Life Cycle Assessment of Power Utility Poles - A Review

International Journal of Engineering Science Invention
ISSN (Online): 2319 6734, ISSN (Print): 2319 6726

www.ijesi.org ||Volume 6 Issue 2|| February 2017 || PP. 16-32
Life Cycle Assessment of Power Utility Poles A Review

G. D. Nimpa1, J. M. Njankouo1, P. S. Ngohe-Ekam2, T. Tamo Tatietse1
1
Dpartement de Gnie Civil, Ecole Nationale Suprieure Polytechnique (ENSP), Universit de Yaound I,
BP 8390 Yaound - Cameroun.
2
Dpartement de Mathmatiques et de Sciences Physiques, Ecole Nationale Suprieure Polytechnique (ENSP),
Universit de Yaound I, BP 8390 Yaound - Cameroun.
Abstract: Worldwide, overhead electricity distribution is performed using poles made from various materials.
The choice of the most efficient pole material is based on management strategies that integrate concerns for
environmental sustainability. By quantifying environmental impacts of products, life cycle assessment (LCA) is
a tool which can be very useful to decision-makers. But how, where and to which extent has it been applied to
power utility poles until now, and which accomplishments and challenges can be pointed out from the findings
of these LCA applications? To address these questions, a review of accessible published LCA studies of power
utility poles has been carried out. By employing well established literature review methodologies, a computer
search of journals, conference proceedings, and reports have been carried out and retrieved case studies have
been analyzed according to the criteria derived from the four phases of LCA international standards. From a
performed review process, it was realized that a total of 13 LCA case studies have been increasingly conducted
during these last 26 years in only four countries around the world. The case studies included both comparative
LCA of various pole materials and LCA of a single pole material. The main used utility pole materials, the main
considered functional units, the main assessed impact categories, the most considered environmentally friendly
pole material, and the main challenges in the field have been identified and documented. LCA constitute a useful
research field when studying the sustainability of power utility poles. Although existing case studies are scarce,
the review highlights several outstanding accomplishments which show what have been satisfactorily done and
what needs to be done. Currently, the topic is mainly limited to USA and Swedish researchers; developing
countries seem to have noting to do with and there is not yet a methodological consensus which could facilitate
a deep comparison between published case studies.
Keywords: Environmental impacts, Life cycle assessment (LCA), Material choice, Power distribution poles,
Review, Treated wood poles.
1. Introduction
Electricity is of the highest importance for achieving all modern conveniences inherent to our modern societies.
Undoubtedly Electricity has to be transported and distributed from distant power stations to consumers via
relays. Electricity distribution is generally performed using underground or overhead ways. Worldwide,
overhead electricity distribution is performed using utility poles. Utility poles, commonly referred to as power
poles, can be made alternatively of round wood, hallow wood (Veneer based composite or glulam), steel,
concrete, or fiber-reinforced composite materials to name only a few [1 - 4].
Regardless of the pole material used in the electric network, it negatively affects the environment during its life
cycle as it is the case for any product. These negative impacts however differ from one pole material to another.
Thus, evaluating the environmental impact of product choices is increasingly important to help address
sustainability issues. Moreover, considering the substitution principle which stipulates that, if possible, an
environmentally harmful chemical or material shall be substituted with a less dangerous one, as documented by
Hansson et al. [5], policy-makers or electric utilities faced up to the choice of the most sustainable pole material.
By quantifying environmental impacts of products, life cycle assessment (LCA) is a tool which can provide a
good insight to decision-makers. Heretofore, LCA have been used to understand two types of problems: (i)
assessment of single type of utility pole materials to learn about their environmental performance, (ii)
comparisons of alternative pole materials delivering a same service to point out the most environmentally
friendly type of pole material.
The present review aims at compiling and screening papers dealing with utility poles made from varying
materials in LCA perspective; in order to identify the main important parameters relevant to the topic; to point
out the main accomplishments, to identify the future challenges, and to place the utility pole-related LCA
studies in a historical context.
The paper begins with a brief recall of the LCA methodology followed by the description of the methodology
that sustains this review. An overview of relevant information extracted from analyzed case studies according to
www.ijesi.org 16 | Page
our 3 major research questions is then provided and discussed. The paper is concluded with suggestions on
potential ways to address some identified future challenges.
2. Method
This study deals with the LCA on different utility pole materials, and has been undertaken as a systematic
literature review based on the guidelines both proposed by Pullin and Stewart [6], and Fantin et al. [7]. First of
all, a brief conceptual basis of LCA is proposed and then, the stages of conducting a literature review according
to the preceding cited authors are documented.
2.1. Conceptual basis of LCA

LCA is a methodology for evaluating the environmental impacts attributable to the products, services and
processes during their life cycle from cradle to grave [8]. The idea of comprehensive environmental assessments
of product was conceived in industrialized countries (England and the United States for instance) in the late
1960s and early 1970s [9, 10]. An important precursor of LCA was net energy analysis, a fairly hot topic
during the 1970s [11]. LCA has been used in the power transmission line sector since 1992 and is an important
tool for assessing the environmental impacts of utility poles [12].
Nowadays, LCA is a well-known tool for analyzing environmental impacts on a wide perspective and is also a
well-integrated tool commonly used to develop products which are economical and environmentally friendly
[13, 14, 15]. In fact, LCA establishes a link between the flow of materials and energy related with the life cycle
of a product and the potential environmental burdens associated [16]. It identifies the points on which this
product can be improved in order to reduce its overall environmental impact. It also helps to avoid problem
shifting to other issues or areas when choosing a type of process or material [17].
LCA principles, requirements and guidelines are described by the ISO standards [18, 19]. With regard to these
standards, LCA procedure is usually described under four distinct analytical steps: defining the goal and scope,
creating the life cycle inventory (LCI), assessing the impact and finally interpreting the results. These steps are
briefly described here.
Firstly, goal and scope definition consists of defining purpose, audience, methodological choice, assumptions
and of drawing the studied system boundaries to ensure that no relevant part is omitted.
Secondly, the LCI consists of detailed tracking of all the flows in and out of the system, including raw resources
or materials, energy by type, water, and emissions to air, water and land by specific substance. The quality of
the LCI data and results should be sufficient to conduct the life cycle impact analysis (third phase of the LCA)
in accordance with the goal and scope definition of the study [19].
Thirdly, the life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) consists of two mandatory steps: (i) selection of impact
categories and classifications, and (ii) characterization. While the first step consists in selecting the impact
categories which are of relevance to the study, and assigning the elementary flows from the inventory to these
impact categories according to the substancesability to contribute to different environmental problems, the
second step consists in converting the emissions and resources that are assigned to each of these impact
categories into indicators using impact assessment models [20]. In that way, various LCIA methodologies can
be applied. They can differ in the impact categories they cover, in their selection of indicators, and in their
geographical focus. The choice of the most suitable LCIA methodology is case-specific and the ILCD
Handbook [20] gives support on the selection of the appropriate methodology, providing further information on
the main methodologies.
Finally, the life cycle interpretation consists of evaluating LCI and LCIA results in order to identify major
issues, understand the accuracy of the results, and ensure that they met the goal of the study. This is sometimes
accomplished by evaluating the sensitivity of data elements, assessing the completeness and consistency of the
study, and drawing conclusions and recommendations based on an understanding of how the LCA was
conducted and the results were developed [21].
Regarding the previously outlined basic LCA methodology, and despite its standardized framework structure, it
is flexible in supporting a wide range of goals, scopes and can fit a wide range of systems. Since LCA is data
intensive, tools for conducting LCA or for supporting its different phases and applications have been devised.
Most of them have been developed for particular fields of industry [22]. Various LCA databases are attached to
the LCA tools and some can be used separately. There are both freely available and commercial databases.
These materials data represent in general conditions in industrialized countries. Extensive data from developing
and emerging countries however, is still lacking [22, 24] since LCA approach is still in its beginning there [25].
2.2. Review process

2.2.1. Research questions
A systematic literature review starts with defined research question because questions are critical to the review
process in a sense that they generate the literature search terms and determine the relevant criteria. So, the
research questions that guided this systematic review were:
RQ1. How much environmental study on utility poles for power transmission lines with regard to life cycle
approach has been undertaken from 1990 up-to-date and who is leading them?
RQ2. How is each relevant criterion of the four steps of LCA according to ISO is considered in each study?
RQ3. What are the main accomplishments and future challenges in utility pole LCA research field?
The date of 1990 stated in RQ1 has been chosen as the starting point in accordance with the fact that it is the
date where the principle of LCA as a tool for product-oriented environmental management, became widely
accepted [8, 26], technical framework and consensual code of practice were published [27, 28]. To address RQ1,
available published LCA of utility pole studies have been identified. To address RQ2, the intended application,
the intended audience, the goal and scope, the main methodologies, and the outcomes in each case study have
been extracted. With respect to RQ3 various addressed issues have been analyzed in order to distinguish what
has been done from what needs to be done.
2.2.2. Search process

The focus of the research was on published environmental assessments studies on poles for power transmission
lines that claimed to be life cycle based. For the literature search, the following trusted academic search engines
for scientific research, were used: Science@Direct (http://www.sciencedirect.com), Directory of Open Access
Journals (http://www.doaj.org/), Current Contents (http://www.webofknowledge.com), Science and Technology
of Advanced Materials (http://iopscience.iop.org), IEEE Xplore Digital Library
(ieeexplore.ieee.org/Xplore/guesthome.jsp), and Hindawi Publishing Corporation (www.deepdyve.com). These
search engines indexe academic journals and citations from various online databases.
The search strategy used for these databases followed that devised by Dickerson et al. [29] (excepted hand
searching) using the following words either single or in combination using Boolean or: life cycle assessment,
life cycle analysis, LCA, environmental impact, environmental profile, environment, poles, distribution poles,
power poles, wood poles, steel poles, concrete poles, aluminium poles, composite poles, material choice, utility
poles, poles for overhead line, impregnated poles, preservative-treated poles, alternative, poles, etc.
Secondary references were obtained via the primary paper references and via the papers where primary paper
was cited. In general, citing literature was retrieved using the Google Scholar search engine
(http://scholar.google.com/). Additional identification of papers was performed in addition to the above.
Individual searches on key authors and institutions in the field were carried out through E-mail sent to Electric
Power Research Institute (EPRI), American Wood Protection Association, American Iron and Steel Institute
(AISI), American Treated Wood Council (ATWC), and via LCA discussion list, a free service offered by PRe
Consultants (http://www.pre-sustainability.com). In spite of steps followed in the above search process, it is still
possible that some studies have been overlooked.
This literature was obtained through an extensive literature research (from March 2015 to July 2016) and studies
that were potential candidates for inclusion in our review were read more thoroughly to decide whether to
include them or not.
2.2.3. Inclusion and exclusion criteria

For the purpose of this review, papers published between January 1st 1990 and July 31st 2016 were selected for
inclusion. Only literature reported in English was retrieved and included in the review scope. Papers with a clear
claim to be based on a life-cycle approach to estimate environmental impacts were included. Papers dealing only
with life cycle cost analyses were not part of the main focus of the study. Moreover, in the context of sustainable
production, some scientific studies particularly address single life stage of the poles (e.g. pole production, wood
poles treatment, or pole disposal). These references with their particular foci were considered outside the scope
of this review.
2.2.4. Information extraction

From each study that remained after application of the exclusion criteria, information from papers was extracted
through evaluation of studies from May 1st 2016 to October 30th 2016 and were coded within the following
categories: Authors, reference, countries and year, study aim, system boundaries or live cycle stages considered,
functional unit, types of pole material, impact assessment methods used, impact category assessed, and data
quality assessment.
3. Results and discussion

In this section, the results of the investigated studies according to the research questions stated in section 2.2.1
are presented and discussed.
3.1. Published studies on LCA of utility poles and authors (RQ1)

Following the review process, we came to a corpus of 13 case studies split in three main types: report
conference and Journal article. Reports are scientific works not often peer reviewed leaded or commissioned by
Government agencies, industry, and non-governmental organizations (NGOs). They are considered as an
important part of the scientific literature. Conference papers refer to articles that are written with the goal of
being accepted to a conference and published in collections called Proceedings. Journal papers refer to an article
that is published in an issue of the journal. Those studies are summarized in Table 1.
Table 1: Utility pole-related LCA studies selected. Studies are alphabetically ordered.
ID Author Country Year Institution Paper type Content
(IR / O)a
P1 Aquaeter* USA 2013(a) O Report LCA of ACZA-treated wood compared
to concrete, steel and composite poles
P2 Aquaeter* USA 2013 (b) O Report Environmental LCA of CCA-treated
wood poles compared to 3 alternatives
P3 Bolin and USA 2010 O Report Comparative LCA of penta-treated
Smith wood poles and composite poles
P4 Bolin and USA 2011 O Journal LCA of treated wood poles compared
Smith article to steel and concrete utility poles
P5 Bolin and USA 2012 O Report LCA procedures and findings for
Smith penta-treated utility poles
P6 Erlandsson Sweden 1992 IR Conference Environmental consequences of
et al. various materials in utility poles
P7 Erlandsson Sweden 2009 IR Report Background data and assumption made
and Almemark for an LCA on creosote poles
P8 Erlandsson Sweden 2012 IR Report Comparison of environmental impacts
from poles of different materials
P9 Hangyong and Australia 2016 IR Journal LCA of treated veneer based composite
Hanandeh article hallow utility poles
P10 Knniger and Switzerland 1995 IR Conference LCA of utility poles
Richter
P11 SCS Global USA 2013 O Report LCA of substitution of used wood
Services* poles by steel poles
P12 Tolle and USA 2005 O Report Environmental profile of utility
Evers distribution poles
P13 Wood et al. USA 2008 O report Environmental impact of utility poles
*
Author names not specified; a IR: Individual Researchers; O: Organizations
Two of these studies (P1 and P2) were conducted using some data compiled in three other studies (P3, P4, and
P5), with the particularity that wood species and wood chemical preservative were different. Although LCA
methodology is actually widely spread [30], the scarcity of published studies using LCA approach in the field of
utility poles for overhead transmission lines is obvious. This scarcity can be explained by some assumptions: (i)
environmental burdens of utility poles are not always addressed in consideration of all the poles life cycle stages
[31 - 38]; environmental impacts are evaluated with regard to only one single phase of pole life cycle or in
consideration of only one impact category [39]. (ii) In addition, it is assumed that some LCAs of utility poles are
not indexed in academic search engines since they are commissioned by private organizations and results are
then often confidential or not easy to retrieve. In spite of this scarcity, a look on utility pole LCAs evolution
during the three decades considered in this paper reveal a slightly increasing interest for this field of study as
presented in Fig. 1.
LCA studies are either conducted by independent consulting firms (organizations) or by individual researchers
working in freelance or belonging to a university team of researchers. A look on geographical location of
selected LCA case studies shows that inventoried studies are located in four countries: USA, Sweden,
Switzerland, and Australia. No study from developing countries has been found. This can be explained by the
lack of published primary data for utility pole life cycle phases, since LCA generally requires a large amount of
data which results in additional cost and time. In addition, although it is commonly accepted to use literature or
generic LCA data considered as secondary data that can be found in published LCAs studies or in some LCA
database or Software existing primary data that must be site specific data, are either not existing or are mainly
those of industries and are then often confidential. As a matter of fact, it can be quote the case of an ongoing
study using LCA as a means to ensure the durability and the environmentally friendly profile of various types of
water-borne treated-eucalyptus wood poles in Cameroonian context which is facing difficulties to conduct life
cycle inventory stage. Data are either confidential as stated above or are not yet obtained through specific
studies which must be commissioned by concerned industries or by govnmental institutions. Available primary
data from developed countries can not be suitable for developing countries since geographical, social, ecological
and economical realities are different. On the fringes of the preceding mentioned reasons, it can also be stated
that developing countries have not yet fully integrated the concept of life cycle thinking in their environmental
policies [25].
Australia Sweden Switzerland USA

Number of inventoried studies
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
[1990 ; 2000[ [2000 ; 2010[ [2010 ; -->[
Considered decades
Figure: 1. Geographical distribution and variation of the number of utility poles LCA studies throughout the
three considered decades.
In general, the set of reviewed studies were dominated by US researchers who have been involved in eight of
the studies, in particular the Aquaeter which has been involved in 5 of the studies. Swedish researchers also
contributed to three studies. Australian and Swiss researchers were respectivly authors of one study. The success
of Aquaeter in applying the LCA principles in utility pole domain is supported by their strategy of constructing
a frame database of primary studies related to pentachlorophenol treated wood poles and using that database in
combination to other retrieved data in oder to address various specific research questions.
3.2. Relevant criteria of the four steps of LCA of utility poles (RQ2)
All the case studies were analyzed following the four steps of LCA as documented in section 2.1. For each step,
a set of criteria has been selected from reviewed papers and is detailed below.
3.2.1. Step 1: Goal and scope definition

Intended application and identification of the intended audience were the main purposes of the goal, while
detailed elements as description of studied poles and function, system boundary, functional unit, LCIA
methodology, and types of impacts categories assessed [19] were relevant parts of the scope of the reviewed
studies.
3.2.1.1. Goal
In general, the goals of all reviewed studies were clearly stated, and were mainly centred on quantifying and
comparing environmental impacts associated with the utility poles made from alternative materials in a specific
region. In this point of view, various comparison combinations of pole materials have been noticed. According
to the statements announcing the goal of the reviewed studies, roundwood poles were the products of primary
focus in all the LCA case studies and were chosen to provide a benchmark for comparison to alternative: hollow
wood and non-wood products as shown in Table 2. However, one study (P9) aimed at investigating
environmental burdens of only poles made of wood. These authors conducted the LCA of veneer based
composite (VBC) hardwood hallow utility poles which is a pole made of an innovative material suitable for
manufacturing utility pole as an alternative to replace traditional roundwood poles [4]. They investigated the
environmental burdens of three disposal scenario in order to assess the appropriate end-of life treatment of their
innovative product. Another study (P12) went beyond the simple comparison of environmental profile of poles
and customized a life cycle screening tool used as a decision support tool for utilities companies willing to
compare the life cycle environmental impact associated with different types of distribution poles. Considering
screened papers, studies were mostly intended for government regulators, municipal, life cycle inventory
database users, environmental advocates and utility companies (cooperative electric utilities, chemical
preservative utilities) in order to provide response to new proposed legislation, to provide diagnostic tools, to
improve the management of the risk associated with the usage of utility poles or chemical preservatives added to
the wood to extend their lifespan, and to educate populations regarding the environmental drawbacks of various
materials and chemical products in utility poles.
At present, LCA in utility poles area is mainly used by compagnies to support their environmental decision
making. Some frequent applications have been noticed, namely (i) comparison of existing type of wood pole
with planned alternatives, (ii) providing information and education to consumers and stakeholders, (iii) design
and development of new type of hallow or composite poles.
Table 2: Selected features of reviewed utility poles LCA studies with focus on wood poles.
3.2.1.2. Scope
With regard to the description of studied poles and their functions, seven types of poles have been identified
in reviewed paper as seen in Table 2. Wood pole (roundwood, veneer, and glulam) are, as the name
suggests, made from wood. They are preserved by chemical products, and contrary to other poles materials,
they are also intended for use in overhead lines for telecommunication purposes. Steel and aluminium poles
have a high strength to weight ratio and do not need to be impregnated with dangerous compounds to be
resistant to insect and fungi, however, they can rust. Concrete poles are made out of concrete, reinforced
with steel inside which makes them even stronger. The last type of pole investigated in reviewed papers was
fiber-reinforced composite poles which are made from polyester reinforced with fiberglass. The main
performance requirement fulfilled by those pole materials is to be used for the construction of the
distribution (medium and low voltage) overhead power lines. In consideration of the length and the
lifespan, there was no standard utility pole material across studies. The alternative products have
approximately the same dimensions and generally were used interchangeably with treated wood utility
poles. If length was the same for all type of poles in a single study, it varied as well as pole service life
across the studies as presented in Table 2.
Regarding the system boundary, the reviewed studies featured a variety of geographical area (Table 1), and
excluded the power line or telephone wire and potential different hardware or means of attachments. In
addition, considered elementary or unit processes were combined into diffrent life cycle stages. Because of
the variety of pole materials, life cycle stages were split across reviewed studies into two, three, four, or five
stages. Some studies, namely those where the product of primary focus in the LCA was chemical-treated
wood poles, split wood pole life cycle into four stages (pole production, pole treating, pole service life, and
pole disposition) and other alternative materials into two stages (pole manufacture, and pole service life and
disposition) (P1 - P5). Other studies considered four or five live stages regardless the pole materials
assessed. In general, stage names and unit processes in stages vary according to different authors. Whatever
be the number of life cycle stages considered, LCA were conducted by the authors in cradle to grave
perspective, another way to express the fact that the system boundaries included all the production stages
from extraction of raw materials from the earth (cradle) through to final disposition after its service life
(grave); excepted (P7) who excluded the end-of-use of poles by doing a cradle-to-gate LCA. Almost all the
studies included the transportation activities related to the poles life cycle (components to pole plant, from
manufacturer to utility, from utility yard to installation, removal return to yard) excepted (P8) who
considered only transportation within forestry processus and did not take into account transports within
other stages and between the different stages by failling to mention them; perhaps because of their low
relevance to the result since they assumed that transportation is of equal importance for all studied
alternatives. The noticed hetrogeneities in system boundaries across papers might lead to different
interpretation of the results.
The choice of the functional unit (FU) was more often a unit of pole since it allowed the comparison of
different pole materials on a homogeneous basis. Seven studies clearly stated the FU while the six others
missed to do the same. Nevertheless, it was possible to retrieve the not explicitly stated FU since the results
were given per pole excepted in (P10) where the results were also given per kilometer of 0.45kV
distribution line. Clearly defined FU are presented below according to the authors statements:
- Functional unit: one 45-foot (13.7 m) utility pole capable of 2,400 pounds (1,087 kg) of horizontal load
applied two feet from the poles tip (P2);
- Life cycle inputs and outputs were quantified using functional units of 1000 cubic feet (28 cubic meters).
Once compiled, the inventory data were converted to a per utility pole functional unit (P4);
- This report provides an LCA based on the functional unit of each ANSI 05.1 class 4, 45-foot long pole
and based on a functional unit of one mile of electric distribution line. (P5);
- One 9-m pole (0.4-kV transmission) with a service life of 50 years (P7);
- One 9 m utility pole with a lifetime of 50 years, corresponding to its service life. (P8);
- For this study, the functional unit is the use of a system of one million 45-foot tall, Class 2/Grade B
distribution poles over a 40-year period in the South eastern US. (P11);
- The functional unit used in this assessment is 1-metre-length pole with 115-mm internal-diameter and 15-
mm wall-thickness (P9);
This set of explicitly stated FU extracted from the reviewed studies highlight the fact that five time out of seven,
the definition of the FU is focused in the wood pole material without showing concern for others pole materials.
Because of this, pole made of wood seems to be the product of prime interest in LCA of utility poles. It is also
noticeable that those explicitly stated FU let to identifying three classes of FU as summarized in Table 2, namely
(i) mass or volume based FU, defined by a certain mass or volume of primary raw material use in poles
manufacture, e.g., 1000 cubic feet (28 cubic meters) of wood, (ii) unitary FU, defined by a unitary pole, e.g. one
9 m utility pole used in 0.4 kV distribution line with a lifetime of 50 years, and (iii) gridbased FU, defined by a
certain number of poles in a delimited network region for a specific period of time, e.g., one mile of electric
distribution line or one kilometer of 0.4 kV distribution line (P10) (not stated by authors but retrieved).
Considering both explicitly stated and not stated FU across the reviewed studies, the distribution of these three
FU types, shows that by far most LCA utility pole practitioners use a unitary functional unit. This indicates that
they considere the numerical representation of the functions provided by the wood pole, which can be used to
compare it with alternative material delivering the same function. In the comparative perspective, the unitary FU
as stated in the above example is a relevant one since it is related to the function of the pole, and in addition, it
includes not only the length of the pole but also temporal (pole lifespan) and quality constraints (pole of 2,400
pounds (1,087 kg) of horizontal load applied two feet from the poles tip) as recommended by Cooper [40]. In
this way, it is ensured that all obligatory properties as well as the duration of the pole performance are addressed
in LCA.
LCIA methodology, and types of impacts categories assessed, were also relevant parts of the scope of the
reviewed studies. Related information extracted from reviewed papers are considered below in the
respective sections, after the presentation of relevant elements of the second step of LCA.
3.2.2. Step 2: Life cycle inventory (LCI)

Since the purpose of developing LCI is to calculate the quantities of inputs and outputs involved in delivering a
specific functional unit of the product system under study, which typically produces a list of substances with
identified quantity as the outcome, it is for great importance to first collect as much data as possible in order to
create a very accurate model of the system under study. For this purpose, some reviewed studies (P2, P4, P5, P7,
P8, and P9) found relevant to first construct block diagram generaly called flow diagram or flowchart which
shows how processes of a product system are interconnected. With this flowchart it was possible to trace all the
relevant phases of all processes involved in the life cycle of utility poles. Nevertheless, although more than one
pole materials were assessed in a study, some authors drew their flowchart considering only wood material (P4,
P5), and literary described unit processes involved in other pole materials. However, this literary description has
been the only way to describe the considered unit processes in the other studies. To overcome this unfair
information treatment, (P7) took advantage of the wide range of facilities available in the LCA software they
used to generate flowcharts of each pole material. To synthesize the various flowcharts one can draw, a standard
example of a flowchart, describing the utility poles system and their underlying process steps has been
proposed by (P8), but his flowchart was so general that it was possible to use it for other type of products. So,
considering the fact that different pole materials have different unit processes across their life cycle, it seemed
difficult to draw a single flowchart that take into account more than one pole material.
LCI compilation using a process flow diagram appears in early LCA literature and has been the most common
practice among LCA practitioners [41 - 43]. Moreover, it has been shown that computing LCI directly from a
flowchart, as did across reviewed studies, cannot be feasible if a set of particular conditions are not met [44].
These conditions are: (i) each production process produces one material, (ii) each waste treatment process
receives only one type of waste, (iii) the product system under study delivers inputs to, or receives outputs from
another product system, and (iv) material or energy flows between processes do not have loop(s). Conditions
from (i) to (iii) are related to the multi-functionality problem. A treatment of allocation as the solution to this
multi-functionality problem across reviewed studies was not clearly specified. However only P1, P5, and P9
precised in which processes or life stage allocation has been considered (e.g. ACZA preservative active
ingredient that is delivered to a treating plant as a by-product from ACZA mixing plant; discarded poles as a
partly responsible of the secondary use burdens; thinned log as a by-product from the forestry industry process).
Condition (iv) requires that all processes in the product system under study do not utilise their own output
indirectly (i.e. in pole treatment process for example, a pole cannot also be an input of the process), this latest
condition has been respected in all reviewed studies.
Collection of data on environmental inputs and outputs belonging to the poles life cycle was generaly
communicated in relation to the considered functional unit and sumarized in tables called life cycle inventory
result. Three ways to report collected data have been identified across the reviewed studies : (i) data organized
per unit process (P7), unit process data describe the inputs and outputs at process level, (ii) data organized per
life cycle stage (P1, P6, P9), life cycle stage data describe the inputs and outputs at life stage level, and (iii) data
organized regardless the unit process or the poles life cycle stage, but considering the fact that data was inputs
from technosphere, inputs from nature, or outputs to nature (P2, P3, P4, P5). Whatever has been the way of
presenting data in a study, it was done the same for each type of assessed pole material. It is not worthless to
mention the fact that, in the two first ways of presenting collected data in reviewed studies, data were grouped
into two categories: (i) input flow, and (ii) output flow. Some authors just briefly commented on how they
conducted their inventory without further information nor did they present a table sumarizing the result of LCI
(P11, P12).
Concerning data collection properly speaking, the usual practice noticed in reviewed studies was to either
collect data directly from the source (foreground data) or simply use the available data provided mainly in
software databases or public databases (background data). Across reviewed studies, foreground data (i.e.
specific to the studied poles) such as those related to forestry activities leading to wood pole prior the treatment,
steel reinforcement in concrete poles, in-service pole inspections, releases of chemical preservatives to the
surrounding ground from in-service poles, transport requirements for daily mobility or from one life stage to
another etc. were collected either from utilities process reportsheets or from professional judgments.
Background data (i.e. not specific to the studied poles) such as those related to, water and electricity production,
residual fuel oil processed, equivalence factors of chemical components, waste management, etc., where
collected from LCA database programs, such as TRACI (P4), GaBi, EDIP and Ecoinvent (P7, P8), GreenDelta
(P9), Ecoinvent (P12), as well as from technical books, reports, conference papers, and articles published in
technical journals. In almost all the reviewed studies, in order to complete the life cycle inventories, assumptions
have been used to overcome the incompleteness of LCI due to missing data.
3.2.3. Step 3: Life cycle impact assessment (LCIA)

As mentioned in section 2.1, in a LCA, all emissions and resources consumed that can be attributed to a specific
product are compiled and documented in a LCI. An impact assessment is then performed on the basis of the
LCI. Below, the impact categories most commonly assessed in the reviewed studies through classification,
characterization and the commonly used LCIA methods and software have been indicated. How normalization
and weighting, the two LCIA facultative steps are addressed, has also highlighted here.
3.2.3.1 Assessed impact categories in reviewed studies

As presented in table 3, assessed impact categories have been presented in two different groups: (i) traditional
impact categories, and (ii) additional impact categories. The first group refers to impact categories usually used
in most LCAs, not only those concerning utility poles, and the second group is the collection of impact
categories for which operational indicators exist, but are not often included in LCA studies.
This second group has been taken into account only by P10, P11, and P12 in their study. This can be seen as the
consequence of the objective of each study and also of the fact that those three authors, as well as P13, have
assessed their impact categories through LCIA methods implemented by means of proprietary or personnal
scripts. Two studies, namely P6 and P12, have not fully assigned the elementary flows from their LCI step to the
impact categories according to the substances ability to contribute to diffrent environmental problems, knowing
that one emission can contribute to several impact categories. Consequently, retrieving characterization factors
from LCA database to quantify the selected impact categories was not their concern. By acting so, they went
against the mandatory LCIAs steps prescribed by ISO and known as classifiation and characterization. In
addition, this bears the danger of picking single aspects of the inventory results and draw unsupported
conclusions, since unconsidered subsequent LCIA phase provides additional information about how harmful
emissions are to the environment and health.
Regarding the first group, the reviewed studies focused on typical LCA impact categories. In spite of the
differences observed in impact categories designations across the reviewed studies, it has been possible to
retrieve the number of time that a specific impact category has been considered across the studies. Moreover, as
shown in table 3, the number of assessed impact categories by each reviewed study has been presented. It is
noticeable that global warming potential/GWP (also designated climat change/CC, greenhouse Gas/GHG),
acidification potential/AP, eutrophication potential/EP, ecotoxicity/ET, and smog potential/SP (also designated
photochemical ozone formation/FOP, ozone exposure risks/OER) are the impact categories assessed by at least
75% of the authors. These five impact categories have a geographic scope varying between local and regional
scale, except the global warming potential which has a global geographic scope. Since the considered studies in
this paper are conducted in different geographic areas, these five impact categories can be considered as the
most relevant and should at least be addressed in each utility pole LCA, expecting that these assessed impact
categories are consistent with the objective of the study.
Likewise, it is noticeable that, while not an impact category, energy use/EU was also addressed by at least 75%
of the authors. This energy is considered as a relative measure of the resources required for the whole life cycle
stage of utility poles. It is generally well known that, products that require less input of energy consequently
have less environmental impact. So, tracking energy use is a mean to allow a superficial perception on the
comparison of this aspect of each pole material. As a matter of fact, energy use should be addressed when LCA
results are intended to compare various pole materials.
Water use/WU (also designated Net Water Consumption/NWC) and fossil fuel/FF (also designated Fossil
Depletion Potential/FDP, Energy Resouce Depletion/ERD) were also relevant impact categories addressed in
reviewed studies. More than half of the authors took into consideration these two impact categories. These
authors were all from USA as far as Water use is concerned; all of them were also from USA as far as fossil fuel
is concerned excepted P9 who was from Australia. None of the European authors has addressed these impact
categories. Since the three-fifth of the reviewed studies were conducted in USA, one can assume that impact
category Water Use could be relevant for an utility pole LCA study conducted in regions with similar economic,
social, and environmental caracteristics to USA. Other impacts were occasionally addressed: Solid Waste/SW,
Human Toxicity Potential/HTP, and Particulate Matter Exposure/PME.
Table 3: Impact categories assessed in published utility poles LCA Studies.
Talking about the impact assessment methods and software used, first of all, it is of great importance to note
that, till date, most methods and software are developed to reflect the conditions in the USA, the Northern and
middle Europe. Those used across the reviewed studies were consistent with this state of the fact. As presented
in table 3, assessed impact categories were conducted in most reviewed studies according to the chosen LCIA
methods applied by means of dedicated LCA software (TRACI, GaBi, and Green Delta). There were also
possible to implement LCIA methods in a self-made spreadsheet or even by means of private scripts
(LCPROFILESM and Carnegie Mellon LCA Model).
Unless P6 and P11, all the authors clearly mention the LCIA methtods they used. P6 is usually seen as the first
study of utility poles in a LCA point of view. At the time P6 was published (year 1992), LCIA methods was not
yet well established; in fact, workshops on the overall technical framework, impact analysis, and data quality
were held to allow consensus building on methodology and acceptable professional practice. Moreover, interest
in moving beyond the LCI to analyzing the impacts of environmental resource requirements and emissions was
a preoccupation of a broad base of consultants and research institutes in North America and Europe with the
Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC) as a focal point for technical developments in
the life-cycle assessment arena [42].
In studies where they were precise, the most commonly used LCIA methods were TRACI (Tool for the
Reduction and Assessment of Chemical and other environmental Impacts), EDIP (Environmental Design of
Industrial Products), CML (Center of Environmental Science of Leiden University), and ReCiPe Midpoint H.
With the exception of TRACI, all the other cited three LCIA methods were developed in Europe, and, most of
the time, these underlying LCIA methods and other methods used in reviewed papers were not documented in
those papers. Authors usually assumed that the intended audiences were quite familiar with LCA principles and
methods.
As concerns the LCIA results, the magnitude of all the above underlined impact categories were expressed in
different units and therefore can not be directly comparable in a single study (e.g. GWP, AP, EP, EU are
respectively expressed in kg CO2 eq, kg SO2 eq, kg NO3 eq, MJ), only when results were normalized. Likewise,
the comparison was not easy to conduct across the reviewed studies because of the diversity of the case studies
(in terms of number of compared pole materials assessed, life cycle stage considered) and the variety of
functional units used in the reviewed papers. So, it has been not straightforward to provide a summary of LCIA
results in a format allowing comparison between case studies.
3.2.3.2 Normalization and weighting

Normalization and weighting are usually used to simplify the interpretation of the results. As normalization and
weighting contain additional subjective sub-steps, they are regarded as optional steps in ISO [19]. In section
3.3.1.1 we saw that each impact category has its own unit, and thus the results cannot be compared; so,
normalization not only shows to what extent an impact category indicator result has a relatively high or a
relatively low value compared to a reference, but also, it solves the incompatibility of units.
Normalization is carried out by means of dividing magnitude of impact categories by a selected reference value
known as normalization factor. A classic method that consists in normalizing against the alternative that has
greatest environmental impact in each separate category has been use by some reviewed studies. In fact, in (P1 -
P5), normalization has been assessed to allow relative comparison of indicators between pole materials. So,
impact indicator values were normalized to the product (ACZA, CCA, penta-treated pole, concrete pole, steel
pole or fibre reinforced composite pole) having the highest cradle-to-grave value. The product with the highest
value at final disposition receives a value of one, and the other products then are fractions of one. This common
way of conducting normalization seems very practical and devoid of subjectivity, and should be a good method
to assess normalization in LCAs intended to compare alternative products. But, this classic method has the
disadvantage that there is no relative importance between the environmental impact categories obtained. In
general, to overcome this disadvantage, one can normalize with regard to what the natural environment can
tolerate annually. This second way of conducting normalization is briefly described in P7 and P8 which also
assesse normalization in their respective studies. This second way is fully described in the method developed by
the IVL [45, 46] and has greater environmental relevance since the LCIA leads to results where the relative
importance between the different environmental impact categories is illustrated. So, the normalization method
used in P7 and P8 is based on what the natural environment can tolerate. This acceptable annual environment
load is divided by the number of individuals in the analyzed system (i.e. geographically). In this way, an annual
quota can be obtained which corresponds to the maximum emissions that one person may give rise to, assuming
that everyone is allowed the same emission quota. This per capita emission is called a person equivalent (Pe).
These authors found that this type of normalization gives a numerical value which is easy to communicate and
intuitively easy to understand the meaning of.
Only those seven cited authors have assessed normalization in their study, the other limited their LCIA to the
two above cited mandatory steps. The reason for this limited use of normalization can be linked either to
frequent criticisms of this approach, in particular regards to the referent regional or global systems used for
scaling which are often poorly estimated leading to uncertainty [47]; or to the lack of emission data and/or
characterisation factors leading to bias [48].
With regard to the weighting step, it is by definition not based on natural science and is very subjective. As a
matter of fact, it consists in deciding, on the base of subjective value choices, the relative importance of already
characterized and normalized impact categories (occasionally with regards to an aggregated single score). In
(P12), although, the authors did not follow the LCIA steps that must be assessed before the weighting step, they
directly presented the impact category scores of each pole material in the form of weighted total scores. These
weighted total scores were calculated by multiplying each individual impact category score by the weighting
factor (they previously defined) and then summing all weighted criteria scores for a given distribution pole. As
the authors precised, the limitation in the use of the weighted, total scores is that, they can be subjective, because
they represent the preferences of the expert team conducting LCA who may not offer a valid statistical sample
of the population. Also, weighted scores can only be calculated if all of the impact criteria raw scores are
known. In contrast, there are also advantages to using the weighted, total scores. Weighting the scores permits
them to be summed for easier comparison of the overall environmental acceptability of different pole types,
particularly when different criteria do not always favor a single pole type. Evaluating weighted total scores
based on more than one perspective insures acceptance by a broader range of stakeholders. On the fringes of
above cited authors, and, among of the other reviewed studies, none of the papers go through this weighting
step. Knowing that almost all the reviewed studies were intended to environmental communication, the reason
of the nonexistence of this step can be explained by the fact that, when the results are intended to compare
competing products and they are to be presented to the public, weighting is not allowed according to the ISO
series [49].
3.2.4. Step 4: Interpretation

According to the ISO [19], the final stage of LCA, interpretation, consists of extracting conclusions based on the
inventory analysis and impact assessment, in such a way that results of the LCA can be presented and used for
decision-making. This assessment may at least include the identification of the significant issues based on the
results of the LCA phases, an evaluation that considers sensitivity and uncertainty analysis.
3.2.4.1. Identification of the significant issues

Identification of the significant issues across reviewed studies led to highlight a total of ten studies that provided
ways to rank the different pole materials according their environmentally friendly qualities with regards to their
overall contribution to environmental impact. Moreover, considering the noticed heterogeneity in the choice of
functional unit, system boundaries, impact assessment methods, impact categories assessed as well as in the
display of results, it has not been possible to sum up these contribution analyses in one consistent way. Instead,
and for illustration purpose, this study presents at the same time in table 4, the ranking of the environmentally
friendly pole materials where the attributed numbers represent the preference order (1 is more desirable than 2),
and the pole material having the lowest or the highest impact indicator score with regards to the most assessed
impact categories in LCA of power utility poles.
It is noticeable that four types of pole materials (wood, steel, concrete, and fiber-reincorced composite) are the
most used in power transmission lines, and among them, wood is the most environmentally friendly alternative;
six impact categories have been seen as the most assessed in LCA dedicated to utility poles for overhead electric
lines. Regarding the concluding step in the life cycle of a utility pole across the reviewed studies, the final
disposition of poles, namely wood poles, has been identified as a recurrent issue since there were a great variety
of chemical preservatives used to protect wood poles against biological decay. Different scenarios to manage the
end-of-use of treated wood poles have been implemented knowing that used poles can be landfill as waste,
incinerated as fuel to produce process heat, or recycled as fence posts or landscaping. The chosen options were
consistent with the type of preservative, the legislation of related country, and the fact that whatever be the
option, the release of the chemical preservatives into the environment is a large big concern. In (P4), where
preservative was pentachlorophenol, an oil borne product, 47 percent of out-of-service wooden utility poles
were recycled for other treated wood use, 21 percent were recycled for energy recovery, and 32 percent were
disposed in landfills. The proportion of used utility poles to each post-use fate was set up according to the
current industry practice in USA. In the same way, (P12) analysed pole disposition through incineration and
landfilling as well as P10 who analysed the scenario where 90 percent of out-of-service wood poles were
combusted in incinerator with efficient exhaut filtering while the remaining 10 percent were left to
decomposition. Although once in the landfill the chemicals in the preservatives leach into the ground water,
landfill was the only option in (P1, P11, and P13) while (P9) analyzed successively all the three end of use
management. On the contrary P8 considered landfill as a much worse alternative for dealing with used treated
pole given that there is bound energy in the pole which is lost when sent to landfill. This can seem inconsistent
in relation to other studies if the nature of the chemical preservative is not taken into consideration.
Table 4: Ranking of environmentally friendly pole materials

ID Environmentally friendly pole Pole material having the lowest|highest impact indicator score
W1 S2 C3 FRC4 A5 G6 GHG AP EP ET SP EU
P1 1 2 4 3 W|C W|C W|C W|C W|C W|C
P2 1 2 4 3 W|C W|C W|C W|C W|C W|C
P3 1 2 W|FRC W|FRC W|FRC W|FRC FRC|W W|FRC
P4 1 2 3 W|C W|C W|C W|C S|W W|C
P5 1 2 3 W|C W|C W|C W|C S|W W|C
P6 No available data to estimate WCCA|A n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. WCCA|A
P7 2* 3 1 W|S W=C|S W|S C|S C|S n.a
P8 1 3 2 2 W|S W|S W|S C|S C|S W|S
P9
P10 1 4 2 3 WCCB|S WCCB|S WCCB|S C|WCCB C|S WCCB|S
P11 S|W W|S n.a n.a W|S n.a
P12 1 1 2 2** WACQ|S WCCA|WACQ n.a C|WCCA WACQ|WPCP WCCB|FRC
P13 1 3 2 W|S n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. W|S
1
Wood; 2Steel; 3Concrete; 4Fiber-Reinforced Composite; 5Aluminium; 6Glulam (hallow wood);
*: The authors asserted that an overall assessment will favour the creosote treated wood poles as the ecologically most sustainable
alternative since their proposed results probably underestimate the impacts of steel poles and concrete poles on ecotoxicity and human
toxicity;
: Ranking and impact category score not applicable since only one type of pole material has been addressed;
: LCA have been conducted in pole material substitution point of view (no possible ranking)
n.a.: not assessed;
**: The study has been conducted according two perspectives: the electric utility perspective and the national policy perspective. The
ranking of environmental friendly pole material proposed in the table is that of the national policy perspective; the ranking is different with
regard to the electric utility perspective: S (1), C (1), FRC (1), W (2).
3.2.4.2. Sensitivity and uncertainty analyses

Sensitivity analysis consists in the evaluation of the effects of changes in data and methodological choices over
LCIA results, while uncertainty analysis is the procedure to determine how uncertainties in data and
assumptions progress in the calculations and how they affect the reliability of the results of the LCIA [19].
Sensitivity and uncertainty analyses should be performed in order to better reflect the accuracy of LCI and LCA
studies.
Except (P6, P7, P12, and P13), all the references have assessed uncertainty analysis. In (P1, P2, P3, P4, P5, and
P9), a gravity analysis, which is a statistical procedure that identifies those data having the greatest contribution
to the indicator result, has been first of all conducted in order to identify items that must be investigated with
increased priority. These cited authors and the others, identified several sources of uncertainty which can be
categorized in two groups according to the classification proposed by Huijbregts [50]: (i) parameter uncertainty
and (ii) uncertainty due to choices. Considering the first group, inaccurate emission measurement (e.g. chemical
preservative released during pole treatment, storage, service life, and at disposition, GHGs releasing during the
decay of wood in landfills, etc.), data collected from different sources in literature and assumptions made on
input data (e.g.data related to transportation required during pole life cycle) was the main sources of this
category of uncertainty. The second group of uncertainty was mainly related to the choice of the functional unit,
especially the considerated pole lifespan. The uncertainty due to inaccurate emission measurement is large
because of variations in production facility containment structure integrity, production facility housekeeping
practices, regional location of the treating facility and service location, and disposition.
In almost all the papers dealing with uncertainy, parameter uncertainty and uncertainty due to choices were
simply mentioned without been conducted or without explanations on how they must be addressed. However,
authors completed a sensitivity analysis to determine the magnitude resulting from assumptions and
uncertainties identified in the LCI and the impact on LCA results. Sensitivity analysis has been carried out based
on various criteria, including modifying allowable emissions, simulating different volumes of key substances,
and varying several operational factors. Among the key parameters adjusted to perform the sensitivity analyses,
there were chemical preservative retentions, pole service life, post-use fate of treated wood poles, recycling rates
of steel, disposition situation of concrete, electricity production model, etc. In almost all the concerned
references, the sensitivity analysis was conducted in form of scenario evaluation. This was done by comparing
one adjusted key parameter with basis scenario values and by showing the increase or decrease of each impact
category. For instance, in (P9), it has been shown that changing the transportation distance from 50 to 150 km
increases total global warming potential by 9%, acidification impact by 16% and fossil depletion by 6%.
Likewise, (P4) shown that, when steel poles are assessed with a service life of 99 years, decreases in all impact
indicators are observed. Across reviewed studies, sensitivity results were communicated in very diverse
manners, ranging from a simple statement to several paragraphs of discussion showing how impact indicators
evaluated in baseline scenario vary according the modifications made on imput data.
3.3. Main accomplishments and future challenges in utility pole LCA research field (RQ3)
LCA of power utility poles is a topic that progressively raises increasing interest in the scientific literature as
presented in fig.1. Several outstanding accomplishments and contributions have been provided and can be
considered as the basis for the LCAs in the power transmission utility poles sector, but a lot more work is
certainly required and several challenges should still be faced to contribute to the ongoing discussion on
sensitive issues of LCA in general.
3.3.1. Main accomplishments

To date, in power utility pole-related studies, LCA has been used to analyse pole life cycle stages, to identify
high-impact activities, to compare pole materials, and to a lesser degree, to guide improvement trajectories. The
studies in this review have been screened for patterns and singularities in an attempt to characterize the state-of-
the-art of LCA applied to power utility pole. A number of accomplishments have been highlighted and can be
split in two categories: (i) achieved accomplishments (that can be considered as completed satisfactorily) and
(ii) unfinished accomplishments (that can be considered as not finally treated). This second category of
accomplishment is documented below in section 3.3.2 as future challenges.
By considering the first category, one can first of all point out that there is an obvious scarcity of published
studies using LCA approach in the field of utility poles for overhead transmission lines. In addition, while all the
retrieved and considered LCA studies describe in various environmental considerations for power utility poles
in Europe, Australia, and USA, there are no comparable studies in the literature from developing countries
especially.
The achieved accomplishments can be listed as follows:
In the field of addressing utility poles in a LCA point of view, (P6) is usually seen as the first authors who
conducted a study.
There is a noticeable evolution in the number of LCA studies related to utility poles in consideration of
each decade of the passed 26 years considered in this paper.
Poles made of roundwood, glulam (hallowwood), veneer, steel, concrete, fiber-reinforced composite, and
aluminium, are the main pole materials assessed in the reviewed studies, and are compared in LCA
perspective to enable robust decision making of pole material selection. However, pole made of wood
seems to be the product of prime interest in LCA of utility poles.
Disregarding the variation in the denomination of the impact categories, two groups of impact categories
have been identified: traditional impact categories and additional impact categories. Among the first group,
the most assessed impact categories were GHG, AP, EP, ET, SP, EU. These relevant environmental
impacts, except the EU which is not really an impact category, are output related impact categories i.e. they
contribute to the environmental pollution while EU which is generally linked to fossil fuel can be ranged in
input related impact categories i.e. it contributes to the resources depletion. Moreover, these impacts are of
a local scope (e.g., ecotoxicity impacts due to the sites residual contamination), of a regional scope (e.g.,
acidification associated with NOX emissions from burning treated wood) or global (e.g., climate change due
to greenhouse gas emissions). In short, LCA allows for consideration of activities at each pole life cycle and
addresses environmental impacts that can occur at a local, regional, and global level.
Those above cited relevant impact categories can be seen as potential candidates for standardization in
utility pole LCA studies. However, it must be clear in mind that a particular environmental mechanism can
have very important impacts in one region, but not in another. So, due to the unavoidable contextualization
in the LCIA phase which consists in recognizing which environmental mechanisms are relevant in a local
context, the decision to address one of those local standardized impact categories must be consistent with
local environmental sensibilities.
Although wood poles seem to be more environmentally friendly with regard to the most assessed impact
categorie, a general figure depicting in an absolute way the most friendly pole material can not be drawn.
Knowing that almost all the reviewed studies have been conducted in comparative perspective, one can
think that it seems irrelevant to conduct a LCA of a single pole material. Not that it is any of the case; the
study of P9 set a good exemple of the LCA of a single pole material. The importance is to have a relevant
objectif and to be consistent with across the study.
On the fringes of these achieved accomplishments, other accomplishments have been considered; but the
differences observed across the reviewed studies lead to consider them among the future challenges of
power utility poles LCA studies.
3.3.2. Future challenges

As regards the power utility pole-specific methodological concerns, to date there is no agreement concerning
methodological choices for carrying out and presenting LCAs in this field of study. Although some efforts
(considered here as unfinished accomplishments) have been made to streamline the utility pole LCA
methodology, there remain some unsolved issues as listed below.
Different flow diagrams or flowcharts which show how processes of utility pole life stages are
interconnected have been proposed to trace all the relevant phases of all processes involved in the life cycle
of utility poles. Given that more than one pole materials were assessed in a study, and that different pole
materials have different unit processes across their life cycle, it has seemed difficult to draw a single
flowchart which takes into consideration all the assessed pole materials.
Impact categories have been assessed through various LCIA methods and different software varying from
the most sophisticated (TRACI, GaBi, etc.) to the simplest one (self-made linked spreadsheet). An attempt
to implement a software (LCPROFILESM) dedicated only to utility pole have been set up in a specific
context to compare the environmental profiles of various pole materials and to select the best one. This
software has been developed to reflect the conditions in the USA and could not be appropriate in other
contexts if supplement work is not undertaken to improve its consistency and spread its usefulness. Be that
as it may, since utility poles are embedded in a specific environment, are subject to a specific climate,
interact with a specific technosphere, and can face local environmental issues (in addition to global
environmental issues), one can first modeling different software that reflect different environmental realities
and then produce an universal one on the basis of a consensual work.
Contradictions seem to appear in the results when confronting both studies conducted in USA and in
Europe especially in consideration of some relevant impact categories and two types of pole materials
(concrete and steel). Regarding those considerated impact categories, while in USA concrete has the highest
impact indicator score, in Europe it is steel (see Table 4). Knowing that LCA methodology is normalized,
utility poles LCA practitioners should try a bit harder to minimize such disparities.
Regarding the life cycle stages, the final disposition of poles, especially of wood poles, has been identified
as a significant issue since there were not only a great variety of chemical preservatives used to protect
wood poles against biological decay, but also a great variation in the legislation of concerned countries.
Different scenarios to manage the end-of-use of treated wood poles have been implemented knowing that
used poles can be landfill as waste, incinerated as fuel to produce process heat, or recycled as fence posts or
landscaping. Moreover it has been seen that whatever be the chosen options which were consistent with the
type of preservative and the legislation of related country, the release of the chemical preservatives
remaining in the discarded wood poles into the environment is a large big concern that must be addressed
deeply and specially in waste management scenarios.
Inaccurate emission measurement, data collected from different sources in literature, assumptions made on
input data, and subjectivity in choice of the functional unit have been identified as the main sources of
uncertainty. Those uncertainties have been pointed out and categorized as parameter uncertainty and
uncertainty due to choices. If uncertainty due to choises have been made operational in some reviewed
studies with the help of expert judgement, peer review, or scenario analysis, which shown the effect on
LCA outcomes of several combinations of choices; none of the study has addressed parameter uncertainty
in a way to make it operational in utility pole LCA outcomes according to the standard procedures
(probabilistic simulation, correlation, regression analysis etc.) as proposed by Heijungs and Huijbregts [51].
Knowing that addressing uncertainty is among the greatest of the grand challenges, not only for utility poles
LCA, but for other LCA, this issue should be considered with interest in future utility pole-related LCA
studies or in a possible proposed methodology.
4. Conclusions
This paper presents an overview on LCA of utility poles for overhead power transmission lines found in
scientific literature. Although it shows that existing case study literature is scarce, selected studies are
considered not to be exhaustive since some LCAs of utility poles is made for the specific use of decision-makers
and could not be indexed in academic search engines screened in this paper. All LCA case studies have been
done in developed countries; namely in Europe, USA, and Australia. No comparable studies in the literature
from developing countries have been found. The results in this study suggest that the current output of utility
poles LCA studies is mainly supported by US and Swedish researchers. Specifically, the Aquaeter and the IVL
Swedish Environmental Research Institute Ltd respectively represented by Bolin et al. and by Erlandsson et al.,
are currently the leading organizations in terms of undertaking LCA of utility poles. Some key parameters
(functional unit, pole life cycle stages, pole lifetimes, chemical preservatives for wood pole, assumptions made,
and standard database and software used) vary a lot across studies, it results in a lack of methodological
consensus which do not allow to provide a proper LCIA results comparison among reviewed papers.
Nevertheless, it has been shown that among the environmental impact categories considered in utility pole for
overhead transmission lines, GHG, AP, EP, ET, SP, and EU are the most addressed in the reviewed studies.
Since this set of six impact categories are widely applied, across reviewed studies, it seems a good candidate for
standardization. Moreover, it has been shown that although poles made of wood seem to be more
environmentally friendly than those made from other materials with regard to the most assessed impact
categories, none of the pole materials has advantages for all environmental effets. Consequently, a general
figure depicting in an absolute way the most friendly pole material cannot be drawn. Several outstanding
accomplishments split in this study as achieved accomplishments and unfinished accomplishments have been
identified and treated as what have been satisfactorily done and what needs to be done.
This review, which can be considered as the first in the utility pole-related LCA studies, suffers from a number
of limitations. In particular, due to the noticeable distance in the results of reviewed studies and their restricted
number, we have limited ourselves to the first three steps of the method for improving reliability and relevance
of LCA reviews proposed by Fantin et al. [7]. We plan to repeat this study at the end of 2019, not only to track
the real progress of LCA of utility poles in the whole three considered decades, but also to extend this study by
undertaking the two missing steps of Fantin et al. proposal (LCA review of tap and bottled water), hoping that
some other utility pole-related LCA studies will be undertaken by that time. In addition, since LCA case studies
have been done only in developed countries, sustainability indicators in pole production, use and end-of-use
need to be developed for developing countries and used, in order to target environmental and energy
considerations worldwide. We are currently thinking about a methodology to perform this last aspect.
Acknowledgements
The authors are indebted to Jeff Miller, President and Executive Director, Treated Wood Council, Inc., and
Belinda Remley, Marketing & Commercialization Specialist, Arch Wood Protection, for providing us with
private reports used in this study.
References of included utility poles LCAs

[P1]. Aquaeter, 2013a. Life Cycle Assessment of Ammoniacal Copper Zinc Arsenate-Treated Utility Poles Compared to Concrete,
Galvanized Steel, and Fiber-Reinforced Composite Utility Poles. Report prepared for Arch Wood Protection, Inc.
[P2]. Aquaeter, 2013a. Environmental Life Cycle Assessment of Chromated Copper Arsenate-Treated Utility Poles with Comparisons
to Concrete, Galvanized Steel, and FiberReinforced Composite Utility Poles. Report prepared for Arch Wood Protection, Inc.
[P3]. Bolin C., Smith S., 2010. Comparative Life Cycle Assessment - Pentachlorophenol-Treated Wood and Fiber-Reinforced
Composite Utility Poles. Report prepared for Treated Wood Council (TWC).
[P4]. Bolin C., Smith S., 2011. Life Cycle Assessment of Pentachlorophenol-Treated Wooden Utility poles with Comparisons to Steel
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International Journal of Engineering Science Invention

ISSN (Online): 2319 6734, ISSN (Print): 2319 6726

Life Cycle Assessment of Power Utility Poles A Review

2.1. Conceptual basis of LCA

2.2. Review process

2.2.2. Search process

2.2.3. Inclusion and exclusion criteria

2.2.4. Information extraction

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Published studies on LCA of utility poles and authors (RQ1)

Australia Sweden Switzerland USA

3.2.1. Step 1: Goal and scope definition

3.2.2. Step 2: Life cycle inventory (LCI)

3.2.3. Step 3: Life cycle impact assessment (LCIA)

3.2.3.1 Assessed impact categories in reviewed studies

Table 3: Impact categories assessed in published utility poles LCA Studies.

3.2.3.2 Normalization and weighting

3.2.4. Step 4: Interpretation

3.2.4.1. Identification of the significant issues

Table 4: Ranking of environmentally friendly pole materials

3.2.4.2. Sensitivity and uncertainty analyses

3.3.1. Main accomplishments

3.3.2. Future challenges

References of included utility poles LCAs

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