ABCs of Probes en

ABCs of Probes
Primer
Primer
Tektronix Probe Selector importance. Be sure that you understand the capabilities
and limitations of the measuring equipment that youre
With this on-line, interactive tool you can select by series, using. Also, before making any measurements, become
model number, or standards/application and fine tune thoroughly familiar with the system or circuitry that you will
your search with your specific testing requirements. be measuring. Review all documentation and schematics
The list of matching products will update with each click. for the system being measured, paying particular attention
Try it now at: www.tektronix.com/probes to the levels and locations of voltages in the circuit and
heeding any and all cautionary notations.
Tektronix Resources
Additionally, be sure to review the following safety
Our continually expanding library of technical briefs, precautions to avoid personal injury and to prevent
application notes and other resources will help ensure you damage to the measuring equipment or the systems to
get the most out of your probes and other equipment. which it is attached. For additional explanation of any
Simply contact your local Tektronix representative or visit of the following precautions, please refer to Explanation of
www.tektronix.com. Safety Precautions.
Observe All Terminal Ratings
Use Proper Grounding Procedures
Connect and Disconnect Probes Properly
Safety Summary Avoid Exposed Circuitry
When making measurements on electrical or electronic
Avoid RF Burns While Handling Probes
systems or circuitry, personal safety is of paramount
Do Not Operate Without Covers
Do Not Operate in Wet/Damp Conditions
Do Not Operate in an Explosive Atmosphere
Do Not Operate with Suspected Failures
Keep Probe Surfaces Clean and Dry
Do Not Immerse Probes in Liquids
2 www.tektronix.com/accessories
ABCs of Probes
Table of Contents
Probes - The Critical Link to Advanced Probing Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 - 54
Measurement Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 13 Ground Lead Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
What is a Probe? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Differential Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
The Ideal Probe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Small Signal Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
The Realities of Probes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Some Probing Tips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Explanation of Safety Precautions . . . . . . . . . . 55 - 56
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Observe All Terminal Ratings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Different Probes for Different Needs . . . . . . . . . 14 - 25 Use Proper Grounding Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Connect and Disconnect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Why So Many Probes? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Avoid Exposed Circuitry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Different Probe Types and Their Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Avoid RF Burns While Handing Probes . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Floating Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Do Not Operate Without Covers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Probe Accessories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Do Not Operate in Wet/Damp Conditions . . . . . . . . . . 56
A Guide to Probe Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 - 31 Do Not Operate in an Explosive Atmosphere . . . . . . . . 56
Do Not Operate with Suspected Failures . . . . . . . . . . 56
Choosing the Right Probe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Keep Probe Surfaces Clean and Dry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Understanding the Signal Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Do Not Immerse Probes in Liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Understanding the Oscilloscope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29
Selecting the Right Probe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 - 59
How Probes Affect Your Measurements . . . . . . 32 - 40
The Effect of Source Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Capacitive Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Bandwidth Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
What To Do About Probing Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Understanding Probe Specifications . . . . . . . . 41 - 45

Aberrations (universal) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Amp-Second Product (current probes) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Attenuation Factor (universal) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Accuracy (universal) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Bandwidth (universal) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Capacitance (universal) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
CMRR (differential probes) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
CW Frequency Current Derating (current probes) . . . . 44
Decay Time Constant (current probes) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Direct Current (current probes) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Insertion Impedance (current probes) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Input Capacitance (universal) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Input Resistance (universal) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Maximum Input Current Rating (current probes) . . . . . 44
Maximum Peak Pulse Currnt Rating (current probes) . . 44
Maximum Voltage Rating (universal) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Propagation Delay (universal) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Rise Time (universal) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Tangential Noise (active probes) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Temperature Range (universal) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
www.tektronix.com/accessories 3
Primer
Figure 1.1. A probe is a device that makes a physical and electrical connection
between the oscilloscope and test point.
Precision Measurements Start at the In essence, the probe is the first link in the oscilloscope
measurement chain. And the strength of this measurement
Probe Tip chain relies as much on the probe as the oscilloscope.
Probes are vital to oscilloscope measurements. To under- Weaken that first link with an inadequate probe or poor
stand how vital, disconnect the probes from an oscilloscope probing methods, and the entire chain is weakened.
and try to make a measurement. It cant be done. There
In this and following sections, youll learn what contributes to
has to be some kind of electrical connection, a probe of
the strengths and weaknesses of probes and how to select
some sort between the signal to be measured and the
the right probe for your application. Youll also learn some
oscilloscopes input channel.
important tips for using probes properly.
In addition to being vital to oscilloscope measurements,
probes are also critical to measurement quality. Connecting What Is a Probe?
a probe to a circuit can affect the operation of the circuit, As a first step, lets establish what an oscilloscope probe is.
and an oscilloscope can only display and measure the signal
Basically, a probe makes a physical and electrical connection
that the probe delivers to the oscilloscope input.
between a test point or signal source and an oscilloscope.
Thus, it is imperative that the probe have Depending on your measurement needs, this connection can
be made with something as simple as a length of wire or with
minimum impact on the probed circuit and
something as sophisticated as an active differential probe.
that it maintain adequate signal fidelity for
At this point, its enough to say that an oscilloscope probe is
the desired measurements.
some sort of device or network that connects the signal
If the probe doesnt maintain signal fidelity, if it changes the source to the input of the oscilloscope. This is illustrated in
signal in any way or changes the way a circuit operates, Figure 1.1, where the probe is indicated as an undefined box
the oscilloscope sees a distorted version of the actual signal. in the measurement diagram.
The result can be wrong or misleading measurements.
ABCs of Probes
Physically attaching the probe to the test point also establish-

es an electrical connection between the probe tip and
the oscilloscope input. For useable measurement results,
attaching the probe to a circuit must have minimum affect
on the way the circuit operates, and the signal at the probe
tip must be transmitted with adequate fidelity through the
probe head and cable to the oscilloscopes input.
These three issues physical attachment, minimum impact
on circuit operation, and adequate signal fidelity encom-
pass most of what goes into proper selection of a probe.
Because probing effects and signal fidelity are the more
complex topics, much of this primer is devoted to those
issues. However, the issue of physical connection should
never be ignored. Difficulty in connecting a probe to a test
Figure 1.2. Most probes consist of a probe head, a probe cable, and a compensation
box or other signal conditioning network. point often leads to probing practices that reduce fidelity.
Whatever the probe is in reality, it must provide a connection The Ideal Probe
of adequate convenience and quality between the signal
In an ideal world, the ideal probe would offer the following
source and the oscilloscope input (Figure 1.2). The adequacy
key attributes:
of connection has three key defining issues physical attach-
ment, impact on circuit operation, and signal transmission. Connection ease and convenience
To make an oscilloscope measurement, you must first be Absolute signal fidelity

able to physically get the probe to the test point. To make Zero signal source loading
this possible, most probes have at least a meter or two of Complete noise immunity
cable associated with them, as indicated in Figure 1.2. This
probe cable allows the oscilloscope to be left in a stationary Connection Ease and Convenience
position on a cart or bench top while the probe is moved Making a physical connection to the test point has already
from test point to test point in the circuit being tested. There been mentioned as one of the key requirements of probing.
is a tradeoff for this convenience, though. The probe cable With the ideal probe, you should also be able to make the
reduces the probes bandwidth; the longer the cable, the physical connection with both ease and convenience.
greater the reduction.
For miniaturized circuitry, such as high-density surface
In addition to the length of cable, most probes also have a mount technology (SMT), connection ease and convenience
probe head, or handle, with a probe tip. The probe head are promoted through subminiature probe heads and
allows you to hold the probe while you maneuver the tip to various probe-tip adapters designed for SMT devices.
make contact with the test point. Often, this probe tip is in
the form of a spring-loaded hook that allows you to actually
attach the probe to the test point.
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Such a probing system is shown in Figure 1.3a. These Figures 1.3. Various probes are available for different application technologies and
measurement needs.
probes, however, are too small for practical use in applica-
tions such as industrial power circuitry where high voltages
and larger gauge wires are common. For power applications,
physically larger probes with greater margins of safety are
required. Figures 1.3b and 1.3c show examples of such
probes, where Figure 1.3b is a high-voltage probe and
Figure 1.3c is a clamp-on current probe.
From these few examples of physical connection, its clear
that theres no single ideal probe size or configuration for
all applications. Because of this, various probe sizes and
configurations have been designed to meet the physical
connection requirements of various applications.
Absolute Signal Fidelity

The ideal probe should transmit any signal from probe tip to
a. Probing SMT devices.
oscilloscope input with absolute signal fidelity. In other words,
the signal as it occurs at the probe tip should be faithfully
duplicated at the oscilloscope input.
For absolute fidelity, the probe circuitry from tip to oscillo-
scope input must have zero attenuation, infinite bandwidth,
and linear phase across all frequencies. Not only are these
ideal requirements impossible to achieve in reality, but they
are impractical. For example, theres no need for an infinite
bandwidth probe, or oscilloscope for that matter, when
youre dealing with audio frequency signals. Nor is there a
need for infinite bandwidth when 500 MHz will do for covering
most high-speed digital, TV, and other typical oscilloscope
applications.
Still, within a given bandwidth of operation, absolute signal
fidelity is an ideal to be sought after.
b. High-voltage probe.
Zero Signal Source Loading
The circuitry behind a test point can be thought of as or mod-
eled as a signal source. Any external device, such as a probe,
thats attached to the test point can appear as an additional
load on the signal source behind the test point.
The external device acts as a load when it draws signal
current from the circuit (the signal source). This loading, or
signal current draw, changes the operation of the circuitry
behind the test point, and thus changes the signal seen at
the test point.
c. Clamp-on current probe.
ABCs of Probes
An ideal probe causes zero signal source loading. In other

words, it doesnt draw any signal current from the signal
source. This means that, for zero current draw, the probe
must have infinite impedance, essentially presenting an open
circuit to the test point.
In practice, a probe with zero signal source loading cannot be
achieved. This is because a probe must draw some small
amount of signal current in order to develop a signal voltage
at the oscilloscope input. Consequently, some signal source
loading is to be expected when using a probe. The goal,
however, should always be to minimize the amount of loading
through appropriate probe selection.
Complete Noise Immunity

Fluorescent lights and fan motors are just two of the many Figure 1-4. Probes are circuits composed of distributed resistance, inductance, and
electrical noise sources in our environment. These sources capacitance (R, L, and C).
can induce their noise onto nearby electrical cables and
For DC signals (0 Hz frequency), a probe appears as a simple
circuitry, causing the noise to be added to signals. Because
conductor pair with some series resistance and a terminating
of susceptibility to induced noise, a simple piece of wire is a
resistance (Figure 1.4a). However, for AC signals, the picture
less than ideal choice for an oscilloscope probe.
changes dramatically as signal frequencies increase
The ideal oscilloscope probe is completely immune to all (Figure 1.4b).
noise sources. As a result, the signal delivered to the
The picture changes for AC signals because any piece of
oscilloscope has no more noise on it than what appeared
wire has distributed inductance (L), and any wire pair has
on the signal at the test point.
distributed capacitance (C). The distributed inductance reacts
In practice, use of shielding allows probes to achieve a high to AC signals by increasingly impeding AC current flow as
level of noise immunity for most common signal levels. Noise, signal frequency increases. The distributed capacitance
however, can still be a problem for certain low-level signals. reacts to AC signals with decreasing impedance to AC
In particular, common mode noise can present a problem for current flow as signal frequency increases. The interaction
differential measurements, as will be discussed later. of these reactive elements (L and C), along with the resistive
elements (R), produces a total probe impedance that varies
The Realities of Probes with signal frequency. Through good probe design, the R, L,
The preceding discussion of The Ideal Probe mentioned and C elements of a probe can be controlled to provide
several realities that keep practical probes from reaching the desired degrees of signal fidelity, attenuation, and source
ideal. To understand how this can affect your oscilloscope loading over specified frequency ranges. Even with good
measurements, we need to explore the realities of probes design, probes are limited by the nature of their circuitry. Its
further. important to be aware of these limitations and their effects
First, its important to realize that a probe, even if its just a when selecting and using probes.
simple piece of wire, is potentially a very complex circuit.
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Amplitude
Bandwidth
Figure 1.5. Probes and oscilloscopes are designed to make measurements to
specification over an operating bandwidth. At frequencies beyond the 3 dB point,
signal amplitudes become overly attenuated and measurement results may be
unpredictable.
Bandwidth and Rise Time Limitations

Figure 1.6. Rise time measurement error can be estimated from the above chart.
Bandwidth is the range of frequencies that an oscilloscope An oscilloscope/probe combination with a rise time three times faster than the pulse
or probe is designed for. For example, a 100 MHz probe being measured (3:1 ratio) can be expected to measure the pulse rise time to within
5%. A 5:1 ratio would result in only 2% error.
or oscilloscope is designed to make measurements within
specification on all frequencies up to 100 MHz. Unwanted In cases where rise time isnt specified, you can derive rise
or unpredictable measurement results can occur at signal time (Tr) from the bandwidth (BW) specification with the
frequencies above the specified bandwidth (Figure 1.5). following relationship:
As a general rule, for accurate amplitude measurements, Tr = 0.35/BW
the bandwidth of the oscilloscope should be five times
Every oscilloscope has defined bandwidth and rise time
greater than the frequency of the waveform being measured.
limits. Similarly, every probe also has its own set of bandwidth
This five-times rule ensures adequate bandwidth for the
and rise time limits. And, when a probe is attached to an
higher-frequency components of non-sinusoidal waveforms,
oscilloscope, you get a new set of system bandwidth and
such as square waves.
rise time limits.
Similarly, the oscilloscope must have an adequate rise time
Unfortunately, the relationship between system bandwidth
for the waveforms being measured. The rise time of an
and the individual oscilloscope and probe bandwidths is
oscilloscope or probe is defined as the rise time that would
not a simple one. The same is true for rise times. To cope
be measured if an ideal, instantaneous-rise pulse were
with this, manufacturers of quality oscilloscopes specify
applied. For reasonable accuracy in measuring pulse rise or
bandwidth or rise time to the probe tip when the oscilloscope
fall times, the rise time of the probe and oscilloscope together
is used with specific probe models. This is important because
should be three to five times faster than that of the pulse
the oscilloscope and probe together form a measurement
being measured (Figure 1.6).
system, and its the bandwidth and rise time of the system
that determine its measurement capabilities. If you use a
probe that is not on the oscilloscopes recommended list of
probes, you run the risk of unpredictable measurement
results.
ABCs of Probes
Dynamic Range Limitations

All probes have a high-voltage safety limit that should not
be exceeded. For passive probes, this limit can range
from hundreds of volts to thousands of volts. However, for
active probes, the maximum safe voltage limit is often in the
range of tens of volts. To avoid personal safety hazards, as
well as potential damage to the probe, its wise to be aware
of the voltages being measured and the voltage limits of
the probes being used.
In addition to safety considerations, theres also the practical
consideration of measurement dynamic range. Oscilloscopes
have amplitude sensitivity ranges. For example, 1 mV to
10 V/division is a typical sensitivity range. On an eight-division
display, this means that you can typically make reasonably
accurate measurements on signals ranging from 4 mV
peak-to-peak to 40 V peak-to-peak.
This assumes, at minimum, a four-division amplitude display
of the signal to obtain reasonable measurement resolution. Figure 1.7 An example of resistive loading.
With a 1X probe (1-times probe), the dynamic measurement

range is the same as that of the oscilloscope. For the The simplest example of source loading effects is to consider
example above, this would be a signal measurement range measurement of a battery-driven resistive network. This
of 4 mV to 40 V. is shown in Figure 1.7. In Figure 1.7a, before a probe is
But, what if you need to measure a signal beyond the attached, the batterys DC voltage is divided across the
40 V range? batterys internal resistance (Ri) and the load resistance (Ri)
that the battery is driving. For the values given in the diagram,
You can shift the oscilloscopes dynamic range to higher
this results in an output voltage of:
voltages by using an attenuating probe. A 10X probe, for
example, shifts the dynamic range to 40 mV to 400 V. It Eo = Eb * RI/( Ri + RI)
does this by attenuating the input signal by a factor of 10, = 100 V * 100,000/(100 + 100,000)
which effectively multiplies the oscilloscopes scaling by 10.
= 10,000,000 V/100,100
For most general-purpose use, 10X probes are preferred,
both because of their high-end voltage range and because = 99.9 V
they cause less signal source loading. However, if you plan
In Figure 1.7b, a probe has been attached to the circuit,
to measure a very wide range of voltage levels, you may want
placing the probe resistance (Rp) in parallel with RI. If Rp is
to consider a switchable 1X/10X probe. This gives you a
100 k , the effective load resistance in Figure 1.7b is cut in
dynamic range of 4 mV to 400 V. However, in the 1X
half to 50 k .
mode, more care must be taken with regard to signal source
loading. The loading effect of this on Eo is:
Eo = 100 V * 50,000/(100 + 50,000)
Source Loading
= 5,000,000 V/50,100
As previously mentioned, a probe must draw some signal
current in order to develop a signal voltage at the oscillo- = 99.8 V
scope input. This places a load at the test point that can
change the signal that the circuit, or signal source, delivers
to the test point.
Primer
Figure 1.8. For AC signal sources, probe tip capacitance (Cp) is the greatest loading
concern. As signal frequency increases, capacitive reactance (Xc) decreases, causing
more signal flow through the capacitor.
This loading effect of 99.9 V versus 99.8 V is only 0.1% and

is negligible for most purposes. However, if Rp were smaller, Figure 1.9. The probe ground lead adds inductance to the circuit. The longer the
ground lead, the greater the inductance and the greater the likelihood of seeing
say 10 k , the effect would no longer be negligible. ringing on fast pulses.
To minimize such resistive loading, 1X probes typically have

a resistance of 1 M , and 10X probes typically have a Since the ground lead is a wire, it has some amount of dis-
resistance of 10 M . For most cases, these values result tributed inductance (see Figure 1.9). This inductance interacts
in virtually no resistive loading. Some loading should be with the probe capacitance to cause ringing at a certain fre-
expected, though, when measuring high-resistance sources. quency that is determined by the L and C values. This ringing
is unavoidable, and may be seen as a sinusoid of decaying
Usually, the loading of greatest concern is that caused by
amplitude that is impressed on pulses. The effects of ringing
the capacitance at the probe tip (see Figure 1.8). For low
can be reduced by designing probe grounding so that the
frequencies, this capacitance has a reactance that is
ringing frequency occurs beyond the bandwidth limit of the
very high, and theres little or no effect. But, as frequency
probe/oscilloscope system.
increases, the capacitive reactance decreases. The result is
increased loading at high frequencies. To avoid grounding problems, always use the shortest ground
lead provided with the probe. Substituting other means of
This capacitive loading affects the bandwidth and rise time
grounding can cause ringing to appear on measured pulses.
characteristics of the measurement system by reducing
bandwidth and increasing rise time. Probes are Sensors
Capacitive loading can be minimized by selecting probes with In dealing with the realities of oscilloscope probes, its
low tip capacitance values. Some typical capacitance values important to keep in mind that probes are sensors. Most
for various probes are provided in the table below: oscilloscope probes are voltage sensors. That is, they sense
or probe a voltage signal and convey that voltage signal to
Probe Attenuation R C the oscilloscope input. However, there are also probes that
allow you to sense phenomena other than voltage signals.
P6101B 1X 1 M 100 pF
P6109B 10X 10 M 13 pF
P6139A 10X 10 M 8 pF
P6243 10X 1 M 1 pF
Table 1.1. Probe capacitance.
ABCs of Probes
Some Probing Tips

Selecting probes that match your oscilloscope and applica-
tion needs gives you the capability for making the necessary
measurements. Actually making the measurements and
obtaining useful results also depends on how you use the
tools. The following probing tips will help you avoid some
common measurement pitfalls:
Compensate Your Probes

Most probes are designed to match the inputs of specific
oscilloscope models. However, there are slight variations
from oscilloscope to oscilloscope, and even between different
input channels in the same oscilloscope. To deal with this
where necessary, many probes, especially attenuating probes
Figure 1.10. Probe compensation adjustments are done either at the probe head or at
a compensation box where the box attaches to the oscilloscope input. (10X and 100X probes), have built-in compensation networks.
If your probe has a compensation network, you should adjust
For example, current probes are designed to sense the this network to compensate the probe for the oscilloscope
current flowing through a wire. The probe converts the channel that you are using. To do this, use the following
sensed current to a corresponding voltage signal which is procedure:
then conveyed to the input of the oscilloscope. Similarly, 1. Attach the probe to the oscilloscope.
optical probes sense light power and convert it to a voltage
signal for measurement by an oscilloscope. 2. Attach the probe tip to the probe compensation test
point on the oscilloscopes front panel (see Figure 1.10).
Additionally, oscilloscope voltage probes can be used with a
variety of other sensors or transducers to measure different 3. Use the adjustment tool provided with the probe or other
phenomena. A vibration transducer, for example, allows you non-magnetic adjustment tool to adjust the compensation
to view machinery vibration signatures on an oscilloscope network to obtain a calibration waveform display that has
screen. The possibilities are as wide as the variety of available flat tops with no overshoot or rounding (see Figure 1.11).
transducers on the market. 4. If the oscilloscope has a built-in calibration routine, run
In all cases, though, the transducer, probe, and oscilloscope this routine for increased accuracy.
combination must be viewed as a measurement system. An uncompensated probe can lead to various measurement
Moreover, the realities of probes discussed above also extend errors, especially in measuring pulse rise or fall times. To
down to the transducer. Transducers have bandwidth limits avoid such errors, always compensate probes right after
as well and can cause loading effects. connecting them to the oscilloscope and check compensa-
tion frequently.
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Overcompensated. Under compensated. Properly compensated.
Figure 1.11. Examples of probe compensation effects on a square wave.
Direct probe tip contact. Two-inch wire at probe tip.
Figure 1.12. Even a short piece of wire soldered to a test point can cause signal fidelity problems.
In this case, rise time has been changed from 4.74 ns to 5.67 ns.
6.5 inch probe ground lead. 28 inch lead attached to probe lead.
Figure 1.13. Extending the length of the probe ground lead can cause ringing to appear on pulses.
Also, its wise to check probe compensation whenever you change probe tip adaptors.
ABCs of Probes
Use Appropriate Probe Tip Adapters Whenever Possible Keep Ground Leads as Short and as Direct as Possible.
A probe tip adapter thats appropriate for the circuit being When doing performance checks or troubleshooting large
measured makes probe connection quick, convenient, and boards or systems, it may be tempting to extend the probes
electrically repeatable and stable. Unfortunately, its not ground lead. An extended ground lead allows you to attach
uncommon to see short lengths of wire soldered to circuit the ground once and freely move the probe around the
points as a substitute for a probe tip adapter. system while you look at various test points. However, the
added inductance of an extended ground lead can cause
The problem is that even an inch or two of wire can cause
ringing to appear on fast-transition waveforms. This is illus-
significant impedance changes at high frequencies. The
trated in Figure 1.13, which shows waveform measurements
effect of this is shown in Figure 1.12, where a circuit is
made while using the standard probe ground lead and an
measured by direct contact of the probe tip and then
extended ground lead.
measured via a short piece of wire between the circuit
and probe tip. Summary
In this first chapter, weve tried to provide all of the basic
information necessary for making appropriate probe selec-
tions and using probes properly. In the following chapters,
well expand on this information as well as introduce more
advanced information on probes and probing techniques.
Primer
Different Probes for Different Needs

Hundreds, perhaps even thousands, of different oscilloscope
probes are available on the market.
Is such a broad selection of probes really Standard BNC Probes. Probes with a plain BNC connector will connect
with virtually all Tektronix oscilloscopes. Low cost passive probes generally
necessary? The answer is Yes, and in this have a plain BNC connector.
chapter youll discover the reasons why.
From an understanding of those reasons, youll be better
prepared to make probe selections to match both the
oscilloscope you are using and the type of measurements
that you need to make. The benefit is that proper probe
selection leads to enhanced measurement capabilities and
TekProbe Level 1 BNC Probes. TekProbe Level 1 BNC connector
results. equipped probes communicates scale information to the oscilloscope so that
the oscilloscope correctly conveys accurate amplitude information.
Why So Many Probes?
The wide selection of oscilloscope models and capabilities is
one of the fundamental reasons for the number of available
probes. Different oscilloscopes require different probes. A
400 MHz oscilloscope requires probes that will support that
400 MHz bandwidth.
TekProbe Level 2 BNC Probes. The TekProbe Level 2 BNC shares the
scale information of the Level 1 but also provides power for a whole host of
However, those same probes would be overkill, both in capa-
active electronic probe designs.
bility and cost, for a 100 MHz oscilloscope. Thus, a different
set of probes designed to support a 100 MHz bandwidth is
needed.
As a general rule, probes should be selected to match the
oscilloscopes bandwidth whenever possible. Failing that, the
selection should be in favor of exceeding the oscilloscopes
bandwidth. TekVPI Probes. TekVPI equipped probes offer advances in power
management and remote control. TekVPI probes are an ideal choice for
Bandwidth is just the beginning, though. Oscilloscopes applications where computer control is important.
can also have different input connector types and different
input impedances. For example, most scopes use a simple
BNC-type input connector. Others may use an SMA connec-
tor. And still others, as shown in Figure 2.1, have specially
designed connectors to support readout, trace ID, probe
power, or other special features. TekConnect Probes. Probes with TekConnect interface support the highest
bandwidth active probes offered by Tektronix. The TekConnect interface is
Thus, probe selection must also include connector compati- designed to support probe requirements >20 GHz.
bility with the oscilloscope being used. This can be direct
connector compatibility, or connection through an appropriate Figure 2.1. Probe to oscilloscope interfaces
adaptor.
ABCs of Probes
Readout support is a particularly important aspect of

probe/oscilloscope connector compatibility. When 1X
and 10X probes are interchanged on a oscilloscope, the
oscilloscopes vertical scale readout should reflect the 1X Single-Ended Signal
to 10X change. For example, if the oscilloscopes vertical
scale readout is 1 V/div (one volt per division) with a 1X
probe attached and you change to a 10X probe, the vertical
readout should change by a factor of 10 to 10 V/div. If a.
this 1X to 10X change is not reflected in the oscilloscopes
readout, amplitude measurements made with the 10X probe
will be ten times lower than they should be.
Some generic or commodity probes may not support Differential Signal
readout capability for all scopes. As a result, extra caution is
necessary when using generic probes in place of the probes
specifically recommended by the oscilloscope manufacturer.
In addition to bandwidth and connector differences, various b.
scopes also have different input resistance and capacitance
values. Typically, oscilloscope input resistances are either Figure 2.2. Single-ended signals are referenced to ground (a), while differential signals
are the difference between two signal lines or test points (b).
50 or 1 M . However, there can be great variations in
input capacitance depending on the oscilloscopes bandwidth nominal input capacitance is within the compensation range
specification and other design factors. For proper signal of the probe. Thus, its not unusual to find probes with
transfer and fidelity, its important that the probes R and C different compensation ranges to meet the requirements
match the R and C of the oscilloscope it is to be used with. of different oscilloscope inputs.
For example, 50 probes should be used with 50
oscilloscope inputs. Similarly, 1 M probes should be used The issue of matching a probe to an oscilloscope has been
on scopes with a 1 M input resistance. tremendously simplified by oscilloscope manufacturers.
Oscilloscope manufacturers carefully design probes and
An exception to this one-to-one resistance matching occurs oscilloscopes as complete systems. As a result, the best
when attenuator probes are used. For example, a 10X probe probe-to-oscilloscope match is always obtained by using the
for a 50 environment will have a 500 input resistance, standard probe specified by the oscilloscope manufacturer.
and a 10X probe for a 1 M environment will have a 10 M Use of any probe other than the manufacturer-specified
input resistance. (Attenuator probes, such as a 10X probe, probe may result in less than optimum measurement
are also referred to as divider probes and multiplier probes. performance.
These probes multiply the measurement range of the oscillo-
scope, and they do this by attenuating or dividing down the Probe-to-oscilloscope matching requirements alone generate
input signal supplied to the oscilloscope.) much of the basic probe inventory available on the market.
This probe count is then added to significantly by the different
In addition to resistance matching, the probes capacitance probes that are necessary for different measurements needs.
should also match the nominal input capacitance of the The most basic differences are in the voltage ranges being
oscilloscope. Often, this capacitance matching can be done measured. Millivolt, volt, and kilovolt measurements typically
through adjustment of the probes compensation network. require probes with different attenuation factors (1X, 10X,
This is only possible, though, when the oscilloscopes 100X).
Primer
Also, there are many cases where the signal voltages are For applications where signal amplitudes are one-volt peak-
differential. That is, the signal exists across two points or to-peak or less, a 1X probe may be more appropriate or
two wires, neither of which is at ground or common potential even necessary. Where theres a mix of low amplitude and
(see Figure 2.2). Such differential signals are common in moderate amplitude signals (tens of millivolts to tens of volts),
telephone voice circuits, computer disk read channels, and a switchable 1X/10X probe can be a great convenience. It
multi-phase power circuits. Measuring these signals requires should be kept in mind, however, that a switchable 1X/10X
yet another class of probes referred to as differential probes. probe is essentially two different probes in one. Not only
are their attenuation factors different, but their bandwidth,
And then there are many cases, particularly in power applica-
rise time, and impedance (R and C) characteristics are
tions, where current is of as much or more interest than
different as well. As a result, these probes will not exactly
voltage. Such applications are best served with yet another
match the oscilloscopes input and will not provide the
class of probes that sense current rather than voltage.
optimum performance achieved with a standard 10X probe.
Current probes and differential probes are just two special
Most passive probes are designed for use with general
classes of probes among the many different types of available
purpose oscilloscopes. As such, their bandwidths typically
probes. The rest of this chapter covers some of the more
range from less than 100 MHz to 500 MHz or more.
common types of probes and their special benefits.
There is, however, a special category of passive probes
Different Probe Types and Their Benefits that provide much higher bandwidths. They are referred to
As a preface to discussing various common probe types, variously as 50 probes, Zo probes, and voltage divider
its important to realize that theres often overlap in types. probes. These probes are designed for use in 50 environ-
Certainly a voltage probe senses voltage exclusively, but a ments, which typically are high-speed device characterization,
voltage probe can be a passive probe or an active probe. microwave communication, and time domain reflectometry
Similarly, differential probes are a special type of voltage (TDR). A typical 50 probe for such applications has
probe, and differential probes can also be active or passive a bandwidth of several gigaHertz and a rise time of
probes. Where appropriate these overlapping relationships 100 picoseconds or faster.
will be pointed out.
Active Voltage Probes
Passive Voltage Probes Active probes contain or rely on active components, such as
Passive probes are constructed of wires and connectors, transistors, for their operation. Most often, the active device is
and when needed for compensation or attenuation, resistors a field-effect transistor (FET).
and capacitors. There are no active components transistors The advantage of a FET input is that it provides a very low
or amplifiers in the probe, and thus no need to supply input capacitance, typically a few picoFarads (pF) down
power to the probe. to less than 1 pF. Such ultra-low capacitance has several
Because of their relative simplicity, passive probes tend to desirable effects.
be the most rugged and economical of probes. They are First, recall that a low value of capacitance, C, translates to a
easy to use and are also the most widely used type of probe. high value of capacitive reactance, Xc. This can be seen from
Passive voltage probes are available with various attenuation the formula for Xc, which is:
factors 1X, 10X, and 100X for different voltage ranges. Of
these, the 10X passive voltage probe is the most commonly
used probe, and is the type of probe typically supplied as a
standard accessory with oscilloscopes.
ABCs of Probes
CH1 CH2
Disk Read Head Preamp
a.
Differential Probe
b.
Figure 2.4. Differential signals can be measured using the invert and add feature of
Figure 2.3. Some examples of differential signal sources. a dual-channel oscilloscope (a), or preferably by using a differential probe (b).
Still, the high bandwidth of FET probes is a major benefit and

Since capacitive reactance is the primary input impedance
their linear voltage range covers many typical semiconductor
element of a probe, a low C results in a high input impedance
voltages. Thus, active FET probes are often used for low sig-
over a broader band of frequencies. As a result, active FET
nal level applications, including fast logic families such as
probes will typically have specified bandwidths ranging from
ECL, GaAs, and others.
500 MHz to several GHz.
In addition to higher bandwidth, the high input impedance of Differential Probes
active FET probes allows measurements at test points of Differential signals are signals that are referenced to each
unknown impedance with much less risk of loading effects. other instead of earth ground. Figure 2.3 illustrates several
Also, longer ground leads can be used since the low capaci- examples of such signals. These include the signal developed
tance reduces ground lead effects. The most important across a collector load resistor, a disk drive read channel
aspect, however, is that FET probes offer such low loading, signal, multi-phase power systems, and numerous other situ-
that they can be used on high-impedance circuits that would ations where signals are in essence floating above ground.
be seriously loaded by passive probes.
Differential signals can be probed and measured in two basic
With all of these positive benefits, including bandwidths as ways. Both approaches are illustrated in Figure 2.4.
wide as DC to several GHz, you might wonder: Why bother
Using two probes to make two single-ended measurements,
with passive probes?
as shown in Figure 2.4a is an often used method. Its also
The answer is that active FET probes dont have the voltage usually the least desirable method of making differential
range of passive probes. The linear dynamic range of active measurements. Nonetheless, the method is often used
probes is generally anywhere from 0.6 V to 10 V. Also because a dual-channel oscilloscope is available with two
the maximum voltage that they can withstand can be as low probes. Measuring both signals to ground (single-ended) and
as 40 V (DC + peak AC). In other words you cant measure using the oscilloscopes math functions to subtract one from
from millivolts to tens of volts like you can with a passive the other (channel A signal minus channel B) seems like an
probe, and active probes can be damaged by inadvertently elegant solution to obtaining the difference signal. And it
probing a higher voltage. They can even be damage by a can be in situations where the signals are low frequency and
static discharge. have enough amplitude to be above any concerns of noise.
Primer
There are several potential problems with combining two

single-ended measurements. One problem is that there are
two long and separate signal paths down each probe and
through each oscilloscope channel. Any delay differences
between these paths results in time skewing of the two
signals. On high-speed signals, this skew can result in
significant amplitude and timing errors in the computed
difference signal. To minimize this, matched probes should
be used.
Another problem with single-ended measurements is that
they dont provide adequate common-mode noise rejection.
Many low-level signals, such as disk read channel signals,
are transmitted and processed differentially in order to take
advantage of common-mode noise rejection. Common-mode
noise is noise that is impressed on both signal lines by such
Figure 2.5. High-voltage probes can measure DC voltages up to 20 kV and pulses up
things as nearby clock lines or noise from external sources
to 40 kV with a bandwidth of 75 MHz.
such as fluorescent lights. In a differential system this com-
mon-mode noise tends to be subtracted out of the differential High-voltage Probes
signal. The success with which this is done is referred to as The term high voltage is relative. What is considered high
the common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR). voltage in the semiconductor industry is practically nothing in
Because of channel differences, the CMRR performance of the power industry. From the perspective of probes, however,
single-ended measurements quickly declines to dismal levels we can define high voltage as being any voltage beyond
with increasing frequency. This results in the signal appearing what can be handled safely with a typical, general-purpose
noisier than it actually would be if the common-mode 10X passive probe.
rejection of the source had been maintained. Typically, the maximum voltage for general-purpose passive
A differential probe, on the other hand, uses a differential probes is around 400 to 500 volts (DC + peak AC). High-
amplifier to subtract the two signals, resulting in one voltage probes on the other hand can have maximum ratings
differential signal for measurement by one channel of the as high as 20,000 volts. An example of such a probe is
oscilloscope (Figure 2.4b). shown in Figure 2.5.
This provides substantially higher CMRR performance over Safety is a particularly important aspect of high-voltage
a broader frequency range. Additionally, advances in circuit probes and measurements. To accommodate this, many
miniaturization have allowed differential amplifiers to be high-voltage probes have longer than normal cables. Typical
moved down into the actual probe head. In the latest cable lengths are 10 feet. This is usually adequate for locating
differential probes, this has allowed a 1-GHz bandwidth to the oscilloscope outside of a safety cage or behind a safety
be achieved with CMRR performance ranging from 60 dB shroud. Options for 25-foot cables are also available for those
(1000:1) at 1 MHz to 30 dB (32:1) at 1 GHz. This kind of cases where oscilloscope operation needs to be further
bandwidth/CMRR performance is becoming increasingly removed from the high-voltage source.
necessary as disk drive read/write data rates reach and
surpass the 100 MHz mark.
ABCs of Probes
Current Probes
Current flow through a conductor causes an electromagnetic
flux field to form around the conductor. Current probes are
designed to sense the strength of this field and convert it to a
corresponding voltage for measurement by an oscilloscope.
This allows you to view and analyze current waveforms with
an oscilloscope. When used in combination with an oscillo-
scopes voltage measurement capabilities, current probes
also allow you to make a wide variety of power measure-
ments. Depending on the waveform math capabilities of the
oscilloscope, these measurements can include instantaneous
power, true power, apparent power, and phase.
There are basically two types of current probes for oscillo-
scopes. AC current probes, which usually are passive probes,
and AC/DC current probes, which are generally active Figure 2.6. A voltage is induced across any coil that is placed in the changing flux field
probes. Both types use the same principle of transformer around a conductor which is carrying alternating current (AC).
action for sensing alternating current (AC) in a conductor.
In all cases, theres also a low-frequency cutoff for AC current
For transformer action, there must first be alternating current probe bandwidth. This includes direct current (DC), since
flow through a conductor. This alternating current causes a direct current doesnt cause a changing flux field and, thus,
flux field to build and collapse according to the amplitude and cannot cause transformer action. Also at frequencies very
direction of current flow. When a coil is placed in this field, as close to DC, 0.01 Hz for example, the flux field still may not
shown in Figure 2.6, the changing flux field induces a voltage be changing fast enough for appreciable transformer action.
across the coil through simple transformer action. Eventually, though, a low frequency is reached where the
This transformer action is the basis for AC current probes. transformer action is sufficient to generate a measurable out-
The AC current probe head is actually a coil that has been put within the bandwidth of the probe. Again, depending on
wound to precise specifications on a magnetic core. When the design of the probes coil, the low-frequency end of the
this probe head is held within a specified orientation and bandwidth might be as low as 0.5 Hz or as high as 1.2 kHz.
proximity to an AC current carrying conductor, the probe For probes with bandwidths that begin near DC, a Hall Effect
outputs a linear voltage that is of known proportion to the device can be added to the probe design to detect DC. The
current in the conductor. This current-related voltage can be result is an AC/DC probe with a bandwidth that starts at DC
displayed as a current-scaled waveform on an oscilloscope. and extends to the specified upper frequency 3 dB point.
The bandwidth for AC current probes depends on the design This type of probe requires, at minimum, a power source for
of the probes coil and other factors. Bandwidths as high biasing the Hall Effect device used for DC sensing.
as a few GHz are possible. However, bandwidths under Depending on the probe design, a current probe amplifier
100 MHz are more typical. may also be required for combining and scaling the AC and
DC levels to provide a single output waveform for viewing on
an oscilloscope.
Primer
Figure 2.8. An example of a split core AC current probe. Looping n turns of the con-
ductor through the probe increases effective snesitivity n times.
Figure 2.7. Through AC transformer action, the single turn of a current carrying
that closes the top of the U. The advantage of this type of
conductor (N1) induces a current in the AC probes coil (N2), resulting in a current probe is that the ferrite slide can be retracted to allow the
proportional voltage acros the probes termination (Rterm). probe to be conveniently clipped onto the conductor whose
Its important to keep in mind that a current probe operates current is to be measured. When the measurement is
in essence as a closely coupled transformer. This concept is completed the slide can be retracted and the probe can
illustrated in Figure 2.7, which includes the basic transformer be moved to another conductor.
equations. For standard operation, the sensed current con- Probes are also available with solid-core current transformers.
ductor is a one-turn winding (N1). The current from this single These transformers completely encircle the conductor being
winding transforms to a multi-winding (N2) probe output measured. As a result, they must be installed by disconnect-
voltage that is proportional to the turns ratio (N2/N1). At the ing the conductor to be measured, feeding the conductor
same time, the probes impedance is transformed back to through the transformer, and then reconnecting the conductor
the conductor as a series insertion impedance. This insertion to its circuit. The chief advantages of solid-core probes is that
impedance is frequency dependent with its 1-MHz value they offer small size and very high frequency response for
typically being in the range of 30 to 500 M , depending on measuring very fast, low amplitude current pulses and AC
the specific probe. For most cases, the small insertion signals.
impedance of a current probe imposes a negligible load.
Split-core current probes are by far the most common
Transformer basics can be taken advantage of to increase type. These are available in both AC and AC/DC versions,
probe sensitivity by looping the conductor through the probe and there are various current-per-division display ranges,
multiple times, as shown in Figure 2.8. Two loops doubles depending on the amp-second product.
the sensitivity, and three loops triples the sensitivity. However,
The amp-second product defines the maximum limit for linear
this also increases the insertion impedance by the square of
operation of any current probe. This product is defined for
the added turns.
current pulses as the average current amplitude multiplied by
Figure 2.8 also illustrates a particular class of probe referred the pulse width. When the amp-second product is exceeded,
to as a split core probe. The windings of this type of probe the core material of the probes coil goes into saturation.
are on a U shaped core that is completed with a ferrite slide Since a saturated core cannot handle any more current-
ABCs of Probes
Figure 2.9. A word recognizer probe. Such probes allow oscilloscopes to be used to
analyze specific data waveforms during specific logic conditions. Figure 2.10 Logic probes for a mixed signal oscilloscope (MSO) simplify digital
connectivity to your device.
induced flux, there can no longer be constant proportionality

between current input and voltage output. The result is that Analyzing the analog attributes of digital waveforms requires
waveform peaks are essentially clipped off in areas where use of an oscilloscope. However, to isolate exact causes,
the amp-second product is exceeded. digital designers often need to look at specific data pulses
occurring during specific logic conditions. This requires
Core saturation can also be caused by high levels of direct a logic triggering capability that is more typical of a logic
current through the conductor being sensed. To combat core analyzer than an oscilloscope. Such logic triggering can
saturation and effectively extend the current measuring range, be added to most oscilloscopes through use of a word
some active current probes provide a bucking current. The recognizer trigger or a digital probe connected to a mixed
bucking current is set by sensing the current level in the con- signal oscilloscope.
ductor under test and then feeding an equal but opposite
current back through the probe. Through the phenomenon The particular probe shown in Figure 2.9 is designed for TTL
that opposing currents are subtractive, the bucking current and TTL-compatible logic. It can provide up to 17 data-
can be adjusted to keep the core from going into saturation. channel probes (16 data bits plus qualifier), and is compatible
with both synchronous and asynchronous operation. The trig-
Because of the wide range of current measuring needs from ger word to be recognized is programmed into the probe by
milliamps to kiloamps, from DC to MHz theres a correspond- manually setting miniature switches on the probe head. When
ingly wide selection of current probes. Choosing a current a matching word is recognized, the probe outputs a Hi (one)
probe for a particular application is similar in many respects trigger pulse that can be used to trigger oscilloscope
to selecting voltage probes. Current handling capability, acquisition of related data waveforms or events.
sensitivity ranges, insertion impedance, connectability, and
bandwidth/rise time limits are some of the key selection The logic probe shown in Figure 2.10 offers two eight-
criteria. Additionally, current handling capability must be channel pods. Each channel ends with a probe tip featuring
derated with frequency and the probes specified amp- a recessed ground for simplified connection to the device-
second product must not be exceeded. under-test. The coax on the first channel of each pod is
colored blue making it easy to identify. The common ground
Logic Probes uses an automotive style connector making it easy to create
Faults in digital systems can occur for a variety of reasons. custom grounds for connecting to the device-under-test.
While a logic analyzer is the primary tool for identifying and When connecting to square pins, you can use an adapter
isolating fault occurrences, the actual cause of the logic fault that attaches to the probe head extending the probe ground
is often due to the analog attributes of the digital waveform. flush with the probe tip so you can attach to a header. These
Pulse width jitter, pulse amplitude aberrations, and regular probes offer outstanding electrical characteristics with mini-
old analog noise and crosstalk are but a few of the many mal capacitive loading.
possible analog causes of digital faults.
Primer
Figure 2.12. In this three-phase motor drive, all points are above the ground, making
floating measurements a necessity.
Temperature probes, which are used to measure the tem-

perature of components and other heat generating items.
Probing stations and articulated arms (Figure 2.11) for
probing fine-pitch devices such as multi-chip-modules,
hybrid circuits, and ICs.
Figure 2.11. Example of a probing station designed for probing small
geometry devices such as hybrid circuits and ICs.
Floating Measurements
Floating measurements are measurements that are made
Optical Probes between two points, neither of which is at ground potential.
With the advent and spread of fiber-optic based communica- If this sounds a lot like differential measurements described
tions, theres a rapidly expanding need for viewing and previously with regard to differential probes, youre right.
analyzing optical waveforms. A variety of specialized optical A floating measurement is a differential measurement,
system analyzers have been developed to fill the needs of and, in fact, floating measurements can be made using
communication system troubleshooting and analysis. How- differential probes.
ever, theres also an expanding need for general-purpose Generally, however, the term floating measurement is used
optical waveform measurement and analysis during optical in referring to power system measurements. Examples are
component development and verification. Optical probes switching supplies, motor drives, ballasts, and uninterruptible
fill this need by allowing optical signals to be viewed on an power sources where neither point of the measurement is
oscilloscope. at ground (earth potential), and the signal common may
The optical probe is an optical-to-electrical converter. On the be elevated (floating) to hundreds of volts from ground. Often,
optical side, the probe must be selected to match the specific these measurements require rejection of high common-mode
optical connector and fiber type or optical mode of the device signals in order to evaluate low-level signals riding on them.
thats being measured. On the electrical side, the standard- Extraneous ground currents can also add hum to the display,
probe-to-oscilloscope matching criteria are followed. causing even more measurement difficulty.
An example of a typical floating measurement situation is
Other Probe Types
shown in Figure 2.12. In this motor drive system, the three
In addition to all of the above fairly standard probe types, phase AC line is rectified to a floating DC bus of up to
theres also a variety of specialty probes and probing 600 V. The ground-referenced control circuit generates pulse
systems. These include: modulated gate drive signals through an isolated driver to
Environmental probes, which are designed to operate over the bridge transistors, causing each output to swing the
a very wide temperature range. full bus voltage at the pulse modulation frequency. Accurate
ABCs of Probes
Figure 2.14. In addition to being dangerous, floating an oscilloscope can result

in significant ringing on measurements (a) as compared to the safer method of
using a probe isolator (b).
Figure 2.13. Example of probe isolation for making floating measurements.

Danger
measurement of the gate-to-emitter voltage requires rejection To get around this direct short to ground, some oscillo-
of the bus transitions. Additionally, the compact design of scope users have used the unsafe practice of defeating
the motor drive, fast current transitions, and proximity to the oscilloscopes ground circuit. This allows the oscil-
the rotating motor contribute to a harsh EMI environment. loscopes ground lead to float with the motor drive
circuit so that differential measurements can be made.
Also, connecting the ground lead of a oscilloscopes probe
Unfortunately, this practice also allows the oscilloscope
to any part of the motor drive circuit would cause a short to
chassis to float at potentials that could be a dangerous
ground.
or deadly shock hazard to the oscilloscope user.
Rather than floating the oscilloscope, the probe isolator
Not only is floating the oscilloscope an unsafe
floats just the probe. This isolation of the probe can be done
practice, but the resulting measurements are often
via either a transformer or optical coupling mechanism, as
impaired by noise and other effects. This is illustrated
shown in Figure 2.13. In this case, the oscilloscope remains
in Figure 2.14a, which shows a floated oscilloscope
grounded, as it should, and the differential signal is applied to
measurement of one of the gate-to-emitter voltages on
the tip and reference lead of the isolated probe. The isolator
the motor drive unit. The bottom trace in Figure 2.14a
transmits the differential signal through the isolator to a
is the low-side gate-emitter voltage and the top trace is
receiver, which produces a ground-referenced signal that is
the high-side voltage. Notice the significant ringing on
proportional to the differential input signal. This makes the
both of these traces. This ringing is due to the large
probe isolator compatible with virtually any instrument.
parasitic capacitance from the oscilloscopes chassis to
To meet different needs, various types of isolators are earth ground.
available. These include multi-channel isolators that provide
Figure 2.14b shows the results of the same measure-
two or more channels with independent reference leads.
ment, but this time made with the oscilloscope properly
Also, fiber-optic based isolators are available for cases where
grounded and the measurement made through a probe
the isolator needs to be physically separated from the instru-
isolator. Not only has the ringing been eliminated from
ment by long distances (e.g. 100 meters or more). As with
the measurement, but the measurement can be made
differential probes, the key isolator selection criteria are
in far greater safety because the oscilloscope is no
bandwidth and CMRR. Additionally, maximum working volt-
longer floating above ground.
age is a key specification for isolation systems. Typically, this
is 600 V RMS or 850 V (DC+peak AC).
Primer
Figure 2.15. A typical general-purpose voltage probe with its standard accessories.
Probe Accessories
Most probes come with a package of standard accessories. Figure 2.16. Some examples of probe tip adapters for small geometry probes.
These accessories often include a ground lead clip that Such adapters make probing of small circuitry significantly easier and can enhance
measurment accuracy by providing high integrity probe to test point connections.
attaches to the probe, a compensation adjustment tool, and
one or more probe tip accessories to aid in attaching the
probe to various test points. Figure 2.15 shows an example When selecting probes for purchase, its also important to
of a typical general purpose voltage probe and its standard take into account the type of circuitry that youll be probing
accessories. and any adaptors or accessories that will make probing
quicker and easier. In many cases, less expensive commodity
Probes that are designed for specific application areas, such
probes dont provide a selection of adaptor options. On the
as probing surface mount devices, may include additional
other hand, probes obtained through an oscilloscope manu-
probe tip adapters in their standard accessories package.
facturer often have an extremely broad selection of acces-
Also, various special purpose accessories may be available
sories for adapting the probe to special needs. An example
as options for the probe. Figure 2.16 illustrates several types
of this is shown in Figure 2.17, which illustrates the variety
of probe tip adaptors designed for use with small geometry
of accessories and options available for a particular class of
probes.
probes. These accessories and options will, of course, vary
Its important to realize that most probe accessories, espe- between different probe classes and models.
cially probe tip adaptors, are designed to work with specific
probe models. Switching adaptors between probe models or
probe manufacturers is not recommended since it can result
in poor connection to the test point or damage to either the
probe or probe adaptor.
ABCs of Probes
Figure 2.17. An example of the various accessories that are available for a 5-mm (miniature) probe system. Other probe families will have differing accessories depending on the
intended application for that family of probes.
Primer
A Guide to Probe Selection Additionally, the probe selection process should include
consideration of your measurement needs. What are you
The preceding chapters have covered a wide range of trying to measure? Voltages? Current? An optical signal?
topics regarding oscilloscope probes in terms of how probes By selecting a probe that is appropriate to your signal type,
function, the various types of probes, and their effects on you can get direct measurement results faster.
measurements. For the most part, the focus has been on
what happens when you connect a probe to a test point. Also, consider the amplitudes of the signals you are measur-
ing. Are they within the dynamic range of your oscilloscope?
In this chapter, the focus changes to the signal source and If not, youll need to select a probe that can adjust dynamic
how to translate its properties into criteria for appropriate range. Generally, this will be through attenuation with a
probe selection. 10X or higher probe.
The goal, as always, is to select the probe that Make sure that the bandwidth, or rise time, at the probe tip
delivers the best representation of the signal to exceeds the signal frequencies or rise times that you plan
to measure. Always keep in mind that non-sinusoidal signals
the oscilloscope. However, it doesnt stop there.
have important frequency components or harmonics that
The oscilloscope imposes certain requirements extend well above the fundamental frequency of the signal.
that must also be considered as part of the For example, to fully include the 5th harmonic of a 100 MHz
probe selection process. square wave, you need a measurement system with a
bandwidth of 500 MHz at the probe tip. Similarly, your
This chapter explores the various selection requirements,
oscilloscope systems rise time should be three to five times
beginning with understanding the requirements imposed by
faster than the signal rise times that you plan to measure.
the signal source.
And always take into account possible signal loading by the
Choosing the Right Probe probe. Look for high-resistance, low-capacitance probes. For
Because of the wide range of oscilloscope measurement most applications, a 10 M probe with 20 pF or less capaci-
applications and needs, theres also a broad selection of tance should provide ample insurance against signal source
oscilloscope probes on the market. This can make probe loading. However, for some high-speed digital circuits you
selection a confusing process. may need to move to the lower tip capacitance offered by
active probes.
To cut through much of the confusion and narrow the selec-
tion process, always follow the oscilloscope manufacturers And finally, keep in mind that you must be able to attach
recommendations for probes. This is important because the probe to the circuit before you can make a measurement.
different oscilloscopes are designed for different bandwidth, This may require special selection considerations about
rise time, sensitivity, and input impedance considerations. probe head size and probe tip adaptors to allow easy and
Taking full advantage of the oscilloscopes measurement convenient circuit attachment.
capabilities requires a probe that matches the oscilloscopes
design considerations.
ABCs of Probes
Signal Type
Current Voltage Logic Other
Current Probes Voltage Probes Logic Probes Transducers
Active Passive Active Passive Active Active Passive
AC DC AC Differential Voltage Divider Logic Trigger Optical Temperature

High Sensitivity High Impedance Word Recognizer Vibration
High Impedance High Voltage Logic Analysis Acoustic, etc.
Differential
Figure 3.1. Various probe categories based on the signal type to be measured.
Understanding the Signal Source Voltage signals are the most commonly encountered signal
type in electronic measurements. That accounts for the
There are four fundamental signal source issues to be
voltage-sensing probe as being the most common type of
considered in selecting a probe. These are the signal type,
oscilloscope probe. Also, it should be noted that, since
the signal frequency content, the source impedance, and the
oscilloscopes require a voltage signal at their input, other
physical attributes of the test point. Each of these issues is
types of oscilloscope probes are, in essence, transducers
covered in the following discussion.
that convert the sensed phenomenon to a corresponding
Signal Type voltage signal. A common example of this is the current
probe, which transforms a current signal into a voltage
The first step in probe selection is to assess the type
signal for viewing on an oscilloscope.
of signal to be probed. For this purpose, signals can be
categorized as being: Logic signals are actually a special category of voltage
signals. While a logic signal can be viewed with a standard
Voltage Signals
voltage probe, its more often the case that a specific logic
Current Signals event needs to be viewed. This can be done by setting a
Logic Signals logic probe to provide a trigger signal to the oscilloscope
Other Signals when a specified logic combination occurs.
This allows specific logic events to be viewed on the
oscilloscope display.
Primer
In addition to voltage, current, and logic signals, there are

numerous other types of signals that may be of interest.
These can include signals from optical, mechanical, thermal,
acoustic, and other sources. Various transducers can be
used to convert such signals to corresponding voltage signals
for oscilloscope display and measurement. When this is done,
the transducer becomes the signal source for the purposes
of selecting a probe to convey the transducer signal to the
oscilloscope.
Figure 3.1 provides a graphical categorization of probes
based on the type of signal to be measured. Notice that
under each category there are various probe subcategories
that are further determined by additional signal attributes as
well as oscilloscope requirements.
Signal Frequency Content

All signals, regardless of their type, have frequency content.
DC signals have a frequency of 0 Hz, and pure sinusoids
have a single frequency that is the reciprocal of the sinusoids
period. All other signals contain multiple frequencies whose
values depend upon the signals waveshape. For example, a
symmetrical square wave has a fundamental frequency (fo)
thats the reciprocal of the square waves period and addition-
al harmonic frequencies that are odd multiples of the funda- Figure 3.2. When major frequency components of a signal are beyond the measure-
mental (3fo, 5fo, 7fo, ...). The fundamental is the foundation of ment system bandwidth (a), they experience a higher degree of attenuation.
The result is loss of waveform detail through rounding of corners and lengthening
the waveshape, and the harmonics combine with the funda- of transitions (b).
mental to add structural detail such as the waveshapes
transitions and corners.
The primary effect of bandwidth limiting is to reduce signal
For a probe to convey a signal to an oscilloscope while main- amplitude. The closer a signals fundamental frequency is
taining adequate signal fidelity, the probe must have enough to the probes 3-dB bandwidth, the lower the overall signal
bandwidth to pass the signals major frequency components amplitude seen at the probe output. At the 3-dB point,
with minimum disturbance. In the case of square waves and amplitude is down 30%. Also, those harmonics or other
other periodic signals, this generally means that the probe frequency components of a signal that extend beyond
bandwidth needs to be three to five times higher than the the probes bandwidth will experience a higher degree of
signals fundamental frequency. This allows the fundamental attenuation because of the bandwidth roll-off. The result of
and the first few harmonics to be passed without undue higher attenuation on higher frequency components may be
attenuation of their relative amplitudes. The higher harmonics seen as a rounding of sharp corners and a slowing of fast
will also be passed, but with increasing amounts of attenua- waveform transitions (see Figure 3.2).
tion since these higher harmonics are beyond the probes
3-dB bandwidth point. However, since the higher harmonics
are still present at least to some degree, theyre still able to
contribute somewhat to the waveforms structure.
ABCs of Probes
It should also be noted that probe tip capacitance can also The size of the test point can also impact probe selection.
limit signal transition rise times. However, this has to do with Standard size probes and accessories are fine for probing
signal source impedance and signal source loading, which connector pins, resistor leads, and back planes. However,
are the next topics of discussion. for probing surface mount circuitry, smaller probes with
accessories designed for surface mount applications are
Signal Source Impedance recommended.
The discussion of source impedance can be distilled down to The goal is to select probe sizes, geometries, and acces-
the following key points: sories that best fit your particular application. This allows
1. The probes impedance combines with the signal source quick, easy, and solid connection of probes to test points
impedance to create a new signal load impedance that for reliable measurements.
has some effect on signal amplitude and signal rise times.
Understanding the Oscilloscope
2. When the probe impedance is substantially greater than
the signal source impedance, the effect of the probe on Oscilloscope issues have as much bearing on probe
signal amplitude is negligible. selection as signal source issues. If the probe doesnt
match the oscilloscope, signal fidelity will be impaired at
3. Probe tip capacitance, also referred to as input capaci- the oscilloscope end of the probe.
tance, has the effect of stretching a signals rise time.
This is due to the time required to charge the input Bandwidth and Rise Time
capacitance of the probe from the 10% to 90% level, Its important to realize that the oscilloscope and its
which is given by: probes act together as a measurement system. Thus, the
tr = 2.2 x Rsource x Cprobe oscilloscope used should have bandwidth and rise time
specifications that equal or exceed those of the probe used
From the above points, its clear that high-impedance,
and that are adequate for the signals to be examined.
low-capacitance probes are the best choice for minimizing
probe loading of the signal source. Also, probe loading In general, the bandwidth and rise time interactions between
effects can be further minimized by selecting low-impedance probes and oscilloscopes are complex. Because of this
signal test points whenever possible. Refer to the section complexity, most oscilloscope manufacturers specify
titled Different Probes for Different Needs for more detail oscilloscope bandwidth and rise time to the probe tip for
regarding signal source impedance and the effects of its specific probe models designed for use with specific
interaction with probe impedance. oscilloscopes. To ensure adequate oscilloscope system
bandwidth and rise time for the signals that you plan to
Physical Connection Considerations examine, its best to follow the oscilloscope manufacturers
The location and geometry of signal test points can also be probe recommendations.
a key consideration in probe selection. Is it enough to just
touch the probe to the test point and observe the signal on Input Resistance and Capacitance
the oscilloscope, or will it be necessary to leave the probe All oscilloscopes have input resistance and input capacitance.
attached to the test point for signal monitoring while making For maximum signal transfer the input R and C of the oscillo-
various circuit adjustments? For the former situation, a scope must match the R and C presented by the probes
needle-style probe tip is appropriate, while the latter situation output as follows:
requires some kind of retractable hook tip. RscopeCscope = RprobeCprobe = Optimum Signal Transfer
Primer
More specifically, 50 oscilloscope inputs require 50

probes, and 1 M oscilloscope inputs require 1 M probes.
Caution
A 1 M oscilloscope can also be used with a 50 probe Always observe the probes maximum specified voltage
when the appropriate 50 adapter is used. capabilities. Attaching the probe to a voltage in excess
Probe-to-oscilloscope capacitances must be matched as of those capabilities may result in personal injury as well
well. This is done through selection of probes designed for as damage to equipment.
use with specific oscilloscope models. Additionally, many
probes have a compensation adjustment to allow precise
For low-amplitude signals, its possible to extend the range of
matching by compensating for minor capacitance variations.
the oscilloscope to lower sensitivities through use of a probe
Whenever a probe is attached to an oscilloscope, the first
amplifier system. This typically is a differential amplifier, which
thing that should be done is to adjust the probes compensa-
could provide a sensitivity of 10 V/division for example.
tion. Failing to properly match a probe to the oscilloscope
both through proper probe selection and proper compensa- Such probe amplifier systems are highly specialized and
tion adjustment can result in significant measurement errors. are designed to match specific oscilloscope models. As a
result, its important in making an oscilloscope selection
Sensitivity to always check the manufacturers list of recommended
The oscilloscopes vertical sensitivity range determines the accessories for available differential probe systems that
overall dynamic range for signal amplitude measurement. meet your small-signal application requirements.
For example, an oscilloscope with a 10-division vertical
display range and a sensitivity range from 1 mV/division to
10 V/division has a practical vertical dynamic range from
Caution
around 0.1 mV to 100 V. If the various signals that you intend Differential probe systems often contain sensitive
to measure range in amplitude from 0.05 mV to 150 V, the components that may be damaged by overvoltages,
base dynamic range of the example oscilloscope falls short including static discharges. To avoid damage to
at both the low and high ends. However, this shortcoming the probe system, always follow the manufacturers
can be remedied by appropriate probe selection for the recommendations and observe all precautions.
various signals that youll be dealing with.
For high-amplitude signals, the oscilloscopes dynamic range
can be extended upwards by using attenuator probes. For
example, a 10X probe effectively shifts the oscilloscopes
sensitivity range upward by a decade, which would be
10 mV/division to 100 V/division for the example oscilloscope.
Not only does this provide adequate range for your 150-volt
signals, it gives you a top-end oscilloscope display range
of 1000 volts. However, before connecting any probe to a
signal make sure that the signal doesnt exceed the probes
maximum voltage capabilities.
ABCs of Probes
Readout Capability Selecting the Right Probe

Most modern oscilloscopes provide on-screen readouts of From all of the preceding signal source and oscilloscope
their vertical and horizontal sensitivity settings (volts/division issues, its clear that selecting the right probe can be a
and seconds/division). Often these oscilloscopes also provide daunting process without some assistance. In fact, since
probe sensing and readout processing so that the readout some key selection criteria such as probe rise time and
properly tracks the type of probe being used. For example, if oscilloscope input C are not always specified, the selection
a 10X probe is used, the oscilloscope should appropriately process may be reduced to guesswork in some cases.
reflect that by adjusting the vertical readout by a 10X factor.
To avoid guesswork, its always best to select an oscilloscope
Or if youre using a current probe, the vertical readout is
that includes a wide selection of probes in the recommended
changed from volts/division to amps/division to reflect the
accessories list. Also, when you encounter new measurement
proper units of measurement.
requirements, be sure to check with the manufacturer of your
To take advantage of such readout capability, its important oscilloscope for newly introduced probes that may extend
to use probes that are compatible with the oscilloscopes your oscilloscopes capabilities.
readout system. Again, this means following the manufactur-
And finally, keep in mind that there really is no right probe
ers recommendations regarding probe usages with specific
selection for any given application. There are only right
oscilloscopes. This is especially important for newer oscillo-
oscilloscope/probe combination selections, and they rely on
scopes which may have advanced readout features that may
first defining your signal measurement requirements in terms
not be fully supported by many generic or commodity
of:
probes.
Type of signal (voltage, current, optical, etc.)
Signal frequency content (bandwidth issues)
Signal rise time
Source impedance (R and C)
Signal amplitudes (maximum, minimum)
Test point geometries (leaded component,
surface mount, etc.)
By considering the above issues and filling in the blanks with
information specific to your applications, youll be able to
specify the oscilloscope and various compatible probes that
will meet all of your application needs.
Primer
Figure 4.1. The signal being measured at the test point (TP) can be represented by Figure 4.2. The higher the source impedances, the greater the loading caused by
a signal source and associated load impedances (a). Probing the test point adds probing. In this case, the impedances are all equal and probing causes a more than
the probe and oscilloscope impedances to the source load, resulting in some current 30% reduction in signal amplitude at the test point.
draw by the measurement system (b).
How Probes Affect Your Depending on the relative values of the

Measurements impedances, addition of the probe and
oscilloscope to the test point causes various
To obtain an oscilloscope display of a signal, some portion
of the signal must be diverted to the oscilloscopes input loading effects.
circuit. This is illustrated in Figure 4.1, where the circuitry This chapter explores loading effects, as well as other
behind the test point, TP, is represented by a signal source, probing effects, in detail.
Es, and the associated circuit impedances, Zs1 and Zs2, that
are the normal load on Es. When an oscilloscope is attached The Effect of Source Impedance
to the test point, the probe impedance, Zp, and oscilloscope
The value of the source impedance can significantly influence
input impedance, Zi, become part of the load on the signal
the net effect of any probe loading. For example, with low
source.
source impedances, the loading effect of a typical high-
impedance 10X probe would be hardly noticeable. This is
because a high impedance added in parallel with a low
impedance produces no significant change in total
impedance.
ABCs of Probes
However, the story changes dramatically with higher source

impedances. Consider, for example, the case where the
source impedances in Figure 4.1 have the same value, and
that value equals the total of the probe and oscilloscope
impedances. This situation is illustrated in Figure 4.2.
For equal values of Z, the source load is 2Z without the probe
and oscilloscope attached to the test point (see Figure 4.2a).
This results in a signal amplitude of 0.5ES at the unprobed
test point. However, when the probe and oscilloscope are
attached (Figure 4.2b), the total load on the source becomes
1.5Z, and the signal amplitude at the test point is reduced to Figure 4.3. The rise time of a pulse generator is determined by its RC load.
two-thirds of its unprobed value.

In this latter case, there are two approaches that can be
taken to reduce the impedance loading effects of probing.
One approach is to use a higher impedance probe. The other
is to probe the signal somewhere else in the circuit at a test
point that has a lower impedance. For example, cathodes,
emitters, and sources usually have lower impedances than
plates, collectors, or drains.
Capacitive Loading
As signal frequencies or transition speeds increase, the
capacitive element of the impedances becomes predominate. a.
Consequently, capacitive loading becomes a matter of
increasing concern. In particular, capacitive loading will affect
the rise and fall times on fast-transition waveforms and the
amplitudes of high-frequency components in waveforms.
Effect on Rise Time

To illustrate capacitive loading, lets consider a pulse genera-
tor with a very fast rise time. This is shown in Figure 4.3,
where the pulse at the ideal generators output has a rise
time of zero (tr = 0). However, this zero rise time is modified
through integration by the associated resistance and capaci- b.
tance of the source impedance load.
The RC integration network always produces a 10 to 90%
rise time of 2.2RC. This is derived from the universal time- Figure 4.4. The added capacitance of a probe increases RC the value and increases
the measured rise time.
constant curve of a capacitor. The value of 2.2 is the number
of RC time constants necessary for C to charge through R
When the pulse generators output is probed, the probes
from the 10% value to the 90% amplitude value of the pulse.
input capacitance and resistance are added to that of the
In the case of Figure 4.3, the 50 and 20 pF of the source pulse generator. This is shown in Figure 4.4, where the
impedance results in a pulse rise time of 2.2 ns. This 2.2RC 10 M and 11 pF of a typical probe have been added.
value is the fastest rise time that the pulse can have. Since the probes 10 M resistance is so much greater
than the generators 50 resistance, the probes resistance
Primer
can be ignored. However, the probes capacitance is in

parallel with the load capacitance and adds to it directly
for a total load capacitance of 31 pF. This increases the
value of 2.2RC and results in an increase in the measured
rise time to 3.4 ns versus the 2.2 ns previous to probing.
You can estimate the effect of probe tip capacitance on rise
time by taking the ratio of the probes specified capacitance
to the known or estimated source capacitance. Using the
values from Figure 4.4 this would result in the following
estimate of percentage change in rise time:
Cprobe tip/C1 x 100% =11 pF/20 pF x 100% = 55%
From the above, its clear that probe choice, especially with
Figure 4.5. Typical input impedance versus frequency for an active probe.
regard to probe capacitance, can affect your rise time meas-
urements. For passive probes, the greater the attenuation
ratio, the lower the tip capacitance in general. This is indicat- resistive component, Rp, and reactive component Xp. The
ed in Table 4.1 which lists some probe capacitance examples reactive component is predominantly capacitive, although
for various passive probes. inductive elements may be designed into the probe to partial-
ly offset capacitive loading.
Probe Attenuation Tip Capacitance
As a rule, Zp decreases with increasing frequency. Most probe
P6101B 1X 100 pF instruction manuals document probe Rp with curves showing
P6109B 10X 13 pF Zp versus frequency. Figure 4.5 is an example of such a curve
for a typical active probe. Notice that the 1 M impedance
P5100 100X 2.75 pF
magnitude is constant to nearly 100 kHz. This was done by
careful design of the probes associated resistive, capacitive,
Table 4.1. Probe Tip Capacitance and inductive elements.
Where smaller tip capacitance is needed, active FET-input Figure 4.6 shows another example of a probe curve. In
probes should be used. Depending on the specific active this case Rp and Xp versus frequency are shown for a typical
probe model, tip capacitances of 1 pF and less are available. 10 M passive probe. The dotted line (Xp) shows capacitive
reactance versus frequency. Notice that Xp begins decreasing
Effect on Amplitude and Phase at DC, but Rp doesnt start rolling off significantly until
In addition to affecting rise time, capacitive loading also 100 kHz. Again, the total loading has been offset by careful
affects the amplitude and phase of the high-frequency com- design of the associated R, C, and L elements.
ponents in a waveform. With regard to this, it is important to If you dont have access to a probes impedance curves,
keep in mind that all waveforms are composed of sinusoidal you can make a worst-case loading estimate using the
components. A 50 MHz square wave will have harmonic following formula:
components of significance beyond 100 MHz. Thus, its
Xp = 1/2 fC
important to not only consider loading effects at a waveforms
fundamental frequency but also at frequencies several multi- where:
ples above the fundamental. Xp = capacitive reactance
Loading is determined by the total impedance at the probe f = frequency
tip. This is designated as Zp, and Zp is composed of a
C = probe tip capacitance
ABCs of Probes
Figure 4.6. Xp and Rp versus frequency for a typical 10 M passive probe.

Figure 4.7. Bandwidth is defined as the frequency in the response curve where
amplitude has decreased by -3 dB.
For example, a standard passive 10 M probe with a tip
capacitance of 11 pF has a capacitive reactance (Xp) of about
290 at 50 MHz. Depending on the signal source imped-
ance, this loading could have a major effect on the signal
amplitude (by simple divider action), and it could even affect
the operation of the circuit being probed.
Bandwidth Considerations
Bandwidth is a measurement system issue that involves
both the bandwidth of the probe and the oscilloscope. The
oscilloscopes bandwidth should exceed the predominate
frequencies of the signals you want to measure, and the
bandwidth of the probe used should equal or exceed the
bandwidth of the oscilloscope. Figure 4.8. Bandwidth derating curve.
From a measurement system perspective, the real concern

is the bandwidth at the probe tip. Often, manufacturers will Usually you wont be using an oscilloscope at its full band-
specify bandwidth at the probe tip for certain oscilloscope/ width limit. However, if amplitude accuracy is of paramount
probe combinations. This is not always the case, though. importance, you should be prepared to derate the oscillo-
Consequently, you should be aware of the major bandwidth scopes bandwidth accordingly.
issues of an oscilloscope and a probe, both individually and
As an example, consider the expanded view of bandwidth
in combination.
roll-off shown in Figure 4.8. The horizontal scale in this figure
Oscilloscope Bandwidth shows the derating factor necessary to obtain amplitude
accuracies better than 30%. With no derating (a factor of
Bandwidth is defined as the point on an amplitude versus
1.0), a 100 MHz oscilloscope will have up to a 30% ampli-
frequency plot where the measurement system is 3 dB down
tude error at 100 MHz. If you want amplitude measurements
from the reference level. This is illustrated in Figure 4.7 which
to be within 3%, the bandwidth of this oscilloscope must
shows a response curve with the 3 dB point indicated.
be derated by a factor of 0.3 to 30 MHz. Anything beyond
Its important to note that the measurement system is 3 dB 30 MHz will have an amplitude error in excess of 3%.
down in amplitude at its rated bandwidth. This means that
The above example points out a general rule of thumb for
you can expect 30% error in amplitude measurements for
oscilloscope selection. For amplitude measurements within
frequencies at the bandwidth limit.
3%, select an oscilloscope with a specified bandwidth
thats three to five times greater than the highest frequency
waveform that youll be measuring.
Primer
a. b. c.
Figure 4.9. Effects on rise time of three different probes: (a) 400 MHz, 10X probe, (b) 100 MHz, 10X probe, and (c) 10 MHz, 1X probe. All measurements were made with the
same 400 MHz oscilloscope.
When rise time or fall time are the measurements of primary As a rule, probe bandwidth should always equal or exceed
interest, you can convert an oscilloscopes bandwidth (BW) the bandwidth of the oscilloscope that it will be used with.
specification to a rise time specification with the following Using a probe of lesser bandwidth will limit the oscilloscope
formula: to less than its full measurement capability. This is illustrated
further in Figure 4.9, which shows the same pulse transition
Tr 0.35/BW
being measured with three probes of different bandwidths.
or, for convenience:
The first measurement, shown in Figure 4.9a, was made
Tr (nanoseconds) 350/BW (MHz) using a matched 400 MHz oscilloscope and probe combina-
As with bandwidth, you should select an oscilloscope with tion. The probe used was a 10X probe with 10 M resist-
a rise time thats three to five time greater than the fastest ance and 14.1 pF capacitance. Note that the pulse rise time
rise time that you expect to measure. (It should be noted was measured as 4.63 ns. This is well within the 875 ps rise
that the above bandwidth to rise time conversion assumes time range of the 400 MHz oscilloscope/probe combination.
that the oscilloscopes response has a Gaussian roll-off. Now look what happens when a 10X, 100 MHz probe is used
Most oscilloscopes are designed to have a Gaussian roll-off.) to measure the same pulse with the same oscilloscope. This
is shown in Figure 4.9b, where the measured rise time is now
Probe Bandwidth
5.97 ns. Thats nearly a 30% increase over the previous
All probes, like other electronic circuits, have a bandwidth measurement of 4.63 ns!
limit. And, like oscilloscopes, probes are typically ranked or
As would be expected, the pulses observed rise time
specified by their bandwidth. Thus, a probe with a 100 MHz
becomes even longer with a lower bandwidth probe. An
bandwidth will have an amplitude response that is 3 dB down
extreme case is shown in Figure 4.9c, where a 1X, 10 MHz
at the 100 MHz point.
probe was used on the same pulse. Here the rise time has
Similarly, probe bandwidth can also be expressed in terms slowed from the original 4.63 ns to 27 ns.
of rise time by the same formula used for oscilloscopes
The key point made by Figure 4.9 is:
(Tr 0.35/BW). Also, for active probes, the oscilloscope and
Just any probe will not do!
probe rise times can be combined by the following formula to
obtain an approximate probe/oscilloscope system rise time: To get maximum performance from any oscilloscope the
performance that you paid for be sure to use the manufac-
Trsystem2 Trprobe2 + Trscope2
turers recommended probes.
For passive probes, the relationship is more complex, and the
above formula should not be used.
ABCs of Probes
However, its important to remember that bandwidth at the

probe tip is determined by the test method of Figure 4.10.
Since real-world signals rarely originate from 25 sources,
somewhat less than optimum response and bandwidth
should be expected in real-world use especially when
measuring higher impedance circuits.
Ground Lead Effects

Figure 4.10. Equivalent circuit for testing bandwidth to the probe tip. For a 100 MHz When making ground-referenced measurements, two con-
system, the displayed rise time should be 3.5 ns or faster.
nections to the circuit or device under test are necessary.
One connection is made via the probe which senses the volt-
Bandwidth to the Probe Tip age or other parameter being measured. The other necessary
In general, the issues of probe bandwidth and resulting connection is a ground return through the oscilloscope and
probe/oscilloscope system bandwidth should be resolved by back to the circuit under test. This ground return is necessary
following manufacturers specifications and recommenda- to complete the measurement current path.
tions. Tektronix, for example, specifies the bandwidth over
In cases where the circuit under test and the oscilloscope are
which a probe will perform within specified limits. These limits
plugged into the same power outlet circuit, the common of
include total aberrations, rise time, and swept bandwidth.
the power circuit provides a ground return path. This signal
Also, when used with a compatible oscilloscope, a Tektronix return path through the power grounds is typically indirect
probe extends the oscilloscopes bandwidth to the probe tip. and lengthy. Consequently it should not be relied on as a
For example, a Tektronix 100 MHz probe provides 100 MHz clean, low-inductive ground return.
performance (3 dB) at the probe tip when used with a
As a rule, when making any kind of oscilloscope measure-
compatible 100 MHz oscilloscope.
ment, you should use the shortest possible grounding path.
The industry recognized test setup for verifying bandwidth The ultimate grounding system, is an in-circuit ECB (etched
to the probe tip is illustrated by the equivalent circuit in circuit board) to probe-tip adapter, as shown in Figure 4.11.
Figure 4.10. The test signal source is specified to be a The ECB adaptor allows you to plug the probe tip directly
50 source terminated in 50 , resulting in an equivalent into a circuit test point, and the outer barrel of the adaptor
25 source termination. Additionally, the probe must be makes a direct and short ground contact to the ground ring
connected to the source by a probe-tip-to-BNC adaptor at the probes tip.
or its equivalent. This latter requirement for probe connection
For critical amplitude and timing measurements, its recom-
ensures the shortest possible ground path.
mended that circuit board designs include ECB/probe-tip
Using the above described test setup, a 100 MHz oscillo- adaptors for established test points. Not only does this clearly
scope/probe combination should result in an observed rise indicate test point locations, but it ensures the best possible
time of < 3.5 ns. This 3.5 ns rise time corresponds to a connection to the test point for the most reliable oscilloscope
100 MHz bandwidth according to the previously discussed measurements.
bandwidth/rise time relationship (Tr 0.35/BW).
Most manufacturers of general-purpose oscilloscopes that
include standard accessory probes promise and deliver the
advertised oscilloscope bandwidth at the probe tip.
Primer
Figure 4.12. Equivalent circuit of a typical passive probe connected to a signal source.
However, its wise to be aware of the possible problems that

can arise from improper grounding. To set the stage for this,
notice that theres an inductance (L) associated with the
ground lead in the equivalent circuit shown in Figure 4.12.
This ground-lead inductance increases with increasing lead
length.
Also, notice that the ground lead L and Cin forms a series
resonant circuit with only Rin for damping. When this series
resonant circuit is hit with a pulse, it will ring. Not only will
Figure 4.11. An ECB to probe-tip adaptor. there be ringing, but excessive ground-lead L will limit the
charging circuit to Cin and, thus, will limit the rise time of the
Unfortunately, the ECB/probe-tip adaptor isnt practical for pulse.
many general-purpose measurement situations. Instead of Without going into the mathematics, an 11 pF passive probe
using an adaptor, the typical approach is to use a short with 6-inch ground lead will ring at about 140 MHz when
ground lead thats clipped to a grounding point in the circuit excited by a fast pulse. With a 100 MHz oscilloscope, this
under test. This is far more convenient in that it allows you to ringing is well above the bandwidth of the oscilloscope and
quickly move the probe from point to point in the circuit under may not be seen at all. But, with a faster oscilloscope, say
test. Also, the short ground lead that most probe manufactur- 200 MHz, the ground lead induced ringing will be well within
ers supply with their probes provides an adequate ground the oscilloscopes bandwidth and will be apparent on the
return path for most measurement situations. display of the pulse.
ABCs of Probes
a. 6.5-inch probe ground clip. b. 28-inch probe ground tip. c. 28-inch clip to oscilloscope chassis.
Figure 4.13. Ground lead length and placement can dramatically affect measurements.
If you see ringing on a pulse display, try shortening the In Figure 4.13b, the same pulse transition is acquired.
length of your ground lead. A shorter ground lead has less This time, however, the probes standard ground lead was
inductance and will cause a higher frequency ringing. If you extended with a 28-inch clip lead. This ground lead extension
see the ringing frequency change on the pulse display, youll might be done, for example, to avoid having to move the
know that its ground-lead related. Shortening the ground ground clip each time different points are probed in a large
lead further should move the ring frequency beyond the system. Unfortunately, this practice lengthens the ground
bandwidth of the oscilloscope, thereby minimizing its effect loop and can cause severe ringing, as shown.
on your measurements. If the ringing doesnt change when
Figure 4.13c shows the results of another variation of length-
you change ground-lead length, then the ringing is likely
ening the ground loop. In this case, the probes ground lead
being induced in the circuit under test.
wasnt connected at all. Instead, a separate, 28-inch clip lead
Figure 4.13 illustrates ground lead induced ringing further. was run from the circuit common to the oscilloscope chassis.
In Figure 4.13a, a matched oscilloscope/probe combination This created a different, and apparently longer, ground loop,
was used to acquire a fast transition. The ground lead used resulting in the lower frequency ringing seen.
was the standard 6.5-inch probe ground clip, and it was
From the examples in Figure 4.13, its clear that grounding
attached to a common near the test point.
practices have tremendous impact on measurement quality.
Specifically, probe ground leads need to be kept as short
and direct as possible.
Primer
What to do About Probing Effects The following summarizes some of the probe loading
considerations to be aware of:
From the preceding examples and discussion, weve seen
that the signal source impedance, the probe, and the oscillo- Passive Probes
scope form an interactive system. For optimum measurement
1X passive probes typically have a lower resistance and
results, you need to do everything possible to minimize the
higher capacitance than 10X passive probes. As a result,
oscilloscope/probe affects on the signal source.
1X probes are more prone to cause loading, and whenever
The following general rules apply: possible 10X probes should be used for general-purpose
Always match your oscilloscope and probes according probing.
to the oscilloscope manufacturers recommendations.
Voltage Divider (Zo) Probes
Make sure that your oscilloscope/probe has adequate
bandwidth or rise time capabilities for the signal These probes have very low tip capacitance, but at the
youre trying to measure. Typically, you should select expense of relatively high resistive loading. Theyre intended
a oscilloscope/probe combination with a rise time for use where impedance matching is required in 50 envi-
specification thats three to five times faster than the ronments. However, because of their very high bandwidth/rise
fastest rise time you plan to measure. time capabilities, voltage divider probes are often used in
other environments for high-speed timing measurements. For
Always keep your probe ground leads as short and amplitude measurements, the effect of the probes low input
direct as possible. Excessive ground loops can cause R should be taken into account.
ringing on pulses.
Select the probes that best match your applications Bias-offset Probes
needs in terms of both measurement capabilities and A bias-offset probe is a special type of voltage divider probe
mechanical attachment to test points. with the capability of providing a variable offset voltage at the
And finally, always be aware of the possible probe loading probe tip. These probes are useful for probing high-speed
effects on the circuit being probed. In many cases, loading ECL circuitry, where resistive loading could upset the circuits
can be controlled or minimized through probe selection. operating point.
Active Probes
Active probes can provide the best of both worlds with very
low resistive loading and very low tip capacitance. The trade-
off is that active probes typically have a low dynamic range.
However, if your measurements fit within the range of an
active probe, this can be the best choice in many cases.
ABCs of Probes
Figure 5.1. An example of measuring aberrations relative to 100% pulse height.
Understanding Probe Specifications

Most of the key probe specifications have been discussed in Figure 5.2. Aberrations from over compensating a probe.
preceding chapters, either in terms of probe types or in terms
of how probes affect measurements.
When excessive aberrations are seen on a pulse measure-
This chapter gathers all of those key probe ment, be sure to consider all possible sources before
specification parameters and terms into one assuming that the aberrations are the fault of the probe.
place for easier reference. For example, are the aberrations actually part of the signal
source? Or are they the result of the probe grounding
The following list of specifications is presented in alphabetical technique?
order; not all of these specifications will apply to any given
One of the most common sources of observed aberrations
probe. For example, Insertion Impedance is a specification
is neglecting to check and properly adjust the compensation
that applies to current probes only. Other specifications,
of voltage probes. A severely over-compensated probe will
such as bandwidth, are universal and apply to all probes.
result in significant peaks immediately following pulse edges
Aberrations (universal) (see Figure 5.2).
An aberration is any amplitude deviation from the expected Accuracy (universal)

or ideal response to an input signal. In practice, aberrations
For voltage-sensing probes, accuracy generally refers to the
usually occur immediately after fast waveform transitions and
probes attenuation of a DC signal. The calculations and
appear as whats sometimes referred to as ringing.
measurements of probe accuracy generally should include
Aberrations are measured, or specified, as a percentage the oscilloscopes input resistance. Thus, a probes accuracy
deviation from the final pulse response level (see Figure 5.1). specification is only correct or applicable when the probe is
This specification might also include a time window for the being used with an oscilloscope having the assumed input
aberrations. An example of this would be: resistance. An example accuracy specification would be:
Aberrations should not exceed 3% or 5% peak-to-peak 10X within 3% (for oscilloscope input of 1 M 2%)
within the first 30 nanoseconds.
Primer
For current-sensing probes, the accuracy specification refers

to the accuracy of the current-to-voltage conversion. This
depends on the current transformer turns ratio and the value
and accuracy of the terminating resistance. Current probes
that work with dedicated amplifiers have outputs that are
calibrated directly in amps/div and have accuracy specifica-
tions that are given in terms of attenuator accuracy as a
percentage of the current/division setting.
Amp-Second Product (current probes)

For current probes, amp-second product specifies the energy Figure 5.3. Bandwidth is that frequency in the response curve where a sine waves
amplitude is decreased by 70.7% (3 dB).
handling capability of the current transformers core. If the
product of the average current and pulse width exceeds the
amp-second rating, the core saturates. This core saturation Voltage probe attenuation factors are achieved using resistive
results in a clipping off or suppression of those portions of voltage divider techniques. Consequently, probes with higher
the waveform occurring during saturation. If the amp-second attenuation factors typically have higher input resistances.
product is not exceeded, the signal voltage output of the Also the divider effect splits probe capacitance, effectively
probe will be linear and the measurement accurate. presenting lower probe tip capacitance for higher attenuation
factors.
Attenuation Factor (universal)
Bandwidth (universal)
All probes have an attenuation factor, and some probes
may have selectable attenuation factors. Typical attenuation All probes have bandwidth. A 10 MHz probe has a 10 MHz
factors are 1X, 10X, and 100X. bandwidth, and a 100 MHz probe has a 100 MHz bandwidth.
The bandwidth of a probe is that frequency where the probes
The attenuation factor is the amount by which the probe response causes output amplitude to fall to 70.7% (3 dB),
reduces signal amplitude. A 1X probe doesnt reduce, or as indicated in Figure 5.3.
attenuate, the signal, while a 10X probe reduces the signal to
1/10th of its probe tip amplitude. Probe attenuation factors It should also be noted that some probes have a low-frequen-
allow the measurement range of an oscilloscope to beextend- cy bandwidth limit as well. This is the case, for example,
ed. For example, a 100X probe allows signals of 100 times with AC current probes. Because of their design, AC current
greater amplitude to be measured. probes cannot pass DC or low-frequency signals. Thus,
their bandwidth must be specified with two values, one for
The 1X, 10X, 100X designations stem from the days when low frequency and one for high frequency.
oscilloscopes didnt automatically sense probe attenuation
and adjust scale factor accordingly. The 10X designation, for For oscilloscope measurements, the real concern is the
example, reminded you that all amplitude measurements overall bandwidth of the oscilloscope and probe combined.
needed to be multiplied by 10. The readout systems on This system performance is what ultimately determines
todays oscilloscopes automatically sense probe attenuation measurement capability. Unfortunately, attaching a probe to
factors and adjust the scale factor readouts accordingly. an oscilloscope results in some degradation of bandwidth
performance. For example, using a 100 MHz generic probe
with a 100 MHz oscilloscope results in a measurement
ABCs of Probes
system with a bandwidth performance that is something Probe tip capacitance is important because it affects how
less than 100 MHz. To avoid the uncertainty of overall system pulses are measured. A low tip capacitance minimizes errors
bandwidth performance, Tektronix specifies its passive in making rise time measurements. Also, if a pulses duration
voltage probes to provide a specified measurement system is less than five times the probes RC time constant, the
bandwidth at the probe tip when used with the designated amplitude of the pulse is affected.
oscilloscope models.
Probes also present a capacitance to the input of the
In selecting oscilloscopes and oscilloscope probes, its oscilloscope, and this probe capacitance should match
important to realize that bandwidth has several implications that of the oscilloscope. For 10X and 100X probes, this
for measurement accuracy. capacitance is referred to as a compensation range, which
is different than tip capacitance. For probe matching, the
In terms of amplitude measurements, a sine waves amplitude
oscilloscopes input capacitance should be within the
becomes increasingly attenuated as the sine wave frequency
compensation range of the probe.
approaches the bandwidth limit. At the bandwidth limit, the
sine waves amplitude will be measured as being 70.7% of its CMRR (differential probes)
actual amplitude. Thus, for greater amplitude measurement
accuracy, its necessary to select oscilloscopes and probes Common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR) is a differential probes
with bandwidths several times greater than the highest ability to reject any signal that is common to both test points
frequency waveform that you plan to measure. in a differential measurement. CMRR is a key figure of merit
for differential probes and amplifiers, and it is defined by:
The same holds true for measuring waveform rise and fall
times. Waveform transitions, such as pulse and square CMRR = |Ad/Ac|
wave edges, are made up of high-frequency components. where:
Attenuation of these high-frequency components by a band-
Ad = the voltage gain for the difference signal
width limit results in the transition appearing slower than
it really is. For accurate rise and fall time measurements, Ac = the voltage gain for common-mode signal
its necessary to use a measurement system with adequate Ideally, Ad should be large, while Ac should equalize to zero,
bandwidth to preserve the high frequencies that make up resulting in an infinite CMRR. In practice, a CMRR of
the waveforms rise and fall times. This is most often stated 10,000:1 is considered quite good. What this means is
in terms of a measurement system rise time, which should that a common-mode input signal of 5 volts will be rejected
typically be four to five times faster than the rise times that to the point where it appears as 0.5 millivolts at the output.
you are trying to measure. Such rejection is important for measuring difference signals
in the presence of noise.
Capacitance (universal)
Since CMRR decreases with increasing frequency, the
Generally, probe capacitance specifications refer to the
frequency at which CMRR is specified is as important as
capacitance at the probe tip. This is the capacitance that the
the CMRR value. A differential probe with a high CMRR
probe adds to the circuit test point or device under test.
at a high frequency is better than a differential probe with
the same CMRR at a lower frequency.
Primer
Decay Time Constant (current probes) Input Capacitance (universal)

The decay time constant specification indicates a current The probe capacitance measured at the probe tip.
probes pulse supporting capability. This time constant is the
secondary inductance (probe coil) divided by the terminating Input Resistance (universal)
resistance. The decay time constant is sometimes called the A probes input resistance is the impedance that the probe
probe L/R ratio. places on the test point at zero Hertz (DC).
With larger L/R ratios, longer current pulses can be rep-
Maximum Input Current Rating (current probes)
resented without significant decay or droop in amplitude.
With smaller L/R ratios, long- duration pulses will be seen as The maximum input current rating is the total current (DC
decaying to zero before the pulse is actually completed. plus peak AC) that the probe will accept and still perform as
specified. In AC current measurements, peak-to-peak values
Direct Current (current probes) must be derated versus frequency to calculate the maximum
Direct current decreases the permeability of a current total input current.
probes coil core. This decreased permeability results in a
Maximum Peak Pulse Current Rating
decreased coil inductance and L/R time constant. The result
is reduced coupling performance for low frequencies and
(current probes)
loss of measurement response for low-frequency currents. This rating should not be exceeded. It takes into account
Some AC current probes offer current-bucking options that core saturation and development of potentially damaging
null the effects of DC. secondary voltages. The maximum peak pulse current rating
is usually stated as an amp-second product.
Frequency Derating (current probes)
Current probe specifications should include amplitude versus
Maximum Voltage Rating (universal)
frequency derating curves that relate core saturation to Voltages approaching a probes maximum rating should be
increasing frequency. The effect of core saturation with avoided. The maximum voltage rating is determined by the
increasing frequency is that a waveform with an average breakdown voltage rating of the probe body or the probe
current of zero amps will experience clipping of amplitude components at the measuring point.
peaks as the waveforms frequency or amplitude is increased.
Propagation Delay (universal)
Insertion Impedance (current probes) Every probe offers some small amount of time delay or
Insertion impedance is the impedance that is transformed phase shift that varies with signal frequency. This is a function
from the current probes coil (the secondary) into the current of the probe components and the time it takes for the signal
carrying conductor (the primary) thats being measured. to travel through these components from probe tip to oscillo-
Typically, a current probes reflected impedance values are in scope connector.
the range of milliOhms and present an insignificant effect on
circuits of 25 or more impedance.
ABCs of Probes
Usually, the most significant shift is caused by the probe Temperature Range (universal)
cable. For example, a 42-inch section of special probe cable
Current probes have a maximum operating temperature thats
has a 5 ns signal delay. For a 1 MHz signal, the 5 ns delay
the result of heating effects from energy induced into the
results in a two-degree phase shift. A longer cable results in
coils magnetic shielding. Increasing temperature corresponds
correspondingly longer signal delays.
to increased losses. Because of this, current probes have a
Propagation delay is usually only a concern when compara- maximum amplitude versus frequency derating curve.
tive measurements are being made between two or more
Attenuator voltage probes (i.e., 10X, 100X, etc.) may be
waveforms. For example, when measuring time differences
subject to accuracy changes due to changes in temperature.
between two waveforms, the waveforms should be acquired
using matched probes so that each signal experiences the Threshold Voltage (logic)
same propagation delay through the probes.
A logic probe measures and analyzes signals differently than
Another example would be making power measurements by other oscilloscope probes. The logic probe doesn't measure
using a voltage probe and a current probe in combination. analog details. Instead, it detects logic threshold levels. When
Since voltage and current probes are of markedly different you connect a mixed signal oscilloscope to a digital circuit
construction, they will have different propagation delays. using a logic probe, you're only concerned with the logic
Whether or not these delays will have an effect on the power state of the signal. At this point there are just two logic levels
measurement depends on the frequencies of the waveforms of concern. When the input is above the threshold voltage
being measured. For Hz and kHz signals, the delay differ- (Vth) the level is said to be high or 1; conversely, the level
ences will generally be insignificant. However, for MHz signals below Vth is a low or 0. When input is sampled, the mixed
the delay differences may have a noticeable effect. signal oscilloscope stores a 1 or a 0 depending on the
level of the signal relative to the voltage threshold.
Rise Time (universal)
The large number of signals that can be captured at one time
A probes 10 to 90% response to a step function indicates
by the logic probe is what sets it apart from the other oscillo-
the fastest transition that the probe can transmit from
scope probes. These digital acquisition probes connect to
tip to oscilloscope input. For accurate rise and fall time
the device under test and the probe's internal comparator is
measurements on pulses, the measurement systems rise
where the input voltage is compared against the threshold
time (oscilloscope and probe combined) should be three to
voltage (Vth), and where the decision about the signal's logic
five times faster than the fastest transition to be measured.
state (1 or 0) is made. The threshold value is set by the user,
Tangential Noise (active probes) ranging from TTL levels to, CMOS, ECL, and user-definable.
Tangential noise is a method of specifying probe-generated

noise in active probes. Tangential noise figures are approxi-
mately two times the RMS noise.
Primer
Advanced Probing Techniques

The preceding chapters have covered all of the basic informa-
tion that you should be aware of concerning oscilloscope
probes and their use. For most measurement situations, the
standard probes provided with your oscilloscope will prove
more than adequate as long as you keep in mind the basic
issues of:
a. b.
Bandwidth/rise time limits
Figure 6.1. A fast step (1 ns Tr) has aberrations impressed on it due to use of a
Potential for signal source loading six-inch probe ground lead (a). These aberrations can be changed by moving the
probe cable or placing a hand over the cable (b).
Probe compensation adjustment
Proper probe grounding Ground Lead Length
Any probe ground lead has some inductance, and the longer
Eventually, however, youll run into some the ground lead the greater the inductance. When combined
probing situations that go beyond the basics. with probe tip capacitance and signal source capacitance,
ground lead inductance forms a resonant circuit that causes
This chapter explores some of the advanced probing issues
ringing at certain frequencies.
that youre most likely to encounter, beginning with the
ground lead. In order to see ringing or other aberrations caused by poor
grounding, the following two conditions must exist:
Ground Lead Issues
1. The oscilloscope system bandwidth must be high enough
Ground lead issues continue to appear in oscilloscope to handle the high-frequency content of the signal at the
measurements because of the difficulty in determining and probe tip.
establishing a true ground reference point for measurements.
2. The input signal at the probe tip must contain enough
This difficulty arises from the fact that ground leads, whether
high-frequency information (fast rise time) to cause the
on a probe or in a circuit, have inductance and become
ringing or aberrations due to poor grounding.
circuits of their own as signal frequency increases. One effect
of this was discussed and illustrated earlier, where a long Figure 6.1 shows examples of ringing and aberrations that
ground lead caused ringing to appear on a pulse. In addition can be seen when the above two conditions are met. The
to being the source of ringing and other waveform aberra- waveforms shown in Figure 6.1 were captured with a
tions, the ground lead can also act as an antenna for noise. 350 MHz oscilloscope while using a probe having a six-inch
ground lead. The actual waveform at the probe tip was a
Suspicion is the first defense against ground-lead problems.
step waveform with a 1 ns rise time.
Always be suspicious of any noise or aberrations being
observed on an oscilloscope display of a signal. The noise This 1 ns rise time is equivalent to the oscilloscopes band-
or aberrations may be part of the signal, or they may be the width (BW 0.35/Tr) and has enough high-frequency content
result of the measurement process. The following discussion to cause ringing within the probes ground circuit. This ringing
provides information and guidelines for determining if aberra- signal is injected in series with the step waveform, and its
tions are part of the measurement process and, if so, how seen as aberrations impressed on top of the step, as shown
to address the problem. in Figure 6.1.
ABCs of Probes
Figure 6.3. The 1 ns rise time step waveform as acquired through an ECB to probe-tip
adaptor.
To further illustrate the above points, the same waveform

was again acquired with the same oscilloscope and probe.
Figure 6.2. An ECB to probe-tip adaptor. Only this time, the six-inch probe ground lead was removed,
and the step signal was acquired through an ECB to probe-
Both of the waveform displays in Figure 6.1 were obtained tip adaptor installation (see Figure 6.2). The resulting display
while acquiring the same step waveform with the same oscil- of the aberration-free step waveform is shown in Figure 6.3.
loscope and probe. Notice, however, that the aberrations are Elimination of the probes ground lead and direct termination
slightly different in Figure 6.1b, as compared to Figure 6.1a. of the probe in the ECB to probe-tip adaptor has eliminated
The difference seen in Figure 6.1b was obtained by reposi- virtually all of the aberrations from the waveform display. The
tioning the probe cable slightly and leaving a hand placed display is now an accurate portrayal of the step waveform at
over part of the probe cable. The repositioning of the cable the test point.
and the presence of a hand near the cable caused a small There are two main conclusions to be drawn from the above
change in the capacitance and high-frequency termination examples. The first is that ground leads should be kept as
characteristics of the probe grounding circuitry and thus a short as possible when probing fast signals. The second is
change in the aberrations. that product designers can ensure higher effectiveness of
The fact that the probe ground lead can cause aberrations product maintenance and troubleshooting by designing in
on a waveform with fast transitions is an important point to product testability. This includes using ECB to probe-tip
realize. Its also just as important to realize that aberrations Adaptors where necessary to better control the test environ-
seen on a waveform might just be part of the waveform and ment and avoid misadjustment of product circuitry during
not a result of the probe grounding method. To distinguish installation or maintenance.
between the two situations, move the probe cable around.
If placing your hand over the probe or moving the cable
causes a change in the aberrations, the aberrations are being
caused by the probe grounding system. A correctly grounded
(terminated) probe will be completely insensitive to cable
positioning or touch.
Primer
Device Under Test
Power
Supply
a. Passive probe. b. FET probe.
Figure 6.4.. Examples of ground lead effects for passive probes versus active probes.
Effects on the waveform of 1/2-inch, 6-inch, and 12-inch ground leads used on a pas-
sive probe (a). Same waveform acquired using the same ground leads, but with an
active FET probe (b).
Figure 6.5. The complete ground circuit, or ground loop, for an oscilloscope, probe,
and test circuit on two different power plugs.
When youre faced with measuring fast waveforms where an
ECB to probe-tip adaptor hasnt been installed, remember to
Ground Loop Noise Injection
keep the probe ground lead as short as possible. In many
cases, this can be done by using special probe tip adaptors Noise injection into the grounding system can be caused by
with integral grounding tips. Yet another alternative is to use unwanted current flow in the ground loop existing between
an active FET probe. FET probes, because of their high input the oscilloscope common and test circuit power line grounds
impedance and extremely low tip capacitance (often less and the probe ground lead and cable. Normally, all of these
than 1 pF), can eliminate many of the ground lead problems points are, or should be, at zero volts, and no ground current
often experienced with passive probes. This is illustrated will flow. However, if the oscilloscope and test circuit are on
further in Figure 6.4. different building system grounds, there could be small
voltage differences or noise on one of the building ground
Ground Lead Noise Problems systems (see Figure 6.5). The resulting current flow will devel-
Noise is another type of signal distortion that can appear on op a voltage drop across the probes outer cable shield. This
oscilloscope waveform displays. As with ringing and aberra- noise voltage will be injected into the oscilloscope in series
tions, noise might actually be part of the signal at the probe with the signal from the probe tip. The result is that youll see
tip, or it might appear on the signal as a result of improper noise riding on the signal of interest, or the signal of interest
grounding techniques. The difference is that the noise is may be riding on noise.
generally from an external source and its appearance is not a With ground loop noise injection, the noise is often line
function of the speed of the signal being observed. In other frequency noise (50 or 60 Hz). Just as often, though, the
words, poor grounding can result in noise appearing on any noise may be in the form of spikes or bursts resulting from
signal of any speed. building equipment, such as air conditioners, switching on
There are two primary mechanisms by which noise can be and off.
impressed on signals as a result of probing. One is by ground There are various things that can be done to avoid or
loop noise injection. The other is by inductive pickup through minimize ground loop noise problems. The first approach
the probe cable or probe ground lead. Both mechanisms are is to minimize ground loops by using the same power circuits
are discussed as follows. for the oscilloscope and circuit under test. Additionally, the
probes and their cables should be kept away from sources of
potential interference. In particular, dont allow probe cables
to lie alongside or across equipment power cables.
ABCs of Probes
If ground loop noise problems persist, you may need to open

the ground loop by one of the following methods:
1. Use a ground isolation monitor.
2. Use a power line isolation transformer on either the test
circuit or on the oscilloscope.
3. Use an isolation amplifier to isolate the oscilloscope
probes from the oscilloscope.
4. Use differential probes to make the measurement
(rejects common-mode noise).
In no case should you attempt to isolate the oscilloscope or
test circuit by defeating the safety three-wire ground system.
If its necessary to float the measurements, use an approved
isolation transformer or preferably a ground isolation monitor
specifically designed for use with an oscilloscope.
Figure 6.6. An example of circuit board induced noise in the probe ground loop (tip
shorted to the ground clip).
Caution
To avoid electrical shock, always connect probes to the When you see noise on an oscilloscope display of a signal,
oscilloscope or probe isolator before connecting the the question is: Does the noise really occur as part of the
probe to the circuit under test. signal at the probe tip, or is it being induced into the probe
ground lead?
To answer this question, try moving the probe ground lead
Induced Noise around. If the noise signal level changes, the noise is being
Noise can enter a common ground system by induction induced into the ground lead.
into probe cables, particularly when probes with long cables Another very effective approach to noise source identification
are used. Proximity to power lines or other current-carrying is to disconnect the probe from the circuit and clip the
conductors can induce current flow in the probes outer probes ground lead to the probe tip. Then pass this probe-
cable shield. The circuit is completed through the building tip/ground-lead loop antenna back and forth over the circuit.
system common ground. To minimize this potential source This loop antenna will pick up areas of strong radiated noise
of noise, use probes with shorter cables when possible, and in the circuit. Figure 6.6 shows an example of what can be
always keep probe cables away from possible sources of found on a logic circuit board by searching with the probe
interference. ground lead connected to the probe tip.
Noise can also be induced directly into the probe ground To minimize noise induced into the probe ground, keep
lead. This is the result of typical probe ground leads appear- ground leads away from noise sources on the board under
ing as a single-turn loop antenna when connected to the test test. Additionally, a shorter ground lead will reduce the
circuit. This ground lead antenna is particularly susceptible to amount of noise pick-up.
electromagnetic interference from logic circuits or other fast
changing signals. If the probe ground lead is positioned too
close to certain areas on the circuit board under test, such as
clock lines, the ground lead may pick up signals that will be
mixed with the signal at the probe tip.
Primer
+
+
AV VO
+
Differential TP1
Mode +175 V
VDM
+
Common TP2 (Vs)
Mode VO = AV VDM
VCM
Figure 6.7. A differential amplifier has two signal lines which are differenced into a
single signal that is referenced to the ground.
Differential Measurements
Strictly speaking, all measurements are differential measure-
ments. A standard oscilloscope measurement where the
175 V
probe is attached to a signal point and the probe ground
+175 V +7 V
lead is attached to circuit ground is actually a measurement VTP2 VGS (TP1-TP2)
of the signal difference between the test point and ground. 175 V 7 V
In that sense, there are two signal lines the ground signal
Figure 6.8. Differential amplifier used to measure gate to source voltage of upper
line and the test signal line. transistor in an inverter bridge. Note that the source potential changes 350 volts
during the measurement.
In practice, however, differential measurements refers to the
measurement of two signal lines, both of which are above
where:
ground. This requires use of some sort of differential amplifier
so that the two signal lines (the double-ended signal source) Av = the amplifiers gain
can be algebraically summed into one signal line reference Vo = the output signal referenced to earth ground
to ground (single-ended signal) for input to the oscilloscope,
The voltage of interest, or difference signal, is referred to
as shown in Figure 6.7. The differential amplifier can be a
as the differential voltage or differential mode signal and is
special amplifier that is part of the probing system, or if the
expressed as:
oscilloscope allows waveform math, each signal line can be
acquired on separate oscilloscope channels and the two VDM
channels algebraically summed. In either case, rejection of where:
the common-mode signal is a key concern in differential
measurement quality. VDM = the V+in V-in term in the equation above
Notice that the common mode voltage, VCM, is not part
Understanding Difference and Common-mode Signals
of the above equation. Thats because the ideal differential
An ideal differential amplifier amplifies the difference signal, amplifier rejects all of the common-mode component,
VDM, between its two inputs and completely rejects any regardless of its amplitude or frequency.
voltage which is common to both inputs, VCM. The result
Figure 6.8 provides an example of using a differential amplifier
is an output voltage given by:
to measure the gate drive of the upper MOSFET device in
Vo Av (V+in - V-in) an inverter circuit. As the MOSFET switches on and off, the
source voltage swings from the positive supply rail to the
negative rail. A transformer allows the gate signal to be
ABCs of Probes
+ 45 V the damper (VDM) should reach 35 mV with an output swing

(VCM) of 80 Vp-p. The differential amplifier being used has a
CMRR specification of 10,000:1 at 1 kHz. With the amplifier
0.1 driven to full power with a 1 kHz sine wave, one ten thou-
VOUT
sandth of the common-mode signal will erroneously appear
80Vp-p
35mVp-p _ as VDM at the output of the differential amplifier, which would
be 80 V/10,000 or 8 mV. The 8 mV of residual common-
Measured voltage
+ could be as high mode signal represents up to a 22% error in the true 35 mV
as 42 mV
(22% error)
signal!
45 V
Its important to note that the CMRR specification is an
Figure 6.9. Common-mode error from a differential amplifier with 10,000:1 CMRR. absolute value. It doesnt specify polarity or degrees of phase
shift of the error. Therefore, you cannot simply subtract the
error from the displayed waveform. Also, CMRR generally is
referenced to the source. The differential amplifier allows
highest (best) at DC and degrades with increasing frequency
the oscilloscope to measure the true VGS signal (a few volt
of VCM. Some differential amplifiers plot the CMRR specifica-
swing) at sufficient resolution, such as 2 V/division, while
tion as a function of frequency; others simply provide CMRR
rejecting the several-hundred-volt transition of the source
specifications at a few key frequencies. In either case, its
to ground.
important in comparing differential amplifiers or probes to
In real-life, differential amplifiers cannot reject all of the be certain that your CMRR comparisons are at the same
common-mode signal. A small amount of common-mode frequency or frequencies.
voltage appears as an error signal in the output. This
Its also important to realize that CMRR specifications assume
common-mode error signal is indistinguishable from the
that the common-mode component is sinusoidal. This is
desired differential signal.
often not the case in real-life. For example, the common-
The ability of a differential amplifier to minimize undesirable mode signal in the inverter of Figure 6.8 is a 30 kHz square
common-mode signals is referred to as common-mode wave. Since the square wave contains energy at frequencies
rejection ratio or CMRR for short. The true definition of considerably higher than 30 kHz, the CMRR will probably be
CMRR is differential-mode gain divided by common-mode worse than that specified at the 30 kHz point.
gain referred to the input:
Whenever the common-mode component is not sinusoidal,
CMRR = ADM/ACM an empirical test is the quickest way to determine the extent
For evaluation purposes, CMRR performance can be of the CMRR error (see Figure 6-10). Temporarily connect
assessed with no input signal. The CMRR then becomes the both input leads to the source. The oscilloscope is now
apparent VDM seen at the output resulting from the common- displaying only the common-mode error. You can now
mode input. This is expressed either as a ratio such as determine if the magnitude of the error signal is significant.
10,000:1 or in dB: Remember, the phase difference between VCM and VDM is not
specified. Therefore subtracting the displayed common-mode
dB = 20 log (ADM/ACM) error from the differential measurement will not accurately
For example, a CMRR of 10,000:1 is equivalent to 80 dB. To cancel the error term.
see the importance of this, suppose you need to measure the
voltage in the output damping resistor of the audio power
amplifier shown in Figure 6.9. At full load, the voltage across
Primer
+175 V +
Figure 6.11. With the input leads twisted together, the loop area is very small, hence
less field passes through it. Any induced voltage tends to be inthe VCM path which is
rejected by the differential amplifier.
These probes have provisions for precisely trimming DC

attenuation and AC compensation. To get the best perform-
175 V
ance, a set of probes should be dedicated to each specific
Figure 6.10. Empirical test for adequate common-mode rejection. Both inputs
amplifier and calibrated with that amplifier using the proce-
are driven from the same point. Residual common-mode appears at the output.
This test will not catch the effect of differential source impedances. dure included with the probes.
Input cabling thats spread apart acts as a transformer
The test illustrated by Figure 6.10 is useful for determining winding. Any AC magnetic field passing through the loop
the extent of common-mode rejection error in the actual induces a voltage which appears to the amplifier input as
measurement environment. However theres one effect this differential and will be faithfully summed into the output!
test will not catch. With both inputs connected to the same To minimize this, its common practice to twist the + and
point, theres no difference in driving impedance as seen input cables together in a pair. This reduces line frequency
by the amplifier. This situation produces the best CMRR and other noise pick up. With the input leads twisted togeth-
performance. But when the two inputs of a differential amplifier, as indicated in Figure 6.11, any induced voltage tends
er are driven from significantly different source impedances, to be in the VCM path, which is rejected by the differential
the CMRR will be degraded. amplifier.
Minimizing Differential Measurement Errors High-frequency measurements subject to excessive common-

mode can be improved by winding both input leads through
Connecting the differential amplifier or probe to the signal
a ferrite torroid. This attenuates high-frequency signals which
source is generally the greatest source of error. To maintain
are common to both inputs. Because the differential signals
the input match, both paths should be as identical as possi-
pass through the core in both directions, theyre unaffected.
ble. Any cabling should be of the same length for both inputs.
The input connectors of most differential amplifiers are BNC
If individual probes are used for each signal line, they should
connectors with the shell grounded. When using probes or
be the same model and cable length. When measuring low-
coaxial input connections, theres always a question of what
frequency signals with large common-mode voltages, avoid
to do with the grounds. Because measurement applications
the use of attenuating probes. At high gains, they simply
vary, there are no precise rules.
cannot be used as its impossible to precisely balance their
attenuation. When attenuation is needed for high-voltage or When measuring low-level signals at low frequencies, its
high-frequency applications, special passive probes designed generally best to connect the grounds only at the amplifier
specifically for differential applications should be used. end and leave both unconnected at the input end.
ABCs of Probes
This provides a return path for any currents induced into the
shield, but doesnt create a ground loop which may upset
the measurement or the device-under-test.
At higher frequencies, the probe input capacitance, along
with the lead inductance, forms a series resonant tank cir-
cuit which may ring. In single-ended measurements, this
effect can be minimized by using the shortest possible
ground lead. This lowers the inductance, effectively moving a. b.
the resonating frequency higher, hopefully beyond the band- Figure 6.12a and Figure 6.12b. A noisy signal (a) can be cleaned up by a signal
width of the amplifier. Differential measurements are made averaging (b).
between two probe tips, and the concept of ground does not
enter into the measurement. However, if the ring is generated
from a fast rise of the common-mode component, using a Noise Reduction
short ground lead reduces the inductance in the resonant Ambient noise levels that would be considered negligible
circuit, thus reducing the ring component. In some situations, when measuring signals of a few hundred millivolts or more
a ring resulting from fast differential signals may also be are no longer negligible when measuring signals of tens of
reduced by attaching the ground lead. This is the case if the millivolts or less. Consequently, minimizing ground loops
common-mode source has very low impedance to ground at and keeping ground leads short are imperatives for reducing
high frequencies, i.e. is bypassed with capacitors. If this isnt noise pick up by the measurement system. At the extreme,
the case, attaching the ground lead may make the situation power-line filters and a shielded room may be necessary for
worse! If this happens, try grounding the probes together at noise-free measurement of very low amplitude signals.
the input ends. This lowers the effective inductance through
However, before resorting to extremes, you should consider
the shield.
signal averaging as a simple and inexpensive solution to
Of course, connecting the probe ground to the circuit may noise problems. If the signal youre trying to measure is repet-
generate a ground loop. This usually doesnt cause a itive and the noise that youre trying to eliminate is random,
problem when measuring higher-frequency signals. The signal averaging can provide extraordinary improvements in
best advice when measuring high frequencies is to try making the SNR (signal-to-noise ratio) of the acquired signal. An
the measurement with and without the ground lead; then use example of this is shown in Figure 6.12.
the setup which gives the best results.
Signal averaging is a standard function of most digital
When connecting the probe ground lead to the circuit, oscilloscopes. It operates by summing multiple acquisitions of
remember to connect it to ground! Its easy to forget where the repetitive waveform and computing an average waveform
the ground connection is when using differential amplifiers from the multiple acquisitions. Since random noise has a
since they can probe anywhere in the circuit without the risk long-term average value of zero, the process of signal aver-
of damage. aging reduces random noise on the repetitive signal. The
amount of improvement is expressed in terms of SNR. Ideally,
Small Signal Measurements signal averaging improves SNR by 3 dB per power of two
Measuring low-amplitude signals presents a unique set of averages. Thus, averaging just two waveform acquisitions (21)
challenges. Foremost of these challenges are the problems provides up to 3 dB of SNR improvement, averaging four
of noise and adequate measurement sensitivity. acquisitions (22) provides 6 dB of improvement, eight aver-
ages (23) provides 9 dB of improvement, and so on.
Primer
Increasing Measurement Sensitivity In cases where the small signal amplitude is below the oscillo-
scopes sensitivity range, some form of preamplification will
An oscilloscopes measurement sensitivity is a function of its
be necessary. Because of the noise susceptibility of the very
input circuitry. The input circuitry either amplifies or attenuates
small signals, differential preamplification is generally used.
the input signal for an amplitude calibrated display of the sig-
The differential preamplification offers the advantage of some
nal on the oscilloscope screen. The amount of amplification
noise immunity through common-mode rejection, and the
or attenuation needed for displaying a signal is selected via
advantage of amplifying the small signal so that it will be with-
the oscilloscopes vertical sensitivity setting, which is adjusted
in the sensitivity range of the oscilloscope.
in terms of volts per display division (V/div).
With differential preamplifiers designed for oscilloscope use,
In order to display and measure small signals, the oscillo-
sensitivities on the order of 10 V/div can be attained. These
scope input must have enough gain or sensitivity to provide
specially designed preamplifiers have features that allow use-
at least a few divisions of signal display height. For example,
able oscilloscope measurements on signals as small as 5 V,
to provide a two-division high display of a 20 mV p-to-p
even in high noise environments!
signal, the oscilloscope would require a vertical sensitivity
setting of 10 mV/div. For the same two-division display of Remember, though, taking full advantage of a differential
a 10 mV signal, the higher sensitivity setting of 5 mV/div preamplifier requires use of a matched set of high-quality
would be needed. Note that a low volts-per-division setting passive probes. Failing to use matched probes will defeat the
corresponds to high sensitivity and vice versa. common-mode noise rejection capabilities of the differential
preamplifier.
In addition to the requirement of adequate oscilloscope sensi-
tivity for measuring small signals, youll also need an ade- Also, in cases where you need to make single-ended rather
quate probe. Typically, this will not be the usual probe sup- than differential measurements, the negative signal probe can
plied as a standard accessory with most oscilloscopes. be attached to the test circuit ground. This, in essence, is a
Standard accessory probes are usually 10X probes, which differential measurement between the signal line and signal
reduce oscilloscope sensitivity by a factor of 10. In other ground. However, in doing this, you lose common-mode
words, a 5 mV/div oscilloscope setting becomes a 50 mV/div noise rejection since there will not be noise common to both
setting when a 10X probe is used. Consequently, to maintain the signal line and ground.
the highest signal measurement sensitivity of the oscilloscope, As a final note, always follow the manufacturers recommend-
youll need to use a non-attenuating 1X probe. ed procedures for attaching and using all probes and probe
However, as discussed in previous chapters, remember amplifiers. And, with active probes in particular, be extra cau-
that 1X passive probes have lower bandwidths, lower input tious about over-voltages that may damage voltage-sensitive
impedance, and generally higher tip capacitance. This means probe components.
that youll need to be extra cautious about the bandwidth limit
of the small signals youre measuring and the possibility of
signal source loading by the probe. If any of these appear to
be a problem, then a better approach is to take advantage of
the much higher bandwidths and lower loading typical of 1X
active probes.
ABCs of Probes
Explanation of Safety Precautions Use Proper Grounding Procedures

Review the following safety precautions to avoid injury and to Probes are indirectly grounded through the grounding con-
prevent damage to your test equipment or any product that it ductor of the oscilloscope power cord. To avoid electric
is connected to. To avoid potential hazards, use your test shock, the grounding conductor must be connected
equipment only as specified by the manufacturer. to earth ground. Before making connections to the input
or output terminals of the product, ensure that the product
Keep in mind that all voltages and currents are is properly grounded.
potentially dangerous, either in terms of personal Never attempt to defeat the power cord grounds of any
hazard or damage to equipment or both. test equipment.
Connect probe ground leads to earth ground only.
Observe All Terminal Ratings Isolation of an oscilloscope from ground that is not
To avoid fire or shock hazard, observe all ratings and specifically designed and specified for this type of
markings on the product. Consult the product manual for operation, or connecting a ground lead to anything
further ratings information before making connections to other than ground could result in dangerous voltages
the product. being present on the connectors, controls, or other sur-
Do not apply a potential to any terminal that exceeds the faces of the oscilloscope and probes.
maximum rating of that terminal.
Connect the ground lead of probes to earth ground only. Caution
This is true for most scopes, but there are some
Caution scopes that are designed and specified to operate in
For those scopes that are specifically designed and floating applications.
specified to operate in a floating oscilloscope applica-
tion, the second lead is a common lead and not a
ground lead. In this case, follow the manufacturers
Connect and Disconnect Probes Properly
specification for maximum voltage level that this can
be connected to. Connect the probe to the oscilloscope first. Then properly
ground the probe before connecting the probe to any test
point.
Check probe and test equipment documentation for, Probe ground leads should be connected to earth ground
and observe any derating information. For example, only.
the maximum input voltage rating may decrease with When disconnecting probes from the circuit under test,
increasing frequency. remove the probe tip from the circuit first, then disconnect
the ground lead.
Except for the probe tip and the probe connector center
conductor, all accessible metal on the probe (including the
ground clip) is connected to the connector shell.
Primer
Avoid Exposed Circuitry

Avoid touching exposed circuitry or components with your
hands or any other part of your body.
Make sure that probe tips and ground lead clips are
attached such that they do not accidentally brush against
each other or other parts of the circuit under test.
Avoid RF Burns While Handling Probes

To avoid RF (radio frequency) burns, do not handle the
probe leads when the leads are connected to a source
thats above the voltage and frequency limits specified for
RF burn risk, as shown in Figure 7.1. Figure 7.1. Example derating curve. Actual values and ranges will vary with specific
products.
Theres always a risk of RF burns when using non-ground-
ed probes and lead sets to measure signals, normally
above 300 volts and 1 MHz.
Do Not Operate with Suspected Failures
If you suspect theres damage, either electrical or physical,
If you need to use a probe within the risk area for RF burn,
to an oscilloscope or probe, have it inspected by qualified
turn power off to the source before connecting or discon-
service personnel before continuing usage.
necting the probe leads. Do not handle the input leads
while the circuit is active. Keep Probe Surfaces Clean and Dry
Do Not Operate Without Covers Moisture, dirt, and other contaminants on the probe
surface can provide a conductive path. For safe and
Oscilloscopes and probes should not be operated with any
accurate measurements, keep probe surfaces clean and
cover or protective housing removed. Removing covers,
dry.
shielding, probe bodies, or connector housings will expose
conductors or components with potentially hazardous Probes should be cleaned using only the procedures
voltages. specified in the probes documentation.
Do Not Operate in Wet/Damp Conditions Do Not Immerse Probes in Liquids

To avoid electrical shock or damage to equipment, do Immersing a probe in a liquid could provide a conductive
not operate measurement equipment in wet or damp path between internal components or result in damage
conditions. to or corrosion of internal components or the outer body
and shielding.
Do Not Operate in an Explosive Atmosphere Probes should be cleaned using only the procedures
Operating electrical or electronic equipment in an explosive specified in the probes documentation.
atmosphere could result in an explosion. Potentially
explosive atmospheres may exist wherever gasoline,
solvents, ether, propane, and other volatile substances are
in use, have been in use, or are being stored. Also, some
fine dusts or powders suspended in the air may present an
explosive atmosphere.
ABCs of Probes
Glossary common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR) A differential

probes ability to reject any signal that is common to both test
aberrations Any deviation from the ideal or norm; usually
points in a differential measurement. It is a key figure of merit
associated with the flat tops and bases of waveforms or
for differential probes and amplifiers, and is defined by:
pulses. Signals may have aberrations caused by the circuit
conditions of the signal source, and aberrations may be CMRR = |Ad/Ac|
impressed upon a signal by the measurement system. In any where:
measurement where aberrations are involved, it is important Ad = the voltage gain for the difference signal
to determine whether the aberrations are actually part of the
Ac = the voltage gain for common-mode signal
signal or the result of the measurement process. Generally,
aberrations are specified as a percentage deviation from a flat current probe A device to sense current flow in a wire and
response. convert the sensed current to a corresponding voltage
signal for measurement by an oscilloscope.
derate To reduce the rating of a component or system
based on one or more operating variables; for example,
amplitude measurement accuracy may be derated based on
the frequency of the signal being measured.
differential probe A probe that uses a differential amplifier
active probe A probe containing transistors or other active to subtract two signals, resulting in one differential signal for
devices as part of the probes signal conditioning network. measurement by one channel of the oscilloscope.
attenuation The process whereby the amplitude of a signal differential signals Signals that are referenced to each
is reduced. other instead of earth ground.
attenuator probe A probe that effectively multiplies the distributed elements (L, R, C) Resistance and reactance
scale factor range of an oscilloscope by attenuating the that are spread out over the length of a conductor; distrib-
signal. For example, a 10X probe effectively multiplies the uted element values are typically small compared to lumped
oscilloscope display by a factor of 10. These probes achieve component values.
multiplication by attenuating the signal applied to the probe field-effect transistor (FET) A voltage-controlled device in
tip; thus, a 100 volt peak-to-peak signal is attenuated to which the voltage at the gate terminal controls the amount of
10 volts peak-to-peak by a 10X probe, and then is displayed current through the device.
on the oscilloscope as a 100 volts peak-to-peak signal floating measurements Measurements that are made
through 10X multiplication of the oscilloscopes scale factor. between two points, neither of which is at ground potential.
bandwidth (BW) The continuous band of frequencies that grounding Since probes must draw some current from
a network or circuit passes without diminishing power more the signal source in order for a measurement to be made,
than 3-dB from the mid-band power. there must be a return path for the current. This return path
capacitance An electrical phenomenon whereby an electric is provided by a probe ground lead that is attached to the
charge is stored. circuit ground or common.
Primer
Hall Effect Generation of an electric potential perpendicular logic probe A device used to compare threshold voltage to
to both an electric current flowing along a conducting material determine logic state (1 or 0) for analysis on an oscilloscope
and an external magnetic field applied at right angles to the or mixed signal oscilloscope (MSO).
current upon application of the magnetic field. low-capacitance probe A passive probe that has very low
harmonics Square waves, sawtooth waveforms, and other input capacitance.
periodic non-sinusoidal waveforms contain frequency compo- MOSFET Metal-oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor,
nents that consist of the waveforms fundamental frequency one of two major types of FET.
(1/period) and frequencies that are integer multiples (1x, 2x,
noise A type of signal distortion that can appear on oscillo-
3x, ...) of the fundamental which are referred to as harmonic
scope waveform displays.
frequencies; the second harmonic of a waveform has a
frequency that is twice that of the fundamental, the third optical probe A device to sense light power and convert
harmonic frequency is three times the fundamental, and so to a corresponding voltage signal for measurement by an
on. oscilloscope.
impedance The process of impeding or restricting AC passive probe A probe whose network equivalent consists
signal flow. Impedance is expressed in Ohms and consists of only of resistive (R), inductive (L), or capacitive (C) elements; a
a resistive component (R) and a reactive component (X) that probe that contains no active components.
can be either capacitive (XC) or inductive (XL). Impedance (Z) is phase A means of expressing the time-related positions of
expressed in a complex form as: waveforms or waveform components relative to a reference
Z = R + jX point or waveform. For example, a cosine wave by definition
has zero phase, and a sine wave is a cosine wave with
or as a magnitude and phase, where the magnitude (M) is:
90-degrees of phase shift.
M = R2 + X2
and phase is
= arctan (X/R)
inductance A property of an electric circuit by which an

electromotive force is induced in it by a variation of current
either in the circuit itself or in a neighboring circuit.
jitter The short-term variations of a digital signal's significant
instants from their ideal positions in time.
probe A device that makes a physical and electrical
linear phase The characteristic of a network whereby the
connection between a test point or signal source and
phase of an applied sine wave is shifted linearly with increas-
an oscilloscope.
ing sine wave frequency; a network with linear phase shift
maintains the relative phase relationships of harmonics in probe power Power thats supplied to the probe from
non-sinusoidal waveforms so that theres no phase-related some source such as the oscilloscope, a probe amplifier, or
distortion in the waveform. the circuit under test. Probes that require power typically have
some form of active electronics and, thus, are referred to as
load The impedance thats placed across a signal source;
being active probes.
an open circuit would be a no load situation.
loading The process whereby a load applied to a source
draws current from the source.
ABCs of Probes
reactance An impedance element that reacts to an AC shielding The practice of placing a grounded conductive
signal by restricting its current flow based on the signals sheet of material between a circuit and external noise
frequency. A capacitor (C) presents a capacitive reactance sources so that the shielding material intercepts noise
to AC signals that is expressed in Ohms by the following signals and conducts them away from the circuit.
relationship: signal averaging Summing multiple acquisitions of the
XC = 1/2fC repetitive waveform and computing an average waveform
where: from the multiple acquisitions.
XC = capacitive reactance in Ohms signal fidelity The signal as it occurs at the probe tip is
duplicated at the oscilloscope input.
= 3.14159...
single-ended signals Signals that are referenced to
f = frequency in Hz
ground.
C = capacitance in Farads
SNR (signal-to-noise ratio) The ratio of signal amplitude
to noise amplitude; usually expressed in dB as follows:
An inductor (L) presents an inductive reactance to AC signals SNR = 20 log (Vsignal/Vnoise)
thats expressed in Ohms by the following relationship:
source The origination point or element of a signal voltage
XL = 2fL or current; also, one of the elements in a FET (field effect
where: transistor).
XL = inductive reactance in Ohms source impedance The impedance seen when looking
back into a source.
= 3.14159....
time domain reflectometry (TDR) A measurement
f = frequency in Hz
technique wherein a fast pulse is applied to a transmission
L = inductance in Henrys path and reflections of the pulse are analyzed to determine
readout Alphanumeric information displayed on an oscillo- the locations and types of discontinuities (faults or mis-
scope screen to provide waveform scaling information, meas- matches) in the transmission path.
urement results, or other information. trace ID When multiple waveform traces are displayed
ringing Oscillations that result when a circuit resonates; on an oscilloscope, a trace ID feature allows a particular
typically, the damped sinusoidal variations seen on pulses are waveform trace to be identified as coming from a particular
referred to as ringing. probe or oscilloscope channel. Momentarily pressing the
trace ID button on a probe causes the corresponding
waveform trace on the oscilloscope to momentarily change
in some manner as a means of identifying that trace.
rise time (Tr) On the rising transition of a pulse, rise time is

the time it takes the pulse to rise from the 10% amplitude
level to the 90% amplitude level.
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ABCs of Probes

Understanding Probe Specifications . . . . . . . . 41 - 45

Physically attaching the probe to the test point also establish-

To make an oscilloscope measurement, you must first be Absolute signal fidelity

Absolute Signal Fidelity

c. Clamp-on current probe.

An ideal probe causes zero signal source loading. In other

Complete Noise Immunity

Bandwidth and Rise Time Limitations

Dynamic Range Limitations

With a 1X probe (1-times probe), the dynamic measurement

This loading effect of 99.9 V versus 99.8 V is only 0.1% and

To minimize such resistive loading, 1X probes typically have

Table 1.1. Probe capacitance.

Some Probing Tips

Compensate Your Probes

Overcompensated. Under compensated. Properly compensated.

Figure 1.11. Examples of probe compensation effects on a square wave.

Direct probe tip contact. Two-inch wire at probe tip.

Different Probes for Different Needs

Readout support is a particularly important aspect of

Disk Read Head Preamp

Still, the high bandwidth of FET probes is a major benefit and

There are several potential problems with combining two

induced flux, there can no longer be constant proportionality

Temperature probes, which are used to measure the tem-

Figure 2.14. In addition to being dangerous, floating an oscilloscope can result

Figure 2.13. Example of probe isolation for making floating measurements.

Current Voltage Logic Other

Current Probes Voltage Probes Logic Probes Transducers

Active Passive Active Passive Active Active Passive

AC DC AC Differential Voltage Divider Logic Trigger Optical Temperature

In addition to voltage, current, and logic signals, there are

Signal Frequency Content

More specifically, 50 oscilloscope inputs require 50

Readout Capability Selecting the Right Probe

How Probes Affect Your Depending on the relative values of the

However, the story changes dramatically with higher source

two-thirds of its unprobed value.

Effect on Rise Time

can be ignored. However, the probes capacitance is in

Figure 4.6. Xp and Rp versus frequency for a typical 10 M passive probe.

From a measurement system perspective, the real concern

However, its important to remember that bandwidth at the

Ground Lead Effects

However, its wise to be aware of the possible problems that

Figure 5.1. An example of measuring aberrations relative to 100% pulse height.

Understanding Probe Specifications

An aberration is any amplitude deviation from the expected Accuracy (universal)

For current-sensing probes, the accuracy specification refers

Amp-Second Product (current probes)

Decay Time Constant (current probes) Input Capacitance (universal)

Tangential noise is a method of specifying probe-generated

Advanced Probing Techniques

To further illustrate the above points, the same waveform

Device Under Test

a. Passive probe. b. FET probe.

If ground loop noise problems persist, you may need to open

+ 45 V the damper (VDM) should reach 35 mV with an output swing