Bank Financial Management Additional Reading Material

Module C

GOVERNMENT SECURITIES

Treasury Bills (T-bills)

Treasury bills or T-bills, which are money market instruments, are short term debt
instruments issued by the Government of India and are presently issued in three tenors,
namely, 91 days, 182 days and 364 days.
Treasury bills are zero coupon securities and pay no interest. They are issued at a discount
and redeemed at the face value at maturity. For example, a 91 days Treasury bill of
Rs.100/- (face value) may be issued at say Rs. 98.20, that is, at a discount of say, Rs.1.80
and would be redeemed at the face value of Rs.100/-. The return to the investors is the
difference between the maturity value or the face value (that is Rs.100) and the issue
price.
The Reserve Bank of India conducts auctions usually every Wednesday to issue T-bills.
Payments for the T-bills purchased are made on the following Friday. The 91 days T-bills
are auctioned on every Wednesday. The Treasury bills of 182 days and 364 days tenure
are auctioned on alternate Wednesdays. T-bills of 364 days tenure are auctioned on the
Wednesday preceding the reporting Friday while 182 T-bills are auctioned on the
Wednesday prior to a non-reporting Fridays.
The Reserve Bank releases an annual calendar of T-bill issuances for a financial year in the
last week of March of the previous financial year. The Reserve Bank of India announces
the issue details of T-bills through a press release every week.

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Cash Management Bills (CMBs)
Government of India, in consultation with the Reserve Bank of India, has decided to issue
a new short-term instrument, known as Cash Management Bills (CMBs), to meet the
temporary mismatches in the cash flow of the Government.
The CMBs have the generic character of T-bills but are issued for maturities less than 91
days. Like T-bills, they are also issued at a discount and redeemed at face value at
maturity. The tenure, notified amount and date of issue of the CMBs depends upon the
temporary cash requirement of the Government.
The announcement of their auction is made by Reserve Bank of India through a Press
Release which will be issued one day prior to the date of auction. The settlement of the
auction is on T+1 basis.
The non-competitive bidding scheme has not been extended to the CMBs. However,
these instruments are tradable and qualify for ready forward facility.
Investment in CMBs is also reckoned as an eligible investment in Government securities
by banks for SLR purpose under Section 24 of the Banking Regulation Act, 1949. First set
of CMBs were issued on May 12, 2010.

Dated Government Securities

Dated Government securities are long term securities and carry a fixed or floating coupon
(interest rate) which is paid on the face value, payable at fixed time periods (usually half-
yearly). The tenor of dated securities can be up to 30 years.
The Public Debt Office (PDO) of the Reserve Bank of India acts as the registry / depository
of Government securities and deals with the issue, interest payment and repayment of
principal at maturity.
Most of the dated securities are fixed coupon securities.
The nomenclature of a typical dated fixed coupon Government security contains the
following features - coupon, name of the issuer, maturity and face value. For example,
7.49% GS 2017 would mean:

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 Coupon 7.49% paid on face value

Name of Issuer Government of India

Date of Issue April 16, 2007
Maturity April 16, 2017
Coupon Payment Dates Half-yearly (October 16 and April 16)
every year
Minimum Amount of issue/ sale Rs.10,000

In case there are two securities with the same coupon and are maturing in the same year,
then one of the securities will have the month attached as suffix in the nomenclature. For
example, 6.05% GS 2019 FEB, would mean that Government security having coupon 6.05
% that mature in February 2019 along with the other security with the same coupon,
namely, 6.05% 2019 which is maturing in June 2019.
If the coupon payment date falls on a Sunday or a holiday, the coupon payment is made
on the next working day. However, if the maturity date falls on a Sunday or a holiday, the
redemption proceeds are paid on the previous working day itself.
Just as in the case of Treasury Bills, dated securities of both, Government of India and
State Governments, are issued by Reserve Bank through auctions. The Reserve Bank
announces the auctions a week in advance through press releases. Government Security
auctions are also announced through advertisements in major dailies. The investors are
thus, given adequate time to plan for the purchase of government securities through such
auctions.

Fixed Rate Bonds

These are bonds on which the coupon rate is fixed for the entire life of the bond. Most
Government bonds are issued as fixed rate bonds.
For example 8.24%GS2018 was issued on April 22, 2008 for a tenor of 10 years maturing on
April 22, 2018. Coupon on this security will be paid half-yearly at 4.12% (half yearly payment

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being the half of the annual coupon of 8.24%) of the face value on October 22 and April 22 of
each year.

Floating Rate Bonds

Floating Rate Bonds are securities which do not have a fixed coupon rate. The coupon is
re-set at pre-announced intervals (say, every six months or one year) by adding a spread
over a base rate.
In the case of most floating rate bonds issued by the Government of India so far, the base
rate is the weighted average cut-off yield of the last three 364- day Treasury Bill auctions
preceding the coupon re-set date and the spread is decided through the auction.
For example, a Floating Rate Bond was issued on July 2, 2002 for a tenor of 15 years, thus
maturing on July 2, 2017. The base rate on the bond for the coupon payments was fixed
at 6.50% being the weighted average rate of implicit yield on 364-day Treasury Bills during
the preceding six auctions.
In the bond auction, a cut-off spread (markup over the benchmark rate) of 34 basis points
(0.34%) was decided. Hence the coupon for the first six months was fixed at 6.84%.

Zero Coupon Bonds

Zero coupon bonds are bonds with no coupon payments. Like Treasury Bills, they are issued at a
discount to the face value. The Government of India issued such securities in the nineties; it has
not issued zero coupon bonds after that.

Capital Indexed Bonds

These are bonds, the principal of which is linked to an accepted index of inflation with a
view to protecting the holder from inflation. A capital indexed bond, with the principal
hedged against inflation, was issued in December 1997. These bonds matured in 2002.
The government is currently working on a fresh issuance of Inflation Indexed Bonds
wherein payment of both, the coupon and the principal on the bonds, will be linked to an
Inflation Index (Wholesale Price Index).
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 In the proposed structure, the principal will be indexed and the coupon will be calculated
on the indexed principal. In order to provide the holders protection against actual
inflation, the final WPI will be used for indexation.

Bonds with Call/ Put Options

Bonds can also be issued with features of optionality wherein the issuer can have the
option to buy-back (call option) or the investor can have the option to sell the bond (put
option) to the issuer during the currency of the bond. 6.72%GS2012 was issued on July
18, 2002 for a maturity of 10 years maturing on July 18, 2012.
The optionality on the bond could be exercised after completion of five years tenure from
the date of issuance on any coupon date falling thereafter.
The Government has the right to buy back the bond (call option) at par value (equal to
the face value) while the investor has the right to sell the bond (put option) to the
Government at par value at the time of any of the half-yearly coupon dates starting from
July 18, 2007.

Special Securities
In addition to Treasury Bills and dated securities issued by the Government of India under
the market borrowing programme, the Government of India also issues, from time to
time, special securities to entities like Oil Marketing Companies, Fertilizer Companies, the
Food Corporation of India, etc. as compensation to these companies in lieu of cash
subsidies.
These securities are usually long dated securities carrying coupon with a spread of about
20-25 basis points over the yield of the dated securities of comparable maturity.
These securities are, however, not eligible SLR securities but are eligible as collateral for
market repo transactions.
The beneficiary oil marketing companies may divest these securities in the secondary
market to banks, insurance companies / Primary Dealers, etc., for raising cash.

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STRIPS
Steps are being taken to introduce new types of instruments like STRIPS (Separate Trading
of Registered Interest and Principal of Securities). STRIPS are instruments wherein each
cash flow of the fixed coupon security is converted into a separate tradable Zero Coupon
Bond and traded. For example, when Rs.100 of the 8.24%GS2018 is stripped, each cash
flow of coupon (Rs.4.12 each half year) will become coupon STRIP and the principal
payment (Rs.100 at maturity) will become a principal STRIP. These cash flows are traded
separately as independent securities in the secondary market.
STRIPS in Government securities will ensure availability of sovereign zero coupon bonds,
which will facilitate the development of a market determined zero coupon yield curve
(ZCYC).
STRIPS will also provide institutional investors with an additional instrument for their
asset- liability management.
As STRIPS have zero reinvestment risk, being zero coupon bonds, they can be attractive
to retail/non-institutional investors.
The process of stripping/reconstitution of Government securities is carried out at RBI,
Public Debt Office (PDO) in the PDO-NDS (Negotiated Dealing System) at the option of the
holder at any time from the date of issuance of a Government security till its maturity. All
dated Government securities, other than floating rate bonds, having coupon payment
dates on 2nd January and 2nd July, irrespective of the year of maturity are eligible for
Stripping/Reconstitution.
Eligible Government securities held in the Subsidiary General Leger (SGL)/Constituent
Subsidiary General Ledger (CSGL) accounts maintained at the PDO, RBI, Mumbai, are
eligible for Stripping/Reconstitution. Physical securities shall not be eligible for
stripping/reconstitution.
Minimum amount of securities that needs to be submitted for stripping/reconstitution
will be Rs. 1 crore (Face Value) and multiples thereof.

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State Development Loans (SDLs)
State Governments also raise loans from the market. SDLs are dated securities issued
through an auction similar to the auctions conducted for dated securities issued by the
Central Government.
Interest is serviced at half-yearly intervals and the principal is repaid on the maturity date.
Like dated securities issued by the Central Government, SDLs issued by the State
Governments qualify for SLR.
They are also eligible as collaterals for borrowing through market repo as well as
borrowing by eligible entities from the RBI under the Liquidity Adjustment Facility (LAF).
The SDLs do not carry any credit risk. In this regard, they are similar to securities issued
by the Government of India (GoI). This can also be seen from the fact that the risk weights
assigned to the investments in SDLs by the commercial banks is zero for the calculation
of CRAR under the Basel III.

How are the Government Securities issued?

Government securities are issued through auctions conducted by the RBI. Auctions are
conducted on the electronic platform called the NDS Auction platform.
Commercial banks, scheduled urban co-operative banks, Primary Dealers, insurance
companies and provident funds, who maintain funds account (current account) and
securities accounts (SGL account) with RBI, are members of this electronic platform.
All members of PDO-NDS can place their bids in the auction through this electronic
platform. All non-NDS members including non-scheduled urban co-operative banks can
participate in the primary auction through scheduled commercial banks or Primary
Dealers.
For this purpose, the urban co-operative banks need to open a securities account with a
bank / Primary Dealer such an account is called a Gilt Account. A Gilt Account is a
dematerialized account maintained by a scheduled commercial bank or Primary Dealer
for its constituent (e.g., a non-scheduled urban co-operative bank).

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 The RBI, in consultation with the Government of India, issues an indicative half-yearly
auction calendar which contains information about the amount of borrowing, the tenor
of security and the likely period during which auctions will be held.
A Notification and a Press Communique giving exact particulars of the securities, viz.,
name, amount, type of issue and procedure of auction are issued by the Government of
India about a week prior to the actual date of auction.

What are the different types of auctions used for issue of securities?
Prior to introduction of auctions as the method of issuance, the interest rates were
administratively fixed by the Government. With the introduction of auctions, the rate of interest
(coupon rate) gets fixed through a market based price discovery process. An auction may either
be yield based or price based.

Yield Based Auction

A yield based auction is generally conducted when a new Government security is issued. Investors
bid in yield terms up to two decimal places (for example, 8.19 per cent, 8.20 per cent, etc.). Bids
are arranged in ascending order and the cut-off yield is arrived at the yield corresponding to the
notified amount of the auction. The cut-off yield is taken as the coupon rate for the security.
Successful bidders are those who have bid at or below the cut-off yield. Bids which are higher
than the cut-off yield are rejected.

An illustrative example of the yield based auction is given below:

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Yield based auction of a new security
Maturity Date: September 8, 2018
Coupon: It is determined in the auction (8.22% as shown in the illustration below)
Auction date: September 5, 2008
Auction settlement date: September 8, 2008*
Notified Amount: Rs.1000 crore
* September 6 and 7 being holidays, settlement is done on September 8, 2008 under T+1
cycle.

Details of bids received in the increasing order of bid yields

Bid No. Bid Yield Amount of bid Cumulative amount (Rs. Price with
(Rs. crore) Cr) coupon as
8.22%
1 8.19% 300 300 100.19
2 8.20% 200 500 100.14
3 8.20% 250 750 100.13
4 8.21% 150 900 100.09
5 8.22% 100 1000 100
6 8.22% 100 1100 100
7 8.23% 150 1250 99.93
8 8.24% 100 1350 99.87
The issuer would get the notified amount by accepting bids up to 5. Since the bid number
6 also is at the same yield, bid numbers 5 and 6 would get allotment pro-rata so that the
notified amount is not exceeded. In the above case, each would get Rs. 50 crores. Bid
numbers 7 and 8 are rejected as the yields are higher than the cut-off yield.

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Price Based Auction
A price based auction is conducted when Government of India re-issues securities issued earlier.
Bidders quote in terms of price per Rs.100 of face value of the security (e.g., Rs.102.00, Rs.101.00,
Rs.100.00, Rs.99.00, etc., per Rs.100/-). Bids are arranged in descending order and the successful
bidders are those who have bid at or above the cut-off price. Bids which are below the cut-off
price are rejected.

An illustrative example of price based auction is given below:

Price based auction of an existing security 8.24% GS 2018
Maturity Date: April 22, 2018
Coupon: 8.24%
Auction date: September 5, 2008
Auction settlement date: September 8, 2008*
Notified Amount: Rs.1000 crore
* September 6 and 7 being holidays, settlement is done on September 8, 2008 under T+1
cycle.

Details of bids received in the decreasing order of bid price

Bid no. Price of bid Amount of bid Implicit Cumulative amount
(Rs. Cr) yield
1 100.31 300 8.1912% 300
2 100.26 200 8.1987% 500
3 100.25 250 8.2002% 750
4 100.21 150 8.2062% 900
5 100.20 100 8.2077% 1000
6 100.20 100 8.2077% 1100
7 100.16 150 8.2136% 1250
8 100.15 100 8.2151% 1350

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 The issuer would get the notified amount by accepting bids up to 5. Since the bid number 6
also is at the same price, bid numbers 5 and 6 would get allotment in proportion so that the
notified amount is not exceeded. In the above case each would get Rs. 50 crores. Bid
numbers 7 and 8 are rejected as the price quoted is less than the cut-off price.

Depending upon the method of allocation to successful bidders, auction could be classified as
Uniform Price based and Multiple Price based.
In a Uniform Price auction, all the successful bidders are required to pay for the allotted quantity
of securities at the same rate, i.e., at the auction cut-off rate, irrespective of the rate quoted by
them.
On the other hand, in a Multiple Price auction, the successful bidders are required to pay for the
allotted quantity of securities at the respective price / yield at which they have bid. In the example
under Price based auction above, if the auction was Uniform Price based, all bidders would get
allotment at the cut-off price, i.e., Rs.100.20. On the other hand, if the auction was Multiple Price
based, each bidder would get the allotment at the price he/ she has bid, i.e., bidder 1 at
Rs.100.31, bidder 2 at Rs.100.26 and so on.

An investor may bid in an auction under either of the following categories:

Competitive Bidding
In a competitive bidding, an investor bids at a specific price / yield and is allotted securities if the
price / yield quoted is within the cut-off price / yield. Competitive bids are made by well informed
investors such as banks, financial institutions, primary dealers, mutual funds, and insurance
companies. The minimum bid amount is Rs. 10,000 and in multiples of Rs. 10,000 thereafter.
Multiple bidding is also allowed, i.e., an investor may put in several bids at various price/ yield
levels.

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Non-Competitive Bidding
With a view to providing retail investors, who may lack skill and knowledge to participate
in the auction directly, an opportunity to participate in the auction process, the scheme
of non-competitive bidding in dated securities was introduced in January 2002.
Non-competitive bidding is open to individuals, HUFs, RRBs, co-operative banks, firms,
companies, corporate bodies, institutions, provident funds, and trusts.
Under the scheme, eligible investors apply for a certain amount of securities in an auction
without mentioning a specific price / yield. Such bidders are allotted securities at the
weighted average price / yield of the auction. In the illustration given under Price Based
auction above, the notified amount being Rs.1000 crore, the amount reserved for non-
competitive bidding will be Rs.50 crores (5 per cent of the notified amount as indicated
below). Non-competitive bidders will be allotted at the weighted average price which is
Rs.100.26 in the given illustration.
The participants in non-competitive bidding are, however, required to hold a gilt account
with a bank or PD. Regional Rural Banks and co-operative banks which hold SGL and
Current Account with the RBI can also participate under the scheme of non-competitive
bidding without holding a gilt account.
In every auction of dated securities, a maximum of 5 per cent of the notified amount is
reserved for such non-competitive bids. In the case of auction for Treasury Bills, the
amount accepted for non-competitive bids is over and above the notified amount and
there is no limit placed. However, non-competitive bidding in Treasury Bills is available
only to State Governments and other select entities and is not available to the co-
operative banks.
Only one bid is allowed to be submitted by an investor either through a bank or Primary
Dealer.
For bidding under the scheme, an investor has to fill in an undertaking and send it along
with the application for allotment of securities through a bank or a Primary Dealer. The
minimum amount and the maximum amount for a single bid is Rs. 10,000 and Rs.2 crores
respectively in the case of an auction of dated securities.
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 A bank or a Primary Dealer can charge an investor up to maximum of 6 paise per Rs.100
of application money as commission for rendering their services. In case the total
applications received for non-competitive bids exceed the ceiling of 5 per cent of the
notified amount of the auction for dated securities, the bidders are allotted securities on
a pro-rata basis.
Non-competitive bidding scheme has been introduced in the State Government securities
(SDLs) from August 2009. The aggregate amount reserved for the purpose in the case of
SDLs is 10% of the notified amount (Rs.100 Crore for a notified amount of Rs.1000 Crore)
and the maximum amount an investor can bid per auction is capped at 1% of the notified
amount (as against Rs.2 Crore in Central Government securities). The bidding and
allotment procedure is similar to that of Central Government securities.

CRR & SLR

Introduction
With a view to monitoring compliance of maintenance of statutory reserve requirements viz. CRR
and SLR by the SCBs, the Reserve Bank of India has prescribed statutory returns i.e. Form A Return
(for CRR) under Section 42(2) of the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) Act, 1934 and Form VIII Return
(for SLR) under Section 24 of the Banking Regulation Act, 1949.
CRR
In terms of Section 42(1) of the RBI Act, 1934 the Reserve Bank, having regard to the needs of
securing the monetary stability in the country, prescribes the CRR for SCBs without any floor or
ceiling rate.
Maintenance of CRR
At present, effective from the fortnight beginning February 09, 2013, the CRR is prescribed at
4.00 per cent of a bank's total of DTL adjusted for the exemptions
Incremental CRR
In terms of Section 42(1A) of RBI Act, 1934, the SCBs are required to maintain, in addition to the
balances prescribed under Section 42(1) of the Act, an additional average daily balance, the
amount of which shall not be less than the rate specified by the Reserve Bank in the notification
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published in the Gazette of India from time to time. Such additional balance will be calculated
with reference to the excess of the total of DTL of the bank as shown in the Returns referred to
in Section 42(2) of the RBI Act, 1934 over the total of its DTL at the close of the business on the
date specified in the notification.
At present no incremental CRR is required to be maintained by the banks.
Computation of DTL
Liabilities of a bank may be in the form of demand or time deposits or borrowings or other
miscellaneous items of liabilities. As defined under Section 42 of the RBI Act, 1934, liabilities of a
bank may be towards the banking system or towards others in the form of demand and time
deposits or borrowings or other miscellaneous items of liabilities. As the Reserve Bank of India
has been authorized in terms of Section 42(1C) of the RBI Act, 1934, to specify whether any
transaction or class of transactions would be regarded as a liability of banks in India, banks are
advised to approach the RBI in case of any question as to whether any transaction would be
regarded as reservable liability.
Demand Liabilities
Demand Liabilities of a bank are liabilities which are payable on demand. These include current
deposits, demand liabilities portion of savings bank deposits, margins held against letters of
credit/guarantees, balances in overdue fixed deposits, cash certificates and cumulative/recurring
deposits, outstanding Telegraphic Transfers (TTs), Mail Transfers (MTs), Demand Drafts (DDs),
unclaimed deposits, credit balances in the Cash Credit account and deposits held as security for
advances which are payable on demand. Money at Call and Short Notice from outside the
banking system should be shown against liability to others.
Time Liabilities
Time Liabilities of a bank are those which are payable otherwise than on demand. These include
fixed deposits, cash certificates, cumulative and recurring deposits, time liabilities portion of
savings bank deposits, staff security deposits, margin held against letters of credit, if not payable
on demand, deposits held as securities for advances which are not payable on demand and Gold
deposits.

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Other Demand and Time Liabilities (ODTL)
ODTL include interest accrued on deposits, bills payable, unpaid dividends, suspense account
balances representing amounts due to other banks or public, net credit balances in branch
adjustment account, any amounts due to the banking system which are not in the nature of
deposits or borrowing. Such liabilities may arise due to items like collection of bills on behalf of
other banks, interest due to other banks and so on.
The balance outstanding in the blocked account pertaining to segregated outstanding credit
entries for more than 5 years in inter-branch adjustment account, the margin money on bills
purchased / discounted and gold borrowed by banks from abroad, should also be included in
ODTL.
Cash collaterals received under collateralized derivative transactions should be included in the
banks DTL/NDTL for the purpose of reserve requirements as these are in the nature of outside
liabilities. Interest accrued on deposits should be calculated on each reporting fortnight (as per
the interest calculation methods applicable to various types of accounts) so that the banks
liability in this regard is fairly reflected in the total NDTL of the same fortnightly return.
Assets with the Banking System
Assets with the banking system include balances with banks in current account, balances with
banks and notified financial institutions in other accounts, funds made available to banking
system by way of loans or deposits repayable at call or short notice of a fortnight or less and loans
other than money at call and short notice made available to the banking system. Any other
amounts due from the banking system which cannot be classified under any of the above items
are also to be taken as assets with the banking system.
Borrowings from abroad by banks in India
Loans/borrowings from abroad by banks in India will be considered as 'liabilities to others' and
will be subject to reserve requirements. Upper Tier II instruments raised and maintained abroad
shall be reckoned as liability for the computation of DTL for the purpose of reserve requirements.
Arrangements with Correspondent Banks for Remittance Facilities
When a bank accepts funds from a client under its remittance facilities scheme, it becomes a
liability (liability to others) in its books. The liability of the bank accepting funds will extinguish
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only when the correspondent bank honours the drafts issued by the accepting bank to its
customers. As such, the balance amount in respect of the drafts issued by the accepting bank on
its correspondent bank under the remittance facilities scheme and remaining unpaid should be
reflected in the accepting bank's books as liability under the head 'Liability to others in India' and
the same should also be taken into account for computation of DTL for CRR/SLR purpose.
The amount received by correspondent banks has to be shown as 'Liability to the Banking System'
by them and not as 'Liability to others' and this liability could be netted off by the correspondent
banks against the inter-bank assets. Likewise sums placed by banks issuing
drafts/interest/dividend warrants are to be treated as 'Assets with banking system' in their books
and can be netted off from their inter-bank liabilities.
Liabilities not to be included for DTL/NDTL computation
The under-noted liabilities will not form part of liabilities for the purpose of CRR and SLR:
i. Paid up capital, reserves, any credit balance in the Profit & Loss Account of the bank,
amount of any loan taken from the RBI and the amount of refinance taken from Exim
Bank, NHB, NABARD, SIDBI;
ii. Net income tax provision;
iii. Amount received from DICGC towards claims and held by banks pending adjustments
thereof;
iv. Amount received from ECGC by invoking the guarantee;
v. Amount received from insurance company on ad-hoc settlement of claims pending
judgement of the Court;
vi. Amount received from the Court Receiver;
vii. The liabilities arising on account of utilization of limits under Bankers Acceptance Facility
(BAF);
viii. District Rural Development Agency (DRDA) subsidy of 10,000/- kept in Subsidy Reserve
Fund account in the name of Self Help Groups;
ix. Subsidy released by NABARD under Investment Subsidy Scheme for
Construction/Renovation/Expansion of Rural Godowns;
x. Net unrealized gain/loss arising from derivatives transaction under trading portfolio;
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 xi. Income flows received in advance such as annual fees and other charges which are not
refundable;
xii. Bill rediscounted by a bank with eligible financial institutions as approved by RBI;
Exempted Categories
SCBs are exempted from maintaining CRR on the following liabilities:
i. Liabilities to the banking system in India as computed under clause (d) of the explanation
to Section 42(1) of the RBI Act, 1934;
ii. Credit balances in ACU (US$) Accounts; and
iii. Demand and Time Liabilities in respect of their Offshore Banking Units (OBU).
iv. The eligible amount of incremental FCNR (B) and NRE deposits of maturities of three years
and above from the base date of July 26, 2013, and outstanding as on March 7, 2014, till
their maturities/pre-mature withdrawals, and

Procedure for Computation of CRR

In order to improve cash management by banks, as a measure of simplification, a lag of one
fortnight in the maintenance of stipulated CRR by banks was introduced with effect from the
fortnight beginning November 06, 1999.

Maintenance of CRR on Daily Basis

With a view to providing flexibility to banks in choosing an optimum strategy of holding reserves
depending upon their intra fortnight cash flows, all SCBs are required to maintain minimum CRR
balances up to 95 per cent of the average daily required reserves for a reporting fortnight on all
days of the fortnight with effect from the fortnight beginning September 21, 2013.

No Interest Payment on Eligible Cash Balances maintained by SCBs with RBI under CRR
In view of the amendment carried out to RBI Act 1934, omitting sub-section (1B) of Section 42,
the Reserve Bank does not pay any interest on the CRR balances maintained by SCBs with effect
from the fortnight beginning March 31, 2007.

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Penalties
From the fortnight beginning June 24, 2006, penal interest is charged as under in cases of default
in maintenance of CRR by SCBs:
(i) In case of default in maintenance of CRR requirement on a daily basis which is currently 95 per
cent of the total CRR requirement, penal interest will be recovered for that day at the rate of
three per cent per annum above the Bank Rate on the amount by which the amount actually
maintained falls short of the prescribed minimum on that day and if the shortfall continues on
the next succeeding day/s, penal interest will be recovered at the rate of five per cent per annum
above the Bank Rate.
(ii) In cases of default in maintenance of CRR on average basis during a fortnight, penal interest
will be recovered as envisaged in sub-section (3) of Section 42 of Reserve Bank of India Act,
1934.SCBs are required to furnish the particulars such as date, amount, percentage, reason for
default in maintenance of requisite CRR and also action taken to avoid recurrence of such default.

Statutory Liquidity Ratio (SLR)

Consequent upon amendment to the Section 24 of the Banking Regulation Act, 1949 through the
Banking Regulation (Amendment) Act, 2007 replacing the Regulation (Amendment) Ordinance,
2007, effective January 23, 2007, the Reserve Bank can prescribe the SLR for SCBs in specified
assets. The value of such assets of a SCB shall not be less than such percentage not exceeding 40
per cent of its total DTL in India as on the last Friday of the second preceding fortnight as the
Reserve Bank may, by notification in the Official Gazette, specify from time to time.
SCBs can participate in the Marginal Standing Facility (MSF) Scheme introduced by Reserve Bank
with effect from May 09, 2011. Under this facility, the eligible entities may borrow up to two per
cent of their respective NDTL outstanding at the end of the second preceding fortnight from April
17, 2012. Additionally, the eligible entities may also continue to access overnight funds under
this facility against their excess SLR holdings. In the event, the banks SLR holding falls below the
statutory requirement up to two per cent of their NDTL, banks will not have the obligation to

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seek a specific waiver for default in SLR compliance arising out of use of this facility in terms of
notification issued under sub section (2A) of section 24 of the Banking Regulation Act, 1949.
Within the mandatory SLR requirement, Government securities to the extent allowed by the RBI
under Marginal Standing Facility (MSF) are permitted to be reckoned as the Level 1 High Quality
Liquid Assets (HQLAs) for the purpose of computing Liquidity Coverage Ratio (LCR) of banks. In
addition to this, banks are permitted to reckon up to another 5 per cent of their NDTL within the
mandatory SLR requirement as level 1 HQLA. This is the Facility to Avail Liquidity for Liquidity
Coverage Ratio that was notified vide DBR.BP.BC.No.52/21.04.098/2014-15.
Reserve Bank has specified that w.e.f. the fortnight beginning February 07, 2015, every SCB shall
continue to maintain in India assets as detailed below, the value of which shall not, at the close
of business on any day, be less than 21.5 per cent of the total NDTL as on the last Friday of the
second preceding fortnight valued in accordance with the method of valuation specified by the
Reserve Bank of India from time to time:
(a) Cash or (b) in Gold valued at a price not exceeding the current market price, or (c) Investment
in the following instruments which will be referred to as "Statutory Liquidity Ratio (SLR)
securities":
i. Dated securities issued up to May 06, 2011 as listed in the Annex to Notification
DBOD.No.Ret.91/12.02.001/2010-11 dated May 09, 2011;
ii. Treasury Bills of the Government of India;
iii. Dated securities of the Government of India issued from time to time under the market
borrowing programme and the Market Stabilization Scheme;
iv. State Development Loans (SDLs) of the State Governments issued from time to time
under the market borrowing programme; and
v. Any other instrument as may be notified by the Reserve Bank of India.
vi. Provided that the securities (including margin) referred to above, if acquired under the
Reserve Bank- Liquidity Adjustment Facility (LAF), shall not be treated as an eligible asset
for this purpose.

19
The fourth Bi-monthly monetary policy statement by the Reserve Bank of India made on
September 29, 2015 prescribed changes in SLR requirements as given below.
S. No Prescription of SLR Effective date
i 21.25 per cent From April 02, 2016
ii 21.00 per cent From July 09, 2016
iii 20.75 per cent From October 01, 2016
iv 20.50 per cent From January 07, 2017

Explanation:
1. For the above purpose, "market borrowing programme" shall mean the domestic rupee loans
raised by the Government of India and the State Governments from the public and managed by
the Reserve Bank of India through issue of marketable securities, governed by the Government
Securities Act, 2006 and the Regulations framed there under, through an auction or any other
method, as specified in the Notification issued in this regard.
2. Encumbered SLR securities shall not be included for the purpose of computing the percentage
specified above.
Provided that for the purpose of computing the percentage of assets referred to hereinabove,
the following shall be included, viz:
i. securities lodged with another institution for an advance or any other credit arrangement
to the extent to which such securities have not been drawn against or availed of; and,
ii. Securities offered as collateral to the Reserve Bank of India for availing liquidity assistance
from Marginal Standing Facility (MSF) up to two per cent of the total NDTL in India carved
out of the required SLR portfolio of the bank concerned.
3. In computing the amount for the above purpose, the following shall be deemed to be cash
maintained in India:
a. The deposit required under sub-section (2) of Section 11 of the Banking Regulation
Act, 1949 to be made with the Reserve Bank by a banking company incorporated
outside India;
20
 b. Any balance maintained by a scheduled bank with the Reserve Bank in excess of
the balance required to be maintained by it under Section 42 of the Reserve Bank
of India Act,1934 (2 of 1934);
c. Net balance in current accounts with other SCBs in India.

Procedure for Computation of SLR

The procedure to compute total NDTL for the purpose of SLR under Section 24 (2A) of Banking
Regulation Act, 1949 is broadly similar to the procedure followed for CRR. The liabilities
mentioned under Section 1.11 will not form part of liabilities for the purpose of SLR also. SCBs
are required to include inter-bank term deposits / term borrowing liabilities of all maturities in
'Liabilities to the Banking System'. Similarly, banks should include their inter-bank assets of term
deposits and term lending of all maturities in 'Assets with the Banking System' for computation
of NDTL for SLR purpose.

Penalties
If a banking company fails to maintain the required amount of SLR, it shall be liable to pay to RBI
in respect of that default, the penal interest for that day at the rate of three per cent per annum
above the Bank Rate on the shortfall and if the default continues on the next succeeding working
day, the penal interest may be increased to a rate of five per cent per annum above the Bank
Rate for the concerned days of default on the shortfall.

Return in Form VIII (SLR)

i) Banks should submit to the Reserve Bank before 20th day of every month, a Return in Form VIII
showing the amounts of SLR held on alternate Fridays during immediate preceding month with
particulars of their DTL in India held on such Fridays or if any such Friday is a public holiday under
the Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881, at the close of business on preceding working day.
ii) Banks should also submit a statement as Annexure to Form VIII Return giving daily position of
(a) assets held for the purpose of compliance with SLR, (b) excess cash balances maintained by
them with RBI in the prescribed format, and (c) mode of valuation of securities.
21
Correctness of computation of DTL to be certified by Statutory Auditors
The Statutory Auditors should verify and certify that all items of outside liabilities, as per the
banks books had been duly compiled by the bank and correctly reflected under DTL/NDTL in the
fortnightly/monthly statutory returns submitted to Reserve Bank for the financial year.

FBIL Overnight MIBOR

All trades executed on NDS-Call system excluding reciprocal and reported Deals within the first
hour of trading (currently from 9.00 A.M. to 10.00 A.M.) will be used for computation of the
benchmark Overnight Rate. The trades will be pulled out from the NDS-CALL system immediately
after the cut-off time.
Only T+0 Settlement deals are to be picked up for calculation of Overnight Weighted Average
Rate that will be called FBIL Overnight Mumbai Inter-Bank Outright Rate (FBIL-Overnight MIBOR).
For any weekday, the maturity of the deals picked up for computation of FBIL-Overnight MIBOR
should be of the next succeeding Mumbai Business Day excluding Saturdays. For example, if
Friday is a holiday but succeeding Monday is a Mumbai Business working day, FBIL-Overnight
MIBOR calculation on Thursday will pick up trades with a maturity of 4 days. Only trades for ` 5
crore or above are retained for further calculation.
A minimum of 10 trades with a total traded value of `500 crore in the NDS-Call segment will be
considered as the minimum threshold limit (both) for estimation of the volume weighted average
rate.
In case either of the criteria mentioned in the above paragraph is not met, the timeframe for
computation of rates will be extended by 30 minutes first and if the threshold criteria are still not
met, then by another 30 minutes. If the threshold criteria are not met even after the two
extensions, no rate computation will be initiated. The Previous Days values will be used for
dissemination. This may continue for a maximum of two consecutive working days (in case the
threshold criteria are not met) after which if the threshold criteria are still not met, CCIL will not
disseminate any rate on such days and Banks will use their own fallback mechanism. There will
be a notification to that effect published on CCIL/FIMMDA websites.

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 The Weighted Average Rate and Standard Deviation (STDEV) are calculated for the
retained trades after meeting the threshold criteria. These numbers will be rounded off
to two decimal places.
A rate Range will be computed Max will be Weighted Average Rate + 3* Standard
Deviation and Min will be Weighted Average Rate - 3* Standard Deviation.
Any trades at rates outside the said Max and Min range will be considered as outliers and
dropped from the data (i.e. Higher than Max and Lower than Min).
The final volume weighted average rate and standard deviation will then be computed
using the remaining trades. The said numbers would be rounded off to two decimal places
at each stage.
The Final Rate will be released as FBIL-Overnight MIBOR for the day by 10.45 A.M on the
websites of FIMMDA and CCIL or such websites as may be notified. If the time is extended
due to non-fulfillment of the threshold criteria, the dissemination time will be suitably
extended.

FBIL Term MIBOR

FIMMDA/Benchmark Administrators Authorized Submitters will be having access to
submit the Rates for various Terms (14-Day, 1-Month and 3-Month) using a suitable
Module in NDS-Call system.
NDS-Call system will receive the mid-rates from approved Submitters between 11.00AM
to 11.15AM using the specific Module inside the System. In case the time is extended for
the FBIL Overnight MIBOR due to non-fulfillment of the threshold criteria, the polling time
will be suitably extended for the term rate. The Submitters would submit the rates in
two decimal places.
A minimum of 8 quotes will be required for dissemination of the Term Rate for that Tenor.
If the threshold of 8 quotes for a Tenor is not met, CCIL will not disseminate the Rate for
that Tenor for the day. The Previous Days Rate for that Tenor will be displayed with due
notification. The same may be repeated maximum for 2 consecutive working days in case
the threshold is not met. After that, if the threshold is not met on the third day, CCIL will
23
 not calculate/compute any rate for that tenor with due notification and the Banks will
follow their own fallback mechanism. After receiving the rates, the Mean Rate and
Standard Deviation will be computed for each category of rates. The said calculated
numbers will be rounded off to two decimal places at each stage.
A Rate Range will be computed using Mean Rate +/- (3*Standard Deviation) for each
category of Rates.
Any polled Rate outside the said Range (i.e. Rate higher than Max or lower than Min in
their respective categories) will be dropped from Final Rate Calculation.
After removal of Outliers, the Mean Rate and Standard Deviation will be computed for
each category of Rates (viz. 14-day, 1-Month and 3-Months). The said calculated numbers
will be rounded off to two decimal places.
The final rates will be released as FBIL POLLED TERM MIBOR (Mumbai Interbank Outright
Rate) for the day by 11.45AM on the websites of FIMMDA and CCIL or such websites as
may be notified. If the time is extended, the dissemination time will be suitably extended.

What is Delivery versus Payment (DvP) Settlement?

Delivery versus Payment (DvP) is the mode of settlement of securities wherein the transfer of
securities and funds happen simultaneously. This ensures that unless the funds are paid, the
securities are not delivered and vice versa. DvP settlement eliminates the settlement risk in
transactions. There are three types of DvP settlements, viz., DvP I, II and III which are explained
below;
i. DvP I The securities and funds legs of the transactions are settled on a gross basis, that
is, the settlements occur transaction by transaction without netting the payables and
receivables of the participant.
ii. DvP II In this method, the securities are settled on gross basis whereas the funds are
settled on a net basis, that is, the funds payable and receivable of all transactions of a
party are netted to arrive at the final payable or receivable position which is settled.
iii. DvP III In this method, both the securities and the funds legs are settled on a net basis
and only the final net position of all transactions undertaken by a participant is settled.
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 iv. Liquidity requirement in a gross mode is higher than that of a net mode since the payables
and receivables are set off against each other in the net mode.

CALL & MONEY MARKETS

Introduction
The money market is a market for short-term financial assets that are close substitutes of money.
The most important feature of a money market instrument is that it is liquid and can be turned
into money quickly at low cost and provides an avenue for equilibrating the short-term surplus
funds of lenders and the requirements of borrowers. The call/notice money market forms an
important segment of the Indian Money Market. Under call money market, funds are transacted
on an overnight basis and under notice money market; funds are transacted for a period between
2 days and 14 days.

Participants
Scheduled commercial banks (excluding RRBs), co-operative banks (other than Land
Development Banks) and Primary Dealers (PDs), are permitted to participate in call/notice money
market both as borrowers and lenders.

Prudential Limits
The prudential limits in respect of both outstanding borrowing and lending transactions in
call/notice money market for scheduled commercial banks, co-operative banks and PDs are as
follows:-

25
Table: Prudential Limits for Transactions in Call/Notice Money Market
Sr.
Participant Borrowing Lending
No.
1 Scheduled On a fortnightly average basis, borrowing On a fortnightly average basis,
Commercial outstanding should not exceed 100 per cent lending outstanding should not
Banks of capital funds (i.e., sum of Tier I and Tier II exceed 25 per cent of their capital
capital) of latest audited balance sheet. funds. However, banks are allowed
However, banks are allowed to borrow a to lend a maximum of 50 per cent
maximum of 125 per cent of their capital of their capital funds on any day,
funds on any day, during a fortnight. during a fortnight.
2 Co-operative Outstanding borrowings of State Co- No limit.
Banks operative Banks/District Central Co-operative
Banks/ Urban Co-operative Banks in
call/notice money market, on a daily basis
should not exceed 2.0 per cent of their
aggregate deposits as at end March of the
previous financial year.
3 PDs PDs are allowed to borrow, on average in a PDs are allowed to lend in
reporting fortnight, up to 225 per cent of call/notice money market, on
their net owned funds (NOF) as at end-March average in a reporting fortnight, up
of the previous financial year. to 25 per cent of their NOF.

Banks/PDs/ Co-operative banks may, with the approval of their Boards, arrive at the prudential
limits for borrowing/lending in Call/Notice Money Market in terms of guidelines given in
paragraph 3.1 above. The limits so arrived at may be conveyed to the Clearing Corporation of
India Ltd. (CCIL) for setting of limits in NDS-CALL System, under advice to Financial Markets
Regulation Department (FMRD), Reserve Bank of India.
Non-bank institutions (other than PDs) are not permitted in the call/notice money market.

26
Interest Rate
Eligible participants are free to decide on interest rates in call/notice money market.
Calculation of interest payable would be based on the methodology given in the Handbook of
Market Practices brought out by the Fixed Income Money Market and Derivatives Association of
India (FIMMDA).

COLLATERALIZED BORROWING AND LENDING OBLIGATION (CBLO)

Introduction:
CBLO as the name implies facilitates in a collateralized environment, borrowing and lending of
funds to market participants who are admitted as members in CBLO Segment. CBLO is conceived
and developed by CCIL CBLO Dealing system, an anonymous order matching platform, is hosted
and maintained by Clearcorp Dealing Systems (India) Ltd, a fully owned subsidiary of CCIL. CCIL
becomes Central Counterparty to all CBLO trades and guarantees settlement of CBLO trades. The
borrowing and / or lending in CBLO is facilitated for a maximum tenor of one year. CBLO is traded
on Yield Time priority. The access to CBLO Dealing system for NDS Members is made available
through INFINET and for non NDS Members through Internet. The Funds settlement of members
in CBLO segment is achieved in the books of RBI for members who maintain an RBI Current
Account and are allowed to operate that current account for settlement of their secondary
market transactions. In respect of other members, CBLO Funds settlement is achieved in the
books of Settlement Bank.

What does CBLO facilitate?

CBLO facilitates borrowing and lending for various tenors, from overnight up to a maximum of
one year, in a fully collateralised environment.

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Membership
Entities who qualify and fulfil the eligibility criteria laid down for membership of CBLO Segment
can apply for becoming a member in CBLO Segment. The type of entity eligible for CBLO
Membership are Nationalized Banks, Private Banks, Foreign Banks, Co-operative Banks, Financial
Institutions, Insurance Companies, Mutual Funds, Primary Dealers, Bank cum Primary Dealers,
NBFC, Corporate, Provident/ Pension Funds etc. Entities who have been granted CBLO
Membership are classified based on their NDS Membership. CBLO Members who are also NDS
Members are CBLO (NDS) Members and other CBLO Members are CBLO (Non NDS) Members or
Associate Members.

Eligible Securities
Eligible securities are Central Government securities including Treasury Bills as specified by CCIL
from time to time.

Borrowing Limit and Initial Margin

Borrowing limit for the members is derived based eligible securities deposited by member in
CBLO segment, multiplied by mark to market prices, less hair cut applicable on respective
security. The members can borrow up a maximum of Borrowing Limit including all amounts which
are borrowed and outstanding at that point in time. Members are required to deposit initial
margin in the form of Cash (minimum Rs.1 lac). Initial margin is computed at the rate of 0.50%
on the total amount borrowed/lent by the members. CBLO members may seek intraday
enhancement of BL/ IM by depositing additional collaterals/ Government Securities/ Cash.
Similarly, Members may withdraw securities intraday from CBLO segment provided they are
unencumbered. However, one day prior notice is required for cash withdrawal.

Borrowing and Lending under CBLO

Borrowing and lending under CBLO can be done by both CBLO (NDS) members and Associate
members. The access to CBLO (NDS) members is made available through INFINET whereas
Associate members are provided access through Internet. Members have to deposit Cash and/
28
or eligible securities prior to starting CBLO Dealing operations. The limits are made available to
members based on cash / eligible securities deposited with CCIL for that purpose in CBLO
Segment. CBLO Members can place borrow / lend orders till the closure of market hours for T+0
settlement type for the same day settlement and till closure of market hours for T+1 settlement
type for settlement on next business day. The date for repayment of borrowing/ receipt of
lending is identified by the nomenclature of CBLO itself which captures as part of the description
the repayment of borrowing/ receipt of lending date. The borrowing and lending orders match
on Yield Time priority. The Borrow limit and Initial Margin are blocked on post trade basis and
hence the onus is on the members to ensure prior to placing the order that sufficient BL and IM
are available. For a few members Borrow Limit and Initial Margin are blocked at the time of
placing order in the system.

CBLO Timing
CBLO order matching system is available for all members (including Associate Members) for
settlement on T+0 and T+1 basis. The CBLO Borrowing / Lending timing for settlement type T+0
and T+1 for various business days shall be as decided by Clearcorp Dealing Systems (India) Ltd.
and notified from time to time.

Clearing & Settlement

CBLO system operates on a Straight through Processing (STP) environment. The trade flows from
CBLO Dealing System seamlessly to CCIL for Clearing and Settlement. The trades received by CCIL
are novated and netted for settlement. A single obligation is generated for each member for each
settlement date by netting trades received for settlement that business date with borrowing /
lending maturity obligation for the same date. The funds settlement is achieved at Settlement
Bank for those CBLO members who maintain a current account with Designated Settlement Bank
(DSB). CBLO Funds settlement is achieved at RBI for those members who maintain current
account at RBI and are allowed to settle secondary market transactions in such account. The
securities of equivalent value are blocked for members utilizing borrow limits. CBLO Account
balance credits are displayed for those members who have lent funds after the CBLO Funds
29
settlement is completed. This indicates that the lendings are collateralised. A report is made
available to borrower giving details of securities encumbered in CBLO segment.

CBLO Funds Settlement

The instructions for settlement of funds obligations, for members settling at Settlement Bank, is
transmitted electronically to the Settlement Bank containing details of Funds Pay-in and Pay-out
to be effected by the respective Settlement Bank. The Settlement Bank shall after effecting such
Pay-in and Pay-out, confirm back electronically the completion of such process. The onus on
ensuring that sufficient funds are made available in the respective current account with
Settlement Bank rests with the CBLO members settling through Settlement Bank.

CBLO Funds Settlement @ RBI Current Account:

The instructions for settlement of funds obligations, for members settling at RBI, is transmitted
to RBI which include Pay-in and Pay-out positions in respect of their proprietary positions and for
Settlement Banks, it also includes, those obligations of other members for whom they have
undertaken the function as a Settlement Bank.

Risk Management:
CCIL addresses risk relating to trading and settlement by adopting stringent membership norms
and admit the members who meet the minimum eligibility criteria. Members are allowed to
borrow to the extent of the limit fixed after MTM valuation of securities with appropriate haircut.
Members are also required to deposit Initial Margin required for borrowing and/ or lending in
CBLO Segment. Cash deposited by members, in CBLO segment shall be treated as Initial Margin.
The Initial Margin available, if is lesser than the requirement, then system would source the initial
margin excess utilised from the free Borrow Limit available. The members are required to deposit
immediately, in the CBLO CSGL account, securities required for replenishing the shortfall in
Borrow Limit, if any. Similarly, the members are also required to replenish the Initial Margin
shortfall, immediately on it Initial Margin utilisation exceeding the available Initial Margin.

30
Any shortfall in Borrow Limit shall be treated as settlement shortage and shall be handled as per
the process laid down for handling CBLO shortage. Further, members failure to deposit such
deficit (both Borrow limit & Initial Margin), immediately shall be treated as a Margin Default and
penalty is charged accordingly.

Default handling:
(i) Funds Shortage:
Shortfall in funds can take place when the members (by lenders on the day of lending and by
borrowers on the day of redemption) fail to meet funds obligation on the day of settlement. In
such cases, CCIL meets the shortage by utilizing the lines of credit extended by the member banks
/ Settlement Banks and complete the settlement. CCIL then initiates the default handling process
by withholding the CBLO Account balance credit receivable by the lenders (member-in-shortage).
In case of failure by the borrower to meet the redemption proceeds on maturity of borrowing
transactions, the underlying securities of such member stands encumbered till the funds are
replenished along with charges. In case of eventual default i.e. non replenishment of settlement
shortage by member-in-shortage, CCIL liquidates the underlying securities and adjust the
proceeds towards the shortfall and other charges.
(ii) CBLO Shortage:
CBLO shortage can take place when the members Borrow without having sufficient borrowing
limit. In case of CBLO shortfall, CCIL withholds the funds receivable by the member-in-shortage.
The funds withheld remains as collateral for securing the lenders to the extent.

WHAT IS VALUE AT RISK?

What is the maximum I can lose on this investment? This is a question that almost every
investor who has invested or is considering investing in a risky asset asks at some point in
time. Value at Risk tries to provide an answer, at least within a reasonable estimate. In

31
fact, it is misleading to consider Value at Risk, or VaR as it is widely known, to be an
alternative to risk adjusted value and probabilistic approaches.

In lay man terms Value at Risk measures largest loss likely (in future) to be suffered on a
portfolio position over a holding period with a given probability (confidence level). VAR is
a measure of market risk, and is equal to one standard deviation of the distribution of
possible returns on a portfolio of positions.

Value-at-risk (VaR) is a Probabilistic Metric of Market Risk (PMMR) used by banks and
other organizations to monitor risk in their trading portfolios. For a given probability and
a given time horizon, value-at-risk indicates an amount of money such that there is that
probability of the portfolio not losing more than that amount of money over that horizon.

Value at Risk Measures:

1. The Amount of Potential Losses
2. The chance of that loss
3. The Time Frame of the Loss

Calculation, Significance and Use of Value at Risk (VaR) Measures

Value at Risk is one unique and consolidated measure of risk, which has been at the center
of much expectations, popularity and controversy. It is also referred to as a summary
statistic which quantifies the asset or portfolios exposure to market risk. It has been in the
news for many wrong reasons as much popularity it gained among the financial market
dealers since 2008 wall street crash. Later economists and analysts have been able to
develop more comprehensive and reliable VaR stats but the basic characteristic of all the
measure remains the same or at least they are derived from Traditional VaR statistic. Here

32
we will take a look at what are the qualities which made this statistic gain popularity and
notoriety at the same time.
Features of Value at Risk (VaR): Given below are features of Traditional VaR estimate:
i. VaR is probability based and allows the users to interpret possible losses for various
confidence levels.
ii. It is a consistent measurement of financial risk as it uses the possible dollar loss
metric enabling the analysts to make direct comparisons across different portfolios,
assets or even business lines.
iii. VaR is calculated based on a common time horizon, and thus, allows for possible
losses to be quantified for a particular period.
iv. The choice of confidence level is usually based on the industry requirements or
reporting norms suggested by the Regulators. Choice of time horizon will depend
on the type of asset being analyzed, for example:
v. On a common stock it can be estimated for any horizon depending on the frequency
of trade or user requirement.
vi. On a portfolio VaR can be calculated for a period of turnover only; i.e. till the time
portfolio holdings remain consistent, as the holding changes or in other words if a
trade is recorded in the portfolio the VaR has to be calculated again. Therefore,
time-horizon for a portfolio depends on the frequency of trading in its assets.
vii. For a business analysis it may depend on the employee evaluation periods, key
decision making events etc. could provide the possible time horizons.
viii. Regulatory and taxation requirements
ix. External Quality Assessments etc.

It is important to note that VaR comparison between two portfolios, business lines or assets
requires that the two variables, i.e. time horizon and confidence level, be consistent for all
the portfolios being compared.

33
Uses of Value at Risk (VaR) :
VaR has four main uses in finance:
Risk Management
Financial Control
Financial Reporting and
Computing Regulatory Capital.
VaR is sometimes used in non-financial applications as well.
The greatest benefit of VAR is that it imposes a structured methodology for critically
measuring risk. Institutions that go through the process of computing their VAR are forced
to keep a check on their exposure to financial risks and to set up a proper risk management
function. Thus the process of getting to VAR may be as important as the number itself.
The other benefit of VaR is that it allows organizations to divide risk in two parts.
Inside the VaR Limit
Outside the VaR Limit
"A risk manager has two jobs: make people take more risk the 99% of the time it is safe to
do so, and survive the other 1% of the time. VaR is the border. So by using VaR the limit of
the Risk that can be undertaken is defined.

In the early 1990s, three events dramatically expanded use of value-at-risk:

The Group of 30 (1993) published a groundbreaking report on derivatives practices. It was
influential and helped shape the emerging field of financial risk management. It promoted
the use of value-at-risk by derivatives dealers and appears to be the first publication to use
the phrase value-at-risk.
JP Morgan (1994) released the first detailed description of value-at-risk as part of its free
Risk Metrics service. This was intended to promote the use of value-at-risk among the firms
institutional clients. The service comprised a technical document describing how to
implement a VaR measure and a covariance matrix for several hundred key factors updated
daily on the internet.

34
In 1995, the Basel Committee on Banking Supervision implemented market risk capital
requirements for banks. These were based upon a crude value-at-risk measure, but the
committee also approved, as an alternative, the use of banks own proprietary VaR
measures in certain circumstances.
Criticism of VaR
VaR is compared to "an airbag that works all the time, except when you have a car
accident."
The major criticism of VaR is:
Led to excessive risk-taking and leverage at financial institutions
Focused on the manageable risks near the center of the distribution and ignored
the tails
Created an incentive to take "excessive but remote risks"
Was "potentially catastrophic when its use creates a false sense of security among
senior executives and watchdogs."
Limitation of VaR: These are some common limitations of VaR:
Referring to VaR as a "worst-case" or "maximum tolerable" loss. In fact, you expect
two or three losses per year that exceed one-day 1% VaR.
Making VaR control or VaR reduction the central concern of risk management. It is
far more important to worry about what happens when losses exceed VaR.
Assuming plausible losses will be less than some multiple, often three, of VaR. The
entire point of VaR is that losses can be extremely large, and sometimes impossible
to define, once you get beyond the VaR point. To a risk manager, VaR is the level of
losses at which you stop trying to guess what will happen next, and start preparing
for anything.
Reporting a VaR that has not passed a backtest. Regardless of how VaR is computed,
it should have produced the correct number of breaks (within sampling error) in the
past. A common specific violation of this is to report a VaR based on the unverified
assumption that everything follows a multivariate normal distribution.

35