968). The Tragedy of the Commons. Science, 168: 1243-1248.
Hviding, E. (1989). All Things in Our Sea: The Dynamics of Customary Marine
Tenure, Marovo Lagoon, Solomon Islands. Special Publication No. 13, National
Research Institute, Boroko, PNG.
Hviding, E., Baines, G.B.K and Ghai, D. (1994). Community-Based Fisheries

Management, Tradition and the Challenges of Development in Marovo,
Solomon Island. Blackwell Publishers, Oxford, U.K
IUCN-UNEP-WWF (1990). Caring for the World: A Strategy for Sustainabiliy.

Second Draft, World Conservation Union, Glands, Switzerland.
United Nations, UN (1992). Rio Declaration, Final text of agreements negotiated by

governments at the United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development, 3-14 June, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, Principles 7-8, 11-12, 14-15.
Part 11. Tools for Environmental Policy Analysis
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5. Environmental Valuation
Objectives
[J explain the various types of non-market values associated with

environmental goods and services;
[J explain various techniques for estimating non-market values;
[J explain the limitations of these techniques; and
[J implement the travel cost method.
5.1 Introduction
The proper valuation of non-market environmental commodities has
significant policy implications. In the past such commodities have been
assigned zero or low values due to difficulties involved in assigning
economic values. Failure to properly account for the values of some
environmental resources has resulted in decisions that have had negative
implications for the environment and the society. Environmental valuation is
also important in the event of natural disasters, either man-made or naturally
occurring. A recent example is the Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska. In a
landmark case the United States Supreme Court ruled that the people of
Alaska should be compensated for their loss of livelihood and recreation as a
result of the accident. As most of the lost benefits were non-market in nature,
conventional market techniques could not be used.
This chapter begins with a description of the types of non-market values
associated with a given environmental resource. The chapter then proceeds
109
to describe a range of techniques for valuing non-market environmental

commodities. A summary of the main points is provided at the end.
5.2 Types of Economic Values

Whenever we think of a resource, say a forest, the value that immediately
comes to mind is the utility that we derive from direct uses (e.g., timber
harvesting, and recreation). However, there is a range of values that is
associated with a natural resource such as a forest. The total economic value
(TEV) of a natural resource can be divided into two broad categories:
instrumental or use value, and intrinsic or non-use (or passive use) value
(Figure 5.1). Use values, which are most commonly known, refer to the
capacity of a good or service to satisfy our needs or preferences. Use values
can be further divided into direct value and indirect use value.
Figure 5.1 A taxonomy of economic values
1 ___
t\ltarn~ou6miiVal\ie
L (TEV) ]of__ _
aforest
Direct use values consist of consumptive uses such as timber harvesting and
non-consumptive uses such as camping, hiking and birdwatching. Indirect
use values include environmental services such as maintenance of the
hydrological system, climatic stabilization (e.g., carbon fixing) and soil
stabilization.
Intrinsic or non-use values, as the name suggests, are inherent in the
good. That is, the satisfaction we derive from the good is not related to its
Environmental Valuation Ill
consumption, per se. Non-use or passive use values compnse existence

value, bequest value and option value.
Existence value arises from the benefit an individual derives from
knowing that a resource exists or will continue to exist regardless of the fact
that they have never seen or used the resource, or intend to see or use it in
the future. A good example of the significance of non-use value is the
international outcry over the whaling issue. There are many people who have
never seen a whale or plan to see one, but are nevertheless willing to pay
significant sums of money to ensure that whales are not hunted to extinction.
Bequest values arise from the benefits that individuals derive from
knowing that a resource will be available for their children and children's
children. Option value is a little more complex. Option value may be defined
as the amount of money an individual is willing to pay, at the current time, to
ensure that a resource is available in the future, should they decide to use it.
To the extent that option value is the expected value of future use of the
resource, it may also be classified as a form of use value.
A related type of option value is quasi-option value (Arrow and Fisher,
1974; Fisher and Hanemann, 1987). Suppose there is a choice between
conservation and development. However, the development option will result
in an irreversible change. In this case, quasi-option value is the value of
information that results after a decision has been made to develop or
conserve at the present time. For example, if a cure for a fatal disease were
to be found after the conservation decision has been made, then quasi option
value would clearly be positive. It must be noted that quasi-option value
cannot be summed with option value because it measures a different
concept.
V se values can be readily measured by market prices or other means and
are well accounted for in decision-making processes. However, as indicated
earlier, non-use values are problematic because they are not traded and
therefore cannot be valued by market prices. Empirical research suggests
that non-use values can be a significant component of total economic value.
Table 5.1 reports estimates of use and non-use values for wildlife in Alberta,
Canada. The preservation (i.e., non-use) benefits of wildlife were estimated
to be C$67. 7 million per annum out of a total economic value of C$185 .2
million per annum in 1987 dollars. In this case non-use benefits were at least
one-third of TEV. Thus, failure to consider such benefits, whether
quantitatively or qualitatively, in the decision-making calculus could lead to
gross underestimation of the contribution of wildlife to total social welfare.
We discuss below a range of techniques for obtaining non-market values of

environmental resources.
Table 5.1 Estimates of the economic value of wildlife in Alberta, Canada
Mean Annual In perpe-

values Number of values tuity
Type of value C$/capitalp.a. participants (1987 (C$ mil.
C$mil.) .a.)
Preservation Benefits 80.9 836,125 67.7 1354
Hunting
Waterfowl 171.8 59,730 10.3 206
Other birds 130.0 84,827 11.0 220
Small mammals II9.1 56,738 6.8 136
Large mammals 211.1 II8,207 24.9 498
All hunting 165.9 53.0 1060
Non-Consumptive Use 163.0 395,873 64.5 1290
Total Economic Value 185.2 3704
Source: Adamowicz, Asafu-Adjaye, Boxall and Phillips (1991).
5.3 Non-Market Valuation Methods

Non-market valuation methods can be broadly classified into two categories:
revealed preference (RP) models, stated (or expressed) preference (SP)
models, and combined SP and RP models. Revealed preference approaches
make use of individuals' behaviour in actual or simulated markets to infer
the value of an environmental good or service. For example, the value of a
wilderness area may be inferred by expenditures that recreationists incur to
travel to the area. The value of, say, noise pollution may be inferred by
analysing the value of residential property near an airport. These methods
are also referred to as indirect or surrogate market approaches.
Examples of RP methods include:

Travel Cost Method (TCM)
Hedonic Pricing Method (HPM)
Cost (or Expenditure) Methods, and
Environmental Valuation 113
Benefit Transfer Methods
Stated preference methods attempt to elicit environmental values directly

from respondents using survey techniques, hence the alternative name of
'direct approach'. As will be explained below, these methods are flexible
and can be applied to a wider range of environmental goods and services
than RP methods. Furthermore, SP methods can be used to estimate total
economic value (i.e., use and non-use values), whereas RP methods can be
used to estimate only use values. Stated Preference methods do have some
drawbacks and these are discussed below.
5.3.1 Stated Preference Models

Stated preference models can be further classified into three types:
contingent valuation method (CVM), conjoint analysis, and choice
modelling. In this section we first consider the CVM and then go on to
discuss conjoint analysis and choice modelling.
The Contingent Valuation Method

The CVM uses interview techniques to ask individuals to place values on
environmental goods or services. The term 'contingent' in CVM suggests
that it is contingent on simulating a hypothetical market for the good in
question. The most common approach in the CVM is to ask individuals the
maximum amount of money they are willing to pay to use or preserve the
given good or service. Alternatively, the respondents could be asked the
maximum amount of money they are willing to accept in compensation
(WT A) to forgo the given environmental good or service. Theoretically,
these two measures should be equivalent. However, empirical studies have
indicated that WTA estimates exceed WTP estimates. 29 Typical steps in a
CVM procedure are as follows:
1. Set up the hypothetical market;

2. Obtain the bids;
3. Estimate mean WTP and/or WTA; and
29
Critics of the CVM assert that this is an indication of the lack of validity of the method.
However, recent research indicates that the divergence should be expected on both economic
and psychological grounds. Individuals may feel the cost of a loss more intensely than the
benefit of a gain.
4. Estimate bid curves
Setting up the hypothetical market

The first step is to establish a reason for a good or service where there is no
current payment. Suppose there is a government proposal to mine, say, a
wilderness area. Assuming few people actually visit the area, the analyst
would describe the area and the impacts of the proposed project on the
environment. Pictorial aids could also be used in setting up this hypothetical
market (not applicable to a telephone interview).
Obtaining the bids

The second step is to decide on a suitable 'bid vehicle'. This is the method
by which the WTP or WT A bids would be elicited. Possible bid vehicles
could include income taxes, property taxes, utility bills, entry fees, and
payments into a trust fund.
Methods used to obtain the bids include face-to-face interviews,
telephone interviews or postal surveys. A face-to-face interview allows more
scope in presenting the hypothetical market and clarifying respondent
concerns. However, it is the most expensive method because interviewers
have to be paid. The telephone interview and postal survey offer less
flexibility, in declining order
Methods of obtaining bids include the following:
Bidding games: respondents are offered progressively higher bids

until they reach their maximum WTP.
Payment card: a range of values is provided on a card and the
respondent is requested to choose one.
Open-ended questions: respondents are asked to report their
maximum WTP.
Close ended questions: there are at least three variants:
(i) Dichotomous choice (referendum): a single amount is offered
and respondents are asked to provide a 'Yes' or 'No' answer,
also referred to as the 'take it or leave it' approach;
(ii) Double-bounded referendum: respondents who answer 'no' to
the first amount are offered a lower amount, and those who
answer 'yes' are offered a higher amount; and
(iii) Trichotomous choice: respondents are offered three choices to
the payment-'yes', 'no' and 'indifferent'.
An important requirement of using the CVM is that the respondents must be

reminded of their budget constraints when eliciting their bids. The
dichotomous choice (or referendum) format (Bishop and Heberlein, 1979) is
considered to be the state-of-the-art in CVM methodology. A National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) panel of economic
experts, chaired by Kenneth Arrow and Robert Solow, recommended the
referendum format over the open-ended format (NOAA, 1993). The double-
bounded referendum (Hanneman, 1985) and trichotomous choice (Ready et
al., 1995) are relatively more recent variants of this approach.
Estimating mean WTP and/or WTA

For the first three bid elicitation approaches the mean and median WTP can
be found from the individual bids. Mean and median bids for the close-ended
referendum bids are more difficult to obtain. Analytical methods such as
probit, logit and random utility models can be used to obtain estimates.
Estimating the bid (demand) curves

Bid (or demand) curves could be estimated at this stage to validate the WTP
results and to estimate aggregate WTP. The bid curve is estimated by
regressing WTP against relevant socioeconomic variables, and checking to
see whether the signs conform to theory. For example, the following demand
function could be estimated:
(5.1)
where A is age; E is educational level; Y is income level and M is a variable

for membership of an environmental organisation. Based on economic
theory, we would expect Yto be positively related to WTP.
The total value of the good or service can be estimated by multiplying
the mean WTP by the number of households (if the sampling unit used was
the household).
Choice Experiments
Choice experiment approaches include conjoint analysis 30 and choice
modelling (CM). Conjoint analysis is further divided into contingent
ranking, contingent rating and paired comparison.
Conjoint analysis
A major difference between CVM and conjoint analysis is that in the former
respondents are required to evaluate only one or sometimes two alternatives.
On the other hand, the latter requires them to evaluate several alternatives
separately. In contingent rating, respondents are requested to rate their
preferences for several alternatives on, say, a ten-point scale. They are
presented with a set of attributes associated with each alternative. The
respondents' ratings are then regressed against the attributes. The marginal
rate of substitution between a given attribute and its price provides an
estimate of the 'value' of the attribute. This is referred to as the 'part-
worth' of the attribute. Summing all the part-worths provides an estimate of
a respondent's WTP for an aggregate change in the environmental good or
service. In contingent ranking, respondents are required to rank all the
alternatives from least preferred to most preferred. The analysis of
contingent ranking data is similar to that of contingent rating. The rankings
can be converted to a ratings scale and analysed with multiple regression
techniques, or other estimation methods such as logit or probit analysis can
be used.
A weakness of both contingent rating and contingent ranking is that they
do not provide the respondent with an opportunity to reject the good. The
only way they allow opposition is by registering a low rating or ranking. In
that sense these methods are considered to be unconditional or relative
measures of WTP and could be understated.
In the paired comparison approach, respondents are presented with
successive sets of two choices and asked to rate the difference between them
on a scale (usually, a 5-point scale). A form of paired comparison is adaptive
conjoint analysis where the pairs are generated with the aid of a computer.
Like the previous two methods, the data from the paired comparison can be
analysed using multiple regression, logit or probit models to provide
3
Conjoint analysis is a popular technique in marketing research. It has only recently been
adapted for valuing environmental goods and services.
estimates of a respondent's WTP for an aggregate change in the

environmental good or service.
Choice modelling
Choice modelling was developed by Jordan Louviere and was initially used
in the field of marketing to analyse consumer choices (Louviere and
Woodworth, 1982). Since then, a few studies have used the method to value
environmental goods and services. 31 In this approach, respondents are
presented with a series of alternatives, with each containing three or more
resource use options. Usually, each alternative is defined by a number of
attributes. For example, in a CM study of preserving a wilderness area the
attributes could be the following: numbers of rare species present; ease of
access to the area, size of area and cost to households (Box 5.1). These
attributes would then be varied across the various alternatives. The
respondents are then required to choose their most preferred alternative.
Estimates of respondents' WTP are obtained by estimating a multinomial
logit model.
Choice modelling is relatively more versatile than the other SP methods.
It can be used to value multiple sites or multiple use alternatives. Unlike
conjoint analysis, CM can be used to provide conditional or absolute
measures of WTP provided a 'choose neither' option is included among the
alternatives.
The main disadvantage of choice modelling is that complex survey
designs are required. The number of choice sets can be large, which tends to
lengthen interview times.
Biases associated with stated preference models

Stated preference models have some distinct advantages. Most are
straightforward to apply and do not require any theoretical assumptions
compared to revealed preference approaches. The only assumption is that the
individual is able to value the good or service and will truthfully report his or
her valuation. Furthermore, at the present time, methods such as CVM and
choice modelling are the only ones that can be used to estimate non-use or
passive use values.
31
See applications by Adamowicz et al. (1994) for valuing water-based recreation and by
Morrison et al. (1998) for valuing wetlands.
Box 5.1 Choice modelling application in the Desert Uplands,

Central Queensland
Choice modelling was used to estimate the economic value of

preventing the loss of endangered species in the Desert Uplands region
of central Queensland (Blarney et al., 1997). The aims of the study
were: (i) to apply and develop the choice modelling technique; and (ii)
to provide estimates of the economic value of preventing endangered
species loss to assist resource management decision-making. The first
objective was to enable a test of choice modelling as an alternative to
the CVM given the problems associated with the latter. With regards to
the second objective, land clearing is a major problem in the area, and
there was a need to assess the trade-offs involved with alternative land
uses.
The preliminary results suggest that the loss of endangered species
was valued at A$11 per species by Brisbane residents aged under 30
years of age and $14 per species by Brisbane residents aged under 60
years of age.
Source: Blarney et al. (1997).
In spite of (or maybe due to) their simplicity, stated preference methods
are subject to a number of biases. These include: (i) hypothetical bias; (ii)
embedding effect; (iii) strategic bias; (iv) bid vehicle bias; (v) starting
point bias; (vi) information bias; (vii) part-whole bias; and (viii) non-
response bias.
These biases are briefly discussed below.
(1) Hypothetical bias: the major assumption in the CVM is that the amount
of money people say they are willing to pay corresponds to the
individual valuations of the good or service in question. The CVM has
been criticised for the fact that respondents do not actually have to pay
their stated amounts. Therefore, it has been suggested that the
hypothetical nature of the exercise might induce people to 'free ride',
that is, understate their true WTP. However, in a series of experiments in
which hypothetical WTP has been compared to actual WTP,
hypothetical bias has not been found to be significant.
(2) Embedding effect: embedding effect (Kahneman and Knetsch, 1992) is

said to occur when an individual's WTP is lower when it is valued as
part of a more inclusive good or service, rather than on its own. It has
been suggested that embedding effect occurs because people are seeking
a 'feel good' or 'warm glow' associated with contributing to a 'good'
cause. Some researchers attribute embedding to the existence of
substitutes. That is, people will reduce their WTP if they are aware of
substitutes. Embedding effect is minimised in CM because it allows
explicit inclusion of substitutes.
(3) Strategic bias: strategic bias occurs when a person deliberately overstates
(or understates) his or her true bid in order to influence the outcome. For
example, some people who strongly support a proposed development
may report a zero WTP for conservation even when they have a positive
WTP. Other SP methods may not suffer from the same level of strategic
bias as CVM because they do not require respondents to state their bids.
(4) Bid vehicle bias: as noted above, the CVM depends on a 'vehicle', that
is, a means by which the stated hypothetical amounts would be
collected. An individual who dislikes a particular kind of vehicle (e.g.,
higher taxes) may understate his or her WTP. In some areas, respondents
might be dissatisfied with the way their government is using their taxes
and therefore such a vehicle might invoke a negative response. A
solution to this problem is to use a 'neutral' vehicle. For example, for
preservation values, a useful vehicle could be donations to a trust fund to
be administered by an independent non-governmental organisation.
Vehicle bias is present in CVM and contingent ranking. There is a
question mark on the presence of vehicle bias in contingent rating,
paired comparison and CM because these methods emphasise multiple
attributes which place less emphasis on payment.
(5) Starting point bias: some CVM bid elicitation formats (payment card and
bidding game) 'start' off with a certain amount. The stated amount may
induce bias in the sense that it may be misinterpreted by the respondent
as a cue for an 'appropriate' range ofWTP. There is not much empirical
evidence about the extent of this type of bias. However, it may be
minimised by extensive pretests of the survey instrument.
(6) Information bias: because a CVM is conducted by creating hypothetical

scenarios, this scenario must be conveyed to the respondent by providing
information. The quantity, quality and sequencing of this information
can influence the bids. Insufficient information will make it difficult for
the respondent to properly value the given good if he or she has no prior
knowledge of it. On the other hand, too much information would be a
definite source of bias. One way of minimising this kind of bias is to
provide enough information to model the real context of the valuation
exercise.
(7) Part-whole bias: there is concern that if people are asked to value one
part of a given asset (e.g., all wildlife) and then subsequently asked to
value a part of it (e.g., a given species) the response may be similar. It
has been suggested that this problem arises from the way people allocate
their personal budget, first dividing their income amongst broad
consumption categories, and then allocating to sub-categories of goods.
The solution to this problem is to remind them of their budget
constraints and to restrict valuation to whole goods rather than parts of
the good.
(8) Non-response bias: this type of bias is associated with surveys, in

general. Some people cannot be bothered to participate in surveys.
Often, it is those with particular interests in the subject who are likely to
respond. In such cases, it may be argued that the sample is not
representative of the population. Non-response bias can be minimised if
questions are easier to answer. In this regard, it has been suggested that
the CM format may be easier than, say, the CVM. Mackenzie (1993)
reported that only 1.4 percent of respondents in a CM survey refused to
answer rating questions.
Summary of stated preference methods

Stated preference methods are relatively straightforward approaches for
eliciting individuals' valuations of non-market environmental goods and
services. They require few theoretical assumptions. For example, the only
assumption implicit in the use of the CVM is that respondents have an idea
of their personal preferences and are willing to truthfully report their
willingness-to-pay. However, the validity and reliability of estimates
obtained using these methods may be questioned due to inherent biases.
Most of these biases are associated with the CVM, in particular. These
include hypothetical, part-whole, strategic, vehicle, starting point and non-
response bias. The other SP approaches are less prone to certain types of
biases. Recent research, however, suggests that following certain best
practice procedures in survey design can minimise most of these biases. At
the present time, CVM and CM are the only techniques that can be used to
value non-use values.
5.3.2 Revealed Preference Models

Revealed Preference models include the travel cost method, the hedonic
price method, market value or cost methods and the benefit transfer method
Travel Cost Method (TCM)

The concept of using travel costs to value recreation was first proposed by
Hotelling in 1949 and formalised by Clawson (1959). However, Davis
(1963) was the first to apply the method in a study of the value of recreation
in Maine forests. The basic assumptions underlying the TCM are that (i) the
costs an individual incurs in visiting a recreational site reflect the person's
valuation of that site, and (ii) individuals will react to an increase in entry
fees in the same way as they would react to an increase in travel costs. That
is, at some high level of entry fee (or cost of travel) no one would visit the
site because it would be too expensive. By asking visitors questions relating
to where they have travelled from and the costs they have incurred, and
relating this information to the number of visits they make per annum, a
demand curve can be generated for the recreational site under question. This
curve will be downward sloping in the sense that travel cost will be inversely
related to number of visits (Figure 5.2). That is, those living near the site will
make more visits per annum compared to those living far away.
There are two forms of the travel cost method: the zonal travel cost
method (ZTCM) and the individual travel cost method (ITCM). In the
zonal travel cost approach (e.g., see Smith and Kaoru, 1990), concentric
zones are defined around each site such that the cost of travel from all points
in a given zone is approximately constant. Visitors to the site are grouped
according to their zone of origin. By comparing the cost of coming from a
zone with the number of people who come from it and the population of the
zone, one can plot a point for each zone. A curve can then be fitted to all the
points to generate the demand curve from which a measure of consumers

surplus can be obtained.
Figure 5.2 Demand curve for the travel cost method
35
30
,.-._ 25
~
(1)
<.2:l 20
(1)
u
~
~
15
~
w 10
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Number of visits (p.a.)
A trip-generating function for the ZTCM can be specified as:
(5.2)
where: Vh =number of visits from zone h

Nh = population of zone h
eh= travel cost from zone h
Xh =a vector of socioeconomic variables that explain changes in V
The ITCM uses the number of visits per annum made by an individual,
rather than zonal visits, as the basis for generating the demand curve. The
trip-generating function for the ITCM can be stated as follows:
(5.3)
where: Vi= number of visits made by individual i to the site

C =cost of a visit by individual i to the site
Xi= socioeconomic factors affecting individual i' s visits to the site
By integrating the area under the demand curve, an ITCM estimate of the
individual's consumer surplus can be obtained. This figure is then multiplied
by the number of visitors per annum to obtain the aggregate benefits.
Recently, variations of the travel cost model have been developed. These
include the combined TCM and CVM model (discussed in more detail later),
the random utility model (RUM), the hedonic travel cost model, and the
multi-site travel cost model. The RUM (Ward and Loomis, 1986) first
models the visitor's decision on whether or not to participate in the
recreation activity, followed by the decisions on the number of visits.
Econometric techniques such as probit, tobit and and logit models are used
to estimate these two decisions independently. The hedonic travel cost model
(Bockstael et al., 1991) identifies separate characteristics of the recreation
experience and the price that people are WTP for each. The first stage of the
procedure involves regressing the respondents' travel costs on measures of
quality characteristics at the site. A separate demand curve for each
characteristic is then developed. The multi-site travel cost model (Ward and
Beal, 2000) attempts to account for all relevant substitute sites within the
region. Visitation data from multiple sites that have different levels of the
site quality variable of interest are used and the model predicts demand for
each site.
Table 5.2 reports travel cost estimates for various protected areas in
Queensland. Beal (1995) estimated a value of A$2.50 per person per visit for
trips to the Camarvon Gorge National Park, but Hundloe et al. (1990)
estimated relatively higher values of A$15.70-32.63 per visit to Fraser
Island. Scoccimarro (1992) estimated the value of recreation in the Green
Mountains, Lamington National Park, to range from A$8.09-9.23 per visitor
per day. Much higher estimates of A$362 per visit and A$49 per visit,
respectively, for Hinchinbrook Island (Stoekl, 1994) and the Wet Tropics
World Heritage Area (Driml, 1996) have been made.
Limitations of the TCM

As indicated above the main underlying assumption of the TCM is that the
value of a recreational site corresponds to the costs that the respondent
incurs in undertaking the recreational experience. A distinct advantage of the
TCM is that it is based on real rather than hypothetical data and as such can
provide true values. It is based on the simplified assumption that the
recreational value of a place is directly related to travel costs incurred in

getting there.
Table 5.2 Travel cost estimates of protected areas in Queensland
Site Study Average willingness-to-

a
Carnarvon Gorge National Park Beal (1995) A$2.50 per person
Fraser Island Hundloe et al. (1990) A$15.70-32.63 per visit
Green Mountains, Lamington Scoccimarro (1992) A$8.09-9.23 per visitor

National Park day
Hinchinbrook Island Stoekl (1994) A$362 per visit
Wet Tropics World Heritage Area Driml (1996) A$49 per visit (domestic
tourists)
However, the TCM suffers from the following limitations.
(1) The TCM is suited to estimating the value of particular sites or locations
and is unsuited for measuring other kinds of goods or services. For
example, TCM cannot be used to value non-use or passive use values.
This is because it is based on the travel costs of users of a given
recreational site. Non-users, who may have significant values for the
same site are excluded from the sample.
(2) Multiple destinations: a problem arises about the appropriate allocation

of costs among multipurpose journeys. The allocation of such costs
could be arbitrary and there is currently no consensus on how to do this.
A variety of ways of dealing with this issue has been suggested in the
literature. One approach is to omit multiple-destination visitors and
consider only single-site visitors. The other is to ask the respondents to
allocate a proportion of the total travel cost to the given site.
(3) Visits to certain sites could be seasonal and therefore the survey results
could be biased unless it is conducted over a long period.
(4) Travel costs: the assumption that travel costs reflect recreational value
may not always be true. For example, people who live near the site may
incur zero or minimal travel costs but may nevertheless have high
values.
(5) Time and other factors: the TCM assumes that travel costs (e.g., fuel
costs) are the major determinants of the value of a recreational site.
However, other factors could affect the demand for recreation. For
example, travel time is an opportunity cost because the time spent
travelling is not available for other pursuits. Time should therefore be
considered as a cost. 32 However, there is no consensus as to how time
should be accounted for in TCM. In some studies, a certain proportion of
the wage rate is multiplied by travel time to provide an estimate of the
opportunity cost of time. However, the choice of the weight is quite
arbitrary and open to question.
(6) Welfare estimates computed from the TCM may differ depending on the
variables and functional form used to estimate the relationship between
demand for visits and the cost oftrave1. 33
Summary ofTCM
To summarise, the travel cost method is a useful method for valuing the
recreational benefits of a site. However, it is a restrictive method in the sense
that it can only be used to measure site-specific recreational value. There are
also some problems in actually deriving benefit estimates. These relate to the
issues of the cost of travel time and substitute sites.
The Hedonic Price Method

The hedonic price method (HPM) derives values for an environmental
good or service by using information from the market price of close
substitutes. It is based on Lancaster's consumption theory which assumes
that a good or service provides a bundle of characteristics or attributes
(Lancaster, 1966). Suppose the government wishes to value the disutility
generated by aircraft noise in a given location. It could do so by analysing
variations in house prices as one moves away from the flight path of aircraft.
Take the example of two houses with the same facilities (e.g., number of
32
If a person enjoys, say, views of the countryside while travelling, or simply enjoys
travelling then, of course, this should be considered a benefit.
33
This problem also applies to the hedonic price method.
bedrooms, bathrooms, and swimming pool). One is directly under the flight
path and the other is quite a distance away. It is expected that the house
under the flight path will be cheaper and the price difference may be
attributable to the value of the noise pollution.
Hedonic price models attempt to explain individuals' willingness-to-pay
in terms of a set of attributes and characteristics of the good. For example,
the price a potential homebuyer is willing to pay for a house depends on the
location of the property, number of rooms, access to amenities (e.g., schools
and transport), the environmental quality and the person's income. The
hedonic price equation may therefore be expressed as
Price of house = f(location, number of rooms, access to amenities,

income of buyer, environmental quality) (5.4)
where environmental quality is proxied by aircraft noise measured in

decibels.
Data are collected on each of the five variables for a reasonable sample
of houses. Equation (5.4) is then estimated using multiple regression
techniques. We would expect house prices to be positively related to the
number of rooms, positively related to the degree of access to amenities
(e.g., shops, schools, entertainment), positively related to income and
negatively related to environmental quality (aircraft noise in decibels). The
monetary value for a one-unit change in noise level can be found by
differentiating this function with respect to environmental quality, or
alternatively, by finding it from a plot of the function (Figure 5.3).
Table 5.3 presents RPM estimates for the value of traffic noise in the
U.S. The results reported represent coefficients of the hedonic price function
for various American cities. They measure the percentage fall in house prices
due to a one-decibel increase in noise levels. The monetary value of noise is
the coefficient multiplied by the average house price in the area. For
example,
Monetary value for a one decibel decrease in noise in North Virginia

= 0.15 x (average house price in North Virginia)/ lOO (5.5)
Figure 5.3 Effect of aircraft noise on house prices
,-.._ 2500
8
~
...<11 2000
c.
~
1500
<11
~
'E: 1000
c.
<11
"'= 500
Q
::::::
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Aircraft noise (decibels)
Table 5.3 Impact of traffic noise on house prices in the U.S.
Percent fall in house price due to a 1 decibel

AreaofU.S. increase in noise level
North Virginia 0.15
Tidewater 0.14
North Springfield 0.18-D.50
Tourism 0.54
Washington, D.C. 0.88
Kings gate 0.48
North King County 0.40
Spokane 0.08
Chica o 0.65
Source: Nelson (1982).
Summary of the HPM

The HPM is suited to the estimation of the characteristics of goods and
services. However, it also has some limitations. As is the case for the TCM,
welfare estimates computed from the HPM are sensitive to the choice of
functional form and the variables included in the model. The HPM is
susceptible to the problem of multicollinearity, which refers to a high degree
of correlation amongst the explanatory variables in the hedonic price
function.
A major assumption is that, given income constraints, people are free to

select the characteristics of houses that satisfy their preferences and that the
price they are willing to pay takes account of these factors. However, house
prices can also be affected by external factors such as taxes and interest
rates, which are not accounted for in the hedonic price equation.
Market Value Method

Market value approaches make use of observed market prices for
environmental goods and services. Based on our classification of TEV
above, it can be seen that this approach can only be used to value
environmental goods and services that have established markets. These are
commodities which have:
direct uses: e.g., plantation timber, commercial fisheries,

tourism;
some indirect uses: e.g., the value of water from protected
watersheds; and
some option values: e.g., gene research, forest conservation.
Market value methods attempt to find a link between a proposed

environmental change and the market value of the corresponding goods and
services. A common approach is to use changes in productivity of the good
or service. For example, the direct impacts of an environmental change on
human health can be estimated as a change in income. The assumption here
is that sickness reduces one's ability to earn income.
The advantages of the market value method are:
(1) It is relatively simple and straightforward;

(2) It relies on actual market values; and
(3) It has some relation to measured output.
The disadvantages are:
(1) It is limited in the types ofvalues that it can capture;

(2) It can be difficult to define the physical flows over time;
(3) In some cases, the links between the environmental change and the
market good or service may not be obvious.
Market Cost Method

In general, market-cost methods measure the cost of achieving a particular
objective. Examples include restoring certain environmental services and
avoiding land degradation. These methods focus on the cost of prevention or
rectifying environmental damage and the cost of replacing environmental
services. Most often, these costs are estimated from market prices, including
the costs oflabour and materials used in the particular activity.
There are a number of variations of the market cost method. These
include the following: (1) change in cost; (2) replacement cost; and (3)
defensive expenditures. The basic assumption of cost methods is that the
value of a good is equal to some multiple of the cost of producing it.
(1) Change in cost method: suppose a proposed project may change the
cost of a good or service. If the project causes a decrease in the cost of
the good or service, this can be interpreted as a gain in benefits, that is, a
cost saving. On the other hand if the project results in an increase in
costs, this may be taken to be a loss of benefits. Take the example of a
project that involves the construction of a water supply system. In this
case a major benefit is the cost savings to households from not having to
buy water from water vendors or transport water over long distances.
(2) Replacement cost method: assumes that the value of an existing good
or service is the cost of replacing it. For example, if a storm damages
roads, buildings and transmission lines then an estimate of the damage
done is the cost of replacing these structures. However, in this case, the
replacement cost must be considered as the minimum value of the
benefits derived from these goods. This is because we need to add on the
consumer surplus that people derive from utilising the good or service. A
variation of replacement cost is mitigation cost. Mitigation cost is an
estimate of the cost of restoring a damaged environmental good to its
former condition. This approach could be useful where the damage is
minor. Obviously, it is of limited use where the damage is either
irreversible or total restoration is impossible.
(3) Defensive-expenditure method: in this approach the net benefit of a

particular project intervention is the amount of money people are willing
to spend to either mitigate or avoid the impacts.Z7 A good example is a

community which does not have good drinking water. In this case, the
benefits of introducing a water treatment plant include the amount of
money people spend to boil or treat their water for cooking or drinking
purposes.
Limitations of market and cost methods

The market and cost methods are easy to apply and can provide useful
measures of net benefits. People can easily understand the use of monetary
units. However, a major limitation is that they do not measure benefits that
are determined from the interaction between the demand for and supply of
environmental goods. As such, they only capture a portion of total benefits
(e.g., they exclude non-use benefits). Where there is a high degree of non-
market benefits or costs, market values may provide only minimum
estimates of opportunity costs or forgone benefits.
Benefit Transfer Method

The benefit transfer method is another alternative for obtaining non-market
values. This approach has been applied to value the impact of improved
water quality on recreation values and public health (Kask and Shogren,
1994) and to lake recreation (Parsons and Kealy, 1994). It involves
'transferring' values that have been estimated for a similar good or service
from another location to the current location. The approach is useful because
surveys are expensive and, in addition to money, there could be a time
constraint.
Economists are divided on the validity of the benefit transfer method.
For this method to be meaningful, the following conditions must hold:
The goods (or services) in both sites should have roughly similar
characteristics;
The population in both areas should be similar; and
The values in the first study should not have been estimated a long
time ago because preferences change over time.
Three tests have been suggested to determine the accuracy of benefit transfer
(Box 5.1). The aims of these tests are to determine the convergent validity
34
See Hufschmidt et al. (1993) for a good discussion of applications in developing countries.
(i.e., statistical validity) of benefit transfer and the extent of any bias. The
first test involves comparing the benefit transfer values with primary data
values obtained from the policy site. If the benefit transfer estimates are not
statistically different from the primary data value estimates from the policy
site, then it may be concluded that the benefit transfer values are valid. The
extent of bias is given by the deviation between the two estimates.
The second test involves determining whether different populations have
the same preferences for the same non-market good, after controlling for
differences in socioeconomic characteristics such as income and education
levels. The third type of benefit transfer test is to determine whether transfers
are stable over time. 35 Many studies have concluded that value estimates
remain relatively stable over a few years.
Morrison et al. (1998) investigated the suitability of using choice
modelling estimates for benefit transfers both across different populations
and across different wetlands in northern New South Wales, Australia. In
general, the weight of the evidence appeared to be against the convergent
validity of both transfers across sites and across populations. However, they
found that transfers across sites tended to be less problematic compared to
transfers across population.
5.3.3 Combined Stated and Revealed Preference Models

In the past, SP and RP models have been viewed as substitute valuation
methodologies. Some researchers (e.g., Carson et al. 1996) have attempted
to test the validity of one of the approaches by making comparisons of
welfare estimates derived from both models. However, since each approach
is subject to criticism, including a variety of biases and statistical estimation
problems, it is not clear that such a validation strategy is effective. Cameron
(1992) made the innovative suggestion that, rather than treating, say, the
CVM and TCM as competing methods, the two approaches could be
successfully combined to estimate welfare measures. Since information from
two sources are being combined to estimate a given set of parameters, the
combined model should be estimated more precisely than separate models.
Catherine Kling analysed the gains from combining TCM and CVM data
using simulation experiments (Kling, 1997). She found that there were
definite gains in precision from combining models and there also appeared to
be gains in reduced bias. The parameter estimates from the combined model
35
See, for example, studies by Rei ling et. at ( 1990) and Teisl et. at ( 1994 ).
results are generally more efficient because information on the same set of
underlying preferences is used to construct the estimates.
The advantages of combing RP and Sp methods can be summarised as
follows:
(1) With a combined approach, researchers can afford to work with

smaller samples since each person in the sample generates more than
one observation;
(2) The combined approach results in improved statistical efficiency as
indicated above; and
(3) The combined approach allows us to test for the consistency of SP
and RP representation of individuals' preferences.
There are, however, some disadvantages of the combined approach. These

are:
(1) The combined models are statistically complex and harder to

implement;
(2) The combined approach does not work in all situations. For
example, there must be a RP technique that fits the problem;
(3) In practical terms, there is limited experience in using this approach
to analyse environmental issues; and
(4) Using the combined approach implies asking more survey questions.
This could reduce the response rates, increase protests, and reduce
the overall quality of the responses.
5.4 Summary
In this chapter various methods for estimating non-market values were
introduced. The methods discussed were the SP methods (contingent
valuation method, conjoint analysis, and choice modelling), RP methods
(travel cost method, hedonic price method, the market value method and the
market cost method), as well as combined SP and RP methods.
There is no single technique that is superior to the others. The choice of a
particular technique depends on the particular resource valuation problem at
hand. For example, if one wanted to estimate non-use or passive benefits, the
CVM (or choice modelling) would be the technique of choice. If one wanted
to estimate the recreation benefits of a particular resource, say, a national

park, TCM would be a suitable choice. It was stated that there are gains in
precision from combining SP and RP models and there also appeared to be
gains in reduced bias. However, the combined models are complex and
difficult to implement. Furthermore there is limited experience in the use of
such models.
The application of these valuation techniques is important for decision
making insofar as they take into account the unpriced or underpriced
outcomes of proposed policies or projects. Although these techniques are not
perfect, the inclusion of non-market values in the decision-making calculus
helps to clarify the trade-offs and allows the decision makers to make better
informed policy choices.

benefit transfer method embedding effect
bequest value existence value
bid vehicle bias hedonic price method
bidding games hedonic travel cost model
change in cost hypothetical bias
choice experiment indirect use value
choice modelling information bias
combined revealed preference and instrumental (use) value,
stated preference intrinsic (non-user) value
consumptive uses logit model
contingent ranking market cost method
contingent rating mitigation cost
contingent valuation method multi-site travel cost model
dichotomous choice (referendum) non-consumptive uses
direct value non-response bias
double-bounded referendum open-ended question
option value revealed preference
paired comparison starting point bias
part-whole bias stated (or expressed) preference
passive use strategic bias
payment card total economic value
probit model travel cost model
quasi-option value trichotomous choice

random utility model willing to accept in compensation
replacement cost
Review Questions
1. List the different kinds of values associated with a marsh.
2. List some of the possible values associated with soil conservation.
3. Discuss the main differences between revealed preference and stated

preference methods.
4. List and explain the biases associated with the stated preference
approach.
5. Select a natural environment in your area. Develop a willingness-to-pay

question to estimate the value of this natural environment. Suggest a way
to check the validity of the responses.
6. Compare and contrast the contingent valuation method and choice

modelling.
7. State any advantages and disadvantages of cost methods.
Exercises
1. The following table provides estimates of average house prices in the
northern and southern areas of a city before and after a tollway was
constructed near the northside.
House price Number of houses

($'000)
Area Before After
Southside !50 210 15,000
Northside !50 100 10,000
Calculate the following:

a. Determine the value of houses in both locations after
construction of the toll way.
b. Overall, is there a net gain/loss? How much is it?
2. A survey of 200 visitors to a national park gave the following results:
Number of visits
Total visit cost ($) per person per annum
140 0
120 1
80 3
60 4
30 6
20 7
16 10
a. Draw a demand curve for visits to the park as a function of the

price, i.e., the travel cost.
b. The survey results indicate that 50,000 people living in the area
surrounding the park take, on average, five visits to the park a
year. Calculate the consumer surplus for a single visit to the park
for the average person.
c. Calculate the total consumer surplus for an average visit.
d. Calculate the aggregate consumer surplus per annum for the
national park.
3. The construction of a new irrigation system in a town is expected to

benefit small-scale farmers living in and around the area. It is
hypothesised that the development will lead to an increase in farm prices
in the area. However, to benefit, a farmer must pay for the cost of
constructing a pipeline to his or her property. A hedonic price model was
estimated as follows:
Farm price = 500000 + 30AREA - lOODIST + 2000IRIG
where:
AREA= farm size (ha);
DIST = distance (in km) from the main distribution channel; and
IRRIG = dummy variable, where 1 = construction of irrigation

scheme goes ahead; 0 = construction does not go ahead.
Given that the average farm size is 200 ha and is 15 km from the main
distribution channel, calculate the following:
a. The average farm price if the project does not go ahead.

b. The average farm price if the project goes ahead.
c. The change in average farm price if the project goes ahead.
4. Data collected for possible admission fees to a zoo and corresponding

number of visits are as follows:
Total number
Admission fee ($) of visits per day
0 8,000
I 6,000
2 4,000
3 2,000
4 0
a. Calculate the loss in consumer's surplus if entrance fees were to

be increased from the current $1 to $3 per visit.
5. Suggest possible valuation methods for assessing the following:

a. Recreational fishing.
b. Water treatment and wastewater services.
c. Cyclone damage.
d. High voltage transmission lines.
e. Flood control programs.
f. Tourism and recreation
g. Loss of mangrove swamps.
h. Health effects of air pollution.
i. Creating artificial wetlands.
J. Stopping logging in World Heritage listed areas.
k. Improvement in waterway vegetation.
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6. Cost-Benefit Analysis
Objectives
a explain the conceptual basis of cost-benefit analysis derived from the

market model;
a identify and value various types of costs and benefits;
a calculate discounted cash flows for costs and benefits;
a calculate project performance criteria; and
a explain how sensitivity analysis and risk analysis are conducted.
6.1 Introduction
In Chapter 3 we discussed how markets are supposed to work and in Chapter
4, we discussed why markets fail. Market failure implies either that most
environmental goods are unpriced or underpriced. In Chapter 5, we
considered methods that can enable us to place dollar values on
environmental goods and services. In this chapter, we bring together
concepts from the previous three chapters to form a framework for policy
decision-making. This approach is formally referred to as cost-benefit
analysis (Box 6.1 ). The chapter begins with a brief discussion of the
conceptual basis of cost-benefit analysis. This is followed by a description of
the steps in a CBA. The steps are illustrated with a real-life case study.
141
Box 6.1 A short history of cost-benefit analysis
The first formal application of CBA was in 1768 to evaluate the net
benefits of the Forth-Clyde canal in Scotland. CBA first received official
government recognition under the U.S. Flood Control Act of 1936.
Under this act the United States Army Corps of Engineers were required
to evaluate the benefits and costs of all water resource projects to
whoever they accrue. The aim was to show that flood control was in the
interests of social welfare. In 1950, tbe U.S. Federal Inter-Agency River
Basin Committee introduced the Green Book which attempted to set out
a procedure for comparing costs and benefits. In 1958, economists such
as Jack Krutilla and Eckstein introduced the concepts of opportunity
costs and Pareto optimality into the evaluation of water resource
developments. In the U.K., formal recognition of CBA was given in
1967 (Pearce, 1983).
In the sixties and seventies, attention was given to tbe use of CBA in
evaluating projects in developing countries. Different procedures were
proposed by the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and
Development (Little and Mirlees, 1974) and the United Nations
Industrial Development Organisation (Dasgupta et al., 1972).
Subsequently, the World Bank suggested a unified approach (Squire and
Tak, 1975).
Today, CBA is used to evaluate choices between alternatives in a
wide range of areas including health, transportation, natural resources
and agriculture, business, mining and mineral exploration, and many
others.
Sources: Dasgupta et al. (1972); Little and Mirlees (1974); Squire and Tak (1975);
Pearce (1983).
6.2 Utility, Benefits and Costs

The basis of 'value' in economics is the satisfaction or 'utility' a consumer
derives from consuming a given good or service. On the basis of the utility
which a consumer expects to gain from consuming the good, a person may
be willing to pay for that good.
Cost-Benefit Analysis 143
6.2.1 Willingness-to-Pay and Consumes Surplus as Measures of

Benefits
In Chapter 3, the concept of the demand curve was introduced. According to
the law of demand, more of a good or service will be purchased as its price
falls. The converse is that less will be purchased as the price rises. This law
holds given fixed incomes, tastes and preferences. The demand curve is also
referred to as the marginal benefit curve because it indicates the benefit of
consuming one extra unit of a good. The marginal benefit curve therefore
provides us with an idea of changes in 'utility' or level of satisfaction. The
negative slope of the demand curve reflects diminishing marginal utility.
That is, as more units of a good are consumed, the extra satisfaction obtained
from consuming an additional unit declines. 36 The marginal rate of
substitution between two goods q 1 and qz, MRSq 1q2 , is equal to the ratio of
the two marginal utilities (MU). Utility is maximised when the ratio of the
marginal utilities are equal to the ratio of the prices for the two goods. That
IS,
(6.1)
Cross-multiplying and rearranging, we can write:
P1 = MU 1 ___.12_ (6.2)
MU 2
This equation can be interpreted as follows: assuming the price (p 2) and the
marginal utility (MU2) of other goods remain constant, the price of a good
(Pt) is proportional to the satisfaction or utility of an additional unit (MU 1) of
37
the good. All this, of course, is an abstraction and depends on a perfectly
competitive market. Nevertheless, the important point here is that the price
one is willing to pay for a good depends on the satisfaction one derives from
consuming it. This is taken to be a measure of benefits. However, for some
36
It is important to note that although total utility increases, marginal utility declines (i.e.,
total utility increases at a declining rate).
37
One important assumption made here is that the utility gained from each dollar spent (the
marginal utility of income) is constant.
goods (especially environmental goods), the benefit or willingness-to-pay

exceeds the market price, if one exists. In such cases, therefore, the correct
measure of total benefits is the total revenue (price multiplied by number of
units sold), area Op 1bq~> plus the consumer surplus, triangle ap 1b (Figure
6.1).
The valuation methods that were discussed in Chapter 5 are concerned
with obtaining estimates of WTP. Although the WTP concept is useful in
applied work, it is instructive to draw attention to two problems associated
with it.
Figure 6.1 Willingness-to-pay for clean air
Price/unit ($)
Quantity
1. WTP does not fully reflect intensity of preference. Although WTP

depends on income, a person who is willing to outlay all of his or
her income on a good may have a higher intensity of preference
compared to another who is willing to pay a similar price but the
amount is a small fraction of his or her income.
2. The WTP concept assumes that all persons in the population have
the same marginal utility of income. 38 However, this is not
realistic. One dollar may yield more utility to a poor man than to a
rich man. However, the WTP concept assigns the same weight to the
$1 in both instances.
6.2.2 The Concept of 'Cost' in CBA

The objective for measuring costs is to obtain information that will enable us
to carry out a cost-benefit analysis of alternative projects. Given that
resources are scarce, the selection of a given investment means that the
resources will not be available for an alternative use. Thus, there is an
opportunity cost (OC) to carrying out the investment. Opportunity cost is
defined as the benefits that would have been obtained from the forgone
alternative investment. If there are well functioning markets (i.e., perfect
competition), then the opportunity cost of a good is the market price for that
good. However, in practice, markets are distorted for some goods or, in the
case of environmental goods, are non-existent. In such cases, we have to use
alternative means of estimating the opportunity costs. These methods are
discussed later.
6.2.3 The Concept of Net Social Benefits

The objective of social CBA is to determine whether a project is socially
beneficial, i.e., whether the net social benefits (NSB) are positive. Using the
concepts introduced above,
NSB = WTP- OC (6.3)
The rationale of CBA is that if NSB is positive then, in theory, the state can
use the surplus to compensate the losers. That is, a project is socially
desirable if it can result in a potential Pareto improvement. This rule has
generated some controversy because it does not require that actual
compensation take place. Although, increasingly, we are seeing cases in
which government is required, sometimes through the court system, to
actually compensate losers in big resource development projects.
38
Marginal utility of income is the change in utility for a unit change in income.
We need to make a distinction between social CBA, which is carried out

from society's perspective, and private CBA, which is carried out from an
individual investor's viewpoint. The former is formally referred to as an
economic analysis, whereas the latter is referred to as financial analysis.
For example, a project could be financially viable, from an investor's point
of view, but be socially undesirable due to, say, adverse environmental
impacts. The process of conducting a social CBA involves the following
steps.
Define the objectives and the scope of the project

Identify and screen the alternatives
Identify and value the costs and benefits for the remaining
alternatives
Calculate discounted cash flows and project performance criteria
for each alternative
Rank the alternatives in order of preference
Conduct a sensitivity analysis and/or risk analysis for the
preferred alternative(s), and
Make a final recommendation
These steps are briefly discussed in the following sections. To illustrate the
process of conducting a CBA, we shall make use of the Bintuli Wastewater
Treatment case study (Box 6.2).39
6.3 Defining Objectives and Project Scope

Every project must have an objective (or objectives). The objective is often
specified by decision-makers in the bureaucracy. However, to facilitate the
process of the CBA this objective (or objectives) should be clear and
unambiguous. In our illustrative case study, The Bintuli Wastewater
Treatment Project (Box 6.2), the project's objectives are to improve the
health of the community and increase economic activity by improving
wastewater treatment facilities in the city.
39
Fictitious names have been used in this case study to protect confidentiality.
Box 6.2 Case Study 1: The Bintuli Wastewater Treatment Project
The city of Bintuli is a thriving centre of commerce and industry in the

Republic of Kabastan. The main industries in the area include metal
manufacturing, coal extraction, chemical manufacturing, construction,
papermaking and food processing. The value of industrial output in 1990
was estimated at $200 million while agricultural output was valued at $16
million. In recent years, the quantities of industrial and domestic effluent
discharged into the Nombeng and Weban Rivers, as well as other streams
and small rivers in the area, have increased rapidly. According to the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), total industrial effluent in
Bintuli is 163,700 m3/day and total wastewater discharge, including
domestic waste is 271,700 m3/day. Thirty percent of the industrial effluent
is treated by an existing on-site treatment system. There is no existing
central wastewater treatment system for domestic waste. All domestic
waste, as well as the untreated industrial effluent, is currently discharged
into the nearby rivers.
It is proposed to build a wastewater treatment facility and associated
pumping stations and drainage pipework. The facility will treat
approximately 28 percent of industrial waste with the balance being
domestic waste. The treated water of clean water standard will be
discharged into the Nombeng River for use by industry and agriculture.
Bintuli, like many cities in Kabastan, is facing serious depletion of
groundwater resources and severe pollution of surface water due to
insufficient infrastructure available to accommodate the rapidly increasing
amounts of industrial and domestic effluent. Currently, approximately 70
percent of the city's effluent is dumped untreated into the Nombeng and
other rivers in the area. The river courses in the city have turned black and
emit unpleasant odours, creating health hazards.
Continued discharge of untreated wastewater at the current rates will,
in time, render the surrounding areas non-viable in economic, as well as
social terms. Prospects for sustainable economic development in the area
critically depend on the level of wastewater infrastructure development.
6.4 Identifying and Screening the Alternatives

At this stage of the process, all possible options for achieving the objectives
must be listed. One of the options must be the status quo, which is the 'do
nothing' option. It must be borne in mind that the 'do nothing' option is not
without costs. In this particular example, doing nothing about waste water
treatment w:ill result in social costs. Therefore, the avoidance of these costs
must be counted among the benefits of the project. The other options include
expanding the existing wastewater treatment facilities, and building a new
wastewater treatment facility.
After screening the alternatives, expansion of the existing facility is ruled
out because it uses outdated technology and would be expensive to maintain.
Other options could include various locations or site options. For ease of
presentation, only one potential site is considered in the discussion.
6.5 Identifying the Benefits and Costs

A 'benefit' in social CBA is an outcome which results in an increase in an
individual's utility, whereas a 'cost' is an outcome which results in a
decrease in an individual's utility. Once again, it is necessary to reiterate that
this definition of costs and benefits will be different for a private investor
whose objective is to maximise profits. In this case, a cost is any outcome
that decreases profits and a benefit is any outcome that increases profits.
Other important points to note include the following:
1. In assessing the project's contribution to the objective(s), we

only consider additional (i.e., marginal) changes in costs and
benefits and not the total costs and benefits. That is, we net out
the costs and benefits without the project from the costs and
benefits with the project. This is referred to as the incremental
approach.
2. Point (1) implies that we must exclude sunk costs and benefits.
That is, costs and benefits that are incurred before the
commencement of the project. The rationale is that previous
costs, for example, are not an opportunity cost because they do

not represent a loss of future income from an alternative use of
the resource.
3. Transfer payments should be excluded. A transfer payment is

money flow from one group in the community (e.g., the
government) to another. Such payments should be excluded
because they do not result in an increase in net benefits.
Examples are taxes, subsidies, loans, and debt service (i.e.,
payment of interest and repayment of principal). Note, however,
that taxes paid by foreign investors must be included because
they increase net benefits.
Other cost items which are normally included in financial statements but
excluded from social CBA are depreciation and interest.
4. Depreciation: As a rule, depreciation of capital cost items is not

included as a cost item in social CBA. The process of
discounting values the capital items at their opportunity costs
over the life of the project. Therefore imputing depreciation as
a cost would result in double counting.
5. Interest: The discount rate used in CBA already takes into

account relevant factors including the interest rate. The
discounting procedure reduces the stream of costs to their
present values. Thus, once again, the inclusion of interest as a
cost item would result in double counting.
Costs and benefits are normally classified into two groups: primary costs
and benefits; and secondary costs and benefits. Primary costs and benefits
arise directly from the project, while secondary costs and benefits arise from
activities or events that are triggered by the project. For example, suppose a
large-scale agricultural project would result in an increase in farm produce.
In this case, the secondary benefits would include the increase in the profits
of businesses that process agricultural products.
Secondary costs and benefits should be handled cautiously because they
could exaggerate the estimates. As much as possible the opportunity cost
principle must be used as a guideline. At issue is whether resources have
been merely transferred from one part of the economy to another. A key
question to ask is whether the resources employed would have had
alternative uses. For example, if a project results in an increase in the
number of employed people in a village, this would only be counted as a
secondary benefit if there were no alternative employment opportunities. In
this case, the opportunity cost of labour is zero.
Based on the discussion in the previous chapter, we can also divide costs
and benefits into market and non-market costs and benefits. As already
stated, non-market costs and benefits apply to goods and services which are
not traded and for which market prices do not exist. As far as possible, non-
market costs and benefits must be identified and valued.
6.5.1 IdentifYing Costs and Benefits in Case Study 1: The Bintuli

Wastewater Treatment Project
The primary costs of the proposed project comprise the investment cost and
operating and maintenance (O&M) costs. The investment costs include
construction of a pumping station, office building and wastewater treatment
facilities and purchase of equipment. The O&M costs include wages and
salaries, fuel and chemical costs and other costs (e.g., project management,
project preparation, training and commissioning).
Without an additional increase in wastewater treatment capacity, water
pollution in Bintuli town will continue to increase and, in the long-run,
impose severe economic and social costs on the community. Therefore, the
net economic benefits from the project could be attributed to the avoidance
of these costs. The economic benefits include the financial benefits derived
from user charges and the economic benefits derived from wastewater
treatment. The primary economic benefits are:
a reduction in health costs and mortality rates due to reduced

pollution to water resources and domestic drinking water;
a reduction in the costs of treating increasingly polluted water
supplies, and
an increase in labour productivity as a result of a reduction in
absence from work due to illness;
The secondary economic benefits from the project are:

benefits to industry and agriculture from using recycled water;

additional revenues from re-afforestation; and
increase in reed harvesting for the paper mill industry.
6.6 Valuing the Costs and Benefits

Once costs and benefits have been identified, they must be valued in order to
allow comparison between alternatives. The basic assumption here is that
prices reflect value or opportunity costs, or can be adjusted to do so. As
already suggested, the procedure is to value the costs and benefits according
to the opportunity cost principle. This is in recognition of the fact that the
market price of a good may not necessarily reflect its opportunity cost or
scarcity value (i.e., the value of that good in its next best use). As was
explained in Chapter 4, this difference between prices and value is a direct
result of market failure. Thus, in a social CBA the prices of inputs (and
outputs) which do not reflect their true value to the society are adjusted. This
process is referred to as shadow pricing, and involves adjusting the market
prices by given discount factors.
It is important to stress again that the correct procedure is to identify and
value the costs and benefits that arise with the project and to compare them
with the situation that would prevail without the project. The difference is
the net incremental benefit arising from the project. The 'with' and
'without' comparison should not be confused with a 'before' and 'after'
comparison. The comparison fails to account for changes in output that
would occur without the project and thus could lead to an erroneous
statement of the benefits derived from the project.
Consider the example of an investment project that increases exports by
3 percent. Assume that without the investment, exports will increase by 1
percent. Using the before and after approach, one could wrongly attribute the
total increase in exports (i.e., 3 percent) to the project. Whereas, in actual
fact, what could be attributed to the project investment is only the 2 percent
incremental increase.
6. 6.1 Valuing the Costs

The first step in valuing costs and benefits is to find market prices for the
inputs and outputs. All costs must be in present day or constant prices.
That is, costs incurred over the project life must be valued at prices
prevailing at the time of the project's appraisal. This approach assumes that
annual costs will increase at the inflation rate, which implies that the cash
flows are expressed in real rather than nominal prices.
Residual (or salvage) values

Some assets may have economic lives that exceed the planning horizon or
project life, or may have reached their economic lives but still have a scrap
value. The economic life is the estimate of the length of time for which it is
economically viable to operate the asset without a major refurbishment. In
such cases, the residual or salvage value of the asset must be included as a
cash inflow (benefit) at the end of the planning horizon.
Calculation of residual value

The residual value (or salvage value) of an asset is normally assessed at a
level pro rata to the remaining economic life. There are two major
approaches to assessing residual value: the linear method and the
diminishing value method.
The linear method

As the name suggests, this method assumes that the residual value declines
linearly over time. The residual value at time t is given by:
(1-td)P (6.4)
where d = annual proportional decline in value = 1/n, where n is the

economic life; P is the initial price and t = time. For example, assume an
asset is purchased at $100,000 and has an economic life of 20 years. At the
end of a planning period of 15 years, its residual value is given by:
(1 - 15 X 1/20)100,000 =0.25 X 100,000 =$25,000 (6.5)
The diminishing value method

This approach assumes that the value of the asset declines by a fixed
proportion of the beginning-of-year value per annum. The residual value at
timet is given by:
(6.6)
The value of d is normally taken to be about 1.5 times that used in the linear
model. Using the above example, d = 1.5 x 0.05 = 0.075. Thus, the residual
value at timet= 15 years would be given by:
(1 - 0.075)
15
100,000 =$31,055 (6.7)
Land and pre-existing buildings and plant

Land, buildings and plant already owned by the operating authority must be
valued at their opportunity costs. These opportunity costs should be current
valuations based on the most profitable alternative uses.
Staged construction
Where a project is to be implemented in stages, only the proportion of the
investment and operating costs required to satisfy demand in the current
planning horizon must be attributed to the project.
Working capital
Working capital is often required to meet financial transactions in the initial
period of the project. The amount committed is often of the order of 50
percent of operating and maintenance costs or 2 percent of the total capital
outlays. Working capital must be treated as a cash outflow at the time when
capital expenditures are made, with the full amount being released as a
capital inflow at the end of the project.
Operating costs
Operating costs typically occur every year and include the following: labour;
utilities; supplies; repairs and maintenance; equipment hiring and leasing;
insurance and administrative overheads. These items are to be estimated on
an annual basis.
Implicit costs
In addition, there could be implicit or opportunity costs and social costs
associated with a project. The opportunity costs arise with respect to the use
\54 Environmental Economics
of land, buildings, plant, and machinery already purchased by the local

authority. Implicit costs could also arise with respect to time spent on the
project by the authority's staff and management.
The above items may not involve the use of cash outlays but,
nevertheless, represent a cost because the resources they tie up could have
been used for other purposes. For example, in the case of the Bintuli
Wastewater Treatment Project, the land used to store the sludge is likely to
have an alternative use and therefore has an opportunity cost.
Valuing costs in Case Study 1: The Bintuli Wastewater Treatment

Project
All the equipment and construction materials are imported and are valued in
US dollars. Fuel and chemical supply are adjusted by subtracting the
government subsidies on these items. Because there is a high level of
unemployment in the area, unskilled labour is shadow-priced at 50 percent of
the going wage rate. Skilled labour is valued based on annual salaries. The
total investment cost is estimated at $16.57 million and the operating and
maintenance costs are $1.62 million per annum (Table 6.1 ). The construction
of the project is expected to take three years.
6.6.2 Valuing the Benefits

The benefits, in the case ofBintuli Wastewater Project, include the revenues
raised from user charges and the economic benefits derived from treating
wastewater. The economic benefits include the following: reduced mortality;
productivity gains from reduced morbidity; water treatment cost savings;
sale of recycled water; afforestation benefits and reed harvesting. Each of
these benefits are discussed below.
User charges
The determination of user charges was based on the principle of full cost
recovery. That is, it was based on a level of charges that would recover the
investment and O&M costs over the life of the project. This level was
estimated to be 6.9 cents/m3 , of which operating and maintenance costs
3
account for 2.96 cents/m3 With the project, 54.75 million m /year of effluent
would be treated, resulting in revenue of $3.78 million per annum.
Table 6.1 Investment and operating and maintenance costs, Bintuli

Item Cost ($ million)

Investment Costs:
Buildings and structures 3.42
Equipment and supplies 13.15
Total investment cost 16.57
Operating and Maintenance Costs:

Electricity 0.68
Salaries 0.09
Chemicals 0.06
Maintenance 0.58
Other 0.21
Total O&M costs 1.62
As indicated above, 11.4 million m3/year of industrial effluent is already

being treated by the town council. The appropriate user charges for this
wastewater treatment was determined to be 5.31 cents/m3, providing revenue
of $605,340 per annum. Based on this information, net incremental sales
revenue (i.e., 'with project' sales minus 'without project' sales) would be
$3.17 per annum by Year 6 when the new plant is at full capacity.
Estimation of the economic benefits

The estimates of the economic benefits are detailed in Table 6.2.
1. Recycled water benefits

About 60 percent of the town's wastewater will be recycled and used for
irrigation and industrial purposes. The opportunity cost of this recycled water
was estimated to be 10 cents/m3 The economic benefits from recycled water
were therefore estimated to be $66,000 in Year 4, rising to $3.29 million per
annum by Year 8 (Table 6.2).
2. Afforestation benefits
Pine and some hard wood species will be planted on 142.8 ha of land. The net
returns per hectare were taken from estimates provided by the Kabastani
authorities for experimental plots. These were reported to be $689/ha. Applying
this figure to the proposed area resulted in net benefits of $10,000 in Year 8 and
reaching a maximum of $100,000 by Year 17.
3. Reed harvesting
Economic benefits are also expected from reed harvesting for the paper mill
industry. The Kabastani authorities have estimated the net returns to be $258.40
per hectare. Applying this figure to a projected area of 95.25 ha resulted in net
annual benefits of about $20,000 from Year 6.
4. Reduced mortality benefits

Using World Bank estimates for Kabastan, mortality reduction from the project
was taken to be 0.005, 0.008 and 0.024 percent, respectively, for the age
categories 15-24 years, 25-59 years and over 60 years. On the basis of
estimates for the number of people in each of these age categories, the total
number of deaths saved per annum was calculated. Using the estimated
proportion of people employed in each age category and the mortality reduction
rates, an estimate of both employed and unemployed deaths was made.
Given the local annual wage of $620 (which includes housing subsidies,
and other government payments) and assuming average working lives of
between 5 and 45 years for the three age categories, annual income losses
avoided were estimated. For the unemployed, a leisure value of half the
annual wage was assumed.
On the basis of this estimate the annual gains in leisure from saving
deaths were estimated. Given that the project will treat about half of Bintuli's
wastewater, only 50 percent of the potential mortality and morbidity benefits
were attributed to the project. The income benefits from reduced mortality
were therefore estimated to be $10,000 in Year 4, rising to $110,000 by the
end of the project (Table 6.2).
5. Productivity gains from reduced morbidity

A major social impact of the project is the reduction of the incidence of
pollution-related illness and hence a reduction in worker absenteeism. These
benefits were estimated as follows.
Table 6.2 Incremental economic benefits, Bintuli Wastewater

Treatment Project($ millions)
Incremental
Water economic
treatment benefits
Recycled Reed Reduced Reduced cost
Year water Afforestation harvesting mortality morbidity savings H = I.(BtoG)
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E) (F) (G)
2
3
4 0.66 0.01 0.18 0.11 0.96
5 0.99 0.02 0.38 0.11 1.50
6 1.64 0.02 0.03 0.57 0.11 2.38
7 2.63 0.02 0.05 0.76 0.11 3.57
8 3.29 0.01 0.02 0.06 0.95 0.11 4.44
9 3.29 0.02 0.02 0.06 1.00 0.11 4.50
10 3.29 0.03 0.02 0.06 1.06 0.11 4.57
11 3.29 0.04 0.02 0.07 1.11 0.11 4.63
12 3.29 0.05 0.02 0.07 1.17 0.11 4.71
13 3.29 0.06 0.02 0.07 1.23 0.11 4.78
14 3.29 0.07 0.02 0.08 1.30 0.11 4.86
15 3.29 0.08 0.02 0.08 1.37 0.11 4.94
16 3.29 0.09 0.02 0.09 1.44 0.11 5.03
17 3.29 0.10 0.02 0.09 1.51 0.11 5.12
18 3.29 0.10 0.02 0.10 1.59 0.11 5.20
19 3.29 0.10 0.02 0.10 1.68 0.11 5.29
20 3.29 0.10 0.02 0.11 1.76 0.11 5.38
First, it was assumed that the current average number of days lost per worker
per annum as a result of illness is 3 days. Next, using the employment statistics,
potential productivity losses avoided per worker per annum were estimated to
be about $180,000 in Year 4, rising to about $1.8 million by the end of the
project.
6. Water treatment cost savings

As indicated above the benefits of the project include the avoided costs of
treating polluted water. An estimate of $0.002/m3 for water treatment cost
savings, consistent with W odd Bank estimates for Kabastan, was assumed. The
economic benefits of water treatment cost savings were therefore estimated to
be $110,000 per annum.
Summary of economic benefits

The incremental economic benefits derived from the project were estimated
to be $96,000 in Year 4, rising to $5.38 million by the end of the project
(Table 6.2).
6. 7 Calculating Discounted Cash Flows and Project

Performance Criteria
Once the costs and benefits with and without the project have been identified
and valued (in monetary terms), the analyst is now ready to compare the
costs and benefits in order to make a decision as to which altemative(s) to
accept or reject.
Project performance criteria (or project selection criteria) provide a
means by which different alternatives that last several years into the future
and which have different streams of costs and benefits could be compared.
Calculating these measures involves using the technique of discounting. We
often use expressions like 'time is money', and 'a bird in hand is worth two
in the bush', and so on. These expressions imply that money has a time
value. In particular, present values are better preferred than future values.
Calculating discounted cash flows (DCFs) involves 'reducing' future
streams of benefits and costs to their 'present values' to enable comparisons
to be made between competing alternatives.
For example, given an investment stream of:
t(years) 0 1 2
Investment -$100 $50 $150
The net present value (NPV) at an interest rate of 10 percent is given by:
NPV = -lOO+ 50/(1 + 0.1) 1 + 150/(1.01) 2 = $96.54 (6.8)

In more general terms, given a stream of benefits, B0, B1... Bn, and a stream
of costs C0 , c~. ... Cn, the net present value (or net present worth) could be
written as:
6. 7.1 Choice of Discount Rate

The discount rate in social cost-benefit analysis reflects society's preferences
between present and future consumption. In general, a high discount rate
implies that the society has a relatively stronger preference for present
consumption over future consumption, while a low discount rate implies a
relatively stronger preference for the present.
The choice of a discount rate in social CBA is a controversial one. Many
environmentalists argue against discounting, in general, and high discount
rates, in particular, because they believe high discount rates are associated
with environmental degradation (Goodin, 1982). High discount rates are
thought to be a cause of degradation because individuals prefer short-term
measures to satisfy immediate needs at the expense of environmental
conservation (Pearce, 1987; Pearce and Markandya, 1990). In the case of
developing countries, it is often assumed that there is a vicious circle
between poverty and environmental degradation. That is, high discount rates
cause environmental degradation, which in turn worsens poverty and further
increases discount rates. However, the adverse impacts of high discount rates
on environmental quality have not been established beyond doubt. For
example, it is possible that demand for natural resources could be lower at
high discount rates (see Krautkraemer, 1985, for a proof). Furthermore, there
have been instances where people facing imminent danger have taken
decisions with long-term implications for their (or their family's) survival.
Returning to the practical issue of choosing a discount rate, economists
have tended to use long-term interest rates on government bonds as one
measure of the opportunity cost of capital. U.S. Government agencies use a
discount rate of 10 percent. The Australian government recommends a rate
of 8 percent for public projects (Department of Finance, 1991). The rate used
must be the real rate. That is, the nominal interest rate minus the inflation
rate. Usually, the discount rate comprises a risk-free rate and a risk
margin. For example, a real rate of 8 percent might include a risk-free rate
of 5 percent and a risk margin of 3 percent.
A sensitivity analysis should be carried out to test the effect on the
project selection criteria of using slightly higher and lower rates (e.g., 6
percent and 10 percent).
6. 7.2 Period ofAnalysis

Another critical issue in computing DCFs is the planning period or
horizon. This is the number of years for which cost and revenue data will be
collected. The planning period will vary depending on the nature of the
project. In general, the planning period should be determined by a period
within which predictions could be made with a high degree of confidence.
The planning period must, wherever possible, also correspond to the
economic life of the project.
6. 7.3 Choice ofProject Performance Criteria

Project performance criteria include the following: net present value
(NPV), benefit-cost ratio (BCR), internal rate of return (IRR), and
payback period. NPV has already been defined above. The BCR is the ratio
of the present value of project benefits to the present value of costs. The IRR
is defined as the discount rate at which the present value of project benefits
equals the present value of costs. The BCR is defined as:
BCR=
Ba+~+
1+r
B2 2+ ..... Bn n
(1+r) (l+r) =
i: Bn/(l+r)"
t=o (
6.lO)
Cl Cz Cn n
Co + 1 + r + (1 + r)2 + ..... (1 + r)" L en I (1 + r)"
t=O
The IRR can be found by finding the discount rate (i) at which the following
equations holds:
The IRR may not exist or may not be unique.

The payback period is defined as the number of years required for a

project to recover its costs. In general, the payback period discriminates
against projects with high capital expenditures and long-term benefits. It is
not recommended as a measure of project worth.
Although NPV and BCR can easily be calculated with the help of a
calculator, IRR is more difficult to calculate. A trial and error method must
be used to compute Equation (6.11) using different values of i. All three
measures are easily obtained using spreadsheet programs such as Excel,
Lotus and Quattro-Pro. An example is provided below from Case Study 1.
The decision rule is to accept a project when NPV ;::: 0, BCR ;::: 1 and the
IRR exceeds the social opportunity cost of capital. Equations (6.9) and (6.10)
indicate that when NPV = 0, then BCR = 1. When evaluating a single
alternative, all three measures will yield the same result. However, when
used to rank several alternatives, the three measures can yield different
results. 40
NPV is the most preferred performance criterion in social cost-benefit
analysis because it provides an estimate of the size of the potential Pareto
improvement, the basis of the CBA approach. If two or more projects have
positive NPV s, the IRRs can be used to rank them. The IRR describes the
rate at which a project transforms present benefits into future benefits. It is
the maximum interest rate at which a given project could recover the
investment and operating costs and still break even.
Calculating DCFs and project performance criteria for Case Study 1,

Bintuli Wastewater Treatment Project
In this section, we will use the information produced from Section 6.6 to
calculate discounted cash flows for the Bintuli Wastewater Treatment
Project. Issues that need to be resolved before the DCFs can be calculated
are: (1) choice of discount rate and, (2) the planning period.
1. Choice of discount rate: a real rate of 12 percent will be used to

produce the DCFs. This rate is the average of published World
Bank discount rates for the last 10 years for this country.
40
See Exercises I to 4 at the end of the chapter.
2. Planning period: a
Box 6.3 Excel hints for carrying out the
planning period of computations in Table 6.3
20 years is used.
Based on advice fucremental net benefits:
received from engi- (i) Year 1: place your cursor in cell
neers, this is a
E5. Type =(C5+D5-B5).
reasonable period
(ii) Copy the formula in cell E5 by
given the type of
clicking on the 'copy' icon on the
equipment to be
toolbar.
used.
(iii) Paste this formula into rows E6 to
E24.
Incremental net economic costs Calculating NPV:

From Table 6.1, the total Place your cursor in an appropriate
investment cost of the project is place, say, cell 25. Type:
$16.57 million and is spread =NPV(/2%, E5:E24)
over the construction period of where 12% is the discount rate.
three years as follows: $2.01,
$8.45 and $6.11 million, Calculating IRR:
respectively. The cost of Place your cursor in an appropriate
operating the current facility place, say, cell E26. Type:
(the without project option) is =IRR( E5:E24)
$0.31 million per annum. The
total O&M costs are therefore
$1.93 million per annum and the net incremental O&M costs (i.e., 'with'
minus 'without' projects costs) are therefore $1.62 million per annum. The
net incremental economic cost of $2.42 million in Year 4 includes allowance
for a working capital of $0.81 million, equivalent to 50 percent of O&M
(Table 6.3).
Incremental net benefits

The incremental sales revenue has been estimated to be $1.91 million in
Year 4, rising to $3.17 million in Year 6. The economic benefits are
$960,000, commencing in Year 4. The incremental net benefits, Columns C
plus D minus Column B, are therefore negative $2.0 million in Year 1 and
rise to $9.8 million by the end of the project (see Excel hints in Box 6.3).
The NPV at the 12 percent discount rate is $12.08 million (Table 6.3).
The IRR is 21 percent, which is above the opportunity cost of capital of

12 percent. Therefore, it can be concluded that the Bintuli Wastewater
Treatment Project is economically viable.
Table 6.3 Net incremental economic benefits, Bintuli Wastewater
Treatment Project ($ million)
Incremental Incremental Incremental Incremental

economic sales economic net
Year costs Revenue benefits benefits
(A) (B) (C) (D) E = (C +D) -(B)
2.01 -2.01
2 8.45 -8.45
3 6.11 -6.11
4 2.42 1.91 0.96 0.45
5 1.62 1.91 1.50 1.80
6 1.62 3.17 2.38 3.93
7 1.62 3.17 3.57 5.12
8 1.62 3.17 4.44 5.99
9 1.62 3.17 4.50 6.05
10 1.62 3.17 4.57 6.12
11 1.62 3.17 4.63 6.19
12 1.62 3.17 4.71 6.26
13 1.62 3.17 4.78 6.34
14 1.62 3.17 4.86 6.41
15 1.62 3.17 4.94 6.50
16 1.62 4.43 5.03 7.84
17 1.62 4.43 5.12 7.93
18 1.62 4.43 5.20 8.01
19 1.62 4.43 5.29 8.10
20 -0.02 4.43 5.38 9.83
NPV@ 12% $12.08
IRR 21%
6.8 Concepts of Risk and Uncertainty

In economics and business, a distinction is made between risk and
uncertainty. 41 The term 'risk' is used to refer to a potential outcome (or
outcomes) where the magnitude of the outcome (or outcomes) is known and
the probability of occurrence is known or can be determined. On the other
hand, 'uncertainty' is used to refer to a situation where the magnitude of the
outcome may or may not be known and the probability of occurrence is
unknown. In practical situations, however, it is difficult to define precisely
the probability of an occurrence. Therefore, the distinction between risk and
uncertainty may not be clear-cut.
In some cases, the degree of risk can be assessed based on past records.
For example, the probability of a cyclone occurring is generally available
from climatic data, and the probability of a flood may be obtained from
hydrological data. In such cases, one may be able to predict the probability
of a cyclone or flood. However, such forecasts can be imprecise because
major floods, for example, do not occur frequently and therefore the
probability estimates can be unreliable.
There are a number of reasons why there would be uncertainty about any
large-scale public project. Such projects tend to be long-lived, occurring
over, say, 20 to 30 years. The valuation of some items of costs and benefits
(especially environmental impacts) will always be uncertain due to lack of
reliable data. Finally, it is difficult to forecast the nature of the operating
environment 20 to 30 years into the future. Nevertheless, because CBA
requires predictions about risk to be made, there is need for a structured
approach to assess the extent of the risk.
The aim of risk analysis is to enable measures to be taken to reduce the
risk at the project design phase. Possible measures could include spreading
orders among several suppliers, using alternative fuels, and trading off lower
efficiency for higher reliability. The common methods of accounting for risk
and uncertainty in CBA include sensitivity analysis, break-even analysis,
switching or cross-over values, and risk analysis. These methods are briefly
discussed below.
41
For a more detailed discussion of risk and uncertainty, readers may refer to the following
sources: Hertz and Thomas (1983), Megill (1985) and Morgan and Henrion (1990).
6.9 Sensitivity Analysis

Sensitivity analysis is used to assess the possible impact of uncertainty by
posing 'what if questions. These questions pertain to what would happen to
the project's viability if some or all of the key parameter values happen to be
different from the original values. A sensitivity analysis highlights the
critical factors affecting the project's viability. This allows the decision-
makers or project manager to pay attention to these factors during the
implementation stage. Parameters subjected to sensitivity analysis include:
the discount rate

length of the project planning horizon
different timing of the project's operation
changes in the capital outlays
changes in the price of non-market goods, and
changes in social and environmental benefits and costs
The sensitivity analysis is normally carried out by recalculating the project

performance criteria, using a range of values for the uncertain parameter (or
parameters). The results of the sensitivity analysis may be in the form of
two-way and three-way tables. A sensitivity analysis helps the project
analyst to identify the range of parameter values within which a project can
remain economically viable. It helps to identify critical variables and, in so
doing, provides information that could be used to redesign a particular
option. Sensitivity analysis may also point to the need to acquire additional
information to ensure that the assumptions are more realistic.
The project performance criteria commonly used in sensitivity analysis
are NPV and IRR. The procedures in a sensitivity analysis are as follows:
1. Determine a realistic range of values for the variables that are
subject to uncertainty. For example,
Capital cost, 30 percent

O&M costs, 30 percent
Product prices, 30 percent
2. Calculate the effect of possible changes on the project selection

criteria, while varying one variable and holding the others
constant.
3. Re-consider the economic viability of the project (i.e., the

'robustness' of the project profitability) in light of the
calculations in (2) above.
Although a number of variables that can be subjected to sensitivity analysis

have been listed above, there is no point in examining all of them arbitrarily.
Given the usual constraints in conducting such analyses, only the key critical
variables should be analysed.
6. 9.1 Break-even analysis

For a given project or option, the break-even value is the value of the
discount rate at which the NPV is zero. This is the value at which the entire
project's costs can be recovered. 42 For some projects where the main benefits
are environmental protection, it may not be possible to use break-even
analysis. On the benefit side, if a variable (e.g., price) appears to be higher
than the break-even level, that increases confidence in the project's viability.
Similarly, on the cost side, an estimate which is lower than the break-even
level would suggest that the project is likely to be economically viable.
6.9.2 Switching (cross-over) values

The switching or cross-over value of a project performance criterion (e.g.,
NPV) is the discount rate at which the ranking of two projects changes.
Switching or cross-over values are recommended when considering only one
uncertain variable. The intention is to determine the value at which the NPV
becomes zero, or the value at which two alternatives change rank. The next
step is to indicate the chances of the NPV taking on values above or below
the switching value in order to gain an idea of the riskiness of the project.
6. 9. 3 Conducting sensitivity analysis for Case Study 1, Bintuli

For the Bintuli Wastewater Treatment Project, the critical uncertain variables
chosen for analysis were:
42
A good reference on break-even analysis is Schweitzer et al. ( 1986).
changes in the capital and O&M costs, and

changes in the net incremental economic benefits
These variables were subjected to changes within the 30 percent range.

The results indicate that the IRR is robust (Table 6.4). A 30 percent decline
in economic benefits reduces the IRR to 17 percent, assuming no change in
capital costs and no change in O&M costs. A 30 percent increase in capital
costs, assuming no change in economic benefits, reduces the IRR to 17
percent. Similarly, a 30 percent increase in operating costs reduces the IRR
to 19 percent. These results indicate that the estimate is insensitive to large
changes in the projected economic benefits and costs.
Table 6.4 Sensitivity of the internal rate of return, Bintuli Wastewater

Treatment Project
Change in Net Economic Benefits
-30% -15% 0% +15% +30%
-30% 23 25 27 29 31
Change in -15% 20 22 24 25 27
Capital 0% 17 19 21 23 24
Costs +IS% IS 17 19 21 22
+30% 14 16 17 19 20
-30% 19 21 23 25 26
Change in -15% 18 20 22 24 25
O&M 0% 17 19 21 23 24
Costs +15% 16 18 20 22 23
+30% 15 17 19 21 22
6.10 Risk Analysis

As indicated above, sensitivity analysis is suitable when only a few
parameters are uncertain. In cases where the values of several parameters are
uncertain, risk analysis based on probabilities of the key variables should be
undertaken. In this approach, the probabilities of occurrence of the key
variables are used as weights to recompute the project performance criteria.
Risk analysis can be carried out using special purpose computer
packages such as @RISK (Palisade Corporation, 1997) which is available as
an add-in to spreadsheet packages (e.g., Lotus 1-2-3 and Microsoft Excel).
Through repeated iterations, the @RISK program generates probability
distributions for NPV and IRR. The result is a cumulative probability graph
which indicates, for example, the probability of the NPV falling below zero.
For both NPV and IRR, useful statistics such as the mean, maximum,
minimum, standard deviation and coefficient of variation are also provided.
The major practical difficulty in conducting risk analysis is in obtaining
probability estimates. In some cases it may be possible to obtain information
about the chances of an event occurring. For example, it is possible to obtain
information about the frequencies of road accidents, floods, outbreaks of
diseases, and so on. Probabilities can be calculated from such historical data.
Where there is little or no historical data, a subjective assessment will have
to be made.
Although a wide range of theoretical probability distributions is
available, it is preferable to use the most 'accurate' probability distribution.
Very often it is not possible to obtain a predefined probability distribution
due to lack of data and therefore an assumed distribution is used. Common
distributions used are the UNIFORM distribution, TRIANGULAR
distribution, and the BETA distribution (Figure 6.2). The triangular and beta
distributions require three estimates: most pessimistic (minimum), most
likely (mode) and most optimistic (maximum), whereas the uniform
distribution requires two estimates: minimum and maximum estimates.
A risk analysis provides a comprehensive profile of the potential
variability in the key performance criteria. However, in most cases, a
sensitivity analysis using the most pessimistic scenarios is capable of
providing sufficient information about the riskiness of a project or group of
projects.
In the following section we will subject the project performance criteria
for the Bintuli Wastewater Treatment Project to risk analysis. We begin by
making qualitative assessments of the financial, economic and
environmental risks associated with the project. We then proceed to use

@RISK to estimate the impacts of uncertainty on the project performance
criteria.
Figure 6.2 Probability distribution functions
Probability Probability
Value
Minimum Mode Maximum Minimum Mode Maximum
(a) Triangular distribution (b) Beta distribution
6.10.1 Conducting risk analysis for Case Study 1, Bintuli

The major sources of risk in this project are financial, economic and
environmental. Each of these is briefly discussed.
Financial Risks
The major sources of financial risk for the project are the possibilities of cost
overruns and the ability of the town council to raise the projected revenues.
Shortfalls in revenue will increase the financial risk associated with the
project. However, in view of the country's impressive economic growth in
recent years, this particular risk is assessed to be negligible.
Economic Risks
Given that this is an environmental improvement project, there are no
significant economic costs. Most of the expected benefits are in the form of
cost savings. There is a risk that the projected economic benefits may not
materialise if, for example, the water quality is below the expected level. In
that event, the ability of users to pay would be reduced and the benefit
estimates would be overstated. However, this risk is assessed to be minimal
because the chosen treatment system has been found to be reliable.
Environmental Risks
There is a small but real risk of flooding of at least part of the project site.
According to flood records, the last flood (classified as a 1 in a 100 year
flood) occurred in 1963. Some of the water flowed into the old river channel,
but drained underground quickly and none escaped back to the river.
Although it is claimed by local officials that policies and standards for
industrial waste disposal are already in place, there is a risk that lower
treatment standards will be adopted in some factories and that additional
pollutants will enter the waste stream.
Conducting the Risk Analysis

The qualitative risk assessment suggests that the major sources of risks are
cost overruns and the possibility of the economic benefits not materialising.
The following subjective assessment of the probabilities were made, using a
triangular distribution. For example, the most optimistic assessment of the
probablity of economic benefits was 5 percent above the project estimates,
and the most pessimistic was 30 percent below the project estimates (Table
6.5).
Table 6.5 Subjective risk assessment, Bintuli Wastewater Treatment Project
Type of risk Most Most Most

pessimistic likely optimistic
Financial risk (cost overruns) +30% +5% -1%
Economic risk -30% 0% 5%
Note that, unlike sensitivity analysis, risk analysis considers the

simultaneous impacts of the changes in risk on the project performance
criteria. Figure 6.3 presents the distribution of the net incremental economic
benefits generated with @RISK. The mean, maximum and minimum net
economic benefits (in present value terms) over the life of the project are
displayed. These figures were generated using the triangular distributions
indicated in Table 6.5. It can be seen that the greatest variation m net
economic benefits (and hence risk) is observed in the first four years.
Figure 6.3 Distribution of net incremental economic benefits, Bintuli Wastewater

Treatment Project
15.0
~ 10.0
= '2'
8
~ ~
s 5.0
~~ 0.0
~ Zl -5.0
tl'5
..Ei 5
0) iXl -10.0
z
-15.0
Year
I~ Minim.nn ---Mean -llr- Maxim.un I

Table 6.6 presents the results of the Monte Carlo simulations for the NPV
and IRR. The results indicate that even in the worst case scenario of 30
percent cost overruns and a 30 percent decline in expected net economic
benefits, the project still returns a positive NPV and an IRR above the
opportunity cost of capital of 12 percent. These results, together with those
of the sensitivity analysis, suggest that the estimated project performance
criteria are robust.
Table 6.6 Results of Monte Carlo simulations, Bintuli Wastewater Treatment Project
Project performance Standard

criterion Minimum Mean Maximum deviation
NPV @ 12 percent 8.42 10.62 12.52 0.92
IRR (%) 17.5 19.6 21.7 0.9

Recommendations
Water pollution in the town of Bintuli is a serious problem. Currently about
70 percent of untreated effluent is dumped into nearby rivers, creating a
health hazard. Implementation of the project is considered a matter of
urgency in order to protect the health of the community and to reduce the
rate of environmental degradation.
The project would yield substantial economic benefits. The IRR is
estimated at about 21 percent. The sensitivity and risk analyses suggest that
the estimate is insensitive to large changes in the projected economic
benefits and costs. It is recommended that the project go ahead subject to the
institution of a monitoring program covering physical, chemical and
ecological parameters upstream and downstream of the effluent discharge
location. The hydraulic, biological and chemical parameters of the treatment
processes should also be monitored.
6.11 Summary
Under the competitive market assumption, the price a person is willing to
pay for a good is proportional to the satisfaction he or she obtains from
consuming an additional unit. We saw in the previous chapter that this
assumption may not hold in the case of environmental goods and services.
Therefore, in valuing such items, either non-market valuation techniques
have to be used or shadow prices have to be derived. It was explained that
the concept of 'cost' in social CBA is based on the principle of opportunity
cost. The objective of social CBA is to determine whether net social benefits,
that is willingness-to-pay minus opportunity costs, is positive. The steps
involved in conducting a social CBA were introduced. Discounted cash flow
techniques were used to demonstrate the calculation of project performance
criteria such as NPV and IRR. Net present value was presented as a preferred
project performance criterion, but the IRR could be useful for ranking
projects with positive NPVs. Finally, the procedures were illustrated using
the Bintuli Wastewater Treatment Project.

beta distribution marginal benefit curve
break-even analysis marginal rate of substitution
break-even value marginal utility of income
capital cost or outlay net incremental benefit
cost-benefit analysis operating costs
constant prices planning period or horizon
depreciation primary costs and benefits
diminishing marginal utility real rate
diminishing value method residual (or salvage) values
discounted cash flow risk
discounting risk analysis
economic benefits risk margin
economic life risk-free rate
economic risk secondary costs and benefits
environmental risk sensitivity analysis
financial risk shadow pricing
implicit costs subjective risk assessment
incremental approach switching or cross-over value
incremental net benefits triangular distribution
incremental net economic costs uncertainty
intensity of preference uniform distribution
linear method working capital
Review Questions
1. Explain the terms 'willingness-to-pay' and 'opportunity cost'.
2. Explain why the price of a good can be used to determine the value of a
good, if markets are perfectly competitive. Provide three examples of
situations where this rule may not apply. State your reasons.
3. Explain two approaches for calculating the residual value of an asset.

4. What is working capital? How is it accounted for in cost-benefit

analysis?
5. Explain why it would be erroneous to use net benefits 'before' and

'after' to measure a project's worth.
6. State reasons in support of and against the use of high discount rates in
CBA.
7. Explain the meaning of the terms 'risk analysis' and 'sensitivity

analysis'. What is their purpose in cost-benefit analysis?
Exercises
The cost and revenue streams (in $'000s) for two projects are given as
follows.
Project A Project 8
Capital O&M Total Capital O&M Total
Year Cost Cost Revenue Cost Cost Revenue
1 500 1000
2 500 1000
3 200 200 100 400
4 200 200 100 400
5 200 400 100 600
6 200 400 100 600
7 200 600 lOO 800
8 200 600 100 800
9 200 800 100 1000
10 200 1000 100 1200
1. Preferably using a spreadsheet, compute the NPVs using a 10 percent

discount rate. On the basis of your results, rank the projects in terms of
profitability.
2. Calculate the internal rate of return using a spreadsheet. Based on your

results, rank the projects in terms of profitability. Are your rankings the
same as in (1) above?
3. Calculate the cost-benefit ratio. Based on your results, rank the projects
in terms of profitability. Are your rankings the same as in (1) and (2)
above?
4. Comment on the discrepancies in the results in (1), (2) and (3).
5. Refer to the above data. For Option B, analyse the sensitivity of the
calculated IRR with respect to 40% changes in total costs and total
revenue. Comment on the sensitivity of the estimated IRR.
6. A local government is considering two options for regulating pollution.

These are: (i) to allow pollution and clean up afterwards, and (ii) to
prevent pollution. The discounted costs and benefits of the two options
are as follows.
Total cost Total benefits NPV

Option ($ 'OOOs) ($ 'OOOs) ($ 'OOOs)
I. Pollute and
clean up 2500 150 2350
2. Prevent
pollution 5500 300 5200
a. On the basis of the NPVs which option would you recommend?
b. If the risk assessment indicates that there is a possibility of

irreversible damage to the environment, which option would you
recommend?
References
Dasgupta, P., Sen, A., and Marglin. S. (1972). Guidelines for Project Evaluation.
Project Formulation and Evaluation Series o. 2, United Nations Industrial
Development Organisation, Vienna.
Department of Finance (1991). Handbook of Cost-Benefit Analysis. Australian

Government Publishing Service, Canberra.
Goodin, R. (1982). Discounting Discounting. Journal of Public Policy, 2: 53-72.

Hertz, D.B. and Thomas, H. (1983). Risk Analysis and Its Applications. John Wiley
and Sons, New York.
Krautkraemer, J.A. (1985). Optimal Growth, Resource Amenities, and the

Preservation of Natural Environments. Review of Economic Studies, 52: 153-
170.
Little, I.M.D. and Mirlees, J.A. (1974). Project Appraisal and Planning for
Developing Countries. Heineman Educational Books, London.
Megill, R.E. (1985). An Introduction to Risk Analysis, PennWell Books, Tulsa,

Oklahoma, 2nd Edition.
Morgan, M. G. and Hemion, M. (1990). Uncertainty. Cambridge University Press.
Palisade Corporation (1997). @RISK for Windows Version 3.5e. Newfield, New
York.
Pearce, D. (1983). Cost-Benefit Analysis. Macrnillan, Basingstoke, 2"d Edition.
Pearce, D. (1987). Foundations of an Ecological Economics. Ecological Modelling,

38: 9-18.
Pearce, D. and Markandya, D. (1990). Environmental Sustainability and Cost-

Benefit Analysis. Environment and Planning, 22: 1259-1266.
Schweitzer, M., Trossman, E. and Lawson, G.H. (1986). Break-Even Analysis: Basic
Model, Variants, and Extensions. John Wiley, Chichester.
Squire, L. and van der Tak, H.G. (1975). Economic Analysis of Projects.
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development and The Johns Hopkins
University Press, Baltimore.
Appendix 6.1 An Application of Cost-Benefit Analysis (with

Risk Analysis) to a Climate Change Abatement Strategy43
Introduction
Human economic actlVItles over the last 200 years have increased the
amounts of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide, methane,
nitrous oxide, and cholorofluorocarbons are the most important. The
increased concentrations in the atmosphere of these gases have resulted in
the so-called enhanced greenhouse effect. The enhanced greenhouse effect is
caused by these gases acting as a shield and trapping a much larger than
normal amount of outgoing solar energy in the lower atmosphere. The
cooling capacity of the earth is reduced as the temperatures are increased,
resulting in global warming. The effects of unabated global warming include
rise in sea levels, increased incidence and severity of droughts, loss of
ecosystems and animal species, and reduced outputs of agriculture especially
in tropical areas.
Because of the widespread publicity about the negative effects of
international warming, most countries have committed themselves to
reducing emissions of greenhouse gases with the aim of stabilising the
concentration of these gases in the atmosphere. Major agreements on the
reduction of emissions of greenhouse gases were achieved at conferences in
Montreal and Toronto. These agreements require industrialised countries to
initially reduce their annual emissions of greenhouse gases to 1990 levels.
Reduction of greenhouse gases involves costs to the economy of a country in
the short term. However the gains to be realised later, if all countries
undertake reductions of greenhouse gases, may outweigh the costs. The next
two sections evaluate a major climate change abatement project from two
perspectives: a traditional CBA and CBA incorporating risk analysis.
43
This appendix is adapted from a publication entitled, 'An Introductory Discussion of Cost
Benefit Analysis Applied to Climate Change Issues', Working Paper 9601, May 1996,
Graduate School of the Environment, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia, written by
Kwabena A. Anaman.
Analysis of the Climate Change Abatement Project Using CBA

Without Incorporating Risk
Our hypothetical country is called the Republic of Olympia. The main
effects of climate change as a result of continued emission of greenhouse
gases are assumed to be more severe, frequent and longer droughts.
Currently, in the Republic of Olympia, climate change effects are not
noticeable and severe droughts occur on average once every 10 years as have
been occurring over the last 150 years since the advent of modern records
keeping of meteorological data and severe events. Without a successful
global action by most countries to reduce their emissions of greenhouse
gases, the Republic of Olympia will begin to experience the impacts of
climatic change in 20 years time, starting in year 2021. Thus, there are two
clear strategies: (i) the 'do nothing' strategy whereby the status quo of
continued emission of greenhouse gases around the world is continued
unabated and, (ii) the reduction of greenhouse gas production from year
2000 onwards to the 1990 emissions levels. The Republic of Olympia will
only reduce its emissions if most other countries participate in reducing their
emissions under various international agreements. It will be futile for the
Republic of Olympia to do otherwise since it is a small producer of
greenhouse gases; any unilateral reduction will have no effect on global
warming while it suffers economic losses by reducing national output. It is
assumed that year 2000 is the starting point for reduction of greenhouse
gases emissions. The reduction will cost the Republic of Olympia 10 million
dollars per annum in real2000 constant prices.
With the do-nothing strategy, it is assumed for simplification that severe
drought as a result of climate change would occur, on average, once every 10
years hypothetically in years 1, 11 and 21 in the Republic of Olympia. But
after year 20, climate change effects become more pronounced because of
the doubling of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere with severe droughts
then occurring every 5 years starting in year 21 (year 2021), lasting for two
years and costing the Republic of Olympia $200 million, double the $100
million cost for a severe drought before the year 21. Thus, after the climatic
change impacts begin to be felt, severe droughts would occur in years 21 and
22, 26 and 27, 31 and 32, 36 and 37, 41and 42 with each year's losses being
valued at $200 million. The analysis could even be extended to allow for the
year a severe drought occurs to be randomly selected.
With the climate change abatement strategy approved and implemented
by all signatory countries, The Republic of Olympia undertakes a climate
change reduction project costing $10 million each year from year 1 to year
20 (i.e. 2001 to 2020). Given the widespread implementation of reduction of
emissions, climate change impacts are expected to stabilise. Hence under this
scenario, it is assumed that the existing natural climatic variability would be
maintained. The predicted climate change that would have occurred starting
from year 21 would be avoided by the stabilisation of greenhouse gases at
1990 production levels around the world. Hence, severe drought would occur
as usual once every 10 years in the Republic of Olympia in years 1, 11, 21,
31 and 41 costing the economy $100 million.
Traditional CBA is used to analyse the economic viability of the climate
change abatement strategy undertaken by the Republic of Olympia. Columns
2 and 3 of Appendix Table 6.1 summarise the costs associated with the do-
nothing strategy and climate impact abatement project, respectively. It is
assumed that computable general equilibrium models have been used to
derive the economic losses of both strategies. Loss of resources such as
plants and animal species due to possible climatic change is measured by
total economic value. In this case, the benefits of the climate abatement
strategy can be defined as the avoided costs of doing nothing.
Appendix Table 6.1 indicates that the NPV of the climate change
abatement project is $177.5 million and IRR is 11.05%. The climate change
abatement strategy is therefore economically viable. However, these benefits
are contingent on all other countries undertaking emissions reduction
programmes such that the natural climatic variability is maintained and not
worsened.
Incorporating Risk into the Cost-Benefit Analysis of the Climate

Change Abatement Project
In the risk analysis approach, the procedure is identical to the traditional
CBA except that, rather than assuming that the cost of severe drought due to
climatic change for the do-nothing strategy is $200 million, a probability
distribution is used to express this outcome. Due to the considerable
uncertainty regarding the impacts of the climate change, it is assumed that
the minimum value of this outcome is $100 million which is identical to
current costs for severe drought. The most likely value is $200 million and
the maximum possible value is $600 million. It is assumed that economists
working together with climate change impacts researchers have arrived at
these figures.
Several probability distributions are available for expressing this

uncertain outcome. However the BETA probability distribution function,
BETA(aJ, az) was chosen because of its versatility to accommodate many
possible shapes of uncertain outcomes. For the BETA probability
distribution, the mean of a stochastic or uncertain variable is approximated
as follows:
Mean = [Minimum Value + (4 * Modal Value) + Optimistic Value]/6
The corresponding standard deviation of the stochastic variable for the BETA
probability distribution is approximated as [Maximum Value-Minimum
Value]/6. The risk analysis was performed using the Lotus 1-2-3 Add-In @
RISK software Version 2.01 program developed by Palisade Corporation
(1992). This program allows the economic analyst to explicitly include the
uncertainty in a variable with the desired probability distribution selected from
a list of about 30 probability distribution functions. The stochastic variable is
expressed as cells in the Lotus 1-2-3 spreadsheet as BETA probability
distribution rather than as single most likely or certain figures as is done in the
'traditional' deterministic economic analysis reported in the earlier section. The
mode of a general BETA probability function is (aJ-1)/(a 1+a2 -2); the mean is
denoted as (aJ)/(aJ+az), where a 1 and az are the shape parameters which are
greater than zero.
Specific shape parameters have to be estimated first before running the
risk program. For this problem these specific shape parameters are
determined as follows. The minimum, mode and maximum annual cost to
the Republic of Olympia of severe drought under unabated climatic change
are $100, $200 and $600 million respectively. The range is therefore $500
million.
Estimated mean = [Minimum Value + (4 * Modal Value) + Optimistic

Value]/6 = (100 +(4 * 200) + 600)/6 = 1500/6 =250.
Mode = (a1-l)/(a1+a2-2) = (Mode value-Minimum value)/Range =

(100)/500 =0.20.
Mean = (a1)/(a1+a2) = (Mean value-Minimum value)/Range = 150/500 =

0.30.
Hence, a 1 and az. the shape parameters, are 1.8 and 5.2, respectively, meaning
that the function is skewed to the right.
The @RISK command for the BETA probability function is therefore
written as: 100 + 500 * @BETA(l.8,5.2).
Using the estimated BETA probability function, 100 and 500 iterations
or simulation runs (sample size) are performed to determine the mean and
standard deviation of the NPV and IRR for the climate abatement project.
The results are presented in Appendix Table 6.2. They indicate that there are
no major differences between the NPV and IRR of the project derived from
either the 100 or 500 simulation runs. However the NPV and IRR values
obtained from the risk analysis are different from those obtained from the
traditional deterministic analysis reported earlier.
Appendix Table 6.1 Cost-benefit analysis of a climate change abatement project
Cost of do nothing Cost of climate

strategy change abatement Incremental
Year number ($ million) strategy ($million) net benefits
(Actual year) (without project) (with project) ($million)
(A) (B) (C) (D =B-C)
1 (2001) 100 110 -10
2 (2002) 0 10 -10
3 (2003) 0 10 -10
4 (2004) 0 10 -10
5 (2005) 0 10 -10
6 (2006) 0 10 -10
7 (2007) 0 10 -10
8 (2008) 0 10 -10
9 (2009) 0 10 -10
10 (2010) 0 10 -10
11 (2011) 100 110 -10
12 (2012) 0 lO -10
13 (2013) 0 10 -10
14 (2014) 0 10 -10
15 (2015) 0 10 -10
16 (2016) 0 10 -10
17 (2017) 0 10 -10
18 (2018) 0 10 -10
19 (2019) 0 10 -10
Appendix Table 6.1 (Continued)
20 (2020) 0 10 -10
21 (2021) 200 100 100
22 (2022) 200 0 200
23 (2023) 0 0 0
24 (2024) 0 0 0
25 (2025) 0 0 0
26 (2026) 200 0 200
27 (2027) 200 0 200
28 (2028) 0 0 0
29 (2029) 0 0 0
30 (2030) 0 0 0
31 (2031) 200 100 100
32 (2032) 200 0 200
33 (2033) 0 0 0
34 (2034) 0 0 0
35 (2035) 0 0 0
36 (2036) 200 0 200
37 (2037) 200 0 200
38 (2038) 0 0 0
39 (2039) 0 0 0
40(2040 0 0 0
41 (2041) 200 100 100
42 (2042) 200 0 200
43 (2043) 0 0 0
44 (2044) 0 0 0
45 (2045) 0 0 0
NPV@ 6%= $177.25
IRR= 11%
Notes:
(i) It is assumed that severe drought as a result of climate change occurs with the
do-nothing strategy once every 10 years in years 1, 11 and 21. But after year
20, climate change effects become pronounced because of doubling of
greenhouse gases with severe droughts occurring every 5 years starting in
year 21 and returning in years 26, 31, 36 and 41.
(ii) It is assumed with the climate abatement strategy, natural climatic variability
is maintained. The predicted climate change that would have occurred starting
from year 21 is avoided by the stabilisation of greenhouse gases at 1990
production levels by all signatory countries around the world. Hence severe
drought occurs once every 10 years in the Republic of Olympia for years 1,
11, 21,31 and 41.
Appendix Table 6.2 Estimated NPV and IRR of the climate change abatement project
Sample size
Item 100 500
Mean NPV ($ million) 227 227
Standard deviation ofNPV($ million) 48 45
Range ofNPV($ million) 240 295
MeaniRR(%) 11.9 11.9
Standard deviation of IRR (%) 0.9 0.8
Range of IRR (%) 4.3 4.6
Note:
The NPV figures are rounded off to the nearest million dollars while the IRR figures are
rounded off to the nearest decimal point.
References
Palisade Corporation (1992). @RISK: Risk Analysis and Simulation Add-In for
Lotus 1-2-3 Version 2.01 Users' Guide, New York.
7. Cost-Effectiveness Analysis, Impact
Analysis, and Stakeholder Analysis
Objectives
o distinguish between cost-benefit analysis and cost effectiveness analysis
o conduct a cost-effectiveness analysis
o explain the components of an impact analysis
o explain the procedure of a damage assessment; and
o explain the steps in stakeholder analysis
7.1 Introduction
In the previous chapter, we introduced cost-benefit analysis as a framework

for evaluating and ranking one or more investment alternatives. Although
CBA is a useful tool to assist decision-making, it may not be a suitable
approach in all situations. When it is not possible to value a project's major
benefits in dollar terms, or when two projects have similar economic
benefits, then a cost effectiveness analysis (CEA) may be used. For
example, if the decision problem is to choose between building two
hospitals, a CEA would be appropriate since the social benefits in either case
would be similar.
185
Both CBA and CEA are based on the principle of economic efficiency
and therefore do not consider equity or distributional issues. That is, a
project is deemed to be socially desirable if the gainers can potentially
compensate the losers. They both do not deal with the issue of who the losers
are or how they should be compensated. Many projects around the world
have resulted in failure because insufficent attention has been paid to equity
and distributional issues. In this chapter, we consider impact analysis (or
environmental impact analysis) and the relatively new area of stakeholder
analysis. These two methods must be seen as being complementary to, and
not a substitute for, CBA and CEA. They enable decision-makers to devise
policies to mitigate any adverse impacts of a project on groups or
individuals.
7.2 Cost-Effectiveness Analysis

Cost effectiveness analysis looks only at financial costs. A CEA takes the
objective as given, and then works out the costs of the alternative ways of
achieving that objective. The decision on whether to use CEA instead of
CBA will depend on a number of factors including the following:
the size and complexity of the project;

the extent to which there are quantifiable benefits; and
the extent to which the benefits can be valued in monetary
terms.
For large-scale projects CBA is the preferred approach because it enables the
major items of costs and benefits to be identified and valued and DCF
performance criteria to be computed. However, in cases where the major
benefits cannot be quantified in dollar terms, CEA is the preferred approach.
CEA is also appropriate in a case where the choice is between, say, two
wastewater treatment options with the same outputs or service levels but the
difference is in, say, location. Most of the foregoing discussion on CBA
applies generally to CEA. Unlike CBA, CEA does not have absolute criteria
by which to judge the economic viability of projects. CEA is therefore not
recommended when a decision about the level of output or service to be
provided is at issue.
Cost-Effectiveness Analysis, Impact Analysis, and Stakeholder Analysis 187
7.2.1 Examples ofCost Effectiveness Analysis

Examples of situations in which CEA could be used include the following:
1. Given a desirable pollution abatement standard, what will be the

least cost, out of various alternatives, of achieving the standard?
2. Can buying up all the property rights in a flood plain and
moving people out by constructing dykes save the same number
of lives more cheaply?
3. Given two parks with similar recreation benefits, which should
be developed? Park A requires extensive filling and flood
control and Park B involves buying warehouse sites.
4. Choosing between alternative ways of constructing a town's
water supply system.
7.2.2 Conducting a Cost-Effectiveness Analysis

The steps involved in carrying out a CEA are similar those for a CBA. They
are:
1. Project definition
2. Choice of method of analysis
3. Identification and valuation of costs and benefits
4. Discounted cash flow analysis
5. Calculation of measures of effectiveness, and
6. Sensitivity analysis
Project definition
The issues here are the same as discussed for a CBA. That is, there is need to
outline the project objective or problem to be solved, describe the target
population, discount rate, project life and other useful parameters.
Choice of method of analysis

Careful consideration needs to be given to the method of analysis to use in a
given situation. As already indicated above, CBA is the preferred approach
in large and complex projects with significant social and environmental
ramifications. However, in cases where two or more options have similar
service levels and the major economic benefits cannot be valued in monetary
terms, a CEA is appropriate.
Identification and valuation of costs

All the costs of the project must be identified and valued. Caution must be
exercised in dealing with secondary (or indirect) costs. As far as possible,
only direct costs must be used.
Discounted cash flow analysis

The stream of costs must be discounted to arrive at present values as
described in the earlier sections.
Calculation of measures of effectiveness

An appropriate measure of effectiveness must be identified. As a guide, the
measure must be as close as possible to the objective of the project activities.
For example, for a wastewater project the obvious choice would be 'cost per
Ml' or 'cost per Ml per annum'.
Sensitivity analysis
As in a CBA, a sensitivity analysis will be required in a CEA. To assist the
choice between options, it would be necessary to find out how sensitive the
cost-effectiveness measures are to changes in project parameters such as
discount rate and planning horizon.
7.2.3 Example of a CEA Application: The Cooloombah Wastewater

Project
This section presents an example of a CEA application. The intention is to
highlight and provide practical examples of the essential features of a CEA.
In this respect, this example must not be taken as an exhaustive review of
CEA methodology. We begin with a brief description of the project
background.
Background
Cooloombah is a small city of 40,000 people located to the northeast of
Brisbane. In line with the general trends in the state of Queensland, the
population is expected to triple by the year 2020. To meet this increase in the
city's population, Council is considering two waste water treatment options.
Option 1 involves providing additional capacity at the existing facility to
cater for the expected increased population. Option 2 is to abandon the
existing facility and to construct a new one to cater for the whole catchment.
Both options are capable of treating an additional 20 MUd of treated
wastewater for discharge into the neighbouring creek. The estimated costs
are listed in Table 7 .1.
Project definition
The project's objective is to augment the waste water treatment capacity in
the project area. This goal can be achieved in two ways: to expand capacity
at the existing plant (Option A) or to build a new plant (Option B).
Table 7.1 Cost estimates for Cooloombah Wastewater Project
Augment existing Build new

Cost category facility facility
Capital cost ($ million):

Investigations 0.03 0.05
Surveys 0.02 0.03
Engineering 1.50 1.00
Plant and equipment 48.45 40.00
Land acquisition 2.00
Total 50.00 43.08
Operating cost($ million per annum):

Labour 2.00 2.00
Electricity 0.30 0.30
Chemicals 0.40 0.20
Repairs and maintenance 0.50 0.40
Sludge management and odour control 0.30 0.10
Insurance 0.10 0.08
Administrative overheads 0.20 0.10
Total 3.80 3.18
Choice of method of analysis

The two options under consideration have similar output levels. Apart from
improvement in morbidity and mortality rates as a result of treating the
wastewater, there are no obvious tangible economic benefits because there

are no plans for reusing the treated water.
Identification and valuation of costs and benefits

The benefits of each option include:
revenue from charges for wastewater treatment, and

improvement in morbidity and mortality rates as a result of
treating the wastewater.
The major costs consist of the following:
capital costs associated with surveying and engineering, as well

as purchasing and installing plant equipment, and
plant operating costs.
Estimates of costs for each option are as follows:
Option A:
The capital costs of augmenting the current facilities are estimated at $50
million and will be phased evenly over the construction period of two years.
Operating costs are estimated at $3.8 million per annum and will increase at
a rate of 3 percent per annum above the projected rate of inflation. Operating
costs are therefore projected to increase from $3.8 million at the start of
operation to $6.1 million at the end of the planning horizon (Table 7.2).
OptionB:
The capital costs of building a new wastewater treatment plant are expected
to amount to $43 million over a period of two years. The operating costs will
be $3.2 million per annum, increasing at 3 percent per annum above the
expected rate of inflation. The operating costs will therefore be $3.2 million
in the first year of plant operation, increasing to $5.14 million at the end of
the project (Table 7.2).
Discounted cash flow analysis

The discounted cash flow analysis (Table 7.2) indicates that the present
values of the total costs are $80.63 million for Option A and $68.70 million
for Option B, using a real discount rate of 8 percent.
Calculation of measures of effectiveness

A useful measure of effectiveness is the cost per unit volume of treated
water. The discounted volume of water to be treated over the project period
is 55.69 million kilolitres. The cost-effectiveness of the two options are
therefore $1.45/Kl for Option A and $1.23/Kl for Option B. From these
figures, it would appear that construction of a new wastewater plant is more
cost effective than augmenting the current facility.
Recommendation
It is recommended that Council consider construction of a new wastewater
plant.
7.3 Impact Analysis

As already indicated earlier, a CBA (or CEA) has nothing to say about who
the losers of a project are what is the magnitude of their losses. An impact
analysis (lA), or environmental impact analysis (EIA), complements a CBA
by assessing a project's impact on the environment, social groups or
individuals, as well as the economic impacts.
Although there are different approaches to conducting an lA or EIA, at least
three major components may be identified: an environmental impact
assessment, an economic impact assessment and a social/cultural impact
assessment.
The environmental impact assessment considers the project's impacts on
the flora and fauna, land and soils, noise and pollution, and so on. These
days, many countries (both developed and developing) have legislation that
require an EIA when substantial public and private programs and projects
are under consideration. The social/cultural impact assessment examines the
impact of the project on individual groups within the community by
identifying who they are and how better off or worse off they are if the
project goes ahead.
Table 7.2 Discounted cash flow table for Cooloombah Wastewater Project
($ millions)
Option 1 Total Option 2 Total

Year Capital Operating Costs Capital Operating Costs
Costs Costs Option 1 Costs Costs Option 2
25.00 25.00 21.50 21.50
2 25.00 25.00 21.50 21.50
3 3.80 3.80 3.20 3.20
4 3.91 3.91 3.30 3.30
5 4.03 4.03 3.39 3.39
6 4.15 4.15 3.50 3.50
7 4.28 4.28 3.60 3.60
8 4.41 4.41 3.71 3.71
9 4.54 4.54 3.82 3.82
10 4.67 4.67 3.94 3.94
11 4.81 4.81 4.05 4.05
12 4.96 4.96 4.18 4.18
13 5.11 5.11 4.30 4.30
14 5.26 5.26 4.43 4.43
15 5.42 5.42 4.56 4.56
16 5.58 5.58 4.70 4.70
17 5.75 5.75 4.84 4.84
18 5.92 5.92 4.99 4.99
19 6.10 6.10 5.14 5.14
PV(costs, $m.)= 80.63 PV(costs, $m.)= 68.70
Cost/Kl ($) = 1.45 Cost/Kl ($) = 1.23
The analysis should, as far as possible, indicate the size and nature of the
gains and losses. A simple but practical way of reporting the results of the
social impact assessment is by means of a matrix, depicting the costs and
benefits on one axis and the relevant socio-economic groupings on the other.
The economic impact assessment evaluates the impact of the project on the
region (or state), on local communities and on industry sectors. The
economic impact assessment can be carried out, at an elementary level, by
describing the impacts and providing estimates of how many jobs will be
created during the construction and operation phases of the project. A more
sophisticated analysis can be carried out using either an input-output or a
computable general equilibrium model. These models can give an indication
of the 'economy-wide' impacts of the projects. For example, if a project
increases output of a good or service, the models can provide an indication
of the simultaneous impacts on different sectors of the economy, including
effects on government revenue and households. However, it must be
emphasised that these models are not appropriate for project selection
because they do not consider the alternative uses of the resources consumed
by a project.
7.3.1 Example of an Impact Analysis in Case Study 1, Bintuli

The impacts of the project can be grouped under three main headings:
environmental, economic and social. A brief assessment of these impacts is
provided below.
Environmental impacts
The environmental impacts will occur during the construction and operation
phases. These include impacts on the water quality, land and soils, flora and
fauna, and noise and air pollution.
Water quality
The impact on water quality will be positive because the treatment process
will remove nutrients from the wastewater and will also disinfect the
wastewater by means of chlorination.
Flora and fauna

There are no significant numbers of wildlife in the area. It is not expected
that there will be significant adverse impacts on the flora and fauna. On the
contrary, improved river water quality will benefit flora and fauna over a
large area.
Noise and air pollution

The site is isolated from settlements. Although there will be substantial noise
and air pollution from equipment during construction of the plant including
traffic, this would be transient and not significant. The existing roads are
capable of accommodating the (relatively insignificant) levels of additional
traffic.
Economic impacts
It is expected that construction of the plant will provide employment
opportunities, especially during the construction period. It is estimated that
150 jobs will be created when the plant is completed.
Social impacts
The social impacts pertain to the displacement of people, as well as gender
and cultural issues.
Displacement
The proposed site for the project is not currently populated. The site is not
being used for any particular purpose and therefore there will be no
displacement impact.
Gender
It is expected that the construction of the plant will not adversely affect
women in the area. It is uncertain whether women in the area would share in
the employment opportunities to be created during the construction and
operation of the plant. There is little information about the education and
skills level of women in the area.
Cultural
The site for the proposed plant has little cultural significance to the
population. It is unlikely that there will be any important cultural impact
from the project. There will also be no impacts on farmers, river users and
fishermen.
7.4 Damage Assessment

The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability
Act was passed in the U.S. in 1980 authorising governments at various levels
to act as trustees for publicly owned natural resources and to sue people
responsible for environmental damage. This law, coupled with the 1989
Exxon Valdez oil disaster in Alaska, has given rise to a new type of
environmental analysis known as damage assessment. The objective of
damage assessment is to estimate the monetary value of environmental
damage caused. This information could be used by courts to determine the
liability of those responsible and to compensate the victims. For example,
Exxon has paid US$1 billion for cleanup, and pending appeals, is liable to
pay an additional US$5 billion in punitive damages.
In the case of damage assessment in the U.S., the Department of Interior
(DOl) has determined that damages should be equal to the lesser of: (1) the
lost value of the resource, or (2) the value of restoring the resource to its
former state.
The lost economic values from environmental damages include: loss of
income resulting from, say, damage to fishing grounds; loss of recreational
opportunities (e.g. camping, fishing and hiking); pollution of water
resources; and air pollution. The methods discussed in Chapter 5 could be
used to determine some of these economic values. For example, in the case
of the Exxon Valdez oil spill, the amount non-users were willing to pay to
avoid the damage actually incurred was estimated to be US$2.8 billion,
which is equivalent to US$31 per U.S. household (O'Doherty, 1994)
7.5 Stakeholder Analysis

The concept of stakeholder analysis (SA) originated in the area of business
44
management. In the early 1980s, business management strategy began to
take a much broader view beyond the issue of making profit from the
manufacture and distribution of goods and services. It was felt at the time
that there was a need to take into account the concerns of not only direct
stakeholders (i.e., those who directly buy or supply products to a firm) but
also indirect stakeholders. Since the early 1990s, SA has been adopted for
use in the area of natural resource management. Many projects and policies
44
See, for example, work by Mitroff (1983) and Freeman (1984).
have failed in the past due to the failure of the planners to directly involve
those who the project will affect.
Grimble and Chan (1995: 114) define SA as 'an approach and procedure
for gaining an understanding of a system by means of identifying the key
actors or stakeholders in the system, and assessing their respective interests
in the system'. 'Stakeholders', in this definition, include governments and
non-governmental organisations, individuals, community groups, and firms
who can potentially affect or be affected by a proposed policy or project. The
main aim of SA is to take account of distributional and equity issues in the
design of policies or projects.
The justification for an approach such as SA is on the grounds that
conventional approaches such as CBA and CEA, particularly in the area of
natural resource management, do not consider the distribution of costs and
benefits among the stakeholders. Since stakeholders perceive environmental
problems differently, they may pursue solutions that are different from those
of the project, leading to non-cooperation with the project. Although SA is
useful in development planning as a whole, it is particularly useful for
natural resource management due to a number of reasons. Among these are
the common property nature of some natural resources; the multiple use
nature of natural resources and the varying interests held by different types
of stakeholders. In such situations stakeholder analysis provides a consistent
framework for evaluating and incorporating the various interests in the
decision-making process.
7.5.1 Steps in Stakeholder Analysis

Stakeholder analysis involves the following steps:
identifying the objective(s) of the analysis;

developing an understanding of the system and its decision
makers;
identifying the stakeholders;
investigating stakeholder interests; and
identifying patterns and contexts of interaction between
stakeholders
Identifying the objective of the analysis

This first step of identifying and clarifying the purpose of the analysis is
useful for other kinds of analysis, but more so in SA because there is a wide
range of resource management problems. It is therefore necessary to
determine the nature of the problem to be solved, the objectives of the
analysis, the outputs of the analysis, the relevant decision-makers and the
main target group. For example, in a dam project the problem to be
addressed could be the fact that some groups would be worse off (e.g., suffer
income losses). The objectives and outputs would therefore be to consider
alternative project designs to minimise the impacts.
Developing an understanding of the system and its decision makers

Once the objective of the analysis has been firmly established, the next step
is to gain an understanding of how the system operates and who the major
players are. In the case of natural resource systems, it is important to
understand the interactions between the local community and the
environment. For example, if the problem were deforestation, it would be
essential to understand the various uses such as logging, grazing, fruit
harvesting and so on.
Identifying the stakeholders

Various approaches for identifying major stakeholders have been proposed
in the management science literature. These include the following: the
reputational approach, the focal group approach and the demographic
approach.
The reputational approach involves seeking assistance from prominent
individuals (e.g., the village chief) in the community for help to identify
groups or individuals who may have a stake in the resource issue at hand. As
the name suggests, the focal group approach involves first identifying a main
group with interest in the issue, and then looking for other groups with links
to this main group. Finally, the demographic approach attempts to identify
stakeholders on the basis of demographic characteristics such as age, gender,
religion and so on. After the stakeholders have been identified, a list of
stakeholders is compiled and the information is verified. Verification of the
stakeholders can be carried out by conferring with other stakeholders.
Investigating stakeholder interests

Once the stakeholders have been identified, the next step is to investigate
their interests. Table 7.3 provides an example of the various stakeholders of
a forestry resource in a developing country and their interests. The table
indicates that there is a range of contexts within which the various interests
operate. Techniques such as Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) or Rapid
Rural Appraisal (RRA) may be used to collect the necessary information
(liED, 1994). Information to be collected includes how stakeholders use and
manage the given resource, the direct and indirect benefits, the system of
property rights, stakeholder views about the resource use, actual and
perceived costs and benefits, stakeholders' decision-making criteria, and
other relevant information.
Table 7.3 An example of stakeholders of a forest resource
Institutional level Example of stakeholder Environmental interest

Global and International agencies; Biodiversity conservation;
international; wider foreign governments; climatic regulation;
society lobbies maintenance of resource
base
National National governments; Timber extraction; tourism

macro planners; urban development; resource and
pressure groups; NGOs catchment protection
Regional Forest departments; Forest productivity; water

regional authorities; supply protection; soil
downstream communities depletion and siltation
Local off site Downstream communities; Protected water supply;

Jogging companies and access to timber supply;
sawmiJis; local officials conflict avoidance
Local onsite Forest dweJiers; forest Land for cultivation; timber

fringe farmers; livestock and non-timber; forest
keepers; cottage industry products; access to grazing
and fodder; cultural sites
Source: Grimble and Chan (1995).

Identifying patterns and contexts of interaction between stakeholders

This stage of the process builds on Steps 2 to 4 by conducting a more
detailed analysis of the relationships between the different stakeholders. The
aim of this activity is to shed more light on conflicts or cooperative action
among the stakeholders. The expected outcome of this component of SA is
an understanding of the divergent interests and factors that are likely to
influence successful cooperation among groups.
Stakeholder analysis is a useful tool to complement more conventional
methods such as CBA and CEA. It has the potential to generate information
that can be used to improve the design projects to ensure successful
implementation.
7.6 Summary
In this chapter, we have considered cost effectiveness analysis as an
alternative form of comparing two or more investment alternatives. A CEA
can be used when a project has significant economic benefits that cannot be
valued in monetary terms. It is also used to choose among two or more
projects or policies that have identical benefits. In such cases, the issue of
interest is which one can be implemented at least cost.
A practical example of a CEA was outlined. Both CBA and CEA are
based on principles of economic efficiency and do not therefore consider
equity and distributional issues associated with a proposed policy or project.
The concepts of impact analysis and stakeholder analysis were therefore
introduced as additional tools to complement CBA or CEA. An impact
analysis identifies a project's impact on the environment, social groups and
individuals. It seeks to identify gainers and losers and the magnitude of the
gains and losses. Stakeholder analysis is a similar process in the sense that it
seeks to identify the stakeholders, that is, individuals, groups and
organisations who are affected by or affect a given policy or project.
Stakeholder analysis attempts to gain an understanding of the various
interests associated with a resource and the interactions among the
stakeholders. Information from both impact and stakeholder analysis can be
used to improve the design of projects so as to minimise any adverse impacts
and improve the chances of successful implementation.

cost effectiveness analysis measure of effectiveness
damage assessment participatory rural appraisal
demographic approach rapid rural appraisal
economic impact assessment reputational approach
environmental impact assessment social/cultural impact assessment
focal group approach stakeholder analysis
impact analysis
Review Questions
1. What are the main differences between cost-effectiveness analysis and
cost-benefit analysis?
2. Describe the steps in carrying out a cost-effectiveness analysis.
3. Discuss the reasons why a cost-benefit analysis alone may be an

insufficient basis for selecting some types of projects. What kinds of
additional analyses may required?
4. Outline the steps in impact analysis.
5. Outline the steps in stakeholder analysis.
Exercises
1. List the advantages and limitations of cost effectiveness analysis.
2. List the advantages and limitations of stakeholder analysis.
References
Freeman, R.E. (1984). Strategic Management: A Stakeholder Approach. Pitman,
Boston, MA.
Grimble, R. and Chan, M-K. (1995). Stakeholder Analysis for Natural Resource
Management in Developing Counties. Natural Resources Forum, 19(2): 113-
124.
International Institute for Environment and Development, liED (1994). Rapid Rural
Appraisal Note 20. Sustainable Agriculture Progamme, liED, London.
Mitroff, I. (1983). Stakeholders of the Organisational Mind. Jossey-Bass, Ca.
O'Doherty, R. (1994). Pricing Environmental Disasters. Economic Review, 12:1.

8. Multi-Criteria Analysis
Objectives
After studying this chapter you should be in position to:
D explain when it is appropriate to use multi-criteria analysis;
D explain the steps in multi-criteria analysis; and
D explain the strengths and weaknesses of multi-criteria analysis.
8.1 Introduction
The non-market valuation techniques discussed earlier aim to value the
environmental impacts of proposed policies or projects in dollar terms.
These dollar estimates are then used as inputs to an analytical framework
such as CBA or CEA to assist decision makers choose between competing
alternatives. Although it is not necessarily made explicit, it is usually the
case that projects seek to achieve a set of broader socioeconomic and
environmental objectives such as increased income and preservation of the
environment. CBA works well as a decision-making tool when costs and
benefits can be valued in dollar terms. However, the fact remains that,
despite improvements in non-market valuation techniques, many
environmental impacts cannot be valued in monetary terms. This chapter
introduces multi-criteria analysis (MCA) which is an approach for choosing
from among a set of alternatives when there are multiple objectives. Because
the objectives may be competing or conflicting, the trade-offs need to be
made explicit.
203
The chapter proceeds as follows. The next section defines MCA and
explains its conceptual basis. Section 3 outlines the steps involved in
conducting MCA, while Section 4 discusses the limitations of the approach.
The penultimate section presents a case study on an application of MCA,
while the final section contains the summary.
8.2 The Multi-Criteria Analysis Approach

Multi-criteria analysis is also referred to in the literature as multi-objective
decision making, multi-objective decision support system (MODSS), and
multi-criteria decision aid. MCA may be described as a framework to assist
decision makers choose between alternative policies and projects in
situations where there are multiple objectives. In contrast to the methods
discussed previously, MCA incorporates costs and benefits that cannot be
valued in dollar terms. As a matter of fact, CBA may be considered as a
special case of MCA in which the alternatives are evaluated by performance
criteria (e.g., NPV) that are measured in dollar terms.
Apart from not being based exclusively on money valuations, MCA
differs from CBA (or CEA) in other respects. Both CBA and CEA are based
on economic efficiency criteria (e.g., NPV <! 0), but MCA incorporates other
types of criteria such as distributional, equity, ecological and so on. 45 Unlike
CBA and CEA, MCA does not require only quantitative data. The approach
can handle quantitative, qualitative and a combination of quantitative and
qualitative data. In situations where efficiency is a major criterion, where
trade-offs do not need to be identified explicitly and where there are few
valuation problems, a CBA is preferable to an MCA. However, as indicated
above, in many cases, the need to include social and ecological effects that
cannot be valued in monetary terms makes MCA a more pragmatic
alternative. According to van Pelt (1991), the choice between CBA and
MCA boils down to the trade-off between methodological and empirical
considerations.
To explain the conceptual basis of MCA, let us consider a potential
project that has conflicting objectives: biodiversity protection (y 1) and
development (y2). In this case, development entails a loss of biodiversity.
Assume that the additional costs required to protect biodiversity are known
45
Equity considerations may be modelled in CBA, to some extent, by adjusting prices
according to predefined equity weights.
Multi-Criteria Analysis 205
and that the level of development can be measured against an index of

biodiversity loss (Figure 8.1). Suppose that alternative projects a, b, c and d
have been identified as potential solutions posed by the first project. Point c
is preferable to d because it implies a lower cost as well as a lower
biodiversity loss.
Figure 8.1 The trade-off curve in multi-criteria analysis
Cost ofbiodiversity
conservation, y 1 ($)
equi preference
curve
ade-off curve
Development (biodiversity loss), y2
In this regard, alternative d may be discarded because it is inferior to (i.e.,

dominated by) c. However, a similar conclusion cannot be made about points
a and b because they lie on the same trade-off curve. Point c is better in
terms of having a lower cost but has a higher biodiversity loss compared to
point a.
The process of MCA involves finding additional points such as b and c
that form an optimal trade-off curve. Using the decision-maker's preferences
(where the decision-maker could be a number of groups of stakeholders
holding divergent opinions about resource management), the analyst
constructs a family of trade-off and equipreference curves that describe
how one objective is traded off against the other (Figure 8.1). The optimal
choice is the one that yields the greatest utility. This is given by the point of
tangency between a trade-off curve and the lowest equipreference curve,
point b. The equipreference curves are often not known and therefore some
other means must be used to narrow the set of feasible points on the trade-off
curve. For example, using the safe minimum standard concept (see Chapter
11), the decision makers might define a maximum allowable level of
biodiversity loss. Depending on the budget constraint, they may also define
the maximum level of costs. Imposing such constraints enables the choice
set to be narrowed down.
8.3 Steps in the MCA Process

Although the procedure for MCA is presented below as a series of
successive steps, this is merely for ease of presentation. In practice, there is
likely to be iteration between steps. The steps in MCA, are as follows:
identifying the problem to be addressed

identifying the alternatives
identifying the criteria
scoring the alternatives in relation to each criterion
weighting the scores according to the weight or rank assigned to the
criteria
evaluating the alternatives
sensitivity and risk analyses, and
producing a ranking of alternatives on which to make a
recommendation
These steps are represented schematically in Figure 8.2. It shows the two
main sources of information flows (represented by broken arrows) during the
MCA process. The first source is in the form of inputs from data sets. Data
sets, typically, would include scientific, social and economic information
about the problem to be addressed. It may be presented in the form of GIS,
simulation models or expert systems that simulate the problem and
alternative scenarios and provide predictive information to assist the
identification of alternatives to address the perceived problem and the
scoring of alternatives against the evaluation criteria.
The second source is information from identified stakeholders. MCA
facilitates a participatory approach to decision-making. Information provided
by stakeholders would be expected to include their input to identify
alternatives and their acceptance of the appropriateness of the alternatives
under consideration; the identification of the criteria to evaluate the

alternatives as well as a ranking or weighting of the criteria.
Figure 8.2 Schematic representation of the steps in the MCA process
1. Identify the
problem to be Information
addressed inputs from
data sets
......................
2. Specify the alternative ...........

or alternatives. This 3. Specify the
criteria to 4. Score the
requires agreement
from all parties ... evaluate the __.
.. performance of
each alternatives in
proposed
alternatives relation to each
criterion
...
Information
6. Evaluate the
5. Assign a alternatives and
inputs from .... weight or .... undertake a
stakeholders ranking to the sensitivity and/or
criteria risk analysis
7. Produce a ranking of
the alternatives and
make
/
Key: recommendations
Sequence of steps
................................... Data flows
Source: Robinson (1999a).

8.3.1 Identifying the Problem to be Addressed

An initial, and preliminary step in the MCA process is the identification of
the problem to be addressed. It is likely that this step would initiate data
collection to determine the extent and severety of the problem. In the
illustrative case here, the problem to be addressed would be identified as the
sustainable use of forest resourses.
8.3.2 Identifying the Alternatives

Identification of the relevant set of alternatives is a crucial early step in
MCA. Given that MCA is a process, the aim of this step is to seek the input
of the stakeholders in deciding what alternatives should be considered.
Obviously, there is a problem if there are either too few or too many
alternatives. In the case of too many alternatives, preliminary screening can
reduce the number of alternatives using some agreed criteria (e.g., minimum
pollution levels or minimum economic returns). In this screening exercise,
'inferior' alternatives (i.e., those that are dominated by one or more
alternatives) are dropped. In the case of forest resource use, there could be
four possible alternatives which would include a 'do nothing' scenario:
1. Ban all forms of logging;

2. Ban logging in only old growth forest, allow logging in
plantation forest;
3. Permit logging of any type; and
4. Do nothing.
8.3.3 Identifying the Criteria

As already indicated, one strength of MCA is its ability to accommodate
decisions with multiple objectives. In addition, MCA can deal with
hierarchical criteria. In this case, the criteria are grouped into sub-criteria,
and if necessary, into sub-sub-criteria. For the forest management example,
we can identify three main objectives (Figure 8.3), namely
1. Maximise economic growth;

2. Maximise environmental quality, and
3. Maximise social benefits.
The criteria for the first objective could be the number of jobs created and
the amount of revenue from the sale of logs. The criteria for the second
objective could include the level ofbiodiversity, the area of forest conserved,
the amount of soil erosion avoided and the level of water quality. Sub-
criteria for water quality could include the pH level, amount of suspended
particulate matter, and so on. Finally, the criteria for the third objective could
be the value of recreation and tourism, and the level of poverty.
8.3.4 Scoring the Alternatives in Relation to the Criteria

Before scores are assigned to each alternative in relation to each criterion,
the 'do nothing' alternative must be identified so that the alternatives can be
evaluated as marginal or incremental to the 'do nothing' alternative.
Figure 8.3 Hierarchy of criteria for the forest management example
Scores are presented in an 'effects table'. An effects table, or matrix,

displays the criteria in the rows and the alternatives in the columns. A score
is provided for each alternative against each criterion in relation to the 'do
nothing' alternative. As already indicated above, MCA has an advantage
over CBA in that it is able to deal with both quantitative and qualitative
criteria.
For example, for the employment creation criterion in the forest
management case, the score for Alternative 4 (do nothing) could be no
additional jobs, Alternative 1 (ban all logging) could be 3 jobs and that of
Alternative 3 (permit all logging) could be 90 jobs (Table 8.1). For the
income generation criterion, the score could be zero dollars per annum for
both the 'do nothing' alternative as well as Alternative 1 and $35,000 per
annum for Alternative 3. Note that some of the criteria are expressed in
qualitative, or ordinal, form. For example, the score for the biodoversity is
high under Alternative 1 and very low under Alternative 3. It is
recommended that, as far as possible the criteria be 'standardised' (RAC,
1992). Standardisation involves reducing the criteria scores to a comparable
basis. In the forestry management example, standardisation would mean
ensuring that all the dollar scores are expressed on a scale such as between 0
and 10. Employment generation could be converted into a score, using, say,
'10' for the highest estimated employment level, and '0' for the lowest.
8.3.5 Weighting the Scores According to the Weights Assigned to the

Criteria
The next step in the MCA process involves 'prioritising' the criteria by
assigning different rankings or weights. The weights can be assigned by the
analyst, the decision maker or they can be based on the views of the
stakeholders. In some cases, the criteria can be weighted by a panel of
experts using techniques such as the Delphi method. The Delphi approach
involves getting the panel to come up with weights in their area of expertise.
Each person is then given the opportunity to re-evaluate their individual
responses. Through successive rounds of re-evaluation, a consensus on the
weights is then reached.
The weights can also be generated mathematically. For example, Janssen
(1992) discusses three approaches to deriving weights, including one that
assumes a linear relationship between pairs of criteria. Another approach is
the 'analytical hierarchy process' in which weights are estimated based on
pairwise comparisons (Saaty, 1980; Forman, 1990). The scores are then
weighted according to the ranking or weights assigned to the criteria.
8.3.6 Evaluating the Alternatives

46
A number of approaches for evaluating the altematives have been
identified for evaluating the feasible choices on the trade-off curve.
Table 8.1 Effects table for the resource management example
Alternatives
1. Ban all 2. Ban 3. Permit all forms 4. Do
logging logging in of logging nothing
Criteria old growth
forest
Employment creation 3 30 90 0
(number of jobs)
Income ($'000 p.a.) 0 40 35 0
Biodiversity high low very low low
Forest conserved (ha) 10,000 6,000 1,000 5,000
Water quality high medium low medium

(low to high)
Soil erosion (kg/ha/p.a.) 25 70 30
Recreation and tourism 500 300 10 250

($'000 p.a.)
Poverty level ($ change -20 +5 +30 0

in per capita income)
They include the following:
aggregation techniques;
lexicographic technique;
graphical technique;
consensus maxirnisation;
concordance methods; and
46
See, for example, Pearce and Turner (1990) and Janssen (1992).
multi-attribute utility model.
Aggregation techniques
In the aggregation approach, the scores are aggregated over the range of
criteria. The alternatives are then ranked according to the weighted sum of
the standardised scores. The scores are defined as follows:
(8.1)
where: Xji==performance of alternative i with respect to criterion};

wi ==weight assigned to criterion}; and
n == number of criteria
Lexicographic technique
The lexicographic technique evaluates criteria by ranking them from the
least important to the most important. This approach does not allow trade-
offs among the criteria and is suitable for decisions in which the priorities
are clear-cut. An example is a decision regarding concentrations of toxic
chemicals in drinking water where the levels of acceptable risk can be
clearly defined based on medical information.
Graphical technique
As the name suggests, the graphical approach involves plotting the
alternatives in relation to benchmarks. These benchmarks could be, for
example, the maximum scores for a given alternative. The main limitation of
this approach is that the data must be in quantitative form (i.e., either ratio or
interval data).
Consensus-maximising technique
In the consensus-maximising approach, individual preferences are added up
to obtain group consensus preferences. This approach is useful when there
are a range of stakeholders associated with the project in question. In this
case, the criteria could be ranked on the basis of the preferences of different
interest groups to obtain an aggregate index.
Concordance methods
Concordance methods are also referred to as ELECTRE methods (Roy,
1990). For each pairwise comparison, concordance and disconcordance
indices are calculated. The concordance index is given by the weighted sum
of the criteria for which the first alternative's score is better than that of the
second. The disconcordance index is given by the largest difference in scores
among those criteria for which the first alternative's score is below that of
the second. Upon calculation of the indices, a ranking of the alternatives is
then carried out.
Multi-attribute utility model

The multi-attribute utility approach is a generalisation of the aggregation
method. In this approach a utility function is used in place of the scores, and
the alternatives are ranked according to the following weighted sum:
n
'"'wU(x)
~ JJ Jl
(8.2)
j~I
where [lj is a utility function; and all other variables are as defined
previously.
8.3. 7 Sensitivity and Risk Analyses

The assignment of weights and calculation of scores in the MCA process are
carried out in an environment of imperfect information. In this regard, it is
necessary to check how 'robust' the final solution is. This can be done by
conducting a sensitivity analysis, which determines how the rankings change
in response to changes in, say, the weights, the standardisation method and
the evaluation method. Sensitivity analysis is commonly carried out to
determine any change in the ranking of alternatives resulting from a change
in the weights assigned to the criteria. Risk analysis may also be performed
by using the Monte Carlo simulation approach (see Chapter 6) to generate
probability distributions for the possible rankings. This particular type of risk
analysis is more commonly conducted on data that are in a quantitative form.
At the moment, there are no established simulation methods for qualitative
(or ordinal) data.
8.3.8 Ranking the Alternatives and Making a Recommendation

The final step in MCA is to establish a ranking of the alternatives and to
make a recommendation. The outcome from a MCA process is a
prioritisation of alternative courses of action or projects. Depending on the
number of alternatives and criteria, the process can generate a vast amount of
information. Graphical methods have been shown to be an effective way of
presenting the results for different alternatives (Janssen and van Herwijnen,
1991). Interactive computer packages (see, for example, DNR, 1999) are
now available which enable the decision maker to view graphical outputs, as
well as what happens if any of the key parameters or assumptions change
8.4 Limitations of MCA

The main advantage of MCA (or MODSS) over other analytical methods is
that it enables a more realistic representation of the decision problem to be
made, and in particular for the trade-offs to be made explicit. The interactive
nature of the approach enables both the analyst and the decision maker, who
could be a number of groups of stakeholders, to learn more about the
problem. Although MCA is a structured approach which can incorporate
techniques and data from other methods, it is flexible enough to allow the
use of value judgement. As already indicated above, it is suitable for
problems where dollar estimates of the effects are not readily available.
The MCA process, however, does have a number of inherent
weaknesses. The credibility of the process will be determined ultimately by
the quality of the data sets and the degree to which the stakeholders or
interest groups have been involved in the process. There is a real danger that
community preferences will be determined, not by the community, but by a
single decision-maker, without consultation with the community. The
criteria adopted to evaluate alternatives need to provide a balanced
evaluation. This means that a tendency to include a number of economic
criteria and only one social and one environmental criterion, needs to be
avoided.
There is a wide variety of evaluation methods in MCA, yet there is no
information to indicate which ones are better. Nijkamp (1989) indicates that
there could be as many as 50 possible evaluation methods. To date, there has
been relatively little research to evaluate the performance of these methods.
Although MCA does not necessarily require quantitative or monetary

data, the information requirements to compile the effects table and derive the
weights can, nevertheless, be considerable. What is viewed as the method's
strength (i.e., use of subjective judgement) may also be viewed as a
weakness. Subjective judgements, backed by substantial data sets and
information from stakeholders, need to be made in the process and the
debatable issue arises as to whose preferences the decision maker represents.
Although the weights used in the process are explicit weights, the analyst
may unintentionally introduce implicit weights during the evaluation
process. If not properly used MCA has the potential to become a 'black box',
producing results that cannot be explained.
8.5 Case Study: Application of MCA to Resource

Management in Cattle Creek Catchment, Far North
Queensland 47
This section presents an MCA study that was carried out in the Cattle Creek
Catchment in Far North Queensland. The outline is as follows. First, a
description of the resource problem requiring management is described.
Second, a summary outline of the MCA methodology is provided with
information and discussion about the involvement of the stakeholders in the
decision process. Third, the rankings of the alternatives are presented and
discussed. The final section makes some concluding comments about the
possibility of a compromise decision being identified from the information
provided through the MCA. In addition, some comment is provided about
the validity of any decisions from the MCA and about the apparent
achievements of the process.
8. 5.1 The Problem

Cattle Creek Catchment encompasses approximately 16, 700ha of
agricultural land in the Mareeba-Dimbulah Irrigation Area (MDIA) and is
47
This case study is taken from Using a Multiple Criteria Decision Support System to Support
Natural Resource Management Decision-Making for Ecologically Sustainable Development,
a PhD thesis by Jackie Robinson, Department of Economics, The University of Queensland,
Brisbane, Australia.
situated within the Mitchell River Watershed in Far North Queensland. Land
and water resources in the catchment are under increasing pressure. The
quality and depth to the groundwater in parts of the catchment is
deteriorating whilst at the same time agriculture in the catchment is
undergoing restructuring with farmers redeveloping as well as expanding
production into crops which promise higher returns. Sustainable
development in the catchment, and downstream of the catchment, is at risk
unless current and future resource use can be managed to reduce, or at least
stabilise, the groundwater problems.
Downstream of the Cattle Creek Catchment and within the MDIA there
are approximately 240 irrigators, many growing tobacco which requires
irrigation water with less than 2Sppm chloride. Some of these irrigators,
approximately 31 per cent, would be affected by the quality of the water
entering the Walsh River from Cattle Creek. It is estimated that over $2
million of agricultural production per annum could be at risk if the
groundwater problems in the Cattle Creek Catchment are not stabilised.
Since the extent of the groundwater problems became apparent,
speculation from Downstream Irrigators and from groups of Catchment
Irrigators about responsibility for the problem increased. An ad hoc
approach to addressing the problem has led to conflict between groups of
stakeholders including irrigators, both downstream and within the
catchment, as well as agency groups. The increased conflict has highlighted
the need to adequately inform stakeholders and to encourage their
involvement in natural resource management decision-making.
8.5.2 The MCA Approach

The MCA, adapted from a prototype MODSS developed by the U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Tucson Arizona (Yakowitz et al., 1992; Shaw et
al., 1998), was developed to assist the process of decision-making with
respect to natural resource management in the Cattle Creek Catchment.
There are two specific characteristics of the MODSS developed for the
Cattle Creek Catchment that make it unique in the development of decision-
making processes at a catchment level. First, the groundwater problem in the
catchment has been investigated within a multi-disciplinary framework.
Second, management alternatives have been identified and stakeholder needs
from resource management, including identification of the evaluation criteria
and the importance order of the criteria, have been solicited through a survey
of stakeholders (Robinson and Rose, 1997).
A land and water data base and a groundwater simulation model of the
catchment increased stakeholder acceptance that a resource problem exists in
the catchment and, in addition, increased the validity of the proposed
alternatives for management and their evaluation.
A survey of stakeholders, in particular those on whom resource
management decisions are likely to impact directly, was a valuable part of
the decision-making process. The survey provided an opportunity to inform
people about the natural resource problems in the catchment and the
consequences of inaction and then to solicit their preferences about future
management.
Identification of alternatives and criteria

A number of resource management alternatives and evaluation criteria were
identified at workshops held in the catchment for stakeholders. Information
was solicited from stakeholders, through a survey, about their preferences
for the alternatives, as well as to establish a ranking of a number of criteria
to evaluate the alternatives.
Scoring the alternatives

It was not expected that individual stakeholders would have a sufficient
knowledge base to enable them to score the performance of alternatives
against the criteria. As a result, a number of 'experts', considered to be
proficient in social, scientific and economic fields, were recruited to score
the estimated performance of the alternatives. Alternatives were scored in a
variety of measures, including dollars; tonnes per ha; meters per annum; and,
a qualitative score was provided to measure the performance of an
alternative to reduce degradation downstream of the catchment. The scores
were standardised using a technique developed by Yakowitz et al. 1992.
This technique 'normalised' the scores using a number of generic scoring
functions.
Weighting the scores according to the preferences of the stakeholders

Rather than assigning a single set of weights or ranking to the criteria, the
criteria were ranked consistent with the preferences of each group of
stakeholders. This was important because it was an acknowledgement that
each group had a set of preferences that represented their specific needs from
resource management.
Evaluating the alternatives

The MCA presents the scores assigned to the management alternatives in an
effects matrix showing the performance of each proposed alternative against
individual evaluation criteria. Ranking the alternatives according to their
scores is valuable information because it demonstrates the trade-offs that are
implicit when an alternative is chosen. Table 8.2 shows some of the trade-
offs that would need to be considered when making a choice between four of
the proposed alternatives. This information is particularly valuable when
stakeholders regard themselves to be in conflict with decision-making
agencies.
Table 8.2 Trade-offs for the Cattle Creek Catchment resource management problem
Management Alternatives
Restrict
Plant Line Efficient water De-
Criteria trees storage irrigation allocations water
Cost to implement 1 5 3 2 4
Downstream impacts 3 4 1 2 5
Increase depth to groundwater 5 4 2 3 1
Table 8.2 shows that Plant Trees performs well against the cost criterion, but
its performance in relation to increasing the depth to groundwater is not as
impressive. The alternative which performed the best over all the criteria,
Efficient Irrigation, involves a trade-off in relation to the cost and it is not
the best alternative to increase the depth to groundwater. Interestingly, the
alternative scored as the most effective in increasing the depth to
groundwater, De-water, does not perform well against the other evaluation
criteria.
Ranking alternatives when the criteria are weighted

A logical progression from inspecting the trade-offs is to rank the
alternatives according to the aggregate score, given the ranking of criteria
preferred by individual stakeholder groups. The maximum or minimum
aggregate score for each alternative, given the ranking of the criteria is given
as:
m
Maximise (minimise) L w(i) Sc(i,j) (8.3)
i-1
m
Subject to: Lw(i) = 1 (8.4)
i-1
and w 1 ;:::w 2 ;:::, ,;:::wm;:::O (8.5)
where w(i) =weight vector based on the ranking for criterion i, and Sc(z~j) =
score of alternative j evaluated or scored for decision criterion i.
Calculation of the maximum and minimum aggregate scores (assuming a
given ranking of the criteria) for each alternative enables a ranking of
alternatives to be determined. The difference between the maximum and
minimum aggregate scores for an alternative also provides information about
the sensitivity of the scores to the weightings of the criteria.
Figure 8.4 Ranking of management alternatives for Catchment Irrigators
[
[
[
[
Downstream Degr
Effect1veOptio
DepthGW
Production Area
C EfficWaterUse
[ Productivity
PlantmgofTrees
Lining of Channels and Managmg Leakages
Manage leakages
Dram and Re-Use Water
..
[ GWQuallty Conjunctive Water Use
[ lmplem T1me EfficlentlrngatlonManagementPractlces
Retire Land from Production
waterPncingPolicy
RestrictFurtherlrrigationDevelopment
Restrict Water Allocations
Farm Management Education
-
Land and Wafer Management Plans
DisposingofWaterfromArngaFiats
Do Nothing
Source: Robinson (1999b).

This information is presented graphically for two groups of stakeholders:

Catchment Irrigators (Figure 8.4) and Downstream Irrigators (Figure 8.5).
The length of the bars, determined by the ranking of the criteria, shows the
difference between the best and worst aggregate scores given the ranking of
the criteria by individual stakeholder groups. Although an alternative may
perform well in terms of its maximum aggregate score, its performance for
the minimum score may be less impressive. The length of the bars is not the
same for all alternatives, for all stakeholder groups. For example, Efficient
Irrigation for Catchment Irrigators (Figure 8.4) and for Downstream
Irrigators (Figure 8.5), shows that the ranking of the criteria by each group
has a significant effect on the range of aggregate scores and that this range
can impact on the ranking of the alternatives.
Figure 8.5 Ranking of management alternatives for Downstream Irrigators
- [ Downstream Degr
[
[
GWQuality
Net Total Cost
Effective Optto
Effic Water Use
Depth GW
[ ProductiVIty
Planting ofTrees
L1nmg of Channels and Managmg Leakages
Manage Leakages
Drain and Re-Use Water

0.25
[ lmplem Time Conjunctive Water Use
[ Production Area Efficient Irrigation Management Practices
Ret1re Land ~rom Production
WaterPncing Policy
--
Restrict Further Irrigation Development
Resin et Water Allocations

Farm Management Education
Land and Water Monagement Plans
Disposing of Water from Arriga Flats
Do Nothmg
Source: Robinson (1999b ).
Figure 8.5 shows the preferred ranking of the criteria for the Catchment
Irrigators and the resulting ranking of the alternatives. One end of the graph
shows the maximum aggregate score for an alternative and the other end
shows the minimum aggregate score. If the maximum aggregate score is
used to select the preferred alternative, then Efficient Irrigation is ranked

first. On the other hand, if the maximum of the minimum scores is used, then
the preferred alternative is Planting Trees. The ranking of alternatives for the
Downstream Irrigators is shown in Figure 8.6 to be different.
A final ranking of the alternatives for each group of stakeholders, shown
in Table 8.3, demonstrates that there is a compromise outcome available to
stakeholders. In brief, Efficient Irrigation is shown to perform the best for all
groups of stakeholders using the maximum aggregate score. The final
ranking of alternatives shows that Planting Trees does not perform well
against the evaluation criteria when the criteria are weighted. This is an
interesting outcome because it was a preferred alternative for all groups of
stakeholders.
Table 8.3 Final ranking of management alternatives, using the maximum aggregate score
for each stakeholder group, 1997
Stakeholder Catchment Downstream Community

Group Irrigators Irrigators Representatives
Efficient Irrigation 1* 1* 1*
Farm Management Education 4 6 6
Plant Trees 5 11 9
Land & Water Management 3* 4 4
Plans
Conjunctive Water Use 2* 2* 2*
Lining Storage 14 13 13
Drain and Reuse Water 5 3* 4
Water Pricing 9 7 7
Retire Land 11 8 7
Restrict Water Allocations lO 4 3*
Manage Leakage 13 9 12
Restrict Irrigation Expansion 12 10 10
De-water 7 12 10
Do Nothing 8 14 14
Note:
* Ranked in the first three.
8.5.3 Conclusion
The MCA developed for the Cattle Creek Catchment placed considerable
emphasis on the need to draw on the preferences of the stakeholders to assist in
the determination of an appropriate management alternative or alternatives.

Indeed, one of the strengths of the technique is the incorporation of stakeholder
preferences within the decision-making process to enable a compromise
solution to be identified when there are a number of alternatives to be evaluated
and competing and conflicting criteria to be considered. The involvement of
stakeholders in the process of decision-making can diffuse a situation or
prevent a situation from occurring where there are conflicting opinions and
requirements from resource management. Soliciting of stakeholder preferences
is used in this study as a means of identifying and overcoming any conflict of
interest between stakeholder groups over management of the groundwater
resources in the catchment and to gain acceptance of the management
alternatives to be implemented (Robinson, 1999a).
The information available to decision-makers from the process,
particularly that relating to stakeholder preferences and trade-offs, increases
the transparency of the decision-making process. Transparency of the
decision increases the validity and acceptability of the choice to all groups of
stakeholders.
8.6 Summary
This chapter has introduced the reader to the technique of multi-criteria
decision analysis (MCA). This approach is suitable for the analysis of
natural resource and environmental problems where there are multiple
objectives which may be conflicting or competing. MCA utilises both
quantitative and qualitative data and is useful when non-market estimates of
environmental effects cannot be determined. Cost-benefit analysis is a
special case of MCA when there is a single performance criterion that is
measured in monetary terms.
A typical MCA is conducted in 8 steps: identification of the problem;
identification of the alternatives; identification of the criteria; scoring of the
alternatives; assignment of weights to the criteria; evaluation of the
alternatives; sensitivity and risk analyses; and ranking the alternatives. The
approach is amenable to input from the analyst, decision maker and
stakeholders. In practice, there will be iteration between the various steps
after consultations with the interest groups. In spite of its obvious strengths,
MCA has a number of weaknesses. There is a large number of evaluation
methods and there is little guidance as to which ones are better. The
approach relies on subjective judgement and there is the possibility that this
may not reflect the society's preferences.
The criteria for judging the success of a MCA, particularly when applied
to assist natural resource management, should be related to the critical
insights gained through improved communication of the different
perspectives of researcher, farmer and decision-maker. The effectiveness of
a MCA is in the bringing together of different points of view to bear on a
common problem.

aggregation techniques lexicographic technique
consensus maximisation monte carlo simulation
concordance methods multi-attribute utility model
electre methods multi-criteria analysis
equipreference curve trade-off curve
graphical technique
Review Questions
1. Define multi-criteria analysis.
2. List the steps in MCA.
3. Briefly discuss five approaches for evaluating the alternatives in MCA.
4. Name two advantages and disadvantages ofMCA.
Exercises
1. Suppose the government is considering constructing a major freeway in
a highly populated city. The alternatives are four locations in the city.
a. Produce a chart similar to Figure 8.1 showing the possible objectives

and the criteria to be considered.
b. Suggest units in which the criteria could be quantified.
2. Suppose the government is considering five solid waste disposal options.
a. Produce a chart similar to Figure 8.1 showing the possible objectives

and the criteria to be considered.
b. Suggest units in which the criteria could be quantified.
c. Suggest ways in which the weights could be derived.
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in the Michell River Watershed. GIS & Cartography Unit, Mareeba.
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Springer, Berlin.
Janssen, R. (1992). Multiobjective Decision Support for Environmental

Management. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht.
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Resource Assessment Commission, RAC. (1992). Multi-Criteria Analysis as a

Resource Assessment Tool. RAC Research Paper No. 6, Australian Government
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Support Natural Resource Management Decision-Making for Ecologically
Sustainable Development. PhD Thesis, Department of Economics, The
University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia.
Robinson, J.J., and Rose, K. (1997). Stakeholder Preferences for Groundwater

Management in the Cattle Creek Catchment, Unpublished project report,
Department of Natural Resources, Mareeba.
Roy, B. (1990). The outranking approach and the foundations of the ELECTRE
methods. In C.A. Bana e Costa (ed.), Readings in Multiple Criteria Decision
Aid. Springer, Berlin.
Saaty, T.L. (1980). The Analytical Heirachy Process. McGraw Hill, USA.
Shaw, R., Doherty, J., Brebber, L., Cogle, L., and Lait, R. (1998). The Use of
Multiobjective Decision Making for Resolution of Resource Use and
Environmental Management Conflicts at a Catchment Scale. In S.A. El-Swaify,
and D.S.Yakowitz (eds.), Multiple Objective Decision Making for Land, Water
and Environmental Management. Proceedings of the First International
Conference on Multiple Objective Decision Support Systems (MODSS) for
Land, Water, and Environmental Management (1996): Concepts, Approaches,
and Applications, CRC Press, USA.
Yakowitz, D.S., Lane, L.J., Stone, J.J., Heilman, P., Reddy, R.K., Imam, B. (1992).
Evaluating Land Management Effects on Water Quality Using Multi-objective
Analysis within a DSS. Proceedings of the First International Conference on
Groundwater Ecology, July, 1992, Tampa, Florida. USEPA, AWRA, pp.365-
374.
Van Pelt, M.J.F. (1991). Sustainable Development and Project Appraisal in

Developing Countries. Paper presented to the 31 ' 1 European Congress of the
Regional Science Association, Lisbon, Portugal, 27-30 August.
Part Ill. Global Environmental Issues
9. Population Growth, Resource Use and
the Environment
Objectives
o review the various positions taken in the debate about the impacts of
population and economic growth on the environment;
o explain the basic relationships between population growth, resource use

and environmental degradation;
o explain the relationship between poverty and the environment; and
o discuss the implications for economic and social policy
9.1 Introduction
It was established in Chapter 1 that the economy and the environment are
closely interrelated. In particular, we saw that the environment has an
assimilative capacity that can be considered as finite. It is generally believed
that the need to clothe and feed a rapidly growing population is the major
cause of environmental degradation. In this and the following chapters, we
continue to examine in more detail the relationship between population, the
economy and the environment. Although concern for the environment has
heightened within the last two decades, the debate over population growth
and the environment has raged over the past two centuries. The chapter
begins with a review of various positions taken on the relationship between
population growth and the environment. This is followed by a description of
world and regional population growth trends. Next, we examine the
229
relationship between population growth, resource use and environmental

degradation, including the role of poverty. The discussion concludes with a
set of policy recommendations.
9.2 Growth Pessimists and Optimists

Historically, the debate about population growth and the environment has
been polarised between growth pessimists and optimists. Growth pessimists
believe that population growth and the consequent increase in demand for
goods and services is the main cause of environmental degradation. On the
opposite side, there are the growth optimists who believe that technological
advancement can mitigate the adverse environmental impacts of growth. We
first take a look at the views of the pessimists.
9.2.1 The Growth Pessimists

In 1798, Thomas Robert Malthus, one of the pioneeers of the economics
profession, wrote a book entitled, An Essay on the Principle of Population,
which subsequently set the tone for the current debate about the
sustainability of economic growth. Mal thus reasoned that there is a tendency
for every species, including the human one, to increase at a geometric rate
(e.g., doubling every 50 years), whereas 'under the most favourable
circumstances usually to be found', its subsistence (i.e., food production)
increases at an arithmetic rate (i.e., at a constant rate of, say, 100 tonnes per
annum). Malthus identified two types of population checks: 'preventive' and
'positive checks'. He suggested that the main preventive check is 'moral
restraint' or the postponement of marriage with sexual abstinence. Positive
checks include wars and natural disasters. According to Malthus, 'when
population has increased nearly to the utmost limits of the food, all the
preventive and the positive checks will naturally operate with increased
force ... till the population is sunk below the level of the food; and then the
return to comparative plenty will again produce an increase, and, after a
certain period, its further progress will again be checked by the same causes'
(Malthus, 1872:369-370). The Malthusian Hypothesis is illustrated by Figure
9.1. Malthus' s predictions earned the economics profession tags such as the
'profession of doom' and the 'dismal science'.
Population Growth, Resource Use, and the Environment 231
Ricardo (1817) modified the Malthusian model by including the concept

of diminishing marginal productivity. That is, as population increased
people would be forced to not only cultivate existing land more intensively
but also extend production into inferior land.
Figure 9.1 The Malthusian Population Model

Food
Population Production
(millions) (tonnes)
Population
Food
'
~
Positive check
l
time
Source: adapted from Goodstein (1995).
Therefore, although total output might increase, it would do so at a declining

rate in the absence of technological advancement. The Ricardian view was
more optimistic in terms of allowing for mitigation of the Malthusian doom
through technical progress.
Malthus's predictions were not taken seriously at the time they were
made. The dominant philosophy in the early 19th century was 'mercantilism',
which was concerned with amassing wealth for the state. The function of the
population was to produce for the state, and to this end, even young children
were recruited into the labour force. Although prominent economists such as
Jevons and John Stuart Mill expressed concerns about economic growth and
resource depletion, natural resources were not generally regarded as a
constraint to economic growth. Although natural resources were being
rapidly depleted in Britain, the 'Malthusian trap' was 'escaped' by trade in
food, as a result of improved transportation which opened up the plains of
North America. After the Second World War, policy makers were
preoccupied with reconstruction and with pressing issues such as
unemployment and inflation. Acceleration in the growth rate of the economy
was viewed as the only solution to these problems.
The advent of modern environmentalism can be traced to the 1960s
when the increase in environmental pollution led to a rise in public
environmental awareness. After the energy crisis of the 1970s the
Malthusian debate was resurrected with neo-Malthusians launching an attack
on the virtues of economic growth. In 1972, the neo-Malthusian group, The
Club of Rome, published the results of a study entitled, The Limits to Growth
(Meadows et al., 1972), which attracted extensive media coverage. The
study reached three major conclusions. First, at the prevailing annual rates of
consumption the world would run out of mineral resources within 100 years
resulting in a sudden collapse of the world economic system. Second, this
calamity would not be averted by piecemeal solution to the myriad
problems. Third, the only solution to the collapse would be an immediate
reduction in economic growth, population growth and pollution. 48
In a report entitled The Global 2000 Report to the United States
President another neo-Malthusian group argued that increasing population
growth and per capita consumption could create severe natural resource
shortages by the year 2000 (Barney, 1980). It also predicted that the world
would be more susceptible to 'low-probability' and 'high-risk' events such
as the 'greenhouse effects' and global nuclear risks. These events would
cause widespread disruptions of food production.
The dire predictions of the Club of Rome and the Global 2000 Report
led economists including Herman Daly and others to propose a stationary or
steady-state economy in order to avoid prospects of exponential growth.
Among other things, Daly recommended a zero population growth and
quotas on the use of minerals. He suggested that these quotas could be
auctioned to promote economic efficiency. 49 He recommended restricting
consumption per capita to a minimum tolerable level per person, arguing that
his approach could ensure the longest possible survival of the human
species. Paul Ehrlich in his book, The Population Bomb, argued that
48
The model follows the basic premise of the Malthusian Theory. Several resources are fixed
in supply and growth increases exponentially. These assumptions and the absence of technical
progress ensure the exhaustion of resources.
49
See, for example, Daly (1980) and Erhlich and Harriman (1971).
population is not merely an important problem but is the problem in

ensuring the long-term survival of the human race (Ehrlich, 1970).
In his contribution to the debate, Georgescu-Roegen (1975) argued that
zero population growth and a steady-state world economy was not
sustainable and that it would eventually lead to a depletion of resources. He
based his argument on the Second Law of Thermodynamics, which states
that the entropy (i.e., disorder) of a closed system continually increases.
According to Georgescu-Roegen, economic activity relies on low-energy
entropy. Eventually all energy resources are dispersed and are no longer
available for economic production. Although technology could delay the
point at which natural resources were completely exhausted, continuing
economic activity would ensure their ultimate depletion (Georgescu-Roegen,
1971). He suggested that the only solution to the problem was to reduce the
world's population to a level that could be maintained solely on organic
agriculture.
The word 'sustainability' was popularised by the International Union for
the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) in the landmark
document, The World Conservation Strategy (WCS). 50 The WCS
acknowledges the adverse environmental impacts of human kind's economic
activities. It draws attention to 'the predicament caused by growing numbers
of people demanding scarcer resources [which] is exacerbated by the
disproportionately high consumption rates of developed countries' (IUCN,
1980:2).
Although it advocates a precautionary approach, the WCS is, strictly
speaking, not growth pessimistic in that it does not advocate any of the
extreme measures proposed by the neo-Malthusians (e.g., zero population
growth). The document highlights factors which are necessary to achieve
sustainable development. These include:
1. Preserving genetic diversity;

2. Maintaining essential ecological processes and life-support
systems (eg., agricultural systems, forests, and marine systems),
and
3. Ensuring the sustainable use of species and ecosystems.
50
See IUCN (1980).
9.2.2 The Growth Optimists

The Limits to Growth hypothesis has been rebutted on several grounds
including its lack of consideration for the ways in which technological
progress and the market system affect resource scarcity. Friedrich Engels
rejected the Malthusian and Ricardian views, arguing that:
... . science increases at least as much as population.

The latter increases in proportion to the size of the
previous generation, science advances in proportion to
the knowledge bequeathed to it by the previous
generation, and thus under the most ordinary
conditions also in geometric progression. And what is
impossible to science? (Engels, 1959:204).
Simon (1981) took an extremely optimistic view of population growth.

According to Simon, population growth is a positive thing because the larger
the world's population the more minds there would be and therefore the
greater would be the growth of knowledge. This expansion in knowledge
would overcome the resource constraints to population growth.
Other optimists who used the power of technology as a basis for their
assessments included Kahn et al. (1976) and Bamett and Morse (1963).
Kahn et al. argued that increases in technological progress would enable
production and per capita incomes to rise in developing countries and cause
their populations to stabilise as has been the case in the developing countries.
Bamett and Morse argued that technological progress is automatic, self-
reproductive and exhibits increasing returns, and as such, there would be
increasing returns to effort.
The release of the Brundtland Commission Report entitled Our Common
Future (World Commission on Environment and Development, WCED,
1987) was a landmark in the sense that it focussed world attention on
51
sustainable development as a desirable development strategy. The WCED
admitted the seriousness of the world's environmental problems but rejected
the Limits to Growth hypothesis. The Commission argued that the world's
resources are sufficient to meet our needs and that a reduction in poverty is
one means of reducing environmental degradation. Beckerman (1992)
disputed the generally held view that exhaustion of resources and
51
'Sustainable development' is discussed in Chapter 11.
environmental pollution, in particular greenhouse gas emissions, constrained

economic growth. He admitted that economic growth usually leads to
environmental degradation in the early stages of development. However, in
the end, the best and only way to achieve a decent environment is by wealth
accumulation.
9.3 World Population Growth and Trends

The world's population is currently estimated at about 6 billion (Figure 9.2).
It is projected to reach nearly 7 billion by 2015 and 8.5 billion by 2040.
Population growth rates in the developing countries have accelerated in the
last three decades due to factors such as improved health care (e.g.,
vaccination, antibiotics and anti-malaria measures), sanitation, and education
which have decreased mortality rates and increased life expectancy.
However, the world's population growth rate is projected to decline from the
current 1.6 percent per annum to 1.1 percent per annum by 2040 (Table 9.1 ).
The figures in Table 9.1 exhibit the so-called 'demographic transition'
hypothesis. That is, lower population growth rates are associated with higher
income countries and vice versa. This relationship also holds true for a given
country. That is, the poorest families tend to support the highest proportion
of children. For example, Birdsall and Griffin (1988) reported that in
Columbia, Malaysia and Brazil, the poorest 20 percent of households
support about 30 percent of the children in the country.
There are a number of socioeconomic reasons to explain the large family
sizes in poor countries. These include the following:
1. In view of the agricultural bias in these countries, there is an

incentive to invest in children who are a cheap source of farm
labour. Furthermore, the amount of land that can be farmed is a
function of family size.
2. Children serve as a form of economic insurance. It is to be noted
that most of these countries do not have social security systems.
Thus, child labour is an additional source of income for low
income families. Investing in children is a way of ensuring care
in the parents' old age.
Figure 9.2 World Population, 1980, 1997, and 2015 (millions)
1980 1997 2015
0 World East Asia & Pacific nil Latin America & Carib 13 South Asia ~ Sub-Saharan Af?Ca]
Source: World Bank (1999).
Table 9.1 World population growth rates, 1980-97 and 1997-2015
Average annual population

growth rate (percent)
Region 1980-97 1997-2015
World 1.6 1.1

East Asia and the Pacific 1.5 0.9
Latin America and Caribbean 1.9 1.3
South Asia 2.1 1.4
Sub-Saharan Africa 2.8 2.3

3. In many cultures in the developing world, a family's, and in

particular a woman's, social standing is directly related to the
number of children.
The foregoing suggest that although the factors influencing family size in
developing countries are complex, policy should consider the fact that
socioeconomic variables play an instrumental role in determining family
size. A poor family's decision to have more children is entirely rational in
view of high mortality rates and poor economic prospects. Thus, it seems
that one way to reduce family size is to improve the economic status of the
poor, particularly that of women. This issue is discussed in more detail later.
9.4 Population Growth and the Environment

Population growth increases the demand for goods and services which, in
turn, puts additional pressure on environmental resources. The more people
there are, the greater is the amount of waste production, and the more
adverse are implications for health conditions and the environment's
assimilative capacity.
Population growth, poverty and environmental degradation are closely
interelated. For example, increasing population leads to more intense use of
land, shorter fallow periods and lower soil productivity. It also leads to more
clearing of forest cover and hillsides. The net result of these effects is that
there is increased environmental degradation (e.g., soil erosion, mudslides,
and so on), reduced soil productivity and, hence, lower yields. This results in
a fall in per capita incomes and an increase in poverty. The poverty creates a
vicious cycle in that it leads to further land degradation as the poor
desperately try to eke out a living on the marginal land. However, to borrow
the Simon proposition, population growth may have a positive feedback. For
example, farmers may be encouraged to adopt technological innovations in
agriculture (e.g., the Green Revolution). Population growth increases the
labour force, resulting in an increase in the production of goods and services.
However, in general, the positive effects are likely to be offset by the
negative effects, resulting in a net negative effect. In the next section, the
relationship between population growth, poverty and land degradation is
examined in a little more detail.
9.4.1 Population Growth and Land Degradation

Land degradation may be defined as a 'loss of land productivity,
quantitatively or qualitatively, through various processes such as erosion,
wind blowing, waterlogging, depletion of nutrients, deterioration of soil
structure and pollution' (Dudal, 1981 :4). From this definition, it can be seen
that land degradation involves several processes including water and wind
erosion, biological degradation (e.g., decrease in humus), physical
52
degradation (e.g., decrease in soil permeability), chemical degradation (e.g.,
acidification, toxicity) and excess salts (e.g., salination and alkalisation). Soil
erosion, the detachment and transportation of soil particles by wind or water,
is but one aspect of the overall process of land degradation. Land degradation
can occur by natural processes or by human action. To understand the
process of land degradation, in general, and soil erosion, in particular, it is
necessary to identify the major causal factors. We briefly discuss below the
main causes of (non-natural) land degradation, with particular emphasis on
soil erosion.
The causes of land degradation can be classified into two broad
categories: direct and indirect causes (Figure 9.3). This classification has
been simplified for ease of presentation. In reality, there are interactions
between all of these factors. For example, deforestation is accelerated by an
increase in poverty, population growth or both, and overgrazing can partly
be a result of poor land management practices. We briefly discuss each of
these factors below.
Direct causes of land degradation

Human activities such as deforestation, inappropriate land management
practices and overgrazing can cause land degradation.
Deforestation
Forests protect the land from the impact of rainfall. They enhance the
availability of soil nutrients and contribute to soil strength by providing
additional cohesion. Deforestation makes the soil more erodible by reducing
the organic matter content and the water holding capacity of the soil. There
is a reduction of the soil's infiltration rate, leading to increases in run-off and
soil erosion.
52
Physical degradation refers to structural breakdown of soil aggregates and reduced soil
porosity.
Figure 9.3 Causes ofland degradation
Source: Araya and Asafu-Adjaye (1999).
The massive removal of vegetative cover is a major driving force behind

land degradation in many countries today. The rapid increase in rates of
deforestation is due to population growth which has increased the demand
for cropland, grazing land and wood for construction and fuel.
Inappropriate land management practices

Farming practices such as the types of farm tools used, crops grown, timing
of sowing, crop rotation, the use of fertiliser and expansion of agricultural
land impact to varying degrees on the rate of soil erosion. Expansion of
agricultural land into marginal lands is usually induced by population
pressure. In some parts of Ethiopia, Eritrea and Indonesia, population pressure
has forced farmers to cultivate steep slopes on hillsides.
Over the past century, technological progress has changed the social,
cultural and economic structure of our society and has affected the use of
natural resources. Agricultural tools used by traditional societies, although
minimally productive and unsophisticated, were consistent with sustainable
use of natural resources. The technologies of these societies did not allow
large-scale production and exploitation of natural resources. Modem
technology has led to an expansion of the scale of economic activities by
enabling more rapid clearing of natural habitat and more intensive use of
natural resources. However, mechanisation of agriculture has also increased
the vulnerability of soils to erosion as traditional cultivation practices such as
the use of hoes has resulted in minimum tillage.
It has been suggested that technological progress can have a beneficial

effect on conservation of resources. The World Commission for
Environment and Development (WCED, 1987) argues that the use of new
resource-efficient technologies can increase productivity per unit of a
resource, thereby assisting conservation of natural resources. The use of
high-yield crop varieties and chemical fertilisers, for example, results in a
dramatic yield increase by replacing nutrients that have been depleted by
erosion, overgrazing and overcultivation. The increased yield can, in turn,
reduce population pressure on land, reduce extension of croplands into
marginal lands and thereby reduce the land degradation problem. However,
studies carried out in Asian countries indicate that the higher productivity is
at the expense of adverse environmental and health effects. 53
Overgrazing
Crop production in many developing countries is almost entirely dependent
on the use of plough oxen. Farmers in some developing countries tend to
keep large numbers of livestock as a form of income supplementation and
insurance against crop failure. Also, in some countries, ownership of
livestock is regarded as a sign of wealth and prestige. Apart from removing
vegetative cover, livestock contribute to land degradation by trampling the
soil and causing compaction, thereby reducing the rate of infiltration,
destroying the aggregate stability of the soil and reducing its water-holding
capacity. All of this results in an increase in the risk of soil erosion.
Indirect causes of land degradation

In addition to the factors that directly cause land degradation, other factors
also cause or accelerate land degradation indirectly by influencing the
agricultural practices of farmers, their decisions about stocking rates, and
their willingness and/or ability to make long-term investments in soil
conservation. These indirect factors in the causal chain include the following:
system of land tenure;

population growth and its distribution; and
poverty.
53
See studies by Jeyaratnam et al. (1987), Ant1e and Pingali (1994) and Wi\son (1999).
System of land tenure

Land tenure has an indirect influence on land degradation in the sense that it
influences the type of land use and the adoption of soil conservation
measures. A major land tenure problem in many developing countries is the
absence, or poor enforcement, of land titles. This insecurity arises from
various sources depending on historical patterns of land acquisition and
settlement. The absence or the inadequacy of legal and administrative
capacity to provide evidence of ownership, and the encroachment of farmers
onto common lands, usually contribute to the problem of tenure insecurity.
Insecurity of land tenure caused by poor enforcement of land titles, and
the periodic redistribution of farmlands designed to ensure equity among the
members of the communities in developing countries, discourages
investment in soil conservation. Even when farmers are willing to invest in
soil conservation, limited tenure also constrains them from obtaining the
loans required to undertake conservation activities.
There is a general belief that communities with communal property
systems usually develop a system of resource management that reflect their
sense of concern and responsibility for the environment. For example, Pearce
and Warlord (1993) argue that rural people in developing countries have
impressive knowledge of their environment and are able to establish elaborate
rules and regulations that enhance sustainable use of their resources. In a
study of customary marine tenure (see Appendix 4.1) systems in Papua New
Guinea, Asafu-Adjaye (1999) argues that such systems are inherently
sustainable as compared to government-imposed fisheries regulations because
they are derived from a rich source of environmental knowledge.
Nevertheless, a communal management system such as the CMT tends to
come under pressure with population growth and technological change.
Nadel has made the following remarks with respect to communally owned
land in Eritrea:
" ... the spmt of communal responsibility in these

communities, makes the temporary landholder work in
the interest of his successors as well, because they
belong to a closely-knit social unit. The rules of fallow
lying and the building and upkeep of terraces which
outlive individual tenure, prove this communal spirit
convincingly" (Nadel, 1946: 14).
It is commonly believed that private ownership of land is more efficient

compared to other forms of land tenure in terms of the management of
natural resources. The argument is that the security of tenure associated with
private ownership of land provides an incentive to farmers to undertake
long-term investments such as soil conservation structures and the planting
of trees (World Development Report, 1992). However, Pearce and Warford
(1993) have argued that private ownership of land may not necessarily lead
to conservation of natural resources in developing countries for three
reasons. Firstly, the absence of documented land rights does not necessarily
imply that land rights do not exist. Many developing countries have
historically evolved land and sea rights. Secondly, some forms of private
ownership may be associated with unsustainable land use practices. An
example is land clearing on agricultural land. Thirdly, title to land is largely
meaningless unless it is effectively enforced.
Population growth and distribution

Rapid population growth is often considered to be a cause of land
degradation. Most of the population in developing countries depends on the
agricultural sector as a means of livelihood. As is most often the case, the
other sectors (e.g., manufacturing) offer limited employment opportunities.
The extent of the impact of rapid population growth on land degradation
depends on the carrying capacity of land and other resources. The land's
carrying capacity is defined as 'the maximum population that can be
sustained at the minimum standard of living necessary for survival' (Pearce
and Warford, 1993:155). As population increases, the per capita area of
arable and grazing land decreases, and cultivation extends into marginal
lands. The increased demand for cultivable land, firewood and construction
materials leads to environmental deterioration. Recent empirical studies
suggest that there is a strong correlation between population growth rates
and expansion of agricultural land, and between population growth rates and
rates of deforestation. 54
Box 9.1 describes a typical example of the relationship between
population growth and deforestation on the island of Java in Indonesia. The
population on the island doubled within the past forty years to about 112
million, resulting in massive deforestation. Subsequently, there was large-
54
See studies by Cruz ( 1994) and Koop and To le ( 1999).
scale migration to inland areas of the island, which has resulted in high
population densities and further deforestation.
As suggested above, an indirect environmental impact of a high
population growth rate is that, as the carrying capacity of the land is
approached, it is no longer able to support the population. As a result, there
is an increase in rural unemployment and poverty. People then begin to
migrate to the towns and cities in search of non-existent jobs. The urban
areas themselves do not have the infrastructure to support the rapid influx of
migrants. The net result is the development of slums and squatter settlements
and the perpetuation of crime, poverty and environmental pollution.
Pearce (1991) has argued that rapid population growth could be a rational
response to distinct economic factors such as poverty in rural areas. Thus,
although population growth is a major threat to prudent management of
natural resources including soil, the mere correlation of population growth
with degradation of natural resources does not necessarily imply that
population growth is the root cause of the problem.
Population growth itself could be a result of the same factors that cause
environmental degradation. The simplified relationship between population
growth and land degradation presented above tends to conceal a multitude of
factors that contribute to the problem. We briefly examine below the role of
poverty in environmental degradation.
Poverty
The relationship between poverty and land degradation is complex. The
links between poverty and environmental degradation depend on several
factors including the degree of resilience of an area to shocks (e.g.,
population growth, public policies or climatic changes) and the demands
made on natural resources.
Box 9.1 Population growth, migration, deforestation and soil erosion: the Philippines case
The relationship between population growth, deforestation and soil

degradation is clearly illustrated by events in the Philippines. The country
experienced high rates of population growth for a prolonged period prior
to the 1970s, averaging over 3 percent per annum. Although growth has
slowed down recently, it was still estimated at 2.4 percent in 1990: one of
the highest in the Asian and Pacific Region.
The resulting demand for more arable land for food production led to
extensive forest clearing in the upland areas in the country. Estimates
indicate that the upland cultivated areas increased almost seven-fold
between 1960 and 1987, from 0.3 to 3.9 million ha. Many of the farms
were established on slopes as steep as 45 degrees: recent estimates indicate
that more than 40 percent of the rural population is located on steep
slopes.
With the expansion in cropland acreage, the upland areas attracted an
increasing number of landless migrants from the lowlands. This resulted in
a net migration to the area, indicated by a population growth rate in excess
of the national average. The net upland migration rate more than doubled
from 2.1 percent during 1970-75, to over 5.3 percent in 1980-85. At
present, the uplands contain more than 20 million people, roughly one-
third of the nation's population.
Increased population density in the uplands has resulted in more
extensive cultivation, increased cropping frequency and shorter fallow
periods. These have led, in turn, to severe soil erosion higher in the
catchment areas, resulting in increased siltation and flooding downstream.
Soil erosion is estimated at about 122 to 210 tonnes per hectare per annum
from newly established farmlands, compared to only 2 tonnes per hectare
from forested lands. Preliminary estimates indicate that 90,000 krn2 of the
country's upland areas are eroded to a point where they are either totally
unsuitable for crop cultivation or can barely support subsistence
agriculture.
Source: ESCAP and ADB (1995).

The rural poor in many developing countries depend heavily on their natural
resources to cope with a decline in their per capita income caused by any of
the above factors. Poverty forces farmers to take a number of actions,
including extending cultivation into marginal lands, overgrazing and cutting
down trees to sell as firewood. As was explained earlier, such activities often
result in soil erosion, deforestation and overgrazing. There is a vicious cycle
in the sense that the inability of the degraded land to support the growing
population increases the levels of unemployment and poverty.
Empirical studies indicate that the two variables most highly correlated
with poverty, in particular in rural areas, are unemployment and lack of (or
limited) access to land. For example, in a study of rural areas in India,
Sundram and Tendulkar (1993) demonstrated that more than three-quarters
of the rural poor and unemployed fell into two classes: landless workers and
small-scale farmers. Historically, poverty, defined in absolute as well as
relative terms, appears to be more prevalent in rural areas than in urban
areas. However, as employment opportunities continue to decrease in the
rural areas, migration to the urban areas is increasing the numbers of the
urban poor. For example, a study by Prasad and Asafu-Adjaye (1998)
indicated that between 1977 and 1990, poverty and income inequality in Fiji
increased by 10 percentage points. The analysis indicated that poverty and
income inequality increased fastest in urban areas compared to rural areas.
Land is the main resource on which the lives of most farmers in
developing countries depend. Even if farmers understand this fact and really
care for the land, they face serious constraints in combating land
degradation. Poor farmers are also usually marginalised by the fact that they
are compelled to cultivate less fertile and steeper slopes with the
accompanying high risks of soil erosion. However, these farmers do not have
the resources to undertake investments that could enhance the long-term
productivity of their land. Poor farmers also cultivate small plots of land and
cannot afford to fallow any part of their land.
9.5 Gender Issues

Within the last few decades, there has been increasing recognition of the
important contribution that women make in the development process,
including the sustainable use and management of natural resources. Many
aid-funded programs, as well as national initiatives, now give prominence to
the role of women. Many countries' national development programs and

strategies now explicitly acknowledge the role of women. Although women
comprise about half of the world's population, they are under-represented
in the labour force and have higher illiteracy rates compared to men
(Table 9.2).
Table 9.2 Gender differences in social indicators
Life
Female expectancy
population Labor force at birth
percent of participation Adult illiteracy female-
total ratio of female rate, male- male
Region to male female difference
difference
1997 1970 1997 1970 1997 1997
World 49.6 0.6 0.7 23 15 4
East Asia and
Pacific 48.9 0.7 0.8 28 14 3
Europe and
Central Asia 51.9 0.9 0.9 11 4 9
Latin America
and Caribbean 50.4 0.3 0.5 7 2 6
South Asia 48.5 0.5 0.5 28 27 1
Sub-Saharan
Africa 50.5 0.7 0.7 19 16 3
These differences are larger in developing countries than in the developed

countries. In addition, women in developing countries are likely to have
lower health and nutritional status. Due to their low wealth and employment
status, many women do not have access to credit and other support services.
It was stated earlier that countries tend to have lower population growth
rates as per capita incomes rise. A case in point is South Korea where the
population growth rate fell from 2.4 percent between 1960-70 to 0.9 percent
in 1990. However, an important factor in the reduction in population growth
is that women entered the workforce at a rapid rate (Repetto, 1985). The
economic explanation for this change is that increasing education and
employment opportunities for women increase the opportunity cost of
having children and reduce the birth rate, in the sense that women delay
marriage or reduce the number of desired children, if already married.
Another factor is that as families become more educated their incomes
increase, and the opportunity cost of the parents' time increases, with options
such as work or leisure becoming available. There is a tendency for such
families to go for a 'quality' strategy in terms of family size. This means
having fewer children and investing more in their education and upbringing.
9.6 Policy Responses to the Population Problem

Many countries have adopted national population policies or strategies that
aim to stabilise or reduce their populations. Notable examples are China,
India and Indonesia. China, for example, is noted for its one-child policy for
urban families. The policy is enforced with a combination of subsidies, fines
and, on occasions, physical coercion. The current data suggest that the
Chinese strategy has been effective in reducing the growth rate of the
population.
In the 1970s the Indian government introduced an aggressive birth-
control strategy which provided financial incentives for sterilization. The
program was discontinued as a result of public opposition and outcry. It is
debatable whether such coercive policies will work in many developing
countries. Policies that address the issues of poverty reduction, public health,
education and improvement in the status of women are likely to be more
successful. We briefly discuss some of these strategies below.
9. 6.1 Public Health

Improving public health actually increases population growth rates in the
short-run, as morbidity and mortality decline. However, reduced child and
infant mortality will, in the long run, encourage families to invest in 'quality'
rather than 'quantity', as far as family size is concerned. Over the last three
decades, much progress has been made in developing countries in terms of
provision of basic sanitation and health services. These developments have
resulted in reductions in infant and child mortality and increased life
expectancy. However, there still remain major differences between various
countries. Within a given country, there are inequalities in access to basic
health care between urban and rural dwellers, and between men and women.
9.6.2 Education
Education is highly correlated with income. As families become more
educated they tend to earn more, and the opportunity cost of taking time off
to raise children increases. Therefore, once again, such families tend to opt
for 'quality' in terms of having fewer children and investing more in their
education. The current statistics suggest that the provision of basic education
in many developing countries is lacking due mainly to shrinking government
budgets for social services.
9.6.3 Status of Women

As already stated above, women are often disadvantaged in a male-
dominated world. One of the ways in which the status of women can be
improved is by implementing policies that improve their educational status
and enhance their entry into the workforce. A good example of an initiative
that empowers women, by giving them access to credit, is the Grameen Bank
in Bangladesh. As stated earlier, many developing countries acknowledge
the role of women in national policy statements. Some have set up special
ministries to address the needs of women and implement special programs
for them. There is the need to ensure that women are adequately represented
in the national decision-making process. Although women constitute about
half the world's population, in many countries (including advanced
countries), they are underrepresented in institutions such as the legislature,
the judiciary, public administration and the private sector. Realistically, there
is a limit to what the government or aid agencies can do to enhance the status
of women. Ultimately, improving the status of women will be faster if the
economy is growing. The current economic slow-down in some developing
countries implies that efforts to enhance the status of women will also be
retarded.
9.6.4 Poverty and Income Inequality

The situation with poverty is similar to that of the status of women.
Governments and aid agencies can implement poverty alleviation programs
(and many such programs have been implemented or are in the process of
implementation). However, where poverty is widespread, there is a limit to
what such programs can achieve. It may be said that an effective way to
reduce poverty is to have a healthy and growing economy. For example,
poverty has fallen drastically in the newly industrialised economies (NIEs)

such as Hong Kong, South Korea and Taiwan. Emerging economies such as
Thailand and Indonesia have also experienced impressive declines in the
numbers of absolute poor. 55
The issue of income distribution is a different matter because past
inequities can become entrenched even when the economy is growing. Some
countries (e.g., Zimbabwe) have attempted to redistribute wealth by taking
land away from wealthy farmers and redistributing it amongst poor, landless
farmers. This form of redistribution has been found to be beneficial in terms
of stemming the rural-urban population drift (Moene, 1992). Forster (1992)
has proposed an interesting redistribution of wealth between rich and poor
countries. Calling it 'debt-for-farmland swaps', she proposes that poor
countries be granted debt relief in exchange for funds for land reform. These
funds could then be used to finance resettlement of farmers from
environmentally fragile areas to more productive land. However, the
feasibility of such a scheme has not been demonstrated.
9.7 Summary
Whether economic growth will increase or reduce resource scarcity is not a
clear-cut issue. Some of the neo-Malthusian predictions about resource
availability have not materialised to date. This is mainly due to the fact that
they confined their definition of scarcity to physical terms. Related factors
such as the role of the price mechanism, increased resource exploration,
improved production techniques, the use of substitutes, research into and
development of substitutes, as well as possible changes in consumption
patterns were not considered.
On the other hand, some of the views of the optimists are also
unrealistic. For example, no level of technological advancement can
compensate for some of the handiwork of nature. It is highly unlikely that
technical knowledge will reach the stage where pristine natural environments
and genetic diversity can be totally recreated. In view of the uncertainty
surrounding likely future environmental impacts and the possible irreversible
damage to the environment, a pragmatic strategy to follow would be one
55
The Asian financial crisis of 1997 may have temporarily increased poverty to some degree.
However, we show in Chapter 10 that most of these countries have emerged from the
recession.
based on the concept of sustainable development, which is discussed in

Chapter 11.
Population growth can have both a positive and negative effect on
environment and development. On the one hand, population growth can
force adaptive and technological change and thus contribute to development.
On the other hand, population growth contributes to the depletion of natural
resources, including reducing development and environmental quality. It was
also argued that widespread use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides can
cause adverse environmental and health effects. Therefore, on balance, the
overall effect of population growth tends towards the negative. Policies
which address the underlying economic and cultural factors affecting large
family sizes have relatively better chances of success. These policies include
improving public health, education, the status of women and addressing
poverty and income inequality issues. In the final analysis, an effective way
to control population growth is through rapid economic growth and
development. While this may sound contradictory, the argument is that
economic growth creates employment and leisure opportunities which, in
turn, raise the opportunity costs of having more children and results in
smaller family sizes.
To conclude, the point must be made that it is not only population
growth that contributes to environmental degradation. Sometimes misguided
government policies such as under-pricing of timber, subsidisation of land
clearing, and agricultural subsidies indirectly contribute to environmental
degradation.

demographic transition Malthusian trap
diminishing marginal productivity stationary or steady-state economy
green revolution biological degradation
growth optimist physical degradation
growth pessimist chemical degradation
land degradation soil erosion
land tenure
Review Questions
1. Explain the Malthusian population model.
2. Explain how Ricardo's model differs from Malthus' model.
3. What were the main conclusions of the Limits to Growth Report?
4. Use the Second Law of Thermodynamics to explain why even zero

population growth and a steady-state world economy may not be
sustainable.
5. Give three reasons that explain why population growth has accelerated
in developing countries over the last three decades.
6. Give three reasons that explain why poor families are likely to have
large family sizes.
7. Make a list of the positive and negative environmental impacts of

population growth.
8. Explain four causes of land degradation.
9. List and explain issues that need to be addressed in order to reduce

population growth.
Exercises
1. To date Malthus's predictions have not come to pass. Why do you think
that is so?
2. 'The problem of population is not a question of numbers but a question

of inequity in distribution of resources.' Do you agree or disagree?
Discuss.
3. Is family planning the best way to control population? Discuss.

4. Give reasons that explain why coercive policies may not be an ideal way
to control population growth.
5. Why is improving public health one of the ways to address the

population problem when it actually increases population growth in the
short run?
6. List the possible advantages and disadvantages of a 'debt-for-farmland

swap'.
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10. Economic Growth and the Environment
Objectives
o describe trends in world trade and environmental indicators;
o describe the relationship between energy consumption and social

welfare;
o explain the interrelationships between trade and the environment;
o explain the relationship between economic growth and biodiversity; and
o propose policy solutions for the adverse environmental impacts of trade.
10.1 Introduction
World trade has been expanding at a rapid pace for several decades, even
outpacing global production. In the report, Our Common Future, WCED
noted that:
"The planet is passing through a period of dramatic growth

and fundamental change. Our human world of 5 billion must
make room in a finite environment for another human world.
The population could stabilize at between 8 billion and 14
billion sometime in the next century. According to UN
projections economic activity has multiplied to create a
255
US$413 trillion world economy, and this could grow five or

tenfold in the coming century" (WCED, 1987:4).
The adverse impact of economic activity on the environment has been a

subject of much debate and controversy since the 1700s. Aspects of this
debate were briefly reviewed in Chapter 9. Environmentalists argue that
international regulation of trade is necessary to 'build environmental
responsibility into economic activity' and to ensure that 'trade meets the
goals of environmentally sustainable development' (Hair, 1993). As trade
has become globalised, environmentalists claim that the magnitude of
environmental degradation has worsened. According to Herman Daly,
'further growth beyond the present scale is overwhelmingly likely to
increase costs more rapidly than it increases benefits, thus ushering in a new
era of 'uneconomic growth' that impoverishes rather than enriches' (Daly
and Cobb, 1989).
In general, environmentalists oppose free trade from the viewpoint of
'market failure' .56 According to this view, because the market 'fails' to
protect environmental values to the desired degree, there is a need for
government intervention. Many environmentalists view economic growth as
being incompatible with the maintenance of environmental quality and
therefore advocate political constraints on economic activity both
domestically and internationally. It is true that all economic activities do
impact on environmental quality to some degree. However, government
intervention in every case would be impractical and may not be optimal.
On the other side of the debate, there are those who believe that
economic growth is necessary in order to achieve a cleaner environment and
eradicate poverty. Numerous empirical studies have been conducted to prove
that there is a positive link between economic growth and environmental
quality. In this chapter, we critically review the relationship between
economic growth (or trade, a major component of growth) and the
environment. In light of the evidence presented, we address what policy
measures could be taken to mitigate the environmental impacts of economic
growth.
56
Herman Daly suggests that a more accurate name for 'free trade' is 'deregulated
international commerce' (Daly, 1993).
Economic Growth and the Environment 257
10.2 Economic and Environmental Trends

We set the discussion into context by considering recent trends in world
trade and environmental indicators. We first look at economic trends within
the last three and a half decade and then consider environmental trends.
10.2.1 Economic Trends

The statistics displayed in Table 10.1 indicate that the world economy grew
steadily between 1965 and 2001 at an average rate of 3.5 percent per annum.
However, there was regional imbalance in the distribution of this growth. In
particular, the East Asian (and Pacific) region economies grew at an average
rate of 7.2 percent per annum. In contrast, the Sub-Saharan African (SSA)
countries grew at a rate of 3 percent per annum on average, while Latin
American and Caribbean countries grew at 3.9 percent per annum on
average.
Table 10.1 Economic trends, 1965-2001
Average GDP Average value added growth p.a.

growth p.a. (%) (%)(from 1972)
Total Per capita Agriculture Industry Services
World 3.5 1.7 2.0 2.6 3.5
East Asia and Pacific 7.2 5.3 3.7 9.5 7.2
Latin America and
Caribbean 3.9 1.7 2.8 3.7 4.2
South Asia 4.5 2.3 2.7 5.3 5.6
Sub-Saharan Africa 3.0 0.3 2.2 3.0 3.4
These figures are brought into sharper contrast when we look at them in per
capita terms. For example, the East Asia and Pacific region outperformed the
rest of the world with average per capita GDP growth of 5.3 percent per
annum, while SSA countries grew at an average of 0.3 percent per annum
per capita. For all the regions shown, the main engines of growth were the
industrial and services sectors.
The Asian crisis financial crisis of 1997 and natural disasters, including
the El Nifio57 , caused East Asian and Pacific region economic growth to drop
sharply from 9.6 percent in 1991-96 to 4.3 percent in 1997-99 (see Table
10.2). The only exception was the Chinese economy which continued to
recorded robust growth of 7 percent per annum during this period. The Asian
financial crisis had a ripple effect on the rest of the developing world. East
Asia had been responsible for much of the recent growth in global
consumption of commodities, with Japan accounting for about a third of
world consumption. A drastic fall in Japanese demand, coupled with the
lagged supply response to the commodity boom of 1994-96, forced
commodity prices to trend downwards. In view of the fact that many
developing countries depend on primary commodities for most of their
export earnings, growth in these regions slowed considerably. The statistics
suggest that the East Asian economies haved emerged from the crisis, with
average growth of 6.3 percent per annum in the period 2000 to 2001.
Table 10.2 World real annual gross domestic product growth, 1965-2001
1965-90 1991-96 1997-99 2000-01
World 3.9 2.4 2.8 2.5

East Asia 7.0 9.6 4.3 6.3
Latin America and the
Caribbean 4.1 4.5 2.2 2.2
South Asia 4.2 5.4 5.4 4.6
Sub-Saharan Africa 3.3 1.8 2.7 3.2
Note: Includes Indonesia, Republic of Korea, Malaysia, the Philippines and Thailand.
10.2.2 Environmental Trends

As discussed in the previous chapter, a growing population requires an
increase in the supply or production of materials for housing, clothing and
feeding. In most cases, the use or extraction of these materials either results
in the depletion of environmental resources or a reduction in environmental
57
El Nifio is a term used to describe unusually warm ocean conditions along the west coast of
South America which adversely affect fisheries and agriculture in the Asia-Pacific region and
parts of North America.
quality. As already mentioned, the increase in the rate of depletion of natural

resources in the rural areas accelerates the rate of rural-urban migration,
which results in other problems such as pollution, unemployment and crime
in the urban areas. At present, the rate of rural-urban migration in developing
countries is quite high. For example, it is projected that by 2015, there will
be 21 megacities58 in the Asia-Pacific region (ESCAP and ADB, 1995).
These changes will put immense pressure on the environment in terms of the
provision of energy, water, materials, and food.
Figure 10.1 presents the trends in land use (arable land in hectares per
person) for India, Indonesia, the Philippines and China for the period 1980-
2000. It can be seen that land use, defined in terms of the amount of arable
land in hectares per person, has declined over the period under review, with
the fastest rate of decline occurring in India. Arable land in India declined by
nearly 50 percent in per capita terms (a fall of 2.3 percent per annum) over
this period. With increase in population in all of these countries, it can be
inferred that a limited land area is being used to support a growing
population. Of course, such a situation could be sustained with improved
technology. However, the rate of technological progress in these countries is
quite low in relation to the advanced countries.
Figure 10.2 presents trends in the amount of water pollution generated
from the pulp and paper industries in the selected countries for 1980-2000.
The rate of water pollution from these industries is directly related to the rate
of deforestation in the respective countries. It can be seen that water
pollution from pulp and paper production in India and Malaysia has
stabilized and even fallen below 1980 levels. However, water pollution
pollution from these sources in Indonesia and China has increased steadily
since 1990, although there has been a decline since 1997.
10.3 Energy Consumption, Economic Growth and Welfare

To the extent that energy is a major input in industrial production, it is to be
expected that there will be a strong relationship between energy use and
industrial output or economic growth. Figure 10.3 presents a plot of GDP per
capita (adjusted for purchasing power parity, PPP, in 1995 US dollars) and
58
A 'megacity' is defined as a city with a population of over 10 million.
Figure 10.1 Land use for selected Asian countries, 1980-2000
0.25
iOi
0.
0.20
(;j
:S 0.15
"0
~
0.10
"*~
ai
If)
:::>
"0 0.05
c
ea
....1
1-+-lndia -B-Indonesia ---lr- Phillipines --*-China I

Figure 10.2 Water pollution for selected Asian countries, 1980-2000

"""il
c
.Q
If)
16
.!!.I
E 14
Ql
0 12
0
ell 10
,g
e... 8
c
0 6
~
0 4
0.
Oi 2
Cil 0
~
!-+-China -India -tr-lndonesia -*-Malaysia I

Source: estimated with data from World Bank (2003).
Figure 10.3 Gross domestic product and energy use in selected

Asian countries
6.00+03
;;;; 5.00+03
V)
::>

g: 4.00+03
!:>
~ 3.00E+03

8. 2.00+03
0..
Cl
0 1.00+03
GDP =44.7 + 3.5ENERGY
R
2
= 0.89; F 112 = 78.5
O.OOE+ 2.00E+ 4.00E+ 6.00E+ 8.00E+ l.OOE+ l.20E+ l.40E+ l.60E+ l.80E+ 2.00E+
00 00 00 00 00 M M M M M M
Commercial energy use per capita (kg oil equiv.)
commercial energy use per capita (in kilograms of oil equivalent) for a
sample of 12 countries. 59 The plot indicates a linear relationship between the
two variables. The regression statistics (R 2 and F-statistics) suggest that the
relationship is highly significant. These results suggest that rapid economic
growth in the Asia-Pacific region will entail a rapid development in energy
systems. The converse of this relationship is that curtailment of energy use
will severely retard economic growth.
Energy use is also related to various indicators of social welfare. Figure
10.4 indicates that life expectancy (represented by the variable LIFE) is
linearly related to energy use (represented by the variable ENERGY).
Although the relationship is not as strong as that of GDP versus energy use,
it is nevertheless significant. Figure 10.5 indicates an inverse relationship
between infant mortality and energy use. In both cases, the relationship can
be explained by the fact that energy enhances the development process,
59
The countries were: Thailand, Japan, Republic of Korea, New Zealand, Australia,
Bangladesh, China, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines and Sri Lanka. The data were
obtained from World Bank (1999).
Figure 10.4 Life expectancy and energy use in selected Asian countries
9.00E+01
8.00E+01
I 7.00E+01 A
a
' 6.00E+01
~ 5.00E+01
i 4.00E+01
LIFE= 63.1 + 0.003ENERGY
~ 3.00E+01 2
R = 0.60, F1,12 = 15.0
~ 2.00E+01
1.00E+01
O.OOE+OO +----r---~--~---.----.----~
O.OOE+OO 1.00E+03 2.00E+03 3.00E+03 4.00E+03 5.00E+03 6.00E+03
Figure 10.5 Infant mortality and energy use in selected Asian countries
1.00E+02
9.00E+01 <>
~ 8.00E+01
~ 7.00E+01
~ 6.00E+01
C 5.00E+01
.~ 4.00E+01
~3.00E+01
~ 2.00E+01
~ 1.00E+01
O.OOE+OO +-----~--~---~----=-<>--.-----~--~
O.OOE+OO 1.00E+03 2.00E+03 3.00E+03 4.00E+03 5.00E+03 6.00E+03
enabling a country's standard of living to be improved. To achieve

sustainable development, there is the need to search for efficiencies in
energy use and to gradually mover towards renewable forms of energy such
as wind, thermal and solar energy.
10.4 The Benefits of Trade: Theoretical Arguments

The economic argument for free trade is based on the theory of comparative
advantage which says that both partners in trade gain by specializing in
goods and services they can produce most efficiently. However, this basic
theory ignores environmental externalities associated with trade
liberalisation. Take the example of the importation of a good, say, coal
(Figure 10.6). Let S be the marginal private cost of producing coal and S'
the marginal social cost. Note that the marginal social cost includes both
private costs and externalities. In the absence of trade, p* will be the
equilibrium price and Q* units of coal will be supplied. With free trade, the
price of coal will be Pw. which will also be the domestic price; Q1 units will
be produced domestically, while (Q 1 - Q2 ) units will be imported. The loss
in producer surplus will be equivalent to area P*bcPw because domestic
producers now sell less coal at a lower price. However, the gain in consumer
surplus will be area P*bgPw because domestic consumers can now purchase
more coal at the same lower price. The net benefits from trade are therefore
given by area beg.
The above analysis does not consider the environmental externalities.
associated with trade. If coal production damages the environment, the
country gains area by ahbc by reducing production from Q* to Q1 units. This
reduced environmental cost is now shifted onto other countries producing
coal for export. 60 On the other hand, if local consumption of coal causes
environmental damage, the true marginal benefits from consumption will fall
to D', increasing the negative externalities by area befg.
The foregoing analysis can be repeated for a commodity, say, timber,
that is produced for export (Figure 10.7). In the absence of externalities,
timber production increases from Q* to Q2 units, while domestic timber
consumption decreases from Q* to Q 1 units, leaving (Q 2 - Q 1) units for
export. Total output of timber is therefore Q2 units. Producers gain area
PwbcP* by selling more timber at the higher world price Pw However,
consumers lose area P wacP because they can now buy less timber at the
higher world price. Therefore, the net gains from trade in the absence of
externalities is area abc.
60
This situation is referred to as exporting pollution.
Figure 10.6 Gains and losses from imports
Price
p*
D'
0~------------------------------~---. Quantity
Q*
The externalities associated with additional timber production include

increased soil erosion and its associated costs (e.g. loss in crop productivity,
increased chances of flooding) and loss of ecosystem services such as
climate control, water regulation, nutrient recycling and provision of genetic
resources. These losses are given by area debc. The net gain (or loss) from
trade in the presence of externalities depends on whether or not area abc is
greater than area debc. Therefore, in this case, we cannot unambiguously
conclude that timber exports are beneficial to the country.
It must be noted that the above free trade model is a simplistic one. It is
cast in a partial equilibrium framework and does consider the effect of a
policy on the position of the private supply, social cost and priv;;~.te demand
curves. It also does not consider interaction between product and factor
markets or the preferences of consumers and producers. The empirical
evidence on the environmental effects of increased trade is mixed. Using a
general equilibrium model, Chichilnisky (1994) concluded that trade
increases overexploitation of resources and that establishing private property
rights to the environmental resource offers the only feasible response to the
problem of overexploitation.
Figure I 0. 7 Gains and losses from exports
0~------~--------------~------+ Quantity
Q*
However, Beghin et al. (1997) found no wholesale environmental

degradation in Mexican agriculture as a result of free trade, while Bandara
and Coxhead (1999) found that there were some environmental gains from
trade liberalisation in the case of Sri Lanka.
Lutz (1992) projects increased environmental pressures on land, water
and soils in developing countries following trade liberalisation. Trade
liberalisation could also result in indirect negative environmental impacts
such as when small-scale or subsistence farmers are displaced by larger scale
export agriculture onto marginal lands. However, Anderson (1992) argues
that an expanding commercial labour force in agriculture could help reduce
migration to urban areas and therefore reduce urban environmental
problems. Also, the higher incomes would reduce the incentive for
subsistence farmers to cultivate marginal land or to deforest them for
fuel wood.
In general, trade liberalisation increases transport related environmental
externalities. For instance, transport of bulky agricultural products is energy
intensive and therefore costly in both environmental and financial terms. On
the other hand, trade liberalisation could deliver some positive
environmental impacts in the form of transfer of environmentally friendly

technology to developing countries. It could also promote more efficient
production that could reduce material and energy use per unit of output.
Trade liberalisation could also compel a country to improve environmental
standards when product quality or transboundary effects are at issue. This
has already occurred to some extent in Fiji where producers responded to the
banning of the fumigant ethylene dibromide, a carcinogen, by switching to
non-chemical quarantine treatment technology. Already, some Fijian farmers
are beginning to take advantage of significant and growing markets for
certified organic products.
10.5 The Relationship Between Economic Growth and

Pollution
The term 'Environmental Kuznets Curve' (EKC) was first used by Selden
and Song (1994) when they suggested that the environment-income
relationship might be similar to the one proposed by Simon Kuznets, the
Nobel laureate, for income inequality in relation to development, namely an
'inverted-U' shape (Kuznets, 1955). The basic premise of the EKC
hypothesis is that there is an 'inverted-U' shaped relationship between a
variety of indicators of environmental degradation and the level of income
per capita. That is, as per capita income increases, environmental
degradation will initially increase, but then eventually decline once a
maximum level is reached.
An example of an EKC for sulphur dioxide (S0 2) is presented in Figure
10.8. A typical feature of the EKC is the inverted U shape that suggests that
pollution reaches a maximum with respect to income, after which it begins to
decline. The maximum level of pollution is referred to as the turning point
and forms the focus of the debate about pollution control. If in fact the EKC
hypothesis is true, then this turning point will set a per income capita
benchmark for developing countries. That is, it is to be expected that
developing economies will increase their levels of pollution and
environmental degradation until the turning point is reached. The EKC
concept can be traced to Vemon Ruttan who remarked in his 1971
presidential address to the American Agricultural Economics Association
that:
" .. .in relatively high-income countries the income elasticity

of demand for commodities and services related to
sustenance is low and declines as income continues to rise,
while the income elasticity of demand for more effective
disposal of residuals and for environmental amenities is high
and continues to rise. This is in sharp contrast to the
situation in poor countries where the income elasticity is
high for sustenance and low for environmental amenities"
(Ruttan, 1971:707-708).
Figure 10.8 A hypothetical EKC for sulphur dioxide
300
250
,.-._
/;liJ
~
'-' 200
N
0
rJ:J
150
....
~
a
~ lOO
(.)
~
""'
~
50
0
0 5000 l 0000 15000 20000 25000 30000
Per capita GDP ($)

Source: Asafu-Adjaye (1999).
In this section, we first review theories that attempt to explain the EKC
relationship. This is followed by a review of empirical studies of the EKC.
Next, we conduct a critical assessment of the evidence.
10.5.1 Theories Explaining the Environmental Kuznets Curve

A number of theories have been proposed to explain the inverted U-
relationship between economic growth and environmental quality. Here, we
take a brief look at three groups of theories: (i) overlapping-generations
models; (ii) production/consumption models of pollution, and (iii) political
economy models.
Overlapping-generations models
John and Pecchenino (1994) use Samuelson's (1958) and Diamond's (1965)
overlapping-generations61 framework to explain why an inverted U
relationship might exist between economic growth and environmental
quality. In this approach, short-lived individuals make decisions about the
accumulation of capital and the provision of a public good, environmental
quality, where the decisions have long lasting effects. In the stylized model,
economic agents live two periods, working young and consuming while old.
The young allocate their wages between investment in capital goods and
investment in the environment, which is a public good. Economic agents
derive utility from consumption and environmental quality. Their
consumption degrades the environment which is left to future generations.
However, investment in capital improves the technology available to future
generations.
John and Pecchenino (1994) indicate that economic agents in economies
with little capital (or high environmental quality) may choose not to maintain
the environment. As agents accumulate capital, the consumption externality
causes degradation of the environment, resulting in a negative correlation
between economic growth and environmental quality. On the other hand, in
economies with high capital levels, agents can choose a mix of savings and
maintenance such that a higher capital stock is associated with a higher level
of environmental quality.
Under their framework, it is also possible for some environmental
problems to improve at low-income levels, whereas others worsen even in
rich economies. For example, in the case of water quality, returns to
maintenance are high and agents may be willing to sacrifice large amounts
of consumption in return for improvements in quality. On the other hand, for
61
The overlapping generations model is a departure from the normal utility framework used
in economics. In this approach, the utility of the current generation depends on that of future
generations.
other pollutants (e.g., C02), returns to maintenance may be low and agents
may value environmental quality relatively less.
Production/consumption models
Pollution can arise from consumption and production of goods and services
or the use of environmental inputs in either of these activities. Lopez (1994)
presents a simple model that consists of two production sectors and assumes
constant returns to scale, exogenous prices62 and technological progress,
among other things. In this model, when private producers consider only
their marginal costs (MPC) (i.e., do not pay for pollution), increased output
levels lead to increase in pollution levels regardless of technological
progress and preferences. However, when producers pay the marginal social
cost (MSC), that is, MPC plus the price of pollution, then the relationship
between output and pollution levels depends on preferences and technology.
If it is assumed that preferences are non-homothetic, as is more likely to be
the case (Pollak and Wales, 1992),63 the change in pollution, with increasing
output, depends on the elasticity of substitution in production between
pollution and other inputs, as well as the degree of relative risk aversion. In
this case, the degree of relative risk aversion is defined as the rate at which
consumers' marginal utility declines as they increase their consumption of
goods and services. For certain plausible values of these two parameters (i.e.,
elasticity of substitution and risk aversion) pollution levels may rise at low-
income levels and decline at high income levels, leading to the inverse U
shape.
McConnell (1997) has proposed an EKC model in which pollution is
generated by consumption but reduced by abatement. In this model, utility is
defined as a function of consumption (C) and pollution (P). That is,
U=U(C, P) ( 10.1)
where pollution is a function of consumption and abatement (A). That is,
62
Constant returns to scale means that a 1 percent increase in inputs results in a 1 percent
increase in output; exogenous prices mean that prices are given, i.e., determined from outside
the model.
63
The property of 'homotheticity' is related to constant returns to scale (see previous
footnote). It is related to the fact that a set of inputs is used in the same proportions at any
given level of output.
P = P(C, A) (10.2)
It is assumed that output is equal to consumption plus abatement. That is,
Y=C+A (10.3)
McConnell (1997) assumes that a social planner maximises Equation (10.1)

subject to the constraint, Equation (10.3). He goes on to demonstrate
conditions under which an inverted U curve may or may not be generated by
changes in the sign of the income elasticity of demand for environmental
quality. McConnell demonstrates that it is possible for pollution to decline
with a zero income elasticity of demand for environmental quality, or to
increase with a high-income elasticity of demand for environmental quality.
Antle and Heidebrink (1995) have used the concept of the production
possibilities frontier64 (PPF) to explain why economic growth and
environmental quality may not necessarily be mutually exclusive. They
define an economy that produces two goods, market goods (x) and
environmental goods and services (e). The production functions are defined
as:
x=x(L, K, Z) (10.4)
e = e(E) (10.5)
where L is labour and other variable inputs used to produce market goods; K
is environmental capital stock used to produce x; Z is conventional capital
stock (e.g., structures and machinery) and E is environmental capital stock
(e.g., forests, soil, and water) used to produce environmental services. Both
production functions are assumed to be concave and the usual neoclassical
assumptions (i.e., perfect competition and constant returns to scale) also
apply. The marginal product of the conventional capital stock is assumed to
be negative at high levels of utilisation, but that of environmental capital
stock is assumed to be positive. The marginal rate of transformation from
e to x, MRTe,x is defined as:
64
The production possibilities frontier is a function which indicates the maximum output that
can be obtained with different combinations of inputs.
MRT = MPe (10.6)

e,x MP
X
Based on neoclassical economic theory, equilibrium is achieved where

MRTe.x is equal to the relative prices of e and x (see Figure 10.9). Assuming e
is a pure public good, which is often the case with environmental goods and
services, its market value will be zero or low and therefore the price line will
be steep or close to infinity. Equilibrium will thus occur at point c, with e
units of the environmental good and x units of the market good being
produced. The 'rational' producer will not produce below e units, where
there are diminishing returns. That is, even though environmental goods are
zero priced, there is no economic incentive for the market economy to totally
exhaust the environmental capital stock. However, over time, as more
environmental inputs are used up, the envrionmental capital stock declines.
In response to this change, the shadow price of environmental goods rises to
reverse the decline.
Figure I 0.9 Production possibilities frontier for market and environmental goods
environmental
goods (e)
technological
change
market goods (x)

Source: adapted from Antle and Heidebrink (1995).
Technological change can shift the PPF outward. The main implication of
this theory is that even if environmental quality is a pure public good,
economic growth and environmental quality improvement are not
necessarily mutually exclusive, given the possibility of technical change. In

this framework, it is possible for public policies (e.g., environmental
regulations) to move the economy to point d, where more market goods and
more environmental services are produced. However, it is also possible for
some government policies (e.g., large-scale dam projects) to move the
economy to points such as e where the level of environmental services is
reduced.
Political economy models

Many EKC studies model pollution levels as a function of per capita income
without specifying the links between these two variables. According to
Grossman and Krueger (1995), the strongest link is an induced policy
response, which is, in turn, induced by popular demand. To quote Grossman
and Krueger,
"As nations or regions experience greater prosperity, their

citizens demand that more attention be paid to the non-
economic aspects of their living conditions. The richer
countries tend to have relatively cleaner urban air and
relatively more stringent environmental standards and
stricter enforcement of their environmental laws than
middle-income and poorer countries" (Grossman and
Krueger, 1995:372).
Given that most environmental goods and services display public goods
characteristics, the issue of market failure needs to be addressed in efforts to
solve environmental problems. According to the political economy
approach, as a country's per capita income increases, it becomes better able
to address the issue of market failure through the political process.
To conclude this section, the point needs to be made that there is not
much difficulty in constructing a model that would generate EKC-type
characteristics. The challenge is to find empirical evidence that backs up the
theory. In the following section, we will review a selection of empirical
studies that have attempted to either support or refute the EKC hypothesis.
10.5.2 Review of Empirical EKC Studies

Grossman and Krueger (1991) conducted the path-breaking study in the
EKC literature as part of a wider study to assess the environmental impacts
of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). The study utilised
panel data from the Global Environmental Monitoring System (GEMS)
project to estimate EKCs for SOz, dark matter, and SPM for a number of
65
cities worldwide. Regression variables including a cubic function of per
capita GDP (PPP dollars), a time trend and trade intensity were used. The
analysis confirmed that ambient concentrations of S02 and dark matter
exhibit EKCs with turning points lying between $4,000 and $5,000 in 1985
US dollars (see Table 10.3). Although they found that economic growth at
middle income levels was associated with improved environmental quality,
growth at higher income would be detrimental.
An EKC study conducted by Shafik and Bandyopadhyay (1992) was
used as a background study for the 1992 World Development Report (World
Bank, 1992). They estimated EKCs for nine different indicators of
environmental quality: SPM, ambient S02 , deforestation, lack of clean
water, lack of urban sanitation, dissolved oxygen in rivers, faecal coliforms
in rivers, municipal waste per capita, and C02 emissions per capita. They
carried out panel and cross section regressions using data from 149 countries
for the period 1960-1990. The two air pollutants, S02 and SPM were found
to conform to the EKC hypothesis with turning points at $3,700 and $3,300
respectively (Table 10.3). Deforestation was not significantly related to
income, while river quality worsened as income increased. Finally, both C02
emissions per capita and municipal waste increased significantly with
increase in income.
Panayotou (1993, 1995) conducted cross-sectional EKC regressions
using data for 1987/88 for 55 developing countries. All the indicators,
including emissions per capita for S02, SPM, NOx and deforestation, were
found to conform to the inverted U shape. The turning points were $3,000,
$4,500, $5,500, and $823, respectively (Table 10.3). Panayotou updated his
study in 1997 by explicitly accounting for the underlying determinants of
environmental quality. In order to gain a more comprehensive understanding
of the income-environment relationship, he incorporated a variety of policy
instruments into the analysis. This involved 'decomposing' the structural
economic factors influencing the emissions of so2 into its pure income,
65
The GEMS is a joint project of the World Health Organisation and the United Nations
Environmental Program.
scale and sectoral composition effects, as well as testing independently for

the impacts of the rate of growth and a policy variable. The results indicated
that both the growth rate and the policy variables were highly significant,
with a turning point of just below $5,000.
Table 10.3 A selection of EKC studies
Environmental Turning Point Countries/Cities/

Study Indicator (US$ per capita) Time Period
I. Grossman and SOz 4,000--5,000 Cities worldwide
Krueger (1991) Dark matter
2. Shafik and SOz 3,000--4,000 149 countries, 1960--90
Bandyopadhyay SPM
(1992) Deforestation
3. Panayotou so2 3,000 55 developed and
(1993, 1995) NO, 5,000 developing countries,
SPM 4,500 1987-88
Deforestation 823
4. Panayotou so2 5,000 Cities in 30 developed
(1997) and developing
countries, 1982-84
5. Cole et al. Carbon monoxide 25,100 7 regions, 1960--91, 24
(1997) Total energy use 22,500 OECD countries,
CFCs and halons 15,400 1970--90, 38 countries,
1986, 1990
6. Cropper and Deforestation 4,760 64 countries in Africa,
Gri ffi ths ( 1994) 5,420 Latin America
7. Antle and Afforestation 2,000 93 countries, cross-
Heidebrink (1995) section, 1985
National parks 1,200 82 countries, cross-
section, 1985
8. Asafu-Adjaye Reforestation 5,000 83 countries, cross-
(1998) section, 1985
9. Wackemagel Ecological footprint 21,587 52 countries, 1985
et al. (1997)
10. Asafu-Adjaye Energy use 22,218 4 Asian countries, pooled
(1999) cross section-time series,
1971-95
Notes:
a
so2 = sulphur dioxide
SPM = suspended particulate matter
NO, =nitrous oxide
C02 =carbon dioxide
CFC =chlorofluorocarbons
Grossman (1993) undertook a comprehensive EKC study using data

from up to 488 monitoring stations from 64 countries for the period 1977 to
1990. U-shape relationships were observed for SPM, N0 2, CO,
faecalcoliform, biological oxygen demand (BODt6 and chemical oxygen
demand (COD)67 with turning points of $16,000, $18,500, $22,800, $8,500,
$10,000 and $10,000 respectively.
In a departure from the aforementioned studies, Cropper and Griffiths
(1994) estimated EKCs for deforestation for African, Latin American and
Asian countries using time series data for a 30-year period. Deforestation in
African and Latin American countries displayed inverted U shapes with
turning points of $4,760 and $5,420 respectively. However, there were no
significant relationships for Asian countries.
More recently, de Bruyn (1997) used decomposition analysis 68 to
determine whether structural change or technological innovation was a major
factor in the decline in S02 emissions in the Netherlands and West Germany
during the 1980s. Although he failed to find evidence supporting the
significance of structural change, he found that environmental policy
fostered by international agreements provides a better explanation of why
pollution tends to decline as income levels increase. It is significant to note
that de Bruyn (1997) found income to be only a minor determinant of
environmental policy.
Cole et al. (1997) used more recent data encompassing a wider set of
environmental indicators including CFCs, halons, methane, nitrates,
municipal waste, carbon monoxide, energy consumption and traffic volumes.
They found the turning points for per capita emissions of total NOx, SPM,
and carbon monoxide to be comparable to earlier studies, implying that per
capita emissions of these pollutants are beginning to decline in many
advanced economies (Table 10.3). However, both C02 and energy use were
found to increase monotonically with income. CFC's and halons, although
predicted to follow a similar path as C02 in 1990, were found to have
flattened out and decreased slightly.
66
BOD is the amount of natural oxidation that occurs in a sample of water in a given time
period.
67
COD is the amount of oxygen consumed when a chemical oxidant is added to a sample of
water.
68
de Bruyn (1997) and Panayotou (1997) both advocate decomposition analysis as a
preferred alternative to the reduced-form approach. This is because an expansion of the
reduced-form model to include further explanatory variables increases the possibility of
serious multicollinearity problems.
Other environmental indicators for which turning points were reported

(Table 10.3) were afforestation/reforestation (Antle and Heidebrink, 1995;
Asafu-Adjaye, 1998), and ecological footprint (Wackemagel et al., 1997).
Wackernagel et al. estimated the EKC for a sample of 52 countries using
'ecological footprints' as an indicator. The ecological footprint estimates the
land and water required to sustainably provide for the average per capita
consumption in each country, including the following: food, wood, energy
and built area. Using a quadratic specification, the estimated turning point of
$21,587 was outside the data range and the log-quadratic specification did
not indicate a turning point.
Some studies have attempted to investigate the effect of political factors
on pollution. However, the evidence so far has been inconclusive or
contradictory. For example, Shafik and Bandyopadhyay (1992) tested for the
69
influence of political and civil rights on concentrations of various air
pollutants (including S02) and found evidence that air quality is worse in
more democratic countries. On the other hand, Torras and Boyce (1998)
found evidence to support the view that less 'power-equal' countries (both
with respect to democracy and income equality) have higher so2 emissions.
Whereas earlier studies (e.g., Shafik and Bandyopadhyay 1992;
Grossman, 1993; Panayotou, 1995) showed evidence of a U-curve for S02,
more recent research has cast doubt on an EKC for S02 (Stern and Common,
2001) and other air pollutants (Harbaugh et al., 2000). In their study which
used a much larger sample of countries over a longer period of time than
previous sulfur EKC studies, Stern and Common (200 1) found that the
turning point estimates were sensitive to sample choice. For example, using
a sample of 23 OECD countries and a random effects model, they obtained
an inverted-U shape with a turning point ofUS$9,239 which was well within
the sample range. However, using a global sample, they obtained a very high
turning point of US$101,166, implying that the EKC is effectively a
monotonic function of income. This finding is consistent with that of List
and Gallet (1999) who also found a very high turning point for sulphur for
US states when they used a long time series (1929-1994) and a wide income
range (US$1, 162-US$22,462).
Harbaugh et al. (2000) re-examined the empirical evidence for the EKC
for S0 2, smoke, and total suspended particulates using data from World
69
The political liberties index measures rights such as free elections, the existence of multiple
parties, and decentralisation of power. The civil liberties index measures freedom to express
opinions without fear of reprisal.
Bank (1992) and Grossman and Krueger (1995), with the benefit of an
additional ten years of data. They also tested the sensitivity of the EKC
relationship to different functional forms and econometric specifications, to
the inclusion of additional covariates besides income and to the nations,
cities and years sampled. They found that the location of the turning points,
as well as their very existence, was sensitive to both slight variations in the
data and to the econometric specification. For example, merely cleaning up
or updating the original data caused the inverted-U shape to disappear. On
the basis of these results, they concluded that there is little if any empirical
support for the existence of an EKC for these pollutants.
10.5.3 A Critique ofEKC Studies

In view of the nature and intensity of the debate about economic growth and
environmental degradation, it is not surprising that the EKC hypothesis has
come under heavy attack from both economists and non-economists alike.
The EKC seems to suggest that countries can simply 'grow out' of any
limitations brought about by the depletion of natural resources and increased
environmental degradation. This view was put even more forcefully by
Beckerman (1992) who said, inter alia, that 'the best-and probably the only
way to attain a decent environment in most countries is to become rich'.
Eminent scholars such as Arrow et al. (1995), Rothman (1997), and
Stem et al. (1996) have critiqued the EKC. Special issues of the following
journals have been devoted entirely to the subject: Ecological Economics
(1995), Ecological Applications (1996) and Environment and Development
Economics (1996). A panel of economists, led by Kenneth Arrow, met in
Sweden to consider the relationships between economic growth and
environmental quality. They concluded, inter alia, that an inverted U-curve
does not constitute evidence that environmental quality will improve in all
cases or that it will improve in time to avert the adverse impacts of economic
growth (Arrow et al., 1995). They argued that in most cases where emissions
have declined with increasing income, the reductions have been due to local
institutional reforms such as environmental legislation and market-based
incentives, although such reforms have tended to overlook international and
intergenerational consequences.
From the current empirical evidence, it is unclear whether the EKC is the
result of economic growth and therefore best tied to income increases, or
whether it is merely a symptom of other underlying exogenous changes.
Consequently, some of the more recent studies have attempted to find
alternative approaches for analysing EKC relationships. For example, Unruh

and Moomaw (1997) and Moomaw and Unruh (1997) have disputed the
EKC conclusion that increase in income results in emissions reduction.
Instead, they argue that reductions in emissions are triggered by specific
historic events such as the 1973 oil crisis. They find that the transition to
lower per capita C02 emissions can occur at different income levels and can
occur rather abruptly. They demonstrate that, in the case of countries as
different as Spain and the United States, the transitions occurred soon after
the oil price shocks of the 1970s.
McConnell ( 1997) has suggested that although income is an important
factor in explaining the EKC type relationship, other factors such as
abatement costs, or the impact of pollution on production may over ride the
effects of income. He therefore investigates the relationship between the
demand for environmental quality and income by considering the combined
effect of preferences, increasing costs of pollution abatement and the
marginal utility of consumption in a growing economy in order to
decompose the reduced form effect of income on pollution. He concludes
that a high-income elasticity of demand for environmental quality is neither
necessary nor sufficient to yield an EKC-type relationship.
Some studies (e.g., Liddle, 1996; Asafu-Adjaye, 1999) have found no
evidence of trade playing a major role in determining the EKC. On the other
hand others (e.g., Suri and Chapman, 1997) find the opposite result. Other
studies such as Suri and Chapman (1997) have attempted to estimate the
effect of economic structure or industrial organisation on the EKC
relationship. Westbrook (1995) estimated the EKC for 56 developing
countries including variables to represent industrial structure--defined as the
shares of agriculture and services in GNP, respectively, relative to the
industrial seCtor. He found industrial structure to be a significant factor
explaining the U-curve relationship. Finally, the EKC concept is totally
inadequate to explain the decline in environmental indicators such as
biodiversity. This issue is considered in a little detail in the next section.
10.6 Economic Growth and Biodiversity70

The majority of EKC studies focus on aspects of environmental degradation
such as air/water pollution and deforestation. Biodiversity belongs to a
special class of environmental degradation because it involves complex
ecosystems the loss of which cannot be recovered by technological advances.
As such they differ from other types of environmental degradation such as
pollution and deforestation for which improvements are possible to some
extent. Furthermore, biodiversity levels are not related to energy use unlike
pollutants commonly used in EKC studies. Thus, at the global level, there
cannot be a turning point in the relationship as income increases.
Biodiversity is a complex variable that is difficult to capture with a
single indicator. A na'ive model of biodiversity is based on the ecological
theory of island biogeography (MacArthur and Wilson, 1967) which
represents the number of species (S) as a function of area (A) as follows:
S=CA' (10.7)
where C and z are positive parameters, with z ranging from 0.10 to 0.35
(Wilson, 1992). Given that Equation 10.7 is non-linear in both the parameters
and variables, we can express it in logarithms as follows:
InS = lnC(X) + z ln(A) ( 10.8)
where X is the vector of variables whose impact on biodiversity we wish to

investigate.
In a study conducted by Asafu-Adjaye (2003), the following indicators
of species diversity were used as proxies for biodiversity: (1) number of
known mammal species/10,000 sq km (MAMMALS); (2) number of known
bird species/10,000 sq km (BIRDS); (3) number of known higher plant
species/10,000 sq km (PLANTS); (4) percentage ofbird and mammal species
threatened with extinction (PBMT); and (4) average annual percentage
change in the number of known mammal species for the period 1989/1999
(PCMAM).
Figure 10.10 shows graphical plots of the relationship between income
(represented by GDP per capita) and the number of known mammal and bird
species, respectively, for a cross-section of 100 countries. For each indicator,
70
The material in this section draws heavily from Asafu-Adjaye (2003).
Figure 10.10 Plots of the relationship between income and biodiversty levels
Log MAMMALS vs. Log GDP

140
0
120
0 0
00 0
100 0
0
~
<( 80
:::;;
:::;;
<( 60
:::;;
40
0
.., 0
0
20 cPO oo
0
\?,
0 0
0 0
0 0
0
0 10000 20000 30000
G DP
Log BIRDS vs. log GDP

500
400
0
0>
0
300 0
m 0
0 0 0
Cl 00
0:::
o.,.
10 200 ~0
~0 0
0 0
0
0 0
100 0
e
8
o o; <&,8 0
0 0
0 "a'CT
0 0 0 0 oo
0 4-----------.-----------.-~0~------~
0 10000 20000 30000
GDP
the plots show wide variations in species diversity especially for countries in
the less than US$10,000 category. However, ignoring the outliers in the
samples, it can be seen that there is an overall negative relationship between
income and biodiversity levels for the numbers of known mammal, bird and
higher plant species, and a positive relationship between income and the
percentage of birds and mammals threatened with extinction. Thus, an EKC
type relationship can be ruled out for biodiversity.
To quantify these relationships more precisely and examine the impact
of economic growth on biodiversity, the following regression models were
estimated:
/nEii = a 0 + a 1lnGDPi + a 2lnAGRICPC + a3/nFREEi + a4/nFOREXi +

a 5/nPOPDENSi + a6lnPDLANDi + a1lnPPLAND
+ a 8/nCLIMATEi + Ei (10.9)
For indicators 4 and 5 the following regression model was estimated:
Eii = ao + a1lnGDPi + a2lnAGRICPC + a3/nFREEi + a4lnFOREXi

+ a 5lnUPOPGRO + a 6lnPDLANDi + a 7lnPPLAND
+ a 8/nCLIMATEi + Ei (10.10)
where:
Eij indicator ofbiodiversity level for country i, j=l (mammals),
2 = (birds), 3 =(plants), 4 = (pbmt) and 5 (pcmam);
GDPi = GDP per capita (in PPP terms, 1995 International$)
AGRICPC = agricultural value added as a percentage of GDP;
FREEi =index of economic freedom, 0 (most free) to 20 (least free);
FOREXi = black market premium on exchange rates, 0 = premium of 210
percent or more, 10 = premium of 0 percent;
POPDENSi =population density;
UPOPGRO i = urban population growth;
PDLANDi = percentage ofland developed for agriculture and other uses;
PPLAND i = percentage of protected land area; and
CLIMATEi =dummy variable for climate where: (1) cold and cold
temperate countries; (2) sub-tropical and dry countries;
and (3) wet tropical countries; and
Ei = a random error term.
Gross domestic product was included in the model because the level of
biodiversity is directly related to the level of economic output. AGRICPC
was included to test the hypothesis that biodiversity decline is not only
affected by the level of economic activity but also by the composition of

economic output. It was hypothesized that a well developed economic, social
and political institutions that help to internalise the value ofbiodiversity into
decision-making processes of the state and individuals.
The variable FREE, an index of economic freedom, was used as a proxy
for institutional development in a country. This index is published by the
Fraser Institute (Gwartney and Lawson, 1997) and ranges from 0 (most free)
to 20 (least free). It is expected that a negative relationship will exist
between the degree of economic freedom and biodiversity level.
The variable FOREX, an index of the black market premium on foreign
exchange, was used to represent the macroeconomic environment in a
country. It is expected that macroeconomic policies will affect the level of
environmental degradation, which in turn will affect biodiversity resources.
For example, a high black market exchange rate indicates a restrictive trade
policy stance and overvaluation of the domestic currency that could
negatively affect private rents from timber exports. However, on the other
hand, it could also discourage development of non-timber forest product
industries. FOREX ranges from 0 tolO, with 0 representing a black market
exchange rate premium of 210 percent or more and 10 representing a
premium of 0 percent. The variables PDLAND and PPLAND were used as
proxies for habitat size, while POPDENS and UPOPGRO were used to
represent population pressure. Finally, a dummy variable was included to
account for climatic effects on biodiversity. It is a well-known fact that
species diversity increases as one moves from the polar areas towards the
equator. Studies (e.g., Holm-Hansen et al., 1993; Termura et al., 1990)
suggest that phenomena such as ozone depletion and C02 emissions that
contribute to global warming may indirectly increase biodiversity loss.
Data on GDP per capita, the Index of Economic Freedom, and the black
market exchange rate premium were obtained from Gwartney and Lawson
(1997), while data on population density and the percentage of agricultural
value added in GDP were taken from World Bank (1999). Data on the
remaining variables were obtained from World Resources (WRI, 1990,
1999). The list of countries included in the sample is given in the Appendix
10.1.
The results (see Tables 10.4 and 10.5) indicate the following:
1. The level of economic activity income has a significant negative

effect on species density for mammals and birds but not for higher
plants. It also appears to have an adverse effect on the average

annual percentage change in the number of known mammal species.
2. The proxy for the composition of economic output (AGRICPC) is

highly significant for the average annual percentage change in the
number of known mammal species. This result provides some
justification for the view that it is not only the level of economic
output per se which is injurious to biodiversity, but also the
composition of that output. This confirms the fact that conversion of
habitat for agricultural and other purposes is one of the major threats
to biodiversity conservation.
Table 10.4 Regression estimates for determinants ofbiodiversity

(numbers of mammals and birds)
No. of mammals No. of birds

110,000 sq km" /10,000 sg km"
Variable Coefficient t-Statistic Coefficient !-Statistic
Intercept 6.00 2.98 4.02 3.22
lnGDP -0.28** -2.26 -0.04' -1.37
lnAGRICPC -0.08 -0.60 0.09 0.94
/nFREE -0.10 -0.41 0.08 0.43
lnFOREX 0.01' 1.87 0.02 0.84
lnPOPDENS -0.10** -1.99 -0.11'** -2.85
lnUPOPGRO
/nPPLAND 0.11'" 2.31 0.12**' 2.91
lnPDLAND 0.02 0.30 0.03 0.49
lnCLIMATE 0.54'** 2.64 0.48''* 3.25
Rz 0.35
0.34
Adjusted R2 0.29 0.29
Std error 0.64 0.53
F-statistic 5.95''* 5.89"'
N 99 98
Notes:
The dependent variable is the logarithm of number/! 0,000 sq km.
'",",and,' indicate statistical significance at the 1%, 5% and 10% level, respectively, for a
one-tailed test.

Table 10.5 Regression estimates for determinants of biodiversity (number of higher plants
and change in number of mammals)
No. of higher plants Average % change in

110,000 sq km no. of mammals 1989-99b
Variable Coefficient t-Statistic Coefficient t-Statistic
Intercept 3.51 1.45 22.88 2.14
lnGDP O.ll 0.56 -1.40* -1.51
/nAGRICPC -{).11 -0.63 -2.7o -2.65
/nFREE 0.27 0.70 -1.91* -1.30
lnFOREX 0.30 ... 6.01 -{).06 -0.20
lnPOPDENS -0.20... -2.61
/nUPOPGRO -0.02 -0.05
/nPPLAND 0.10 1.35 -0.12 -0.39
/nPDLAND 0.19 1.22 -1.04.. -2.04
lnCLIMATE 1.39 ... 4.88 5.85 3.64
Rz 0.44 0.28
Adjusted R2 0.39 0.18
Std error 1.02 3.63
F-statistic 8.63 ... 2.91
N 98 71
Notes:
The dependent variable is the logarithm of number/10,000 sq km.
b The dependent variable is the logarithm of the average annual percentage change in the
number of known mammal species from 1989 to 1999.
***, , and,* indicate statistical significance at the 1%, 5% and 10% level, respectively, for a
one-tailed test.
3. The black market exchange rate premium (FOREX) is positive and

statistically significant for mammals and higher plants, with the
effect being relatively stronger for the latter. This particular variable
is an indicator of distortions in the economy and the implication here
is that removal of such distortions could lead to an improvement in
not only the economy but also aspects of the environment.
4. As expected, population density has a highly significant negative

effect on biodiversity loss in general.
5. PPLAND is significant for all the three indicators of species density,
while PDLAND is significant for the average annual percentage
change in the number of known mammal species. These results lend
empirical support for the view that space is a limiting factor to
biodiversity protection, and provide a justification for the policy of
setting aside nature conservation areas.
6. The coefficients on climate are significant for all the indicators of

biodiversity, confirming that climate contributes to biodiversity
decline.
10.7 Conclusions and Policy Implications

In the last few years, progress has been made in enhancing our
understanding of the relationship between the environment and development.
On the basis of current research, a number of conclusions can be reached.
1. The so-called U curve relationship between environmental quality

and income does not apply to all environmental indicators. The
review conducted in this chapter demonstrates that the indicator
which consistently displays such a relationship, based on the number
of studies confirming it, is S02 However, even this has been
disputed on a number of grounds. A few studies have found the EKC
hypothesis to hold for SPM, deforestation, afforestation and energy
use. However, these results cannot be generalised.
2. The EKC is an inappropriate model to describe the relationship

between economic growth and the environment in the case of
environmental indicators such as biodiversity. Biodiversity involves
the irreversible loss of valuable ecosystems and the current evidence
suggests that economic growth contributes significantly to its
decline.
3. Even where a U curve relationship is found, the turning points tend

to be much higher than the per capita incomes of the countries
involved. For example, in Asafu-Adjaye (1999) the turning point for

energy was US$22,218 for a sample of four countries comprising,
India, Indonesia, South Korea and Japan. However, real per capita
income for India, the least well off in the sample based on GDP, is
US$439. These results imply that, for many developing countries,
environmental problems may worsen in the foreseeable future.
4. It has been suggested that trade openness could help in reducing

environmental pollution. However, there is no significant evidence
in the literature to support this proposition.
5. Many of the studies that have found a U-shaped relationship

between economic growth and the environment do not convincingly
explain how growth affects the environment. The empirical evidence
supporting the existence of an EKC relationship is not clear-cut.
This implies that the relationship between the environment and
development is too complex to be adequately represented by simple
economic models.
A general conclusion that can be reached is that developing countries will

not automatically grow out of their environmental problems. However,
economic growth is necessary for developing countries to make a dent in
their environmental problems. The fact that many countries' per capita
incomes are below the potential turning points supports the view that
restricting economic growth to save the environment may not be a socially
optimal decision. Progress towards the turning point could be boosted by a
combination of prudent economic policies and environmental regulations.
Some of the studies reviewed above indicate that institutional factors do
exert a significant influence on the relationship between income and
environmental degradation. Barbier ( 1997) argues that policies that aim to
improve the operation of markets are more likely to reduce the
'environmental price' of economic growth, thereby flattening out the
income-environment relationship and possibly achieving a lower turning
point. Such policies include the removal of distortionary subsidies,
introduction of more secure property rights over resources and
implementation of economic instruments to internalise externalities.
Barbier's argument is reinforced to some extent by Asafu-Adjaye (2003)
finding that improvement in economic freedoms (a proxy for the level of
institutional development) is associated with improvement in the numbers of

mammal and bird species threatened with extinction.
In addition to not providing avenues for economic agents to internalise
environmental costs, a poorly developed institutional framework also affects
the government's ability to monitor environmental degradation and/or
pollution which, in turn, retards the development of effective environmental
policies. In his EKC study of S02 emissions, Panayotou (1997) found that
improved policies and institutions in the form of more secure property rights,
better enforcement of contracts and effective environmental regulation could
assist in making the EKC flatter. For example, reductions in S02 emissions
in the Netherlands and West Germany have been brought about by tougher
environmental regulations requiring better end-of-pipe technology. Komen
and others' research indicates that increased public spending on
environmental research and development, while possibly leading to
environmental improvements, may also act as a catalyst for private
investment in cleaner technologies (Komen et al., 1997).
In the following sections, we look at policy responses to the
environmental degradation problem at the local/national and global levels.
10. 7.1 National and Local Level Policy Response

At the local and national levels, there are a variety of options for dealing
with the problem of environmental degradation. In Chapter 4, we discussed a
number of market-based instruments including standards, taxes, subsidies,
and marketable permits. In this section, we will take a brief look at another
set of options for tackling the pollution problem-voluntary incentives.
Most pollution policy instruments rely on coercion (e.g., fees or
penalties) or some form of financial incentives. As the name suggests
voluntary incentives rely on voluntarism and self-regulation. There are two
major categories of voluntary incentive mechanisms-voluntary
agreements and voluntary, incentive and community-assistance
programs.
Voluntary agreements
A voluntary agreement (VA) is basically a 'contract' between a government
agency and industry in which environmental goals and deadlines have been
negotiated and subsequently agreed upon by both parties (Barde, 1995;
Carraro and Sinisalco, 1996). In a VA, the industry is self-committed to
taking appropriate measures to meet these goals. In the event of non-

compliance there are no real sanctions, except that regulations and coercive
measures may be imposed at the end of the contract period. One important
feature of a V A is that although pollution levels may be fixed within a
geographical area, the industry is free to pursue the most cost-effective
measures to achieve the agreed objective. One advantage of VAs is that they
can be combined with regulatory requirements in two different ways: (i) they
can be implemented before any subsequent regulations; and (ii) they can
reinforce existing regulations that may be poorly enforced.
Like most other policy instruments there are arguments for and against
V As. For example, it has been argued that voluntary agreements reduce
government control over industry, or that they could encourage 'collusion'
between government and industry. In practical terms, voluntary agreements
may become difficult to manage when there are many sources requiring
regulations, and when pollution spillovers affect communities who are not
party to the voluntary agreement. However, on the positive side, voluntary
agreements are flexible, transparent and could provide incentives for
technological innovation.
Voluntary, incentive and community-assistance programs

Voluntary, incentive and community-assistance programs depend on the
commitment, enthusiasm and goodwill of local community groups to
undertake conservation projects. As the name suggests, this approach is
purely voluntary, although, in some cases, grants may be advanced to
facilitate the initiatives. This approach has been recommended as a
mechanism for conserving biodiversity on private property (OECD, 1996).
The main attraction of such programs is that they are non-interventionist in
nature and require minimal administrative costs. A disadvantage is that they
can be difficult to target and monitor without incurring high administrative
costs. These sorts of schemes work best in cases where the participants have
a genuine interest in the goal of the project.
10. 7.2 Global Policy Response

If the EKC relationship is true, then countries in early stages of development
will, as a result of lack of access to technology and capital, adopt industrial
processes that are polluting, or will mine their natural resources. In this
respect, it is self-serving for the rich nations to demand that the poorer
nations cut back on pollution or natural resource use. Therefore, it has been
proposed that the rich nations could compensate the poorer ones for forgoing
income from natural resource exploitation. In the case of global public goods
such as biodiversity resources, individuals and countries have no economic
incentive to invest in them. Thus, there is the need for more international
initiatives that assist the developing countries to improve the management of
their biodiversity resources. Various forms of transfer mechanisms have
been proposed including international financing of conservation projects
and debt-for-nature swaps.
International financing of conservation projects

A number of initiatives by which advanced countries can assist developing
countries to reduce environmental degradation have been proposed. These
include using savings from military expenditure made since the Cold war to
retire debt in developing countries and to fund conservation projects, and
flexible interest repayment terms on debt for sustainable development
projects. Another initiative already underway is the Global Environmental
Facility (GEF). The GEF was established by the World Bank and the United
Nations Environment Programme. The GEF aims to provide concessional
loans to developing countries for projects associated with protection of the
ozone layer, reduction of greenhouse emissions, protection of international
water resources, and protection ofbiodiversity
Specific projects that are eligible for assistance under the scheme include
development of alternative energy sources, afforestation, conservation of
tropical forests and investments to prevent oil spills and ocean pollution.
Although the scheme is a worthwhile one, some countries have complained
about inadequate funds. It would appear that the issue of financing the
recurrent expenditure for the fund has not been properly worked out.
Debt-for-nature swaps
The concept of debt-for-nature swaps has been proposed as a way of
assisting developing countries to protect their environment and at the same
time reduce their foreign debt. The idea originated from the concept of debt
conversion. After Mexico's 1982 financial crisis, it threatened to default on
its foreign debt. This threat forced international banks to accept the fact that
some debt-ridden countries were incapable of fully repaying their debts.
Consequently, banks began to minimise their risk by selling high-risk debts
to other banks at discounted values. Such debts became known as secondary
debts or loans, and soon a market for these loans began to develop. A typical
debt conversion consists of swapping secondary debt for equity in the debtor
country and offers a low-cost way of investing in a developing country. For
example, in 1986, Chrysler Motor Company bought off Mexico's foreign
debt with a face value of about US$1 08 million for US$65 million. In return,
the Mexican government provided about US$1 00 million in pesos for the
construction of a car manufacturing plant.
Debt-for-nature swaps71 operate along the same lines as debt-for-equity
swaps, except that, as the name suggests, the investments are targeted at
preserving the environment. For example, the US environmental lobby
group, Nature Conservancy bought about US$2.2 million of Brazil's foreign
debt for US$850,000. Most of the money has been paid into a fund to be
used to conserve a tropical rain forest in the country. The World Wildlife
Fund for Nature has been involved in debt-for-nature swaps in a number of
developing countries. By 1991, about 19 debt-for-nature swaps worth over
US$100 million had taken place. However, this amount is miniscule in
comparison to total developing country debt of over US$1.3 trillion in the
same period.
Although well intentioned, debt-for-nature swaps have been criticised on
a number of grounds. Some people are of the view that a good proportion of
foreign debt has been incurred by totalitarian or corrupt governments and
that using debt-for-nature swaps to retire such debt is tantamount to
legitimising illegal or immoral transactions. For example, it has been alleged
that the former president of the Philippines, the late Ferdinand Marcos,
incurred millions of dollars of national debt which were improperly used and
as such the people of the Philippines should not be held accountable for such
debts. Another argument against debt-for-nature swaps is that they interfere
with national sovereignty in the sense that they allow foreigners to dictate
how governments in developing countries should allocate their expenditures.
It has been alleged that some of the debt-for-nature swap projects are
designed more for research and exploitation of natural resources than for
conservation (Mahony, 1992).
The number and size of debt-for-nature swaps, to date, have been such
that none of these criticisms have been proven beyond doubt. Realistically, it
is unlikely that this approach will make any significant dent in Third World
debt. It would appear that the major benefit of these schemes is in raising
71
See Hansen (1989) for an overview.
awareness of sustainable development issues and making some contribution

towards the achievement of that goal.
10.8 Summary
This chapter has tackled the complex subject of the relationship between
trade and the environment. After describing some general trends in economic
and environmental indicators in the last few years, the discussion focussed
on various dimensions of the trade-environment relationship, resulting in a
set of policy recommendations on trade and the environment. The discussion
of the trends suggested that increase in population will increase the demand
for food, clothing and shelter. The consumption of resources such as energy
will continue to escalate because energy is a major input in industrial
production. Energy use was found to be highly correlated with economic
growth and social indicators such as infant mortality and life expectancy,
implying that energy is vital for development. However, to achieve
sustainable development, there is a need to develop alternatives forms of
energy (e.g., renewable energy).
A considerable part of the discussion centered on the relationship
between trade and the environment at different stages of development or
income. At issue was the environmental Kuznets U-curve hypothesis which
stipulates that, as the per capita income of a country increases,
environmental degradation will initially increase, but then will eventually
decline once a maximum level has been reached. The maximum level of
income at which degradation begins to decline is referred to as the turning
point. A review of empirical studies revealed that there is mixed support for
the EKC hypothesis. The EKC relationship appears to hold for some
indicators such as SOz, deforestation and SPM. In the case of C02, all the
studies indicate that it increases with income, and has no turning point. Also,
the EKC has been shown not to hold for biodiversity. Another important
observation about the EKC is that in some cases where turning points have
been observed, the turning point is much higher than per capita incomes of
the countries involved.
In conclusion, much still remains to be accomplished in explaining why
EKCs arise. In the mean time, it is clear that countries will not automatically
'grow' out of their environmental problems. The role of institutions in
countries that have obtained low levels of environmental pollution was
found to be significant. Policy responses to environmental degradation were

discussed, with emphasis on voluntary incentive mechanisms. In general,
these approaches could offer a cost-effective and flexible means of reducing
local and global pollution.

biodiversity index of economic freedom
biodiversity indicators island biogeography theory
black market exchange rate premium marginal rate of transformation
comparative advantage overlapping-generations model
debt conversion political economy model
debt-for-nature swaps production possibilities frontier
environmental Kuznets curve production/consumption model of
environmental quality pollution
environmental transition hypothesis voluntary agreements
turning point voluntary incentives
Review Questions
1. Describe what happens as natural resources are depleted.
2. Explain why energy use is positively related to a social indicator such as

life expectancy.
3. Explain the theory of comparative advantage.
4. Explain the term 'turning point' which is commonly associated with the
EKC hypothesis.
5. Briefly outline two theories that attempt to explain the EKC hypothesis.
6. State the advantages and disadvantages of a voluntary incentive scheme

such as a voluntary agreement.
7. What are some of the factors that affect the EKC relationship?
Exercises
1. Are the conclusions of the theory of comparative advantage valid when
there are environmental externalities associated with increased trade?
Give practical examples to support your answer.
2. Select two EKC studies from the reference list. Read the full-length
articles and provide critical summaries.
3. Critically assess the merits and demerits of debt-for-nature swaps.
4. Give possible reasons why a U-curve relationship may not necessarily

mean that environmental pollution will decrease.
5. Discuss the possible effects of increased trade on biodiversity resources.
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Selden, T.M. and Song, D. (1994). Environmental Quality and Development: Is

There a Kuznets Curve for Air Pollution Emissions? Journal of Environmental
Economics and Management, 27: 147-162.
Shafik, N. and. Bandyopadhyay, S. (1992). Economic Growth and Environmental

Quality: Time Series and Cross Country Evidence. Background Paper for World
Development Report, WPS, The World Bank, Washington D.C.
Solomon, A. (1990). Towards Ecological Sustainability in Europe: Climate, Water

Resources, Soils and Biota. IISA RR-90-6, Laxenburg, Austria.
Stem, D.I. and M.S. Common (2001). Is there an Environmental Kuznets Curve for
Sulphur? Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, 41: 162-178.
Suri, V. and Chaprnan, D. (1998). Economic Growth, Trade and Energy:

Implications for the Environmental Kuznets Curve. Ecological Economics,
May, 195-208.
Temura, A.H., Sullivan, J.H. and Ziska, L.H. (1990) Interaction of Elevated UV-B
Radiation and Carbon Dioxide on Productivity and Photosynthetic
Characteristics in Wheat, Rice, and Soybean. Plant Physiology, 94: 470-475.
Unruh,G.C. and Moornaw, W.R. (1997). An Alternative Analysis of Apparent EKC-

Type Transitions. Ecological Economics, special issue on EKC.
Wackemagel et al. (1997). Ecological Footprints of Nations: How Much Nature do

They Use? How Much Nature Do They Have? The Earth Council, San Jose,
Costa Rica, 10 March.
Wilson, E.O. (1992). The Diversity of Life. Harvard University Press, Cambridge,
MA.
World Bank (2003). World Development Indicators 2003. CD-ROM Version. World
Bank, Washington, D.C.
World Bank (1999). World Development Indicators 1999. CD-ROM version,

Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1999.
World Bank (1992). World Development Report 1992: Development and the
Environment. Oxford University Press, New York.
World Commission on Environment and Development, WCED. (1987). Our

Common Future. Oxford University Press, New York and Oxford.
World Resources Institute, WRI. (1999). World Resources 1999-2000. Oxford

University Press, New York.
World Resources Institute, WRI. ( 1990). World Resources 1990-1991. Oxford

University Press, New York.
Appendix 10.1 List of Countries for Study in Section 10.6

USA Mauritius Iran Australia
Switzerland Portugal Brazil Guatemala
Singapore Greece Poland Sri Lanka
Norway Korea Tunisia China
Kuwait Chile South Africa Philippines
Denmark Guinea-Bissau Jamaica El Salvador
Japan Malaysia Bulgaria Papua New
Guinea Dominican Republic Mexico Ukraine
Panama Iceland Nicaragua Indonesia
Canada Oman Ecuador Cameroon
Belgium Argentina Romania Pakistan
Austria Venezuela Estonia Ghana
France Thailand Namibia Honduras
Italy Uruguay Lithuania Senegal
Germany Hungary Paraguay Benin
Netherlands Colombia Gabon Uganda
Sweden Fiji Egypt Kenya
United Kingdom Costa Rica Morocco India
Finland Syria Peru Congo
Ireland Belize Latvia Mali
New Zealand Algeria Cote d'Ivoire Madagascar
Spain Turkey Trinidad and Tobago Nigeria
Bangladesh Burundi Sierra Leone Rwanda
Nepal Togo Chad Zambia
Malawi Niger Central African
Republic
11. Sustainable Development
Objectives
l:l explain the various definitions of sustainable development and

'sustainability';
l:l describe ways of measuring sustainable development;
CJ describe ways of incorporating elements of sustainability into economic

decision-making; and
l:l enumerate difficulties associated with implementing sustainable

development policies.
11.1 Introduction
The publication that many would agree has set the environmental agenda for
the past decade and the future is the report, Our Common Future (WCED,
1987), which served as the background for the historic Earth Summit. The
Earth Summit raised hopes and expectations about achieving sustainable
development. Through Agenda 21 (see Box 11.1) and other important
documents such as the Rio Declaration and the Statement of Principles for
the Sustainable Management of Forests, a comprehensive environment and
development agenda was drawn up for the 21st century. Unfortunately,
within the past decade, progress in these areas has not matched the
expectations. In many countries around the world, poverty has increased and
environmental degradation has continued at an alarming pace. The World
301
Box 11.1 Agenda 21
Agenda 21 is an 800-page agreement consisting of 120 action programs

covering nearly every aspect of all human activities that impact on the
natural environment. Agenda 21 urges nations to:
" ... harmonise the various sectoral economic, social and

environmental policies and plans that are operating in the
country .... to ensure socially responsible economic development
while protecting the resource base and environment for the benefit
of future generations .... [National strategies] should be developed
through the widest possible participation" (United Nations
1992:67).
The cost of the package is estimated at US$600 billion per annum for
developing countries. The advanced countries are supposed to provide an
extra US$125 billion in funding by the year 2000.
Agenda 21 comprises four basic dimensions, namely:
Social and economic dimensions
Conservation and management of natural resources for
development
Strengthening the role of major groups, and
Means of implementation
It can be seen from the above that the diversity of the dimensions covered
reflects the complexity of sustainable development.
Agenda 21 is a broad statement of principles and is not legally binding.
Although it is a morally compelling document, it is not mandatory and the
signatories can opt out if they choose to. Perhaps the greatest constraint
facing the implementation of Agenda 21 is lack of financial resources.
There is the danger that some countries will be selective about which
aspects they implement depending on their budgetary positions. It is
conceivable that the countries that are in urgent need of sustainable
development may be the least able to afford it.
Source: United Nations (1992).

Sustainable Development 303
Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD), which was held in

Johannesburg, South Africa in August/September 2002, sought to overcome
the obstacles to achieving SD. The WSSD, among other things, affirmed
commitment to Agenda 21 and resolved to strengthen the concept of SD and
the important linkages between poverty, the environment and the use of
natural resources. Several priority areas were identified under the acronym
WEHAB, which stands for water and sanitation, energy, health, agriculture,
and biodiversity protection and ecosystem management.
It is often said that 'beauty lies in the eyes of the beholder', and the same
can be said of sustainable development. Sustainable development (or
sustainability) has been defined in several different ways. In order to make
progress towards SD, it is important to clarify what the term means. This
chapter canvasses a number of definitions of SD from various perspectives
and then goes on to discuss the conditions for sustainable development by
introducing the concepts of 'weak' and 'strong' sustainability and their
implications for SD. This is followed by an outline of various indicators for
assessing progress towards SD. The chapter concludes with a brief
discussion of how to operationalise SD.
11.2 What is Sustainable Development?

According to Mustafa Tolba, sustainable development has become an article
of faith, a 'shibboleth', often used but little explained (Tolba, 1987). Does it
amount to a strategy? Does it apply only to renewable resources? What does
the term actually mean? 'Sustainable development', 'sustainable economic
development', or 'ecologically sustainable development' can be given
various definitions depending on one's environmental ideology. In this
discussion, we make a distinction between economic 'growth' and
'development'. The former can be characterised by increase in the level
economic indicators such as GNP per capita, whereas the latter is a broader
concept involving quality of life indicators (e.g., educational and health
status). In this discussion, we consider briefly the meaning of SD from
various perspectives including 'neoclassical' economics, ecology, sociology,
intergenerational equity and materials balance. 72
72
In a review of sustainable development, the environmental economist John Pezzey counted
over sixty different definitions (Pezzey, 1989a).
11.2.1 The Neoclassical Economics Definition

Traditional 'neoclassical' economics supposes that economic growth is
maximised when all opportunities to increase the efficiency of resource use
have been exhausted. In this approach, SD can be defined as the
maintenance of a constant per capita consumption across all generations
(Solow, 1956) or the maintenance of non-declining per capita income over
the indefinite future (Pezzey 1989b). In this approach, no distinction is made
between natural capital and man-made capital. It is assumed that natural,
physical and human capital can be substituted for each other to a high
degree. Furthermore, this definition ignores changes in natural capital stocks
and environmental quality. This definition, in effect, equates SD with
sustainable economic growth. However, increase in economic growth does
not necessarily imply that well-being is increasing over time.
11.2.2 The Ecologists' Perspective

From the ecological perspective, the quality of life depends on
environmental quality. Therefore, retaining ecological integrity and the
assimilative capacity of the natural environment is crucial for the functioning
of the economic system.
There have been a number of ecological definitions of SD. These include
the following:
Ecologically sustainable development is a condition in which

society's use of renewable resources takes place without destruction
of the resources or the environmental context which they require
(Solomon, 1990).
Ecologically sustainable development means using, conserving and

enhancing the community's resources so that ecological processes, on
which life depends, are maintained, and the total quality of life, now
and in the future, can be increased (Government of Australia, 1992).
A system that is healthy and free from 'distress syndrome ' if it is

stable and sustainable, that is, if it is active and maintains its
structure (organization) function (vigor) and autonomy over time
and is resilient to stress (Costanza, 1994).
A common thread of the ecologists' definition is that a decline in

environmental quality has an adverse impact on the welfare of the society.
Therefore development can only be sustained by maintaining (or increasing)
net wealth, environmental quality, and the stock of renewable resources.
11.2.3 The Sociologists' Perspective

From the sociologists' viewpoint, the key actors on the economic-
environmental system are human beings. Human beings' patterns of
organisation are important for developing viable solutions to SD. From this
perspective, failure to devote attention to social factors in the development
process will seriously hamper the progress of programs and policies aimed at
achieving SD.
11.2.4 The Intergenerational and Intragenerational Equity

Perspectives
The intergenerational equity perspective is more restrictive than the previous
definitions. It suggests that the rate at which natural resources are being
exploited is too fast and works against the interests of the unborn. As such,
sustainable development is defined as the maintenance of non-declining per
capita income over the indefinite future (the neoclassical definition) and
maintaining the stock of renewable resources (ecological definition) with the
added proviso that the net value of the stock of non-renewable resources
must also be non-declining. According to this view, if the above conditions
are met, our quality of life will not only be maintained but also future
generations will have an undiminished or even enhanced stock of natural
resources and other assets. It is also consistent with intra-generational equity
since it is argued that non-declining natural capital implies that per capita
utility or well-being is also being maintained.
11.2.5 The Materials Balance Approach

The materials balance approach to SD is derived from the First and Second
Laws of Thermodynamics, which recognise physical and ecological
constraints to economic activity (Chapter 2). The First Law of
Thermodynamics states that energy cannot be created or destroyed. This
implies that, although the form of energy may change, the total amount of
energy in the system remains constant. The Second Law of Thermodynamics
states that entropy always increases. A major implication of the First Law for
SD is that any raw material inputs used in the production and consumption
process must eventually be returned to the environment as high-entropy
waste products or pollutants. Recycling can help to reduce the amount of
waste, to some extent, although recycling cannot be 100 percent effective.
The Second Law implies that economic processes (i.e., production and
consumption) are time irreversible in the sense that waste material cannot be
fully converted to useful energy.
The materials balance approach basically raises doubt about human
kind's ability to indefinitely extract more energy and materials from the
world's ecosystem. The materials balance approach therefore disputes the
neoclassical assumption that income growth leads to increase in human
satisfaction. In this respect, the concept of the materials balance approach is
similar to the ecologists' concept of SD.
11.2.6 The Biogeophysical Perspective

Sustainable development has also been defined on a biophysical dimension.
According to Mohan Munasinghe and Waiter Shearer, biogeophysical
sustainability is the maintenance and/or improvement of the integrity of the
life-support system on Earth. Sustaining the biosphere with adequate
provisions for maximizing future options includes providing for human
economic and social improvement for current and future human generations
within a framework of cultural diversity while: (a) making adequate
provisions for the maintenance of biological diversity and (b) maintaining
the biogeochemical integrity of the biosphere by conservation and proper use
of its air, water and land resources (Munasinghe and Shearer, 1995).
11.2. 7 The IUCN-World Conservation Union Definition

The International Union of Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources
(IUCN) defines SD as the maintenance of essential ecological processes and
life support systems, the preservation of genetic diversity, and the
sustainable utilization of species and ecosystems (IUCN, 1980). Their
approach has an anthropocentric focus because it places emphasis on
achieving a quality of life (or standard of living) that can be maintained for
many generations. Sustainability is described in terms of fulfilling people's
cultural, material, and spiritual needs in equitable ways.
11.2.8 The World Commission on Environment and Development's

Definition
It appears that in defining sustainable development, the World Commission
on Environment and Development (WCED) took into consideration all the
above perspectives, in recognition of the fact that SD is a multifaceted
concept. The WCED (or the Brundtland Commission) defined sustainable
development as 'development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs'
(WCED, 1987:43).
11.2.9 Other Definitions

Various writers on the subject have put forth variants of the WCED
definition. Pearce et al. (1989) have offered the following interpretation of
SD:
Sustainable development involves a substantially increased emphasis

on the value of natural, built and cultural environments... sustainable
development places emphasis on providing the needs of the least
advantaged in society ('intragenerational equity'), and on the fair
treatment of future generations ( 'intergenerational equity') (Pearce
et al., 1989).
R. Kerry Turner also described SD as follows:
Sustainable development involves maximising the net benefits of

economic development subject to maintaining the services and
quality of natural resources over time (Turner, 1988).
Maurice Strong, defined SD as:
Sustainable development involves a process of deep and profound

change in the political, social, economic, institutional, and
technological order, including redefinition of relations between
developing and more developed countries (Strong, 1992).
Robert Solow has described 'sustainability' in quite different terms, referring

to it as the 'duty' of humanity to future generations. According to him,
The duty imposed by sustainability is to bequeath to posterity not any

particular thing ... but rather to endow them with whatever it takes to
achieve a standard of living at least as good as our own and to look
after the next generation similarly (Solow, 1992).
Similar definitions of sustainability in terms of intragenerational equity have

been expressed by Toman (1992) and Redclift (1993). This conception of
'justice' or 'fairness' dates back to Aristotle who stated that justice of
exchange has to be orientated towards equality. That is, one may not give
less than what one has received. In that sense, an economy can be described
as 'sustainable' if it allows future generations to have no less than what the
current generation receives.
From the foregoing discussion, it can be seen that the pure neoclassical
definition of SD can be rejected because 'development' or welfare involves
more than mere increases in income (e.g., Gross National Product) over
time. However, the role of economic growth in achieving SD must not be
discounted. The WCED emphasised 'the essential needs of the world's poor,
to which overriding priority should be given'. This statement implies that the
aim of SD should be to enhance ordinary people's living standards, with
particular attention to the less fortunate in society. The catch, however, is
that to improve the lot of the poor, the economy needs to grow in order to
generate the funds needed for poverty alleviation. In fact, the WCED itself
projected that, in order for SD to take place, the economies of the developing
world must grow at rates in the order of at least 3 percent per annum. Thus,
we may conclude that economic growth is a necessary but not sufficient
condition for sustainable development.
Today, many developing countries are caught in a vicious circle. In order
to develop, they must grow. However, for most countries such growth entails
exploiting their scarce natural resources, which, in turn, may pose risks to
the environment. Many developing countries are saddled with huge external
debts and many have chosen to use their natural resources to improve per
capita incomes or to pay off their debts.
11.3 Conditions for Sustainable Development

From the foregoing discussion, it is important, for purposes of implementing
strategies towards SD, to further investigate the conditions that are necessary
to promote SD. Pearce et al. (1994) have proposed two conditions for
sustainable development: weak sustainability and strong sustainability.
Weak sustainability assumes that there can be perfect substitution
between physical, natural and human capital. For example, the depletion of
natural capital in the current period can be offset by increases in physical or
human capital (the neoclassical economics definition). Sustainable
development can be achieved as long as the stocks of capital available to
future generations are at least equal to the stocks available to the current
generation. That is, so long as there is a constant aggregate capital stock.
Strong sustainability, on the other hand, is much more restrictive. It assumes
that not all natural capital stock can be substituted for man-made capital
stock. For example, some ecosystem functions that are essential for the
maintenance of living creatures cannot be replicated by human beings and
the ozone layer cannot be recreated. Strong sustainability also implies that
we have to preserve environmental assets for the future because of our
limited understanding of their life-supporting functions.
The concept of strong sustainability is implicit in both the Brundtland
Report and the World Conservation Strategy. According to the Brundtland
Report, 'if needs are to be met on a sustainable basis the Earth's natural
resource base must be conserved and enhanced' (WCED, 1987:57). The
World Conservation Strategy makes references to maintaining 'essential
ecological processes and life support systems' and 'sustainable utilisation of
species and ecosystems' (IUCN, 1980: 1).
Georgescu-Roegen (1971, 1979) has proposed the concept of resilience
as a condition for SD. This requires the maintenance of a system within its
thresholds of healthy and productive operation. The resilience perspective is
based on an interdisciplinary understanding of the operation of ecological,
environmental and social systems.
11.3.1 A Working Definition for Sustainable Development

From the foregoing discussion, it can be seen that the pure neoclassical
definition of SD can be rejected because 'development' does not necessarily
equate to 'economic growth (i.e. increases in per capita income). However,
the role of economic growth in achieving SD must not be discounted. It has
been estimated that the rate of economic growth necessary to keep the
numbers of the poor from increasing is between 3-5 percent per annum. That
is, in order to arrest the increase in poverty, the economy must grow at rates
in excess of population growth rates. Economic growth is required to
generate income to pay for the development process. A recurring theme in

the above definitions is that SD involves improving the quality of life and
maintaining environmentally responsible policies and practices. Improving
the quality of life involves reducing poverty (which indirectly relieves
pressures on the environment), improving health and nutritional status,
improving education, and improving equity. To improve equity, policies
must be developed to improve access to resources and achieve a 'fairer'
distribution of income. To conserve environmental resources, there is a need
to manage our natural resources wisely and to lower the intensity of resource
use in order to leave future generations an unlimited (or even enhanced)
stock of natural resources and other assets. A crucial element in the drive to
improve the quality of life and the management of our natural resources is
73
the reform of our institutions. The role of institutions in achieving SD is
discussed further below.
11.4 Measuring Sustainable Development

In this section we consider the issues of how to measure SD and translate it
into action. We begin with the traditional measures of welfare or well-being,
GDP and GNP. After a critique of these measures, we proceed to consider
alternative measures of welfare.
11.4.1 Traditional Measures of Welfare

The current system of compiling national accounts, the UN's System of
National Accounts (SNA) uses GDP and GNP as measures of welfare. Gross
Domestic Product is the value of final goods and services produced in the
domestic economy, whereas GNP is the value of goods and services
produced in the domestic economy plus overseas income other than for
exports. For aid purposes, the World Bank has divided countries into low,
74
middle and upper income using income cut-offs based on these measures.
Measures such as GDP and GNP may provide a biased or overstated view of
human welfare because they do not consider depreciation of the natural
73
The 2003 World Development Report defines institutions as the rules and organisations,
including informal norms that coordinate human behaviour.
74
The per capita GNP cut-offs are: high income (US$9,266), middle income (US$756-9,265),
and low income (US$755 or less).
capital stock as a result of economic exploitation and environmental

degradation (see Box 11.2). GDP is calculated on the basis of the value of
goods and services produced in the economy, and thus it will indicate an
increase (i.e., an improvement in 'welfare') even when our stock of natural
capital is being depleted and we have to expend more effort to extract lower
grade resources. One anomalous property of GDP (or GNP) is that it will
increase even when the quality of the environment is reduced by pollution.
This is because it ignores degradation of environmental quality and effects
on human health and welfare. Thus, for example, increase in the
consumption of potentially health-threatening goods such as alcohol,
cigarettes and fatty foods will appear as an increase in GDP, although they
may even decrease individuals' welfare and impose a heavy burden on the
national health budget. GNP increases when expenditures are made on
pollution abatement. This is another distortion because environmental
protection expenditures may actually be social costs of maintaining
environmental quality (i.e. defensive expenditures). Other objections to the
use of GDP (or GNP) as a measure of welfare include the following:
It is an average measure that does not consider how income or

wealth is distributed within the population. A country may have a
high GDP per capita and be classified as 'rich' and yet there may be
a high proportion of people who are deprived.
It ignores changes in population and the productivity of human
capital.
It is a 'flow' concept (measures the flows of goods and services) and
does not say anything about the stocks of natural resources. Thus it
does not provide an adequate guide about how resources are being
managed.
It only accounts for transactions that occur in the market place and
does not adequately consider subsistence production of peasants,
housework (e.g., home cooking and gardening) and the work of
voluntary or charitable organizations, and
It does not discriminate between different types of goods. In
resource dependent economies, GDP/GNP can provide an erroneous
picture of welfare and economic progress (see Box 11.2). Therefore,
any long term development plans based on such statistics may not be
environmentally sound or sustainable.
Box 11.2 The Indonesian Case Study
David Repetto and others at the World Resources Institute in

Washington, D.C., undertook a study to adjust the national accounts of
Indonesia for environmental effects in 1990 (Repetto et al. 1989).
Indonesia's natural resources consist of: oil, gas, minerals, timber and
forest products. Together, these resources account for 44 percent of GDP,
84 percent of exports, and 55 percent of total employment.
Economic progress over the period of the study, 1970 to 1990, has
been considered very good. For example, GDP per capita grew at 4.6
percent per annum between 1965 and 1986. This is quite high in relation
to that of low-income and middle-income countries. Repetto et al. (1989)
adjusted Indonesia's national accounts for for the period 1971-1983 by
subtracting from GDP estimates of net national resource depreciation for
only three sectors: petroleum, timber and soils, to arrive at an estimate of
net domestic product (NDP).
The results clearly indicated that official GDP estimates overstated
net income and growth of net income. The actual overstatement was
higher since only three natural resources (petroleum, timber and soils)
were considered. Items not included were: (i) exhaustible resources -
natural gas, coal, tin, nickel and (ii) depreciation of renewable resources
(e.g., fisheries and non-timber forest products).
Source: Repetto et al. (1989).
11.4.2 Alternative Measures of Welfare

Within the last decade alternative measures of welfare have been developed
to rectify the deficiencies of GDP/GNP measures in order to provide
a better guide of progress towards SD. From the definitions given in the
previous section, it can be seen that it would be almost impossible to provide
a single indicator that will capture the concept of SD. In this section, we will
consider SD indicators under the broad categories of economic, ecological
and sociopolitical. The economic indicators include Environmentally
Adjusted Domestic Product (Green Accounting) and Genuine Saving.
The sociopolitical indicators include the Index of Sustainable Economic
Welfare, the Genuine Progress Indicator, and the Human Development
Index. The ecological measures include Net Primary Productivity and
Carrying Capacity, Ecological Footprints, and Environmental Space. We

begin the discussion with the economic indicators.
Economic Indicators: Environmentally Adjusted Product and Income

(Green Accounting)
The environmentally adjusted net domestic product, referred to as 'Eco
Domestic Product' (EDP) and national income (ENI) is a result of the United
Nations Statistical Office (UNSO) effort's to develop a new framework for
integrated environmental and economic accounting, referred to as the
integrated System of Environmental and Economic Accounts (SEEA)
(Bartelmus et al., 1992). Details of the SEEA are given in next chapter. The
EDP is obtained by adjusting the national accounts for changes in the quality
of the natural environment and the depletion of natural resources.
Measures of EDP can be used to assess progress towards SD in the
following ways:
It can be used to indicate whether economic growth is

sustainable and whether there are structural distortions in the
economy by following environmentally unsound production
and consumption patterns.
For example, let C = total consumption expenditure; then

C/EDP computed from the SEEA could be used as an
indicator to indicate non-sustainable growth patterns. If
CIEDP > 1, then it can be implied that the country is running
down its natural capital base and therefore growth is not
sustainable. On the other hand, C/EDP < 1 implies that the
capital stock is being left intact or enhanced.
A high rate of depletion of natural resources would appear in

the accounts as a low rate of capital accumulation, indicating
environmentally unsound production and consumption
patterns.
Economic Indicators: Genuine (Extended) Saving

The concept of Genuine (or Extended) Saving (GS) is a new measure of
sustainability. A country's wealth can be defined in terms of the value of a
whole range of assets including the value of physical, natural and human
capital. Genuine Saving measures the change in the total value of the three
components of resources in the economy over a given period of time, usually
a year. GS helps to track the sustainability of the economy by incorporating
the effects of natural capital depletion into the standard flow of savings and
income. For example, GS falls when the extraction or depletion of natural
resources is not balanced by an offsetting re-investment in natural, physical
or human capital. Further discussion of GS can be found in the next chapter.
Sociopolitical Indicators: Index of Sustainable Economic Welfare

The index of sustainable economic welfare (ISEW) was proposed by Daly
and Cobb (1989) as an alternative measure of welfare changes and a better
indication of economic progress than GDP/GNP. The computation of ISEW
normally begins with compuation of personal consumption expenditures
which are weighted with an index of income inequality. Then, certain
welfare-relevant contributions such as services of hosuehold labour and the
services of streets and highways are added. On the other hand, certain
welfare-relevant losses such as 'defensive expenditures', costs of
environmental pollution, costs of depletion of non-renewable resources, and
long-term environmental damage are subtracted from the estimates. The
ISEW can be expressed in equation form as
ISEW =C + P + G + W- D-E-N (11.1)
where: C = weighted consumer expenditure; P = non-defensive public

expenditures; G = growth in capital and net change in international position;
W = estimate of non-monetarised contributions to welfare; D = defensive
expenditures; E = costs of environmental degradation; and N = depreciation
of natural capital.
The ISEW is expressed in monetary units and a rising value would imply
that the economy is becoming more sustainable. On the other hand, a falling
value would indicate an unsustainable path.
Sociopolitical Indicators: Genuine Progress Indicator

The Genuine Progress Indicator (GPI) was proposed by Cobb et al. (1995).
The GPI is an extension of the ISEW and aims to provide an indicator that
more accurately reflects the health of the economy. The difference between
the GPI and the ISEW is that the GPI excludes both public and private
defensive expenditures on health and education, includes deductions of cost
estimates for loss of leisure time, unemployment, but excludes loss of

forests. As with the ISEW, a rising GPI indicates that an economy is heading
towards a sustainable path, while a falling GPI indicates the opposite.
The major criticism of both the GPI and ISEW is that they involve a
series of ad hoc adjustments. Also, like the EDP, they are based on current
flows rather than stocks and thus they do not really address the maintenance
of capacity, which, it has been argued, is at the heart of the concept of
sustainability.
Sociopolitical Indicators: Human Development Index

Human development is about much more than the rise or fall of national
incomes. Thus, relying on GDP/GNP will give a narrow view of economic
development because it focuses only on income. The UN has developed an
alternative measure, the HDI, which measures a country's achievements in
three aspects of human development: longevity, knowledge, and a decent
standard of living. Longevity is measured by life expectancy at birth;
knowledge is measured by a combination of the adult literacy rate and the
combined gross primary, secondary, and tertiary enrolment ratio; and
standard of living is measured by GDP per capita (PPP US$). As a rough
index of development, non-declining HDI over time would indicate a
sustainable human development path. However, because the HDI considers
only the educational and health status of the population, it too provides a
limited view of development.
Ecological Indicators: Net Primary Productivity and Carrying Capacity

Net Primary Productivity (NPP) (Vitousek et al., 1986) is a measure of the
total available food resource for a system. NPP is derived from the
ecological notion of carrying capacity (K), which is defined as the maximum
population size that a given area can support without diminishing its ability
to support the species in future periods. Vitousek et al. (1986) have linked
NPP to K at the global level and have concluded that world NPP would not
be able to support predicted increases in world per capita consumption rates.
The NPP/K ratio for any given country can thus be interpreted as indicating
how close or how far from its carrying capacity that country is. Thus, for
example, NPPIK= 1 indicates a sustainable population level, given current
food requirements or food consumption.
The main criticism of the NPP/K indicator of SD is that it only considers
the relationship between consumption and biological production. However,
at a sub-global level, consumption can exceed natural productivity through

imports. It also ignores the fact that natural productivity can be enhanced
through the use of man-made capital and non-renewable natural resource
inputs.
Ecological Indicators: Ecological Footprints

The concept of ecological footprints was developed by Wackernagel and
Rees (Rees and Wackernagel, 1994; Wackernagel and Rees, 1996). It is a
land-based measure of SD, which compares human demands in a given
country, in terms of consumption, with the extent to which those demands
can be met from the land area in that country. Energy, food and timber
consumption per capita are expressed in terms of the land areas needed to
produce these amounts. This is similar to the NPP/K indicator discussed
above. A given country's 'footprint' is then calculated in relation to the
available land area (excluding unproductive land). In this approach, a
positive footprint (also referred to as an 'ecological deficit') could mean that
the country's natural capital is being depleted, or alternatively, it could mean
that it is imposing part of its footprint on other countries via imports. The
ecological footprint concept assumes that the only sustainable form of
energy is that derived from renewable resources.
The main criticism of the ecological footprints measure is that it is not a
predictive measure. That is, given the value of this year's measure, we are
not able to predict whether next year's measure will be higher or lower.
However, this deficiency is also true of other measures such as EDP,
Genuine Saving, ISEW and GPI.
Ecological Indicators: Environmental Space

The concept of Environmental Space is concerned with the fairness of
resource use in any given country relative to world average use of that
resource. The environmental space approach involves comparing global
average use of a given resource (in per capita terms) with national
consumption (also in per capita terms). Selected resources often include non-
renewable resources, arable land, forestry, and water resources. Pollutants
are included in the measure by specifying an upper limit on assimilative
capacity. For example, in a study involving C02, Friends of the Earth (1995)
found average per capita emissions in Europe to be 7.3 tonnes compared to a
predicted per capita maximum of 1.7 tonnes per annum, allowing for an
estimated world population of about 7.19 billion people by 2010.
11.5 Operationalising the Concept of Sustainable

Development
Although there are many definitions of SD, practical measures to translate
them into specific plans are in short supply. What is required is a suitable
framework that will enable plans and policies to be tested to see whether
they are economically, ecologically, and socially sustainable prior to
implementation. One such approach is the environmentally sustainable
development (ESD) triangular framework (Serageldin and Steer, 1994). The
triangular approach may be explained with the aid of Figure 11.1. The figure
shows the links between the environment, the economy and the society and
draws attention to the need to strike a balance between the three components
in order to achieve SD. Thus, for example, a proposal first has to be
economically and financially sustainable in terms of enhancing growth and
making efficient use of scarce resources. Secondly, it must be ecologically
sustainable. This can be determined in terms of its impacts in terms of
ecosystem integrity, carrying capacity and conservation of natural resources
including biodiversity. Finally, it must be sustainable in terms of certain
social criteria. These include equity, social mobility, social cohesion,
participation, empowerment, cultural identity, and institutional development.
As has been shown, the social dimension is important for achieving SD.
Neglect of the social dimension will lead to a collapse of institutions,
increase social disorder and negatively impact on the environment.
How can we ensure that the triple objectives of economic, ecological and
social integrity of plans, programs and policies are met? This could be done
in a number of steps. The first step would be to develop a system of
environmental and social indicators that could be used in decision-making
processes. This issue has been briefly discussed above and is dealt with in
more detail in the following chapter (Green Accounting and the
Measurement of Genuine Saving). The next step would be to develop new
ways, or modify existing approaches, for incorporating this information into
economic decision-making processes. In this section, we consider
modifications to cost-benefit analysis to incorporate environmental effects.
The third step would be to restructure institutions to provide the correct
signals for sustainable resource use and to achieve distributional goals. This
could be achieved by implementing market-based incentive mechanisms
correcting for any incidence of policy failure.
Figure 11.1 The Environmentally Sustainable Development Triangle
Economic
-sustainable growth
- capital efficiency
Social Ecological
- equity -ecosystem integrity
- social mobility -natural resources
- participation -biodiversity
- empowerment -carrying capacity
Source: adapted from Serageldin and Steer (1994:2).
11. 5.1 Establishing a New System of Economic Analysis

The way in which government agencies appraise investment projects is
crucial in efforts to achieve SD. Using the traditional cost-benefit technique,
a project is potentially acceptable if benefits minus costs, suitably
discounted, are greater than zero. Environmental costs are usually excluded
from this analysis. There is a need to modifY this procedure to ensure that
costs include any environmental damage, and benefits include any
environmental gains from the project.
A modification to the project selection criterion in social CBA is to
select a project if:
NPV _,t~_,I~-----> Q ( 11.2)

(1 + r)t
where: E = net environmental benefits

B = total commercial benefits
C = total costs
r = social discount rate
It is to be noted that E (net environmental benefits) is to be treated as an

opportunity cost, i.e., forgone benefits, and subtracted from the commercial
benefits. 75 Recall that in Chapter 5, we defined total economic value (TEV)
as:
TEV = TUV + TNlN (11.3)
where: TUV = total use value

TNlN = total non-use or passive use value
Equation ( 11.2) can be substituted into Equation ( 11.1) and the decision rule
becomes:
NPV = ....!.1 ~::.!1---------- >0 (11.4)

(l+r)t
When applied to a portfolio of projects, Equation (11.1) may be regarded as

a weak sustainability rule because it implies that the discounted present
value of net benefits across all projects must be positive. However, there
could also be a strong sustainability rule. Such a rule would say that net
environmental costs across all projects must be positive in every time period.
The Safe Minimum Standard of Preservation

In many resource allocation decisions the choice is often between preserving
a given natural environment or destroying it in order to undertake some form
of development. The American economist, S.V. Ciriacy-Wantrup defined the
safe minimum standard of preservation (SMS) as the minimum critical
mass required for species preservation (Ciriacy-Wantrup, 1968; Bishop,
1978). In other words, the SMS is a level of conservation that is high enough
to reduce the probability of extinction or irreversible loss of a species to a
low level. This concept provides a decision rule for choosing between
preservation and conservation. It is known as the 'Sustainability Approach',
and can be stated as follows:
75
In some cases E could be a benefit in which case it should be added to commercial benefits.
Avoid irreversible environmental damage unless the

social cost of doing so is unacceptably large.
Box 11.3 Evaluating the Gordon River Hydroelectric Proposal, Tasmania
H. Saddler and others from the Australian National University evaluated

two options for electricity development on the Gordon River in Tasmania
in 1980. The options were between coal and hydroelectric power. The
former was more expensive. However, the latter involved flooding the
Gordon River and destroying a vast wilderness area. Although they did not
estimate preservation benefits directly, they estimated that if preservation
benefits were to be A$725 ,000 in the first year, then the present value of
preservation benefits will exceed the difference in costs between the two
options. The authors leave the judgement to the decision-maker. In the
end, the Gordon River dam was never built, due mainly to the activities of
environmentalists. However, it is clear that the annual preservation
benefits of the unique wilderness area exceed A$725,000 per annum (even
without doing a contingent valuation survey) and therefore the correct
decision, using the SMS approach, is not to build the dam.
Source: Saddler (1980).
Asafu-Adjaye (199lb) outlines how the SMS concept could be used to

modify the CBA procedure so as to address concerns about sustainability
and intergenerational equity. The main problem with this approach is
deciding what is 'unacceptably' large. Obviously, this involves a value
judgement (Box 11.3). In some developing countries where there is abject
poverty and hunger, it may be the case that preserving the environment in its
natural state (i.e., the no development option) may impose social costs that
are unacceptable unless there are alternative means of income generation.
11.6 Constraints to the Implementation of Sustainable

Development
The UN General Assembly Resolution 47/190 endorsed the concept of
sustainable development, as embodied in Agenda 21, and urged its
implementation at the national, regional and global levels. A Commission on
Sustainable Development (CSD) was created in 1992 to oversee the

implementation of Agenda 21, and to monitor and report on implementation
of the Earth Summit agreements at the local, national, regional and
international levels. Implementation of Agenda 21 is the responsibility of the
individual governments. Each government, if necessary with input from the
aid agencies, is supposed to come up with strategies for sustainable
development. To date, many countries have complied with this requirement.
Furthermore, most of these countries have instituted coordination councils or
committees, some of which are chaired by high-ranking government
officials. For example, the Prime Minister of Australia chairs the Inter-
Governmental Committee on Ecologically Sustainable Development. The
Committee drafted a National Strategy for Ecologically Sustainable
Development, a National Greenhouse Response Strategy and an Inter-
Governmental Agreement on Environment.
To date, the main impediments to the successful implementation of SD,
especially in developing countries, are lack of institutional capacity and
inadequate financial resources. At a five-year review of Earth Summit
progress in 1997, the CSD reported that about 150 countries had either
established new or modified existing institutional structures to assist in the
implementation of Agenda 21. However, in some developing countries,
these structures are not well-developed. In cases where they have been
established (e.g. National Council for Sustainable Development), their
effectiveness has been compromised by problems such as lack of authority to
enforce policies, insufficient representation, lack of qualified personnel and
lack of financial resources. Some countries have instituted legislation to
protect the environment. However, some of these regulations literally have
no teeth due to lack of trained personnel to monitor and enforce them.
The Asian Development Bank (ADB) estimates that the cost of
implementing some of the Agenda 21 initiatives in the Asia-Pacific region
will amount to about US$13 billion by the year 2000, rising to US$70 billion
by 2010 (ESCAP and ADB, 1995). It is quite clear from this that sustainable
development does not come cheap. Many developing country governments
are facing severe budget constraints that compromise their ability to
implement SD programs. All over the world, official development assistance
(ODA) as a proportion of GNP has declined. The challenge to developing
country governments is to generate more private sector interest and
involvement in SD.
11.7 Summary
This chapter began with an overview of definitions of sustainable
development. Definitions were presented from 'neoclassical' economics,
ecology, materials balance and intergenerational equity perspectives.
Combining all these perspectives, sustainable development can be
characterised by a vector of socially desirable objectives. To achieve SD this
vector must be non-declining over time.
An important issue that was discussed was the conditions for achieving
SD. It was argued that although economic growth is a necessary requirement
for the attainment of SD, it is not sufficient to guarantee SD. Two sufficient
conditions for SD-weak and strong sustainability-were introduced. Weak
sustainability assumes perfect substitutability between different forms of
capital and therefore requires a constant aggregate capital stock (i.e.,
physical, natural and human capital) to be maintained. On the other hand,
strong sustainability recognises that some forms of capital are not easily
substitutable and thus requires a constant stock of all natural capital to be
maintained.
It was argued that the current measures of welfare or economic progress
are inadequate because, among other things, they ignore the impacts of
environmental degradation and changes in the quantity and the quality of the
natural capital stock. Alternative measures of welfare were presented and
their limitations were discussed.
We discussed how the concept of SD could be operationalised through
the policy process. Policy measures are required to ensure that prices reflect
environmental costs. Furthermore, there is a need for institutional
restructuring to achieve distributional goals. Modifications to the current
system of economic analysis were suggested in order to incorporate
sustainability. The main constraints to implementation of SD are lack of
financial resources and lack of institutional capacity. Transfer of EFTs is
urgently required to speed up progress towards achievement of the Agenda
21 objectives.

ecological footprints index of sustainable economic
environmental space welfare
environmentally adjusted domestic net primary productivity and

product carrying capacity
environmentally adjusted national resilience
mcome safe minimum standard of
ESD triangular framework preservation
genuine (or extended) saving strong sustainability
genuine progress indicator sustainable development
green accounting system of environmental and
gross domestic product economic accounts
gross national product system of national accounts
human development index weak sustainability
Review Questions
1. List the main features of sustainable development as defined by
neoclassical economists and ecologists.
2. State the weaknesses in the economist's view of sustainable

development.
3. Explain the difference between the weak and strong sustainability

conditions.
4. List the shortcomings of the current System of National Accounting.
5. What is the Safe Minimum Standard of Preservation?
6. List some of the problems that countries face in trying to implement

programs for sustainable development.
Exercises
1. Suppose biologists have come up with an estimate of the cost of
ensuring the survival of an endangered species (e.g., the Sumatra tiger).
Policy makers are faced with the choice of protecting this animal's
habitat. Using what you have learned from this and previous chapters,
discuss what kinds of information needs to be collected and how it
should be used. Give particular attention to how benefits can be
determined and what kind of economic analysis can be performed.
2. Some have argued that given our lack of knowledge about our
ecosystem and biological diversity, we should exercise caution and be
risk averse when it comes to exploiting environmental resources. Others
have argued that for some countries, especially the poorer ones, such a
policy could even be risky because they would be deprived of the
necessary capital to improve their circumstances. Discuss both sides of
this debate.
3. It has been argued that every unit of a non-renewable natural resource

extracted today precludes its use by future generations. Do we have a
moral responsibility to use only renewable resources? Do you agree or
disagree? State your reasons.
4. The traditional measures of welfare (GDP and GNP) have been criticised
on various grounds. The Index of Sustainable Economic Welfare, the
Human Development Index, Net Primary Productivity and Carrying
Capacity, and Ecological Footprints have been proposed as alternative
measures of welfare. Explain each of these indices and discuss their
limitations as measures of sustainable development.
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12. Green Accounting and Measurement of
Genuine Saving
Objectives
o explain the basic characteristics of green accounting;
o explain the limitations of green accounting;
o explain the concept of genuine (extended) saving; and
o explain the limitations of measures of genuine saving
12.1 Introduction
The environment plays a number of important roles, including sustaining
basic life support systems, providing raw material inputs to producers and
consumers, serving as a receptacle for the waste products of producers and
consumers, and providing amenities to consumers (e.g., recreation). In the
periods when the world's population and the scale of economic activities
were relatively small, environmental inputs were often regarded as 'free'
goods and the environment was treated as a 'sink' for disposal of waste.
However, there is a limit to the extent of the environment's capacity to
assimilate waste. Pollution and environmental degradation begin to occur
when this assimilative capacity is reached. Furthermore, once this limit is
exceeded the ability of the environment to provide other services (e.g.,
provide inputs) is compromised. There is a need to view the natural
environment not only as a resource but also as an asset similar to traditional
329
assets such as land, labour and capital. The value of this resource must
therefore be integrated into the economic system.
In Chapter 11, the deficiencies in the traditional System of National
Accounts which places emphasis on GDP/GNP measures were discussed.
Measures such as Net Domestic Product (NDP), while better than GDP for
measuring sustainability, account only for the depreciation of produced
assets, and ignore the depreciation of natural resources and degradation of
the environment. Alternative 'greener' measures such as Green Accounting
and Genuine Saving were briefly introduced in that chapter. This Chapter
discusses the two approaches in a little more detail, noting their limitations.
The chapter concludes with case studies reporting applications of the two
approaches.
12.2 Green Accounting

Ahmed et al. (1989), Repetto et al. (1989) and Hartwick (1990). The
approach taken by Hartwick is based on neoclassical growth models and
attempts to specify 'optimal' adjustments to the SNA. The second approach,
that of Ahmed et al. (1989) and Repetto et al. (1989), is a more practical
approach that attempts to make piecemeal changes to the widely accepted
SNA. 76 As of now, there is no universal agreement among economists as to
how these adjustments should be made to reflect environmental damage. In
December 1993, the UNSO, in collaboration with international agencies,
launched the SEEA, which is based on the framework presented by Ahmed
et al. (1989) 77 The SEEA is implemented in the form of satellite (or
supplementary) accounts that are linked with the core accounts of the SNA.
In that sense, the SEEA maintains concepts and principles embodied in the
SNA. The basic features of the SEEA are as follows:
Segregation and elaboration of all environment-related flows and

stocks of traditional accounts. This aspect of the SEEA seeks to
identify the part of GDP which reflects the costs necessary to
compensate for the negative impacts of economic growth, i.e., defensive
expenditures.
76
Excellent reviews of this literature can be found in Hamilton (1994) and Hanley (1997).
77
The five agencies are the Commission of the European Communities, IMF, OECD, UN and
World Bank.
Green Accounting and the Measurement of Genuine Saving 331
Linkage of physical resource accounts with monetary environmental

accounts and balance sheets. This component attempts to establish
comprehensive physical resource accounts to be linked to the monetary
balance sheet and flow accounts of the system of national accounts. The
resource accounts will consider the total reserves of natural resources
and changes therein even when such resources are not yet affected by the
economic system.
Assessment of environmental costs and benefits. This key part of the

SEEA seeks to improve on the SNA by accounting for depletion of
natural resources and changes in environmental quality due to economic
activity.
Accounting for the maintenance of tangible wealth. In this

component, natural capital is handled in the same way as physical
capital. Natural capital, as defined here, includes renewable resources
(e.g., forestry, fisheries,), non-renewable resources (e.g., land, soil,
mineral), and air and water resources.
Elaboration and measurement of indicators of environmentally

adjusted product and income. The intention here is to develop
modified macroeconomic measures of national income such as
environmentally adjusted domestic product (EDP). This measure
accounts for the costs of depletion of natural capital and changes in
environmental quality.
As indicated earlier, EDP is obtained by subtracting from NDP the costs of

environmental degradation and the depreciation of the stock of natural
resources. Two alternative measures of EDP have been suggested:
EDP I: NDP minus depreciation of natural resources due to extraction;

and
EDP2: EDPl minus the cost of environmental degradation.
The construction of the SEEA proceeds in four of steps (see Figure 12.1).
The first step involves compilation of physical accounts. These are
nonmonetary accounts that measure resource depletion and

environmental effects.
Figure 12.1 Framework of the system of integrated economic and environmental accounting
Environmental accounts
Conventional
.!! A !:;.
national Impacts of Physical Impacts in
accounts health impacts Monetary terms
Productivity
Resource Resource
Resource depletion depletion
depletion
Environmental Environmental
Environmental degradation degradation
degradation
I i I i
Dose-response Economic valuation
function
Environmentally adjusted national accounts

.. .....
...
EDPl = NDP- resource depletion
EDP2 = EDPl- environmental degradation
Source: adapted from Serageldin and Steer (1994).
12.2.1 Issues and Limitations of Green Accounting

Although progress has been made in terms of trying to change the way
national accounts are compiled with the view to making them reflect
environmental considerations, several practical difficulties and issues remain
to be resolved. These issues include: accounting for defensive expenditures
and pollution damages, the valuation of environmental damages, the
treatment of transboundary pollutants, and the treatment of sociopolitical
development goals and issues.
Defensive expenditures and pollution damages

'Defensive expenditures' can be defined as expenditures incurred by
households and governments to reduce the effects of pollution. Examples of
defensive expenditures for the household include buying water purification
equipment to improve drinking water quality or buying a malaria
prophylactic. For the government, this could include expenditures on litter
removal or repairing degraded recreational sites. There is no agreement on
how to handle these expenditures. Maler ( 1991) argues that such
expenditures should not be deducted from NDP if the changes in the values
of 'environmental services' (e.g. air and water quality) are included, since
this would amount to double counting. Dasgupta ( 1995), on the other hand,
states that defensive expenditures should be included in final demand.
Bartelmus and van Tongeren (1994) argue that the cost of restoring polluted
or damaged natural environments to their original state at the beginning of
the accounting period should be deducted from NDP. This is similar to the
EDP2 measure mentioned above and is referred to as the 'maintenance cost'
approach to accounting for environmental effects. However, this
maintenance cost approach has also been criticised on two grounds. First,
Aaheim and Nyborg (1995) argue that costs that would have been incurred
to prevent emissions from being higher this period than the previous period
could severely underestimate the cost of actually repairing the damage,
especially if the damage is irreversible. Second, the maintenance cost
approach is problematic for cumulative pollutants for which any emission
adds to the stock because there is no assimilative capacity. Hueting et al.
(1992) argue that a better approach would be to value environmental damage
at the cost of bringing environmental quality to 'sustainable levels'.
However, the problem with this suggestion is that there is likely to be
disagreement over how to determine what level is sustainable.
Valuation of environmental damages

Regardless of which measure of environmental damage to use, there are
difficulties in placing monetary values on effects that are non-market in
nature. As was discussed in Chapter 5, techniques such as contingent
valuation, choice experiments, hedonic pricing and travel cost methods have
been developed to assist environmental valuation. However, there are some
environmental effects that are difficult to value even with the state of the art
techniques. Even when such effects can be valued, there is the additional
issue of whether the society's valuation is equal to the sum of the individual
valuations. A practical consideration is that the different techniques often
yield different estimates, implying that there could be large differences in the
value of environmental depreciation used to compute EDP.
Transboundary pollutants
The transboundary issue concerns the case where some pollutants (e.g. S02
and N0 2) are emitted in one country and have adverse effects on other
countries. An extreme case is where the effects (e.g global warming) are
worldwide. The practical issue here is how, or whether, we should account
for the polluting effects estemal to the country for which EDP is being
computed. The same question applies to the case of imports of
transboundary pollutants. Some people (e.g. Maler, 1995) have argued that
pollution damages caused by a given country on other countries should be
deducted from its NDP, since NDP measures the welfare impacts of projects
in that country. However, he suggests that imports of emission into the
country should be ignored. His suggestion raises a couple of issues. The first
has to do with the practical problem of separating out pollution impacts in
the country, which is made more difficult if there are also similar emissions
from the country. The second point is the counter argument that if NDP is a
measure of the welfare of the inhabitants of a given country, then imports of
emissions should be counted but exports should not. Whatever the approach
adopted, there is the additional problem that all countries should reach a
consensus for the SEEA to be meaningful at the global level.
Treatment of sociopolitical development goals and issues

Development goals such as equity, cultural aspirations or political stability
are difficult to quantify and quite impossible to value in monetary terms.
Such effects would have to be specified in normative terms as targets or
standards. In many developing countries today, there is increasing poverty,
income inequality, corruption, and crime. These issues are difficult to
measure, even when we use non-economic indicators.
12.3 Genuine (Extended) Saving

The concept of genuine (or extended) saving (Pearce and Atkinson, 1993)
has been proposed as a broad measure of sustainability that values changes
in the natural resource base and environmental quality in addition to man-

made (or produced) assets. The traditional measure of a country's rate of
wealth accumulation is gross saving which is given by the difference
between GNP and consumption. Gross saving is the total amount that is set
aside for the future in terms of either foreign lending or investment of
productive assets, and it tells us little about whether or not a particular
development path is sustainable. This is because we expect productive assets
to depreciate. The issue then is whether the amount of depreciation is greater
than gross saving. Net saving, which is gross saving minus depreciation of
produced assets is a slightly better indicator of sustainability, although it
focuses only on produced assets.
The World Bank has proposed a methodology for calculating Genuine
Saving that they have applied to a number of countries. The process begins
with the conventional national accounts. First, gross domestic saving is
obtained by deducting net foreign borrowing (including net official transfers)
from gross domestic investment, which consists of total investments in
structures, machinery and equipment, and inventory accumulation. That is
Gross Domestic Saving = Gross Domestic Investment - Net

Foreign Borrowing + Net Official
Transfers (12.1)
Next, net saving is obtained by deducting depreciation of produced

assets from gross domestic saving. That is,
Net Saving = Gross Domestic Saving - Depreciation of

Produced Capital (12.2)
Finally, GS is obtained by subtracting the value of resource depletion

and pollution damages from net saving, and adding on the value of
investment in human capital. That is,
GS = Net Saving + Human Capital Investment

- Depletion of Natural Resources - Pollution Damage (12.3)
12.3.1 Human Capital Investment

The inclusion of human capital is based on the rationale that human capital
contributes to overall sustainability by assisting in the ongoing creation and
maintenance of national wealth. Human capital investment in the current
period is assumed to provide the resources for improvements in productivity
and income in the future. Although, historically, a number of specific
measures of human capital have been developed (e.g. see OECD, 2000), in
computing the GS measures, the World Bank uses current educational
expenditures as a proxy for the value of human capital. 78 Obviously, this is
not the best measure because expenditure by itself is an indicator of financial
input into the process of human capital formation. Therefore, it is only an
indirect indicator of the economic contribution of education to a nation's
growth and productivity.
12.3.2 Depletion of Natural Resources

Depletion of natural resources is measured as the total rents on resources
extracted and harvested. For non-renewable resources (e.g. bauxite, copper,
gold, iron ore, and so on) rents are estimated as the difference between the
value of production at world prices and the total production costs. For forest
resources, the rent is computed as the difference between the rental value of
log harvests and the corresponding value of natural growth and plantations
less harvesting costs. In the computation of forestry rents, only the
commercial value of timber is considered and other environmental services
provided by trees such as carbon storage, watershed protection and the value
of nontimber forest benefits are excluded. The calculation of resource rents
also omits other natural assets such as fisheries resources and the economic
costs of soil degradation.
12.3.3 Pollution Damages

Due to problems associated with precisely determining the welfare effects of
pollution damage, a very simple approach is adopted in the computation of
GS. Pollution damage is calculated only for COz, using a global estimate of
US$20 per metric ton of carbon emitted. It is, however, possible to extend
the calculation to include other critical pollutants such as chloroflorocarbons
(CFCs).
78
Current educational expenditures consist of teachers' salaries and expenditure on textbooks.
12.3.4 Policy Uses of Genuine Savings Estimates

For developing countries that are dependent on natural resources for the bulk
of their national income, GS estimates computed over a period of time can
be used to answer pertinent questions about the sustainability of natural
resource use. Such questions include:
Are the rents from natural resources invested or consumed?

What are the types of investments that a country makes?
Do existing property rights regimes encourage sustainable exploitation
of natural resources?
Are royalties set appropriately to capture resource rents?
Do policies to promote natural resource exports also contain plans for
the investment of the resource royalties?
What micro and macroeconomic policies such as government
expenditures, taxation and interest rates can be devised to create
incentives for higher genuine savings?
Some developing countries are beginning to experience pollution problems

associated with rapid urbanisation. Computation of GS estimates would
enable planners to answer the following questions
Do the current pollution reduction policies target efficient levels of

emissions?
Are sufficient savings being made to offset cumulative effects of
pollution?
12.3.5 Limitations ofGenuine Saving Measures

There are a number of limitations associated with GS as a measure of
sustainability. These can be divided into two categories - conceptual and
technical. The conceptual issues deal with the way the measure is defined,
while the latter deal with how the measure is actually computed. There are at
least four conceptual problems with the definition of GS. First, it cannot be
assumed that savings necessarily equates to investment. Furthermore, even if
all savings are channeled into investment, this does not mean that output will
be sustained. The sustainability of output will depend on the quality of the
investment in capital and how efficient it is. For example, a developing
country investing heavily in primary education may be setting itself up on a
more sustainable growth path than one that is consuming the proceeds of
natural resource extraction. Second, GS does not address the issue of intra-
generational equity. For example, a country may have a high level of savings
but these could belong to a small fraction of the population and therefore is
not likely to lead to development. Third, GS is based on weak sustainability
since it does not distinguish between the types of capital that can be
substituted for each other. In that sense, it is a narrow concept of
sustainability. Fourth, due to the fact that GS is measured in monetary units,
changes in resource prices (which is usually beyond the control of individual
countries) may cloud changes in physical stocks, and may therefore give a
less than clear picture of changes in sustainability.
The main technical limitation of GS measures relates to the fact that it is
currently based on the World Bank's methodology that excludes some
important aspects of natural capital. For example, the approach restricts
pollution damage to only C02 , which is estimated at a flat rate of US$20 per
ton for all periods. Other major air pollutants such as SOx, NOx, particulates,
ozone and CFCs, as well as damage from water pollution, are excluded. The
approach also restricts natural resource depletion to only two components-
minerals and forestry-and makes no provision for the depletion of other
land-based capital due to factors such as soil erosion, salinity and water
pollution. Finally, the current approach also ignores the following important
components of natural capital: freshwater and marine-based resources; the
value of ecosystem services such as carbon sequestration, biodiversity and
watershed regulation; the value of native remnant bushland (e.g. dry tropical
savanna); the value of air resources; and industrial and household uses of
water. Admittedly, most these omissions are due to the technical difficulties
associated with estimating non-market values such as biodiversity and other
ecosystem services. However, research advances should make it possible to
at least obtain ball park estimates of some of these effects.
Case Study 12.1 A Calculation of Genuine Saving

for Queensland79
Introduction
Estimates of GS were computed for the state of Queensland using the World
Bank's methodology. Queensland is a natural resource dependent state with
mining accounting for 45% of its natural capital, and agriculture and forestry
accounting for 38% (See Figure 12.2). The GS for Queensland was
estimated for the period 1989/90 to 1999/2000, at constant (1999/2000)
prices. Some modifications were made to the calculation to reflect the State-
level equivalent of each component in the World Bank's methodology. GS
was defined as follows
GS =Net State Saving + Human Capital Investment-

Depletion of Natural Resources - Pollution Damage (12.4)
where
Net Saving =Gross Domestic Saving -
Consumption of Fixed Capital (12.5)
and
Gross Domestic Saving = Gross Domestic Investment
-Net Foreign Borrowing
+ Net Official Transfers (12.6)
Gross Domestic Saving was measured using the State level equivalent of
national disposable income, defined as national income plus net unrequited
transfers. At the level of a State within a country, this implies adding the
current account balance to Gross State Product (GSP). Human capital
investment was measured by government expenditure on education.
Effectively, this is a re-classification of government expenditure, as
education expenditure is usually treated as an element of government
consumption. It ignores other components of human capital such as health,
and it measures the value of human capital in terms of the cost of education
measured by public expenditure on the education sector.
79
This section is based on Brown et al. (2003).
Following the World Bank's approach, pollution damage was restricted to

include carbon dioxide only and water pollution damage was not included.
Estimated carbon emissions were based on annual data for the whole of
Australia and Queensland data for two years, 1989/90 and 1998/99. The
intermediate years' values were estimated by interpolation using
Queensland's share of total Australian emissions in the two end years. The
calculation also restricted the calculation of natural capital depletion to forest
and mineral resources. These two components represent the depletion of the
economy's renewable and non-renewable resources, respectively, and makes
no provision for the depletion of other land-based capital due to factors such
as soil erosion, salination and water pollution. Furthermore, freshwater and
marine-based resources are also excluded.
Figure 12.2 Components of natural capital for the state of Queensland
r;J Crop land

1!31 Pasture land
DForestry
1!145%
[]Non-timber forest resources
&J'l Protected areas
Commercial fisheries
~Mining
Source: CEPM (2002).

Resource rent for mineral production and forestry was estimated by first
calculating gross operating surplus by adding royalties and company taxes to
gross operating surplus. Next, 'normal profit' was calculated as 10% of total
costs (including depreciation). This was then subtracted from gross operating
surplus to arrive at the estimates of resource rents for mining and forestry.
Results
The results of GS estimates are graphed in Figure 12.3. The main findings
are as follows:
Since 1989, Queensland's GS has fallen from 15.7% to 9.9%,

implying that although, following the World Bank interpretation
of GS, we are possibly on a sustainable growth path, the decline
should be of concern to policy makers.
Figure 12.3 Genuine saving estimates for the state of Queensland
-Extended
Saving
-+-Net State
Saving
...,._Genuine State
Saving
89/90 90/91 91/92 92193 93194 94/95 95/96 96197 97/98 98/99 99/00
~Total
Resource
Depletion
Source: Brown et al. (2003).

Mineral depletion is the leading component of the State's overall

depletion of natural resources. It comprises approximately 80%
of the total depletion of natural resources.
The extent of any divergence between saving as measured by
State accounts and the GS is dominated by two components -
the effects of mineral depletion and ongoing investments in
human capital. These two parts of the GS effectively offset each
other implying that Queensland's Net State Saving rate as
measured in the State Accounts closely approximates the GS.
Case Study 12.2: An Application of Green Accounting to

Papua New Guinea 80
Introduction
The main purpose of this case study was to apply the proposed SEEA in a
country at a relatively early stage of development and with as yet moderate
environmental problems. One of the challenges of the project was to see
what degree of environmental accounting could be achieved with limited
effort in country with relatively weak institutional capacities and limited
data.
Papua New Guinea is a relatively small country of about 4 million
people, 90% of whom live in rural areas. It has few urban centers and there
is a low level of industrialization. A few large copper, gold and silver mines
contribute about 70 percent of exports. Central government expenditures on
the environment are low, accounting for less than 1% of total budgeted
expenditure for the period 1986 to 1990, which was the period for this
analysis.
The SEEA was implemented in three steps. In the first step, the national
accounts framework in PNG was adapted to meet the structure of the SEEA
so as to identify environmental expenditures and to incorporate balance
sheets of produced and nonproduced (natural) tangible assets. However, due
to inadequate data, environmental protection expenditures could not be
presented separately for any of the economic agents in PNG. Also, the lack
of physical resource accounts, with the notable exception of mineral
resources, made it difficult to estimate scarcities in other renewable and
nonrenewable resources.
80
The material in the section is based on Bartelmus et al. ( 1993) and Asafu-Adjaye ( 1991 ).
In the second step, an attempt was made to value the natural resource
scarcities in monetary terms. Two approaches for calculating the depletion
costs of the use of scarce natural resources were used-the user cost
approach and the net price approach. The user cost approach attempts to
convert the stream of revenues from sales of an exhaustible natural resource
into a permanent income stream by investing a part of the revenues (referred
to as the 'user-cost allowance') over the lifetime of the resource. According
to El Serafy (1989), only the remaining amount of the revenues should be
considered as 'true income'. The 'net price' is defined as the market price
minus all factor costs including a normal return to capital and is the method
used in this study. The final step was to compute the discounted future
stream of income using the net price. This was used to estimate an
'environmental depletion cost' which was deducted from net value added to
obtain estimates of environmentally adjusted net value added of the sector
and environmentally adjusted net domestic product of the economy.
Results
Table 12.1 shows estimates of the economic costs of environmental quality
degradation of four sectors - agriculture, forestry, mining and energy.
Table 12.1 Papua New Guinea: average annual costs of environmental

quality degradation (millions ofkina)
1981-85 1986-91
Sector Lower Upper Lower Upper
Estimate Estimate Estimate Estimate
Agriculture 9.4 119.0 8.1 119.0
Forestrl 10.0 45.0 10.0 61.0
Miningb 35.7 101.2 35.7 101.2
Energy" 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03
Total 55.1 265.2 53.8 281.2
Notes: Based on compensation values.
bBased on avoidance costs.
Source: Bartelmus et al. (1993: 125), Table 7-12.
The main environmental impacts of agriculture are from the effects of forest
clearing for cultivation. Non-economic, ecological, and related social and
spiritual values of forests are lost through the conversion of forests for
agriculture and other uses. The main consequences of the depletion of

PNG's forests include loss of biodiversity, soil loss, impairment of
watershed regulation and nutrient cycles, and the increased risk and intensity
of flooding and landslides. The estimates of the costs of forest depletion are
for conversion of forest land to agricultural uses. The estimates are based on
the rate of compensation to be paid to landowners deprived of traditional
uses of the forests by logging activities and should therefore be regarded as
very conservative. The low estimates are K9.4 million (1981-85) and K8.1
million (1986-90) per annum. The high estimate is K119.0 million per
annum for the period 1981-1991.
As is the case in the agricultural sector, the major environmental impacts
of logging are the losses of ecological and cultural functions of forestry
resources. The social costs of logging are estimated at about K45 million per
annum for 1981-85 and K61 million per annum for 1986-90. In PNG, the
main environmental effects of mining are from the discharge of mine tailings
that pose a threat to aquatic resources in fresh and marine waters. Estimates
of the costs of avoiding environmental damage from mining range from
K35.7 million per annum to K101.2 million per annum.
Table 12.2 presents estimates for environmentally adjusted net value
added and domestic product using only the lower values of the estimated
environmental damage. The results indicate that EDPl reduces NDP by
amounts ranging from 1 to 8 percent and EDP2 by 2 to 10 percent.
Due to the fact that the period under review is short, no definite
conclusions can be reached regarding the trends in environmental depletion
and degradation. EDP2 (i.e. the additional accounting for environmental
quality degradation) reduces NDP by on average a further 2.1 percent. A
comparison of the ratios of final consumption (C) to EDP2 indicates that
consumption exceeded net (environmentally adjusted) domestic product.
Conclusions
The study shows that it is feasible to implement the SEEA in a developing
country situation. But at the same time, it highlights the constraints and
limitations of the approach. The main contribution of the study is to reveal
the many significant data gaps that exist. The following priorities for
environmental data collection were identified:
(i) It would be necessary to establish natural resource accounts and

balance sheets in the areas of forests, soils, subsoil assets of
minerals, gas and oil, and fish stocks;
(ii) There is a need to monitor effluents and loadings of water
pollutants from agriculture, mining, industry and municipalities, as
well as changes in levels of biodiversity; and
(iii) Statistics should be developed on environmental (protection)
expenditures by the government, industries and households.
Table 12.2 Papua New Guinea: estimates of environmentally adjusted net value added and
domestic product, 1986-90 (millions of kina)
Adjusted items 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

NDP 2313.6 2569.2 2861.6 2698.1 2760.2
EDP1 2186.8 2359.5 2755.3 2672.9 2579.5
EDP2 2132.9 2305.6 2701.6 2619.2 2525.7
[(NDP- 5.5 8.2 3.7 0.9 6.5

EDP1)/NDP]*100
[(NDP- 7.8 10.3 5.6 2.9 8.5

EDP2)/NDP]*100
(CIEDP2)*100 105.4 105.5 94.5 102.1 109.1

Source: Bartelmus et al. (1993:128), Table 7-13.
It is hoped that a strong physical database would enable a more accurate

estimate of the environmental costs of economic development to be made.
Box 12.1 highlights some of the issues that need to be addressed before the
SEEA can be more effectively implemented. These include promotion of
awareness and devoting more resources to human resource development and
research.
Box 12.1 Green accounting in Papua New Guinea
Papua New Guinea is at an early phase of industrial development and,

in general, is yet to experience the kinds of serious environmental
problems that we have seen in some countries. The use of an approach
such as the SEEA could serve as an 'early warning' system for
potentially serious environmental problems. The main constraints to
implementing the SEEA in PNG include: (i) awareness; (ii) training;
and (iii) research.
Awareness
In spite of the high profile given to environmental issues, individual
governments are not putting their money where their mouths are'. In
PNG, for example, environmental protection services account for a
meagre 0.2 percent of total budget expenditure. There is a need for an
environmental awareness campaign aimed at government policy makers
and analysts, emphasising the need for effective environmental
management.
Training
Statisticians and economic planners in government departments such as
Finance and Planning, Agriculture, Minerals and Energy, must be given
training not only in the concepts of the SEEA but also in relevant
aspects of the emerging discipline of environmental economics.
Research
Considerable research effort is required to provide the necessary inputs
into the SEEA. The problem of data availability is especially acute in
developing countries such as PNG. Areas of research could include:
impacts on agriculture, forestry and fisheries, soil erosion and run-off,
and non-market valuation techniques. Research funding could be
sought from external agencies such as the World Bank.


defensive expenditure net saving
exhaustible resources nonmonetary impacts
gross domestic investment physical (or produced) capital
gross domestic saving physical accounts
gross state product pollution damage
human capital resource depletion
natural capital transboundary pollutant
net foreign borrowing
Review Questions
1. Explain the objectives of the proposed System of Integrated
Environmental-Economic Accounting (SEEA).
2. What are some of the limitations of the SEEA?
3. Define the components of Genuine Saving.
4. How are the following measures of Genuine Saving measured?

(i) human capital investment;
(ii) natural resource depletion; and
(iii)pollution damages.
5. What are the limitations of Genuine Saving as a measure of welfare?
Exercises
1. Why is net saving a better measure of sustainability than gross saving?
2. Critically discuss the World Bank's methodology for measuring genuine

(or extended) saving.
3. Give examples of the policy uses of measures of (or extended) genuine

saving.
4. Discuss the practical constraints to implementing the SEEA.
References
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Sustainable Development, The World Bank, Washington, D.C.
Asafu-Adjaye, J. (1991). Environmental Accounting in Papua New Guinea. Pacific

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Brown, R., Asafu-Adjaye, J., Draca, M. and Straton, A. (2003). How Useful is the
Genuine Savings Rate as a Macroeconomic Sustainability Indicator?
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Washington, D.C.
13. Assessment of Global Environmental Trends and
Policy Implications
13.1 Introduction
Over the past century, impressive gains have been made in human
development as measured by key socioeconomic indicators such as life
expectancy, infant mortality, illiteracy and per capita income growth.
However, these gains have been achieved at an environmental cost. The
world's population is currently 6 billion and it is expected to increase
substantially before stabilising at between 8 and 12 billion by 2050 (UN,
1996). Although global food production is thought to be adequate, there is
unequal distribution of food resources and therefore a significant proportion
of the population is malnourished.
Global energy use is projected to increase in the future. This implies that,
in the absence of any effective policy measures, the buildup of greenhouse
gases in the world's atmosphere will accelerate. Acid rain, which was a
serious problem in North America and Europe in the 1960s, is now emerging
as a serious environmental problem in the Asia-Pacific region. According to
Downing et al. ( 1990), 34 million metric tons of S02 were emitted in the
Asia-Pacific region in 1990, an amount that is 40 percent more than S02
emissions in North America in the same period. Areas in the Asia-Pacific
region with high acid deposition levels include southeast China, northeast
India, Thailand, and the Republic of Korea. These developments pose a
threat to crops and ecosystems.
Deforestation continues to be a problem, especially in developing
countries. According to the Food and Agriculture Organisation, developing
countries lost nearly 200 million hectares of forests between between 1980
and 1995 (FAO, 1997). Allowing for increase in reforestation and forest
conservation in the developed countries, the global loss of forest cover is
estimated at 180 million hectares between 1980 and 1995, or an average
annual loss of 12 million hectares. In 1997, forest fires destroyed vast areas
351
of forestland in Indonesia. It is estimated that between 150,000 to 300,000

hectares of forests were destroyed (EU, 1997). The continued loss of global
forest resources poses a serious threat to environmental services such as
biodoversity, watershed management, climate regulation, landscape and
aesthetic values. Deforestation also threatens the means of livelihood and
culture of indigenous people.
Other global resources at risk include water and fisheries resources.
Although there are abundant global water supplies to meet the needs of the
world's population, the distribution is uneven. Already, parts of the
developing world are experiencing varying degrees of water stress due to
excessive demands. Given the projections for population growth and
industrial development, additional stress is likely to be put on global water
supplies. For example, it is estimated that demand for irrigation water will
increase from 50 to 100 percent, and industrial water demand will double by
2025 (WMO, 1997). Apart from the problem of water scarcity, there is also
the problem of water quality. Rapid industrialisation in developing countries
without effective environmental policies will lead to an increase in water
pollution. Increase in water pollution affects the quality of groundwater
supplies and creates health and sanitation problems.
The projections for fisheries resources are also not favourable.
Overfishing of certain fish stocks, which has been a historical problem, has
worsened. At present fish stocks in some parts of the world are under threat.
For example, fish stocks such as Atlantic cod, haddock, and redfish have
nearly collapsed in some parts of the North Atlantic due to overfishing
(Grainger and Garcia, 1996). Due to the projected increase in world
population, demand for fish is expected to increase. The FAO projects an
increase from the current 80 million metric tons to 120 million metric tons
by 2010 (FAO, 1997). This level of demand, in the absence of any curbs on
overfishing and a significant increase in aquaculture, will be difficult to
meet.
13.2 Policy Implications

In spite of the gloomy projections described above, there are some positive
signs and there is hope that action can be taken to avert a catastrophe of
Malthusian proportions. Following the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, there
has been a general consensus that the only way forward is by pursuing a
Assessment of Global Environmental Trends and Policy Implications 353
policy of sustainable development. Although, as indicated in the previous

chapter, such a policy still needs to be better articulated and translated into
concrete action. One hundred and sixty seven nations ratified the 1992
Framework Convention on Climate Change prior to the Earth Summit. In
December 1997, these countries met again in Kyoto, Japan to negotiate the
first ever legally binding limits on greenhouse gas emissions from developed
countries. The Kyoto Protocol aims to cut the combined emissions of
greenhouse gases from developed countries by about 5 percent from their
1990 levels by the period 2008-2012 (UN, 1997). The developed countries
must agree to contribute specific amounts of emissions reductions toward
meeting this target. While the treaty is yet to be ratified, it represents a
historic step in international efforts to reduce global emissions.
Another encouraging sign in the advanced countries is the change in
consumer attitudes and preferences towards environmentally-friendly
products. In supermarkets, consumers are showing a preference for 'green'
products, and the message that it pays to be green is slowly filtering through
to firms. The rate at which materials are recycled has increased and markets
are emerging for recycled products. As discussed earlier, birth rates in the
developed countries have declined as a result of increasing employment
opportunities for women. Unfortunately, these trends are yet to be
experienced in some developing countries. An important factor explaining
differences in the levels of environmental awareness in developed countries
vis-a-vis developing countries is education. There is therefore a need for
formal, as well as, informal programs to educate the general public on
environmental issues. Such programs are currently being undertaken by
NGOs in some countries, but are in need of government support.
A key question raised in this book is whether there are environmental
and resource limits to economic growth. On the basis of the material
presented, the answer to this question must be in the affirmative, although
this must not be taken as an endorsement of neo-Malthusian predictions
about resource use. While technology can allow us to utilise new sources of
energy and improve the efficiency of use of existing ones, the law of
dimishing marginal productivity suggests that unrestrained economic growth
cannot occur. The First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics suggest that
unlimited economic expansion is not feasible and that eventually the
economy-environment system will reach a steady state. The challenge for
sustaining economic growth is therefore to formulate policies for prudent
management of our natural resources.
It was demonstrated in Chapter 4 that the market system does not work
well for public goods and that it results in overexploitation of resources and
excessive pollution. There is therefore a justification for government
intervention to correct externalities. To date, government attempts to
regulate greenhouse gas emissions, particularly from motor vehicles, have
relied on charges (e.g., carbon taxes) command-and-control (CAC)
mechanisms, and voluntary agreements (VAs). Carbon taxes have been
criticised for their uneven impacts on various socioeconomic groups (OECD,
1995), and it has been argued that they do not guarantee significant
reductions in greenhouse gas emissions (Burgess, 1990). An example of a
VA in Australia is the National Average Fuel Consumption (NAFC)
program which was brokered through a voluntary agreement between the
motor vehicle manufacturers and the Australian Federal Government.
Wilkenfeld et al. (1995) have argued that the NAFC has failed to reduce
greenhouse gas emissions in Australia.
Roberts and Spence (1976) have proposed an emissions reduction
scheme which combines elements of permits, charges and subsidies. Under
this scheme, firms are allowed to trade in pollution permits, but any unused
permits can be exchanged for a subsidy. A charge is applied to firms who
exceed their emissions quota. Roberts and Spence argue that this mixed
approach is superior to the others because even if the initial parameters (e.g.
number of permits, levels of subsidy and charges) are wrong, the result
would still approximate an optimal solution.
Hensher (1993) has proposed a variation ofRoberts and Spence's mixed
approach for controlling motor vehicle emissions. The major difference is
that his scheme would be applied to consumers rather than to firms. That is,
a benchmark level of permissible emissions would be established for each
consumer. Consumers who exceed their quota would be subjected to a
charge and those who emit below their quota would be subsidised. In
addition, trade in emission permits would be allowed. The viability of the
scheme depends on the availability of an electronic banking facility that will
link point of sale transactions with a central database. While the technology
for this sort of scheme currently exists in most advanced countries, there is
likely to be public resistance due to concerns about consumer privacy and
the likelihood of it being seen as a 'big brother is watching' scheme.
To conclude, let us return to an observation that was made in Chapter 1.
That is, in spite of the boom in the global economy over the past thirty years,
the benefits of this growth have not been evenly distributed. The advanced
Assessment of Global Environmental Trends and Policy Implications 355
countries and, in particular, the newly industrialised countries registered

impressive growth rates during this period. However, in many developing
countries, the economic growth rate barely kept up with the rate of growth of
the population. It was established in Chapters 9 and 10 that there is a
significant relationship between economic growth, on the one hand, and
economic development indicators and environmental quality, on the other. In
view of the lack of sufficient economic growth in some developing
countries, and the mixed prospects for the future, there is the possibility that
poverty in these countries could increase. Poverty has been shown to be a
crucial factor affecting environmental degradation. A growing phenomenon
in the last two decades has been urban poverty, which has increased as
people migrate into urban centres in search of non-existent employment. The
provision of infrastructure support such as housing, water and sanitation
services often cannot cope with the rapid influx of people, resulting in
increase in environmental pollution.
Poverty alleviation is therefore a major challenge for many governments
as we enter a new millennium. However, poverty cannot be eradicated
without economic growth. Many developing countries are still dependent on
agricultural commodities whose prices remain low or are declining in world
markets. At the same time, these countries face mounting national debts.
Few have been able to successfully restructure their economies to enhance
growth. In the mean time, environmental problems such as deforestation
continue to escalate. In order to tackle environmental problems, there is a
need for the advanced countries to take concerted action to reduce Third
World debt. Global environmental initiatives such as the GEF must be
enhanced and made more effective with an injection of adequate capital.
In many countries, there is an urgent need for local and national level
policies to provide economic incentives for environmental protection and to
transmit correct price signals for the use of natural resources. There is also a
need for governments to recognise and safeguard individual and communal
property rights. Finally, there is not only a need for firm legislation to
support these policies, but also adequate resources to enforce and monitor
the legislation.
References
Burgess, J.C. (1990). The Contribution of Efficient Pricing to Reducing Carbon
Dioixide Emissions. Energy Policy, 18(5): 449-455.
Downing, R., Ramankutty, R. and Shah, J. (1997). RAINS-ASIA: An Assessment

Model for Acid Deposition in Asia. The World Bank, Washington, D.C.
European Union, EU (1997). Fires in Indonesia, September 1997. A report by the

EU GIS/Remote Sensing Expert Group to the European Union, European
Union, Brussels.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, FAO (1996). The State of
World Fisheries and Aquaculture 1996. FAO, Rome.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, FAO (1997). State of the
World's Forests 1997. FAO, Rome.
Grainger, R. and Garcia, S. (1996). Chronicles of Marine Fishery Landings (1950-

1994): Trend Analysis and Fisheries Potential. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper,
No. 359, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.
Hensher, D.A. (1993). Greenhouse Gas Emissions and the Demand for Urban
Passenger Transport: Design of the Overall Approach. Occasional Paper, No.
108, Bureau of Transport and Communications Economics, Canberra.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, OECD (1995). Climate

Change, Economic Instruments and Income Distribution. OECD, Paris.
Roberts, M.J. and Spence, M. (1976). Effluent Charges and Licences Under
Uncertainty. Journal of Public Economics, 5: 193-208.
United Nations, UN (1996). World Population Prospects 1950-2050 (The 1996

Revision). Population Division, U.N., New York.
United Nations, UN (1997). Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework

Convention on Climate Change. Article 3, Annex B, U.N., New York.
Wilkenfeld, G., Hamilton, C., and Saddler, H. (1995). Australia's Greenhouse

Strategy: Can the Future Be Rescued? Discussion Paper, No. 3, The Australian
Institute, Canberra.
World Meteorological Organization, WMO ( 1997). Comprehensive Assessment of

the Freshwater Resources of the World. WMO, Geneva.
Useful Internet Resources
1. Climate Ark: www.bapd.org/gcltrk-l.html

Climate change and alternative energy news and information; research
materials; links to other sites.
2. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA):

Global warming: www.epa.gov/globalwarming/
Ozone layer depletion: www.epa.gov/ozone/
Cost-benefit analysis:
www.epa.gov/ebtpages/econcostbenefitanalysis.html
3. Eurostat: www.europa.eu.int/comm/eurostat/
Statistical office of European Communities; social, economic and
environmental statistics
4. Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO): www.fao.org

Food issues; sustainable development; statistics on agriculture, fisheries,
forestry, nutrition and economics
5. Friends of the Earth: www.foe.co.uk

Measuring progress, sustainable development
6. Global Environment Fund (GEF): www.gefweb.org

Publications, projects funded by GEF
7. International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD):

www.iisd.org
Sustainable development indicators; information on climate change;
energy, investment; natural resources; trade and economic policy
8. International Monetary Fund (IMF): www.imf.org
Financial statistics, research reports
9. International Society of Ecological Economists:

www .ecologicaleconomics.org
Ecological economics
357
10. Organisation of Economic Cooperation (OECD): www.oecd.org/ech/

Trade issues, including trade and the environment
11. Redefining Progress: www.sustainableeconomy.org

environmental tax reform; sustainability indicators; sustainable
economics
12. Resources for the Future (RFF): www.rff.org

Information on environmental management; environment and
development; natural and biological resources; technology and
development; public health and environment
13. Sustainable Development Organisations:

www.webdirectory.com/Sustainable Development
Web site hosting for business, organisations (including non-profitJnon-
governmenttal organisations) concerned about sustainable development
and sustainability.
14. United Nations Development Program (UNDP): www.undp.org

Human development reports; millenium developent goals; water and
sanitation; environment; gender issues; poverty reduction; energy for
sustainable development
15. United Nations Environmental Program: (UNEP)

www. unep.org/unep/eid/geo 1/ch/toc.htm
Global environmental outlook; environmental conventions; GEF
coordination; regional cooperation; environmental policy development
16. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC):

www.unfcc.de/
Cimate change
17. United Nations Population Fund (UNPF):

www. un.org/esa!population/unpop.htm
Population
18. World Bank: www.worldbank.org/environmetaleconomics

Environmental economics; environmental indicators; green accounting
19. World Health Organisation (WHO): www.who.org

Health issues
20. World Resources Institute (WRI): www.wri.org

Useful Internet Resources 359
Climate change www.wri.org/climate

Agriculture and food; biodiversity; climate change
and energy; coastal and marine systems; water resources;
forest, grasslands and drylands; institutions
21. World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD):

www .j ohannesburgsummit.org/
Sustainable development
22. World Trade Organisation (WTO): www.wto.org

International trade issues and environmental quality
23. World Widlife Fund (WWF): www.panda.org/

Conservation of species, forests, freshwater and
marine resources; climate change; environmental policy issues
24. Zero Population Growth: www.populationconnection.org/

Answers to Numerical Exercises
Chapter 3
Question 3
(a) At equilibrium, demand = supply, therefore the equilibrium price clears
the market. Therefore equating the two equations, we have
6q = 180-4q
where q is the equilibrium quantity. Solving for q gives a value of 18

units. Substituting q=18 into either the supply or demand function gives
an equilibrium price of $108.
(b) At a price of $40 per unit, 35 units will be demanded but only 7 units
will be supplied and therefore there will be an excess demand (shortage)
of 28 units.
(c) The new supply equation is PTAX = 6qs + 20, giving p* = 116, q* = 16.
(d) If the government imposes a price ceiling of $48 per unit, 33 units will
be demanded but only 8 units will be supplied and therefore there will be
a shortage of 25 units on the market.
Question 6
(a) The new supply equation will be PTAX =6.6q", giving p* = 112, q* = 17.
Therefore the consumer surplus will be given by:
V2 X ($180- $112) X 17 = $578
361
(b) The producer surplus will now be Yz x ($112- $0) x 17 = $952.
(c) The net benefits after the tax policy will be the sum of consumer surplus
(a) and producer surplus (b): $578 + $952 = $1530.
(e) The deadweight loss is given by difference between the net benefits
under the pre-tax scenario minus the net benefits under the post tax
scenario.
The net benefits pre-tax =consumer surplus + producer surplus

= [Yz X ($180- $108) X 18] + [Yz X $108) X 18]
= $648 + $972
= $1620
The deadweight loss is therefore given by $1620- $1530 = $90.
Chapter 5
Question 1
(a) The value of houses on the Southside is $3.15 billion, and $1 billion on
the Northside.
(b) There is a net gain of $900 million on the Southside and a net loss of
$500 million on the Northside, giving an overall net gain of $400
million.
Question 2
(b) The consumer surplus for a single visit per person is given by:
Yzx(140-120)x 1 =$10
(c) The total consumer surplus for an average visit (i.e. 5 visits per annum)
is 5 x $10 =$50.
(d) The aggregate consumer surplus per annum for the national park is given
by: $50 x 50,000 = $2.5 million.
Note: the above analysis assumes there is no entry fee.

Answers to Numerical Exercises 363
Question 3
(a) If the project does not go ahead the average farm price will be given by:
Farm price= 500000 + 30(200)- 100(15) + 2000(0) = $504,500.
(b) If the project goes ahead the average farm price will be given by:
Farm price= 500000 + 30(200)- 100(15) + 2000(1) = $506,500.
(b) The change in average farm price if the project goes is $506,500-
$504,500 = $2000. This result could also have been obtained by
differentiating the hedonic price equation with respect to IRRIG.
Question 4
Given an entry fee of $1, demand for visits will be 5500 persons. The
consumer surplus will be given by:
Yz X ($4- $1) X 5500 =$8250
If the entry fee is increased to $3, demand will fall to 2000 and the consumer
surplus will be:
1/z X ($4- $3) X 2000 =$1000
The loss in consumer surplus is given by: $8250-$1000 = $7250.
Chapter6
Question 1
The NPV at a 10% discount rate for Project A is $324,070 and that of
Project B is $779,010. Therefore, Project B is more profitable.
Question 2
For Project A, the present value of costs, using a 10% discount rate is
$867.77 and the present value of total benefits is $2073.64. Therefore the
cost-benefit ratio is 2073.64/867.77 = 2.39.
For Project B, the present value of costs, using a 10% discount rate is
$1735.54 and the present value of total benefits is $2955.45. Therefore the
benefit-cost ratio is 2955.4511735.5401 = 1.70.
The rankings are not the same as in (1). Comparing just the BCRs, we will
rank Project A above B because it has a higher BCR.
Question 3
The IRR for Project A is 15%, and 18% for Project B. On the basis of the
IRRs, Project B is preferred to Project A.
Question 4
The NPV and IRR provide the same ranking, while the BCR provides a
diferent ranking to the other two. The BCR is not reliable for comparing
projects of different sizes and is not suitable for ranking projects.
Question 5
The sensitivity analysis of the effects of changes in benefits and costs on the
estimated IRR is as follows:
Change in net economic benefits

-40% -20% 0% +20% +40%
Change -40% 18 26 33 39 45
in -20% 10 18 24 30 35
total 0% 5 12 18 23 28
costs +20% 1 8 13 18 22
+40% -3 4 9 14 18
The estimated IRR is fairly robust to small changes in benefits and costs. For
example, a 20% reduction in the estimated net economic benefits, with no
changes in costs reduces the IRR to 12%, which is above the discount rate of
10%. A 20% increase in costs (with benefits unchanged) reduces the IRR to
13%, which is above the discount rate of 10%.
Question 6
(a) On the basis of just the NPVs, Option 2 - Pollute and clean up would
be preferred.
(b) If there were a chance of irreversible damage to the environment, Option

1 - Prevent pollution would be recommended. This is because the cost
of irreversible damage would be very high and likely to off-set the total
benefits of the pollute and clean up option.
Index
Aaheim, A., 333,347 Bangladesh, 248, 261

abiotic, 14 Barbier, E.B., 12, 34, 286, 294, 326
access to credit, 246, 248 Barde, J-P., 287, 294
acid rain, 351 Bamett, H.J., 234, 252
Adamowicz, W.L., 112, 117, 137 Bamey, G.O., 232, 252
Asian Development Bank, 295,321 Bartelmus, P.L.P., 313, 325, 333, 342,
administrative charges, 87 343,345,348
afforestation benefits, 155 BCR. See benefit-cost ratio
Agenda 21,320,321 Beal, D.J., 123, 124, 137, 139
aggregation techniques, 211, 223 Beckerman, W., 252, 277
Ahmed, Y.A., 330 Beghin, J., 265, 294
aircraft noise, 125, 126 benefit transfer method, 121, 130, 133
Alaska, 109, 195 benefit-cost ratio, 160
Alberta, 111, 112, 13 7 Bennett, J.W., 137
Amir, S., 26, 33 bequest value, Ill, 133
Anaman, K.A., 177 Bergman, I., 12, 34
Anderson, K., 139, 265, 293 beta distribution, 168
Antle, J.M., 240, 252, 270, 274, 276, 293 Bianciardi, C., 25, 34
Araya, B., 239, 252 bias, 118, 131, 235
Aristotle, 308 bid vehicle, 114, 118, 133
arithmetic rate, 230 bidding games, 114
Arrow, Kenneth, 21, 36, Ill, 115, 137, biodiversity, 4, 29, 56, 67, 198,204,209,
230,277 211,255,278,279,281,282,
Asafu-Adjaye, J., 103, 112, 137,239, 283,284,285,288,289,291,
241,245,252,254,274,276, 292,293,303,317,338,343,
278,286,293,320,342,348 344,359
assimilative capacity, 18,229, 237, 304, biodiversity loss, 205, 206, 285
329 biogeophysical sustainability, 306
Atkinson, G., 334, 349 biotic, 14
Atlantic cod, 352 Bishop, R.C., 115, 137,319,324
Atlantic surf clam, 89 black market premium, 282, 284, 292
Australia, 89,131, 137, 139,261,321 Blarney, R.K., 137, 138
autotrophs, 15 Bockstael, N.E., 35, 123, 137
Ayres, R.U., 12, 20, 25, 26, 27, 34, 36 Boulding, K.E., 12, 34
Bandara,, J.S., 28, 34, 265, 294 Brazil, 235, 290
Bandyopadhyay, S., 273, 274, 276, 297 break-even analysis, 164, 166
365
break-even value, 166 Clawson, M., 121, 137

Brisbane, 137, 139, 188 close ended, 114
Brooks, D.R., 34 closed system, 12, 13, 14, 16, 19, 20, 21,
Brown, R., 253,338,341, 348 22,24,25,30,31,233,305
Brundtland Commission. See WCED Club of Rome, 232, 254
Burgess, J.C., 354, 356 CMT. See Customary Marine Tenure
CAC. See command-and-control customary marine tenure, 241
Cameron, T.A., 131, 137 C02 emissions, 69, 273, 278, 282, 296
Canarvon Gorge National Park, 123, 124 Coase, R., 77, 78, 79, 82, 101
capital accumulation, 313 Coasian solution, 98
capital stock, 268, 270, 304, 311, 313, Cobb, J.B., 256,294
322 Cole, M.A., 274, 275, 294
carbon taxes, 354 Columbia, 35, 235
Caribbean, I, 236, 246, 258 combined approach, 132
Camot, Sadi, 19, 20, 34 command-and-control, 83, 98, 354
Carraro, C., 287, 294 common property, 67
Carrying Capacity (K), 38, 315, 324, 326 Common, M., 276
Carson, R.T., 131, 137 comparative advantage, 263, 292, 293
Casler, S., 27, 34 complements, 45
Cattle Creek Catchment, 215, 216,218, computable general equilibrium (CGE)
222,224,225 models, 27, 193
CBA. See cost-benefit analysis concensus rnaximisation, 211, 223
cost-benefit analysis, 5, 141, 145, 159, concordance methods, 211, 213
161, 174, 185,200 conditions for sustainable development,
Centre for Economic Policy Modelling 309
(CEPM), 340, 348 congestion goods, 66, 68
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), 177, 274, conjoint analysis, 116, 117
336 conservation of mass principle, 12
CGE models. See computable general constant prices, 151, 173, 178
equilibrium models consumer surplus, 55, 59, 263
Chan, M-K., 196, 198,201 consumptive use, 110, 133
Chapman, D., 278, 297 contingent ranking, 116, 119, 133
characteristics of property rights, 65 contingent rating, 116, 119, 133
charges, 56, 83, 86, 87, 88, 89, 92, 99, contingent valuation method (CVM), 113,
100, 150, 154, 155, 190, 354 132, 134
chemical exergy, 20 costmethods, 121,129,130,134,333
Chichilnisky, A., 264, 294 Costanza, R., I 0, 26, 30, 35, 304
China,247,259,261,299,351 cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA), 5, 185,
choice modelling, 116, 117, 132, 133, 200
134 Coxhead, 1., 28, 34, 35, 265, 294
Chrysler Motor Company, 290 Crocker, T.D., 12, 35
Ciriacy-Wantrup, S.V., 319,325 switching value, 166
Clark, N., 12, 35 cross-price elasticity, 45
Clausius, Rudolph, 20, 21,24 Cruz, M.C.J., 242, 252
Index 367
cultural diversity, 306 discount rate, 149, 159, 160, 161, 162,
Cumberland, J.H., 27, 35 165, 174, 187, 188, 191
customary marine tenure (CMT), 68, I 03, discounting, 158
241 Dixon, J.A., 138
CVM. See contingent valuation method DNR. See Department of Natural
d'Arge, R.C., 35 Resources, See Department of
Daly, H., 23, 35, 232, 253, 256, 294, 325 Natural Resources
damage assesment, 185, 195 Dosi, G., 22, 36
Dasgupta, P., 175, 333, 348 double-bounded referendum, 114, 115
Davis, R.K., 121, 137 Downing, R., 351,356
discounted cash flow (DCF), 186, 187, Driml, S., 123, 138
188, 191, 192 Dudal, R, 238, 253
de Bruyn, S.M., 275, 294 dummy variable, 136, 281, 282
deadweight loss, 74 Earth Summit, 301,352
debt-for-nature swaps, 289, 290, 293 East Asia, I, 236, 246, 257, 258
defensive expenditures, 311, 333 eco domestic product, 313
defensive-expenditure method, 129 ecolabelling, 92, 94, 99
deforestation, 197,238, 239, 242,245, ecological economics, 3, 9, 10, 11, 13, 27,
259,273,275,279,285,291, 30, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 137,
351,352,355 138,176,277,295,296,297,
Delphi method, 210 326,348,349
demand curve. See marginal benefit curve ecological footprint, 297, 312, 316, 324,
demand function, 27, 42, 47, 58, 59, 115, 326,327
361 ecological functions, 12, 13
demographic approach, 197 ecologically sustainable development
demographic transition hypothesis, 235 (ESD) 304, 317
Department of Finance, 159, 176 ecology, 10
Department oflnterior (DOl), 195 econometrics, 3
Department of Natural Resources, 214 economic analysis, 39, 146,318, 322, 324
depletion costs, 342 economic efficiency, 57, 186, 199, 204,
depletion of natural resources, 250, 259, 232
277,313,314,331,335,341 economic growth, vi, I, 21, 24, 25, 169,
deposit-refund scheme, 92 208,229,230,231,232,235,
depreciation, 18, 149, 173,310 249,250,255,256,258,259,
depreciation of natural capital, 314 261,268,270,272,273,277,
Diamond, P., 268,294 281,285,286,291,304,308,
dichotomous choice, 114, 115, 133 309,313,322,330,353,355
diminishing marginal productivity, 231 economic incentives, 67
utility; marginal utility, 11, 39, 41, 42, 44, economic life, 152, 160, 173
58, 60, 71, 72, 110, 114, 115, economic system, 14, 16, 18, 22, 24, 27,
142, 143, 145, 148,205, 213, 29,30,330
268,269,278 economic trends, 257
diminishing value method, 152, 173 economy-environment system, 10, 12, 18,
31,32
ecosystem, 3, 4, 11, 13, 14, 16, 25, 26, equilibrium quantity, 50

27,29,30,31,306,309,324 equipreference curves, 205
ecosystem services, 264 equity, 86, 88, 96, 97, 105, 186, 196, 199,
ecosystems, 15, 351 204,241,290,303,305,307,
Eddington, Sir Arthur, 21 308,310,317,320,322,334,
education, 131, 194,235,246,247,248, 338
250 Eritrea, 23 9, 241
effectiveness, 5, 95, 185, 186, 187, 188, Economic Commission for Asia and the
191, 199, 200,223, 321 Pacific (ESCAP), 295, 325
effects table, 209,215 Ethiopia, 239
Ehrlich, P.R, 232, 253 ethylene dibromide, 266
EKC hypothesis, 266,272, 273,277,285, EU. See European Union
291, 292, See environmental European Union, 352, 356
Kuznets curve hypothesis evaluating the alternatives, 211, 223
El Niiio, 258 evolution, 11,21
El Serafy, S., 343,347,348 evolutionary economics, 22
elasticity, 44 exergetic efficiency, 25
embedding effect, 118, 119, 133 exergy, 20
emission standards, 57 exhaustible resources, 4
empirical EKC Studies, 273 existence value, Ill, 133
energy consumption, 255, 275 expressed preference. See stated
Engels, F., 234, 253 preference
entropy, 253 external cost, 56, 71,74
entropy law, 19, 20, 21, See Second Law external diseconomy, 71
entropy, definition of, 20 external economy, 71
environment and development externalities, 23, 33, 70, 72, 263, 265
economics, 277, 294, 295, Exxon Valdez, 109, 195
296,326 Faber, M., 10, 11, 25,36
environment impact assessment, 191 family size, 235,237,247,250, 251
environmental degradation, 5, 18, 159, FAO. See Food and Agriculture
172,229,230,234,237,243, Organisation
250,256,265,266,277,279, Far North Queensland, 215
282,286,292,301,331,355 feedback, 12, 14,16,31
environmental depletion, 343, 344 Fiji, 95, 103, 245, 254, 266, 299
environmental economics, 2, 3, 5, 10, 13, financial analysis, 146
30 financial risk, 169
environmental quality, 292 fines, 247
environmental risks, 169 first arrow of time, 21
environmental space, 313, 316, 325 first law of thermodynamics, 19, 31, 305
environmental trends, 257, 258 Fisher, A.C., Ill, 137, 138
environmentally adjusted domestic flow of materials, 14
product, 312,313 focal group approach, 197, 200
environmentally friendly technology Food and Agriculture Organisation
(EFT}, 266,321,322 (FAO), 351,356
Index 369
cultural diversity, 306 discount rate, 149, 159, 160, 161, 162,
Cumberland, J.H., 27, 35 165, 174, 187, 188, 191
customary marine tenure (CMT), 68, 103, discounting, 158
241 Dixon, J.A., 138
CVM. See contingent valuation method DNR. See Department of Natural
d' Arge, R.C., 35 Resources, See Department of
Daly, H., 23, 35, 232, 253, 256, 294, 325 Natural Resources
damage assesment, 185, 195 Dosi, G., 22, 36
Dasgupta, P., 175, 333, 348 double-bounded referendum, 114, 115
Davis, R.K., 121, 137 Downing, R., 351, 356
discounted cash flow (DCF), 186, 187, Driml, S., 123, 138
188, 191, 192 Dudal, R, 238, 253
de Bruyn, S.M., 275, 294 dummy variable, 136, 281, 282
deadweight loss, 74 Earth Summit, 301,352
debt-for-nature swaps, 289, 290, 293 East Asia, I, 236, 246, 257, 258
defensive expenditures, 311, 333 eco domestic product, 313
defensive-expenditure method, 129 ecolabelling, 92, 94, 99
deforestation, 197, 238, 239, 242,245, ecological economics, 3, 9, 10, 11, 13, 27,
259,273,275,279,285,291, 30,33,34,35,36,37, 137,
351,352,355 138,176,277,295,296,297,
Delphi method, 210 326, 348, 349
demand curve. See marginal benefit curve ecological footprint, 297,313,316,324,
demand function, 27, 42, 47, 58, 59, 115, 326,327
361 ecological functions, 12, 13
demographic approach, 197 ecologically sustainable development
demographic transition hypothesis, 235 (ESD) 304,317
Department of Finance, 159, 176 ecology, 10
Department of Interior (DOl), 195 econometrics, 3
Department of Natural Resources, 214 economic analysis, 39, 146, 318, 322, 324
depletion costs, 342 economic efficiency, 57, 186, 199, 204,
depletion of natural resources, 250, 259, 232
277,313,314,331,335,341 economic growth, xii, 1, 21, 24, 25, 169,
deposit-refund scheme, 92 208,229,230,231,232,235,
depreciation, 18, 149, 173, 310 249,250,255,256,258,259,
depreciation of natural capital, 314 261,268,270,272,273,277,
Diamond, P., 268,294 281,285,286,291,304,308,
dichotomous choice, 114, 115, 133 309,313,322,330,353,355
diminishing marginal productivity, 231 economic incentives, 67
utility; marginal utility, 11, 39, 41, 42, 44, economic life, 152, 160, 173
58,60,71,72, 110,114,115, economic system, 14, 16, 18, 22, 24, 27,
142, 143, 145, 148, 205, 213, 29,30,330
268,269,278 economic trends, 257
diminishing value method, 152, 173 economy-environment system, 10, 12, 18,
31, 32
Hotelling, 121 input-output models, 27, 193

housing subsidies, 156 institutional capacity, 322
HPM. See hedonic price method institutional development, 282, 287, 317
Huber, R., 91, 101 use value, Ill, 319
Hueting, R., 333, 349 integrated models, 28
Hufschmidt, M.M., 130, 138 integrated, multi-scale, transdisciplinary,
human development index (HDI), 312, and pluralistic (IMTP)
315,324 approach, 30
Hundloe, T., 123, 124, 138 intensity of preference, 144
Hviding, E., 103, 106 interest, 149, 297
hypothetical bias, 118, 133 intergenerational equity, 303, 305, 307,
International Energy Agency, 6 320,322
illiteracy rate, I, 246 Inter-Governmental Committee on
impact analysis, 5, 185, 186, 191, 192, Ecologically Sustainable
199,200 Development, 321
implications of the first law, 23 internal rate of return (IRR), 160, 167
thermodynamics; the laws of, 9 International Energy Agency (lEA), 6
implications of the laws of international financing, 289
thermodynamics, 22 International Union for the Conservation
implications of the second law, 23 of Nature and Natural
implicit costs, 153, 154 Resources (IUCN), 253, 306,
income (or wealth) effects, 82 325
income distribution, I, 249 intragenerational equity, 305, 307, 308
income effects, 82, 98, 99 intrinsic use value. See non-use value
income elasticity, 46 IOE models. See input-otput econometric
income inequality, 245, 248, 250, 334 models
incremental approach, 148, 173 IRR. See internal rate of return
incremental net economic costs, 162 irreversible environmental damage, 320
index of economic freedom, 282, 292 ISEW. See index of sustainable economic
index of sustainable economic welfare welfare
(!SEW), 312,314, 324 ISO 14000,94
India,245,247,259,26l,286,299,351 isolated system, 13, 20, 21,31
indirect use value, 110 ITCM. See individual travel cost method
individual transferable quota (ITQ), 89 ITQ. See individual transferble quota
individual travel cost method (ITCM). James, D.E., 12, 36, 138
121, 122, 123 Janssen, R., 210,211,214,224
Indonesia, 28, 37, 239, 242, 247, 249, Japan,25,258,261,286,299,353
258,259,261,286,299,352, Java, 242
356 Jeyaratnam, J., 240, 253
infant mortality, l, 247,261,291,351 John Stuart Mill, 231
inferior good, 47 John, A., 268, 295, 303
information bias, 118, 120, 133 Jorgensen, D.W., 325
input-output analysis, 12 Juma, C., 12, 35
input-output econometric model, 28 Kahn, H., 234, 253
Index 371
Kahneman, D., 119, 138 Little, I.M.D., 176

Kaoru, Y., 121, 139 logging, 136, 197, 198, 208, 210, 211,
Kask, S.B., 130, 138 344
Kealy, M.J., 130, 139 logitmodels, 115,116,117,123,133
kinetic exergy, 20 Loomis, J.B., 123, 138, 139
Klein, Lawrence, 28 Lopez, R., 269, 296
Kling,C.L., 131,138 Louviere,J.J., 117,137,138
Kneese, A.V., 12, 27, 33, 36 low-entropy, 14, 20
Knetsch, J.L., 119, 138 Lutz, E., 265, 296, 347, 348
Kogiku, K.C., 27, 35 MAC. See marginal abatement cost
Komen, M.H.C., 287, 295 MacArthur, R.H., 279, 296
Koop, G., 242,253 Mackenzie, J., 120, 138
Krautkraemer, J.A., 159, 176 macroeconomics, 3
Krueger, A.G., 253, 272, 273, 274, 277, Mahony, R., 290, 296
295 Malaysia, 235, 258, 259, 261, 299
Kiimmel, R., 25, 36 Maler, K.G., 333, 334, 349
Kuznets, Simon, 253,266,268,291,292, Malthus, T.R., 230
294,296,297 Malthusian population model, 251
Kyoto Protocol, 353 Mankiw, N. G., 62
Lamington National Park, 123, 124 Marcos, Ferdinand, 290
Lancaster, K.J., 125, 138 Mareeba-Dimbulah Irrigation Area
land degradation, 129, 237, 238, 239, (MDIA), 215
240,241,242,243,245,250, marginal abatement costs, 89
251 marginal benefit, 79
Laplace's Demon, 21 marginal benefit curve. See demand
Latin America, I, 236,246,257,258,274 curve, See demand curve, See
Latin America and the Caribbean, I 0 I, demand curve
258 marginal benefits, 263
law of conservation of mass and energy, marginal cost, 50
19 marginal external cost, 74, 79, 82
law of demand, 43 marginal private cost, 74
laws of motion, 21 marginal rate of transformation, 270, 292
laws of thermodynamics, 9, 18, 20, 24, marginal revenue, 50
30, 31, 32 marginal social cost, 74, 263, 269
Lawson,R.A., 176,282,295 marginal-utility of income, 145, 173
Layzer, D., 36 Markandya, A., 159, 176, 326
Leontieff, W., 27, 36 market clearing price, 50
lexicographic technique, 211,212, 223 market cost, 129, 133
Liddle, B.T., 278, 295 market demand, 41, 47, 69,75
life expectancy, I, 235,247, 261,291, market failure, 23, 100,256
292,315,351 market value, 128, 130
limits to growth, 232, 234, 251 marketable permits, 83, 86, 89, 90, 99,
List, A.J., 134, 200, 223, 251, 252, 276, 287
296,299,323 market-based incentive mechanisms, 98
market-cost methods. See market cost morbidity, 154, 156, 189, 190,247
Marshal\, A., 12, 36 Morgan, M.G., 164, 176, 253
Martinas, K., 25, 34 Morrison,M.D., 117,131,137,138
material and energy flows, 23 Morse, C., 234, 252
material death, 24 mortality, 150, 156, 189, 190,235, 237,
material entropy, 24 247
materials balance, 12, 18, 23, 303, 305, MR. See marginal revenue
322 MRT. See marginal rate of transformation
market structure, 74 multi-attribute utility, 212, 213,223
maximum sustained yield, 11 multi-criteria analysis, 203, 204
Mayr, E., 11, 37 multiple regression, 27, 116, 126
MC. See marginal cost multi-site travel cost model, 123
MCA. See Multi-Criteria Analysis Munasinghe, Mohan, 224, 306, 325
multi-criteria analysis, 223 Nadel, S.F., 241,254
McConnell, K.E., 269, 270, 278, 296 North American Free Trade Agreement,
McDonald, G., 138 253,273,295
Meadows, D., 232, 254 National Average Fuel Consumption
measure of project worth. See project (NAFC) program, 354
performance criterion National Greenhouse Response Strategy,
measures of effectiveness, 187, 188 321
measuring sustainable development, 301 National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Megill, R.E., 164, 176 Administration (NOAA), 115,
Mexico, 289 139
microeconornics, 3 natural environment, 4, 18, 63, 105, 134,
micro-macroeconometric models, 28 249,304,313,319,329,331,
Milan, J.W., 35 333
mineral depletion, 341 natural resource economics, 3, 10, 11
mining, 74,338,340,343,344 natural selection, 11
Mirlees, J.A., 176 nature conservancy, 290
mitigation cost, 129 negative externality, 11, 73
Mitroff, I., 195, 201 Nelson, J.P., 12, 22, 127, 139
model(s), 14, 26, 27,32 Nelson, R.R., 36
multi-objective decision making; multi- neoclassical economics, 11, 13,23
objective decision support traditional economic system, 15
system, 204 neo-Malthusian, 232
Moene, K.O., 249, 254 net energy, 26
monetary environmental accounts, 331 net environmental benefits, 318, 319
monetary value, 126 net incremental benefit, 151 , 173
monitoring and enforcement, 91 net present value (NPV), 158, 159, 160,
monopolistic competition, 40 16~ 171, 17~ 17~ 181
monopoly, 40, 76, 102 net price approach, 342
monopsony, 40 net primary productivity (NPP), 312, 315
Monte Carlo simulations, 171 net private capital, I
Moomaw, W.R, 278, 296, 297 net saving, 335
Index 373
net social benefits, 145, 172 Our Common Future, 234, 254, 255, 298,
Netherlands, 275, 287 301
New South Wales, 131,139 overgrazing, 238, 240, 245
New Zealand, 89 overlapping-generations, 268, 292
newly industrialised economies, 249 Overseas Development Assistance
Newton, Sir lsaac, 21 (ODA), 77
non-governmental organisations (NGOs), own-price elasticity of demand, 44
198 Pacific Islands, I 03
Nijkamp, P., 12, 38,214,224 Pacific region, 257,258,259,261,321,
nitrous oxide, 274 351
Noble, S.B., 27, 34 paired comparison, 116, 119, 133
non-consumptive use, 110, 133 Palisade Corporation, 168, 176
non-exclusive, 67, 68, 98 Panayotou, T., 273, 274, 275, 287, 296
non-market goods, 23 Papua New Guinea (PNG), 95, 103, 105,
nonmonetary accounts, 332 106,241,252,299,324,342,
non-renewable resources, 4, 10, 25, 305, 343,345,348
331 Pareto improvement, 73, 81, 145, 161
non-response bias, 118, 121 Pareto irrelevant, 73
non-rival, 67, 68, 98 Pareto optimality, 64
non-use value, 110, Ill, 113,121,132, Pareto-relevant externality, 73, 81, 98
133,319 Parsons, G.R., 130, 139
Nordhaus, W.D., 12, 37 partial equilibrium models, 27
Norgaard, R.B., 12, 30,37 part-whole bias, 118, 120
North America, 232, 253, 258, 273, 295, part-worth, 116
351 passive use value. See non-use value, See
NPP. See net primary productivity non-use value
NPV. See net present value payback period, 160
Nyborg, K., 333, 347 payment card, 114, 119
Odum, H., 26, 37 Pearce, D., 76, 78, 86, 87, 101, 159, 176,
Organisation for Economic Cooperation 211,225,241,242,243,254,
and Development (OECD), 307,309,326,334,349
77,96, 101,225,274,288, Pecchenino, R., 268, 295
295,296,336,354 pecuniary externalities, 72, 73
offset-banking, 89 perfect competition, 60, 75, 76, 82, 98,
oligopoly, 40 145
open access goods, 66, 67 performance bonds, 92
open system, 13, 14, 16,22 performance criteria, 141, 146, 158, 160,
open-ended, 114 161,165,168,172,222
operating and maintenance costs, 150, performance rating, 86, 92, 94
153, 154, 155 permanent income stream, 342
opportunity cost, 3, 63, 130, 145, 149, Pezzey, J., 303, 304, 326
151,153,172,246,250 Philippines, 28, 258, 259, 261, 290, 299
option value, 111, 128, 133 physical degradation, 238
physical exergy, 20
physical resource accounts, 331, 342 project performance criteria, 165, 168,
Pigou, A.C., 87, 101 170
Pigovian tax, 87 property rights, 54, 63, 64, 65, 66, 68, 72,
Pindyck, R.S., 62. 73, 75, 78, 80, 81, 82, 83, 98,
Pingali, P., 252 187, I 98, 265, 287
planning period (or horizon), 152, 160, public goods, 41, 55, 64, 68, 98, 272
161, 162, 173 public health, 130, 247, 250, 252
Plant, R., 27, 36 purchasing power parity, 259
policy (government) failure, 77 pure public goods, 66, 67, 69
political acceptability, 97 qualitative risk assessment, 170
political economy model, 272, 292 quasi-option value, I I I
Pollak, R.A., 269, 296 Queensland, 123, 124, 137, 138, 139,
polluter-pays principle (PPP), 87 188, 215,216, 225,254, 338,
pollution, I 8, 329 339,340,341,342,348
pollution abatement costs, 56, 86, 87 Resource Assessment Commission, 225
pollution damages, 332, 333, 334, 335, Ramchandani, R., 86, 101
347 random utlity model (RUM), I 15, 123
population density, 285 Rauscher, M., I 2, 34
population growth, 5, 229, 230, 232, 234, raw materials, 14, 16, 17, 18,19,329
235,236,237,238,239,240, Ready, R.C., I 15, 139
241,242,243,246,247,250, real rate, 159, 161
251,252 recreational value, 124
population pressure, 239, 240,282 recyclable resources, 4
positive checks, 230 recycled water benefits, 155
positive externality, 71 recycling, 23, 24, 25, 27, 306
positive feedback, 237 Redclift, M., 308, 326
potential field exergy, 20 redfish, 352
poverty,211,243,245,248,254,355 reduced mortality benefits, 154
participatory rural appraisal, 198, 200 Rees, W., 316
Prasad, B.C., 245, 254 Reiling, S.D., 131, 139
precautionary principle, 86 relevant externalities, 72
Prigogine, 1., 21, 37 renewable resources, 4, 305, 324, 331,
primary costs and benefits, 149, 173 336
Principles of Economics, 12 renewable service flows, 4
private goods, 41 Repetto,R.,246,254,326,330,349
probability distribution, 168, 213 Republic of Korea, 258, 261, 351
probitmodels, 115,116,123,133 reputationa\ approach, \97
producer surplus, 56, 59, 263 residual (or salvage) values, 152
product charges, 87 residual value, 152, 153, 173
production function, 49, 58, 59, 72, 270 resilience, 309
production possibilities frontier (PPF), resource rent, 336, 337, 340
270,292 revealed preference, I 12, I 17, 133, 134
production/consumption models, 269 Ricardian, 231, See Ricardo
Ricardo, D., 231
Index 375
Rio de Janeiro, 106, 327, 352 Shaw, R., 216, 225

Rio Declaration, 105, 106,301 Shearer, Waiter, 306, 325
risk, 164 Shogren, J.F., 35, 130, 138
risk analysis, 168, 173,213 Simon, J.L.., 234, 237, 254
risk margin, 160 Smith,V.K., 121, 139
risk-free rate, 159, 173 SMS. See safe-minimum standard
Roberts, M.J., 354, 356 system of national accounts (SNA), 310,
Robinson, J.B., 26, 37 322
Robinson, J.J., 215,216,218,219 sulphur dioxide, 266, 273, 274, 285, 291
Rose, K., 216 Soccimarro, M, 139
Roy, B, 213, 225 social/cultural impact assessment, 191
rapid rural appraisal, 198,201 socially optimal level of forestry, 57
Rubinfeld, D., 62 socially optimum standard, 84
RUM. See random utility model soil erosion, 56, 209,211, 237,238,239,
Ruth, M., 23, 25, 37 240,245
Ruttan, V.W., 266,297 Solomon Islands, 103, 104, 106
Saaty, T.L., 210, 225 Solomon, A., 106,297,304,326
Saddler, H., 326, 356 Solow, R.M., 115, 304, 307, 326
safe minimum standard (SMS), 206, 319 Song,266
322 South America, 258
Samuelson, P., 268,297 South Asia, 236, 246, 254, 257, 258
Schrodinger, E., 22, 37 South Korea, 246, 249, 286
Schweitzer, M., 166, 176 southern bluefin tuna, 89
scoring the alternatives, 206 Spaceship Earth, 12
scrap value, 152 species, 37
second arrow of time, 22 Spence, M., 354, 356
second law. See second law of suspended particulate matter, 209, 274
thermodynamics Squire, L., 176
second law of thermodynamics, 20, 21, Sri Lanka,28,34,261,265,294,299
22, 31,25, 233,251,353 staged construction, 153
secondary costs and benefits, 149 stakeholder analysis, 5, 186, 195, 196,
SEEA. See system of environmental and 199,200
economic accounting stakeholder interests, 196, 198
system of environmental and economic starting point bias, 118, 119
accounting, 322, 347 stated preference, 117, 118, 134
Selden, 266 static and dynamic externalities, 73
self-organisation, I 0, 22 steady-state economy, 232
semi (quasi) public goods, 68 status of women, 248
sensitivity analysis, 146, 160, 164, 165, steady-state economy, 23
166, 168, 170, 171, 173, 174, Steer, A., 317, 326
188,213 Stengers, 1., 21, 37
Serageldin, I, 317, 326 steps in multi-criteria analysis, 203, 206,
shadow pricing, 151 223
Shafik,N.,273,274,276,297 steps in stakeholder analysis, 185, 200
Stem, D.l., 276 Tietenberg, T., 97, 102

Stiglitz, J.E., 76, 102 Tisdell, C., 3, 6
Stoeckl, N., 139 tobit models, 123
strategic behaviour, 70 Tolba, ~ustafa, 303, 327
strategic bias, 118, 119, 133 Tole, L., 242, 253
strong sustainability, 309, 319, 322 Toman, ~.A., 12, 37, 308,327
Strong,~aurice,307,309,327 total economic value (TEV), 110, Ill,
Strutt, A., 28, 37 113,133,319
stumpage price, 11, 56 total rents, 336
Sub-SaharanAfiica,236,246,257,258 total value, 115
subsidies, 53, 77, 78, 83, 86, 89, 99, 149, trade and the environment, 5, 255, 291
154,156,247,250,286,287, trade liberalisation, 265
354 tradeable pollution permits. See
substitutes, 45 marketable permits
sulphur dioxide, 17 trade-off curve, 205, 211, 223
Sundaram, K., 254 traditional economic system, 13
supply curve, 39, 40, 50, 53, 54, 56, 57, Economic system, 35
59, 74, 79 traditional property rights, 92
Suri, V., 278, 297 traffic noise. See aircraft noise
sustainability, 9, 12, 25,230, 233,301, transactions costs, 72, 82, 91, 98
307,308,309,319,320,322 transboundary pollutants, 332, 334
sustainable development, 6, 9, 32, 233, travel cost method (TC~), 121 , 125
234,250,256,262,289,291, triangular distribution, 168, 170
301,303,305,307,308,317, trichotomous choice, 114, 115
320,321,322,323 true income, 343
system of environmental and economic Tschirhart, J., 12, 35
accounts (SEEA), 313 Turner, R.K., 76, 87, 101,211,225,253,
system of land tenure, 240, 241 327,307
systems analysis, 12 turning point, 266, 286, 291, 292
systems dynamics, 12 United States (US), 109, 232, 278
Tak, van der, H. G., 176 Ulanowicz, R.E., 26, 33, 38
TC~. See travel cost method UN. See United Nations
technological change, 271 uncertainty, 164
technology standards, 83 UNDP. See United Nations Development
Teisl, ~.F., 131, 139 Program
temperature gradient, 20, 21 uniform distribution, 168
Tendulka, S.D, 254 United Nations, 6, 273, 327, 356
Termura, 282 United Nations Development Programme
Thailand, 249,258,261,299,351 (UNDP), 6
The Population Bomb, 232, 253 United Nations Environment Programme,
thermodynamics, 9, 10, 19,31 289
thermodynamics models, 22 United Nations Statistical Office
third world debt, 290, 355 (UNSO), 313
Thomas, H., 164, 176 Unruh, G.C., 278, 296, 297
Index 377
UNSO. See United Nations Statistical Wilcoxen, P.J., 325

Office Wiley, E.O., 22, 34
use value, I !0, 113, 133 Wilkenfeld, G., 354, 356
user charges, 87, !54 Williams, M., 137
user cost approach, 342 willingness-to-pay, 44, 55, 59, 70, 80,
value, 13, 14,26,31,33,63,64, 116, Ill, 113,143,172
142, 151 Wilson, C., 240
van den Berg, J.C.J.M., 12, 38 Wilson, E.O., 240, 254, 279, 295, 296,
van Herwijnen, M., 214,224 297
Van Pelt, M.J.F., 225 Winter, S.G., 12
van Tongeren,J,333,348 WMO. See World Meteorological
Vanuatu, 95, 103 Organisation
vehicle bias, 119 Woodworth, G., 117, 138
vertical summation, 69, 70, 99 working capital, 153,162,174
Vitousek, P., 315,327 World Bank, I, 6, 101, 156, 158, 161,
voluntary agreements, 287, 288, 292, 354 224,236,246,254,257,258,
Wackernagel, M., 316,326,327 261,273,276,277,282,289,
Wackernagel, N., 274, 276, 297 297,298,310,326,330,335,
Wales, T.J., 269, 296 336,338,339,341,347,348,
Wall, G., 25, 38 356,358
Ward, F.A., 123, 139 World Conservation Strategy, 233
Warford, J.J., 241,242 World Health Organization (WHO), 6
waste; waste products, 12, 14, 16, 17, 18, World Resources, 282, 298, 326, 349,
20,23,24,25,31,306,329 358
water treatment cost savings, 157 World Summit on Sustainable
World Commission on Environment and Development (WSSD), 303,
Development (WCED), 234, 359
254,298,301,307,327 World Wildlife Fund for Nature, 290
WCS. See World Conservation Strategy willingness to accept in compensation,
World Conservation Strategy, 253, 309 113, 133
weak sustainability, 309, 319, 322 Yakowitz, D.S., 216,217,225
wealth and employment status, 246 zero marginal cost, 67, 68, 98
West Germany, 275, 287 zero population growth, 232, 233,251
Wet Tropics World Heritage Area, 123, Zimbabwe, 249
124, 138 zonal travel cost method (ZTCM), 121,
Wiig, H., 28, 38 122
Wilbur, S., 27, 34

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ENVIRONMENTAL

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

ENVIRONMENTAL ECONOMICS FOR NON-ECONOMISTS (2nd Edition)

Printed in Singapore by Mainland Press

1.1 The Role of Environmental Economics 2

Part I. Introduction to Environmental Economics:

2. Incorporating the Environment into the Economic System:

3. How Markets are Supposed to Work 39

3.4 Producer Behaviour and Supply 49

4. Why Markets 'Fail' 63

Part II. Tools for Environmental Policy Analysis 107

5. Environmental Valuation 109

5.1 Introduction 109

6. Cost-Benefit Analysis 141

6.1 Introduction 141

7. Cost-Effectiveness Analysis, Impact Analysis,

7.1 Introduction 185

8. Multi-Criteria Analysis 203

8.1 Introduction 203

Part Ill. Global Environmental Issues 227

9. Population Growth, Resource Use and the Environment 229

9.1 Introduction 229

10. Economic Growth and the Environment 255

10.1 Introduction 255

10.8 Summary 291

11. Sustainable Development 301

12. Green Accounting and Measurement of Genuine Saving 329

12.1 Introduction 329

13. Assessment of Global Environmental Trends and

Useful Internet Resources 357

Answers to Numerical Exercises 361

1.1 The Role of Environmental Economics

every possible choice has an associated cost. We refer to this in economics

1.2 Defining the Natural Environment

1.3 Overview of this Book

environment. Part I leads off, in Chapter 2, with an introduction to the

Tisdell, C. (1993). Environmental Economics: Policies for Environmental

United Nations, UN (1997). Critical Trends: Global Change and Sustainable

United Nations Development Programme, UNDP (1997). Human Development

United Nations Development Programme, UNDP (1996). Human Development

World Bank (1999) World Development Indicators 1999CD-ROM. World Bank,

l:l explain the relationships between the economic and environmental

l:l describe various approaches to incorporating environmental concerns

discipline of ecological economics which attempts to link the environment to

2.2 What is Ecological Economics?

To give an example of how ecological economics and natural resource

A major obstacle impeding progress in attempts to incorporate ecological

2.3 Economy-Environment Systems

In an isolated system neither energy nor matter is exchanged

In the following sections, we consider a traditional economic system, an

2.3.1 A Traditional Economic System

in an opposite direction. To give an example of negative feedback, consider a

An increase in the density of the prey species initially stimulates an

production activities within the economic system. Once again, it must be

Figure 2.2 A schematic representation of an ecosystem