2

CLICK TO AUTHOR'S INDEX CLICK TO CONTENT

VRANCEA ZONE- A NATURAL MULTI-USER LABORATORY
FOR THE STUDIES
Florin Munteanu, Dorel Zugravescu2

MINING DUMPS & WET LANDSLIDES

I. Offenberg, M. Ilie, Stamin Purcaru, P. Crai, M. Radu

METHODOLOGY FOR DIMENSIONING OF ROOM AND

PILLAR SYSTEM IN UNDERGROUND MINING
Georgi DACHEV, Ventsislav IVANOV

PLANNING THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SURFACE COAL

MINE IN FUNCTION OF THE GEOTECHNICAL STABILITY
OF THE WORKING SLOPES
Straso Manevski , Sase Jovcevski, Vladimir Manevski

CERCETRI PRIVIND CALITATEA PROFILELOR LAMINATE

UTILIZATE PENTRU EXECUIA SUSINERII METALICE A
GALERIILOR DE MIN
VALERIU PLEEA, MARIN SILVIU NAN, IOAN CUCU

THE FUTURE OF THE CONVENTIONAL MINING SYSTEMS

AND TECHNOLOGIES
George STOYANCHEV, Krastu DERMENDJIEV

ASPECTS OF EXTRACTION OF BORDER LOCATED

RESERVES IN THE BULGARIAN OPEN PIT MINE ASAREL
MEDET
Dimitar ANASTASOV, Kiril KUTSAROV, Delcho NIKOLOV

THE NEW ASPECTS DRILLING AND BOLTING IN MINING

INDUSTRY
Janusz Re, Andrzej Czajkowski, ukasz Booz

ASECAREA FORMAIUNILOR ACVIFERE DIN CMPURILE

DE EXPLOATARE SUBTERAN I LA ZI A ZCMINTELOR
DE LIGNIT DIN OLTENIA
Dumitru Fodor, Moise Matyas, Ionut Predoiu

ENVIRONMENTAL RISK ASSESSMENT, TAILING DAM KURBNESH, MIRDITA

DISTRICTALBANIA
Bardhyl Shushku,. Jorgaq Thanas
DETERMINATION OF THE ATMOSPHERIC RADIATION
INTHE PROXIMITY OF THE MUD-SETTING PONDS FROM
THE THERMAL POWER PLANT PAROSENI AND POSSIBLE
EFFECTS ON THE VEGETATION DEVELOPMENT
Andreea Cristina TATARU , Dorin TATARU , Aurora STANCI, Sorin Mihai RADU,
Marin Silviu NAN

PLOTTING DISPERSION MAPS OF POLLUTANT

CONCENTRATIONS RESULTED FROM MINING ACTIVITIES
WITH THE USE OF SPECIALISED SOFTWARE
Angelica CLMAR , George Artur GMAN , Daniel PUPZAN , Marius KOVACS

EVALUAREA IMPACTULUI ACTIVITILOR MINIERE, DIN

CARIERELE BAZINULUI JIL, ASUPRA SUPRAFEELOR DE TEREN I SOLUII DE
REABILITARE
Mioara Brujan (Predoiu), Ilie Rotunjanu,
GEOTECHNICAL EVALUATION OF A NICKEL DEPOSIT IN
THE DEVOLLI DISTRICT, ALBANIA
Edmond GOSKOLLI, Murat RRESHKA
BARITE MINERALIZATION IN IRAN
Alireza GANJI

APPLICATION AND USAGE OF THE METHOD OF GEO

ELECTRICAL MAPPING FOR GEOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT
WITH PRESENCE OF VERTICAL FAULT
Trajan Sholdov, Marjan Delipetrev, Vladimir Manevski, Goran Slavkovski, Goran
Aleksovski

CORRELATION OF THE SEISMIC DATA WITH THE GEO

MECHANICAL PARAMETERS OBTAINED THROUGH THE METHOD OF REFRACTION
Marjan Boshkov, Krsto Blazev, Blagoj Delipetrev, Trajan Sholdov, Goran
Aleksovski

MODEL OF GEO ELECTRICAL SOUNDING BASED ON GEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS

Goran Slavkovski, Blagoj Delipetrev, Todor Delipetrov, Zoran Toshik, Marjan Boshkov

COMPLEX INTERPRETATION OF DATA OBTAINED FROM

SEISMIC REFLECTION AND REFRACTION
Goran Aleksovski, Marjan Delipetrev, Vladimir Manevski, Goran Slavkovski, Zoran
Toshik

CORRELATION OF THE MODELS OBTAINED WITH THE

METHOD OF REFRACTION AND GEO ELECTRICAL
SOUNDING
Zoran Toshic, Marjan Delipetrev, Vladimir Manevski, Marjan Boshkov, Trajan
Sholdov

WHY THE ASSAREL OPEN PIT MINE HAS TO BE MINED IN STAGES

St. Hristov, D. Nikolov

LADDER PROGRAM FOR A BLENDING PROCESS

Stelian Valentin Casavela

POSSIBLE APPLICATION OF INTERNET OF THINGS IN

THE MINING INDUSTRY
Yordanka ANASTASOVA, Nikolay YANEV

PERTURBATIONS IN THE METHANE ACCUMULATION

SYSTEM FROM THE MINE WORKINGS AFTER THE
OCCURRENCE OF AN EXPLOSION - CASE STUDY, COAL
BED 13, LIVEZENI MINING UNIT, PETROSANI-ROMANIA -
Cristian TOMESCU, Constantin LUPU, Doru CIOCLEA, Nicolae VLASIN,
Ion GHERGHE, Vlad PSCULESCU

NATIONAL REGULATIONS REGARDING

INTERVENTION AND RESCUE ACTIVITIES IN
TOXIC / EXPLOSIVE / FLAMMABLE ENVIRONMENTS
Daniel PUPZAN , George Artur GMAN , Angelica CLMAR , Cosmin ILIE

METHODOLOGY FOR ESTABLISHING THE UNDERGROUND MINING WORK ENVIRONMENT

AFTER THE OCCURRENCE OF AN EXPLOSION
Doru CIOCLEA, Constantin LUPU, Ion GHERGHE, Florin RDOI, Emeric CHIUZAN,
Cristian TOMESCU, Vlad Mihai PSCULESCU
TECHNICAL ASPECTS REGARDING SPONTANEOUS
COMBUSTIONS MONITORING
Emeric CHIUZAN, Constantin LUPU, Doru CIOCLEA, Ion GHERGHE, Cristian
TOMESCU, Florin RDOI, Corneliu BOANT, Vlad Mihai PSCULESCU

UPDATING THE VENTILATION NETWORK OF PETRILA

MINING UNIT SUBJECT TO CLOSURE
Florin RDOI, Constantin LUPU, Doru CIOCLEA, Ion GHERGHE, Cristian
TOMESCU, Emeric CHIUZAN, Vlad Mihai PSCULESCU

THE ASSESSMENT OF ELECTRIC DETONATORS IN TERMS OF DELAYS ACCURACY,

ACCORDING WITH EUROPEAN HARMONIZED STANDARDS
Gabriel VASILESCU, Emilian GHICIOI, Attila KOVACS, Daniela RUS, Edward
GHEORGHIOSU, Ciprian JITEA, Sorin BORDO

INFLUENCE OF THE NATURAL DRAFTS DEPRESSION

UPON MINING VENTILATION NETWORKS
Ion GHERGHE, Doru CIOCLEA, Constantin LUPU, Cristian TOMESCU, Florin
RDOI, Emeric CHIUZAN, Vlad Mihai PSCULESCU

RESEARCHES REGARDING DETERMINATION OF THE

ELECTRICAL PARAMETERS FOR SAFE AND RELIABLE
INITIATION OF THE ELECTRICAL DETONATORS
Leonard LUPU, Adrian JURCA

PARTICULARITIES OF ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT WITH

TYPE OF PROTECTION FLAMEPROOF ENCLOSURE "D"
DESIGNED FOR USE IN FIREDAMP UNDERGROUND
MINES
Lucian MOLDOVAN, Sorin BURIAN, Mihai MAGYARI, Martin FRIEDMANN,
Drago FOTU, Marcel RAD

INVESTIGATION OF AIR HUMIDITY INFLUENCE OVER

THE IGNITION SENSITIVITY OF GASEOUS EXPLOSIVE
ATMOSPHERES FROM THE UNDERGROUND OF
FIREDAMP MINES
Marius DARIE, Sorin BURIAN, Jeana IONESCU, Tiberiu CSASZAR , Lucian
MOLDOVAN , Cosmin COLDA , Adriana ANDRI

IGNITION TIME IN COMPUTATIONAL SIMULATIONS OF

METHANE-AIR EXPLOSIONS
Nicolae-Ioan VLASIN, Vlad Mihai PSCULESCU, Marius UVAR, Eugen COZMA,
Maria PRODAN, Emilian GHICIOI

CONSIDERATIONS REGARDING THE CONSEQUENCES OF

SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION ON MINE VENTILATION
SYSTEMS
Roland Iosif Moraru, Mihai Popescu Stelea,

USE OF CIVIL EXPLOSIVES IN THE FIELD OF OIL

EXTRACTION
Edward GHEORGHIOSU, Artur George GMAN, Emilian GHICIOI, Attila
KOVACS, Gabriel VASILESCU, Marin DOROBANU

ASPECTS RELATED DRILLING THE RESERVOIRS

SECTIONS WITH WITH ENVIRONMENTAL DRILLING
FLUID
Lazr AVRAM, Aurelian GANEA, Dan ARON
EVALUATION OF WELLHEAD LOADS AND TENSIONS
USING FEM FOR DEEP WATER DRILLING WELLS
Lazar AVRAM, Claudiu TANASA, Marius STAN , Dan ARON.

RISER COLUMN STABILITY CONCERNS FOR DEEP-WATER

AND ULTRA-DEEP-WATER DRILLING
Lazar AVRAM, Claudiu TANASA, Marius STAN
Vasile TUDOR

BENCHMARKING STRATEGY EFFECTIVE INSTRUMENT

FOR IMPROVING PERFORMANCES AND INCREASING THE
ORGANISATIONS EFFICIENCY
George BALAN, Lucian GRIGORESCU, Ioan Achim MOISE, Ilie BOGDAN

THE INFLUENCE OF THE MAIN TAX CATEGORIES IN THE

EAST EUROPEAN COUNTRIES
Ilie BANU, Anne-Marie BARTALIS, Madalina POMANA (CARAUS), Mirela SOGLU
(CALUGAREANU), Mihai Aristotel UNGUREANU

THE IMPACT ON THE ENVIRONMENT TRIGGERED BY THE

INCREASED ENERGY CONSUMPTION IN CHINA
SOLUTIONS FOR A SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Ileana-Sorina RAKOS, Maria CIUREA,

STRATEGII DE MANAGEMENT N ECONOMIA MINIER

CRISTIAN ALEXANDRU DOBRE, CRISTINA BTUARU, ALEXANDRA OTETEA,
MIHAI ARISTOTEL UNGUREANU

CUANTIFICAREA EFECTULUI REDUCERII ACTIVITATII

EXTRACTIVE IN VALEA JIULUI. SCENARII ENERGETICE
POSIBILE
Nicolae Ilia, Eduard Mija, Dan Constantin Marinescu, Inga Roioru Cioara

UN MODEL DE MARKETING INDUSTRIAL PENTRU PIAA

ECHIPAMENTELOR MINIERE BAZAT PE ECONOMIA
SPAIAL
Gabriel Pun ,

TECHNOLOGICAL OPTION FOR THE RECOVERY OF THE

COAL FRACTION FROM FLOTATION TAILINGS STORED IN
PONDS
Ctlin VRNCEANU, Diana MARCHI, Srbu ROMULUS

THE MAGNESIUM LIMESTONES

UNIVERSAL PANACEA
FOR THE ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH
KRAUSZ Sanda, CIOCAN Viorica,, DONEA Adriana Ioana

COMPUTATIONAL MODELING OF STRUCTURE AND

PROPRIETIES
OF THE FLOTATION REAGENTS
SOLOZHENKIN Peter, KRAUSZ Sanda

THE DIVERSIFICATION OF TECHNOLOGIES TO

CAPITALIZATION THE POTENTIAL OF ENERGY FROM
FOSSIL FUELS AND SOLID WASTE
HANES Nicolae, CIOCAN Viorica, CRISTEA Nicolae
GOLD MINING AT APUSENI MOUNTAINS IN ATIQUITY
Ioan-Lucian BOLUNDU

CRBUNELE - CEA MAI SIGUR SURS DE ENERGIE N

CONTEXT MONDIAL, EUROPEAN I NAIONAL
Daniel Antonie, Ionu Predoiu,

SITUAIA MINERITULUI DIN VALEA JIULUI N

CONTEXTUL DEZVOLTRII DURABILE
Davidoiu (Tecan) Alina Adela

IDENTIFICATION OF POSSIBLY POLLUTED AREAS WITH

PARTICLES COMING FROM THE TAILING PONDS FROM
PAROSENI POWER PLANT
Tataru Dorin, Stanci Andreea Cristina, Stanci Aurora, Radu Sorin Mihai

ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION OF OPTIMUM OPERATIONAL

STATUS OF ELECTRICAL STATIONS
Marin-Silviu Nan, Ovidiu-Bogdan Tomu, Rzvan Popescu, Andreea Ungur

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF TRANSPORTATION FLOW

REGULATING SYSTEMS IN OIL PIPELINES
Marin-Silviu Nan, Ovidiu-Bogdan Tomu, Andreea Ungur, Rzvan Popescu

MODIFICAREA TEHNOLOGIILOR PRIN MODERNIZARE I

EXTINDEREA CERINELOR PIEEI N DOMENIUL
EXPLOATRII I VALORIFICRII RESURSELOR
ENERGETICE/ THE TECHNOLOGY CHANGES BY UPGRADING AND EXPANDING MARKET
REQUIREMENTS IN THE EXPLORATION AND EXPLOITATION OF ENERGY
RESOURCES

Ioan I. GF-DEAC, Nicolae ILIA, Maria GF-DEAC, Cristina Monica VALECA , Ioan RUS

STUDY OVER THE STATE OF STRESS AND

DISPLACEMENTS FROM THE STRUCTURE OF THE TOWERS OF THE HOIST DEVICES DUE
TO operating LOADS
Pop Ioan Alexandru ; Petrini Mircea Constantin, Radu Sorin Mihai

PRODUCIA MINIER URANIFER CA VARIABIL

STRATEGIC N NTREPRINDEREA EXTRACTIV/
URANIUM MINING PRODUCTION AS RANGING
STRATEGIC MINING COMPANY
Maria GF-DEAC, Monica VALECA, Eliza-Cristina BULZ, Ioan I. GF-DEAC, Andrei
NICOLAE, Adrian BRBULESCU, AnaMaria ANGHEL (REETAR)

A SOLUTION FOR CARBON DIOXIDE STORAGE AND COAL BED METHANE BENEFICIATION
IN JIU VALLEY COALFIELD
Nicolae Ilias, Iosif Andras, Lucian Preda

CERCETRI PRIVIND CRETEREA FERTILITII

SOLURILOR TEHNOGENE. STUDIU DE CAZ
Traist Eugen,Traista Camelia, Radu Sorin Mihai

DETERMINATION ON THE BASIS OF EXPERIMENTAL MEASUREMENTS OF THE

EQUATIONS GOVERNING THE OPERATION CENTRIFUGAL PUMP ASSEMBLY
NETWORK IN ORDER TO SIMULATE OPERATING CONDITIONS ENCOUNTERED IN
PRACTICE
Rada Andrei Cristian
SELECT THE ELECTRICAL APPARATUS FOR USE IN
EXPLOSIVE GAS ATMOSPHERES FROM DETERMINING
REABILITY
Marcel Daniel RAD, Marian Silviu NAN, Andrei-Lucian GIREADA

Study on the accuracy of volume determination using

interpolation methods
Lsconi Adrian Constantin

JIU VALLEY IN THE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Luca Sergiu

CRITICAL STUDY IN MATHEMATICAL APPROACH OF DATA PROCESSING IN

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH ON TE PHENOMENON OF ORGANIZATIONAL STRESS
Pricope Sorin, Pricope(Muntean) Luminia Doina

THE EVALUATION OF THE COMPLEX VENTILATION

NETWORKING OF PETRILA MINE DUE TO ITS STAGE
CLOSURE
Rdoi Florin, Gherghela Androo Paul, Chindri Larisa Cristina

POSIBILITATI DE REABILITARE A TERENURILOR

AFECTATE DE EXPLOATARILE MINIERE DE SUPRAFATA
DIN ZONA DORBOGEI -TURCOAIA
Mihai-Nicolae TIBA

CONSIDERATII GENERALE PRVIND FOLOSIREA

STERILULUI MINIER PENTRU STABILIZAREA CHIMICA SI FIZICA A SOLURILOR SI CA
ADAOSURI IN MATERIALE DE CONSTRUCTII.
Chindri Larisa Cristina, Rdoi Florin, Gherghela Androo Paul

Aspecte privind modul de aplicare al legii civile n litigiile cu privire la exproprierea pentru
cauz de utilitate public
Coandre Ciprian

ASPECTE LEGISLATIVE PRIVIND APLICAREA LEGII

FONDULUI FUNCIAR IN CAZUL EXPLOATARILOR MINIERE LA ZI
Tivig Dumitru Filip, Mariana Negru

MUTAIILE TEHNOLOGICE I NTREPRINDEREA N SECTORUL DE EXTRACIE I

VALORIFICARE A RESURSELOR MINERALE I ENERGETICE/ TECHNOLOGICAL
CHANGES AND ENTERPRISES ON MINING EXPLOITATION AND RECOVERY SECTOR
OF MINERAL AND ENERGY RESOURCES
Cristina Monica VALECA, Maria GF-DEAC, Nicolae ILIA, Ion Florin POPA, Ioan I.
GF-DEAC, Andrei NICOLAE

DIMENSIONAREA TEHNOLOGIILOR DE EXTRACIE I

VALORIFICARE A RESURSELOR MINERALE I
ENERGETICE/EXTRACTION AND RECOVERY SIZING TECHNOLOGY OF MINERAL AND
ENERGY RESOURCES
Maria GF-DEAC, Nicolae ILIA, Cristina Monica VALECA, Ioan I. GF-DEAC,
Andrei NICOLAE, Ilie Ionel CIUCLEA, Marian NICOLAE
DECIZII COMPLEXE PRIVIND FOLOSIREA UTILAJELOR
TEHNOLOGICE N DOMENIUL EXPLOATRII i VALORIFICRII URANIULUI/
COMPLEX DECISIONS FOR USING TECHNOLOGICAL EQUIPMENT IN THE
URANIUM EXPLORATION AND EXPLOITATION
Maria GF-DEAC, Cristina Monica VALECA, Ioan I. GF-DEAC, Andrei NICOLAE, Ionel
Cosmin GAGIU

RETEHNOLOGIZAREA I PROGNOZA TEHNOLOGIC N

INDUSTRIA DE EXPLOATARE A METALELOR RARE I
URANIULUI
Cristina Monica VALECA, Maria GF-DEAC, Nicolae BULZ, Ioan I. GF-DEAC,
Alexandru CHIOTOROIU, Andrei NICOLAE

COMPLEXITATEA TEHNOLOGIC N DOMENIUL

EXPLOATRII I VALORIFICRII RESURSELORMINERALE I
ENERGETICE/TECHNOLOGICAL COMPLEXITY IN THE EXPLORATION AND RECOVERY OF
MINERAL AND ENERGY RESOURCES
Ioan I. GF-DEAC, Cristina Monica VALECA, Nicolae ILIA, Maria GF-DEAC4
Haralambie VOCHIOIU

DIAGNOSTICAREA STRATEGIC A ENTITILOR

MODERNE DIN DOMENIUL EXPLOATRII I
VALORIFICRII RESURSELOR NATURALE /
STRATEGIC DIAGNOSTICS FOR MODERN ENTITIES ON
EXPLOITATION AND CAPITALIZATION OF NATURAL
RESOURCES
Dan MARTIN

PERFORMANELE I COMPETITIVITATEA
NTREPRINDERII EXTRACTIVE A RESURSELOR
MINERALE / PERFORMANCE AND COMPETITIVENESS OF MINERAL EXTRACTION
ENTREPRISE
Laureniu NANCU, Ileana Dana HANTULIE (OPRISESCU)

RISCURILE ECONOMICE N NTREPRINDEREA COMPLEX

DE PRODUCIE A ENERGIEI NUCLEARE/
ECONOMIC RISK OF NUCLEAR ENERGY PRODUCTION IN COMPLEX ENTERPRISE
Cristina Monica VALECA, Ioana ZACHIU ALEXA

EVALUAREA PERFORMANELOR NTREPRINDERII DE

PRODUCERE A ENERGIEI REGENERABILE PRIN ANALIZA ECONOMICO-FINANCIAR/
EVALUATION OF FINANCIAL PERFORMANCE OF
RENEWABLE ENERGY PRODUCTION COMPANY
Laureniu LEICA

ANALIZA CHELTUIELILOR NTREPRINDERII MINIERE/

MINING ENTERPRISE EXPENDITURE REVIEW
Alexandru Nicolae BOCIU

ANALIZA COSTULUI PE PRODUS MINERAL N CADRUL NTREPRINDERII MINIERE.

COSTURILE I VALOAREA ADUGAT/ COST OF MINERAL PRODUCT IN MINING
COMPANY. COSTS AND ADDED VALUE
Oresti MICHELIS
ELEMENTE PRACTICE N ORGANIZAREA I FUNCIONAREA FIRMEI MINIERE/
ELEMENTS OF PRACTICE IN MINING COMPANY FOR ORGANIZATION AND OPERATION
Alina JIANU DUMITRU

STADIUL ACTUAL I TENDINE N APLICAREA

SISTEMELOR GIS/GPS N MINERIT
Ramona-Elena KISS, Constantin Alexandru STOICA

MINIMIZING TRANSPORTATION STARTING FROM

FORD'S ALGORITHM
Constantin P. Bogdan, Nan Marin Silviu

IMPORTANA INSTALAIILOR DE DESULFURARE N

TERMOCENTRALE PE CRBUNE DIN ROMNIA PENTRU
ASIGURAREA MENINERII UNEI PONDERI RAIONALE A
HUILEI N MIXUL ENERGETIC NAIONAL - EXPERIENA
S.E. PAROENI
IOSIF ANDRAS, NICOLAE ILIAS, SORIN MIHAI RADU, DAN CONSTANTIN
MARINESCU, EDUARD MIJA, LUCIAN PREDA

ABC-UL IDENTIFICRII MSURILOR OPTIME de

PREVENIRE i PROTECIE n CEEA CE PRIVETE LUCRUL la NLIME
Nicoleta CRCIUN

ENERGIA REGENERABIL, SOLUIA UNUI MEDIU CURAT

Luminia DURU, Nicolae DIACONU

PRACTICA PROCESULUI COMUNICRII I PARTICIPRII

N MANAGEMENTUL FIRMEI MINIERE/
PRACTICE OF PARTICIPATION OF PROCESS
COMMUNICATION TO MINING COMPANY MANAGEMENT
Andreea WAGNER , Andrei LECA

RISCURILE NON-INDUSTRIALE N CADRUL NOII

ECONOMII A RESURSELOR NATURALE/
NON-INDUSTRIAL RISK IN THE NEW ECONOMY OF
NATURAL RESOURCES
Irina VERNICEANU

METODE SI SURSE SUSTENABILE DE FINANTARE

STRATEGICA A REFACERII TERENURILOR MINIERE DIN
BAZINUL CARBONIFER AL OLTENIEI
Mihai Marius D. NEDELEA

SUFICIENA RESURSELOR I MODELUL DE

OPERAIONALIZARE A EXPLOATRII I VALORIFICRII
LOR SUSTENABILE
Ioan I. GF-DEAC

EVALUAREA RISCURILOR DE ACCIDENTARE I

MBOLNVIRE PROFESIONAL
Vg Drago-Vasile

DEFORMAREA TERENULUI SUB INFLUENTA EXPLOATARII

SUBTERANE DIN MINELE DIN VALEA JIULUI
Larisa Iacoboni1
 VRANCEA ZONE- A NATURAL MULTI-USER LABORATORY
FOR THE STUDIES
Florin Munteanu1, Dorel Zugravescu2
1,2
Catedra UNESCO de Geodinamica, Romania, [email protected]

1. Introduction

The Planet Earth System, is, as any living system (or a supporting life system), extremely
difficult to be define and characterize properly and completely. Presently mankind can be
described as being in a Modern Era in which the Informational Society is currently unfolding,
while at the same time the Knowledge-based Society (not fully matured or functional) may be
regarded as emerging. Taking into account this general context, we attempt a definition of the
Planet Earth System that extends beyond the natural structures (inorganic, organic or living)
that are typically the object of study for Geosciences and/or Biology and Biochemistry. Besides
the Natural structures, man-made artifacts have also been produced and, after adding
into/combining with the Natural ones, complex symbiot emerged.
Presently, a tentative list of such artificial systems with significant impact (ecologically,
economically and socially) may include the following items:
- the entire assembly of systems dedicated to the generation and distribution of electrical
energy, as well as the extraction and refinement of oil and the distribution of the final oil-
derived products down to industrial and individual customers;
- the entire combination of roadways, rail-roads and airways that make up the infrastructure
necessary for commerce and tourism, i.e. the circulation of goods and people;
- the production and distribution of any type of goods.
All these artificial systems, when combined with the Natural ones in which they are situated
and/or with which they interact for their normal operation generate an entirely new System, of
a different type and quality. Natural and Artificial systems are now intermingled, interacting,
interrelated and interdependent, thus permanently defining and influencing each other, giving
rise to an entirely new and qualitatively different dynamics.
This new symbiosis and its dynamics are only partly controllable or predictable, and in order to
be understood (even if only partially) they have to be examined using an interdisciplinary
approach, a re-evaluation of the classical methodology, a fundamental change in theoretical
approach and in the techniques used to study, modeling and prediction of the evolution of such
complex systems [1]. Investigations have been started and research is being carried out
worldwide in order to elucidate which are the best directions of study to be followed for the
examination and understanding of this Artificial-Natural hybrid. From the findings that have
resulted from such a diversity, the Science of the Complexity can be the right approach, having
an integrative view, [2]. In this new vision, the behavior and dynamics of the Planet Earth
System is simultaneously determined by two major trends:
3
a) The complicated interactions between the crust, atmosphere, hydrosphere and ionosphere,
whose activity is additionally influenced and modulated by the Solar System's dynamics
(electromagnetic storms, the solar 'wind', the ionospheric and telluric currents, the sun spots
and their eruptions, the tides, etc.)
b) The essential social components that define in their evolution new needs and opportunities,
resulting in a constantly changing world of artifacts, and hence a permanently modifying
coupling and interaction between Natural and the Artificial across the entire planet.
From this perspective, the sociological, economical or engineering studies/sciences must be
reconfigured and integrated in a larger and broader subject (meta-science) that transcends and
combines them in an interdisciplinary approach in order to create this new framework in which
each part would depend on (and be supported by) elements from the other ones. In a first
stage, the generation and application into practice of the previously mentioned process has
already been started, and an increasing number of researchers refer to such novel meta-
domains more and more frequently, e.g. bioeconomy, biogeophyisics, geobiophyisics,
astrobiophyisics as well as bioelectronics, microelectromechanics and jurisdynamics.
Although not yet fully mature or developed as complete meta-sciences, we can consider them
as intermediary stages in the integration of several different sciences in a new vision of Natural
Sciences. We can thus presume that this can be identified as the first sign highlighting a
significant current trend of integration of various disciplines that ultimately may lead towards a
single global concept, probably similar to some extent with the Gaia concept [3]. It argues
that we are far more than just the Third Rock from the Sun, situated precariously between
freezing and burning up. The theory asserts that living organisms and their inorganic
surroundings have evolved together as a single living system that greatly affects the chemistry
and conditions of Earths surface. Some scientists believe that this Gaian system self-regulates
global temperature, atmospheric content, ocean salinity, and other factors in an automatic
manner. Earths living system appears to keep conditions on our planet just right for life to
persist! [4].
It should be clear that, once such a meta-science has been generated, disciplines like
economics and sociology will no longer be studied separately or independently, but
interdependently and always within the context of their interactive co-evolution with the Planet
Earth System.
Consequently, in this new context one may expect increased interest and more intense studies
in the following possible directions:
- stimulating knowledge transfer between different fields and encouraging inter- and trans-
disciplinary approaches;
- evaluating the capability of present day's methodologies of efficiently understanding
theoretically and experimentally the transition from part to the whole, from complicated to
complex;
- discovering and inventing new experimental concepts, models, theories, methods and
techniques of monitoring and evaluating hierarchical dissipative systems that evolve far from
thermodynamical equilibrium;
- developing and successfully using an educational infrastructure that can ensure the transfer
and filtration of information, specific knowledge and know-how.
The main target is to educate the new generation and re-educate the current one by shifting
from the current reductionist paradigm to one related to nonlinearity and complexity. This
should result in a better understanding of current phenomena, increased capacity and
willingness to assimilate new knowledge and adopt an exploratory frame of mind in order to
further generate new knowledge. Therefore, a long-term consequence of such a new
educational infrastructure should be the creation and propagation through society of a life-long
learning attitude, based on a formal 'standard' education but also including an informal one and
4
a non-formal one as well, while at the same encompassing both localized and delocalized
aspects (e.g. e-learning).

2. About a science of Complexity

The Science of Complexity appeared due to the joint merger of various new fields that they
have been born from new breakthrough in various areas: fractal geometry, the general theory
of dissipative systems, chaos theory, synergetics, cellular automata, genetic algorithms,
intelligent agents, artificial life. A turning point also proved to be the foundation of the Institute
for the Science of Complexity in Santa Fe by a group of physicists, among which were George
Cowan, David Pines, Stirling Colgate, Murray Gell-Mann, Nick Metropolis.
Thereafter, the rather loose collection of previous theories and models have become more
coherent and organized in a certain structure that became known as the Science of Complexity,
and which soon found numerous practical applications. The Science of Complexity changes
drastically the approach of studying the reality and the surrounding environment: instead of
using a reductionist and linear approach that provides analytical solutions, it introduced a
holistic and nonlinear approach which could be modeled using cellular automata, neural
networks or intelligent agents.
In 1976 Ilya Prigogine, Nobel prize laureate for Chemistry in 1977, elaborated The
Theory of Dissipative Systems, with which he became one of the pioneers in the field of self-
organization studies [5]. The theory stipulates that order will appear spontaneously in systems
that evolve far from thermodynamic equilibrium. This order appears as a result of a self-
organization process that is strongly dependent on the energy fluxes present in the domain
where this order, or structure, appears. This new entity acquires new and specific physical and
behavioral properties. Thus, besides the link between energy and matter established previously
by Einstein, Prigogines theory makes a new and more subtle connection between energy and
structure. Tree-like ramified structures, as well as self-similar and fractal objects found in
Nature are examples of practical manifestations illustrating the dynamic interaction between
energy and matter [6]. Bejans constructalist theory [7] formalized the relation between
structure and the energy flux that keeps the dissipative system far from thermodynamic
equilibrium, defining several notable laws regarding alometry [8], with a high degree of
universality [9]. The structure of such a system is conserved for as long as the energy flow is
maintained within certain operational limits. Exceedingly large variations above or under this
operational range trigger specific restructuring mechanisms (phase transitions, bifurcations),
which can be carried out in a very fast and abrupt discharge, or slowly, during a time interval.
Since 1990, the geodynamic events in general and the seismic ones in particular have been
analyzed from this new perspective. This new approach requires the modern researchers to
understand the intrinsic interactive dynamics among the various blocks and sub-blocks that
form the Earths crust in a seismically active region. Furthermore, it is also necessary to
recognize and comprehend the mechanisms of genesis and the long-term stability of this
cellular structure capable to dissipate energy from a concentrated point-like source (focal point)
to a much larger volume of matter. In this respect, we intend to explore the manner in which a
geodynamical active region that evolve far from thermodynamic equilibrium can be modeled in
this nonlinear framework, paying attention to the choice of geophysical/ biophysical sensors
used and their location in the area.
In 1987 Per Bak, Chao Tang si Kurt Wiesenfeld (the so-called BTW trio) discovered and
formulated the Principle of Self-Organized Criticality, which highlighted another essential
property of complex systems: their behavior was extremely sensitive to the initial conditions
and the history of the system, i.e. the succession of events to which it has been subjected
along its evolution since its appearance. A strictly deterministic and causal approach, as had
been used classically in many physical sciences, is no longer efficient or suitable in these
5
circumstances since the transfer function of the system is constantly changing and evolving
together with, and as a result of, the interactions between the system and other external
surrounding systems, at the same hierarchical level or situated above and under it, respectively.
A part of the energy flux received by the system is retained in its substantial-radiative structure,
gradually contributing to its cumulative storage until a critical state is reached, when a sudden
energy discharge takes places. The alternation of numerous charge-discharge cycles of this type
maintains the system in a state that is always relatively close to the critical point (i.e. it can be
said that the critical state is very robust). In the immediate vicinity of a critical state, the
systems sensitivity even to infinitesimal accidental fluctuations increases exponentially, which
makes possible that utterly small variations of collateral factors could easily trigger large-scale
energetic discharge processes that irreversibly modify the structure and behavior of the entire
system. Such a behavior outlines once again the acute necessity to extend the study based on
the Science of Complexity so that it would also examine the triggering factors of such
catastrophic events. Moreover, it also clearly suggests once again the essential need of
breaking with the classical approaches that are utterly incapable of analyzing such concepts and
of grasping even the basic principles of such phenomena. Instead, we suggest the
implementation of an entirely novel approach: building an intelligent monitoring system and its
corresponding data analysis & interpretation model, that are both capable to evolve in time
together with, and in response to, the monitored Reality.
The studies carried out by per Bak [10], and especially the generalization made by
Wolfram [11], in the field of cellular automata has led to new applications: genetic algorithms,
neural networks, intelligent agents, artificial life. All these disciplines coagulated into a new
computational science whose main aim is to re-create the genesis and the evolutionary
dynamics of a real system in a virtual environment, in which other methods and tools are
defined for investigation, monitoring and visualization than in the case of monitoring a real
system. This enabled the scientists to replace the previous static modeling of dynamic
systems using differential equations and systems of differential equations, i.e. using the so-
called rigid models, with stable solutions expressed by continuous functions, that may be
arbitrarily elasticized by adding stochastic terms that could extend the validity of the solutions
in cases when the modeled system undergoes various fluctuations in its parameters. The new
approach is based on a deep understanding and the application of the Science of Complexity
and request an intelligent-evolutionary approach. A "virtual system" (a simulation) is generated
starting from a set of local interaction rules between "cells" / agents. Due to the emerging
properties we get a structured hierarchy that can be studied as a new kind of model. This
approach is a conceptual leap forward, from a mathematic description with a limited valability,
to the intrinsic simulation of the system which can evolve in a virtual environment in a manner
similar to that of the modeled reality.
In 1975 Feigenbaum has made another major breakthrough that consolidated the
creation of the Science of Complexity: the scenario of transition to chaos through successive
bifurcations. The Structuring of the Chaos Theory was accelerated by other important
contributions, such as: - the discovery of the two fundamental universal constants of chaos, -
the development and application of computational sciences for solving nonlinear systems of
equations, - the understanding of behavior of a nonlinear system by analyzing its dynamics in
the phase space, - the discovery of fractal attractors and the generalization of bifurcation
theory. According to the Chaos Theory, a chaotic system inherently exhibits sensitivity to initial
conditions. In other words, two trajectories originating from a given point will grow apart with
an exponential divergence if an infinitesimal variation exists between their initial conditions.
This fact is a fundamental limit for the predictability of such systems beyond a certain limited
time interval (temporal horizon). Chaos Theory has also been applied in electronic circuits,
leading to the realization of chaotic oscillators Chuas circuit- [12] and enabling to formulate
the concepts of chaotic resonance [13] and of synchronization using chaotic oscillators [14].

6
 All these models and theories assert that a chaotic system always exhibits a few general
common features:
- can be found a rule, or pattern, for the process in which the system loses its stability; (the
path of chaos)
-The loss of stability can be studied separately and classified using specific evaluation methods
and representation systems (the Lyapunov exponent, logistic maps, the phase space, attractors,
strange attractors);
-One can identify certain values for the initial condition(s) that are guaranteed precursors for
the bifurcation points [15], thus defining (i.e. enabling to predict) the evolution towards a
critical state of a chaotic system (generalizing this statement we may be able to tell whether a
precursor is expected or not to appear in a chaotic systems behavior during its dynamic
evolution);
- By applying non-periodic perturbations of small magnitude one can, under certain
circumstances, permanently maintain a chaotic system in a stable state, although dynamically it
is situated in an unstable region of behavior. This control technique radically challenges and
changes the entire concept of noise, as well as its role in identifying and maintaining the
stability of a system;
-The analog, or informational, inter-connection of more chaotic oscillators with each other can,
in special conditions, lead to the synchronization of all the oscillations. This is a key effect with
crucial implications in understanding the coupling between complex nonlinear systems and the
variability in their behavior predictability, with tremendous valuable potential applications for
social, financial, economical, and other type of systems, and which is also employed in the so-
called chaos communication [16].
We find to be necessary to insert in this paper a short review of the principal moments in the
aggregations of concepts and theories in what it is known today as Complexity Science just to
point out the major difficulty in understanding those new concepts, the correlations between
them, the differences between the classical, Newtonian approach and this nonlinear one. We
entirely agree with Eve Mittleton-Kelly form London School of Economics: Complexity is not a
methodology or a set of tools (although it does provide both). It certainly is not a management
fad. The Science of Complexity provide a conceptual framework, a way of thinking, a way of
seeing the World. To prepare the society and of course the new generation of scientists and
researchers to be capable to understand this new way of seeing the World and to act creative
in this new conceptual frame, we need new educational technologies, more close to: learning
by discovering, learning by direct implications in real projects (experiments) in
interdisciplinary teems, near senior researchers and professors from Universities , self-
education in e-communi-ties, based on e-learning processes.

3. A natural,multi-user laboratory

It is known the fact the Romania has a unique geodynamical active aria: The Vrancea zone. The
strong earthquakes having the epicenter in a very narrow aria, close to Focsani, the presence of
some mud volcanoes, strong geological accidents easy to be seen at the surface, make this
specific place a natural laboratory, good for experimental research in so called the GAIA
theory [17]. In the same time, it is already accepted that all geodynamical phenomena are
complex, so it seem to be natural to use this place for a multi-user laboratory in geodynamics
dedicated for the understanding of the stability of such an ecosystem using the Complexity
Science approach and the e-learning process. As researchers in an academic research institute
we try to understand the geophysical phenomena linked to the accumulations of mechanical
stress and of the mechanisms that are responsible for an earthquake. Generally speaking, as a
pragmatically objective, we try to improve the evaluation of the seismic risk of a certain

7
geographical region. Such studies have had a new impetus due to the application of a very new
set of theories and models. After Mandelbrots introduction of the fractal geometry and the
subsequent appearance and affirmation of the Chaos Theory and the Catastrophes Theory,
seismic events have been reinterpreted as typical examples of manifestations for the dynamics
of nonlinear systems. Self-organization has quickly become the most important and often used
concept in modeling earthquakes. Other studies, made using large databases that included any
seismic events of magnitudes larger than 2 on the Richter scale, highlighted variations between
intervals with acceptable or high predictability of the seismic events, and those in which such
events seemed to have occurred randomly. This observation led to the conclusion that the
degree of predictability itself for seismic events is a variable that changes in time. From this
point of view, the earthquake was re-interpreted as an expression of the geocomplexity,
and this new point of view reoriented the research in this area towards understanding complex
phenomena. Specifically, this marked the beginning of a new stage in geosciences in general,
and in seismologic research in particular, especially regarding the practical application of the
main concepts, models, theories and methods provided by the new paradigm of Complexity.
If one assimilates a seismically active region with a nonlinear complex and hierarchically
structured system [18], then the following features can be deduced or assumed as
characterizing this system:
a) Each seismic event modifies irreversibly the systems structure, and for this reason a new re-
assessment of the situation and re-adaptation of the analytical model has to be carried out
permanently;
b) Each seismic event discharges a specific amount of energy (recorded in earthquakes as the
magnitude, e.g. on the Richter scale),and this energetic variation modifies the internal state of
the system and provides totally new and different initial conditions for the newly started phase
of charging. The immediate result of such a behavior is a much reduced predictability, yet not
impossible;
c) The energy discharged by each seismic event that 'resets' the local system is
radiated/transferred to neighboring systems of equal or inferior hierarchical position. For this
reason the accurate understanding of the evolution in time of a seismic region cannot be
carried out without an initial thorough and multidimensional monitoring (at the same or from a
higher hierarchical level) using a network of various types of sensors;
d) When the system is in the critical state preceding the seismic discharge, the triggering
factors can alternate or combine with inhibiting ones, resulting in a reduced classic predictability
of the seismic event. At the same time, this also highlights two necessary purposes (or
requirements) for which a sensor network intended to monitor a seismically active region must
be designed and set up: - capable to evaluate objectively when the monitored system (i.e. the
seismic region) evolves in a critical state, and -closely monitor the low intensity processes that
are resonant with the epicenter, and that could thus bring valuable information about how the
triggering signal appears;
e) The monitored seismic region is just another element of a larger and also hierarchically
organized system, being coupled and interdependent on the interaction with other similar
systems in this super-system. This means that other important data can be obtained by
monitoring the energy exchange, and other types of exchanges, between adjacent and
subordinated systems, both living or not;
f) The changes in the structure of the system will always take place as a function of the
variations in the fluxes of energy, information and matter. As such, these changes will obey
universally valid laws (pattern, alometric constants [19]) which can also be used in our
analytical model that controls the system in order to characterize in real-time the evolution and
behavior of the observed region.

8
According to these observations, we can conclude that, monitoring this seismic zone with a
complex network of sensors of different kind, we can collect and store real data, from a real
complex system that evolves in time. So, designing a complex multi-user laboratory and put it
in place in the epicenter of this unique geodynamic aria could be a very good opportunity for
improving research and education in natural sciences (the entire Nexus network became
capable to use real and in real time data to verify theoretical models or to bring some new
experimental devices in this laboratory, to let it there for a time, to verify the capability of the
device to work accordingly to the purpose/ design).

REFERENCES

Encyclopedia of Complexity and Systems Science, Editors: Meyers, Robert A.,

[1]
Editors, Springer, 2009
[2] A. Holden, The new Science of Complexity, Springer, 1996
Lovelock, J. E.. Gaia: A New Look at Life on Earth, Oxford University Press, Oxford
[3]
NewYork, 1987
[4] http://www.gaiatheory.org/overview/
Prigogine, I., Dewel, G., Kondepudi, D., Chemistry Far from Equilibrium:
[5]
Thermodynamics, Order and Chaos, Cambridge University Press, 2001
Lovejoy S., Schertzer, D., Scaling and multifractal fields in the solid earth and
[6]
topography, Nonlin. Processes Geophys., 14, 465502, 2007
Bejan, Advanced Engineering Thermo-dynamics, Wiley-Interscience, 3rd edition,
[7]
2006
Savageau M.A.,Allometric Morphogenesis of Complex Systems: Derivation of the
[8] Basic Equations from First Principles, Proc.Natl.Acad.Sci.USA, 1979,vol
76,12,pp.6023-6025
Munteanu, F., Zugravescu, D., Rusu, M., Suteanu, C., On The synergy of ruptures,
[9]
Revue Romaine de Geophysique, T 38, 1994 ;
Pak,P., Tang, C., Earthquakes as a self-organized critical phenomenon, J. Geophys.
[10]
Res., 1994, 15635-15637;
[11] Wolfram, S., A new kind of science
Chua, L.O., Lin, G.-N.; Canonical realization of Chuas circuit family, IEEE
[12]
transactions on Circuits and Systems, July 1990, vol. 37, (no. 7): 885-902.
Dogaru, R.; Murgan, A.T.Chaotic Resonance Theory, a New Approach for Pattern
[13] Storage and Retrieval in Neural Networks, Neural Networks, 1995. Proceedings.,
IEEE International Conference on Volume 6, Issue , Nov/Dec 1995 Page(s):3048
Strogatz. S., Sync: The Emerging Science of Spontaneous Order, Hyperion, New
[14]
York, 2003
Munteanu, F., Zugravescu, D.,Ioana, C., Suteanu, C., On the possibility to use the
[15] Feigenbaum scenario in modelling certain geodynamic phenomena, Revue Roumaine
de geologie geophysique et geographie, serie de Geophysique, Tome 38, 1994
[16] Handbook of Chaos Control, Schll, E.,(Editor), Schuster, H.G. (Editor), Wiley,2007
[17] T. M. Lenton, Gaia and natural selection, Nature, 394, (1998), 439 -447.
[18] Planeta Pamant- planeta vie, D. Zugravescu, F. Munteanu, Ed. Eagle, 2011
Savageau M.A.,Allometric Morphogenesis of Complex Systems: Derivation of the
[19] Basic Equations from First Principles, Proc.Natl.Acad.Sci.USA, 1979,vol
76,12,pp.6023-6025

9
 MINING DUMPS & WET LANDSLIDES
*I. Offenberg1, M. Ilie2, Stamin Purcaru1, P. Crai1, M. Radu1
1
Conservation and Mine Closure Company - S.C. CONVERSMIN S.A. Mendeleev Street, no. 36-38,
Bucharest, Romania (*coresponding author: [email protected])
2
SC GEOCONSULTING SRL Republicii Street, Bl.20, Et.3, Ap.5 Trgu Jiu, Romania

ABSTRACT
The manuscript refers to problems connected to environmental engineering for mining
operations, presenting theoretical and practical approach in a real situation.
This analyze presents one of the major influences of mining industry to the environment and
safety - uncontrolled wet landslides, generated by closed dumps. This phenomenon generally
appears because waters, like springs and swamps that had been encountered during mining
operation, were not well managed, in the sense of being drained and exported outside the
mining perimeter.
The situation is illustrated with few pictures for a better comprehension.
The manuscript is addressed to specialists involved in the production process, researchers and
designers from mining field, with a view to introduce an efficient method for intervention in
similar situations. The authors propose this method for Best Available Technique (BAT) in
similar situations. [1], [8], [15], [19] [22], [23]

KEYWORDS
Wet landslides, Mining Dumps, Mine Closure

1. HEADING 1

The intervention work refers to a closed coal quarry. Waters that had
been encountered during mining operation, like springs and swamps,
were not well managed, in the sense of being drained and exported
outside the perimeter, and an interior dump was carried out in this
conditions. Thus, the materials excavated from overburden, consisting
in an overwhelming majority of clays, were deposited in a landfill inside Fig.1
the quarry. Once the underground mining operations and water pumping, from inside of a
mine located a few hundred meters of the quarry, were stopped, initial hydro geological
conditions were recovered.
This led to increased the volume of seepage water from underground, from an under pressure
aquifer, because natural shield has been pierced by underground workings. This factor helped
to the initiation, the amplification and maintain the phenomenon active, and also to
fragmentation of surface, in the quarry (Fig.1). In these conditions, water goes through cracks,
10
giving a permanent accumulation in landfill and a continuous supply of slip phenomenon. While
is saturated with water, the slip phenomenon became, gradually, a wet landslide with a speed
greater than 1.5 m/day (Fig.2).

Fig.2 Fig.3
Volume of material involved in the wet landslide was over 1,000,000 cubic meters (Fig. 3),
resulting a total blockage, at some point, of both riverbed and of access road to the village
households, destroying all properties encountered along of its way. Length of the body of
slippage was approx. 1,500 m, and reached approx. 200 m of the confluence between iganca
Valley and Slnic River. Thickness varied between 23 m at the upper part of the valley and
810 m at the bottom of the valley. Slippage was caused both by the surface water, which
stagnated in cracks, and by the underground water, from aquifers coming under pressure.
In the investigation phase, were performed geoelectrical measurements, drillings and laboratory
checks. Since the resistivity was less than 50 ohmm shows that the aquifer is made of
alternating layers of sand, clay and wet coal (Fig. 9). These geophysical investigations
concluded that, geologically, the area consists of clays, sandy clays and sands, and there are no
harsh formations (sandstone and limestone) - Table 1. [2], [3]
Simulations, conducted in the laboratory*, have confirmed the correctness of the calculation
assumptions:
- slip plane material is saturated and undrained,
- there is the opportunity of consolidation by drainage effect and under the own weight.
Calculation methods were based on the assumption of failure in Fellenius, Bishop and Jambu
variants for:
- an imposed sliding surface, and also
- a circular-cylindrical surface,
for a better modeling of the local failure (real situation existing in the site). [2], [3], [4], [27]
Table 1
Powdery sand,
Geotehnical Clay
Simbol M.U. Loamy sand
characteristics
Variation Range Variation Range
Physical characteristics of the soil
Narural wet W % 17.438.4 17.433.3
Plasticity ind. Ip - 20.743.0 1422.7
Consistency ind. Ic - 0.600.86 0.450.60
Tamping degree Id - - -
KN/
Volumetric weight a 18.020.2 12.221.1
m3
Porosity n % 18.543.0 18.944.5
Porosity index e - 0.550.96 0.610.75
Wet degree Sr - 0.841.09 0.72-1.04
Mechanical characteristics of the soil
Angle of internal 0
714 714
friction
daN/
Cohesion c 0,080,22 0,020,08
cm2
Deformation Ic M2-3 daN/cm2 -
Compressibility Id av2-3 cm2/daN -
Specific
a e p2 cm/m -
compaction
Fig.9

11
Geotechnical parameters and safety factors (tables) used in calculatios are:
- undrained conditions, the situation in the site (Table 2):
=18 KN/mc; =10; c=20KPa
- drained conditions, the proposed solution using parameters determined in the laboratory (Table 3):
=18 KN/mc; =14; c=22Kpa
*the laboratory used for analyzes and simulations belong to GEOCONSULTING (authorized Level II
nationwide).

Table 2 Table 3
Prof. I Circular-cylindrical Imposed sliding Imposed sliding Prof. I Imposed sliding surface
surface surface I surface II static dynamic
static dynamic static dynamic static dynamic Ordinary 2,467 1,774
Ordinary 0,853 0,622 1,261 0,970 0,753 0,545 Bishop 2,662 1,929
Bishop 0,874 0,638 3,429 1,947 0,781 0,561 Janbu 2,387 1,707
Janbu 0,838 0,611 2,560 1,458 0,768 0,550
Prof. II Imposed sliding surface Prof. II
static dynamic Static dynamic Ordinary 5,332 2,699
Ordinary 1,359 0,627 0,818 0,519 Bishop 5,769 2,921
Bishop 1,526 0,705 1,605 0,763 Janbu 5,207 2,661
Janbu 1,382 0,640 1,456 0,695 Prof. III
Prof. III Imposed sliding surface Ordinary 2,045 1,506
static dynamic Static dynamic Bishop 2,813 2,122
Ordinary 0,712 0,604 0,994 0,558 Janbu 2,750 2,060
Bishop 0,712 0,610 1,530 0,711 Prof. IV
Janbu 0,711 0,589 1,376 0,640 Ordinary 2,819 1,800
Prof. IV Bishop 3,041 1,913
static dynamic Janbu 2,776 1,779
Ordinary 0,667 0,435 Prof. V
Bishop 0,718 0,469 Ordinary 6,158 3,084
Janbu 0,671 0,438 Bishop 6,366 3,192
Prof. V
static dynamic Janbu 6,059 3,035
Ordinary 2,053 1,035
Bishop 1,099 1,059
Janbu 2,030 1,024

ENGINEERING & DESIGN [13]

Usually, the landslides are stabilized with walls and/or pillars, followed by a spur of soil
compacted, but in this case, because the body of landslide was wet (soil with very high
humidity), it was impossible to apply those solutions. Therefore, was chosen a special solution.
The technical solution proposed by engineers was to build a massive wedge
prism, made of crushed stone of various sizes, filled in thin compacted layers
(with the height growing downstream), placed in front the landslide.
Main idea is to use one of the basic features of the landslides - cyclicity.
Due to gravity, the material within landslide will be continuously deposited
on the prism, where, encountering a surface with a good drainage which Fig. 4
facilitates the phenomenon of squeezing, the water will be discharged very quickly. The design
should ensure that the sliding material is rapidly converted to a stable ground, which may be
compacted, and new solid consistency will be opposed to the sliding movement. The wedge
prism was designed to work like a dam, with a large development to the base on flow direction,
by using a special construction, which covers the following demands:
a) The designed shape of the wedge prism, in the first phase, must not oppose an important
resistance, to enable gravitational movement of material on it; [14], [15]
b) The material, which will be filed continuously on prism, must encounter a surface with a
good drainage, to facilitate the phenomenon of squeezing, so the water to be discharged very
quickly. The slipping material must turn quickly into a stable ground, which can be compacted,
and its new solid consistency must oppose to the motion (in fact, in this way, could be restored
the natural balance of the terrain);
12
c) To ensure the optimal reverse slope (as opposed to the natural ground), for slipping meet a
growing resistance and, along with wet material advancement on the ramp, to increase the
amount of water discharge. Under these conditions, linear movement (laminar) will turn in a
circular motion (rotation with translation) both horizontally and vertically, which will cause a
more pronounced water discharge;
d) The shape and the particle size distribution of the material, in the prism, must not block the
free flow of water, which is essential in the stabilization process. [16]
e) Electro-mechanical machines and equipment used must be appropriate to conditions in the
field. [11], [12]
The main idea is to use one of the basic features of the landslides - cyclicity.
Most of landslides evolution is cyclical: accumulation and flowing. During accumulation, the
material, saturated with water, could be drained by gravity, and because pressing it down
becomes more consistent. Thereby, over time, becomes it self part of the stable structure,
artificially created, by increasing its weight, and overall, contributing to improving the stability
factor in the area. [8], [9], [12], [23]
After comprehensive laboratory analyzes, for this particular case, the prism was calculated and
built to provide a filter coefficient up to 10 cm/s, safe water evacuation, and no major risk of
clogging. [18], [22], [24]
Principle of the system designed:
1. Wedge prism for drainage,

2. The dam and the access ramps,

3. Wall of gabions, for additional

support (only if is necessary),

4. Bottom drainage,

5. Regulated riverbed

OPERATING RESULTS

A. Initial conditions

Figure 5 slip front reached the village Figure 6 - accumulation and flow, typical
movement of a slip,

13
 Figure 7 in the quarry, the materials Figure 8 in the middle zone landslide
continuously saturated with water became wet,

B. Operations start

Figure 9 in the village, the operations are started, Figure 10 in the downstream, landslide is
in the most critical moment (the excavator
is overwhelmed),

Figure 11 in the downstream of the wedge Figure 12 the squeezing process, at the
prism, during construction, contact between the drainage wedge prism
and slipping material,

Figure 13 the top of the drainage wedge prism, Figure 14 gabions, in the downstream
of the drainage wedge prism,

14
Figure 15 the access way, built directly on slip, Figure 16 minor and major riverbeds, rebuilt
at the contact between slip and natural slope,

Figure 17 surface water drainage channel Figure 18 Y shaped drains in the quarry,
built with natural materials,

C. Situation after work completion (2 years):

Figure 19 - the middle zone of the valley Figure 20 - the upper zone of the valley
after rehabilitation and stabilization, after rehabilitation and stabilization,

Figure 21 - the quarry, shaped natural for good Figure 22 the new river bed after settlement
capture and optimal management of the surface and households after restoration waters.

15
 COSTS

The estimated value for the works was up to 3 million euro (4 million dollars).

REFERENCES

Alman, B. Exploatarea zcmintelor minerale din Romnia, vol. I, II,

[1]
Editura Tehnic, Bucureti,1984
[2] Andrei, S., Antonescu, I. - Geotehnic i fundaii, vol. I, II, I.C. Bucureti, 1980
Athanasiu, C., Popescu, M. - Aplicarea metodei elementului finit n mecanica
[3]
pmnturilor, I.C.Bucureti, 1974
Atkinson, H.L. Bransby - The mechanics of soils, Book Company (U.K.) Limited
[4]
London, 1977
Bally, R.J., Nicola, G. - Suspensii stabile autontritoare n ingineria geotehnic, Stizo
[5]
- Fundaii speciale, Editura Sigma, Bucuresti, 2002
[6] Bncil, I. .a. Geologie inginereasc, vol. I, II, Editura Tehnic, Bucureti,1981
Botu, N. - Contribuii privind studiul comportrii reologice a pmnturilor asupra
[7] interaciunii infrastructur - teren de fundare, Tez de doctorat, Univ. Tehnic "Gh.
Asachi", Iai, 1993
[8] Florea, M. N. - Alunecri de teren i taluze, Editura Tehnic, Bucureti,1979
[9] Fodor, D. Stabilitatea taluzurilor n cariere, la halde i iazuri, ODPT, Bucureti, 1973
Fodor, D., Ilia, N. .a. Mecanizarea n exploatrile miniere la zi, Editura Tehnic,
[10]
Bucureti,1978
Ilia, N. .a. Instalaii electromecanice ale exploatrilor miniere la zi, Editura
[11]
Didactic i Pedagogic, Bucureti, 1980
Ilie, M - Proiect tehnic al lucrrilor de stabilizare a alunecrii de teren, punerea n
[12] siguran, modelarea i ecologizarea zonelor afectate la cariera Slnic Nord, jud.
Arge, etapa. I, II, III i IV, 2006-2008
[13] Lancellotta, R. - Geotechnical engineering, A.A. Balkema, Roterdam, Brookfild, 1995
Late, M., Zaharescu, E. Stabilitatea malurilor i taluzurilor, Editura Ceres,
[14]
Bucureti, 1977
Lungu, I., Stanciu, A., Boi, N. Probleme speciale de geotehnic i fundaii, Editura
[15]
Junimea, Iai, 2002
Magnan, P. J., Baghery, S. Statistique et probabilits en mcaniques des
[16]
sols, Etat des connaissances, Rapport de recherche L.C.P.C., No 109, Janvier 1982
Manea, Sanda Contribuii la studiu stabilitii versanilor care prezint fenomene de
[17]
cedare progresiv, Tez de doctorat, I.C.B., 1988
Muat, V. Contribuii n problema stabilitii versanilor, Tez de doctorat,
[18]
Universitatea Tehnic Gh. Asachi, Iai, 1988
[19] Pilot, G., Moreau, M. La stabilit des remblais sur sols mous, Eyrolles, Paris, 1973
Radu Priscu Construcii hidrotehnice, vol. I, II, Editura Didactic i Pedagogic,
[20]
Bucureti, 1973
Rileanu, P., Ciornei, A. Cum dominm pmnturile macroporice sensibile la
[21]
umezire (P.S.U.), Editura Junimea, 2000
Rileanu, P., Muat, V., ibichi, E. Alunecrile de teren Studiu i combatere, Casa
[22]
de Editur Venus, Iai, 2001
[23] Silion, T., Rileanu, P. Pmnturi macroporice sensibile la umezire, I. P. Iai, 1978
16
 Simvulidi, I. A. Rascet ingenernh konstrukii na uprugom osnovanii, Vsaia, kola
[24]
Moskva, 1973
25. Stanciu, A. Contribuii la dimensionarea lucrrilor din pmnt armat, Tez
[25]
de doctorat, I. P. Iai, 1981
26. Stanciu, A. Une gnralisation de la thorie de Coulomb pour le calcul de la
[26] pousse et de la bute des terres, Revue Franaise de Gotechnique, no. 50, pp. 39-
59, Janvier, 1990
27. Stanciu, A. Calcul de la pression critique initiale dune fondation
[27]
superficielle, Revue Franaise de Gotechnique, no. 67, pp. 39-49, Septembre, 1994
[28] 28. Stanciu, A., Lungu, I. Fundaii, Editura Tehnic, Bucureti, 2006
29. Terzaghi, R., Peck, B. R. Mcaniques des sols applique aux travaux publics
[29]
et au btiment, Dunod, Paris, 1957
30. Van Impe, W. F. Evaluation of deformation and bearing capacity
[30] parameters of foundations, from static CPT results, Fourth International Geotechnical
Seminar, Field Instrumentation and in-situ measurements, Singapore, 1986.

17
 METHODOLOGY FOR DIMENSIONING OF ROOM AND
PILLAR SYSTEM IN UNDERGROUND MINING

Georgi DACHEV1, Ventsislav IVANOV2

1
M. Eng. University of Mining and Geology St. Ivan Rilski, Sofia, Bulgaria
2
Prof. Dr., University of Mining and Geology St. Ivan Rilski, Sofia, Bulgaria

ABSTRACT

The major problems with dimensioning of the room and pillar system in mining are: 1) the
unknown acting stresses (natural and induced); 2) the properties and structural characteristics
of the rock mass; 3) the influence of the chamber-and-pillar mining unit that constantly
changes in time and space; 4) the influence of mining activities on the increasing volume of the
massif. The combination of the above indeterminacies impedes dimensioning (geometry,
location, supported surface to supporting surface, shaping sequence, etc.) and, therefore,
increases the risk of accidents and mishaps. The existing practices in dimensioning of
constructional elements (the isolated support pillars) abound in formulae and factors that do
not meet the current requirements for stable, safe, and efficient exploitation. Based on a
generalised systematisation of those approaches, analyses, and experience amassed, an
algorithm (methodology) for dimensioning of constructional elements within the system of
mining is offered. This methodology has been applied in dimensioning of isolated inter-room
support pillars from the room and pillar mining system of a deposit within the Madan mine field
in Bulgaria.

1. INTRODUCTION

Underground mining of minerals is carried out within the rock mass which is an insufficiently
examined, constantly changing, and risky geological environment. The efficiency of
underground mining, labour safety, and the negative effects of mining activities on the
ecosystem are directly dependent on the geo-mechanical stability of the rock mass that imbeds
the underground heading. Considering the above, the main role of geo-mechanics is to ensure
the optimum use of the rock mass as a constructional element within the mining system. Also,
in conformity with the major influencing factors, and under the minimum of geo-mechanical
risk, it has to provide opportunities for controlling the processes that go with mining. The
strained stress condition (SSC), respectively, the stability of the Imbedding Mass/Extraction
Workings (IM/EW) system, is determined by three groups of controllable and non-controllable
factors:
o The structure and properties of the rocks forming the rock mass and the disruptions
they contain (non-controllable).
o The natural (non-controllable) and the induced (controllable) stress condition of the
mass that is caused by technological operations.
o The effects of the technological impact and the growing network of underground
18
 headings whose geometrical and spatial properties disrupt the integrity of the rock mass
(controllable).
The stress condition is a major characteristic of each mineral deposit. Under the conditions
of its natural bedding, the rock mass is subject to the action of a natural field of stresses which
may either be of tectonic or gravitational origin. Mining workings disturb the natural field and
induce a new field whose distribution corresponds to the scale and intensity of those workings.
Determining the above groups of factors is the basis for: a reliable assessment of the
strained stress condition (SSC) of the Imbedding Mass/Extraction Workings (IM/EW) system;
dimensioning of the constructional elements within the systems of mining; ensuring long-term
stability; the level of geo-mechanical risk; the conditions for carrying out efficient and safe
mining activities.

2. METHODOLOGY

As a rule, engineering estimates while dimensioning of the room and pillar systems of mining
are based on formulae from structural mechanics or on experience from analogous situations
and expert methods gained from practice [1]. Usually, empirical coefficients lacking reliable
justification are employed in dimensioning of constructional elements (the support pillars). In
most cases, the above approaches applied to dimensioning do not ensure the stability of the
imbedding mass. Deriving from the above examples, the necessity of a geo-mechanical
approach in dimensioning is brought forward. Such an approach is illustrated in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Methodology for geo-mechanical dimensioning of the room fending support pillars with
room and pillar systems of mining

3. DESCRIPTION AND PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF THE METHODOLOGY

This methodology has proved its adequacy in dimensioning of the room fenders in one of the
underground lead and zinc mines in the Madan mine field in Bulgaria (the Gyudyurska deposit).

19
3.1 Geological description of the rock mass

From a geological point of view, the imbedding mass in the area where the column-like room
fenders are erected is composed of the following lithological types of rock that differ in terms of
degrees of secondary changes and disturbances: amphibole-biotite gneisses; marbles;
granitised gneisses. The rock mass is disrupted by faults with various orientation that are the
result of multiple stages of tectonic impact and that form basically two systems of tectonic
disruptions. The first system of tectonic disruptions is oriented parallel to the rock strike and
cuts the rocks in a direction which is perpendicular to the bedding. The strike azimuth of those
disruptions is 325-355. The direction of their inclination varies in strike and dip with the angle
of inclination ranging from 55 to 90. The second system of tectonic disruptions is oriented
under stike azimuth of 270 - 310 with the direction of the inclination being N-NW and S-SE.
They are structures that steeply incline from 55 to 90. The tectonic structures of this system
are with a strike azimuth of 330-345 and an inclination angle of 55-90. They are also ore-
controlling faults. The lead and zinc mineralisation, too, is of primary importance for the
structural conditions and, accordingly, the ore localisation of the deposit.
Underground water is classified into two types: non-pressure water with shallow circulation,
and pressure water with deep circulation. Shallow underground water has uneven flow which is
most often fed by atmospheric water. Fissure water is closely connected with tectonic
disruptions that are water permeable. In the design production section where the support pillars
are designed, the maximum flow of water measured has been 2.5 l/sek, the minimum has been
0.7 l/sek, and the average flow has been determined as 1.5 l/sek. Deriving from the above
properties, the deposit is assumed to be poorly saturated.

3.2 Properties of the rocks and the rock mass

The stages in the geo-mechanical exploration of the rock mass in the area of the design
production section were carried out as follows:
The existing textual and graphical information was collected and compared. For this
purpose, the necessary additional laboratory study of the resistance and deformation
parameters, as well as of the structural parameters of the imbedded rocks was carried out;
To study the nature of the mineralisation in the production section, locations from the
preliminary geological survey were selected and specimens were taken: core samples with
geometrically regular (cylindrical) and irregular shape;
The systems, ROD were determined based on the nature of the disruptions and the
structural and mechanical condition of the rock mass. Also, the RMR and MRMR geo-mechanical
classifications were applied, as well as the GSI geological index.
The laboratory and structural examination, along with the application of classification
estimates were employed to determine the beyond-the-limit strength and deformation
parameters by using the RocLab programme and in accordance with the Hoek-Brown criterion.
The above results have given grounds to create a multidimensional database that outlines the
characteristic features of the operational section. The results from the above studies are
summarised and illustrated in Table 1.

20
 Table 1. Mechanical properties of the rocks and structural characteristics of the rock mass
LITHOLOGY Amphibole- Hydro-thermally Gneisses with
biotite gneisses changed gneisses marble layers
PARAMETERS
Bulk density, [MN/m3] 0.0265 0.026 0.026
Specific density, [MN/m3]
Laboratory testing

0.0275 0.028 0.027

Porosity, [%] 3.9 5.6 2.7
Uni-compressive strength, ucs [MPa] 102 83 49

Tensile strength, t [MPa] 9.6 8.2 5.4

Cohesion , [MPa] 34.5 28.0 23
Angle of internal friction, [] 43 38 29
Two systems of Three systems of Four and more
characteristics
Classification

Fracturing fractures fractures systems of

fractures
RMR [10] 69, 2nd class 59-65, 3rd-2nd class 54, 3rd class
MRMR [10] 60 49 43
GSI [2] 64 58 53

3.3 Stress state of the rock massif

Stress state in the rock mass was studied in two stages. Analytical and experimental
methods [4] were applied as follows:
During the first stage, the genotype of the natural field of stresses was characterised.
The studies were based on processing of the results from the tectonics of rupture and
reconstruction of the paleofield of stresses (Figure 2a). These studies have revealed that the
range of the maximum tectonic stress max varies from 30 t 115 which is connected to
changes in the course of the geological history, whereas the minimum principal stress min
varies within the range of 300 t 350. The results obtained from the reconstruction of the
paleofield of stresses in the area prove the presence of tectonic components stress in the
Gyudyurska deposit. The distribution of the paleofield of stresses is shown in Figure 2b). It is in
the shape of an ellipsoid with axes 1, 2, and 3. Its configuration and magnitudes vary
depending on the depth, the mountain relief, and the properties of the rock mass in the
different operational sections

Table 1:
Table 2: a) b)
Figure 2. Reconstruction of distribution: a) in the components of the paleofield of stresses in the section;
b) Configuration of the resulting field of stresses.
During the second stage of field characterisation, the above results were compared to
those obtained experimentally in a different operational deposit [5], under similar conditions
and types of solid ore that were located in the immediate proximity of the deposit studied. The
results obtained are introduced in Table 2.

Table 2. Results of the stress state of the rock mass

21
 In situ calculated stresses
Parameters Calculated =0.21; =5.4 GPa =0.22; =8.8 GPa
stresses 3C1 3C2 3C1 3C2
1 8.609.40 11.08 10.54 14.85 14.91
3 3.704.15 5.40 6.6 7.02 4.92

It is obvious that the results obtained through experimental and instrumental methods of
investigation are similar; therefore, they can be employed for the purposes of the analyses. Due
to the identical characteristics of the structural properties of the rock mass in the two deposits,
the experimentally obtained results can be used for the methods of dimensioning.

3.4 Numerical studies

A geological and geo-mechanical model of exploring and dimensioning of the system

Production Room/Support Pillar (PR/SP) is constructed as illustrated in Figure 3a). The figure
shows the location of the support pillars left in the production section. Figure 3b) models the
situation after a pillar has been formed and the room surrounding it.

a) b)
Figure 3 ) Location of the isolated support pillars in the production section;
b) Modelled situation of the room-pillar-room system.
Analysis was performed with a 2D numerical model using the finite element method (FEM)
[6]. The numerical model gives opportunities for staging, for inputting environments with
various characteristics, for multi-factor analysis of the results obtained, etc. The strained stress
condition (SSC) and the deformation behaviour of an isolated support pillar has been studied
taking into consideration the development of the production room around it. The results are
shown in Figure 4a), b), c), and d). The objective of the survey was to assess the SSC and the
strength of the pillar by taking into consideration the stoping, and also by determining the FOS
factor whose values are classified in Table 3.

) b)

c) d)

Figure 4. Results from the parameter analysis: ) at Sroom/Spillar=5; b) at Sroom/Spillar=7.5); c) at

Sroom/Spillar=10; and d) at Sroom/Spillar=12.5

22
 The results from the parameter studies are compared to the commonly applied empirical
methods employed in dimensioning of isolated inter-room pillars in the deposit.

Table 3. FOS Values determined through a numerical method and through empirical formulae
Room surface / FOS
Pillar surface Numerical Empiprical
Sroom / Spillar model formula
5.0 1.9 2.5
7.5 1.6 2.0
10.0 1.4 1.7
12.5 1.0 1.2
15.0 0.6 0.8

The comparative analysis has taken into consideration the generally approved values for
FOS>1.5 and has estimated that the optimum value for the FOS factor is obtained when the
ratio of room sufface to pillar surface is not greater than 10.
The methodology suggested is applied in the mining practices of a number of states
(Canada, the USA, South Africa, etc.). It can actually be employed by adhering to the principles
of the Stress Path method as illustrated in Figure 5. This method monitors the variations in the
geo-mechanical situation prior to, during, and after the shaping of the production room around
the pillar. The maximum principal stersses (1,3) for the above two listed states are plotted
within the stress space limited by the destruction criteria (Hoek-Brown or Mohr-Coulomb). The
difference beween the principal stresses (1 increases, 3 decreases) is indicative of the
variation of the SSC of the system in conformity with the technological processes. The stress
zones of variability trace the direction, i.e. the intersection point and the induced stress

Figure 5. Stress Path

Mining activities can follow one of the following two paths: Trajectory a) is characteristic of
the mode of mining work without inducing stresses and without indications of pillar run-off and
accumulation of seismic energy in the pillar. The distribution of the stress state shows that in
the case of a), the SSC of the pillar varies without the risk of accidents (resulting from
exceeding the strength). This determines the most probable mode of loading of the system and
the loss of stability in batches which allows for relaxation. Trajectory b) shows that with such
a mode of development of mining work, the SSC of the system rises sharply and zones of
23
concentration of stresses trace the variation of the stress condition (SC) and will induce
seismicity and sudden collapse.

4.CONCLUSION

The methodology applied allows for operational activities to be performed by taking into
consideration the effect of the strength and deformation parameters, the stress state, the
structural characteristics, and their interaction. All of the above help ensure the stability of the
system and the respective efficiency and safety of work. The methodology offered has been
tested in situ conditions and has yielded positive results in the course of dimensioning which
proves its applicability.

REFERENCES

1. ., . .
, ( ),
, 57, . II, 2014, . 12-14.
2. Hoek, E.T. Rock Engineering AA Balkema. Rotterdam, 2001.
3. ISRM Suggested Methods. Rock Characterisation Testing and Monitoring. Pergamon
Press, 1981.
4. Brady, B. H. G., E. T. Brown. Rock mechanics and underground mining, third edition,
Canada 2004.
5. , .
... , , 1987.
6. Rocscience, Phase2, ver. 8.0 Fine element analysis for excavation. Rocscience, Toronto,
Canada 2010.
7. Roberts, D. T. The determination of the residual strength of hard rock crush pillars with a
with-to-height ratio of 2:1. The journal of the South African. Institute of Mining and
Metallurgy, Vol 105, July 2005.
8. Board, M., et al. Use of numerical modelling for safe and cost-effective mine design,
stability assessment and support dimensioning. Rev. Min 12/2005.
9. , . j , , ,
1997.

24
 PLANNING THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SURFACE COAL
MINE IN FUNCTION OF THE GEOTECHNICAL STABILITY
OF THE WORKING SLOPES
Straso Manevski1, Sase Jovcevski2, Vladimir Manevski3
1
REK BITOLA, AD ELEM
2
EBARA CORPORATION
3
FACULTY OF NATURAL AND TECHNICAL SCIENCES, UNIVERSITY GOCE DELCEV

Abstract
Analyzing the state of geotechnical stability of the slopes of the digging blocks,
provides an opportunity to evaluate the safety of the ongoing process of exploitation and
planning the further development of the mines. As one of the main factors in the
estimation of the stability of the slopes are the physical mechanical properties of the
rock masses. The geological, hydrogeological and climate characteristics of the
analyzed area and the wider region, condition a specific hydrogeological characteristics
of the investigated area. The development of the surface mine as a techno genic factor
also affects the hydrogeological parameters and the overall issue which is the subject of
analysis and study. It should be noted that the hydrogeological issue has a huge impact
of the stability state, therefore while describing the geo - mechanical parameters its
important to take in consideration the effects of the level of underground water. Every
change in the level of underground water, freezing, defrosting etc. creates new elastic
conditions in the rock masses than can lead to occurrence of slope instability. In order
to define the conditions of exploitation and geometry of the mine in separate stages, are
made an appropriate analysis of the stability. In the analysis are used advanced
methods for defining the stability of the slopes (lamellas method, Bishop, Spencer and
Janbu).
Key words: Mining, groundwater, piezometers, hydrological, landslides, stability.

25
 1. Introduction
The most typical factor for disruption of slope stability is the change in the
geometrical form, partial or local disturbance or sliding i.e. creating of new slope. In the
changes of the forms of the slopes comes to a change in the strain condition and in
some zones of the rock masses new strain conditions, meaning new deformations.
When the new strain condition creates critical deformations, results with huge changes
and deformities in the geometrics state of the slopes in general.
The changes of the physically mechanical properties of the rock masses is very
frequent cause for the occurrence of slope instability. The changes in the level of
underground water, their freezing, thawing etc. creates new conditions for strain state in
the rock mass which creates greater instability of the slopes [1].
The long-term process of changes in the strain state and conditions of deformity
while the other conditions remains equal, can also lead to instability of the slopes. The
process of releasing of the strain forces in the new nearby created slope, results with
additional discontinuity and weakening of the rock mass.
Condition for stability for each slope is to develop balance between external
forces and internal resistance of the environment in the slope. The analysis of the
geotechnical stability of the slopes on the excavated blocks in the coal mine Suvodol
creates opportunity for assessment of the safety of the ongoing process of exploitation,
as well as planning further development

2. Methodology of investigation
The methodology of the investigations is conducted with terrain investigations,
macroscopic evaluation of the geotechnical stability of the mine and excavated blocks
and mathematical analysis using modern methods border balance for analysis of the
geotechnical stability of the slopes of the surface mine. There are several methods for
calculating and determining the factor of slopes stability. The analysis are conducted
with the following modern methods for defining the stability [2]:
Method of Lameli
Method of Bishop
Method of Spencer
Method of Janbu
The geomechanics is relatively young discipline. In the first half of the previous
century Fellenius develops method under the name Swedish method based on defining
the critical circles of the slide surfaces. In the middle of the fifties Janbu (1954) and
Bishop (1955) are upgrading this method. The usage of the computers since the year
1960 allows to improve the performance of the iterative procedures in these methods.
This lead to developing mathematically more accurate formulations as the method of
Morgenstern and Price (1965) and Spencer (1967).
The software solutions increased the reliability of the methods used for defining
the slope stability. In the recent years are developed powerful software packages such
as: SLOPE/W, GALENA, ROCKPACK, STABLE etc. Each of this methods gives
relevant and optimal factor for stability, satisfying the balance conditions.

26
 3. Planning and development of the surface mine process of exploitation
in function of the geotechnical stability

The slope instability is common activity at surface mines, even dough are
projected with acceptable stability factors. The answer in this phenomena should be
found in the analysis of the multiple natural and technical parameters that ultimately
influence the stability. While investigating the slope stability issues in the geotechnics
firstly is designed the potential surface line (zone) critical for sliding, and after that is
calculated the resistance that acts along its length. In the development of the slides of
the rock masses the stability factor is lower than 1.
The slope stability is also under huge influence of the underground water. The
presence of underground water can significantly lower the stability factor even in the
rock masses with high stability factor. In the masses with no cohesion the presence of
underground water can lower the stability factor at half of its value.
The coal mine Suvodol is in a very complex situation that requires very detailed
analysis and plan for dynamics of the exploitation of the mullock and coal. The amount
of exploited coal should meet the minimum tons needed for the upcoming heating
season, while making conditions for gradual stabilization of the already formed
landslide. Because of the complex mining and geological conditions the finalized plan
for development of the surface mine Suvodol is developed with multiple analysis and
on the basis of previous experiences. The development plan is with the following
arrangements:
Development of the mining front through the southwest border between the
profile lines 68 76 and 57 63, as well as the northeast border between the
profile lines 43 49 and 72 82. In the central area between the profile lines 49
57, decreasing in the exploitation pace because of the pressures of the blocks
that are directed in that area.
Releasing the mullock pressure of the southwest part of the mine between the
profile lines 78 84 and 49 57, with discontinuous excavation while using
mining construction operatively.
Excavation of the mullock with the existing equipment in the central area
between the profile lines 78 74 and 49 57, from the top down with formation
of floors with safety berms just above the coal layer in order to provide enough
coal for the heating season.
Filling of multiple existing cracks for protection from ground water leaning in, as
well as development of drainage channels through the floors for collection of the
water in the central water collector.
Dislocation of the transporter from the I ECD (excavator, conveyor, disposer)
system and connecting with the floor transporter a the O ECD system

27
 4. Planned coal exploitation
The process of coal exploitation for the analyzed period is conducted in very
complicated geomorphological conditions. The process is executed with rotary
excavators: CU 300, SRs630/1 and SRs 630/2. The excavator SRs 630/1 is transferred
for mullock exploitation after the end of the heating season. The coal exploitation is
performed through several floor surfaces. Elevation block above the vertical alignment
of the floor transporter ETU1, little elevation of the transporter ETU2 and depth block
bellow the transporters ETU1 and ETU2. In the central area the exploitation can be
performed with under floor 4 meters syncline where the coal layer is with higher
calorific value. From the southwest border until its ending point, the coal layer is
truncated with the vertical alignment of the transporter ZTU1. The rest of the layer is
exploited in elevation block above the vertical alignment of the ZTU1 and the ETU1
transporter.
The elevated excavated block for CU 300 should have maximal height of 15
meters, whereas for the excavator SRs630 maximal value of 10 meters. The first depth
block should be with depth of 10 meters, whereas the second in the under floor with
value of 4 meters. The basic elements of the excavated blocks are defined through the
technical characteristics of the equipment, physically mechanical and the geological
characteristics of the coal layer.
Because of the complex geomechanical conditions in which the basic equipment
is planned to operate, for the whole process of exploitation is allowed deviation from the
planned activities if it comes to movement of the excavated blocks. The planned
technical activities of the coal system for the analyzed period are given in the following
arrangement:
Radial movement of the ETU1 transporter
Radial and parallel movement of the ETU2 transporter
Continuation of the ZTU1 transporter
In the table 1 is given the amounts of coal exploitation given in months with a
specifically designed dynamics for the analyzed period from November 2009 until
November 2010 [3]. In the table are also given the values of the exploited amounts as
an illustration to the planned values. This numbers and predicted dynamics is of curtail
importance for determining an improving the stability of the slopes without interfering the
amounts of coal needed in order to fulfil the requests of the upcoming heating season.

Table 1. Values for planned and exploited amounts of coal given in months

Coal (t)
Month and year
Planned Accomplished
November 2009 560.000 421.133
December 2009 545.000 649.965

28
 January 2010 565.000 566.674
February 2010 500.000 501.036
March 2010 470.000 437.731
April 2010 350.000 260.518
May 2010 330.000 308.915
June 2010 230.000 301.138
July 2010 230.000 412.694
August 2010 230.000 319.654
September 2010 360.000 299.635
October 2010 450.000 289.048
Total 4.820.000 4.768.141
On the graphic 1 is shown the exploitation of coal with the planned and
accomplished amounts given through months with the basic equipment presented in
tons.

Graphic 1. Exploitation of coal given in months

5. Geotechnical stability of the profile line 51 51

In the table 2 are shown the values for the geotechnical stability of the working
slopes obtained through the methods of Lameli, Bishop, Janbu and Spencer. The
stability is calculated and presented in months for the analyzed period. In the
investigations are taken the current stability parameters of the profile line [4].
Table 2. Calculated values for geotechnical stability of the slopes on profile line 51
51

Assumed sliding surfaces with Minimal value for the stability factor

29
 assumed piezometrics line in the January
November May June August
analyzed period 2010
Lameli 0.918 0.989 1.001 1.001 1.050

Bishop 1.047 1.256 1.210 1.374 1.257

Janbu 1.024 1.056 1.116 1.292 1.216

Spencer 1.102 1.281 1.264 1.364 1.383

Minimal value for the stability factor 0.918 0.989 1.001 1.001 1.050

Middle value for the stability factor 1.023 1.145 1.148 1.258 1.227

Condition for stability (Fs > 1.3) N N N N N

Conditional stability (1.1 < 1.3) N Y Y Y Y

Instability (Fs < 1.1) Y N N N N

On the basis of the data in the previous table through the middle values obtained
from each method is concluded the improvement of the stability i.e. the profile line from
unstable with an assumed piezometrics line goes into conditional stability.

Graph 2. Minimal and middle stability of the investigated profile line

From the data of the table is made graphic from which is concluded that the
stability of the profile line on the basis of the planned dynamics for development of the
surface mine is improved and with a tendency to translate into stable

Conclusion
Because of the complex situation of the surface mine Suvodol and the emerged
cracks with already formed blocks that are in constant movement, in the process of
planning the dynamics are necessary several analysis and continuously monitoring of

30
the terrain. In the process where investigated the basic geological and structural
tectonic characteristics of the wider area, as well as the physically mechanical and
technical technological parameters of the working environment. The basic geometrical
elements of the surface mine as well as the hydrogeological and the data for
underground water are also taken in consideration. On the basis of this data is
developed an preliminary analysis for the geotechnical stability of the working slopes
through different methods for analysis of the stability of the slopes.
In the period that is analyzed in this paper (from November 2009 until October
2010) were analyzed several profile (51- 51', 53-53', 12-12', 14-14', 16 -16' and 76-76')
lines from which in the paper is elaborated only the 51 51 profile line.
The elaborated profile line according to the calculated values with each method,
the stability of the slopes have improvements i.e. from unstable translates in to
conditionally stable.
In the analysis of the profile lines the smallest factor values are taken in
consideration which means that the profile lines are investigated with the worst case
scenario for the investigated stability. From the middle values of the profile lines in the
analyzed period is concluded that factor of instability is only presented in the month of
November 2009 (at the start of the investigations) that in December the same year is
translating in to conditional stability so continuous grow of the coefficient of stability, for
ultimately the surface mine reaching stability in October 2010. In the whole exploitation
period of coal and mullock the excavated blocks were continuously monitored, with
additional analysis especially for the slopes with increased risk and lowered stability,
constantly taking all actions for correction and improved stability. The parts that were
impossible to predict the sliding slopes were disconnected from exploitation until their
stabilization with additional mechanization.

References
[1] Bieniawski Z.T. 1989 Engineering Rock Mass Classifications, John Wiley,
New York.
[2] Bishop A. W. 1955 The use of the slip circle in the stability analysis of the
earth slopes.
[3] Project documentation Coal Mine Suvodol Bitola.
[4] Mining and technical documentation coal mine Brod Gneotino and
Suvodol.

31
CERCETRI PRIVIND CALITATEA PROFILELOR LAMINATE
UTILIZATE PENTRU EXECUIA SUSINERII METALICE A
GALERIILOR DE MIN
VALERIU PLEEA1, MARIN SILVIU NAN2, IOAN CUCU3
1
SC INCERC Proiect SA Petroani, Petroani, Romania, E-mail
2
University of Petrosani, Petroani, Romania, E-mail
3
SC Lan Minier SA Petroani, Petroani, Romania, E-mail

ABSTRACT
Abordarea problemelor de calitate a profilelor laminate utilizate pentru execuia armturilor
metalice culisante de susineri, a fost i ramne o problem de real interes, avnd n vedere c
tipul oelurilor de uzinare i procesele de laminare la care acestea sunt supuse, reprezint
cauzele obinerii, sau nu a condiiilor tehnice optime de calitate, att pe parcursul prelucrrii
ulterioare a elementelor metalice de susineri (debitare i curbare), ct, mai ales, pe durata
montrii i funcionrii susinerilor n subteran. n spiritul promovrii i adoptrii oelurilor
adecvate pentru execuie, n lucrare se prezint condiiile de calitate pe care acestea trebuie s
le ndeplineasc, tipul factorilor i modul lor de influen asupra calitii oelurilor, respectiv
situaia calitii profilelor laminate SG fabricate n ara noastr din punct de vedere a analizelor
chimice, metalografice i a caracteristicilor mecanice.

KEYWORDS
Profile laminate, susineri metalice, oel aliat/nealiat, structur ferito perlitic, gruni
cristalini, atac nital, punctaj grunte, tratament termic, incluziuni nemetalice.

1. INTRODUCERE

Deficienele semnalate asupra susinerilor metalice utilizate la execuia lucrrilor subterane,

reclam mbuntirea parametrilor constructivi i funcionali ai acestor tipuri de construcii. Ca
urmare, ntr-un asemenea context, de-a lungul timpului s-a considerat oportun abordarea
problemelor de calitate a laminatelor pentru execuia elementelor metalice, interesnd, n mod
expres, calitatea oelurilor pentru uzinarea profilelor laminate.
Profilele laminate utilizate pentru execuia susinerii metalice de tip culisant, respectiv
laminatele tip SG fabricate n ar, au fost obinute prin laminare la cald, din oeluri tip carbon-
mangan (C-Mn), sau oeluri slab aliate, care prevd n compoziia chimic adaosuri reduse n
elemente de aliere, respectiv sub 0,19 % vanadiu, niobiu, aluminiu sau titan i care, n ara
noastr, s-au utilizat pn n anul 1980 pentru uzinarea laminatelor tip SG-18 i SG-23, iar pn
n anul 1988 pentru uzinarea laminatului SG-29 (oelul marca OPM). De la acea dat, din
considerente economice, laminarea profilelor s-a fcut din oeluri de marc OPM 1 pentru SG
(18 i 23), respectiv 31Mn4 pentru profilul SG.29, ambele mrci fiind caracterizate fr coninut
32
n elemente de aliere, acestea fiind substituite prin creteri ale coninutului de carbon cu pna la
70%, favoriznd meninerea caracteristicilor mecanice de rezisten la valori limit superioare,
pe seama ns a reducerii proprietilor de deformare i exploatare, sub limitele minime
admisibile de eficien, respectiv a alungirii, gtuirii i rezilienei.
Folosirea pentru uzinare a otelului marca 31Mn 4 s-a realizat i n cazul laminatului SG.23, ca
singurul tip de profil laminat fabricat n ar i utilizat la execuia galeriilor de la minele din valea
Jiului pn la o dat recent, acesta fiind nlocuit ulterior de alte tipuri de laminate achiziionate
din import, avnd caracteristici constructive i de rezisten similare (THN21, K21, K24).
Acest tip de oel, respectiv cel de marc 31Mn 4, st i la baza uzinrii profilelor din seria TH(N)
ntlnite n strinatate, dar, care spre deosebire de ara noastr, se livreaz conform
prescripiilor prevzute de norma german DIN 21544-85, care prevede execuia la furnizorii de
laminate a tratamentelor termice de mbuntire, cu scopul recristalizrii i reomogenizrii
structurii cristaline, ntocmai pentru obinerea proprietilor superioare de deformare i
tenacitate a oelului.

2. CONDIII DE CALITATE A OELULRILOR UTILIZATE PENTRU EXECUIA

LAMINATELOR

Cerinele de ordin general la care trebuie s rspund oelurile utilizate pentru execuia
profilelor laminate sunt [1], [2], [3], [5] :
s asigure valori ridicate ale rezistenei mecanice, pentru ca ruperea materialului s se
produc la sarcini ct mai mari;
s asigure valori superioare ale limitei de curgere, pentru a se imprima profilelor o
capacitate portant ct mai mare n domeniul elastic;
s asigure valori ridicate ale tenacitii, alungirii i gtuirii, deci o bun capacitate de
deformare, astfel nct profilele laminate s poat suporta deformri mari dup depirea limitei
de elasticitate, fr a se produce ruperea fragil n timpul curbrii prin deformare plastic la
rece, sau pe durata exploatrii susinerii n subteran;
s permit reutilizarea elementelor de susinere prin ndreptare la rece, fr aplicarea ns a
eventualelor tratamente de mbuntire anterior operaiei de curbare.
n principiu, calitatea oelurilor e influenat de o serie de factori, dintre care:
o compoziia chimic, adic natura i coninutul elementelor chimice;
o mrimea i modul de distribuie a granulaiei la formarea structurii cristaline a oelului;
o cantitatea i modul distribuiei incluziunilor nemetalice n structura oelului;
o natura i frecvena aplicrii tratamentelor termice asupra profilelor dup operaiile de
uzinare i, ca produse finite, dup curbare.
Din punct de vedere a compoziiei chimice, comparativ cu oelurile utilizate n strintate pentru
uzinarea profilelor, situaia indic pentru oelurile utilizate n ar, inclusiv din punct de vedere a
mrimii caracteristicilor mecanice ale profilelor, valori sensibil apropiate, ceea ce confer
acestora situarea lor la nivelul celor mai bune oeluri de pe plan mondial [3], [4].
Corespunztor prescripiilor tehnice de uzinare prevzute n cadrul normativelor recente
existente n ar pentru laminarea profilelor (OPM 1/31Mn 4/STAS 9531-91 pentru SG-18, 23 i
29, respectv 31Mn 4/SF 3-93 pentru uzinarea SG-18 i SG-23) se constat, c n lipsa
elementelor de aliere, pentru ameliorarea compoziiei chimice i mbuntirea calitii oelurilor,
noile normative prevd aplicarea la furnizor a procedeelor termice de mbuntire, anume de
normalizare, lucru neconform ns cu situaia practic real ntlnit la acea dat n ara
noastr. n acest caz, pentru oelul nealiat de marc OPM 1 i, respectiv 31Mn 4, netratat
termic, reducerea proprietilor de deformare, respectiv a tenacitii, se datoreaz prezenei
ntr-o pondere ridicat a concentraiei de cementit Fe3C n structura ferito-perlitic a oelului,
33
cu tendin de cretere odat cu mrirea coninutului de C, conferind acestuia o duritate i
fragilitate ridicat, cu consecine negative privind amorsele de prelucrare care apar ulterior pe
durata curbrii prin deformare plastic la rece a profilelor (fisuri, crpturi i spargeri de
material), inclusiv a deficienelor de montare a susinerilor n subteran (obinerea deschiderilor
la mbinarea grinzii cu stlpii de susinere, ca urmare a utilizrii elementelor cu raze i lungimi
diferite)
Pe de alt parte, caracteristicile de rezisten, dar mai ales capacitatea de deformare i
tenacitatea oelului sunt hotrtor influenate de mrimea granulaiei, respectiv de gradul de
finisare a structurii sale cristaline. La rndu-i, mrimea granulaiei este influenat, printre
altele, de: compoziia chimic, gradul de dezoxidare, calitatea procesului de uzinare
(temperatura, durata de nclzire i viteza de rcire a blumurilor).
Privind participarea elementelor chimice asupra gradului de finisare a structurii, se apreciaz c
aluminiul, carbonul i vanadiul imprim o tendin de finisare a structurii oelului, pe cnd
siliciul, manganul i fosforul contribuie la obinerea unor structuri grosolane, care conduc la
creterea fragilitii, pe seama reducerii tenacitii i a capacitii de deformare.
Astfel, datorit lipsei vanadiului i prezenei aluminiului ntr-o proporie redus n compoziia
chimic, oelurile nealiate, comparativ cu cele aliate, dispun de structuri cu gruni mari
(grosolani) a cror repartizare nu este uniform, ci n iruri.
n ceea ce privete influena gradului de dezoxidare asupra calitii oelurilor, rezultatele
obinute n urma analizelor efectuate pun n eviden c oelurile aliate prezint un grad de
dezoxidare ridicat, funcie de care, prin formarea la limita grunilor cristalini a incluziunilor
nemetalice de tip oxidic (Al2O3, V2O2, TiO2), rezult o granulaie fin a structurii, care
mpiedic creterea i dispunerea n iruri a grunilor. Spre deosebire de situaia menionat, n
cazul oelurilor nealiate nu are loc formarea incluziunilor oxidice, lipsa elementelor de aliere
genernd reducerea gradului de dezoxidare i creterea grunilor cristalini.
Din punct de vedere al influenei temperaturii de laminare i a vitezei de rcire, observaiile i
analizele de calitate efectuate, au artat c nerespectarea condiiilor adecvate de laminare, cu
precdere n cazul oelurilor nealiate, cu coninuturi mai mari de 0,25 % C, determin apariia
aa numitelor structuri de clire, n special pe timp friguros, cnd se produce rcirea brusc a
blumurilor, rezultnd autoclirea oelului i creterea duritii i fragilitii la rupere, pe seama
reducerii pronunate a plasticitii i rezilienei.
Aprecierea calitii oelurilor din punct de vedere al granulaiei se face n funcie de numrul i
mrimea grunilor cristalini prezeni n structura ferito-perlitic a materialului. n acest context,
corespunztor clasificrilor existente pentru ncadrarea marimii grunilor cristalini din structura
oelului, rezultatele obinute n urma analizelor metalografice de laborator i a comportrii
laminatelor n exploatare, au confirmat posibilitatea obinerii unei plasticiti i tenaciti
corespunztoare, n condiiile unui numr al grunilor cristalini de 9 pn la 15, caracterizai ca
avnd mrimea mijlocie, spre fin (tabelul 1)
Tabel 1: Clasificarea mrimii grunilor cristalini din structura ferito-perlitic a oelului pentru
uzinarea profilelor laminate de susineri
Nr. Numrul grunilor intersectai Mrimea grunilor
crt.
1. peste 15 gruni foarte fini
2. 12 15 gruni fini
3. 9 11 gruni mijlocii
4. pn la 8 gruni grosolani

Din punct de vedere a influenei incluziunilor nemetalice asupra calitii oelului (oxizi, sulfuri,
silicai, nitrai i fosfai), aceasta este determinat de cantitatea, forma geometric i dispersia
34
incluziunilor n structura cristalin, reprezentnd puncte de amors a tensiunilor interne, cu
efecte negative n cazul cantitilor mari i distribuiilor neuniforme, producnd apariia
microfisurilor n structura materialului. Dispersia incluziunilor nemetalice poate fi uniform sau
neuniform, individual sau grupat, n interiorul sau la extremitile structurii ferito-perlitice a
oelului de execuie, cu precizarea c deformarea plastic la cald a materialului, pe durata
procesului de laminare a profilelor, favorizeaz repartizarea acestora n iruri, de-a lungul
planelor de alunecare (figura 1, a i b).

Figura 1: Structuri ferito-perlitice neomogene (nerecristalizate) cu gruni crescui de perlit,

punctaj grunte 57 (atac nital, X100): a-prob de laminat SG-23; b-prob din laminat SG-29
Dispunerea n iruri a structurii oelurilor, ca urmare a distribuiei neuniforme i a concentrrii
cantitilor mari de incluziuni nemetalice, favorizeaz creterea duritii i fragilitii la rupere a
materialului, pe seama reducerii plasticitii, respectiv capacitii de deformare ulterioar la rece
a laminatelor, inclusiv a tenacitii.
Influena tratamentelor termice asupra calitii oelurilor rezult din efectul acestora de
ameliorare ce-l imprim structurii interne a materialului, n sensul recristalizrii i reomogenizrii
structurii obinute din laminarea profilelor.
n scopul asigurrii capacitilor de deformare ulterioar la rece a profilelor (necesare curbrii
elementelor de susineri), respectiv a alungirii i gtuirii, precum i a tenacitii n exploatare a
susinerilor, pe plan mondial, se aplic, dup uzinarea profilelor, tratamentul termic de
normalizare, care reprezint recoacerea cu transformri de faz, adic nclzirea materialului
la temperaturi de pn la 900C, urmat de rcirea la temperatura atmosferei. n acest mod, n
cazul oelurilor nealiate se reuete nlturarea dispunerii n iruri i reomogenizarea structurii
ferito-perlitice a oelului.
De asemenea, n scopul obinerii proprietilor adecvate de exploatare a laminatelor, respectiv a
rezistenei i tenacitii, dup fasonare (debitare i curbare) se aplic tratamentul termic de
clire a materialului, adic nclzirea i rcirea n ap sau ulei, urmat de o revenire nalt.
n acest mod, perlita, ceare reprezint constituentul de baz al oelurilor n stare recoapt
(stare normalizat), se transform n sorbit sau sorbit perlitic, conferind oelului tratat o
coresponden optim ntre proprietile de plasticitate, tenacitate i cele mecanice de
rezisten.
n cazul oelurilor aliate, cu coninuturi sub 0,25 % C, diminuarea strii de tensiune remanent
care se formeaz dup curbarea la rece a elementelor de susinere, cu recristalizarea i
reomogenizarea structurii materialului, se realizeaz prin aplicarea tratamentului termic de
detensionare.

3. SITUAIA CALITII OELURILOR FOLOSITE N ARA NOASTR PENTRU

UZINAREA PROFILELOR LAMINATE

Dei, prin normativele existente n vigoare, compoziiile chimice i caracteristicile mecanice ale
oelurilor utilizate n ara noastr indic mrimi apropiate fa de cele prevzute pe plan
mondial, totui, prin lipsa elementelor de aliere i neaplicarea tratamentelor termice de
mbuntire a calitii, profilele laminate nregistreaz imperfeciuni tot mai accentuate,
genernd producerea ulterioar a amorselor la nivelul operaiei de curbare a elementelor i la
35
exploatarea susinerilor n subteran. Edificatoare n acest sens sunt rezultatele analizelor
efectuate de-a lungul timpului pe probe de laminate uzinate din mrci de oel diferite, prelevate
direct din uzinare, sau dup curbarea i exploatarea n subteran a profilelor [1], [3], [4].
Astfel, analizele chimice comparative de pan, efectuate pe probe din oeluri nealiate cu
vanadiu (mrcile OPM 1 i 31 Mn 4), au pus n eviden urmtoarele aspecte:
coninuturile de carbon au fost n general mai mari fa de cele prevzute prin normative,
plasndu-se n intervalul 0,32 0,39 %, fa de 0,24 0,30 %, ct este prevzut n cazul
mrcii de oel OPM 1 i, respectiv 0,36 0,48 % n cazul mrcii 31 Mn 4, fa de cel admisibil
de 0,28 0,36 %;
ca i carbonul, coninutul de mangan s-a ncadrat de regul n intervalele de 0,84 1,1 %
pentru marca OPM 1 i 0,81 1,31 % n cazul mrcii 31 Mn 4, n ambele situaii plasndu-se
peste coninutul prevzut de normative, anume de pn la 0,8 % Mn n cazul mrcii OPM 1 i
pn 1,1 % Mn pentru marca 31 Mn 4;
coninuturile de siliciu s-au ncadrat n intervale, de asemenea, mai mari dect cele
prevzute, de regul nregistrnd pn la 0,35 %, fa de maximum 0,25 % ct este prevzut.
Ca i carbonul i manganul, siliciul a nregistrat depirea coninuturilor maxime admise, ceea
ce a conferit primele indicii de cretere a grunilor cristalini din structura ferito-perlitic a
materialului, cu obinerea de structuri neomogene;
coninuturile de aluminiu, ca element de aliere cu cea mai mare importan dup vanadiu,
au fost prezente ntr-o proporie redus fa de cel prevzut de normative, anume 0,006
0,015 % Al, comparativ cu minimul de 0,02 % Al (figura 2).

Figura 2: Modul de repartiie a coninutului de aluminiu din structura oelului de execuie,

marca OPM 1
Pe lng favorizarea diminurii rezilienei oelului, analizele macrofractografice efectuate au
evideniat c prezena aluminiului n proporie redus a influenat aglomerarea incluziunilor
nemetalice n structura oelului, care au amplificat n lipsa tratamentului termic de
reomogenizare a structurii, producerea ruperii materialului, cu trecerea acestuia de la faza de
rupere la oboseal, la faza de rupere fragil (figura 3, a i b)

a b
Figura 3: Procesul ruperii materialului n cazul probei de profil laminat SG-23 prelevat din subteran (X
600): a-aspectul ruperii la oboseal n zona de nceput a amorsrii fisurrii; b-aspectul ruperii fragile
nregistrat n momentul atingerii seciunii
La efectuarea analizelor metalografice, micrografiile obinute au indicat, n cazul oelurilor
nealiate (necalmate i netratate termic), prezena structurilor ferito-perlitice neomogene i
neuniforme, cu coninuturi n elemente nemetalice peste limita maxim admis, avnd grunii
cristalini de tip grosolan, dispui n iruri paralele cu planele de stratificaie (figura 4, a i b).

36
 a b
Figura 4: Probe prelevate din laminate SG-18 (a) i SG-23 (b) uzinate din oel nealiat marca OPM.
Structuri ferito-perlitice neomogene cu gruni grosolani de perlit, punctaj mrime grunte 4 i 6
(atac nital X 100)
n mod contrar, dar pozitiv, rezultatele obinute pe probe din oeluri aliate i oeluri nealiate,
dar tratate termic (normalizate), au pus n eviden structuri ferito-perlitice mult mai omogene,
cu repartizarea uniform i mai numeroas a grunilor cristalini (figura 5, a i b), ocazie, cnd,
pentru obinerea rezilienei maxime n stare mbtrnit a materialului (kCU), s-a stabilit
temperatura optim pentru reomogenizarea i recristalizarea structurii oelului ca fiind de 850
10C (tabelul 2).
Tabel 2: Rezultatul aplicrii tratamentului termic de normalizare pentru mbuntirea calitii
oelurilor nealiate
Temperatura de
830 840 850 860 870 880
normalizare, C
Reziliena n stare
61,7 76,4 74 74 64,7 64
mbuntit, J/cm2

a b
Figura 5: Structuri ferito-perlitice omogene, punctaj mrime grunte 8 9 (atac nital, X 100): a-prob
normalizat la 850C; b-prob normalizat la 860C
La verificarea caracteristicilor mecanice, ncercrile efectuate pe probe de material din oeluri
nealiate i netratate termic, au pus n eviden nencadrarea rezistenelor la rupere (Rm) i
curgere (Rp 0,2) n limitele admisibile, acestea situndu-se, de regul, n intervale mult mai
mari, respectiv de pn la 850 N/mm2 (cazul Rm) i 590 N/mm2 (cazul Rp 0,2). Obinerea
rezistenelor mecanice la valori ridicate, cu mult peste mrimile prevzute, chiar i fa de
oelurile mbuntite a fost consecina existenei n compoziia oelului a surplusurilor de
carbon i mangan, care au generat autoclirea profilelor n procesul de laminare, n spe pe
timp friguros, cnd temperaturile de nclzire i rcire a blumurilor s-au aplicat cu reticene [1],
[3], [5].
Prin avantajul de reomogenizare i finisare a structurii de care beneficiaz oelurile aliate (marca
OPM) i cele nealiate, dar tratate termic (mrcile OPM 1 i 31Mn 4), rezultatul ncercrilor
mecanice efectuate asupra acestora au indicat mrimi ale rezistenelor mecanice mult mai
accesibile, respectiv Rm = 635 640 N/mm2 i Rp (0,2) = 415 422 N/mm2.
Ca o consecin a coninuturilor mai mari de C i Mn prezente n structura cristalin a oelurilor
nealiate i nenormalizate, valorile alungirii la rupere (A5) s-au situat n limite extrem de largi,
plasndu-se, de regul, sub limita minim admis de normative (sub 19 %), exceptnd o parte
a epruvetelor din oel OPM 1 cu coninuturi relativ reduse de carbon, la care alungirile s-au
37
ncadrat n intervalul 10,5 21,6 % n cazul laminatului SG-29, pe seama ns a reducerii
considerabile a rezistenei la rupere. Ca i alungirea, valorile rezilienei obinute din ncercri, pe
probe supuse la mbtrnire artificial, au indicat valori sub limita minim impus de normative,
respectiv min. 70 J/cm2, att pentru marca de oel OPM 1, ct i pentru marca 31 Mn 4.
Comparativ cu situaia descris, n cazul oelurilor aliate i a celor nealiate, dar tratate termic,
rezilienele au nregistrat valori superioare, ncadrndu-se la prescripiile prevzute de
normative, att pentru starea nembtrnit ct i pentru cea mbtrnit artificial.

CONCLUZII

Actual, pentru execuia susinerii metalice de tip culisant aplicat la execuia galeriilor de min,
continu s se utilizeze, ntr-o pondere tot mai redus ns, laminatul SG. 23 de producie
indigen, precum i profile laminate cu caracteristici constructive i de rezisten similare
achiziionate din import, a cror uzinare nu presupune n totalitatea cazurilor folosirea
elementelelor de aliere n compoziia chimic a oelurilor de execuie, dar care, pentru
asigurarea calitii de prelucrare i exploatare n subteran a susinerilor prevd, conform
normativelor existente n vigoare, aplicarea la furnizor a tratamentelor termice de mbuntire,
respectiv a tratamentului de normalizare.
n condiiile lipsei la furnizor a tratamentului termic de normalizare, rezultatul analizelor
efectuate asupra calitii i performanelor n exploatare a susinerilor, pune n eviden
compromiterea cerinelor de ordin general la care oelurile de uzinare ar trebui s se ncadreze,
rezultnd modificarea structurii interne de material, cu apariia amorselor la operaiile ulterioare
de debitare i curbare la rece a profilelor, ca i repercursiuni nefavorabile la montarea i
exploatarea susinerilor n subteran.
Fa de inconvenientele nregistrate la nivelul profilelor laminate pentru susinere, se impune
aplicarea la furnizor a tratamentului termic de normalizare, n condiiile desfurrii
fluxului/tehnologiei de laminare conform cerinelor tehnologice optime de realizare a acestui
proces. Ca alternativ la neaplicarea acestei msuri, se propune achiziionarea din import a
profilelor laminate similare cu cele din ara noastr, respectiv laminatul SG 23 privind forma,
dimensiunile i marimile caracteristicilor statice i de rezisten, care sa fie executate din oeluri
aliate sau manganoase, conform normei DIN 21544/85, dar care s fie livrate n stare
mbuntit, corespunztor condiiilor interne de debitare i curbare la rece a elementelor de
susinere prevzute de respectiva norm.

4. REFERENCES

Pleea, V., Cucu, I. .a - Construcie metalic competitiv de susinere a excavaiilor

[1] subterane. Contract nr. 53 CI la Programul Naional de Inovare - PN II IN CI 2012 1
0091. Petroani, 2012
Pleea, V. Constructive and functioning improvement solution of the sliding steel timbering
[2] for underground excavation stability. Annals of the University of Petroani, Mining
Engineering, 10 (2009), ISSN 1454 9174, pg.101 -106
Pleea, V. Proiectarea i construcia susinerii lucrrilor miniere subterane din sectorul
[3]
carbonifer. Editura UNIVERSITAS, Petroani 2004, ISBN 973 - 8260 68 X, 251 pag.
[4] xxx Cataloage de produse SC, Siderurgica Hunedoara, 1995 1996

38
THE FUTURE OF THE CONVENTIONAL MINING SYSTEMS
AND TECHNOLOGIES
George STOYANCHEV1, Krastu DERMENDJIEV2
1
Mining and Geology UniversitySt. Ivan Rilski, Sofia, Bulgaria, E-mail [email protected]
2
Mining and Geology UniversitySt. Ivan Rilski, Sofia, Bulgaria, E-mail [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Mining science and practice is actively working to create and implement new advanced, including
futuristic mining systems and technologies. In the foreseeable future, however, mining in
underground mining, will still rely on the familiar - conventional systems and extraction technologies.
In this regard, the report addresses several problematic tasks with the decision of which conventional
mining systems and technologies can gain more efficiency, adaptability and applicability.

KEYWORDS

ining systems, future, technology

The future of the mining industry has been the subject of many studies, analyzes and forecasts [1, 2,
3]. All studies show that it has a future and it is associated with progressive development of
technique and technology.

Research and forecasts for the mining industry are considered multilaterally, through modern mining
practices in underground mining and mining construction [1] through the present and future of
mining technology [2] and forecasts for the future. [3]

An interesting attempt to predict the future of the mining industry makes Jeff Loher and
G.Hemingwai [4-9]. Under the collective title in six consecutive different articles titled authors offer
their vision for the future of mining technology and mining. Their predictions are based not on
predictions but on occurring changes and achievements in all spheres of life, including mining.

Based on comprehensive analysis of the latest achievements in the social sphere, engineering and
technology, computer and communication equipment, they consistently provide future mining sites
such as rock factory [5]; as living mine [6]; symbiotic structure [7]; fluid firm [8]. In the last part [9],

39
the authors reflect on the power of prediction to help companies discover, place and develop new
ways to increase efficiency and return of investment.

In its conclusions, the authors believe that future mines would be smaller and safer. In addition, they
will be better equipped and will operate with reduced costs. For the development and improvement
of future mines and mining technological schemes will help issued in [10] top 10 technologies: Rapid
development; Hard-rock cutting for production; Directional drilling; Tunnel boring machines; Laser
cutting; UAVs and drones; 3-D printing; Mineral indicators; Acid digestion for assaying; Microwave &
thermal fragmentation and others.

New understanding of future mines and mining technologies in the efficient use of technology
described above will cause inevitable change of conditionals indicators to reassess the many fields of
mineral resources and their conversion into deposits with reserves.

In recent years, however, it could hardly be expected that all of the above, innovations and
achievements will be applied uniformly in the mines. Expectations are that new developments will be
imposed and implemented in stages.

At this stage of development there are enough mines with conventional technological schemes,
systems and mining technologies working in medium and very complex mining and technical
conditions. Many of these technological schemes need improvement. This need is caused by the fact
that there are still significant differences in technical-economic and technological level in different
countries and regions where mining takes place. For example, within the country such differences
exist between mine "Chelopech" and mines "Goroubso" and "Lucky." Differences in technical and
technological level exist between mines Lakinska area and those in Goroubso. These differences are
related to the type of mineralization, types of minerals, differences in values and mining technical
and geological conditions. We therefore believe that in future technological schemes in such mines
will undergo improvements in terms of transient mining technology solutions.

Transience of these solutions will be expressed in expanding the use of various innovations and
greatly improved extraction technology schemes.

There are still mines in which the uses of recent advances in mining techniques and technologies
have not found their place. They at present days are close to the effective operations but are in need
of new and more productive machinery. Unfortunately, many of the leading mining and engineering
companies in the race to keep pace with future focus their efforts on creating new technical means
which are fundamental to mining technologies of the future. For this reason, they abandon most of
its projects to create the necessary machinery for conventional systems and technologies in
conducting mining operations in specific conditions: low power reserves; undersized sections; weak
rocks and minerals; complex geometry of the deposits and others.

In these situations for further work and to ensure its effectiveness is necessary to reassess the
possibilities of mining, design of new solutions based on logistic approach of designing and making an
application for creation of advanced new - hybrid between conventional and fundamentally new
technical means and technology, machinery and equipment.

What are the problems in existing small and medium-sized mines?

40
Although the conduct of research and development in exchange for drilling and blasting in mining
practice [10], we believe that this technology has not yet exhausted the possibilities. For small mining
enterprises it can be developed mainly in terms of the use of suitable drilling equipment.

The armory traditional technologies based on drilling and blasting (drill-and-blast technology) mines
require technical resources to effectively drill blast holes. In the process of development of this
industry are created many technical solutions production drills, which are done drilling, and drilling
for mining purposes, partial study and drill rigs for rock support. Those solutions, however, can
hardly be used in confined working conditions, which is why they are used primarily in "mass
production", "shaft extraction", but not to produce in confined conditions and selective mining. For
the latter are still used hand drills pneumatic and rarely hydraulic and power. The achievements of
automation, new materials, services and facilities in the composition of the system machine - they
are not yet applied in practice. Transportation, placement, maintenance of the machines and their
service in the drilling process still requires manual labor, the use of which results in the reduction of
productivity and rise in production costs.

The analysis of the study of the processes related to drill-and-blast technology and rock support
operations with anchors shows that production and drilling machines used to serve hard and work
with them is ineffective. Drilling time is immense, manual service is heavy and laborious, and time,
for example pile anchors, friction type, is significant. In a number of conditions ramming it is
prolonged, and in some cases impossible. Drilling different holes oriented in the array using a
different type drills.

As stated above, these problems are solved by manipulators mounted and integrated with rail and
wheel transport machines move as drill rigs, specialized blasting (production drill rigs, mining and
tunneling jumbos) and anchoring (drill rigs for rock support, roof bolters).

The analysis of the parameters and practices in the use of these machines has shown that to ensure
the normal operation of these are necessary working spaces with relatively large dimensions in
height, width, and particularly in length. This compared to the relatively narrow workspaces of
drawing different types of mines and mining operations, hand drills are preferred.

In mining practices for working in confined workspaces and systems development, such as "shrinkage
stoping, cut-and-fill, sublevel stoping and variants" are used drill rigs. They have great potential, but
still have relatively large dimensions and high value. In their design is used a modular approach,
where the dimensions are scaled to large machines without changing their overall design and
configuration. We believe that it is not yet sought and used the opportunity to change the
configuration of the machines and their entry into the work environment, as was done in the era of
implementation of the mining mechanization. At the present stage of development and
opportunities of mining and machine building companies, creating a flexible, compact and with
sufficient energy, "smart" drilling machines should not be a problem.

To use the advantages of manipulators, carriages and hand drills for working in tight spaces can be
created a hybrid machine, based on the combination between mobile cargo transport machine type
"Bobcatt" or small excavators and measured column drilling machines with integrated management
and relief manual operation. In such combinations it is possible for the drilling module to be

41
relatively independent in operation, maintenance and stabilization of the supporting elements.
Transportation and supply of drilling module can be carried out by the transport machine.

Similar machines for breaking and also for rotary drilling and load and haul are widely used in various
practices, including mining.

An interesting fact is that while in most areas of the industry, households and communications are
constantly monitored developments on the road to miniaturization of technology and various
commodities, the mining industry observes a constant maximization of technical devices and their
capabilities. However, not always the "bigger" is better solution. We therefore believe that in this
respect should be working to createsmart technologies using flexible and adaptable technical
means with which to achieve higher results. This will enable the efficient development of that part of
their natural resources, which at this stage have been announced as unconventional or their
development is ineffective.

For the development of minerals in complex natural conditions, are most commonly used semi
technologies. Their foundation is laid on the basis of drilling and blasting, and the system-geometric
solutions in the mining area are based on the possibilities of supply and transport of ore within the
area.

Under favorable conditions in small mines, is always used the possibility of gravity delivery of the
mining area to a regional or freight loader point. When there is such a possibility, another solution is
usually not seek, though there may be another way of shipping and transport with appropriate and
productive means.

Where it is not possible to provide such a scheme, there are other solutions in accordance with
which the mining and processing conditions can be supplied, delivered and transported to the loader
mined point in the workspace.! In complicated situations the preferred delivery scraper in
combination with load and haul machines without haulage of the stopes.

Use of haulage equipment in the mining space allows for effective transfer and deployment of mining
materials from ore or rock fill. Moreover, these machines increases labor productivity and reduce the
time to implement supply-transport operations and volumes. It can be assumed that supply-
transport operations in underground mining are determined directly by the natural conditions and
indirectly by mining and geometrical parameters of the system. In accordance with them it is
assessed how to organize these operations and adopt appropriate means of mechanization. It is
believed that the mining and machine-building companies have created acceptable deliver Gear for
working in confined conditions to satisfy the requirements of the majority of mines, including the
small.

Another important element of extractive technologies is the management of rock pressure. It is

connected with the state of the mining massif in mining and seized spaces. The state of stopes can
be: caving; secured; filled; empty - supported with pillars. In the big coal mines are most often used
by management jacket full caving. It can be seen that in modern coal mines, problems related to the
management of rock pressure are determined based on mechanized complexes and anchor
fasteners.

42
In mines with complicated natural conditions and conventional technologies, the problem of
managing rock pressure is a serious and with a lack of proper technique their closure is almost
predetermined. Information on this process can be derived from the practices in our country, the
Balkan region and the world.

For small ore mines, in most cases, healthy - persistent arrays preferred rock pressure control is
carried out with natural and artificial pillars and support columns. To ensure sustainable system
status cameras - pillars used fasteners. Most preferred fasteners anchoring is a combination of
anchors - plates and wire mesh.

In mining practice are used large quantities of anchors. They vary in type, size, principle of operation
and conditions of application. In mining areas the most frequently used are the so-called Friction
anchors. They are characterized by simplicity of operation and technology insertion. When fastening
with large amounts anchors what is typical of modern mining technologies with mass production, the
anchor is combined with tools for drilling anchor holes and placing anchors (rock support drill rigs).

In narrow terms, small-scale mine workings and stopes, most drilling and placement - ramming
anchors it with hand drills (hand support drills). In these tight spaces regardless of the use of hand
drills problems arise when drilling of longer holes for anchors and ramming themselves anchors.
Therefore, in fixing schemes such spaces Avoid betting anchors with a length greater than the largest
size of the workspace in the direction of the anchor. To overcome this problem, the use of flexible
anchors, which unlike friction have other characteristics, principles of operation and technology
insertion.

In the development of reserves in metadepozit in section "Marzyan" mine "Erma River" appears the
problem by placing anchors with increased length in limited workspaces - rifled workings and
cameras. To overcome this problem has been developed special friction anchor with two diameters
for roof support in workings and cameras. Applying this type anchor enable in workings height 2,4 -
2,5 m to be realized anchor grid of 1x1 and 1,25h1,25 m, in length of anchors 1.2 and 2,4 m. Drilling
holes and hammering anchors were simple and implemented on the basis of hand drills - mainly
telescopic hammer.

Limited capacity of the mines to the funds for the acquisition of modern machinery and equipment
almost always requires decision making systems for mining and extraction technologies other than
optimal. This fact is too often seen in the small mining companies operating on the edge of
efficiency. They have discussed above problems and solve them to always comply with the technical
possibilities. The rarely positive examples in this regard, are mostly linked with gold mining mines.

One of the cases making suboptimal decisions was connected with the choice of preferred systems
and extraction technology to develop of metadepozit. The preferred option required the acquisition
and use of suitable equipment such as drilling machines, drilling equipment, cargo handling
equipment for anchoring. Due to limited resources and opportunities, this option was not adopted
for implementation.

Mining engineering companies for the sake of their development and survival must respond
adequately to the needs of the mines. Altogether they should use modern achievements in the field

43
of engineering and information technology, to produce all the technical means necessary for the
logistics of modern mining systems and technologies.

Conventional systems and extraction technologies have many reserves for rational and efficient
development, complemented by logistic developed "smart" design solutions and using modern
technical means, they will gradually transform itself as an integral part of mining theory and practice
of the present and future

REFERENCES

, .
[1] . Proceedings of II National Scientific and Technical Conference wit
international participation, 7-10 November 2010, Devin, Bulgaria

, ., .,
[2] . Proceedings of III National Scientific and Technical Conference wit
international participation, 8-11 October, 2012, Devin, Bulgaria

Dermendjiev Kr., G. Stoyanchev. The mining industry future. V Backanmine congress,

[3] Ohrid, Macedonia, 18 21 September, 2013.

[4] Hemingwai G., J. Loehr. The future of mining. Mining Magazine, October, 2014.

[5] Loehr J., G. Hemingwai. The Rock Factory. Mining Magazine, November, 2014.

[6] Hemingwai G., J. Loehr. The living mine. Mining Magazine, December, 2014.

Loehr J., G. Hemingwai. The Symbiotic structure. Mining Magazine, January/February,

[7] 2015.

[8] Hemingwai G., J. Loehr. The Fluid Firm. Mining Magazine, March, 2015.

[9] Loehr J., G. Hemingwai. The power of foresight. Mining Magazine, April, 2015.

[10] Goodbody, A., The ones to watch. Mining Magazine, May, 2015

44
 ASPECTS OF EXTRACTION OF BORDER LOCATED
RESERVES IN THE BULGARIAN OPEN PIT MINE ASAREL
MEDET
Dimitar ANASTASOV1, Kiril KUTSAROV2, Delcho NIKOLOV3
1
University of Mining and Geology St. Ivan Rilski, Sofia, Bulgaria, [email protected]
2
University of Mining and Geology St. Ivan Rilski, Sofia, Bulgaria, [email protected]
3
Assarel Medet JSC, Panagyurishte, Bulgaria, [email protected]

ABSTRACT
In the article are examined variants for combined extraction of mineral resources located along
the border of open pit mine.
In the first variant is examined the possibility for a shaft and a crosscut which will be used for
underground mining. In the second variant is examined the use of incline shaft with mobile
mechanization. The third variant includes using of incline shafts and conveyor transport for
extracted ore.
It is presented an expert assessment of the variants for different amounts of extracted ore.

KEYWORDS
Combined extraction, Incline shaft, Conveyor transport

1. INTRODUCTION

There is a tendency for transition from open-pit to underground mining worldwide. More than
100 pits are being developed in open-pit and underground way simultaneously and six of them
have annual production output of 10 mln.t (Palabora, Kiruna, etc.) [1].
The combination of these two ways of mining requires smooth transition taking into
consideration the presence of border located reserves and the value of the ore in them. [2], [3]

2. METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY

The methodology offers expert models for opening up and preparation of the main and border
located reserves which require the following characteristics for the pits construction for
opencast and underground mining:
1. Driving of vertical shafts;
2. Driving of spiral shafts;
3. Driving of inclined shaft with belt conveyor;
4. Forming a barrier pillar;
5. Selection of mechanization for mining and transportation;
45
 6. Systems for development of main and border located reserves;
7. Categorization of the reserves according to their value.

3. VARIANTS FOR COMBINED MINING. APPLICATION.

3.1. First variant

The main reserves are with average value and the border located ones are with high value
(more than 3 g/t Au).
The opening up of the border located reserves is with vertical skip shaft1, equipped with a skip
30 t, auxiliary ventilation shaft with cage winding 9. Crosscut tunnels 2 and 10 are driven from
the two shafts to the ore body and levels 3 are driven from them. Ore chutes 4 are driven
between the crosscut tunnels and crusher transfer stations 5 are built under them.
The opening up of the main 9 (under-quarry) reserves is done by driving a spiral shaft 11 with
cross-section 25-30 m2 for the operation of underground dumpers with a load of 80 t. (Sandvik
TH 680)
The other opening is a vertical shaft 13 with two-floor cage for wagons 2,7 m3, as well as
crosscut tunnels 2.
The two types of reserves are developed by horizon mining and is secured by driving of levels
and rises.

Figure 1: Variant I Vertical shaft, spiral shaft and crosscut tunnels.

The production output of the winding and the transportation of the ore is as follows:
Skip winding (shaft 1) 650 000 t/year;
Cage winding (shaft 13) 500 000 t/year;
Spiral shaft 11 1 448 000 t/year.
46
If this way of opening up and development is applied, the mine-pit output is 2 598 000 t/year.
The opencast mining is 7 500 000 t/year and the overall is 10 098 000 t/year.
The systems of development offered for the different types of reserves are as follows:
For the border located reserves with high value sublevel caving back stoping with area
frontal drawing; chamber and pillar with filling;
For under-quarry reserves block caving.
The height of the horizons is from 50 to 80 m. The diameters of the blast hole are respectively
from 64 to 89 mm for the first two systems and from 105 to 110 mm for the block caving.

3.2. Second variant

In this variant the reserves are with average value (border located and under-quarry reserves).
The opening up is made by driving a spiral shaft 1 for the operation of 80-tonnes underground
dumpers.
On the other side of the deposit, a vertical skip shaft 13 is driven equipped with a skip 60 t.
Crosscut tunnels 3 and levels 4 are driven from the vertical and spiral shafts. Ore chutes are
driven between the crosscuts and they are equipped with shaker chutes for loading the ore
onto the dumpers.
Block caving for the main and border located reserves is proposed for this variant.
The diameter of the blast holes is from 105 to 130mm.

Figure 2: Variant II Spiral shaft for self-propelled mining equipment and vertical shaft

The annual mine-pit output of the winding with 60 t skip is 1 303 000 t/year, for the dumpers
transport it is 4 633 000 t/year and overall for the underground pit it is 5 936 000 t/year.

47
The opencast mining is 5 000 000 t/year or the total for the two ways of mining is 10 936 000
t/year.

3.3. Third variant

In this variant the under-quarry reserves are with average value and the border located ones
are with high value.
The opening up of the border located reserves is with inclined shaft with 8 arms equipped with
belt conveyor.
In depth the under-quarry reserves are opened up with a spiral shaft 20 for the operation of
80-tonnes dumpers.
Vertical skip shaft 21 equipped with skip 60 t is driven in the rocks roof.
Crosscut tunnels 9 connected to ore chute 10 and crusher transfer stations 22 are driven from
the spiral and vertical shafts.
Such a section is also organized above the belt conveyor for the feeding of ore which has
undergone coarse crushing. This stabilizes the ore flow in terms of size and decreases the
fluctuations in the contents of the useful components Cu and Au.
The output of the skip shaft is 1 728 000 t/year, of the dumpers - 2 896 000 t/year, of the belt
conveyor 4 500 000 t/year.

Figure 3: Variant III Belt conveyor

The underground mine-pit output is 6 228 000 t/year, the opencast output is 5 000 000 t/year
or 11 228 000 t/year in total.
Sublevel caving back stoping with area frontal drawing is proposed for the mining of the border
located reserves.
The mining of the main (under-quarry) reserves is done via block caving.

48
4. CONCLUSION

The development of ore mining worldwide is invariably related to the transition from opencast
to underground mining.
The equipment for drilling and loading of the boreholes with diameters of more 100 mm, front-
end loaders with a volume of the bucket from 5 to 7 m3, underground dumpers with load of 80
t., etc. are developed on this basis.
Taking into account these achievements and on the basis of the above-mentioned three
variants, the authors propose for the particular mine the detailed design and implementation of
the third variant. It is a combination of a cyclic, cyclic-flow and flow mining.

5. REFERENCES

Georgieva, T. D. Anastasov, V. Shishkov, K. Kutsarov.: Prospects in applying

combined mining for the development of metal ore deposits. IVth National Scientific
[1]
and Technical Conference with International Participation Technologies and Practices
in Underground Mining and Mining Construction, Devin, 2014, pp. 15-22.
Kaplunov, D.R., M.V. Rylnikova.: Combined mining of ore deposits, Moscow, Mining
[2]
book, 2012
[3] Kazikaev, D.M.: Combined mining of ore deposits, Moscow, Mining book, 2008

49
 THE NEW ASPECTS DRILLING AND BOLTING IN MINING
INDUSTRY
Janusz Re1, Andrzej Czajkowski2, ukasz Booz3
1
AGH UNIVERSITY of SCIENCE and TECHNOLOGY, Krakw, Poland, E-mail
2
AGH UNIVERSITY of SCIENCE and TECHNOLOGY, Krakw, Poland, E-mail
3
AGH UNIVERSITY of SCIENCE and TECHNOLOGY, Krakw, Poland, E-mail

ABSTRACT
Nu are abstract

KEYWORDS
Drilling, Bolting, Copper

1. INTRODUCTION

Currently the exploitation of copper ores is carried out in three Mining Plants: O/ZG Lubin,
O/ZG Rudna and O/ZG Polkowice-Sieroszowice. In each of the selected mining areas, the
quantity of output of ores is and will be different for each of these mines in the future years. An
analysis of the state of deposits leads to a necessity to modify current types, models and
structures of workings within allocated mining areas of active mines. A modification of
structures for deposit availability should be aimed at creating additional underground transport
arteries, linking existing transport ways, which would lead to flexibility and easiness in
transferring ores to the main drawing shafts in the current mining plants.
The exploitation of deposits of copper ores in the Legnicko-Glogowski Copper Region is getting
close to the boundaries of Rudna and Sieroszowice mining regions. After the year 2000 all
three mines of KGHM faced new challenges and they now practically respond to it. A currently
available and tentatively studied deposit lies in thin deposits of 1.0-2.0 m or even thinner at
greater and greater depths. Current exploitation levels are already placed over 1000 m below
the surface. Concept and technical preparations have been started, aimed at entering a deposit
at a depth of 1500 m. It is a perspective of just a few years and it is supposed to enable
exploitation of copper ores and accompanying minerals for the future 40-60 years.
So, a natural direction of development of exploitation carried out by KGHM Polska Miedz S.A. is
to exploit deposits of copper ores lying below 1200 m in the mining area of Glogow Gleboki-
Przemyslowy. The deposit in this area is a continuation of the deposit lying in the existing
mining regions; it lies up to 1400 m and is characterized by mining-geological conditions which
are similar to those in the KGHM Polska Miedz S.A.s mines. Study and design works show that
the most efficient investment solution as for availability and management of Glogow Gleboki-
Przemyslowy deposit is a model of a combined mine, basing on the infrastructure of the existing
mines of Polkowice-Sieroszowice and Rudna. This model ensures a reasonable management of

50
the deposit and an optimal use of the production potential, as well as a use of basic shaft
objects, arterial routes and ventilation roads. Figure 1 presents size and shape of mining
regions allocated to Mining Plants and regions that perspective in LGOM (Legnicko-Glogowski
Copper Region). The mining region of Glogow Gleboki-Przemyslowy is marked with a red line,
whereas the perspective areas of Bytom Odrzanski, Glogow and Retkow with a green line
(red line: mining region of Glogow Gleboki-Przemyslowy; green line: perspective areas of
Bytom Odrzanski, Glogow and Retkow)

Figure 1: Current and perspective mining regions in the area of LGOM (as of 2006)
According to a current geological recognition, in the considered area there are deposits of
resources of over 300 million tons of ores including almost 7 million tons of pure copper and
over 24000 tons of pure silver. Present market prices of these metals and the forecast of their
development let us make investment decisions which guarantee that the exploitation in the
conditions of deep deposits will be profitable. Experience shows that the technological
processes of deposit mining will be similar to the current ones, yet they will be carried out in
more difficult mining-geological conditions. It concerns processes connected with the
exploitation of these deposits and the protection of roofs in the workings, in particular. We are
presenting below a solution of a modern roof bolter which has been designed by AGH Cracow
and Mine Master, Wilkow, and which should ensure safe and efficient work in this region during
the exploitation of copper ores.

1.1 Systems of exploitation of deposits of thickness up to 3.5 m and a suggested

technology of roof protection

A choice of a system of deposit exploitation in ore mines depends on many factors. One of the
most important factors is to adapt the exploitation port to the changeable parameters of
deposits, especially thickness, which is closely connected with an application of appropriate
mining machinery. An appropriately selected system should also ensure maximum work safety
(crump hazard) and an achievement of the highest efficiency of production with the slightest
exploitation losses. Experience has helped to work out and introduce room and pillar systems
with a continuous liquidation of workings. In these systems a deposit is exploited in an area
simultaneously, using a system of many chambers having a width of 5-7 m. The chambers are
driven parallely (the so called stripes) and perpendicularly to the front line. Between pillars,
other pillars are erected and their dimensions are adapted to the local mining-geological
conditions. Behind the front line, there are a few rows of pillars and stripes.
On the basis of an analysis of mining-geological conditions of Glogow Gleboki deposit and the
exploitation systems used in the Legnicko-Glogowski Copper Region, two pillar systems have
been accepted for region of Glogow Gleboki-Przemyslowy: one with susceptibility of the deposit
and additional protection of the roof, whereas the other with a deflection of the roof and an
operating closing pillar. The first system, shown in fig. 2, is aimed at exploiting deposits of a
bed type with the following characteristics:
51
 deposit thickness to 7 m,
dip to 8,
roof rocks enabling application of bolt support,
It requires contouring the area of exploitation with workings driven in at least a bifilar system,
which need to be connected with active workings in the mine. If the thickness of the deposit
exceeds 5 meters, workings are driven in the deposit bed below the roof.
In the other system which is aimed at deposits of similar conditions, it is not necessary to
contour the deposit fully by means of preparatory workings. A launch of exploitation is
conditioned by a small range of preparatory works only, i.e., bundles of workings from which an
exploitation front will be launched. If the thickness of deposit exceeds 4.5 m, workings are
driven in the deposit bed below the roof. Contour workings must be connected with active
workings in a mine.
For preparatory, first driving and exploitation workings, on the basis of an analysis of applied
roof protection methods in the mines of the Legnicko-Glogowski Copper Region, a bolting
technology was suggested for the exploitation of copper ores in the Glogow Gleboki deposit.
Roof conditions that were accepted were similar to those occurring at the depth of over 1000 m
in Polkowice-Sieroszowice mine. Thickness of the extracted deposit ranged from 2.5-5 m. The
dimensions of the chamber for the accepted room and pillar system were as follows: width 6-7
m, height 2-3 m, length 8-12 m. Whereas, because of the climatic conditions existing at those
depths, it was assumed that the height of dog headings cutting the deposit would be 4 m. The
basic bolting net was 1x1 and the alternative one was 1.5x1.5. Bolts were installed in rows, 6
pieces in each. The minimal depth of bolt holes was 1.6 m and their diameter, depending on
the kind of installed bolt, 25.4 or 38 mm. Figure 3 shows a diagram of a network of workings
for the assumed conditions along with the suggested bolting net and longitudinal and cross
sections of a dog heading. Below, we are presenting the order of installing particular bolts for
the presented bolting net and a 4-meter-high working
For installing the first bolt, a roof bolter is placed and stabilized in the axis of working. This
placement of the machine is sufficient for bolting the whole row of bolts (6 pieces). If we want
to mount bolts in one line, in accordance with the 1x1 bolting net, we need to lift the jib by 45
degrees. The first bolt should be installed near the axis of a working with the jib being pulled
out, as it is shown in fig. 4. Then, we determine the position of neighboring and outermost side
wall bolts, which are installed no further than 1 m from the side wall and at the angle of 10
degrees. Because all of the bolts must be installed in a line, creating the so called bolting net,
we must pull out the jib maximally and regulate the position of a bolt by the angle at which the
jib is lifted and turned.

Figure 2: Diagram of exploitation by the room and pillar system with susceptibility of deposit and
additional roof protection

52
With the presently used solutions of roof bolters in the Legnicko-Glogowski Copper Region,
applying the above presented technology is difficult or even impossible. Thus, it was necessary
to work out a structure of a roof bolter with an automatic drilling-bolting turret, which enables
to carry out such works safely and efficiently.

1.2 Assumptions and guidelines for the new solution of a roof bolter

An analysis of work and parameters of roof bolters operating in the KGHM Mining Plants and
the suggested technology of bolting for exploitation conditions in the region of Glogow Gleboki
were the basis for a technical development of a new solution of a roof bolter with an automatic
bolting turret. These assumptions are the basis for a preliminary design of a self-propelled roof
bolter with an automatic turret for medium and high deposits.
For a self-propelled roof bolter with an automatic bolting turret, the following assumptions
(connected with geometric, structural, kinematic, organizational and technical parameters) were
made:
Transport height of the whole machine cannot exceed 1.8 m
Maximum width of the whole machine cannot exceed 2.4 m,
Length of the machine shouldnt exceed 11500 mm,
Weight of the machine shouldnt exceed 18000 kg,
Speed of the machine: gear I - 4 km/ h , gear II - 10 km/h,
Ability to go up a hill longitudinal slope 12, cross slope 4,
Ability to go along mining workings of minimal width 4.5m, intersecting at an angle of 90,
Machine must be operated by one operator,
Protective construction of the drivers cabin must meet strength requirements against hits
from the roof (energy 60 kJ) in accordance with requirements for constructions protecting the
driver, standard: PN/G- 59001,
the drivers cabin must be air-conditioned and equipped with a system that cools down the
air while that machine is moving and during the operation of the electric engine,

Depth of bolt holes: 1.6 m

Diameter of bolt holes: 25.4 and 38 mm
Figure 3: Diagram of a working network along with a suggested bolting net and longitudinal and
cross sections of a dog heading

53
 Application of a hydrodynamic power transmission system with a combustion system in
accordance with the COM III standard, and the driving axles must be equipped with internal
dynamic brakes, an emergency brake and a parking brake,
Construction of the whole machine and all the elements and subassemblies used while
constructing the machine should meet all the standards so that the producer would obtain a
certificate of conformity, WE type, issued by the independent Certification Institution,
There should be an ergonomic post with an isolated desk for bolting during the operation of
the electric engine and a different post for driving it when the combustion engine is in operation
Taking into account the bolting technology and the requirements for the operation mode of the
automatic bolting turret, the following technical assumptions (which the working system, i.e.,
jib and drilling bolting turret should meet) were made:
Possibility of installing expansion and glue-in bolts in workings whose height ranges from
2.5 do 4.0 m,
Diameter of the drilled holes 38mm,
Length of bolts being installed in a working 1.6 m and 1.8 m,
Application of a hydraulic rotary driller (with a system of suction removal of drill cuttings
through the drilling rod and the driller) for drilling holes in rocks whose thickness ranges from
80-120 MPa,
Height of the bolting turret during transport shouldnt exceed 2100 mm,
The bolt magazine in the turret must be capable of holding up to 6 bolts
Working system should be capable of installing one row of bolts according to the bolting
diagram in fig. 3,
Operation of the bolting turret is automatic, but there must be a possibility of manual
operation from the drivers cabin,
Assumed duration of a complete cycle of installment of an expansion bolt (1.6 m) cant
exceed 3 minutes and a glue-in bolt 3.5 minutes.

Figure 4: Diagram of installing an exemplary bolt

Taking into account the above presented requirements that should be met during the
preliminary design of a new solution of a roof bolter on a wheel chassis, the following
assumptions were suggested. Three basic subassemblies were distinguished:
Chassis with power transmission system, turning system and brake system,
Bodywork with an air-conditioned drivers cabin and with a hydraulic working system and
electric system,
Complete working system consisting of a telescopic extension arm, a drilling-bolting
automatic turret and a system of suction removal of drill cuttings.

54
1.3 Preliminary design of a new structural solution of a roof bolter

On the basis of the accepted assumptions and guidelines, a preliminary design of a self-
propelled roof bolter was made. It had an automatic bolting turret and an air-conditioned
drivers cabin. While creating the design, design engineers used experience that had been
acquired while designing similar constructions of self-propelled vehicles and they tried to adapt
as many ready and reliable elements and subassemblies as possible.
The preliminary design of the self-propelled roof bolter on a wheel chassis with an automatic
bolting turret was worked out as a module construction. It consists of a chassis, bodywork, and
a working system.
In accordance with the accepted assumptions and guidelines, the designers planned an
application of dry rotary drilling with the system of suction removal of drill cuttings through the
drilling rod and the driller. The inner suction removal of drill cuttings keeps the area around the
operator clean. This system draws contaminations through the rod and the driller for
preliminary cleaning. The final filter stops the smallest elements of contamination. It requires
applying a reliable solution of a rotary boring head, Fletcher, with the system of suction removal
of drill cuttings. It consists of a hydraulic rotary driller, Fletcher, and a vacuum pump, Roots,
which is driven hydraulically so as to remove drill cuttings. This solution of the head is supposed
to drill holes 25 38 mm in diameter and to enable installing glue-in 1.8-meter-long bolts.
Thus, the bolting turret should be characterized by a feed stroke of at least 1900 mm.
The turret along with the jib is supposed to be able to install 6 bolts in one row (every 1.5 m, at
a distance of 0.5 m from the sidewall) from one position, without moving it. The bolt magazine
in the turret must be capable of holding at least 8 bolts. Whereas the jib should be able to lift
the turret by - 5 / + 21 in relation to the level of the floor and to turn it by 35 to the left and
35 to the right. In addition, the jib should have a capability to extend forwards up to 1000
mm. So as to ensure hole drilling and bolt installing in accordance with the approved
technology, the bolting turret should also be capable of inclination to the left and right by 90
so as to ensure sidewall bolting, and by 10 to the front and back so as to ensure an
appropriate inclination of the axis of the bolt holes.
So as to obtain the above presented work parameters, it was suggested that the already
reliable elements from the automatic drilling-bolting turret Fletcher should be used in the design
process of a new solution of a working system. Whereas the structural solution of the jib was
worked out as a new one, on the basis of experience that had been acquired while constructing
similar solutions in other machines of this type.
During the preliminary design, the design engineers used advanced software packages such as
ProEngineer and AutoDesk Inventor. These packages allow us to create spatial models of the
designed complexes and machinery and combine them into one piece. At the same time they
allow us to make flat drawings and determine overall dimensions of machines and
subassemblies and their weight.
A preliminary design of a working system in a spatial version that was worked out with the use
of the above mentioned packages is presented in fig. 5. A simulation let the designers claim
that the assumed parameters of the jibs operation would be possible to be met, in terms of the
value of extension, lifting and turning.
Next, the design engineers created a preliminary design of the chassis and the bodywork of a
new solution of a roof bolter for medium layers. It was assumed in accordance with the
approved guidelines and assumptions that the construction of the chassis would be jointed and
would be divided into two subassemblies, i.e., a tractor and a working platform. The elements
of the bodywork will be mounted on these subassemblies, creating an integral whole. In
accordance with the approved assumptions and guidelines, the minimal height of the vehicle
while it moves is 1.72 m. The operators post will be placed in a closed air-conditioned cabin
placed on the front frame, on the working platform.
55
 Figure 5: Spatial model of the preliminary design of a working system of a new solution of a roof
bolter for medium layers
The chassis will be equipped with a power transmission system Power Shift (axle, torque
converter, gearbox made by Clark) enabling four-wheel drive. The transmission system will be
powered by a diesel engine BF4M 2012C made by Deutz. The transmission system will be
operated from the operators control desk by mean of the Orbitrol system with a steering
wheel. The chassis will be equipped with principal multi-plate wet brakes that are operated
hydraulically per all four wheels and emergency and parking brakes spring ones, released
hydraulically with a system of emergency unblocking. On the tractor there will also be elements
of the hydraulic system such as a hydraulic multi-piston pump Oilgear (25 MPa), oil tank and an
electric engine (36 KW). Additionally, the tractor will be equipped with a reel of the supply
cable, SMC type, capacity 80 m. The chassis must be equipped with 4 pieces of hydraulic floor
outriggers, so as to ensure stability of the machine during operation.
So as to obtain the above mentioned parameters of operation of the chassis and bodywork
assembly, it was suggested that the already reliable solutions, subassemblies and elements
used while constructing similar solutions in other machines of this type should be used in the
design process. The preliminary designs of the tractor and the working platform were created
separately.
Figure 6 shows the preliminary design of the tractor in a spatial version that was based on the
above mentioned assumptions and guidelines, whereas figure 7 shows the design of the
working system in a spatial version.
Using the preliminary designs of the tractor and the working platform, designers created a
drawing of the chassis and the bodywork of the new solution of a roof bolter for medium layers,
which is presented in fig. 8. This drawing also shows the basic overall dimensions.
On the basis of the drawings and spatial models of a working platform, tractor and a working
platform, the designers worked out a preliminary design of a new solution of a roof bolter for
medium layers. It is shown in fig. 9, whereas figure 10 shows an aerial view with the basic
overall dimensions.
Similarly to the design process of a bolting turret with a jib, the design engineers also used the
experience of Mine Master and Fletcher while working out the system for supplying and steering
the turret. On the basis of an analysis, the engineers decided that the hydraulic system for
transmission, steering the jib and the bolting turret with the drilling head will be powered from
a two-section, multi-piston pump, working in a load-sensing system, which ensures energy-
saving and precise supply for the hydraulic system.

56
Figure 6: Spatial model of a preliminary design of a tractor of a new solution of a roof bolter for
medium layers. A view from the back, left hand side

Figure 7: Spatial model of a preliminary design of a working platform of a new solution of a roof
bolter for medium layers. A view from the front of the drivers cabin

Figure 8: Preliminary design of a chassis and bodywork a new solution of a roof bolter for
medium layers, overall dimensions

Figure 9: Spatial model of a preliminary design of a new solution of a roof bolter for medium
layers side view

57
 Figure 10: Model of the designed solution of a roof bolter with the values of its maximum width
and length, with the jib and the turret being turned by 6
For a precise control of the jib movements, the engineers used a proportional (5), sectional
valve made by Hawe, installed near the operators control desk. For a control of the drilling
head, head feed, centralizer movements, arm of the feeder and the floor support, the engineers
used a 6-section proportional valve made by Hawe. A control of the directional valve is electric
and mechanical, which enables a quick diagnosis of the hydraulic system and the service
reaction.
For a control of the directional valves of the jib, the rotation and the feed, the engineers used
two biaxial hydraulically and electrically controlled joysticks, which were ergonomically installed
in the drivers cabin on the control desk. The position of the joysticks which are used for
controlling the jib, rotations and the feed is shown in fig. 11
Within the design of the control system of the automatic turret for deposits of medium
thickness and on the basis of an analysis of products of the JHF Fletcher Company, the
designers selected control components which are fully protected from mechanical damage
resulting from falls in the mine face.
The electronic control components include three separately connected computer modules, i.e.,
superior module, which has a display, monitoring the whole cycle of automatic bolting and
allowing the operator to carry out the whole cycle manually by means of appropriate buttons,
and two subordinate modules to which all controls from the directional valves and electrical
bunches from all sensors on the turret are connected. The signals are then converted and
displayed on the screen in the superior unit.

Figure 11: Position of joysticks for controlling the jib, rotations and the feed on the control desk
in the operators cabin
It was assumed that the control system would carry out a fully automatic cycle of bolting. An
automatic cycle of bolting is based on drilling a hole and installing a mechanical bolt or a glue-in
one without the operators intervention, however, the insertion of the glue substances is carried
out from the operators cabin. If the course of the cycle is correct, the operator just controls the
course of bolting. The automatic cycle of bolting is carried out by taking a sequence of steps.
Taking a step is based on achieving a specified objective by a given component. The specified
objective can be time, position or pressure, controlled by the automatic system of control. All of
the steps are grouped into over 20 states, which must be carried out if we want to complete
the automatic cycle of bolting. The automatic cycle of bolting is carried out step by step, and
each subsequent step can be started once the previous one is completed. While a cycle is being
carried out, the present state and its short description are displayed on the screen. If there is a
problem that hinders a cycle during a particular state, we can compare the description of the
current state with the course of the cycle so as to quickly find the cause of failure. During the
automatic cycle of bolting, we can see a screen of this process. The screen displays information
that is important for the operator it shows the operation of the turret and current operation
parameters. It also shows the depth and drilling durations as well as the levels of measurement
signals from the sensors. The screen also informs the operator about each event occurring
58
while bolting. The colour of the icons changes during the automatic cycle of drilling and it
doesnt change during the manual control.
During the design phase, there were numerous simulations and analyses whose aim was to
check if the main subassemblies worked correctly. In addition, there was a strength analysis
and possible collision spots while driving and bolting were determined. At first, there was an
analysis of strength of the construction of the telescopic jib which is exposed to dynamic and
static pressures. The analysis was carried out by the finite-element method, and in terms of
dynamics it included a case in which the machine ran over a 75 mm-high obstacle at a
maximum speed of 12 km/h. There was also a static analysis of strength for a case which was
based on determination of the effort of a construction which was weighed down by the
maximum force of feed. Both during the dynamic and static simulations of operation of the jib
in a transport position, in a pulled-out position with a feed force of 20kN which was
perpendicular to the axis of the jib and in a pulled-out position with the jib being lifted by 40
with a feed force of 20kN at the angle of 40 in relation to the jib axis, the engineers found no
cases of exceeding the limit of plasticity of the elements of the jib for its assumed material, i.e.,
steel S355J2G3. For defined conditions of load, the construction of the jib meets the
requirements concerning immediate strength in terms of dynamics and statics.
Using the design of the vehicle for automatic bolting, the design of the bolting turret along with
the jib as well as the control system, engineers carried out spatial simulations of the machine
operation. They were worked out for the following positions of the roof bolter:
simulation of kinematics of the working system with an automatic turret in the mine face
during the complete cycle of installation of bolts,
simulation of rides of the machine in underground dog headings,
simulation of field of vision of the operator from an air-conditioned cabin during rides and
during operation in the mine face,
simulation of layout of the operators control desk for the drilling process bolting in terms
of ergonomics of the operators work.
The simulation of the kinematics of the working system with the automatic turret in the mine
face during a complete cycle of bolt installation was carried out for the most unfavorable
position of the machine, in a 4000 mm-high working whose width below the roof was 7000 mm.
There were no difficulties while installing any bolt in a row, especially while installing bolts near
the sidewall. The result of this simulation is shown in fig. 12

Figure 12: Result of a simulation of an installation of bolts near the right sidewall
A simulation of the machines rides in underground 2500 mm-high dog headings for a case with
an elevated roof of the operators cabin also showed no cases of collisions. The machine is
capable of going through almost every dog heading that would be exploited in Glogow Gleboki.
The turning system lets the machine turn at an angle of 90 in the case of 3800 mm-wide
workings. The result of this simulation is presented in fig. 13.

59
 Figure 13: Simulation of a ride in dog headings intersecting at an angle of 90 without a need to
cut off the corners
Whereas after a simulation of the field of vision from the operators cabin during rides and
during operation in the mine face, it was found that the operator has a good vision in each case
of drilling and bolting. The operator has also an opportunity to follow the process of bolt
installment, which gives him a full control of the bolting process.
The result of the simulation of the field of comfort in the operators cabin during the drilling and
bolting processes as well as during rides also turned out to be positive, i.e., the operator has a
good visibility and an easy access to all the elements of the control system. The result of this
simulation during the operators work is presented in fig. 14

Figure 14: Result of a simulation of the operators access to the control desk during the drilling-
bolting processes in terms of ergonomics of the operators work during operation in the
mine face

1.4 Summary

As a result of approved guidelines and assumptions and a created preliminary design of a self-
propelled roof bolter on a wheel chassis with an automatic turret for medium layers, the design
engineers achieved a structural solution of a machine which will be characterized by the
following structural and technical parameters:
1. Total mass of the machine 18000kg
2. Transport height 1800mm
3. Total length of the machine equipped with a bolting turret 11400mm
4. Width of workings in which the machine can ride 4500mm
5. Width of the machine 2200mm
6. Turning radius of the machine: inner 3500mm, outer 5900mm
7. Drive axel base 3100 mm
8. Inclination angle of self aligning axle 10

60
9. Approach angle of the tractor 12
10. Approach angle of the front platform 24
11. Ground clearance 325mm
12. Turning angle of chassis 42
13. Turning angle of the jib during a ride 15
14. Turning angle of the jib during operation 42
15. Mass of the jib 2500kg
16. Mass of the automatic turret 2000kg
17. Height of the turret being pulled back 2082 mm
18. Capacity of the bolt magazine 8 pieces
We can estimate that the new solution of a self-propelled roof bolter should help to achieve the
following organizational and kinematic parameters:
1. Possibility to install 6 bolts in one row every 1.5 m, distance from the sidewall 0,5m,
2. Diameter of drilled holes 38mm,
3. Drilling Speed no lower than 1m/min,
4. Duration of a complete cycle of installment of an expansion 1.6m-long bolt no longer than
3 minutes,
5. Duration of a complete cycle of installment of a glue-in 1.6m-long bolt no longer than 3.4
minutes,
6. Transport speed: maximum 13 km/h, 1st gear 4 km/h, 2nd gear 10 km/h

2 REFERENCES

[1]. A review of the research project Inicjatywa Technologiczna I No 13003.

[1] Unikalna zautomatyzowana maszyna wiercco-kotwica do eksploatacji rud miedzi w
rejonie Gogw Gboki. Krakw 2009, (unpublished)

61
 ASECAREA FORMAIUNILOR ACVIFERE DIN CMPURILE
DE EXPLOATARE SUBTERAN I LA ZI A ZCMINTELOR
DE LIGNIT DIN OLTENIA
Dumitru Fodor1, Moise Matyas2, Ionut Predoiu3
1
University of Petrosani, Petrosani, Romania, E-mail
2
University of Petrosani, Petrosani, Romania, E-mail
3
University of Petrosani, Petrosani, Romania, E-mail

ABSTRACT
Activitile de asecare i evacuare a apelor din cariere au o importan deosebit cu implicaii
majore n:
-asigurarea condiiilor normale de lucru;
-asigurarea realizrii capacitilor orare ale utilajelor de excavare;
-reducerea timpilor de intervenie la utilajele conductoare i pentru realizarea lucrrilor
tehnologice (ripri i montri de transportoare, trecerea excavatoarelor peste band, manevre
ale utilajelor pentru schimbarea fronturilor de lucru etc);
-securitatea carierelor n ansamblu, care se dezvolt n zone cu condiii hodrogeologice grele i
foarte grele;
Avnd n vedere costurile ridicate realizate cu aceste activiti, n lucrare se face o analiz
temeinic la nivelul fiecrei cariere, a volumului lucrrilor de asecare realizate, a numrului
staiilor de pompe folosite, a capacitilor acestora i a timpilor de funcionare etc, innd
seama de volumul precipitaiilor din zon nregistrate n ultimii ani, n vederea raionalizrii i
optimizrii activitilor de asecare i evacuare a apelor din cariere.

KEYWORDS
Asecare, lignit, Oltenia

1. INTRODUCERE

Teritoriul Romniei are o structur geologic foarte complex i conine n subsolul su bogate
i variate resurse de substane minerale utile, printre care crbunii au o importan cu totul
deosebit, ntruct, pe lng alte utilizri, acetia contribuie la producerea a aproximativ 40 %
din energia electric a rii. Zcmintele de lignit i crbune brun din Romnia sunt rspndite
n trei zone distincte, figura.1, dup cum urmeaz:

62
 Figura 1: Rspndirea principalellor exploatri miniere din Romnia
Zona I aflat n depresiunea subcarpatic a podiului Getic, ntre Olt i Dunre, cuprinde
zcmintele de lignit din bazinele Mehedini, Motru, Rovinari i Berbeti Alunu.
Zona II situat n depresiunea precarpatic, ntre rul Olt i Valea Buzului, cuprinde
zcmintele de lignit de la Cmpulung, otnga, Filipeti de Pdure i Ceptura. Aceast zon se
completeaz cu bazinele miniere din Carpaii Orientali: Barolt-Vrghi-Cpeni lignit i
Comneti Bacu crbune brun.
Zona III este dezvoltat n depresiunea Panonic din nord-vestul Transilvaniei i cuprinde
zcmintele de crbune brun i lignit de la Srmag, Voevozi, Surduc i Borod.
Zcmintele de lignit din Romnia reprezint principala surs de combustibil energetic.
n zona I de rspndire a zcmintelor de lignit din Romnia sunt cantonate aproape 90% din
rezervele de lignit ale rii.
Din totalul rezervelor industriale de lignit cunoscute n zona I, peste 80% sunt exploatabile n
mod rentabil la suprafa, n carier, iar restul de 20% sunt exploatabile prin mine subterane.
n toate bazinele miniere de lignit din Romnia, stratele de crbune exploatabile au grosime de
1,08,0 i au att n culcu ct i n acoperi formaiuni acvifere cu ap cu nivel liber sau sub
presiune, ceea ce conduce la o serie de dificulti i cheltuieli suplimentare, att n faza de
deschidere, ct i n cea de pregtire i exploatare datorit lucrrilor de asecare necesare de
realizat.
Zcmintele de lignit din Romnia sunt cantonate n regiuni n care se dezvolt predominant
formaiuni geologice tinere (daciene, levantine i cuaternare) constituite din roci moi, coezive i
necoezive de tipul marnelor, argilelor i nisipurilor.
Zcmintele de lignit din Oltenia sunt constituite din 21 de strate de crbune de grosime i
extindere variabil. Grosimea stratelor variaz de la 1,0 m pn cel mult 8,0 m prezentndu-se
sub form compact sau sub forma unor bancuri de crbune, ce alctuiesc complexul unui
strat, figura 2.

Figura 2: Profil geologic prin Bazinul Carbonifer Rovinari

Din cele 21 de strate de lignit sunt exploatabile n zonele de lunc stratele V-VIII, iar n zonele
colinare startele V-XII.
Zcmintele de lignit sunt grupate dup criterii geologice, geografice i economice n 5 bazine
miniere, figura 3. n fiecare bazin minier au fost delimitate mai multe perimetre de exploatare,
n funcie de particularitile zonale ale zcmntului i de posibilitile de exploatare.
63
 Figura 3: Bazinele miniere ale Olteniei cu perimetrele de exploatare
Carierele din Oltenia pot asigura o producie de 3035 milioane tone de lignit pe an, n funcie
de cerinele pieei.
n prezent n Oltenia sunt active 17 perimetre miniere de suprafa care funcioneaz n cadrul
Complexului Energetic Oltenia i Complexului Energetic Govora.
Depresiunea Getic, care cantoneaz zcmintele de lignit din Oltenia, formeaz un bazin
hidrogeologic de mari dimensiuni n care se ntlnesc o serie de orizonturi i complexe acvifere,
ale cror caracteristici sunt dependente de poziia lor pe vertical, litologia i grosimea stratelor
i bancurilor de nisip precum i de caracteristicile hidrogeologice i hidrodinamice ale apelor
subterane.
Prin lucrrile de foraj hidrogeologic s-au pus n eviden trei orizonturi acvifere, figura 4.

Figura 4: Orizonturile acvifere separate n cmpurile miniere din Oltenia (1. Orizontul acvifer
freatic, 2. Orozontul acvifer din complexul crbunos, 3. Orizontul acvifer freatic)
Orizontul acvifer freatic, este situat la adncimi mici, fiind legat de depozitele de aluviuni din
terasele rurilor i luncilor. Sursa de alimentare o reprezint precipitaiile i prezint caracter
captiv, n zonele n care depozitele acoperitoare sunt formate din roci argiloase impermeabile.
Coeficienii de filtrare stabilii experimentali au valori de 2,5 96 m/zi, iar debitele se ncadreaz
ntre 0,1 8,5 l/sm, orizontul fiind considerat ca o resurs important de ap dinamic.
Orizontul acvifer din complexul crbunos este format din intercalaiile nisipoase dintre stratele
XII-V. Adeseori, intercalaiile nisipoase sunt de form lenticular; cu lungimi variabile cuprinse
ntre 200 i 700 m i grosimi de pn la 20 m.
Ape mai apar i n fisurile stratelor de crbune, ca urmare a contactului lor direct cu stratele
acvifere.
Orizontul acvifer din complexul crbunos are contact direct cu orizontul freatic din care se
alimenteaz. Nivelul apei este ascensional i uneori artezian. Coeficienii de filtrare determinai
pentru toate tipurile de roci ntlnite ntre stratele de crbune variaz de la 0,02 2,0 m/zi pn
la 3,05,0 m/zi.
64
Orizontul acvifer artezian este situat n culcuul stratului IV de crbune, fiind cel mai dezvoltat
orizont acvifer din regiune. Apele captive i arteziene provoac adesea fisuri n stratele de
protecie, genernd afluene mari de ap n zonele superioare. Orizontul are uneori grosimi de
peste 100 m cu o mare arie de rspndire, ceea ce sugereaz prezena unui mare bazin
artezian, cantonat n partea inferioar a Dacianului. Alimentarea acestuia se face n jumtatea
de nord-vest a depresiunii intercolinare Tg-Jiu.
Rezerva de ap este practic inepuizabil ca urmare a suprafeei mari de alimentare a stratelor.
Coeficienii de filtrare stabilii experimental variaz ntre 3,016,0 m/zi, cu debite specifice de
aproximativ 3 l/s.
Presiunea hidrostatic depete, n multe locuri, cu mult rezistena ecranului protector, ceea ce
face necesar detensionarea orizontului acvifer artezian.
n tabelul nr.1 se prezint caracteristicile generale ale orizonturilor acvifere din Oltenia iar n
tabelul nr.2 sunt artai parametrii hidrogeologici ai cmpurilor miniere exploatate prin cariere
n zona Olteniei
Tabel nr.1: - Caracteristicile orizonturilor acvifere din Oltenia

Orizonturile acvifere se grupeaz n dou categorii: orizonturi acvifere cu extindere regional,

localizate n Dacian sub stratul VII crbune, cu alimentare n zonele marginale ale regiunii, fr
posibiliti de drenare i orizonturi acvifere din Romanian i Pleistocen, care au zone de
alimentare i drenare att n zonele marginale ale bazinului hidrogeologic, ct i n zonele
interne pe vile care traverseaz regiunea.Orizontul acvifer cel mai puternic este cel din culcuul
stratului IV crbune.
Din punct de vedere al constituiei litologice, orizonturile acvifere sunt foarte diferite, iar variaii
ale rocilor se constat n mod frecvent i n cazul aceluiai orizont, de la un perimetru de
exploatare la altul sau chiar n cadrul aceluiai perimetru.
Dac n orizontul acvifer freatic se ntlnesc nisipuri grosiere sau amestecuri de nisipuri cu
prundiuri specifice teraselor aluvionare, n celelalte dou orizonturi acvifere se ntlnesc nisipuri
care variaz de la cele medii la nisipuri fine, prfoase sau argiloase, care cedeaz greu apa i
sunt caracterizate de coeficieni de filtrare foarte redui. Existena apei sub presiune le face n
schimb foarte periculoase din punct de vedere al posibilitilor de erupie sau de rupere a
ecranelor protectoare.
Din analiza tabelului nr.2 se observ c n cazul perimetrelor Roia de Jiu i Peteana Nord se
ntlnesc cele mai defavorabile condiii de exploatare din punct de vedere hidrogeologic.

1.1 Lucrri de asecare efectuate n perimetrele de exploatare din Oltenia

Exploatarea stratelor de lignit in bazinele miniere ale Olteniei a fost i este condiionat de
executarea lucrrilor de asecare a orizonturilor i complexelor acvifere cu ape cu nivel liber i a
lucrrilor de detensionare i chiar de asecare a orizonturilor acvifere cu ape sub presiune.
Primele lucrri de asecare s-au fcut la punerea n exploatare prin lucrri miniere subterane a
principalelor strate de lignit din zona Olteniei.
Schemele de asecare folosite au urmrit:
-asigurarea traversrii n siguran a nisipurilor acvifere cu lucrrile de deschidere;

65
-asigurarea condiiilor normale de lucru i evitarea erupiilor de borchi n lucrrile miniere de
deschidere, pregtire i abataj;
-nlturarea pericolului de inundare a lucrrilor miniere.
La nceput, la exploatrile de lignit din ara noastr s-a aplicat asecarea ,,brutal'' a
orizonturilor acvifere din acoperiul stratelor de crbune prin executarea unor camere n care,
prin prbuirea forat a acoperiului , avea loc erupia nisipurilor acvifere care producea o
reducere a presiunii piezometrice. Aceast metod ddea totui rezultate nesatisfctoare. S-a
constatat c, dup crearea depresiunii, drenul rezultat n zona de prbuire se colmata i dup
un timp se refcea presiunea piezometric iniial, ceea ce explic de altfel repetarea viiturilor
de borchi la anumite intervale n zona respectiv.
Mai trziu s-au folosit lucrrile miniere subterane executate pentru asecare, n special galeriile
simple sau prevzute cu filtre penetrante care erau plantate n tavanul sau vatra galeriilor n
funcie de poziia orizontului acvifer ce trebuia drenat, figura 5.
Tabel nr.2 Parametrii hidrogeologici ai perimetrelor de exploatare a lignitului din Oltenia

PARAMETRII HIDROGEOLOGICI
Coeficientul Presiunea
Cariera Orizonturi acvifere Caracterul Coeficientul Coeficientul Debitul Grosimea Gradul de
capacitatii piezometric
apelor de filtrare afluxului de specific ecranului h tectonizare
de cedare H (m col. 3
subterane kf (m/zi) ap ka (m /t) q (m3/zi) (m) (accidente /ha)
ke (%) H O)2
Orizontul freatic nivel liber 10-15 0,2-0,3 - 30-150 - Absent
Complex VI ascensional 0,1-1,0 0,05-0,1 10-30 10-80 0-4,0 Absent
Rosia de
Complex V-VI ascensional 0,3-2,3 0,1-0,15 70-100 12,63-16,32 8-60 1,0-5,0 Absent
Jiu
Culcus V i artezian 0,356-3,0 0,05-0,13 70-200 20-100 5,0-20,0 Absent
artezian
Orizontul freatic nivel liber 1,0-5,0 0,2-0,3 - 1-5 - Redus
Complex VI-X ascensional 0,1-1,0 0,05-0,1 - 1-15 5,0-7,0 Redus
Pinoasa Complex V-VI ascensional 0,009-3,17 0,1 3,7-28,6 3,7 5-15 2,0-8,0 Redus
Culcus V i artezian 0,172-18,86 0,15 14,7-170,8 5-20 5,0-20,0 Redus
artezian
Orizontul freatic nivel liber 3,8-8,0 0,2-0,3 - 5-15 - Moderat
Rovinari Complex V-VIII nivel liber 0,3-1,0 0,05-0,1 - 5-10 1,0-4,0 Moderat
4,9-5,41
Est Culcus V i artezian 1,3-3,0 0,15 50-150 10-50 10,0-20,0 Moderat
artezian
Orizontul freatic nivel liber 15,0-20,0 0,2-0,3 - 30-200 - Redus
Peteana Complex V-VI ascensional 0,3-1,0 0,05-0,1 50-80 5-50 0-10,0 Redus
12,87
Nord Culcus V i artezian 1,0-3,0 0,15 7-150 10-70 5,0-15,0 Redus
artezian
Orizontul freatic nivel liber 3,0-0,8 0,2-0,25 - 5-15 - Redus
Jil Sud
Complex VI-XII captiv 0,1-0,8 0,05-0,1 5-15 1,7 3-5 0-5,0 Redus
Culcus VI sub presiune 0,2-1,0 0,05-0,1 20-40 5-10 0-10,0 Redus
Orizontul freatic nivel liber 4,0-6,0 0,2-0,23 - - - Absent
Complex V-VIII nivel liber 0,1-0,5 0,05-0,1 - 3-5 0-5,0 Absent
Lupoaia lentiliform 0,7
Culcus V ascensional 0,2-1,0 0,05-0,1 0-5 2-5 0-10,0 absent
lentiliform
Acoperi str. II nivel liber 0,02-0,7 0,1-0,11 0-20 0,54-2,10 2,0-15,0 absent
Olte lentiliform 0,8
Acoperi str. I nivel liber 0,1-1,42 0,1-0,11 20-100 2,29-7,58 0-10,0 absent

Figura 5: Galerii prevzute cu filtre penetrante

n funcie de viteza de asecare impus n galerii se folosesc filtre penetrante simple sau se
recurge la o asecare forat prin folosirea filtrelor penetrante simple i a filtrelor cu aer, figura 6
sau a filtrelor penetrante vacumate, figura 7.
66
 Figura 6: Schema instalaiei de asecare prin filtrele Figura 7: Schema de asecare
penetrante alternd cu filtre de aer (1-filtru penetrant, prin filter, cu vacuum individual
2-filtru de aer, 3-conduct colectoare, 4-conduct sub prevzut cu sifon (1-filtru
presiune, 5-conduct de amestec, 6-conduct de penetrant, 2-strate acvifere,
evacuare, 7-agregat de pompare, 8-strat impermeabil). 3-strate impermeabile, 4-furtun de
cauciuc, 5-strat de crbune).
n aceste dou variante de lucru, prin introducerea aerului comprimat n strat sau prin
diminuarea presiunii n filtru, datorit vacumrii, se ajunge la accelerarea procesului de asecare,
debitul instalaiilor de drenaj crescnd de 2-3 ori fa de debitul filtrului simplu i astfel se
reducea timpul de drenaj.
Deasemenea, pentru asecarea orizonturilor acvifere cu presiuni iniiale mari (3040 atm)
amplasate n culcuul stratului de crbune se foloseau destul de des puuri de drenaj, figura 8.

Figura 8: Pu de drenaj
Atunci cnd formaiunile acvifere erau situate n acoperiul zcmntului la distane mari fa
de tavanul galeriilor care nu se puteau aseca cu filtre penetrante, se foloseau filtrele de cdere.
Filtrele de cdere sunt filtre special amenajate n interiorul unor guri de sond forate de la
suprafa pn la la tavanul galeriilor de drenaj, figura 9. Gurile de sond au diametrul de
150300 mm. Ele se tubeaz i n interiorul lor se introduce o coloan filtrant cu diametrul
cuprins ntre 75150 mm.

Figura 9: Asecarea prin galerii de drenaj i filtre de cdere

1-Filtre de cdere; 2-galerii de asecare; 3-tub filtrant; 4-umplutur de pietri; 5-orificii de
ptrundere a apei; 6-umplutur extraordinar; 7-roci impermeabile; 8-roci nisipoase acvifere;
9-strat de crbune; 10-tub flexibil.Pu de drenaj

67
n spaiul dintre tubaj i coloana filtrant se contruiete filtrul din pietri cu granulaie adecvat
de 210 mm diametru.
Filtrele de cdere permit asecarea simultan a mai multor strate acvifere din acoperiul stratului
de util, avnd debite care pot s ajung la 3000 l/min. n anumite situaii s-a lucrat cu filtre de
cdere cu vacuum care duceau la accelerarea procesului de asecare. Apa drenat era dirijat
prin lucrrile miniere subterane n bazin de colectare de unde era evacuat la suprafa.
Pentru asecarea formaiunilor acvifere din cmpurile de exploatare la zi s-au folosit i se
folosesc n continuare traneele de asecare pentru orizontul freatic, forajele de mare diametru i
adncime dotate cu pompe submersibile, pentru asecarea formaiunilor acvifere din complexul
productiv, forajele orizontale executate de pe treptele de lucru pentru asecarea lentilelor de
nisip cu ap din copert sau complexul crbunos i foraje fr filtru cu erupie la nivelul vetrei
pentru detensionarea orizonturilor acvifere sub presiune din culcuul zcmntului, figura 10.

Figura 10: Tranee de asecare executat n faa fronturilor de lucru 1-tranee de asecare;
2-treapt de lucru; 3 roc impermeabil
Traneele de asecare se aplic acolo unde, orizontul acvifer are o grosime mic i se afl situat
aproape de suprafa. n funcie de morfologia terenului i direcia curenilor subterani
traneele de asecare pot fi executate pe una, dou sau chiar pe toate laturile exploatrii la zi.
Traneele de asecare frontale, fig. 10, parcurg frontul de descopert cu circa 300500 m i pe
msur ce frontul avanseaz ele se distrug dup ce n prealabil s-a executat n faa frontului o
nou tranee.Traneele de pe marginea carierei se in n funciune pn la terminarea
exploatrii.
Traneele se sap n stratul de roc stabil i impermeabil, ns adncimea lor nu depete
2025 m. Execuia lor se face cel mai adesea cu echipament de draglin, materialul spat
depunndu-se pe una sau ambele berme. Asecarea cu foraje de dreanare de mare diametru se
aplic n perimetrele de exploatare la zi cu cantiti importante de ape subterane, figura 11.

Figura 11: Asecarea cu foraje de mare diametru 1-filtru (burlan slituit i matisat; 2-strat
filtrant; 3-pompe subemersibile (detaliu privind construcia i amplasarea forajelor de mare
diametru)
Gurile de sond au diametru de 9001200 mm, adncimi care pot s ajung la 200300 m i
sunt spate cu instalaii speciale de foraj de mare randament de tipul: FA-12; FA-12,5;
FA125DR; FA20; FA6,3 i FSC 2,5.
n tabelul nr. 3 sunt prezentate principalele caracteristici ale instalaiilor de foraj folosite.

68
 Tabel nr.3: Instalaii de foraj din dotarea UEF Motru Sisetm de foraj , diametrul de spare,
adncimi de spare- folosite la Sucursala Divizia Minier Tg-Jiu

Gurile de sond se tubeaz i n interiorul lor se realizeaz filtrele din pietri, n baza relaiei:
D2 D3
D1
2,5 4 10 16 (1)
-n care: D1 este diametrul mediu al nisipului acvifer; D2 diametrul pietriului; D3 diametrul
orificiilor tubului filtrant .a.
n afar de filtrele de pietri realizate prin turnare, n practica asecrii se mai folosesc filtre din
pietri care se confecioneaz la suprafaa terenului i apoi se lanseaz n gaura de sond. Aa
sunt filtrele de pietri consolidate cu diferite cleiuri speciale, lacuri badelitice, bitumate.
Gurile de sond sunt adnci i au diametrul mare pentru a permite instalarea n interiorul
tubului filtrant a pompelor submersibile care refuleaz la suprafa apa filtrant. n exploatrile
la zi din ara noastr folosim pompe submersibile de diferite mrimi de fabricaie indigen sau
strin.
Forajele de mare diametru sunt echipate cu aparatur automat de pornire oprire i de
nregistrare a timpului de funcionare. Alimentarea cu energie electric a pompelor submersibile
se face la tensiunea de 380 V prin conductori cauciucai. Introducerea i scoaterea pompelor
submersibile din forajele de drenare se face cu ajutorul unor automacarale. Reviziile i
reparaiile pompelor se fac numai n ateliere dotate special n acest scop. n funcie de direcia
curentului acvifer subteran, n schemele de asecare folosite, forajele de drenare sunt amplasate
pe linii de drenare succesive, pe contur sau n reea.
n condiiile carierelor din Oltenia, forajele de asecare au fost plasate cel mai adesea ntr-o
reea de 200 X 100 m, iar adncimea acestora a fost funcie direct de grosimea orizonturilor
acvifere deschise prin forajele de drenare i care a variat ntre 35 i 150 m.
Asecarea cmpului carierei n condiiile carierelor adnci cu mai multe trepte prin foraje de
drenare care deschid toate orizonturile acvifere nu se recomand deoarece tierea acestora pe
trepte i repunerea n funciune de mai multe ori nu este eficient chiar dac se execut cu cea
mai mare atenie. n astfel de cariere s-au executat foraje de drenare n trepte, care fceau
asecarea a cel mult dou trepte din carier, figura 12.

Figura 12: Schema de asecare n trepte (1-prima treapt; 2-a doua treapt; 3-a treia treapta
de drenare)

69
Asecarea cu foraje orizontale se practic ca procedeu ajuttor de asecare, figura 13. Gurile de
sond orizontale au lungimi de 2050 m, o pant spre gur de cca 2,5 % i se execut cu
intalaii speciale de forat.
Ele se execut att n substana mineral util ct i n roca steril acvifer.
De multe ori gurile de sond orizontale executate n stratul acvifer, de pe bermele treptelor
pregtite pentru exploatare, nu se tubeaz i funcioneaz astfel pn la completa lor nchidere.
Se aplic pentru drenarea orizonturilor acvifere subiri.

Figura 13: Schema de amplasare a forajelor orizontale n treptele de excavare

Dac nisipul sau pietriul acvifer se afl cu culcuul mai sus de baza taluzului i nu pot fi
executate foraje orizontale, atunci se folosesc foraje nclinate la 25-450 executate de pe berma
superioar cu instalaii speciale de forat, figura 14.

Figura 14: Schema de execuie a forajelor nclinate: A-seciune; B- vedere n plan;

1-canal de taluz; 2-foraj nclinat activ; 3-foraj nclinat inactiv; 4-nisip acvifer; 5-crbune; 6-argil

Prezena n culcuul str. V de crbune a unui orizont acvifer cu caracter artezian i ascensional,
practic cu rezerve de ape inepuizabile, impunea gsirea unor soluii tehnice care s asigure
exploatarea n siguran a stratului principal de crbune din bazinul Rovinari. n mod practic s-a
pus problema detensionrii orizontului acvifer din culcuul stratului V crbune, pn la limita
evitrii ruperii ecranului protector.
O eventual rupere a ecranului protector ar avea drept consecin ptrunderea apei n mod
dezordonat n carier i compromiterea total i definitiv a acesteia, figura 15

70
 Figura 15: Influena existenei unui orizont acvifer sub presiune asupra exploatrii n carier a
unui zcmnt de lignit
a) schia de principiu a situaiei din teren; b)consecina posibil nereducerii presiunii
orizontului acvifer din culcu; c) desfurarea exploatrii n condiii de siguran simultan cu cu
reducerea presiunii orzontului acvifer
n faza iniial s-a ncercat detensionarea orizontului acvifer din culcuul stratului V crbune
folosind forajele de mare diametru dotate cu pompe submersibile. Dup numeroase ncercri i
experimentri, rezultatele obinute nu au fost cele ateptate. Ca urmare s-a impus gsirea unei
alte soluii de detensionare a orizontului acvifer artezian i astfel s-a recurs la aplicarea
detensionrii i asecrii cu foraje fr filtru, cu erupie liber executate la nivelul vetrei carierei,
soluie care se aplic i astzi n toate cmpurile de exploatare la zi cu condiii hidrogeologice
grele i foarte grele, figura 16.

Figura 16: Detensionarea orizonturilor acvifere sub presiune

71
n decursul anilor au fost monitorizate debitele de ap evacuate din fiecare foraj de asecare i
de detensionare, scderea nivelului piezometric pe linia forajelor i n interiorul cmpurilor
miniere, razele de influen ale forajelor i fezabilitatea tehnic i economic a metodelor de
lucru folosite.
Dac este s ne referim la activitatea de asecare i evacuare a apelor din carierele din Oltenia n
decursul ultimului an, trebuie artat n primul rnd c n anul 2014 au funcionat n total un
numr de 11 cariere. Pentru evacuarea apelor provenite din precipitaii, din orizonturile acvifere
de suprafa i din orizonturile acvifere de adncime sub presiune, a fost proiectat o capacitate
de evacuare de 102.400 m3.
Capacitile de evacuare pe cariere i dotarea acestora cu pompe i conducte ca i o serie de
indicatori realizai sunt prezentai n tabelul nr.4.
Tabel nr.4: Situaia funcionrii pompelor pentru evacuarea apei din carierele din Oltenia

Cantitatea de ap evacuat n anul 2014 din carierele din Oltenia a fost de 34.000.000 m3,
ceea ce nseamn c pentru fiecare ton de crbune extras s-au evacuat 1,58 m3 ap.
O situaie aparte s-a nregistrat n carierele Roia de Jiu, Peteana Sud i Peteana Nord, unde
datorit detensionrii orizontului artezian din culcuul stratului V prin foraje cu erupie liber
execuate de pe acoperiul startului V, cantitatea de ap este mult mai mare. Astfel, la
extragerea unei tone de crbune au fost evacuate urmtoarele cantiti de ap: 4,8 m3 la
cariera Roia de Jiu, 5,19 m3 la cariera Peteana Sud i 5 m3 la cariera Peteana Nord.
La celelalte cariere situate n zone colinare, probleme cu evacuarea apei au aprut doar n
perioadele cu precipitaii abundente. Cantitatea de ap evacuat din aceste cariere, raportat la
tona de crbune, se situeaz ntre 0,10 m3 la cariera Lupoaia i 1,65 m3 la cariera Rovinari.
Consumul de energie la nivelul tuturor carierelor n anul 2014 pentru activitatea de evacuare a
apelor a fost de 31.102.924 kWh, reprezentnd 4,91 % din totalul de energie la nivelul
carierelor (633.213.960 kWh), valorile maxime fiind nregistrate la cariera Roia de Jiu, respectiv
14,31 %, din consumul total la nivelul carierei i de 20,25% la cele dou cariere Peteana
raportat la consumul total de energie de la cele dou cariere. La celelalte cariere consumurile
au fost mai mici.

CONCLUZII

Activitile de asecare i evacuare a apelor din cariere au o importan deosebit cu implicaii

majore n:
-asigurarea condiiilor normale de lucru;
-asigurarea realizrii capacitilor orare ale utilajelor de excavare;
-reducerea timpilor de intervenie la utilajele conductoare i pentru realizarea lucrrilor
tehnologice (ripri i montri de transportoare, trecerea excavatoarelor peste band, manevre
ale utilajelor pentru schimbarea fronturilor de lucru etc);
-securitatea carierelor n ansamblu, care se dezvolt n zone cu condiii hodrogeologice grele i
foarte grele;

72
Avnd n vedere costurile ridicate realizate cu aceste activiti, se impune o analiz temeinic la
nivelul fiecrei cariere, a volumului lucrrilor de asecare realizate, a numrului staiilor de
pompe folosite, a capacitilor acestora i a timpilor de funcionare etc, innd seama de
volumul precipitaiilor din zon nregistrate n ultimii ani, n vederea raionalizrii i optimizrii
activitilor de asecare i evacuare a apelor din cariere.
Achiziia de pompe noi i selecionarea unor furnizori serioi de servicii pentru repararea
pompelor i n general a ntregului utilaj folosit n aceste activiti.
Contorizarea riguroas a consumului de energie i materiale realizat pentru aceste activiti n
fiecare carier din cadrul Sucursalei Divizia Minier Complexului Energetic Oltenia.
n perspectiv, innd cont de creterea adncimii carierelor i dezvoltarea acestora n
perimetre cu condiii hidrogeologice din ce n ce mai grele, se impune dezvoltarea asecrii
carierelor de lignit n cteva direcii principale i anume:
- mbuntirea permanent a tehnologiilor i materialelor foosite n asecare;
- asigurarea automatizrii funcionrii i controlul procesului de asecare a apelor din cariere;
- protejarea perimetrelor de exploatare la zi mpotriva apelor de suprafa i subterane, prin
executarea unor lucrri adecvate;
- protejarea apelor subterane mpotriva polurii;
- utilizarea n economia naional a apelor extrase prin procesul de asecare a carierelor de
lignit.
n orice caz, realizarea n bune condiii a asecrii formaiunilor acvifere este o problem special
i permament pentru exploatrile la zi de lignit din Romnia.
Nu se pot prescrie apriori soluii valabile pentru toate condiiile valabile pentru toate condiiile
existente n diferite cariere i bazine miniere. Condiiile hidrogeologice sunt foarte variate i
deosebite, nglobnd elemente specifice concrete. Este recomandabil ca, pe baza experienei
din ar i strintate i a parametrilor determinai i msurai, s se stabileasc pentru fiecare
caz n parte metoda, schema i tehnologiile de lucru care trebuie aplicate.

2 REFERENCES

Fodor Dumitru i Matyas Moise Asecarea i gospodrirea apelor din mine i cariere -
[1]
Editura AGIR Bucureti i Editura Corvin-Deva 2014;
Bujor Alman -Exploatarea zcmintelor minerale din Romnia, vol I i II-Editura
[2]
Tehnic Bucureti 1984;
[3] Constantin Enache -Asecarea zcmintelor -Scrisul Romnesc-Craiova 1985;
Ilie Rotunjanu i Maria Lazr-Hidrologie i Hidrogeologie minier-Editura Universitas -
[4]
Petroani 2014
Moise Matya i Liviu Rdulescu-Evoluia activitii de asecare la cariera Roia de Jiu
[5]
-Revista Minelor nr.8/2006;
Dumitru Fodor i Gavril Baican-Detensionarea orizontului acvifer captiv prin aplicarea
[6]
forajelor cu erupie liber n bazinul minier Rovinari -Revista Minelor nr.10/2010.

73
 ENVIRONMENTAL RISK ASSESSMENT, TAILING DAM
KURBNESH, MIRDITA DISTRICT-ALBANIA

Dipl. Mining Eng. Bardhyl Shushku, e-mail: [email protected]

Msc. Dipl. Mining Eng. Jorgaq Thanas, e-mail: [email protected]
Address: National Agency of natural Resources, Tirana Albania
Abstract
The interruption of the copper ores extraction and processing at 1996 year was accompanied by
the total abandonment of care for the dressing plants tailings dams. Besides the one, all plants
and their tailings dams were abandoned, started to be damaged constantly. One of these, which
was the first built dam in Albania and today is out of control, it' s Kurbnesh dressing plant`
tailings dam. The data of this dam are:
Country occurrence, Kurbnesh, Albania.
The construction deposition started in 1961 .
The deposition was finished in 1994
2 million tons of tailings have been deposed
The total area is 7.2 ha
Content heavy metals- at 0.15% Cu; Zn; S; Al; As; Co; etc.
The material is very fine 0-200 micron
Located near Uraka River and at the banks passes an autoroad.
From lack of maintenance, since the years of 1994-2015, in this dam are destroyed and out of
use the main infrastructure parts as follows:
Water diversion channel.
The main collector and parts of the side collector.
The front of the dam, its sides is split in three places creating considerable space for the
removal of tailings.
Consequently there are created 6 deep holes of 6-8 m, in the north part of the dam body
The creation of canyons and holes is associated with removal of about 70 000 tons of
tailings from dam. This amount of waste has gone into Uraka river which lies 8 m away,
parallel to the dam.
Lack of maintenance, expansion of canyons and holes, is associated with the removal of
tailings, creating premises for the collapsing of the dam. Such a phenomenon is associated with
accidents and ecological disasters.

74
The movement of large masses of tailings will harm the road, as well as could fill the Uraka
riverbed with those, polluting the water of the river with the dam elements, Cu, Zn, As, Pb, etc.
This contamination exceeds the limits of the area because the water of Uraka River is poured in
Mat River which flows into the Adriatic Sea.
Finally, this pollution makes necessary emergent intervention for the rehabilitation of the
Kurbnesh tailings dam, to prevent accidents and ecological disaster.
Keywords: Collapse, environment, risk assessment, rehabilitation, tailing dam

Introduction
The mineral of copper is found in the central and South-East zones of Albania, in the districts of
Mirdita, Puka, Kukes, Has, Shkoder and in the district of Korca in the South-East of country. In
the district of Mirdita the copper ores are situated in some deposits as Kurbnesh, Spa, Kacinar,
Thirr, Rubik etc.
Copper ores Extractive and Processing Industry started in Albania from the year of 1935. In that
year was opened the first copper mine in Rubik, and after one year was built the first copper
smeltery near to the mine for the copper ores extracted from these mine.
This industry was widely developed after the years of 1960-s, that have been opened some
copper mines Kurbnesh, Kacinar, Spac, Perlat, Kulme, Thirr, Gurth in the district of Mirdita;
Gjegjan, Gdhesht, Shmri in the district of Kukes; Nikoliq, Golaj, Krum in the district of Has;
Tuc, Lak Roshi, Munell, Kcir in the district of Puka; Palaj & Karm in the district of Shkodra
and Rehova in the district of Korca.
Opening of the mines brought the increasing of amount of copper extracted and also presented
the necessity for their beneficiation and melting. During the period 1950 up to 1990, were built
seven beneficiation plants and three copper ores smelters
History
The first copper ores enrichment plant (dressing plant) was built in the town of Kurbnesh, 2 km
far away from the copper mine Kurbnesh. The town of Kurbnesh is located in Central-North part
of Albania, with a hill-mountainous relief. This dressing plant was built at the year of 1959 and
started the operation in the year of 1961. Copper ore enrichment in this plant was applied by the
flotation method. [3]
Copper ores enrichment Plant was in operation from the year of 1961 up to 1994. This dressing
plant was supplied with copper ores in amount 80% from the mine of Kurbnesh. Copper ore of
Kurbnesh deposit was composed by the minerals as follows:
Chalcopyrite, pyrotine dhe pyrite. The content of copper in the mineral is 1.20% Cu and of
sulphur 7%
At the year of 1994 the copper mine Kurbnesh was closed, interrupting the supply of copper ore
of the plant. During this period in the copper dressing plant Kurbnesh have been processed
about 3 585 649 tons copper ores. In the Table No. 1 are given the data on the processing
capacity of the plant.
Table No. 1. Copper ore processed, concentrate and quality:

No. Description Unit Value

1 Ore processed amount ton 3 585 649

75
 1-Coverage with stones of the embankment
2- Embankment from clay
3-Sloped surface of the dam
4-Horizontal surface of the damp`s sub floor.
5-Temporary embankment coming from sterile
6-Furnishing pipe used for tailings
7-Surface of water mirror of the dam
8-Surface of the dam
9-Collector of water discharges

Schematic overview of dam elements in Kurbnesh.

Actual Situation.
At the year of 1990 the enrichment plant ceased the operation, and at the same time stopped
the deposing the plant wastes in the tailings dams. From the year of 1961 up to 1994, at the
same time with plant wastes tailings deposing has been carried out also persistent maintenance
of dam and its elements.
From the year of 1994 up to present times the dams have not been maintained. The situation of
the dams and its main elements in general actually is as follows:
All dam area has the view of a desert. Regardless of very long time passed, in the dam is not
observed any kind of vegetation, and this phenomenon shows clearly for the composition of
wastes material of dams.[4]
In the dam body are created deep holes (cracks) cross to dams in three places and parallel with
dam in a case. These holes are widened and deepened persistently as result of water erosion.
High Waters Channel, which protects the dams from over floods and control them during the
precipitations period, is overfilled and out of operation .
In the body of No.1 dam are created 6 holes of diameters from 5 to 13 meters and of depth from
6 to 8 meters. These holes are widened more and more.
The embankment of the dam is split in three places. These cracks are of great sizes and
persistently are widened. Pictures 1, 2 and 3 shows the view from dam.
As result of the cracks and holes, from the dams are displaced and poured in the Uraka River
hundreds and hundreds tons wastes of tailings. This kind of process is still continuing and it is
depended to the precipitations available.
In the Uraka River are poured all waters drained from these two dams. From the measurements
results that these waters have a high acidic properties with p.H 3-4. These waters make difficult
the life of biota (organisms). The pollution of the river with those acidic waters is persistent
Cracks, holes and further erosion in the dam structure are going to be more and more
problematic and dangerous for pollution of all the zone and Uraka River.[5]

Persistent widening (extension) of holes and cracks sizes is a serious problem for dam
sustainability. As result of cracks and holes from the dam has been displaced an amount of
about 70 000 tons wastes.

76
 Fig Nr 1. Fig. nr 2 Fig. Nr 3

Hole in the dam body Canyon created by Crack in embankment

water erosion
Risk assessment
Destruction of High Waters Channel, cracks of embankment, deepenings in the dam body and
creation of holes in dam structure as result of water erosion favour further the erosion towards
total destruction of the dam.
The situation near the river and with the hillside at the back are not favorable in terms of
protection against erosion and transportation ways to the river. The site is exposed for erosion
and the short distance to the river gives small opportunities to sedimentation or remediation.
The high pollution level in the soil sample taken in front of the small stream (created on body of
the tailing dam) shows that the stream is transporting contaminates (tailing material with heavy
metals) from the site into the river. This transport is verified in the river sediment sampling
programme where high metal content have been revealed in the sediments outside the tailing
dam. Finally it is not know if the tailing is secured against an event of extreme high flood.[1]
Review of long term safety of dams
The release from a tailing dam under operation has been controlled by the mining personnel
and can be kept at a reasonable level. If no attempts are made of securing the dam after the
closure the weathering will increase, slowly at the beginning but accelerating when the dams
buffering capacity etc. is used.[2] In order to prevent the release to increase the control system
during operation should be replaced by natural systems.
In the long-term safety three mechanism of dam failures needs considerations.
Extreme events such as floods, earthquakes and high winds etc.
Slope failures in the foundation or dam sides.
Slow deterioration actions such as water and wind erosion, weathering.
The probability of extreme events is based on statistics and is best dealt with during the
planning and design phase of a dam. An existing dam will be secured by double or triple the
security on slope sides, interception ditches for rainwater etc. If an extreme event happens the
release from the dam is often on a natural catastrophe scale. A rescue and remediation plan
should be worked out in advance. [1]
Mechanics of slope failures
The mechanics of a slope failure and how to prevent this is described in international literatures
and are not part of this solid waste and reconnaissance programme.
Factors that affecting the shear stability may, however be summarised as follows:

77
 2 Quality of ore supplied, Cu % 1.98
3 Concentrate produced ton 199 550
4 Quality of concentrate, Cu % 16

For deposing of tailings (wastes) of the plant, near to it were built 2 dams. The tailings dams
were built in the elevations of +745 m up to +785 m. In these two dams for all the period have
been deposed about 2 million tons of plant wastes. In the Table No. 1 are given the data on the
dams. [3]

Table No. 2. Data on the tailings dams:

No. Description Unit Value

1 Horizontal Area m2 66 900
2 Inclined Area m2 5 600
3 Total Area m2 72 500
4 Volume m3 980 900
5 Volumetric Weight of deposed tailings ton/ m3 1.82
6 Amount of deposed tailings ton 1 786 238

Tabela Nr 3. The content of elements in the dam

No. Description Content in %

1 Cu 0.15
2 Zn 0.07
3 Pb 0.05
4 Fe2O3 17.32
5 S 6.20
6 As
Dam Building and elements
Waste deposing dams were built close to plant, in a flat terrain, starting from the elevation of +
745 m, near to Uraka River and continuing towards the hills in the southern direction up to the
elevation + 785 m. the dams have been built parallel with the river and as separating border
served the rural road connecting the town of Kurbnesh with the villages around it.
For dams building was applied the classic method with constituent, according to the scheme as
follows: [6]

78
 Emission parameters Emission parameters overrate
Pollutant emissionparameters
according to Order 462/1993 according to Order 462/1993 Observation
Emitted Maximum Pollutant Maximum - environment
Pollutant/ Pollutant Effluent
No. Emission Ventilator conditions (T,W)
Unit/Mine measured Weigh rate Speed pollutant admitted weight admitted
source no. concentration flow - discharge shaft
parameter
[g/h] [m/s] weight rate concentration rate concentration section
[mg/m3] [m3/min] 3 - upset h
[g/h] [mg/m ] [ori] [ori]
Dusts 0,918 174,129 500 50 - - Setl= 9,786 m2
SO2 0,9135 173,2 5000 500 - - vetl=5,385 m/s
Tmed = 20,6 0C
NO2 1,41 267,6 5000 500 - - W = 79%
V1 3.161,4 5,38
CO 1,1455 217,28 NN NN - - hfagure = 9,08 m
hst. vent = 4,90 m
Venting CO2 89,97 17.065,8 NN NN - - Q=3.161,4 m3/min
station CH4 49 9.294,51 NN NN - - O2=20,4 % vol
1. Lupeni Mine
SUITOR Dusts 0,875 180,18 500 50 - -
Setl= 10,40 m2
CENTRAL SO2 0,261 53,745 5000 500 - - vetl=5,5 m/s
Tmed = 21,8 0C
NO2 0,94 193,56 5000 500 - -
V2 3.432 5,5 W = 71%
CO 1,7175 353,667 NN NN - - hfagure = 9,08 m
hst. vent = 4,90 m
CO2 53,98 11.115,56 NN NN - - Q=3.432 m3/min
CH4 81,79 16.842,19 NN NN - - O2=20,3 % vol
Dusts 0,914 157,65 500 50 - -
Setl= 11,686 m2
SO2 0,3915 67,52 5000 500 - - vetl= 4,1 m/s
Tmed = 24 0C
NO2 0,90 155,23 5000 500 - -
V1 2.874,75 4,1 W = 57,8%
CO 1,7175 296,24 NN NN - - hfagure = 3,8 m
hst. vent = 3 m
CO2 107,97 18.623,20 NN NN - - Q=2.874,7 m3/min
East venting CH4 206,13 35.554,33 NN NN - - O2= 20,4 % vol
2. Uricani Mine
station Dusts 1,031 154,476 500 50 - -
Setl= 10,69 m2
SO2 0,522 78,212 5000 500 - - vetl=3,93 m/s
Tmed = 24 0C
NO2 0,94 149,84 5000 500 - -
V2 2.497,12 3,93 W = 77%
CO 2,290 343,115 NN NN hfagure = 3 m
hst. vent = 3,8 m
CO2 125,97 18.874,3 NN NN Q=2.497,2 m3/min
CH4 196,3 29.412,02 NN NN O2=20,4 % vol

79
All tree processes go on simultaneously but often one process dominates depending on the pH
value. All tree are also influenced by the presence of oxygen over a longer period time.
Chemical oxidation by oxygen
When pH is neutral the chemical oxidation by oxygen is the dominating process. Pyrite is
reacting with oxygen and water and iron ions are produced together with sulphuric acid. The
acid decreases the pH and the weathering increases. Simplified the reaction is:

FeS2 +O2 + H2O = Fe2+ + SO42- + H+

Chemical oxidation by iron.
The iron ion produced i the former reaction can be oxidised into ferric iron. The Fe3+ ion is an
exellent medioum of oxidation and doesn`t need pxxygen to function. The two reactions are:
Fe2+ +O2 + H+ = Fe3+ + H2O
Fe3+ + FeS2 + H2O = Fe2+ + SO42- + H+
In condition with a fluctuation water table in the tailing dam this two reactions are importance.
When the water level is low the first reaction produces Fe3+ ions. When the water level is high
this bank of Fe3+ ions will continue to oxidise the sulphide minerals.[5, 6]
Bacterial oxidation
Bacterial oxidation occur in the pH interval between 0.5-6 but is most effective pH 2-3 and is
then the dominating process. The oxidation is partly direct on the sulphide mineral and partly on
iron depending which type of bacteria that is active. Three different bacteria are of importance:
Thiobacillus thiooxidans oxidise sulphur
Thiobacillus ferrooxidans oxidise sulphur and ferrous iron (Fe2+)
Ferrobacillus ferrooxidans oxidise ferrous iron
Weathering due to bacterial processes is 10 times up to 1 billion times faster than chemical
oxidation by oxygen.
Buffering capacity.
The dissolving or mineralising of minerals and metals are dependent of the pH. As will as the
sulphide minerals weather, other mineral with buffering capacity (mainly calcite) are also
weathering. The oxidation of the sulphide mineral takes place at the surface of the tailing dam.
Often an enrichment zone is established beneath the oxidised zone. If the buffering minerals
exceed the acid forming minerals the leakage of metals from tiling dam are small, but to
neutralise a certain amount of sulphur ions demands three time as much Calcite ions.
The buffering capacity therefore is often only delaying the leakage and the real environmental
impact from a tailing dam can be revealed first after 50-100 years.
Ways of preventing weathering.
In order to prevent weathering the transport of oxygen must be stopped or reduced. Important
means of oxygen transport is diffusion in air (and water), air-density variation, movements of
oxygenated water.
A barrier preventing these oxygen movements must be constructed. Two methods are used
internationally.
A capping layer of a non-permeable soil material
A permanent water coverage of at least 1 metre depth.

80
The first method will minimise the seepage out of the dam and increase the stability of the dam,
as the groundwater table will sink. The capping material must be dense with a relatively high
water holding capacity to avoid oxygen diffusion. The material could be natural material as clay,
silty, clay, peat or glacial till. It could also be cement mixed with ashes (cefyll) or geo- textile.
Other possible material are tailing material where the Pyrite is removed or limestone grinded
into a silt fraction using the production line in the dressing plant.
The second method is only applicable when the dam is situated where a pond or lake naturally
could exist. That is where the water balance is positive. This method is not recommended if the
oxidation of the tailing material has been in progress for some time. This because of the
increased seepage will induce.
In dry areas with a water deficit a tailing dam with fine material will have a negative water
balance and not emit leakage from bottom of the dam. The fine material will prevent oxygen
diffusion under a certain depth and a soil profile will be establish with a oxidised layer at surface
followed by an enrichment layer and unoxidised material underneath. This profile resembles a
podzol profile found in natural soils in moist tempered areas. It`s important that the oxidised
layer not gets eroded and thus exposing more Pyrite to oxidation.
Finally, another way of preventing leakage of metals and acid is to raise the pH by lime. The
lime could either be spread on the surface of the dam or put into a deposit pond at the outlet.
This method demand maintenance and can not be recommended in a long-term operation.
Rehabilitation
To prevent the deterioration of the situation and to stop the further erosion it is necessary
immediate intervention according to a rehabilitation of it
Implementation of rehabilitation project will enable the interruption of deterioration of dams
situation (state), will arrange all elements of dams and will save these dams from their inevitable
collapse.
If it`s possible to establish vegetation on the dam this is the most coat-effective way of
preventing erosion.
Conclusions and recommendations
The dams are deposing places of the wastes of copper dressing plant Kurbnesh.
In these dams are deposed about 2 million tons tailings (wastes).
These dams are not maintained from the year of 1994.
In the body of dams are created cracks in the form of canyons and holes which continuously
enlarge.
The material of dams from the cracks and holes has gone and still is going in Uraka River.
The dams are a potential polluting source for the zone around and for Uraka River.
The pollution from the dams of Kurbnesh is transmitted from Uraka River to the Ulza artificial
lake, in the Mati River up to the Adriatic Sea.
The state (situation) of dams is going to be deteriorated more and more, towards a possible
collapse.
It is recommended an immediate intervention for situation improvement.
It is recommended the compilation of a Project for Rehabilitation of dams.

Litterature:
[1]. Sweco International in association with I.T.N.P.M. Tirana, Albania Fani River
Environmental Rehabilitation Programme. 1999.

81
The managing system used to construct the dam, e.g. by subaqueous or subareal deposition.
The geotechnical characteristics of the deposited tailings, which include characteristics that
arise from the methods of deposition and operation. [3]
Features built into the outer slope, e.g under-drainage systems, possible underlining systems
etc.
The rate of rise of the tailings (which controls the pore water pressures and should be
appropriate for other features in the design). The presence or absence of seismic activity.
An assessment of short and long-term erosion from the slopes.
Slow deterioration actions. Erosion
Erosion of tailings caused by water can be both internal and external. The internal erosion
occurs where hydraulic gradients exist and where a flow path such as an abandoned buried
pipe is present. External erosion occurs mainly at the slopes and the erosion rate is influenced
by factors like slope gradient, slope length, compactness of tailings and precipitation. The slope
angle is not only important for stability reasons.
In order to prevent erosion, controlling the precipitation flow is the most important single task. A
crest wall at the dam front prevents the precipitation falling in the top of the dam to ruf off the
slope at the dam front. [4] Dividing walls on the top will also control water movements but this
will keep the water on the top of the dam and in some case influence the stability of the dam in a
negative way. Runoff from surroundings should be kept away from the dam by tranches,
channels etc.
Siltation or sedimentation of fine material in the open channels ditches etc, is a problem for-long
term safety and must be taken into consideration. Adequate capacity and freeboard should be
built in the constructions or ongoing post closure maintenance will be required.
Weathering
Weathering of sulphide minerals is due to oxidation and can be both chemical and biological.
Factors that control or enhance weathering is:
Oxygen content
The minerals tendency of weathering
Moisture of tailings
Temperature
pH
Pyrites have the highest tendency of weathering and other minerals as Chalcopyrites and
Sphalerites obtain enhanced weathering by Pyrite.
The weathering products are sulphate-and hydrogen ions and metal ions as iron, copper and
zinc. The production of hydrogen ions will lower the pH value and the weathering will accelerate.
A low pH will keep the heavy metals in solution and these follow the water movements in the
tailing dam.[1]
Weathering processes.
As mentioned above weathering is due to both chemical and biological processes. Manly there
are tree different processes that can weather sulphide minerals.
Chemical oxidation by oxygen
Chemical oxidation by ferric iron (Fe3+)
Bacterial oxidation

82
[2] Shushku. B, Goskolli E, and other. Annual report: Environmental situation in industrial
sites. Year, 2010;
Tirana, Albania
[3] Mema. I, Shushku, and other Annual report: Environmental situation in industrial sites
Year 2011.
[4] Shushku. B, Tomini. G, and other Annual report: Environmental situation in industrial
sites Year 2012
[5] Mema. I, Shushku and other. Monitoring of closed and abandoned mines, Year 2013,
[6] Goskolli. E, Boci. S, and other. Monitoring of dams, enrichment plants and massive
stocks, mining wastes in country. Year 2003

83
 DETERMINATION OF THE ATMOSPHERIC RADIATION
INTHE PROXIMITY OF THE MUD-SETTING PONDS FROM
THE THERMAL POWER PLANT PAROSENI AND POSSIBLE
EFFECTS ON THE VEGETATION DEVELOPMENT

Andreea Cristina TATARU 1, Dorin TATARU 2, Aurora STANCI3, Sorin Mihai RADU4,
Marin Silviu NAN5
1, 2, 3, 4, 5
University of Petrosani, Petrosani, Romania, e-mail [email protected]

ABSTRACT
Through exploitation the coal are brought to the surface some of the radioactive elements in
the earth's crust. Coal used in the process of Thermo-electric power station (CET) Paroseni
produce from burning slag and ash, which is deposited in the Valley Caprisoara. It is known
that, radioactive elements in the coal not burn and not oxidize, so that radioactive waste of ash
is more concentrated. In this paper we propose to determine the distribution of radionuclides in
ash and slag in deposits and surrounding areas. As a case study to observe atmospheric
radiation effects on plants, was irradiated wheat in different stages of development. These
measurements are necessary because the nature and energy of radiation emitted are
conditional of ways the irradiation of organisms. Type your abstract in this field based on the
following rules and it must be in English language. It should concisely state what was done,
how it was done, principal results, and their significance. The abstract is limited to 400 words in
length and cannot contain equations, figures, tables, or references. It should be written in a
single column as justified and words should not be hyphenated. The author could provide up to
5 keywords (in alphabetical order) to help identify the major topics of the paper.

KEYWORDS
radioactivity, ash and slag, environment pollution

1. INTRODUCTION

Assessment of environmental factors in an area at a time is given by air quality, water, soil, the
health of the population, the scarcity of plant and animal species recorded. The man contributes
to the environmental changes through its various activities, household or technological. The
mining and energy industries are the most powerful factors of environmental pollution they are
responsible for air, water and soil pollution. The mining operations of coal, by technological
activities, bring to the surface natural radioactive isotopes found in the depths of the Earth.
Natural radioactive isotopes can enter into the chemical elements of the biosphere or stand as
material deposits, raising the level of radioactivity in the area above the normal.

84
2. THEORETICAL CONSIDERED

Thermo-electric power station Paroseni is one of the sources of pollution in the Jiu Valley by
emissions on the chimney and ash stored in the deposits of ash and slag that results from
technological process.
Thermo-electric power station Paroseni is situated on a lower terrace on the right bank of the
river Jiu, near the town of Vulcan, at 8-10 m from the railway Vulcan Paroseni Lupeni. This
location was determined by the existence of numerous coal mining in the area. It is bordered to
the north with the railway Livezeni Lupeni, south with Route DN 66 Livezeni - Uricani, east
access road to Paroseni Mining Exploitation and west of the river Jiu of West. Thermo-electric
power station Paroseni is a electrical plant of heating with cogeneration that provides electricity
and heat. Works with coal as a base fuel and provides heat for the residents of the four mining
towns in the area, namely: Petrosani, Vulcan, Lupeni, Aninoasa. For producing electricity the
power plants use as a source of primary fuel, fossil fuels. The chemical elements that by
reaction with oxygen develop heat (exothermic reactions) are coal, hydrogen and sulphur. The
final product resulting from the burning of coal is carbon dioxide, water and sulphur dioxide.
Solid fuels, towards others fuel, contain and much sterile, which is to be found in the process of
combustion in the form of slag and ashes. All products resulting from the combustion of solid
fuel are pollutants, in the sense that they are changing the balance in the external environment,
or acting directly on the animal and plant kingdom.
Solid fuels contain natural radioactive isotopes in natural concentrations which by burning lead
to concentration in the combustion products. Radioactive isotopes in the products of
combustion, which escapes into the atmosphere (gas, smoke and fly ash), broadcasts under the
action of air currents and they are lodged gradually on soil, water and vegetation, causing the
radioactive contamination of them.
By burning coal, results slag that settle on the furnace bottom the ash that escapes from filters
of the chimney and get into the atmosphere, from where they are deposited on the soil, and
hot gases and volatile.
Radioactivity of the coal and ash is mainly given by the content of uranium, thorium, potassium,
and radium (over 80%) (Mauna & Mauna Aren, 2008). The average concentration of 238U and
232Th in charcoal is 20 Bq/kg and that of 40K is 50 Bq/kg, but can vary by orders of size
(UNSCEAR, 2000). So, the accumulation of uranium in coal can vary from place to place
depending on the deposit and the geological period in the region. In the coal of Romania were
found value to six times more and for 40K and for 238 U the values are twice as large.
(Botezatu et al., 2002). In addition one can find radionuclides by 235 U, 214 Pb, and trace
amounts of bismuth, polonium etc. After the data provided and published by Bradley (1993) it
shows that these radionuclides are mainly responsible for the emission of radiation.
The filters installed at the chimneys of power stations do not fully retain fly ash and radon,
which are released entirely into the atmosphere, which leads to an increasing atmospheric
radioactivity. To this increased radioactivity it is added the contribution of its descendants
210Pb, 214B, which are fixed on aerosols. This power plant that uses solid fuels to produce
electricity burn huge amounts of fuel, which leads to emanations of fly ash and radioactive
isotopes in atmosphere that can not be neglected because they are causing radioactive
pollution of the environment. The produced radioactive pollution should not be neglected
because it is continuous pollution. Population living in areas affected by radioactive pollution
produced by power plants based on burning fossil fuels annually receive an additional dose of
300-500 Sv/year.

3. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

Radioactive isotopes of potassium 40K and radioactive elements by uranium and thorium series
are the main elements that give natural radioactivity to rocks. The energies of gamma radiation
85
emitted by the radioactive elements are distinct for each item. Potassium emits gamma
radiation with energy of 1.46 MeV while uranium and thorium series emits gamma radiation of
different values. Fly ash released trough the chimneys, the fine dust of ash driven by the wind
from the dumps of slag-ash and the coal dust derived from deposits of coal or from the
transportation and its preparation together constitute a solid contaminant, that is found in the
form of aerosol, are the pollution factors from Thermo-electric power station Paroseni area.
Monitoring reports to environmental factors prepared by Environmental Protection Agency
Western Region shows that the dumps produce, especially in summer, a important pollution of
air with powders (because ash is dry and the wind is taken). To determine the radioactive
pollution of the atmosphere in the Thermo-electric power station Paroseni area, measurements
were performed gamma absorbed dose rate in air during the months of July and November
2014, with Gamarad-DL7 radiations detector.Measurements were performed in the Thermo-
electric power station Paroseni area and in downtown Vulcan and the results are presented in
the graphs in figures 1 and 2.

Month of July
0,4
0,35
Dose rate [Sv/h]

0,3
0,25
0,2
Center Vulcan
0,15
Area CET Paroseni
0,1
0,05
0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31
Day

Figure 1: The radioactive pollution of the atmosphere in the month of July

Month of November
0,3
Dose rate [Sv/h]

0,25

0,2

0,15
Center Vulcan
0,1 Area CET Paroseni
0,05

0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31
Day

Figure 2: The radioactive pollution of the atmosphere in the month of November

From experimental measurements is observed the flow rates dose are high in the Thermo-
electric power station Paroseni area, exceeding permissible limit value 0.250 Sv / h, while the
town of Vulcan measured values are below the limits set for the European Union.Flow rates of
the dose are high in the ash and slag deposit due to the presence in it of radioactive elements
exceeding permissible limit value 0.250 Sv/h, even in neighbouring areas (figure 3). Plants are
living organisms that accumulate radiation from environment. An exceeded limit radiation in the
atmosphere can lead to the decrease in the ability to achieve plant photosynthesis, which
reduces the level of development of plants, and can also lead to death.

86
 0,7

0,6

Dose rate [Sv/h]

0,5

0,4
Deposit
0,3 10 meters of deposit
0,2 20 meters of deposit

0,1

0
11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Day

Figure 3: The radioactive pollution of the atmosphere in the month of November The radioactive
pollution of the atmosphere in the ash and slag deposit, and the surrounding areas

Depending on the time of exposure and the amount of accumulated radiation there are studies
showing that plants may suffer genetic mutations affecting the descending generations.

4. CONCLUSIONS

Following the technological process of Thermo-electric power station Paroseni radioactive

elements are released into the atmosphere with fly ash and radon, which cannot be retained by
the filters in the chimneys. Of measurements made during two months it observed a higher
dose rate in the Thermo-electric power station Paroseni towards centre of Vulcan, faster growth
in the month of July, when we add the dust pollution high from slag and ash deposits. The slag
and ash from furnace falling into a water bath, is off, removed and inserted into a crusher for
shredding. From crushing the slag is mixed with water and transported in ash and slag deposit
from Caprisoara Valley. Dose rate measurements in this area indicate a high content of
radioactive elements, both on the surface of the deposit and the surrounding areas. Even if the
dose rate values are not very large, radioactive pollution is an important factor of pollution by
the large amount of ash and slag discharged (about 130,000 m3). Radionuclides existing in the
environment can be transferred to humans through water or food, great importance has 40K by
fact it is primarily responsible for radiation dose received by humans. Radon is stored in the
atmosphere air, in the particles of dust and water droplets, and by inhalation, reaches the lungs
being a high risk of disease. Atmospheric radiation exceeding the maximum allowable may have
adverse effects on vegetation. Atmospheric radiation reduces the development of the plants,
leading even to death.

5. REFERENCES

Claudiu Margin, Mircea Moldovan, Andra Rada Iurian, Dan Constantin Ni Gabriel
[1] Dobrei, Constantin Cosma, Radioactivity Srmag lignite, Salaj county, Ecoterra, no.
29, 2011;
Ildiko Melinda Varga, Robert Begy, Dan Constantin Ni Constantin Cosma,
Preliminary results regarding the radioactivity level in the Zghid mining area
[2]
environmental, LES PRESSES AGRONOMIQUES DE GEMBLOUX & BIOFLUX
PUBLISHING HOUSE, ISBN 978-606-8191-14-0, 2011, p.196-210A.
Marcu Gh., Marcu Teodora, Radioactive elements - environmental pollution and
[3]
radiation risks, Technical Publishing House, Bucureti, 1995
Maunat T., Mauna A. A., 2008 - The coal burning product radioactivity, WEC regional
[4]
Energy Forum FORENT Reference no S5-14-en, 7 pp

87
88
 PLOTTING DISPERSION MAPS OF POLLUTANT
CONCENTRATIONS RESULTED FROM MINING ACTIVITIES
WITH THE USE OF SPECIALISED SOFTWARE

Angelica CLMAR 1, George Artur GMAN 2, Daniel PUPZAN 3, Marius KOVACS4

1
INCD INSEMEX, Petroani, Romania, [email protected]
2
INCD INSEMEX, Petroani, Romania, [email protected]
3
INCD INSEMEX, Petroani, Romania, [email protected]
4
INCD INSEMEX, Petroani, Romania, [email protected]

ABSTRACT
Ensuring the balance between economic growth and environmental protection for social and
perspective development represents the new concept, based on which the governments of many
countries are rethinking their economic strategies, concept called "sustainable development",
presented for the first time in the Brundtland Report - "Our common future ".
Mining industry, through the activities developed, discharges significant quantities of dust and
gases into the atmosphere, with impact both on human health and the surrounding areas.
Pollutant emissions can be estimated by applying methods for estimating harmful substances
dispersion into the atmosphere (based on emission factor "e") or by computer programs and
dispersion modeling.
The present paper presents the monitoring of main pollutants (CH4, CO, CO2, NO2, particulate
matter) and drawing of pollutant concentrations dispersion maps using the Austal View program
that allows the viewing of the pollutants distribution on the surface under study.

KEYWORDS
dispersion maps, environment, pollution, software, dusts, gases.

1. Overview
Nowadays, environment protection must be treated as a major community problem.
Human desire to harness natural resources always affected environmental condition.
From environmental protection perspective, industry represents the most important area of
human activity. Industrial development hadnt had in mind the fact that actual progress of human
society depends not only on the goods it offers, but also on the damage caused to the
environment.
Through its various branches, industry affects all environmental factors (air, water, soil,
flora, and fauna), causing damage to human health, property or the environment.
Mining industry causes environmental damage both during extraction phase as well as
during transport, storage and preparation stages. Surface drawing requires impairment of

89
important areas of land, together with adjacent flora and fauna. Underground extraction involves
excavations that weaken soil stability, including the areas resistance to earthquakes, influencing
groundwater condition. Extraction, as well as other phases mentioned above, is accompanied by
both significant emission of dusts and gases having major impact on human health and
surrounding areas, and occurrence of environmental factors pollution.
To a larger or smaller extent, all industrial activities affect all environmental factors, leading
to pollution and environmental impact phenomenon, almost every technological process having the
design described in fig. no. 1.

Fig. 1 Interaction between industrial processes and environment

Mining activity, regardless of how it is performed, always leads to long term negative
effects for the environment.
Extracting useful minerals produces obvious effects when performed using explosives,
either by noise pollution (noise) or by large amounts of dust emissions, causing major damage to
vegetation in surrounding areas. Extracting by mechanical means produces noise due to
equipment operation (permanent noise).
Depending on geomechanical properties of rocks, operational depth and methods used,
exploiting underground deposits can lead to terrain sinking, thus affecting agricultural land and
forestry, construction, hydrographic and communication networks etc.
Typical steps of the ore deposit extraction process are extraction, followed by ore
processing and not least the transport and management of waste left over from processing.
All types of activities taking place in mining industry adversely affect flora and fauna and,
generally, the entire ecosystem of the area in which the extraction takes place. The impact may be
direct or indirect, immediate or deferred, its effects only rarely being limited to the place of the
extractive activity, them being also extended to the surrounding territories. Usually, affecting a
single environmental factor has effects upon the entire ambient system.

2. Sources of pollution in mining industry

The main sources of air pollution with industrial dust and gases are: emissions of dusts and
gases from mine venting stations, particulate matter from quarry blasting operations, from tailing
loading and unloading operations, from ore pre breakage and in particular from tailings and
mineral substances technological transport using cable ways, belt conveyors, dumpers or quarry
cars inside operating buildings or processing plants. Also, in many cases particulate matter
pollution is observed, originated from ore and coal dry preparation plants, particulate and fire
gases pollution originated from thermal power plants using solid or liquid fuel, operating within
mining and preparation units, pollution with gases resulted from technological processes etc.
Over the years, systematic measurements of air pollution generated by industrial activities
were made in Romanias main mine grounds, results of analyzes and measurements leading to the
conclusion that in each unit there are areas where concentrations of pollutant gases and content
of particulate matter exceed thresholds established by Romanian norms in force.

90
 The concept of Mine Life Cycle Management (Life Cycle Management - LCM) refers to
incorporating and addressing all stages of the mines life, in terms of environmental management
and sustainable development (FOURIE I BRENT, 2006).

Fig. 2 General model of a mines life cycle (after FOURIE I BRENT, 2006 modified)

The impact of mining and extractive industries on the environment can be analyzed by
reference to the following statistical issues associated with mining cycles (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3 Ecologic impact of mining and extractive industry (Grdinaru, 2002)

Environmental impact assessment is crucial for remediation and ecological restoration,

representing the basis for management practices. Environmental assessment ranges from local
biota inventory, determination of contaminants in the environment and organisms, environmental
impact assessments up to environmental risk assessments for a given substance or any other
disruptive factor.
3. Pollutant dispersion and dispersion models
Emissions of air pollutants do not remain at the sources where they were released. As the
move away from their source, they are dispersed into the air due to physical or chemical
phenomena. In some areas they are deposited on the ground or decomposed, self-purification of
the atmosphere being achieved.
Distance at which atmospheric air properties can be restored is dependent on one hand on
pollutants concentration, and on the other hand on meteorological and topographical factors.

91
 In Romania, air pollution was regulated by STAS 12574/87 issued by the Ministry of Health
and by Law 104/2011 on ambient air quality. Air quality is defined by the maximum allowable
concentrations (C.M.A. g/m3) of various pollutants in protected areas air.
Pollutants dispersion has been extensively studied and based on researches conducted
various laws and relations were established, subsequently used in calculating concentration of
pollutants in the atmosphere.
Although the number of factors that influence the phenomenon of pollutants dispersion in
the environment is high, attempts were made, within certain simplifying assumptions, to model the
process on short, medium or long term. It is of great importance that models are certified by in
situ measurements and statistical processing.
Dispersion models can be diagnostic or prognosis models.
The biggest problems in practical analysis of air pollution occur in urban areas where air
flow is significantly altered by the roughness of surfaces covered by buildings.
There are many theoretical methods for forecasting the diffusion, for comparison with field
measurements and with laboratory diffusion experiments. These methods include models based on
spectral diffusion and turbulent motion and small perturbations simulations. Thus, we mention the
following dispersion models: Gaussian, Taylor, Carlo, Langevin etc.
The most practical applications of dispersion models use a simple model, namely "Gaussian
plume model" in which determination of pollutant concentration is calculated using the formula
Q y 2 z H 2 z H 2
C exp exp (1)
2 y x 2 2 2 2 2 2
y z z
Where:
C Pollutant concentration (kg/m3);
Q Pollutant weight rate in spot source (kg/s);
H Actual stack height above ground (m);
y Side distance from plume center (m);
z Height above ground (m).

Lately special attention is given to studying dispersion of pollutants emitted into the
atmosphere by multiple or isolated pollution sources, with continuous or accidentally operation
mode, because it is increasingly clear that human activities have caused a "disruption" of
environmental equilibrium.
One of the least expensive ways of action against air pollution is mathematical modeling.
Mathematical modeling of pollutant dispersion in the atmosphere consists in estimating
concentrations of pollutants on soil and in air depending on the characteristics of pollution sources,
weather conditions, physical and chemical transformation processes that may occur to pollutants in
the atmosphere and their interaction with ground surface.

4. Pollutant dispersion modeling for areas surrounding venting stations

using a specialized program
Underground and surface activities generate significant amounts of dusts and gases that
pollute both mining area and the environment.
Both underground gases (CH4, SOx, NOx, CO i CO2) and particulate matter are largely
discharged on surface through venting stations. It is noted that CH4 and CO2 result naturally from
bedding and dusts and other gases are the result of underground technological work / processes.
Given that mineral substances and rock material extraction activities have a negative
impact on the environment by discharging air pollutants, the staff of Laboratory of Environmental
Protection within INSEMEX NRDI Petrosani conducted a series of measurements regarding gas
concentrations emitted by main venting stations in Jiu Valley mines.
Measurement of particulate and gas emissions were made gravimetrically (for dusts) and
instrumentally (for gases) using the ISOSTACK BASIC automatic isokinetic sampling system and
Multigas Orion Plus portable devices.

92
 5. Drawing dispersion maps
Any complete monitoring system for air quality and environment in general should be
structured in four parts, following the pollutants causal chain "generation - transfer - air
quality - effects".
Thus, the structure of air quality monitoring system is based on four modules:
- Monitoring of pollutants emissions and sources (EMISSIONS);
- Monitoring of decisive parameters for pollutants transfer and diffusion (TRANSFER);
- Monitoring imissions (IMISSIONS);
- Monitoring of air pollution effects (EFFECTS).
Pollutant dispersion and deposition are strongly influenced by weather conditions (air
temperature and pressure, etc.) such as wind speed and direction and atmospheric turbulence.
Pollutant dispersion modeling techniques represent a very useful tool in solving the issues
of being in the known and assessment of air quality, techniques whose application requires an
inventory of emissions. Results derived through mathematical modeling, either compensate or
make up for results obtained through monitoring.
Austal View program allows dispersion modeling for pollutants emitted from one or more
sources and also completes a chart of the current situation as well as forecast critical scenarios,
proposed by the operator.
Software entry data take into account:
- Selection at source of dust and gas emissions area;
- Representation of the source position based on its coordinates in the selected plan;
- Location of targets, respectively receptors (height and form of construction);
- Determination of dispersion calculation grid;
- Pollution source Technical parameters (H, S);
- Gaseous effluent aerodynamic parameters (effluent flow, pollutants weight rate, air
speed);
- Source state parameters (T, W);
- Climatic parameters (T, ambient Wair, Pb, prevailing wind speed and direction);
- Pollutant nature (40 dust and gas pollutants);
- Pollutant concentration;
- Characterization of land morphology.
Using the obtained values and microclimate parameters needed to assess / analyze
dispersion, measured pollutants concentration dispersion (dust, CO, NO2 and SO2) was plotted by
using Austal View specialized software and by implementation of isoconcentrations over the site
plan.

Fig. 4 Dust concentration dispersion plotting Fig. 5 NO2 concentration dispersion plotting

93
Fig. 6 SO2 concentration dispersion plotting Fig.7 CO2 concentration dispersion plotting for
for venting station Suitor Central Lupeni mine venting station Suitor Central Lupeni mine
ventilator V1 emission source ventilator V1 emission source

From the graphical representation it is noticeable that dust and gas imissions generated by
pollutants emission from venting station Suitor Central Lupeni mine and venting station Put Est-
Uricani mine do not exceed the limit value and / or threshold established by Order no. 104 /2011.

5. Conclusions
Operational system for air pollution forecasting consists of a number of different air
pollution modeling, with the most important pollutants, at different scales.
The use of dispersion models able to predict the pollution degree allows for the
development of strategic plans to ensure the security zone around major pollution sources.
The main objectives of the system are: air pollution forecasts, now casting, scenarios,
retrospective analysis, as well as public information and warning in case of pollution exceeding the
maximum allowed concentrations.
Maximum allowed concentrations of pollutants emissions, specified by Order 462/1993
issued by Ministry of Waters, Forests and Environmental Protection (now replaced by Law
278/2013) are designed to protect people and ecosystems from harmful effects of these
substances.
Meteorological agents (horizontal air movement and upward convection, precipitation) have
the leading role in the diffusion and dilution of pollutants, in air self-purification.
Measurements of gas and dust emissions made during July and August for both studied
venting stations were performed gravimetrically (for dusts) using the ISOSTACK BASIC automatic
isokinetic sampling system and instrumentally (for gases) using the Multigas Orion Plus portable
equipment.
The measured values of particulate and gas emissions at the mentioned venting stations
do not exceed the pollutants weight rate or the maximum permissible concentration specified by
Order 462/1993 issued by MAPPM.
Graphic representation of measured pollutant dispersion (dust and gases) was performed
by using the Austal View specialized software and by implementation of isoconcentrations over the
site plan of Suitor Central premises pertain to venting station SUITOR CENTRAL, respectively over
de site plan of Put Est premises.
The measured values of particulate and gas imissions for venting station SUITOR
CENTRAL (Lupeni mine) and venting station Put Est (Uricani mine) do not exceed the limit value
and / or the threshold established by Law 104/2011 on ambient air quality.

94
 Table 1 shows emissions of particulate and gases station measured at venting station
SUITOR GENERAL (Lupeni mine) and venting station Put Station East (Uricani mine).
ISOSTACK BASIC automatic sampling system allows particulate and gases sampling at
discharge shafts in isocinetism conditions; this means that the sampling rate must be set so that
speed of effluent entering the sampling nozzle and velocity of the gas in the shaft are equal. In
choosing the location and distribution of sampling points we had in view that the gas flow is not
always laminar, and the granulometric distribution of particulates is not uniform.
Table no1 shows that measured values of gas and particulate emission at aforementioned
venting stations do not exceed the pollutant weight rates or maximum permissible concentration
specified by Order 462/1993.
We also had in view that explaining dust and gases emission data, must be made according
to the technological processes carried out underground (which represent the main sources of dust
and gas formation) such as e.g. drilling, blasting, cleaning + reinforcement, coal unloading from
bench, lifting beams, taking of props and so on.
Given either the distances from foreheads to ventilation furnace, or the small quantities of
ammunition used in blasting or the use of effective countermeasures systems (sprays discharges,
fog curtains, etc.) there were slight differences in dust and gas concentrations values during
monitoring interval. Thus, concentrations of particulate for main dust generating activities (shearer
cutting, punching, cutting from CA, sections stepping, coal unloading from bench, taking of props
etc.) is up to 2.94 times higher than the activities not representing dust sources. During the time
after blasting, gas concentration measured at the ventilation comb is higher, as follows:
- For SO2 of 1.14 times;
- For NO2 - 0.68 times;
- For CO2 - 1.32 times;
- For CO - 1.02 times.

95
 6. References

1. Fourie A., Brand AC, A project based Mine Closure Model (MCM) for sustainable asset life
cycle management. Journal of Cleaner Production 14 (12-13), 1085-1095, 2006
2. Gradinaru G. - Economy and the environment, an emerging approach, Journal of Economic
Informatics, no. 2 (22) / 2002, Inforec Publishing, Bucharest
3. INCD INSEMEX Petrosani NUCLEU Program, Computer modeling of particulate dust and
gas dispersion in venting stations from Jiu Valley mines, PN-07 45 02 14 / 2010-2011
4. Fodor Dumitru - Mining and the Environment, Corvin Publishing, Deva, 2015
5. *** Law no. 104/2011 on ambient air quality
6. *** MAPPM Order No. 462/1993 on Technical Requirements on protection of the
atmosphere

96
EVALUAREA IMPACTULUI ACTIVITILOR MINIERE, DIN
CARIERELE BAZINULUI JIL, ASUPRA SUPRAFEELOR DE
TEREN I SOLUII DE REABILITARE
Mioara Brujan (Predoiu) 1, Ilie Rotunjanu 2,
1
University of Petrosani, Petrosani, Romania , E-mail
2
University of Petrosani, Petrosani, Romania , E-mail

ABSTRACT
Exploatarea minier la zi afecteaz mediul nconjurtor, pe de o parte, prin modificarea
peisajului, iar pe de alt parte, prin intervenia brutal a carierelor n procesele i ritmurile
naturale, ale ecosistemelor. Toate aceste efecte au condus la apariia unui conflict de interese
ntre necesitatea extragerii materiilor prime minerale i cerinele privind protecia mediului ntr-o
asemenea msur nct ntreprinderile miniere au nceput s fie privite ca distrugtoare de
mediu.
Cu toate c efectele negative ale exploatrii miniere la zi sunt importante i de
necontestat, aceast ramur industrial are la ndemn posibiliti multiple de minimizare a
impactului negativ asupra mediului i, mai mult dect att, de reconstituire a zonelor afectate.

KEYWORDS
exploatri miniere la zi, suprafee, activitate haldare, evaluare impact, reconstrucie ecologic.

1. DATE GENERALE

Terenurile reprezint o resurs finit, fragil i neregenerabil i includ solul, care este
important n special pentru agricultur; coperta vegetal, care este important pentru mediu i
peisajele, care reprezint o component important a habitatului uman i a bunstrii. Noiunea
de "teren" desemneaz, pe de o parte, suprafaa disponibil pentru o anumit utilizare, iar pe
de alt parte, o form concret de prezentare a suprafeei Pmntului. /Lazr M., 2010/
Astfel terenul poate fi considerat ca fiind: zona delimitabil a suprafeei terestre a Pmntului,
care cuprinde toate atributele biosferei aflate imediat deasupra sau sub aceast suprafa,
inclusiv climatul din apropierea suprafeei, solul i formele de relief, apele de suprafa (inclusiv
lacurile puin adnci, rurile i mlatinile), stratele de roci sedimentare aflate aproape de
suprafa i asociate resurselor de ape subterane, comunitile vegetale i animale, modelul
rezidenial uman i rezultatele fizice trecute i prezente ale activitii umane (terasri,
rezervoare de ap sau structuri de canalizare, drumuri, cldiri etc.).

97
2. AMPLASAREA GEOGRAFIC

Only Din punct de vedere administrativ, bazinul minier Jil este situat n partea sud-vestic a
judeului Gorj, pe teritoriul comunelor Mtsari, Dragoteti, Slivileti i Negomir.
Se ntinde ntre aliniamentele localitilor Brdeel, la nord, tiucani, Miculeti i Slivileti, la
vest, Corobai i Strmtu la sud i Negomir i Timieni la est, pe o suprafa de cca. 65 ha.
n figura 1 este prezentat o vedere de ansamblu a celor dou cariere, Jil Sud i Jil Nord, cu
ncadrarea lor n bazinul Jil, precum i cu extinderea actual.

Figure 1: Carierele Jil Sud i Jil Nord Equations

3. IMPORTANA ANALIZELOR DE IMPACT

Pentru nelegerea problemelor i conceptelor unui proces de evaluare a impactului asupra

mediului, trebuie definite noiunile i termenii de baz cu care opereaz acesta /Lazr M.,
Dumitrescu I., 2006/.
A. Procedura de evaluare a impactului asupra mediului este un instrument proces pentru
realizarea unei politici preventive i reprezint o aplicaie a principiului "cea mai bun politic
ecologic const n evitarea de la nceput a polurii i a altor accidente ambientale, mai degrab
dect combaterea succesiv a efectelor ".
B. Procedura de evaluare a impactului asupra mediului este un sistem suport al deciziilor.
Studiile de impact nu pot fi reduse la faza de descriere, ci trebuie s ajung la o evaluare,
pentru a oferi autoritilor competente elementele de decizie, stabilind n mod tiinific efectele
posibile asupra mediului nconjurtor ale aciunilor ce trebuie ntreprinse.
C. Procedura de evaluare a impactului asupra mediului, n ceea ce privete procesul de decizie,
explic potenialurile majore ale mai multor alternative ntre care se face alegerea; adic pune
problema definirii alternativelor proiectului, cuprinznd i alternativa zero, a analizrii
impacturilor innd seama de durata prevzut pentru proiect i a comparrii alternativelor n
cadrul unui sistem dat de obiective i/sau conexiuni.
D. Exist evaluri ale impactului asupra mediului cu diferite nivele de aprofundare, n funcie de
momentul procesului decizional n care se afl procedura: faza iniial (studiu de fezabilitate),
faza intermediar (proiect de principiu), faza final (proiect executiv).
E. Prin intervenii sau aciuni care trebuie supuse procedurii de evaluare a impactului asupra
mediului, nu se neleg numai lucrrile aferente unui proiect, ci i instrumentele de plan,
programele, normele, deciziile care afecteaz direct sau indirect mediul nconjurtor.
F. Exist diferite persoane implicate n procesul de evaluare a impactului asupra mediului.
G. Procedura de evaluare a impactului asupra mediului trebuie neleas ca un proces de
participare a publicului, aceasta fiind una dintre funciunile principale ale procedurii.
H. n scopul unei serii de verificri tiinifice i a unei participri constructive, elaborarea
studiului de evaluare a impactului asupra mediului trebuie s fie ntotdeauna un proces corijabil
i, deci, ct se poate de transparent.

98
4. IMPACTURI NEGATIVE MANIFESTATE ASUPRA TERENURILOR

4.1. Ocuparea suprafeelor de teren i modificarea peisajului

Totalitatea alterrilor reversibile sau ireversibile, produse mediului este subordonat tehnicilor
i tehnologiilor adoptate pentru extragerea crbunelui, existnd foarte multe similitudini dar i
particulariti specifice fiecrei cariere din bazinele miniere din Oltenia.
n funcie de locul de amplasare al exploatrilor miniere s-au scos din circuitul agricol, silvic
(figura 2) i de alte folosine, suprafee mari de teren. (n tabelul 1 )
Table 1: Situaia suprafeelor de teren ocupate de activitatea minier n Bazinul Minier Jil

Influenele activitilor de decopertare i apoi de haldare asupra solului i stabilitii terenului se

manifest prin modificri ale microreliefului, prin sistematizri, nivelri ale terenului i prin
schimbarea categoriei de folosin i a potenialului de producie al solului existent.

Figure 2: Suprafa de teren scoas din circuitul silvic

Depozitarea sterilului provenit din activitatea de excavare n halde provoac alterri funcionale
sau distrugerea terenului n care este amplasat halda.

4.2. Impactul asupra solului i subsolului

Impactul produs de activitile de exploatare la zi a crbunelui asupra solului i subsolului este

un impact local i zonal n suprafa i volum, de lung durat i se refer la:
1. deranjarea echilibrului fizico-chimic al mediului geologic, produs de prospeciunile
geologice, hidrogeologice i geo-tehnice prin foraje, etc
2. afectarea solului i subsolului prin activitatea de construcie de cldiri, drumuri, etc;
3. distrugerea mediului geologic natural:
stratul de sol este recuperat de pe terenuri agricole dar imposibil de recuperat de pe
terenurile forestiere defriate, i ca urmare acesta este distrus;

99
 stratele de roci sunt dislocate, excavate, transportate i depozitate pe amplasamente pe
adncimi de ordinul zecilor i chiar sutelor de metri;
masele miniere rezultate, steril i util, dobndesc caracteristici geo-tehnice, diferite de
roca de baz;
dezechilibrul fizico-chimic n subsol produs de lucrrile de excavaii i haldare se extinde
i n zonele limitrofe perimetrului minier.

4.3. Activitatea de haldare

Amplasarea haldelor n bazinul minier al Olteniei, s-a fcut inndu-se cont ntr-o mic msur
de impactul asupra mediului impact vizual neplcut, distrugerea i ocuparea de mari suprafee
de teren, scoaterea acestor suprafee fie temporar fie pe o durat mai mare de timp din
circuitul economic, dar primordial a fost criteriul distan ct mai mic fa de cmpul carierei,
n cazul haldelor exterioare, ulterior dup dezvoltarea carierelor crendu-se condiiile
tehnologice s-a aplicat haldarea interioar.
La exploatarea lignitului n carierele din Oltenia /Fodor, D., 1995/, utiliznd tehnologii n flux
continuu, construirea haldelor se face cu maini de haldat de mari dimensiuni, de construcie
special cu funcionare continu, transbordoare cu bra n consol tip ARSB i A2RSB, aceste
utilaje depun sterilul n hald sub forma a dou trepte o treapt nainta i o supratreapt
(fig. 3).

Figure 3: Activitatea de haldare

Haldele de steril, n afara impactului negativ asupra mediului, al depozitelor de steril, pot
constitui, atunci cnd sunt amplasate sau construite necorespunztor, reale pericole pentru
zona adiacent, datorit riscurilor de deformare i alunecare care pot aprea.

5. EVALUAREA IMPACTULUI

Evaluarea impacturilor este faza n care se trece de la o estimare a impacturilor prevzute

asupra diverselor componente ambientale, la o evaluare a importanei pe care valoarea
prognozat pentru acea component sau factor ambientale o are ntr-un anumit context.
Se pune ntrebarea dac valoarea prognozat pentru diferii indicatori utilizai n fazele de
descriere i prognoz i pentru diferitele alternative vor produce variaii semnificative ale calitii
mediului i, n msura n care este posibil, de indicare a unei mrimi fa de o scar
convenional (de exemplu 1 -3) care permite compararea magnitudinii diferitelor impacturi i
de stabilire a unei serii de operaii pentru evaluarea impactului complex /Lazr M., Dumitrescu
I., 2006, Lazr M., Faur F., 2011/.
Pentru a evalua impactul asupra terenului generat de activitatea minier din bazinul Jil am
propus matricea prezentat n tabelul 2.

100
 Table 2: Matrice de impact pentru activitatea de exploatare a lignitului n bazinul minier Jil

Aciuni specifice exploatrii lignitului

Impactul
cumulat
Reconstrucie
Componeni ambientali Exploatare asupra
Defriri Descopertare Transport Haldare Asecri Devieri ecologic
lignit factorilor
de
mediu
Sol - -3 - -1 -3 -1 - -8 +3
Subsol - -3 -3 - - - - -6 -
Ape de suprafa - - - - - -2 -2 -4 -
Ape subterane - - - - - -3 - -3 +2
Vegetaie -3 -1 -1 -1 -2 -2 - -10 +3
Faun -3 - - -2 -2 - -1 -8 +2
Ecosisteme -3 -2 -2 -1 -2 -1 -2 -13 +2
Nivel de zgomot -1 -1 -1 -2 -1 - - -6 -
Morfologie - -3 -3 - -3 - -1 -10 +1
Peisaj -3 -3 -3 -1 -3 - -1 -14 +2
Mediu socio-economic -2/+1 - +3 - - - +1 -2/+5 +2
Microclimat -2 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 - -7 +1
Calitatea aerului -2 -1 -1 -1 -1 - - -6 +1
Disponibilitate de resurse -3 -2 -3 - - - -2 -10 +2
Riscuri - -1 -1 -1 -3 -1 - -7 -
Impactul cumulat al
-22/+1 -21 -19/+3 -11 -21 -11 -9/+1 -114/+5 +21
activitilor asupra terenului

101
Se poate observa majoritatea impacturilor generate de activitatea minier sunt negative, multe
dintre ele fiind i ireversibile sau reversibile pe termen lung.
Impacturile pozitive in de stimularea mediului socio-economic atta timp ct activitatea minier
susine majoritatea populaiei din zon i de scderea riscului de producere a inundaiilor ca
urmare a regularizrii i devierii cursurilor de ap.
Aa cum se poate observa n cazul defririlor putem aborda o dubl interpretare:
- pe de-o parte, odat defriate pdurile nu mai constituie o surs de venit (de importan
medie) pentru populaie, iar refacrea acestora este una de lung durat;
- pe de alta, valorificarea lemnului disponibil n momentul extinderii carierelor este o surs de
venit pe termen scurt.
Cu alte cuvinte defririle nu sunt un mod durabil de gestionare a pdurilor.
Pe baza documentaiilor studiate, caracteristicile mediului natural n zona studiat, parametrii
calitativi ai factorilor de medi i a observaiilor directe efectuate personal n zona bazinului
minier Jil, am efectuat o analiz, innd cont de componenii ambientali i sursele de poluare
identificate care a stat la baza acordrii notelor de bonitate.
APA
- disponibilul de ap - 7
- indicator fizico-chimici de calitate - 8
- bilanul hidric 6
- debitul anual 7
Valoare medie 7
SOLUL I SUBSOLUL
- relieful i topografia (panta terenului) 6
- suprafaa de teren afectat (fa de suprafaa concesionat) 5
- disponibilul de resurse neregenerabile 4
- contaminarea solului 7
- distrugerea echilibrului solului 4
- capacitatea agrochimic 7
Valoare medie 5,5
ATMOSFERA
- calitatea aerului 8
- regimul termic 8
- regimul pluviometric 7
- regimul eolian 7
Valoare medie 7,5
VEGETAIA I FAUNA
- suprafaa defriat i ocupat (fa de suprafaa concesionat) 4
- densitatea speciilor vegetale 6
- densitatea speciilor animale 5
- distrugerea habitatelor naturale 4
Valoarea medie 4,75
POPULAIA
- indicatori demografici - 8
- starea de sntate i calitatea vieii 7
- fenomene sociale 8
Valoarea medie 7,66

102
Metoda grafic, propus de V. Rojanski const n determinarea indicelui global de impact prin
raportul dintre suprafaa ce reprezint starea ideal a mediului i suprafaa ce reprezint starea
actual a mediului, astfel:
SI
IG I (1)
Sa

unde: SI suprafaa strii ideale a mediului;

Sa suprafaa strii actuale a mediului;
n situaia analizat, indicele global de impact s-a estimat prin raportarea suprafeelor celor
dou poligoane, reprezentate grafic n figura 4, valoarea indicelui global de impact fiind IGI =
2,26.
Evaluarea indicelui global de impact
APA
10
8
6 7

4
POPULAIA SOLUL I SUBSOLUL
7.66 2 5.5
0 Starea ideal
Starea real
4.75
7.5
VEGETAIA I FAUNA ATMOSFERA

Figure 4: Indicele global de impact

Aceast valoare, de 2,26 ne indic (n funcie de scara de apreciere a impactului ) c avem de-a
face cu un mediul supus activitii antropice este afectat, provocnd stare de disconfort
formelor de viat.

6. SOLUII DE REABILITARE
O reabilitare reuit a zonelor afectate de activitile miniere trebuie s rspund unei finaliti
clare (zon naturalistic, zon recreativ, zon industrial) i n cazul n care obiectivele nu sunt
compatibile ntre ele, este necesar s se aleag alte alternative bine motivate.
Este important s se abordeze problema reconstruciei ecologice innd cont de posibilitatea
recuperrii multiple a terenurilor. Utilizarea multipl a terenurilor presupune suprapunerea
diferitelor utilizri i funciuni ale terenului i cel mai important aspect aceste funciuni s se
completeze reciproc i s se ncadreze ambiental cu zonele vecine.
Oricare dintre tipurile de recuperare posibil de aplicat, trebuie s aib la baz un plan general
de amenajare nsoit de aprobrile necesare.
n ceea ce privete recomandarea pentru redarea n circuitul economic, se ine cont de o serie
de factori, dintre care cei mai importani sunt, recomandrile din planul general de amenajare
aprobat i pantele rezultate n urma modelrii suprafeei, cunoscut fiind faptul c pentru
terenurile acoperite cu vegetaie forestier, acestea nu trebuie s depeasc 30%, iar pentru
terenurile pretabile circuitului agricol, pantele trebuie s se situeze n intervalul 018%.
Recultivarea nu nseamn neaprat cultivarea unor culturi asemntoare cu cele de pe
terenurile zonale nconjurtoare, ci utilizarea acelor specii, tehnici de cultivare, de amendare,
fertilizare i semnat care s permit evoluia pozitiv a materialelor din halda amenajat,
acumularea de materie organic i, n final, dobndirea fertilitii.
Pentru instalarea cu succes a vegetaiei pe haldele rezultate din exploatrile miniere la zi Jilt
Sud si Jilt Nord este necesar aplicarea unui sistem de fertilizare i amendare specific.
Eterogenitatea materialelor haldate datorit excavrii i depunerii neselective n hald, conduce
la o variabilitate foarte mare a caracteristicilor fizico-chimice ale substratului supus recultivrii.
Plantare a puieilor de salcm se execut toamna sau primvara, dup efectuarea lucrrilor de
nivelare, afnare prin scarificare, arare i grpare.

103
Una din soluiile moderne de reutilizare a terenurilor degradate de activitatea minier pe care
am propus-o i acceptat de comunitatea din zona Jil o reprezint nfiinarea unei plantaii de
Paulownia pe una din haldele carierelor Jil.
O alt soluie este Miscanhtus Giganteus, cunoscut i sub numele de Iarba elefantului, este o
plant peren ce provine din Asia, iar pentru calitile energetice deosebite a fost adoptat cu
succes i n Europa.
De asemenea, s-a efectuat un studiu bibliografic asupra cerinelor speciilor i soiurilor de pomi
i de arbuti fructiferi fa de lumin fiind necesar la amplasarea lor pe terenurile n pant, n
raport cu punctele cardinale, la stabilirea distanelor optime de plantare, a desimii i formei
coroanei etc.
Crearea zonelor verzi, reprezint un mijloc important de combatere a aciunii factorilor poluani,
i de ameliorare a mediului de via al oamenilor.
Pentru reuita recultivrii i accelerarea acestui process, tratarea unitar a suprafeelor care
urmeaz s fie redate, realizarea unui landaft corespunztor din punct de vedere economic i
estetic, care s nu distoneze cu cadrul natural, este necesar ca pentru noile exploataii miniere
la zi, odat cu elaborarea documentaiilor pentru deschiderea noilor cariere s fie elaborat i un
studiu preliminar privind destinaia terenurilor care vor fi deveni libere de sarcini tehnologice i
urmeaz s fie reintroduse n circuitul economic.

CONCLUZII

Aceast activitate de evaluare a impactului este una deosebit de important n cadrul politicilor
de mediu la nivel naional, european i internaional n special n procesul decizional cu privire la
autorizarea unor activiti, n cazul de fa exploatrea zcmntului de lignit prin lucrri n
carier.
Pentru descrierea, identificarea i evaluarea impactului au fost utilizate metodele indicate de
literature de specialitate, i anume: metoda listelor de control, metoda reelelor i metoda
matricilor de impact.
n urma aplicrii acestor metode se poate afirma c impactul asupra terenurilor se manifest n
carierele de lignit din bazinul Jil, la nivelul tuturor factorilor ce intr n componena acestora
ap, aer, sol, subsol i implicit a vegetaiei, faunei, aezrilor umane i populaiei.

7. REFERENCES

Bbu, G., Bbu M.C. Legislaia proteciei mediului note de curs, Editura
[1]
Universitas, Petroani, 2012
Brujan (Predoiu) M. Situaia actual a carierelor de lignit din Bazinul Minier Jil i
[2]
prezentarea factorilor de mediu afectai, Referat I doctorat, Petroani, 10.03.2014.
Brujan (Predoiu) M. Evaluarea impactului activitilor miniere din cadrul Bazinului
[3]
Minier Jil asupra suprafeei terenurilor, Referat II doctorat, Petroani, 15.12. 2014.
Fodor, D. Exploatarea zcmintelor de minerale i roci utile prin lucrri la zi, vol. I
[4]
i vol. II, Editura Tehnica, Bucureti, 1995.
Fodor, D., Baican, G. Impactul industriei miniere asupra mediului, Editura Infomin,
[5]
Deva, 2001.
Lazr M., Dumitrescu I. Impactul antropic asupra mediului, Editura Universitas,
[6]
Petroani, 2006.
[7] Lazr M. Reamenajarea terenurilor degradate, Editura Universitas, Petroani, 2010.
Lazr M., Faur F. Identificarea i evaluarea impactului asupra mediului, Editura
[8]
Universitas, Petroani, 2011.
[9] Rotunjanu, I. - Stabilitatea versanilor i taluzurilor, Editura INFOMIN DEVA, 2005

104
 GEOTECHNICAL EVALUATION OF A NICKEL DEPOSIT IN
THE DEVOLLI DISTRICT, ALBANIA

Prof Assoc PhD Edmond GOSKOLLI1, Dip Eng Geologist Murat

RRESHKA
1,2
National Agency of Natural Resources Tirana, Albania, E-mail: [email protected]
[email protected]

ABSTRACT
Different companies are planning to exploit nickel ore in the Devolli district in Albania which
with the quantity of reserves of 110 million tons is one of the most important of Albania.
Therefore, several objects and deposits have been investigated. To confirm the technical
parameters as a prerequisite for ore extraction, the reopening of the former exploration adit in
the Bilishti area it haze been planned to make a lot of different geotechnical investigation with
the scope to define some of the technical and technological parameters for the later
management of mining activity.
A lot of samples and analyses are made according the following services:
Multistage triaxial test for Mohr Coulumb failure criteria (C, Phi, E and v)
Detailed geological and structural mapping of the structures including scan lines, geotechnical
rock-classification and classification of type of rock etc. in the existing adit (about 50 m) and of
2 crosscuts (of 40 m each)
Rock Structure Rating
Rock Mass Rating
Rock Mechanic Tests
Recommendation for the expected development work and for a mining concept, including
geotechnical definition of pillars, etc.

KEYWORDS
laterite, saprolite, weathering crust, triaxial test, Mohr Coulomb failure criteria

1. GENERAL GEOLOGICAL INFORMATION OF THE DEPOSIT OF BITINCKA

The Devolli deposits lie on the Greek border in the Devolli district of South-eastern Albania and
is part of the western belt which passes through Albania, entering from Kosovo near Kukes in
the northeast and exiting near Bilishti into Greece in the southeast.The ultimate source of FeNi
and NiSi in Albania is the weathered crust of Jurassic peridotites and harzburgites
In general, there are two types of iron nickel deposits in Albania: [ 3 ]

105
a) In-situ primary laterites located between the weathering crust on the footwall and
Cretaceous limestone in the hanging wall. These deposits occasionally have nickel silicates
below the iron nickel.
b) The other type are allochthonous, transported, laterites that have been mobilised from
the primary material and deposited in sedimentary basins either over un-or partly weathered
peridotites or over Cretaceous limestone.[3]

2. WORK CARRIED OUT

During this visit time one geotechnical and mining engineer, and one geologist/mineralogist,
took the geotechnical and geological/structural measurements, evaluated the general geological
setting of the deposit and selected the samples for the geotechnical laboratory testing and
forwarded them to the specialized laboratory of University of Bochum.

2.1.Geotechnical Work

The geotechnical situation has been investigated during the above mentioned field visit.
After the reopening, a clearance of the main adit and the adjacent galleries took place. The adit
was secured with timber which was weathered due to the long exposure and lack of
maintenance. At the time of visit, all workings had been cleared, except for some big rock falls.
The adit is not secured in hazardous areas, which will be absolutely necessary in case of further
underground activities.
The survey carried out provided parameters and technical observations which should support
the planning process and the anticipated exploitation test work. Considering the proximity to
the surface and the presence of the major fault, the test exploitation mine is placed in a rather
unfavourable location with difficult ground conditions, which are typical for areas that are
influenced by significant faulting.

Figure 1-1: Geology of the Bilishti Area (according Jani P.and al)

106
The area proposed for the big scale mining is situated near by on the opposite hillside. Mining
will have to face similar lithological and regional structural conditions but the local structural
overprinting will be most probably not as intensive as in the investigated drifts.

2.1.1. Adit A01

In summary, the adit A01 can be divided into four segments:

Entrance Adit A01 (distance to Main Drive 28.0 m to 39.0 m). The entrance shows a
high grade of disruption
Silicified laterite; bounded by two shear zones (distance to Main Drive 21.0 m to 28.0
m). This zone has been intensively stressed by tectonic events.
Serpentinite both with and without laterite; also bounded by shear zones ( distance to
Main Drive 11.0 to 28.0 m)
Laterit (distance to Main Drive 0.0 to 11.0m) This segment can be subdivided into two
sections, the first section (0.0 m to 6.0m with intensive fracturing and in a second section (6.0
m to 11.0 m) without any collapse features.
A prominent dislocation runs parallel to the Eastern and Western extension of the Main Drive.
The structural-stability of the gallery is affected by this dislocation.

Figure 2.1: Overview of Devolli Figure 2.1.1-1: : Portal with closely jointed
Mine Surveyed Section (not in scale) Rock Adit A01

2.1.2. Adit A01

The most prominent geotechnical characteristic for the Main Drive is its southern boundary,
namely a SSE dipping fault
In particular the gallery - crossing with the Main Drive is affected. Due to the existing structural
weakening the pillars are fissured. This has been described in literature under slabbing or
spalling. [1]
Additionally, access of water can be observed. The results of the Schmidt-Hammer Tests
confirmed these results for the transition to the surrounding rocks as well. Considerable rock
falls (Fig. 2.1.2-1) have been observed whereas the existing crosscuts and the A01 adit appear
to be free of rockfalls.
The rock falls from the roof reach more than 2 m above the former timber lining.

107
 Figure 2.1.1-2: Rock Blocks with Open not Figure 2.1.2-1: Eastern Main Drive with Roof
Filled Joints (max. 30-40 cm) Adit A01 Collapsing Features

The structural security is not given in both Main Drives (west and east), in particular where in
the gallery intersects the crosscuts (A04 and A03). The present pillars at the intersection of the
galleries are fissured to a minimum depth of 1.5 m to 2 m. The roof is instable (with hanging
loosened blocks).
At about 20 m south from the intersection of Adit A01 and the Main Drive, relatively strong iron-
rich laterite rock can be found. From this point on towards the intersection, no rock falls are
present. After the 20 m mark, conditions in the Eastern Main Drive are similar to those found in
the Western Main Drive.
In general, the conditions are similar to those found in the Eastern Main Drive. The western end
cannot be accessed, because the drive collapsed. (see Fig. 2.1.2-2). The complete intersection
area of A04 and Western Main Drive are prone to collapse and must be secured.
The effects of the disruption on the rock strength is clearly visible. The soft laterite rock surface
is easily removable by scratching with a hammer. The rock strength is mostly lower than 10
MPa.

2.1.3. Crosscut A03

From a geotechnical point of view, the crosscut does not show any particular features. The rock
contains laterite with inclusions of serpentinite. The original lining is weathered and does not
provide any support.

Figure 2.1.2-2: Main Drive with significant Rock Figure 2.1.3-1: Crosscut A03, without Wall
Eastern Main Drive with Roof Collapsing

108
 2.1.4. Crosscut A04

The two edges with the Main Drive are highly deformed. The corners are collapsed and the
stability of the roof is reduced.
The laterite rock is compact and only shows few joints and fractures. Nevertheless surrounding
rock is rather soft and has been overprinted by tectonic deformation.
Feature but with Signs of former Timber Supports
The rock contains laterite with inclusions of serpentinite.
The original lining is weathered and does not provide any support. The roof seems to be stable,
no hanging rocks can be observed
Considering the long period after opening of the crosscut, the geotechnical stability is still given.
The geotechnical situation develops analogous to the adit approaching the Main Drive. The rock
falls present in the Western Main Drive close to the entrance to the crosscut express an
increasing destabilisation of the drive. This section is prone to collapse.

2.2. Geotechnical Work

The Adit A01 follows a short section of 40 m from relatively unweathered serpentinite to
lateritic rock. Overlying the lateritic rock a thin layer of iron - rich dark laterite is found (Fig. 2.2-
1).
The adit ends where it is intersected by a
major fault in a nearly perpendicular
position to the adit, cutting the laterite,
dipping 60 SE. The western and eastern
main drives follow the strike of this fault.
The short crosscuts A04 and A03 can be
found intersecting the main drive at the
western and eastern end.

Figure 2.2.1: Geological cross-section along Adit from

NNW(left) to SSE(right)

2.3. Geotechnical Laboratory Work

The Albanian Nickel Group supplied drill core samples include 4 different mineralogical types
with specified.
The cores were selected and prepared by ISRM for testing on tensile strength by the brazilian
test, uniaxial compressive strength and triaxial strength for arriving at strength properties, i.e.
cohesion c and friction angle with the Mohr-Coulomb strength envelope as well as uniaxial
compressive strength, Youngs Modulus E and Poissons ratio.(Fig 2.3.1-2.3.3) [2]

3. RESULTS

3.1. Geotechnical Evaluation

Additionally to the geotechnical survey, joints were investigated with the so called Schmidt-
Hammer Test method.
Measured sections are the Adit A01, the Western and the Eastern Main Drive, as well as the
Crosscut A04. No measurements have been done in the Crosscut A03.
109
Fig. 2.3.1: Closely jointed Fig. 2.3-2: Disintegrated Block Fig. 2.3-3: Drilling Samples in
Hematite Sample after Drilling of the Test the Nickel-Silicate Block
Samples

The high values for the silicified laterite rock are purely rock strength values and cannot be
transferred to evaluate the surrounding lithologies.. The results from the other rock types
coincide with the standards. The relatively large deviations in the second section (5 13 m) are
due to mineralisation of joint fractures. Because of the low amount of good data, in Eastern
Main Drive, a statistical evaluation is not possible.
In Western Main Drive, in contrast to the eastern section, iron-rich laterite is exposed in the
Western Main Drive. Properties of the reddish laterite rock and iron-rich laterite rock are
different. There is sufficient data from the iron-rich laterite rock, but no enough from the
reddish laterite rock.. The influence of the major fault, analogous to the Eastern Main Drive, is
clearly visible.
Due to the rock condition no representative in-situ measurements had been taken. Result for
the crosscut A04 are comparable to the measurements from Adit A01.

Table 3.1.1: Summary of Schmidt-Hammer Test results for the Adit A01
Section Lithology Mean for the uniaxial Standard deviation
compressive strength
m MPa MPa
0 -5 Weathered Ser- 11,26 0,86
5- 13 pentinite
Serpentinite 35,54 14,21
13-18 Silicified Laterite rock 41,84 12,79
18-24 Serpentinite 15,89 4,38
24-37 Laterite rock 15,67 5,39

Table 3.1.2: Summary of Schmidt-Hammer Test results for Western Main Drive
Section Lithology Mean value uniaxial Standarddeviation
(m) compressive (MPa)
strength (MPa)
0 -20 Iron-rich 26,58 10,57
20 -29,5 laterite
laterite rock 20,60
29,5 -32,5 laterite rock - -
32,5 - 34 laterite rock 22 -
34 -42 laterite rock - -
43 -44 laterite rock 15,90 -
44 -50 laterite rock - -

110
 3.2. Rock Mass Classification
During the feasibility and preliminary design work, at a stage when very little detailed
information is available, the use of a rock mass classification scheme can be of considerable
benefit. The evaluation was made following the geotechnical classification after Bieniawski
(1989). For the evaluation of the rock mass the following
characteristics and structural descriptions have been considered:
1. Uniaxial compressive strength of rock material
2. Rock Quality Designation (RQD)
3. Spacing of discontinuities
4. Condition of discontinuities
5. Groundwater conditions
6. Orientation of discontinuities
The results of the RQD evaluation on the drill holes are took into in consideration The
weakening of the rock formations in the transition zone from conglomerate to laterite.
The results of the rock mass classification after Bieniawski can be summarized as follows:
1. The rock quality of the conglomerate is fair, parallel and orthogonal to the main fault
direction
2. The rock quality of the weathered serpentinite is poor, orthogonal as well as parallel to
the main fault direction.
3. The rock quality of the ore hosting laterite (Ni-Si and Ni-Fe) is poor in the drifts parallel
to the faulting and jointing and fair orthogonal to the joint and fault direction.

3.3. Means of Support in Relation to Rock Qualities

Roofbolting in combination with timber lining could well be an alternative for a situation with a
rock quality as found in the exploration adit; shotcreting is not an alternative. The evaluation by
Bieniawski is conservative and does not consider the exploitation method. So its proposed
already an exploitation method using a road header, which is a much more gentle exploitation
method than the drilling and blasting mining technology.

3.4. Rock Mass Classification

The rock structure evaluation and classification after Wickham at al. (1972) was applied to
selected sections of the Adit A01, where structural data appeared homogenous and
representative.[5] This investigation included the serpentinite section and the reddish laterite
rock section in Adit A01.
Table 3.4.1: The recommendations for the adequate support according to Dr. Hoek
Rock mass Excavation Rock bolts Shotcrete Steel sets
Fair rock Top heading and bench 1.5- Systematic bolts 4 m 50-1 00 mm None.
R MR : 41-60 3 m advance in top heading. long, spaced 1.5 - 2 in crown and
Commence support after m in crown and 30 mm in
each blast. Complete walls with wire mesh sides.
support 10 m from face. in crown.
Poor rock Top heading and bench1.0- Systematic bolts 4-5 100-150 mm Light to
R MR : 21-40 1.5 m advance in top m long, spaced 1- in crown and medium
heading. Install support 1.5 m in crown and 100 mm in ribs spaced
concurrently with excavation walls with wire sides. 1.5 m
10 m from face. mesh. where
required.
Source: [Dr. Hoek. 2007]
111
 3.5. Evaluation of The Rock Mechanical situAtion
Three discontinuity systems are present (Tab. 3.1.6-1), two of them are dominant (Fig. 3.2.1).
Considering that these directions are representative for the entire deposit this will have
consequence for the dimensioning of the pillars.

4. CONCLUSIONS

Rock mechanical testing has been carried out with the results summarised in the following
table.(3.1.6.2).
Tab. 3.1.6-1: Main Joint and Tab. 3.1.6-2: Summarised rock mechanical testing .
Fracture Directions
Uniaxial Brazilian E- Cohesion
Joint Direction Inclination Mineralogy Compressive test Modulus c
andFracture of strength uniaxial
System
K1 Inclination 60-80
SSE [MPa] [MPa] [GPa] [MPa]
K2 W -SW 60-80 Conglomerate 72.35 5.9 47 10.6
K3 (shear SW - SSW 30-60 ')
Weath.Serpentinite 21.1 1 .7 12.9 4.0 ')
faults)
Following conclusions for test Ni-Si Laterite 33.6 3.23 12.9 6.4 ')
exploitation can be made, considering Ni-Fe Laterite 24.3 1.18 14.2 2.3 ')
the Schmidt- Hammer Test results Poisson' ratio E\ - Friction
geological-structural relationships v Modulus angle 4> Density
and observations made in the mine: triaxial
[GPa] n fa/cm']
1. The adit is located very close to the
Conglomerate 0.23 11.4 ') 10.0 ') 2.65
surface, < 20 m. (The full-scale 2
Weath.Serpenti 0.26 14.0 ') 2.54
mine however will be located under
a general cover of 100 to 700 m of Ni-Si Laterite 0.26 12.9 ') 15.0 ') 2.4
calcareous conglomerate) Ni-Fe Laterite 0.28 4.7 ') 8.7 ') 2.41

2. The surrounding rock is strongly tectonically deformed

3. The construction of a test mine is possible, even subject to unfavorable conditions.
Nevertheless. pillars and rock cover near the mine entrance will have to be designed to
compensate these effects. This implies for the extraction a reduction of mineable reserves.
4. In spite of the strong tectonic deformation prevalent, the Adit A01 and the Crosscuts
A03 and A04 in their present orientation are stable.
5. The section in the fault zone (Main Drive) of the test mine have to be secured by a
timber lining.
The results vary widely. The conglomerate shows lowest readings for compressive strength at
13.1 M Pa and highest at 131.0 M Pa. This is a range of 117.9 M Pa.
The test results for the laterite and serpentinite samples show a wide range, too wide to qualify
for a representative sample. It is recommended to use in-situ geotechnical drillhole methods in
future if similar structural conditions are expected.
The drillhole was drilled close to a fault, most of the results are strongly influenced by faulting,
fracturing and veining. Tectonic elements are dominant. The collection of larger core samples
from less structurally overprinted areas is recommended. The current results are not
representative for the general rock conditions. Additional sampling and analytical work is
recommended.

112
 Figure 3.2.1: Southern face of A01 Adit with Density and Rose Diagrams of Structures mapped

The following steps are recommended:

1. Core drill holes with a diameter between 100 and 150 mm
2. Geotechnical laboratory tests on larger samples in order to get statistically supported
characteristics
3. Definition of the dip and dip direction of the drill holes in order to get an oriented 3D-picture
4. Dilatation tests in drill holes to determine the deformation module
5. Deformation measurements on the pillars in the test mining area in combination with
dilatation test
Literature:

5. REFERENCES

[1] BIENIAWSKI The Rock geotechnical Classification,1989

Dr. Hoek. 2007. Practical Rock Engineering, Capt.3. In: Rocscience 2007 (page 1 -
[2]
24).
JANI P and al The geological report of prospection geological workings of Bitincka
[3]
Iron Nickel Deposit, 1984
[4] Stacey, T.R. 1981. A simple extension strain criterion for fracturing of brittle rock.
[5] The rock structure evaluation and classification, Wickham at al. 1972

113
 BARITE MINERALIZATION IN IRAN
Alireza GANJI1
1
Department of Geology, Lahijan Branch, Islamic AZAD University, Lahijan, Iran, [email protected]

ABSTRACT
The special geological setting of Iran caused various types of barite resources have occurred in
the country. The persistence of different geologic environments during the geological history of
Iran in miscellaneous locations has created the necessary conditions to forming different types
of barite deposits. Barite mineralization in Iran can be subdivided in four mineralization phases,
including Late Precambrian-Early Cambrian barite mineralization phase, Permian-Triassic barite
mineralization phase, Cretaceous barite mineralization phase and Tertiary barite mineralization
phase. This paper gives the information on these barite mineralization phases, types of barite
deposits, their distribution in Iran and geological setting of the barite deposits.
For achieving to the abovementioned information, in addition to collecting geological and
exploration data about the different Iranian barite resources, thirty three site visits from the
most important various barite deposits have been conducted and necessary field geologic data
have been studied.
The results of this study indicate that the barite mineralization phases have occurred in four
main geostructural zones of Iran, including (1) Metamorphic & volcanic domains of Sanandaj-
Sirjan geostructural zone, (2) Volcano-sedimentary domain of Alborz geostructural zone, (3)
Sedimentary domain of Central Iran geostructural zone, and (4) Volcanic & sedimentary
domains in the Micro-continent of Central Iran geostructural Zone. From the viewpoint of
deposit types, the studied barite resources include these types: (1) Vein-type barite deposits,
(2) Stratiform (SEDEX) barite deposits, (3) Epigenetic carbonate-hosted (MVT) barite deposits,
and (4) Volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS) type barite deposits.

KEYWORDS
Barite mineralization, Barite deposit types, Geological setting of barite deposits, Iran

1 INTRODUCTION

Barite (barium sulphate) is characterized by high specific grav ity, low hardness and low
reactivity. Barite is primarily used in drilling fluids for oil and gas exploration wells. World
production of barite in 2014 was 9.260 Mt [10]. In 2014, the major world producers of barite
were China (4.100 Mt), India (1.600Mt), Morocco (1.000Mt), USA (0.720Mt) respectively [10].
In this year, Iran with 0.420Mt of barite production was ranked fifth in the world.
Barite deposits are most commonly classified into bedded (stratiform) deposits, veins and cavity
fillings, and residual deposits [1] & [8]. Bedded barite deposits are commercially the most
significant because of their large size, and amenability to modern large-scale mining methods.
Barite occurs in bedded deposits either as a principal mineral or cementing agent, or associated
114
with stratiform massive sulphide deposits [6]. Most bedded deposits occur in sequences of
sedimentary rocks characterised by abundant chert and black siliceous shale and siltstone,
known as black bedded barite. They range in age from Precambrian to Tertiary, but are usually
Early to Mid-Palaeozoic [9]. Indiv idual beds are massive to laminated, fine-grained and may
contain from 50% to 95% barite that can be used with little or no treatment other than
grinding. Bedded barite deposits were div ided by Clark et al. [2] into five types.
(1) With base metal sulphides (cratonic rift type), associated with alkali volcanic rocks,
e.g. Meggen and Rammelsberg, Germany; Ballynoe and Silverm ines, Ireland; Selwyn Basin,
Canada; and Red Dog, Alaska, USA.
(2) Without base metal sulphides (continental margin type), e.g. Arkansas and Nevada, USA;
Quinling District, China.
(3) In volcanic sequences, e.g. Kuroko, Japan.
(4) Stratiform barite deposits, e.g. Sardinia, Italy; Andhra Pradesh, India.
(5) Exogenetic barite deposits, e.g. Krakow area, Poland.
Veins and cavity fillings Barite deposits are deposited from hydrothermal fluids or deep-seated
brines occurs in faults, joints, bedding planes, breccia zones, solution channels and cavities. The
resulting veins are characterised by sharp contacts, extensive pinching and swelling, and
extreme variations in length, depth and attitude. Because of complex geometry, mining vein
deposits can be difficult and expensive. These deposits are generally smaller than the stratiform
deposits. Vein barite is usually extracted as a by- or co-product of leadzinc mining as in
Sardinia, Italy, and the United Kingdom.
Residual barite occurs in surficial deposits in which the barite is present as loose fragments
embedded in residual clay. The barite and the clay are derived from weathering of the
underly ing rock, generally dolomite. Barite fragments range in size from sand size to lumps
weighing 100 kg or more. Residual deposits of commercial grade are found in the USA (in
Georgia and Missouri).
The special geological setting of Iran caused various types of barite deposits have occurred in
the country. The persistence of different geologic environments during the geological history of
Iran in miscellaneous locations has created the necessary conditions to forming different types
of barite deposits. More than 100 barite deposits have been identified in Iran. Their ages range,
as implied from datings of their host rocks, from Late Precambrian to Miocene [4]. A wide
variety of barite mineralizations in Tertiary volcanic rocks occur in association with volcano-
sedimentary successions in the southern Central Alborz Mountain Range (Azerbaijan) and in the
Urumieh-Dokhtar magmatic arc [3]. Barite mineralization in dolomitic rocks is widespread in
central Iran, the Alborz Mountain Range and the Sanandaj-Sirjan Zone (SSZ) [4].
This paper aims to give the information on these barite mineralization phases, types of barite
deposits, their distribution in Iran and geological setting of the barite deposits. For achiev ing to
the mentioned information, in addition to collecting geological and exploration data about the
different Iranian barite resources by reviewing their geological and exploration documents, the
site visits from 33 of the most important Iranian barite deposits have been conducted and
necessary fieldwork geologic data have been studied and compared with each other.

2 GEOLOGICAL SETTING & GEOLOGICAL TIME OF BARITE DEPOSITS

From a global tectonic point of view, Iran is part of the AlpineHimalayan orogenic belt that
extends from Atlantic Ocean to Western Pacific. Most European and Asian geologists believe
that this belt represents the great Tethys Sea once located between two large continents,
Gondwana and Laurasia, during PaleozoicMesozoic eras.

115
Iran has been divided into several geostructural zones (units), each characterized by a relatively
unique record of stratigraphy, magmatic activ ities, metamorphism, orogenic events, tectonics,
and overall geological style. The tectonic and structural setting of Iran in the AlpineHimalayan
orogenic belt, and the structural evolution of Iran, has been the focus of many studies. The first
study div ided Iran into 10 structural zones based on certain geological features. This structural
div ision remained a reference for Iranian geologists for almost three decades. However, the
new observations and findings require a revision to this structural scheme. The newer structural
schemes are mostly derived and inspired by the very first structural div ision presented by
Stocklin. In recent years, new interpretations and models have been offered regarding the
geological setting of Iran by different Iranian geologists. On the basis of these newer structural
div isions, Iran subdiv ided to 11 main geostructural zones including Khouzestan plain, Zagros
fold belt, Zagros thrust, Sanandaj-Sirjan zone, Urmieh-Dokhtar zone, Alborz Mountains, Central
Iran, Central Iran micro-continent (Lut block), Kopeh Dagh Mountain, Makran zone and Eastern
Iran zone [5] & [7] (see figure 1).

Figure 1: Geostructural zones of Iran

Source: Mineral Resources of Iran; an overview (Nezafati, 2015) [7]

Barite mineralization in Iran can be subdiv ided in four mineralization phases as followings [5]:
I. Late Precambrian-Early Cambrian barite mineralization phase
II. Permian-Triassic barite mineralization phase
III. Cretaceous barite mineralization phase
IV. Tertiary barite mineralization phase

116
These barite mineralization phases occurred in different geostructural zones and cause various
types of barite deposits are found throughout Iran in a variety of geostructural zones.
In the Late Precambrian-Early Cambrian barite mineralization phase, the barite mineralization is
mainly hosted in ancient dolomitic and also volcanic (especially rhyolitic) rocks and occurs in;
Alborz Mountains, Northwest of the Sanadaj-Sirjan and Central Iran geostructural zones.
In the Permian-Triassic barite mineralization phase, the barite mineralization is specially hosted
in Triassic dolomitic rocks and frequently occurs in; Central Iran, Alborz Mountains and
Sanandaj-Sirjan geostructural zones. This barite mineralization phase is mainly associated with
fluorite and lead-zinc mineralization. The most famous barite resources of Iran are formed at
this phase.
In the Cretaceous barite mineralization phase, the barite mineralization is mainly hosted in the
Lower Cretaceous carbonate rocks and occurs in; Central Iran and Sanandaj-Sirjan
geostructural zones. This barite mineralization phase is associated with lead and zinc
mineralization.
In Tertiary barite mineralization phase, the barite mineralization is related to Eocene and
Oligocene volcanic to volcanosedimentary rocks which frequently occur in; Urumieh-Dokhtar
volcanic zone, Central Iran and South of Alborz Mountains.
According to the abovementioned evidences, it can be concluded that the major geostructural
zones of Iran in which the barite deposits were formed are;
I. Metamorphic & Volcanic Domains of Sanandaj-Sirjan Geostructual Zone
II. Volcano-sedimentary Domain of Alborz Geostructual Zone
III. Sedimentary Domain of Central Iran Geostructual Zone
IV. Volcanic & Sedimentary Domains in the Micro-continent of Central Iran Geostructual Zone

3 BARITE DEPOSIT TYPES

From the viewpoint of Deposit Types, Iranian barite deposits mostly include the following types:
1. Vein-type barite deposits,
2. Epigenetic carbonate-hosted (MVT) barite deposits,
3. Stratiform of sedimentary exhalative (SEDEX) type barite deposits, and
4. Stratiform of volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS) type barite deposits .
The 33 investigated barite deposits which were formed in various geological times and
environments in Iran, are compared with each other and illustrate as the following table 1. T he
geology, geological env ironment and tectonic setting and type of these deposits are
summarized in the table.

Table 1: Geological characteristics of some of the most important Iranian barite deposits
No Barite deposits Charactristics Geostructural Age & lithology of host Deposit types Proved
zones rocks reserves
(1000ton)
1 Mehdiabad Layered and Central Iran Lower Cretaceous MVT 113,000
concordant lenticular limestones and
orebodies, with Cu & dolomite
Pb mineralization
2 Komshecheh Vein form (strata- West of Central Triassic dolomite MVT 2,500
bound) and Layered Iran
(stratiform) with
fluorite

117
3 Shahneshin Layered and Northwest of Cretaceous shale & Stratif orm, 1,000
(Ebdal e Samadi) concordant lenticular Sanandaj-Sirjan andesitic volcanic rocks SEDEX type
orebodies in contact
between shale and
andesite
4 Poshte Semnan Stratif orm, lenticular to South of Alborz Eocene volcanic Stratif orm, VMS 850
sheet-like ore bodies, sequence includes type
with Cu mineralization acidic tuffs and
andesite to
andesibasalt lavas
5 Ardakan Veins along fault Central Iran Upper Devonian, Lower Vein type 725
zones, with Cu Carbonif er to Permian
mineralization limestone, dolomite &
dolomitic limestone
6 Dorreh Concordant lenticular Central Iran Eocene volcanic Stratif orm, VMS 680
orebodies, with Cu sequence type
mineralization
7 Chenarvardeh Veins and lenticular Northwest margin Eocene tuffs Vein type 550
ore bodies along fault of Central Iran
zones close to Alborz
8 Sorkhab Layered orebodies or Northwest of Late Proterozoic slate Stratif orm, 500
beds and cocordant Sanandaj-Sirjan and phyllite SEDEX type
lenses
9 Haft-har Cavity infillings, lenses Central Iran Permian limestone and MVT 360
and veins as cocordant sandy limesdtone
orebodies

10 Ashkhaneh Veins along fault zones Kopeh Dagh Late Cretaceous Vein type 300
limestone, sandy
limestone and shale
11 Meraneh (1) beds and Northwest of (1) Late Proterozoic (1)Stratif orm, 300
cocordant lenses & (2) Sanandaj-Sirjan slate and phyllite & (2) SEDEX type &
cavity infillings and Early Cambrian (2) MVT
lenses dolomite
12 Hajiabad Stratif orm as layered Central Iran Lower Cretaceous MVT 260
and lenticular ore limestone, argillaceous
bodies & sandy limestone
13 Vanakan Layered in the bedding South of Alborz Eocene volcanic Stratif orm, VMS 200
plane, with Cu sequence type
mineralization
14 Neeq Veins along fault zones Central Iran Late Eocene andesitic- Vein type 200
basaltic volcanic rocks

15 Talgestan Concordant small Central Iran Lower Cretaceous MVT 160

lenes, cavity infillings silicified limestone
and beds
16 Eshqabad Cavity infillings, lenses Lut block Middle Triassic MVT 140
(Abkhorg) and veins in breccias dolomite
and fractures, with
silicification
17 Abdollahabad Veins along fault zones Northwest of Late Proterozoic acidic Vein type 100
Sanandaj-Sirjan volcanic rocks

18 Shakhsefid Veins along fault zones Northwest of Late Proterozoic acidic Vein type 90
Sanandaj-Sirjan volcanic rocks

19 Kohlou Veins along fault zones Sanandaj-Sirjan & Upper Eocene volcanic Vein type 70
Urmieh-Dokhtar sequence mostly tuffs

20 Dizeloo Lenses and cavity Central Iran Middle Triassic MVT 60

infillings dolomite

21 Bardehmish Veins along fault zones Northwest of Late Proterozoic acidic Vein type 60
Sanandaj-Sirjan volcanic rocks

22 Varbon Veins along fault zones Alborz Eocene tuffs and Vein type 55
volcanic rocks

118
23 Tangedouzan Veins & pockets along Sanandaj-Sirjan Cretaceous limestone Vein type 50
fault zones, with and Jurassic schists
quartz, galena &
cerusite
24 Cheshmehsorkh Veins along fault zones Urmieh-Dokhtar Eocene volcanic rocks Vein type 50
e Golzar

25 Nooq Veins along fault Northeast of Oligocene sandstone Vein type 45

zones, with Central Iran and conglomerate and
hematitization Eocene andesite rocks.
26 Lakehchal Cavity infillings and Central Iran Triassic dolomite, close MVT 40
lenses, with to fault contact with
silicification Jurassic shales
27 Soltanabad Veins along fault Sanandaj-Sirjan & Eocene tuffs and Vein type 35
zones, with Urmieh-Dokhtar limestone sequence
hematitization
28 Gavankuh Beds and lenses which Sanandaj-Sirjan Early Cretaceous MVT 25
are generally oriented limestones
parallel to bedding
plane
29 Kahijeh Veins along fault zones Northeast of Eocene andesite and Vein type 25
Central Iran andesitic tuffs

30 Qarehbolaq (1) Veins along fault Northwest of (1) Late Proterozoic (1) Vein type & 20
zones & (2) cavity Sanandaj-Sirjan acidic volcanic rocks (2) MVT
infillings &(2) Infra-Cambrian
dolomite
31 Lachin Veins along fault zones Northwest of Late Proterozoic acidic Vein type 20
Sanandaj-Sirjan volcanic rocks

32 Bakharz Veins along fault zones Northeast of Eocene volcanic rocks, Vein type 20
Central Iran including andesite,
andesitic tuff and
ignimbrite
33 Anbaran Small veins which Northwest of Middle Jurassic Vein type 15
developed at minor Alborz limestone and Eocene
faults and joints in volcanic rocks
host rocks

4 CONCLUSIONS

In Iran, barite mineralization phases can be subdivided in four mineralization phases, including
Late Precambrian-Early Cambrian barite mineralization phase, Permian-Triassic barite
mineralization phase, Cretaceous barite mineralization phase and Tertiary barite m ineralization
phase. The barite mineralization phases occur in four main geological zones of Iran, including
(1) Metamorphic & volcanic domains of Sanandaj-Sirjan geological zone, (2) Volcano-
sedimentary domain of Alborz Geological zone, (3) Sedimentary domain of Central Iran
Geological zone, and (4) Volcanic & sedimentary domains in the Micro-continent of Central Iran
Geological Zone. From the viewpoint of deposit types, the Iranian barite deposits can be mostly
included in these types: (1) Vein-type barite deposits, (2) Stratiform (SEDEX) barite deposits,
(3) Epigenetic carbonate-hosted (MVT) barite deposits, and (4) Volcanogenic massive sulfide
(VMS) type barite deposits.

5 REFERENCES

[1] Bonel K. A.: Mineral Profile:Brytes, 2005

[2] Clark S.H.B., Gallagher M.J., Poole F.G.: World barite resources; a review of recent
production patterns and a genetic classification. Transactions of the Institute of Mining and
Metallurgy, Section B, Applied Earth Sciences 99, 1990, pp. 125132.

119
[3] Ehya, F.: Rare earth element and stable isotope (O, S) geochemistry of barite from the
Bijgan deposit, Markazi Province, Iran, Mineralogy and Petrology104, 2012, pp.8193.
[4] Ghorbani, M.: An introduction to economic geology of Iran, National Geoscience database of
Iran, 2002, 695 p. (in Persian).
[5] Ghorbani, M.: The Economic Geology of Iran: Mineral Deposits and Natural Resources,
Springer Geology, 2013
[6] Harben P.W., Kuvart M.: Industrial minerals: a global geology, Industrial Minerals
Information Ltd, 1996
[7] Nezafati, N.: Mineral resources of Iran (an overview), Internationales Alumni-Symposium,
2015
[8] NSW DPI: Australian Industrial Minerals Opportunities, 2006
[9] Ramos V.A & de Brodtkorb M.K.: Celestite, barite, magnesite and fluorspar: stratabound
through time and space, In:de Brodtkorb M.K.: ed. Nonmetalliferous stratabound ore fields,
1989, pp. 297321.
[10] USGS: Mineral commodity summaries, 2015

120
 APPLICATION AND USAGE OF THE METHOD OF GEO
ELECTRICAL MAPPING FOR GEOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT
WITH PRESENCE OF VERTICAL FAULT
Trajan Sholdov1, Marjan Delipetrev2, Vladimir Manevski3, Goran Slavkovski4, Goran
Aleksovski5
1
Post graduate student, faculty of technical science University Goce Delcev, Shtip, R.Macedonia,
[email protected]
1
Assoc. prof. faculty of technical science University Goce Delcev, Shtip, R.Macedonia,
[email protected]
1
PhD student, faculty of technical science University Goce Delcev, Shtip, R.Macedonia,
[email protected]
1
Post graduate student, faculty of technical science University Goce Delcev, Shtip, R.Macedonia,
[email protected]
1
Post graduate student, faculty of technical science University Goce Delcev, Shtip, R.Macedonia,
[email protected]

ABSTRACT
The usage of the geo electrical methods is very important for more detailed modelling of
geologically investigated environments. The geo electrical methods are based on registration
of the changes on the electrical field, which depends on the conductive characteristics of the
geological environments. The determination of the most adequate geo electrical method
mostly depends from the geological structure of the investigated area, the boundary surfaces
that separates the different geological structures as well as the geo mechanical parameters.
Because of the presence of vertical and steeply inclined boundary surfaces in the investigated
environment in this paper is elaborated the usage and interpretation of the method of geo
electrical mapping. The method of geo electrical mapping is performed with Wenner layout of
the measuring dispositive which is composed of two current and two potential electrodes. The
four electrodes are placed on distance a and are equally distanced from each other. With
every new measurement the whole measuring array is moved along the measuring area.
Therefore for every distance a are obtained models that are modelling the investigated area
at same depth through multiple points horizontally along the measuring area. This kind of
modelling can detect the different geological structures that are separated with vertical

121
boundary surfaces. When increasing the distance a between the current and potential
electrodes proportionally is increased the depth of the geo electrical examinations. The geo
electrical models represent models of apparent electrical resistivity and are made synthetically
through the data obtained from the geological and geo mechanical examinations.
The last phase in this paper is the process of interpretation of the models obtained for every
distance a between the electrodes. On the basis of these data, a geo electrical model is
made for the entire investigative area in which are presented the geological structures defined
by their accurate specific electrical resistance as well as the vertical and steeply inclined
boundary surfaces that are separating them.
KEYWORDS
Electrical mapping, vertical fault, apparent electrical resistance
1. INTRODUCTION
The geo electrical methods of investigation are based on registration of the changes on
known electrical field, witch depending on its nature can be natural or induced. The changes on
the electrical field mostly depend on the conductivity properties of the under surface geological
complex. According to that the under surface structure is modeled through a process of
correlation of the identified changes on the field and the conductive properties of the geological
environments.

The investigated area that is modeled in this paper is geologically examined with two
exploratory boreholes and has a total length of 80 m. The geological structure of the
investigated area is with presence of vertical faults and steeply inclined boundary surfaces.
Therefore the modeling of the researched area is performed with the method of geo electrical
mapping.

The method of geo electrical mapping is performed with Wenner array of the measuring
dispositive. The measuring equipment is composed from four electrodes (two current and two
potential) that are linearly aligned in a composition where every electrode is placed on equal
distance a. An induced electrical field is generated between the two current electrodes. The
electrical field spreads through the under surface geological complex to a particular depth d
that depends of the distance a between the electrodes and its equal to that value d = a [1].
For every distance a the investigated area is researched along its whole length while
repeatedly moving the measuring dispositive. Thus detecting the different geological structures
that are separated with vertical fault. With this method the steeply inclined boundary surfaces
depending on the inclination and length are identified through several measuring points along
the investigated area.

In this paper the investigated area is examined through different depths: a = 1 m; a = 2 m; a

= 4 m; a = 8 m. Every model is interpreted separately whereas the final model of the
investigated area is modeled though complex interpretation of the data gained for each
investigated depth.

122
2. GEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS

The investigated area is geologically investigated through two exploratory boreholes with depth
of 15 m in one profile line with a total length of 80 m. Through the data obtained from the
mapped boreholes is made a geological profile of the investigated area that is presented on
figure 1. From the geological profile is concluded the vertical fault and at least one steeply
inclined boundary surfaces.

Figure 1. Geological profile of the investigated area

From the figure can be concluded that from the geological data obtained of the boreholes the
investigated area remains relatively unknown with few details about the geological structure of
the under surface complex.

3. GEO ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE INVESTIGATED AREA

For suitable application of the method of geo electrical mapping in addition of the geological
data its important to be researched the conductivity properties of the geological structures. The
conductivity properties are investigated with propagation of induced electrical field through the
geological structures and registering their electrical resistance. The real electrical resistance can
vary from 10 to 107m and they mostly depend on the level of underground water as well as
the structure and geo mechanical parameters of the geological structures. In the table 1 are
shown the geological structures that are present in the research area and their values for the
real electrical resistance.
Table 1. Conductivity properties of the geological environments

Geological formation Real electrical resistance (m)

Embankment (N) 20
Sand with fine to medium granulation (Sfs) 60
Gravel with fine granulation (Gw) 120

4. METHOD OF GEO ELECTRICAL MAPPING

The method of geo electrical mapping is performed with four electrodes (AB current and MN
potential) in Wenner array that is presented on the figure 2. The electrical field is induced
between the current electrodes, whereas in the potential electrodes is registered the

123
interference of the geological structure for particular depth manifested as apparent electrical
resistance.

Figure 2. Wenner array of the measuring equipment

The apparent electrical resistance depends from the alignment of the measuring dispositive and
the total electrical resistance of the geological complex. The dependence is given with the
equation [2]:
(1)

Where:

apparent electrical resistance;

constant with value 3.14;

distance between the electrodes;

R total electrical resistance;

The investigated area is modeled through four different depths that depend of the total length
of the measuring equipment.

The shallowest geo electrical model covers depth of 1 m, and has a total length of the
measuring array of 3 m. For every new measurement the measuring equipment is moved along
the investigated area. The geo electrical model obtained through 27 measuring points for
investigated depth of 1 m is shown on the figure 3.

Figure 3. Geo electrical model for depth of 1m.

124
On the geo electrical model on the X axis is registered the total length of the investigated
area (m), whereas on the Y axis the registered value for the apparent electrical resistance for
depth of 1 m. From the curve of apparent electrical resistance and the two different registered
values (R1 and R2) is concluded the presence of two different geological structures for the
investigated depth. From the value of the distance D is determined the location of the vertical
fault or the steeply inclined boundary surface that separates the two different geological
structures [3].

The values for the apparent electrical resistance (R1 and R2) are obtained directly from the
model. The distance a between the electrodes is known and is equal to 1 m. According to that
through the equation 1 is determined the value for the total electrical resistance for each
structure. Because of the shallow depth of investigation, the value of the total electrical
resistance is taken as the real electrical resistance for the top layers of the geological complex.
The geological environments are identified through the value of real electrical resistance.

The second depth on which the investigated area is modeled is 2 m and its performed with
distance between the electrodes a = 2m, with total length of the measuring dispositive of 6m.
On the figure 4 is shown the geo electrical model of the investigated area performed through
14 measuring points along the measuring line.

Figure 4. Geo electrical model for depth of 2m.

From the model is obtained the data for the registered apparent electrical resistances (R1 and
R2). Through the equation 1 are calculated the values for the total electrical resistance. If there
are differences in the values of the total electrical resistance obtained from the previous model
is concluded that the new calculated data for the real electrical resistance cant be obtained
directly. Because of the spherical way of propagation of the electrical field as well as the
horizontally layered structure of certain geological formations the total electrical resistance can
be calculated as the total resistance from parallel resistors:

(2)

125
According to that beginning from the first electrical resistance through the equation 2
progressively is determined the real electrical resistance for each deeper geological structure.

Figure 5. Geo electrical model for depth of 4m

On figure 5 is shown the geo electrical model that models the investigated area for depth of
4m through 7 measuring points with a total length of the measuring equipment of 12m.

From the model are obtained the values for the apparent electrical resistance (R1, R2 and R3)
and through the equation 1 are determined the values of the registered total electrical
resistance. Through the equation 2 are determined the values of the real electrical resistance of
the new registered geological structures.

Figure 6. Geo electrical model for depth of 8m

126
On figure 6 is presented the last single geo electrical model that models the investigated are
for depth of 8m through 4 measuring points along the research area with a total length of the
measuring dispositive of 24m

From the model directly are obtained the values for the apparent electrical resistance and
through the equations 1 and 2 the values of the registered total and real electrical resistances.

5. COMPLEX INTERPRETATION OF THE GEO ELECTRICAL MODELS

On the basis of the data obtained through a process of interpretation of the geo electrical
models are determined the different geological structures as well as the location of their
boundary surfaces. The geological formations are identified through correlation of the obtained
data and their conductivity properties. The geo electrical model of the investigated area is
constructed with complex interpretation of the data obtained from the geo electrical models
for each depth. The complete geo electrical model is modeled to a maximal depth of 8 meters
through four different horizontal measuring points. On the figure 7 is shown the geo electrical
model for the investigated area processed with the method of geo electrical mapping.

Figure 7. Interpreted geo electrical model for the investigated area

Through correlation of the interpreted model with the geological profile its clearly determined
the differences, precision and efficiency of the geo electrical model. In the geological model is
determined the presence of different geological structures that are separated with vertical fault
or steeply inclined boundary surface but without any indication where the first structure might
end and the other begin. In general with geological investigations the vertical faults and steeply
inclined boundaries are very difficult to determine and its location usually is interpolated
between the known data.

The method of geo electrical mapping covers many repetitions through the measuring line
and depending on its length can be extensive and complex for application. Even though this
method is far more cost-effective and more efficient while determining the under surface
structure in geologically characteristic environments.

CONCLUSION
On the basis of the presented surveys as well as the impressions gained while comparing the
geo electrical and geological model can be concluded that the method of geo electrical
mapping is effective method for locating the vertical faults and steeply inclined boundary
surfaces. The method is based on producing several (as much is needed) models with different
depths of investigations. With this approach the vertical faults and different geological
structures are identified through different depths vertically as well as several measuring points

127
horizontally along the measuring line. With the interpreted data the boundary surfaces are
modeled with more precision. The investigated area that is chosen is geologically investigated
to relatively shallow depth and its important to note that the method of geo electrical
mapping can be applied with acceptable precision for much greater depths.

REFERENCES:
[1] John M.Reynolds (1997) An introduction to applied and environmental
geophysics.

[2] Prem V.Sharma (2004) Environmental and engineering geophysics.

[3] andor Slimak (1996) Inenjerska geofizika.

128
 CORRELATION OF THE SEISMIC DATA WITH THE GEO
MECHANICAL PARAMETERS OBTAINED THROUGH THE METHOD OF
REFRACTION
Marjan Boshkov1, Krsto Blazev1, Blagoj Delipetrev1, Trajan Sholdov1, Goran
Aleksovski1
1
FACULTY OF NATURAL AND TECHNICAL SCIENCES, UNIVERSITY GOCE DELCEV STIP

Abstract
In this paper is elaborated the usage and application of the seismic methods
applied for geologically examined and relatively known environments, in order to
determine their precision and efficiency. The seismic methods are used for researching
the geological structure under the surface of the examined area, by determining the
traveling speeds of the elastic waves through the different geological structures.
Because of the horizontally layered geological structure (without presence of
vertical faults) of the examined environment as well as the adequate geo mechanical
characteristics of the geological environments (each deeper layer has higher speed of
propagation of the elastic waves than the upper one) in this paper is elaborated the
procedure of applying and interpretation of the refractive seismic method. The examined
geological environment is presented as one profile line composed from five exploratory
boreholes with a total length of 210m. The length of the refractive profiles, their number
as well as the way of overlapping on the examined area depends of the geological
structure, the depth of examination as well as the geo mechanical characteristics.
The depth of examination depends on the distance between the source and the
receptor of the elastic waves and equals to one half of that length. The investigated
area is examined with maximal depth of 30m, therefore the length of the refractive
profiles reaches value of 60m. A total of four refractive profiles are made in order to
cover the full length of the investigated area. The refractive profiles are overlapping on
every 50m on the investigated area. The geo mechanical characteristics of the
geological structures are obtained with laboratory trials and through them for each
geological structure is determined the speed of propagation of P and S elastic waves.
Due to a lack of field trials the refractive profiles are made synthetically based on the

129
geological and geo mechanical data. Through the process of interpretation on the
refractive profiles is determined the number of different geological structures, the speed
of propagation of the elastic waves, and with the t 0 method the depth to each boundary
surface that separates two geologically different environments.

1. Introduction
The basic principles of the seismic investigations are based on generating elastic
waves at a known time interval that results with propagation of the seismic waves
through the sub surface structure in the investigated area where after a process of
refraction and reflection the returning waves are registered on the surface at known
distance.
The time difference registered from the generation until the reception of the
elastic waves is used for determining the geo mechanical characteristics of the
geological structures. The under surface geological complex of the investigated area is
modeled from the data obtained through the seismic investigations and the data of the
geo mechanical characteristics of the geological environments.
In this paper is elaborated the procedure for appliance and usage of the
refractive seismic method. The refractive methods are geophysical methods of
investigations that are used in correlation with geological and laboratory investigations.
It is necessary that the investigated area for acceptable depth is geologically
researched through several exploratory mapped boreholes. The different geological
environments are determined from the mapped material of the boreholes.
Each mapped geological environments is tested in laboratory conditions in order
to obtain data for the appropriate parameters. Because of the nature of the
investigations performed in this paper in the laboratory investigations are determined
the physical and geo mechanical characteristics of the geological environments. On
the basis of the geological and laboratory data is determined the efficiency of the
adequate geophysical method.
The horizontally layered structure of the ore body without the presence of vertical
faults and steeply inclined boundary surfaces presents favorable conditions for
application of the seismic methods.
Through the data obtained from the laboratory conditions are determined the
velocities of propagation of the elastic waves through each geological structure. With
correlation of them and the geological data is investigated the condition for application
of the refractive seismic method (each deeper geological environment presents greater
propagation velocity than the upper one)
The investigated area is modeled in one profile line with a total length of 210m
through a total of five double refractions. The seismic modeling of the environment is
based on the data obtained from direct analysis of the refractive curves.

130
 2. Geological investigations
The investigated area is geologically investigated through a depth of 25m with a
total of five exploratory boreholes. From the mapped boreholes are determined the
geological structures and on the basis of that data is concluded that the investigated
area is composed from the following geological formations:
Clayed composition
Sands and gravel with fine to medium granularity
Pliocene sands and gravels
Pliocene marls and conglomerates
The geological structure determined from the geological investigations is shown
in the geological profile presented on the figure 1.

Figure 1. Geological profile composed from five exploratory boreholes, examined

to a depth of 25m

3. Laboratory investigations
The laboratory investigations presented in this paper are based on determining
the geo mechanical characteristics of the geological environments. In general the
elastic waves (packages of elastic energy) from the seismic source through the
geological structure are propagating with speed that is determined by the elastic
modules and the density of the environment. There are two basic types of elastic
waves:
P Waves has the biggest impact of the research seismology are called
longitudinal or primary elastic waves. The propagation velocity of the P waves is
presented as V p.
S Waves are called transversal or secondary elastic waves, have smaller
propagation velocities than the P wave and their speed is presented as V s .
The elastic modules that impact the propagation velocities of the longitudinal and
transversal elastic waves are: Poisson ratio din , Elasticity module din , Shear module

131
G din and Volume module din . The dependencies of the propagation velocities of the P
and S waves from the elastic modules are given in the next equations [1].

+4/3 (1)
=
= (1+)(12)

1
= = 2(1+)

The elastic modules for the geological environments are obtained through
laboratory investigations and on basis of that data, using the equations 1.1 and 1.2 the
propagation velocities for each environments are calculated. In table 1 are shown the
physical and geo mechanical characteristics of the geological environments.
Table 1 Geo mechanical parameters of the geological environments

Clayed sands and Pliocene sands and

Clayed composition Sands and gravel,
gravel gravels
Parameter Proluvial sediments Proluvial sediments
Proluvial sediments Pliocene sediments
(Q 2 prsk) (Q 2 prsk)
(Q 2 prsk) (PL)

H (m) 1-3 2-5 8-12 25-60

Vp (m/s) 340-450 400-550 910-1360 1750-2750
Vs (m/s) 125-180 180-250 400-570 650-1100
(kN/m )
3
15-16 17-18 19-20 21-23
din 0.42-0.40 0.38-0.37 0.38-0.39 0.42-0.40
E din (MPa) 68-148 165-315 855-1840 2570-7950
G din (MPa) 25-55 60-115 375-660 905-2840
K din (MPa) 142-247 230-405 1100-2790 5350-13250

4. Refractive seismic method

The refractive seismic method is based on the basics of the seismic principles
and its simplest form is composed from a source and receptor of elastic waves. Through
the time delay that occurs from the moment of generation until the moment of
registration is determined the propagation velocity of the elastic waves, whereas
through the distance between the generator and receiver the depth of propagation in the
sub surface geological complex. The refraction of the waves is a process of breaching
of the elastic waves when they across environment with smaller propagation velocity in
to environment with greater velocity. The angle of refraction depends from the
propagation velocities of the two environments and its defined through the equation [2]:

sin =
+1

132
 The refractive models that are processed in this paper are with maximal length of
60m and according to that the maximal investigated depth of the geological complex is
30m. For detailed investigations of the researched are produced a total of 4 refractive
models that are overlapping on every 50m. Because of the extensiveness of the
investigations in this paper is elaborated the registration and interpretation of one
refractive model.
.

Figure 2. Model of refraction presented through two curves

5. Interpretation of the refractive seismic method

The interpretation of the refractive models contains several phases and the entire
process is gradual and separate for the refractive measurement performed forward and
backward. The process starts with detecting the breaches and branches of the curve.
Each breach indicated boundary surfaces that separates two different geological
structures. By determining the length x and time t differential is calculated the
propagation velocity of the elastic waves in the investigated environments according to
the equation:

= (/)

133
 The depth to the boundary surfaces is determined through the t 0 (time intercept)
method for each branch of the curve. The depth to each surfaces is calculated through
the following equation [3]:
1 0
=
2 cos
Where:
z n depth to the n boundary surface;
V n Propagation velocity from the source on the ground surface to the boundary
surface;
t 0n intercept of the time t for n geological environment
cosi n angle of refraction of the elastic wave
On figure 3 is presented interpreted seismic model that models the investigated
area through the t 0 method for each geological environment. The average propagation
velocity of the elastic waves for each environment as well as the values of the length
and time differential are obtained through direct analysis of the curve. From the figure
can be concluded the time t 0 for each breach is presented with dotted lines. The values
illustrated in the image are presented in ms whereas the depths to the boundary
surfaces and the length of the model in m. The different geological environments are
identified through correlation of the calculated data for the propagation velocities and
the elastic modules obtained through the laboratory investigations.

Figure 3. Interpreted refractive model

134
 6. Refractive seismic profile
The refractive seismic profile is modeled with complex interpretation of the data
obtained from the refractive models. The different values defined in the interpretation
are interpolated and complete the geological structure of the investigated area defined
through the seismic investigations. The refractive profile has the same length as the
geological profile and with their comparison can be concluded that some geological
environments that have similar geo mechanical characteristics cant be modeled with
this type of investigations. This geological structures on the basis of their different
physical characteristics can be detected with appliance of different geophysical methods
based on different principles (geo magnetism, geo electrics, gravimetric etc.)

Figure 4. Refractive profile composed from four refractions

Conclusion
From the data and models presented in the paper can be concluded that the
seismic methods can be applied for determining the under surface structure with reliable
and accurate data while defining the different geological environments. It is important to
note that the process of application and interpretation of the seismic methods is not
independent and should be used as a complementary process to the geological and
geo mechanical investigations. The network of refractive models is relatively rare
because it models around the same data as the exploratory boreholes but it is important
to note that the investigations are performed in order to determine the precision and the
effectiveness of the seismic methods through correlation with the data obtained from the
geological investigations. With preparation of denser network the investigated area can
be modeled through more measuring points along the surface of the field. Through that
process can be determined the real value of the geophysical investigations, particular
the seismic methods. The application of the geophysical investigations can significantly
reduce the time and the cost for detailed investigation of the geological structure,
producing more detailed geological profiles with much more data than the geological
investigations conducted with exploratory boreholes.

135
Reference
[1] Tihomir Dragaevi - Seizmika istraivanja, Geofiziki institut, Beograd 1983;
[2] John M. Reynolds An Introduction to Applied and Environmental
Geophysics, Reynolds Geo Sciences Ltd, UK 1997;
[3] Prem V. Sharma Environmental and engineering geophysics, Emeritus
Professor, Niels Bohr Institute University of Copenhagen, 1997;

136
 MODEL OF GEO ELECTRICAL SOUNDING BASED
ON GEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS
Goran Slavkovski1, Blagoj Delipetrev1, Todor Delipetrov1, Zoran Toshik1, Marjan
Boshkov1

1
FACULTY OF NATURAL AND TECHNICAL SCIENCES, UNIVERSITY GOCE DELCEV STIP
Abstract
The geo electrical investigations are of great importance for more detailed
modelling of geologically examined environments. The geo electrical investigations
are based on registration of the changes on the electrical field regardless of its nature
(natural or induced) through which are determined the conductive properties of the
geological structures that are associated with the geo mechanical parameters. The
determination of the most adequate geo electrical method mostly depends of the
geological structure of the environment, the geo mechanical characteristics as well as
the purpose of the trials.
The investigated area has geologically horizontally layered structure and
acceptable data for the actual specific electrical resistance of the geological
environments. Because of these features this paper elaborates the procedure of
modelling and interpreting of geo electrical models made with the method of geo
electrical sounding. The sounding is performed with Schlumberger layout of the
measuring dispositive which is composed of two current and two potential electrodes in
measuring array in which the distance between the current electrodes is much greater
than the distance between the potential electrodes. For each new measurement the
current electrodes are successively moving away from each other, which increases the
modelling depth of the investigated environment. The examined area is composed of
five exploratory boreholes with a total length of 240m. The geo electrical sounding is
performed with a maximum depth of 30m, and its represented with models of actual
electrical resistance and models of apparent electrical resistance. The models of actual
electrical resistance are made through the data for the geo mechanical characteristics
of the geological environments, whereas the models of apparent electrical resistance

137
are made synthetically in conjunction of the data for the geo mechanical
characteristics as well as the data obtained from the geological examinations.
The process of interpretation of the geo electrical models of apparent electrical
resistance through which are determined the different geological structures, their actual
electrical resistance as well as the depths to the boundary surfaces that separates two
environments with different geological characteristics.

1. Introduction
The geo electrical methods are based on registering the changes on a known
electrical field that depending on its nature can be natural or induced. The changes on
the electrical field depends from the conductivity properties of the sub surface complex.
According to that the underground geological environment is modeled while correlating
the identified changes on the field with the conductivity properties of the geological
structures. Depending on the nature of the electrical field the geo electrical methods
are divided in two main categories. The self potential methods are registering the
natural electrical current that is produced in the geological complex where as the
resistivity methods register the electrical resistance of the complex manifested on
induced electrical field.
The investigations elaborated in this paper are performed with current and
potential electrodes that induce and register electrical field. According to that the
investigations are categorized as methods of electrical resistance. This investigations
contain geo electrical models of real and apparent electrical resistance. The models of
real electrical resistance are performed on the field in the exploratory boreholes or in
laboratory conditions investigating the geological samples obtained from the process of
geological mapping.
The models of apparent electrical resistance are interpreted by solving the direct
task. With the interpretation of the apparent electrical resistance the real electrical
resistance is determined for different depths. The different geological environments are
identified with correlation of the interpreted data with the models of real electrical
resistance. Based on the identification of the geological structures as well as the
registered depths the investigated area is geo electrically modeled. The models of
apparent electrical resistance reach maximal length of 60m and according to that the
investigated area is modeled to a maximal depth of 30m.
The investigated area that is chosen for geo electrical investigations is
geologically investigated through five exploratory boreholes and in this paper geo
electrically modeled with the method of geo electrical sounding. The method of geo
electrical sounding is performed with Schlumberger layout of the measuring dispositive
composed from two current and two potential electrodes where the distance between
the current electrode is much greater than the distance between the potential
electrodes. The investigated area is modeled through different depths with successively

138
distancing the current electrodes for every new measurement. The potential electrodes
register the apparent electrical resistance of the geological complex for given depth.

2. Geological investigations
The geological structure of the investigated area is geological examined through
depth of 25m with five exploratory boreholes with various distances and a total length of
240m. Through the mapped boreholes are determined the geological environments that
are representing the investigated area and on basis of this data is concluded that the
geological complex is composed from the following geological structures:
Clayed composition
Sands and gravel with fine to medium granularity
Pliocene sands and gravels
Pliocene marls and conglomerates
On figure 1 is shown the geological profile of the investigated area modeled
through the data obtained from the mapped boreholes.

Figure 1. Geological profile of the investigated area

3. Geo electrical characteristics of the investigated area

Table 1. Conductivity properties of the geological environments

(m)
Clayed composition (CL/ML) 10
Sands with fine granulation (ML) 60
Sands with fine granulation and gravel (ML/Sfs) 80
Sands with medium granulation (Sfs) 100
Gravel with fine granularity (Gp) 150
Pliocene sands and gravel (Pl) 200
Pliocene marls and conglomerates (Plpc) 300

For successful implementation of the geo electrical sounding it is important to be

determined the conductive properties of the geological environments meaning the

139
values for their real electrical resistance. This parameters are obtained with
identification of the electrical resistance registered while conducting a known electrical
field through the investigated material. The values of the real electrical resistance may
vary from 10 to 107 m and are most dependent from the level of underground water,
structure as well as the geo mechanical parameters of the geological environments. In
the Table 1 are presented the different geological structures as well as the values for
the registered real electrical resistance.

4. Models of apparent electrical resistance

The models of apparent electrical resistance are represented as half logarithmic
diagrams that on X axis contains the data for the investigated depth whereas on the Y
axis the data for the apparent electrical resistance registered for the according depth.
The geo electrical models presented in this paper are made synthetically through the
data of the mapped boreholes and the geo electrical characteristics of the represented
geological structures.
A total of five geo electrical models are produced for thorough geo electrical
examination of the investigated area. In this paper visually is presented only one model
of apparent electrical resistance and its important to note that the shape of the models
is different and depends from the thickness of the geological environment as well as
their geo electrical characteristics. For each measuring point on the researched profile
line is made a geo electrical model that models the environments vertically. The
measuring point is located in the middle of the potential electrodes and the investigated
depth is equal to one half of the distance between the current electrodes. On figure 2 is
shown a geo electrical model of apparent electrical resistance.

Figure 2. Geo electrical model of apparent electrical resistivity

140
 5. Interpretation of the model of apparent electrical resistance
The process of interpretation of the models of apparent electrical resistance for
each model is similar and starts from the number of breaches (registered different
values) of the geo electrical curve, the registered depth and apparent electrical
resistance. Each different value (breach) indicates change in the geological complex
(new registered geological environment) [1]. The registered apparent electrical
resistance is the total electrical resistance of the geological complex for given depth.
Because of this the interpretation of the models is gradual and begins from the first
breach of the curve. On figure 3 is presented the dimensioned curve of apparent
electrical resistance.

Figure 3. Interpreted curve of apparent electrical resistivity

The process of interpretation continues with dimensioning of each breach
towards the X and Y axis respectively. Through this process are obtained the data for
the depth (thickness of each geological structure) and the total electrical resistance. The
data from the X axis are obtained directly whereas the data from the Y axis after
mathematical calculation given that the Y axis represents the data logarithmically. The
value of the apparent electrical resistance registered with Schlumberger layout depends
from the distance between the current and potential electrodes as well as the electrical

141
resistance of the geological complex. The dependences are shown in the next equation
[3]:
2 2
= 1 2
4
Where:
The distance between one current electrode and the center of the measuring
dispositive
b The distance between the two potential electrodes
Constant with value 3.14
R The total electrical resistance of the geological complex.
under condition 5;
For each breach of the curve the values of the measuring dispositive are known
(a and b), as well as the registered apparent resistance a . With this data through the
equation 1.1 is calculated the total electrical resistance of the geological structure.
Because of the starting shallow depth of investigation and the geological structure of the
investigated area, the total electrical resistance registered with the first breach is equal
to the real electrical resistance of the first geological environment. For each successive
breach the total electrical resistance is accumulated value from the real electrical
resistances of the covered geological environments [2]. Because of the spherical way of
propagation of the electrical field as well as the horizontally layered structure of the
geological complex the different geological environments can be taken as parallel
resistors and according to that the total electrical resistance for geological structure
composed from n geological environments is equal to:
1 1 1 1
= + +. . .
1 2
From the data obtained with direct analysis of the curve of apparent electrical
resistance through the equations 1.1 and 1.2 for each breach is determined the
thickness of the geological structure, its real electrical resistance as well as the depth to
each boundary surface.

6. Geo electrical model of the investigated area

The geo electrical model of the investigated area is made after identifying the
geological environments from the data obtained from the interpretation of the curves of
apparent electrical resistance. The geo electrical model of the investigated area is
produced with complex interpretation of the data obtained separately for each
measuring point. The precision of the geo electrical model depends from the density
of the measuring points along the profile line as well as the integrity of the interpreted

142
data. If the field and geological conditions allow favorable conditions for geo electrical
investigations, their results can be taken with high level of precision.
On figure 4 visually is shown the total geo electrical model for the investigated
area. With direct comparison of the geo electrical and geological profile is concluded
that in the process of geo electrical modeling very little geological data is lost.

Figure 4. Geo electrical model of the investigated area

Conclusion
The applicability and efficiency of the geo electrical sounding depends from the
field structure, the layering of the ore body, field conditions and most importantly the
conductivity properties (electrical resistance) of the environments. If the necessary
conditions allow successful application the method of geo electrical sounding is very
practical while determining geologically partially investigated and relatively extensive
areas. This method is exclusively used in combination with exploratory mapped
boreholes.
The data obtained through the modeling are added to the data obtained with the
mapped boreholes and because of that the geo electrical investigations can
significantly reduce the number of necessary boreholes, therefor drastically decreasing
the costs of geologically modeling. Depending on the purpose of the investigation the
method of geo electrical sounding can be applied independently or for greater
efficiency in combination with other geophysical methods.

Reference
[1] Delipetrov T., Basics of geophysics, University of Sts. Cyril and Methodius -
Skopje, Faculty of mining and geology, 2003
[2] J.J.Jakosky (1960) Geofizika Istraivanja
[3] Prem V.Sharma (2004) Environmental and engineering geophysics

143
 COMPLEX INTERPRETATION OF DATA OBTAINED FROM
SEISMIC REFLECTION AND REFRACTION
Goran Aleksovski1, Marjan Delipetrev2, Vladimir Manevski3, Goran Slavkovski4, Zoran
Toshik5
1
Post graduate student, faculty of technical science University GoceDelcev, Shtip, R.Macedonia,
[email protected]
1
Assoc. prof. faculty of technical science University GoceDelcev, Shtip, R.Macedonia,
[email protected]
1
PhD student, faculty of technical science University GoceDelcev, Shtip, R.Macedonia,
[email protected]
1
Post graduate student, faculty of technical science University GoceDelcev, Shtip, R.Macedonia,
[email protected]
1
Post graduate student, faculty of technical science University GoceDelcev, Shtip, R.Macedonia,
[email protected]

ABSTRACT
The seismic methods of refraction and reflection are both based on registration and
determination of the velocity of propagation of the elastic waves through geological known
environments with the main difference in the rays that are registering. Namely the reflective
method is registering the ray that that is reflected from the boundary surface that is dividing
two different geological environments, whereas the refractive method is registering the
refractive ray that is breached on a certain boundary surface. Every refraction has a process of
reflection, therefore the procedure of registering the refractive and reflective waves is
performed simultaneously by setting more geophones along the investigated environment.
The investigated area that is chosen to be modelled through models of refraction and reflection
is geologically investigated with five exploratory boreholes and has a total length of 210m. With
the method of refraction the investigated area is examined to a maximal depth of 30m, whereas
with the seismic method of reflection the investigated area is examined with maximal depth of
15m. Because the depth of examination of the environment depends on the distance between
the source and the receiver of the elastic waves and its equal to one half of that length, the
refractive profiles are made with length of 60m, whereas the reflective profiles with length of
30m, with the source of the elastic waves positioned in the middle of the refractive profiles. In

144
order to examine the whole length of the investigated area through the modelling a total of four
refractive and reflective profiles are made. The modelling of the profiles is made synthetically
on the basis of the geo mechanical data for the geological environments as well as the
geological data obtained from the exploratory boreholes. The last phase of the modelling in this
paper is the process of complex interpretation of the obtained seismic models. Through the
process of interpretation are determined the propagation velocity of the elastic waves through
the geological structures, the geological characteristics of the investigated environment and
with the t0 method the depths to the boundary surfaces that are separating the different
geological environments.
KEYWORDS
Elastic waves, propagation velocity, refraction, reflection
1. INTORDUCTION
The seismic investigations are based on generating elastic waves at a known time interval, that
are propagating through the under surface geological structure in the researched area. Along
the propagation the elastic waves are reflecting and refracting on the boundary surfaces and
the different waves are registered on the surface at known distance and time delay. The
elapsed time registered from the generation and the first registration of the elastic waves is
used to determine the propagation velocity and the physical and geo mechanical
characteristics of the geological environments. The investigated area is modeled by determining
the different geological structures as well as the depths to the boundary surfaces that are
separating them.

In the paper is elaborated the procedure of appliance and complex interpretation of the seismic
methods of refraction and reflection. The essential difference in the main principles of the two
methods is in the type of elastic waves that is registered. When an elastic wave is traveling
from one geological structure to another at the boundary surfaces are conducted process of
breaching (refraction) and process of reflection. Part of the elastic wave is reflected towards the
surface and part of the elastic wave is refracted deeper in the geological complex. Accordingly
the seismic method of refraction is based on registering the breached or refracted part of the
elastic wave, whereas the seismic method of reflection is registering the reflected part of the
elastic wave. The generation and registration of the elastic waves is performed simultaneously
while strategically placing several adequate geophones along the investigated area.

The researched area that is investigated and modeled with complex application of seismic
methods is geologically investigated with five exploratory boreholes with maximum investigation
depth of 25m and a total length of 210m. Through the refractive method the investigated area
is researched and modeled with maximal depth of 30m and according to the principles of
determining the depth of investigations the total length of the refractive models reaches 60m.
With the method of reflection the investigated area is researched to a maximal depth of 15m
and accordingly the reflective models have a total length of 30m. The models of reflection are
registering the elastic waves that are generated in the middle of the refractive models.

145
2. GEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS
The investigated area is geologically investigated with a depth of 25m through five mapped
exploratory boreholes. From the mapped boreholes are determined the different geological
environments and on the basis of that data is concluded that the investigated are is mainly
composed from five geological formations:

Clayed composition
Sands and gravel with fine to medium granularity
Pliocene sands and gravel
Pliocene marls and conglomerates

The geological structure determined from the geological investigations is shown in the
geological profile presented on the figure 1.

Figure 1. Geological profile composed from five exploratory boreholes, examined to a depth of
25m

2. LABORATORY INVESTIGATIONS
The laboratory investigations presented in this paper are based on determining the geo
mechanical characteristics of the geological environments. In general the elastic waves
(packages of elastic energy) from the seismic source through the geological structure are
propagating with speed that is determined by the elastic modules and the density of the
environment.

The elastic modules that impact the propagation velocities of the longitudinal and transversal
elastic waves are: Poisson ratio din, Elasticity module din, Shear module Gdin and Volume
module din. The dependencies of the propagation velocities of the P and S waves from the
elastic modules are given in the next equations [4]:

( ) (1)

( )( )

(2)
( )

146
The elastic modules for the geological environments are obtained through laboratory
investigations and on basis of that data, using the equations 1.1 and 1.2 the propagation
velocities for each environments are calculated. In table 1 are shown the physical and geo
mechanical characteristics of the geological environments as well as the calculated propagation
velocities.
Table 1 Geo mechanical parameters of the geological environments

Clayed Clayed sands

Sands and Pliocene sands
composition and gravel
gravel, Proluvial and gravels
Parameter Proluvial Proluvial
sediments Pliocene
sediments sediments
(Q2prsk) sediments (PL)
(Q2prsk) (Q2prsk)
H (m) 1-3 2-5 8-12 25-60
Vp (m/s) 340-450 400-550 910-1360 1750-2750
Vs (m/s) 125-180 180-250 400-570 650-1100
(kN/m3) 15-16 17-18 19-20 21-23
din 0.42-0.40 0.38-0.37 0.38-0.39 0.42-0.40
Edin (MPa) 68-148 165-315 855-1840 2570-7950
Gdin (MPa) 25-55 60-115 375-660 905-2840
Kdin (MPa) 142-247 230-405 1100-2790 5350-13250

3. SEISMIC MODELS OF REFRACTION AND REFLECTION

The seismic models of refraction and reflection are composed from curves obtained
complementary through the refractive and reflective investigations. The curves are presented as
two dimensional diagrams that for a known distance are showing the registered time of
propagation of the elastic waves.

Figure 2. Seismic model from curves of refraction and reflection

147
The registered time of the elastic waves depends from the propagation velocities of the elastic
waves through the geological complex, the depth of propagation as well as the angle of
breaching or reflecting depending on the type of investigations. On the figure 3 is shown
seismic model with two curves of refraction (from the beginning and the end of measuring line)
and one curve of reflection in the middle of the measuring line.

4. INTERPRETATION OF THE SEISMIC MODEL OF REFRACTION AND

REFLECTION
The interpretation of the seismic models of refraction and reflection is performed under
different concepts independently from one another. For both type of investigations the shape of
the curve represented the same physical principles and point to the same parameters. The
procedure of interpretation begins with the determination of the breaching points of the curve
where each branch represent different geological structures. For each branch is determined the
length (x) and time (t) differential and through that data is determined the propagation
velocity of the elastic wave through the investigated environment. The velocity is calculated
through the following equation [1]:

( ) (3)

The depths to the boundary surfaces for the two models are interpreted through the t0 method.
Because of the different physical principles used in the process of registration of the elastic
waves the depths are calculated through different equations and dependencies. According to
that when interpreting the data obtained from the models of refraction the depths to each
boundary surfaces is calculated through the following equation [3]:

(4)

Whereas with the interpretation of the data obtained from the models of reflection the depths
to the boundary surfaces is calculated through the equation:

(5)

Where:

zn depth to the n boundary surface;

VnPropagation velocity from the source on the ground surface to the boundary surface;

t0n intercept of the time t for n geological environment

in angle of refraction of the elastic wave

The data for the propagation velocities of the elastic waves as well as the time intercept are
obtained through direct analysis of the refractive and reflective curves (as its shown on the
figure 2). The angle of refraction between two geological environments depends from the
propagation velocities of the elastic waves in the structures and its calculated through the
following equation [2]:

148
 (6)

On figure 2 is shown the interpreted seismic model of refraction and reflection.

Figure 3. Interpreted seismic model of refraction and reflection

5. COMPLEX INTERPRETATION OF SEISMIC INVESTIGATIONS

The seismic profile is modeled with the data obtained from the refractive and reflective models.
The differences in the data of the investigations are modeled in the process of interpolation
between the known depths. The seismic profile has the same length as the geological profile
where the modeling of the under surface structure is obtained through a lot more measuring
points along the measuring line, thus increasing the data used in the modeling.

Figure 4. Seismic profile of the investigated area

149
On figure 4 is shown the seismic profile obtained through complex interpretation of the data
obtained from the refractive and reflective investigations.

CONCLUSION
With complex interpretation of the data obtained from the different seismic investigations can
be detected the differences in terms of efficiency and accuracy of the two methods. When
comparing the obtained data with the geological investigations can be concluded that the
depths to the boundary surfaces are more accurately determined with the method of seismic
reflection. The interpreted data are very important when determining the optimal network of
seismic models (refractive and reflective), for precise and optimal modeling of the investigated
area.

The seismic network that is used for geophysical investigations is relatively rare, because the
purpose of the investigations are to determine the benefits and losses of each method. For
detailed seismic investigations its important to implement a lot more reflective models (on
every 5 10m) along the investigated area. With increasing the number of reflective models,
the investigated area will be modeled through more measuring points along the profile line,
which will result with seismic model that will contain a lot more data. According to that the
refractive models would be used to determine the different geological structures and their
elastic characteristics whereas the reflective models would be used for precise and
denselydeterminations of the depths to the boundary surfaces. The depths of investigations of
the reflective models depends from the purpose, and does not always investigated the same
depth as the refractive seismic models.

REFERENCE:
[1] Delipetrov T., Basics of geophysics, University of Sts. Cyril and Methodius -
Skopje, Faculty of mining and geology, 2003
[2] John M.Reynolds (1997) An introduction to applied and environmental
geophysics

[3] PremV.Sharma (2004) Environmental and engineering geophysics

[4] TihomirDragaevi - Seizmikaistraivanja, Geofizikiinstitut, Beograd 1983

150
 CORRELATION OF THE MODELS OBTAINED WITH THE
METHOD OF REFRACTION AND GEO ELECTRICAL
SOUNDING
Zoran Toshic1, Marjan Delipetrev2, Vladimir Manevski3, Marjan Boshkov4, Trajan
Sholdov5
1
Post graduate student, faculty of technical science University GoceDelcev, Shtip, R.Macedonia,
[email protected]
1
Assoc. prof. faculty of technical science University GoceDelcev, Shtip, R.Macedonia,
[email protected]
1
PhD student, faculty of technical science University GoceDelcev, Shtip, R.Macedonia,
[email protected]
1
Post graduate student, faculty of technical science University GoceDelcev, Shtip, R.Macedonia,
[email protected]
1
Post graduate student, faculty of technical science University GoceDelcev, Shtip, R.Macedonia,
[email protected]

ABSTRACT
In order to obtain more concrete and more accurate results when the modelling of the under
surface structure of the investigated area is made with the usage of geophysical examinations,
if the field conditions allow it is necessary to be applied more than one geophysical method. In
this paper is elaborated the procedure of complex interpretation of a seismic and geo
electrical model. The seismic model is modelling the geological structure by determining the
speeds of propagation of the elastic waves which depends from the geo mechanical
characteristics of the geological environments. The geo electrical model is modelling the
investigated area by registering the changes on the electrical field which depends from the
conductivity of the geological environments.
The parameters of the investigated area (the layers of different geological environments, their
electrical conductivity and geo mechanical characteristics as well as the depth of examination)
that is elaborated in this paper provide acceptable conditions for applying the refractive seismic
method and the method of geo electrical sounding. The investigated area is geologically
researched with five exploratory boreholes and has a total length of 240m in one profile line.
The refractive models as well as the models of geo electrical sounding are made synthetically

151
while using the data obtained from geological and geo mechanical examinations. The
refractive models are composed from five refractions and the geo electrical model is made
from five geo electrical soundings all of them with length of 60m. With the interpretation of
the refractive models are determined the different geological environments (by the different
speeds of propagation of the elastic waves) as well as the boundary surfaces that separates
them, whereas with the interpretation of the models of apparent electrical resistivity the
different geological structures and the boundary surfaces between them are defined by their
actual specific electrical resistance.
As a final phase of the modelling in the paper is made correlation between the two models
(seismic refraction and geo electrical sounding) as well as comparison and interpolation
between the interpreted results in order to obtain more concrete and more precise vision for
the under surface structure of the investigated area.
KEYWORDS
Elastic waves, electrical resistance, refraction, sounding
1. INTRODUCTION
The geophysical investigations are based on registering the physical characteristics of the under
surface structure (rock masses, sediments, water etc.) and generally can be divided in two
fundamentally different types:

Passive methods that register the variations of the natural earth fields (gravitational and
magnetic)
In contrast of this methods are the active geophysical methods that are based on
artificially generating signals that are transmitted through the under surface complex. In
their propagation the artificial field is modified as result of the physical characteristics of
the materials. The changes in the field are registered on the surface with adequate
receptors. The subsurface structure is identified with the interpretation of the changes
on the field.

If the research conditions allow the geophysical methods will be with greater value if are
applied with several different geophysical methods. The investigated area researched in this
paper is modeled through seismic and geo electric investigations. Both geophysical methods
until the complex interpretation are applied independently. The interpretation of the data
obtained from the both investigations is made correlatively, whereas the interpreted
geophysical model with process of interpolation of the obtained data. For accurate
determination of the adequate geophysical methods its important detailed review of the
available geological and geo mechanical data of the investigated area.

2. GEOLOGICAL AND GEO MECHANICAL INVESTIGATIONS OF THE

RESEARCH AREA
The investigated area is geologically investigated with a depth of 25m through five exploratory
boreholes with different distance between them with a total length of 240m. The different
geological structures are determined through the data obtained from the mapped boreholes.

152
Based on that data is concluded that the investigated area is mainly composed from the
following geological structures.

Clayed composition
Sands and gravel with fine to medium granularity
Pliocene sands and gravel
Pliocene marls and conglomerates

On figure one is shown the geological profile for the investigated area constructed from the
data of the boreholes.

Figure 1. Geological profile of the investigated area

From the geological profile is concluded that the ore body in the investigated area is
horizontally layered.

The geo mechanical investigations of the geological environments are applied in laboratory
conditions using the material samples from the mapped boreholes. Through this investigations
are determined the elastic modules, density as well as the conductivity properties of the
different geological structures. From the obtained data is calculated the propagation velocity of
the elastic waves as well as the real electrical resistance for each geological environment.

The applicability as well as the efficiency of the seismic and geo electrical investigations is
determined on the basis of the results obtained from the geological and geo mechanical
investigations. The horizontally layered structure of the geological complex indicates favorable
conditions for usage of the refractive seismic method as well as the method of geo electrical
sounding. The propagation velocities of the elastic waves fulfill the necessary condition (each
deeper geological environment provides greater speed of propagation than the upper one) for
application of the refractive method.

The usage of the method of geo electrical sounding is justified with the data of real electrical
resistance that manifest sufficient differences for accurately dividing the different geological
structures.

3. SEISMIC INVESTIGATIONS
The seismic investigations in this paper performed with the method of refraction. This kind of
seismic investigations are registering the refracted elastic waves that are propagated though
the geological complex. The investigated area is seismically researched through five double
refractive models. On figure 3 is shown one refractive model.

153
The refractive model is composed from two seismic curves as well their time intercepts t0 for
each breach of the curve. The number of breaches of the curve determinates the number of
different geological environments that are composing the investigated geological complex. By
determining the difference in the length x as well as the time t is calculated the(1)
propagation
velocity of the elastic waves for each geological structure. The dependences are given with the
equation [1]:

Through the calculated velocities of the elastic waves are identified the geological
environments, and their thickest is determined by calculating the depths to the boundary
surfaces that are separating them. The depths of the boundary surfaces depends of the
average propagation velocity of the elastic waves from their source to the boundary surface Vn,
the time intercept t0, as well as the angle of refraction of the seismic wave. The connection of
the parameters is given in the equation [2]:

(2)

Figure 2.Refractive model

Using the same principle each refractive model is interpreted for both directions and based on
that data is modeled the sub surface structure of the investigated area. The seismic model of
the investigated area is produced with process of interpolation of the data obtained through the

154
interpretation of the refractive models. On figure 3 is shown the seismic model for the
investigated area with the identified geological environments as well as their boundary surfaces.

Figure 3.Seismic model of the investigated area

4. GEO ELECTRICAL INVESTIGATIONS

The geo electrical investigations are performed with the method of geo electrical sounding.
The method is based on induced electrical field (between two current electrodes), as well as
registering of the changes on the field in the two potential electrodes. The investigations are
made with Schlumberger array of the measuring equipment where the distance between the
current electrodes is much greater than the distance between the potential electrodes. The
depths of investigations depends from the distance between the current electrodes. For each
new measurement the electrodes are successively receding away and according to that for each
new measurement is registered resistance for greater and known depth.

The registered resistance in the potential electrodes is apparent electrical resistance that is
manifested from the geological complex. The apparent electrical resistance depends of the
different geological environments presented in the complex as well as their conductivity
properties. On figure 4 is shown the geo electrical model of apparent electrical resistance.

Figure 4. Geo electrical model of apparent electrical resistance

155
From the geo electrical model are determined the breaching points of the curve that indicates
different geological environments. The depth to each boundary surfaces is obtained directly
from the model whereas the value for the apparent electrical resistance is appropriately
calculated from the X axis.

The registered apparent electrical resistance depends from the a distance from one current
electrode to measuring point, b distance between the two potential electrodes and the R - the
total electrical resistance of the investigated geological complex. The dependencies of the
apparent electrical resistance and the above mentioned parameters is given with the equation
[4]:

[ ] (3)

The distances a and b are known from the alignment of the measuring dispositive during
the investigations, and the total electrical resistance R is calculated as accumulated resistance
from the geological environments. Because of the spherical way of propagation of the electrical
field and the horizontally layered structure of the ore body the total electrical resistance of part
of the geological complex can be calculated as a summation of parallel resistors according to
the equation [3]:

(4)

In the process of interpretation the different geological structures are identified by the values of
the real electrical resistance R1, R2,Rn, in correlation with the data for the conductivity
properties of the tested geological formations. The process of interpretation is proceed for each
geo electrical model.

With complex interpretation of the obtained data from the geo electrical models is produced a
geo electrical profile for the investigated area modeled through the real electrical resistance of
the geological environments. On figure 5 is shown the geo electrical profile for the researched
area.

Figure 5.Geo electrical profile of the investigated area

5. CORRELATION BETWEEN THE GEOPHYSICAL AND GEOLOGICAL

INVESTIGATIONS

156
On figure 6 are shown the geological, seismic and geo electrical profile. While correlating the
seismic profile with the geological is concluded that certain geological environments with similar
geo mechanical parameters are not detected with the investigations and are lost in the
process of modeling. The geological environments are presented as one whole structure. In the
seismic modeling the geological environments that are lost are presented as pliocene sands and
gravels as a second geological environments.

While correlating the geo electrical profile with the geological and seismic is concluded that
the geological environments that are lost in the seismic modeling are identified and determined.
When comparing the geophysical profiles with the geological for this investigated area is
concluded that the geo electrical investigations are more suitable and provide precise data for
the geological environments as well as the depths to the boundary surfaces. It is important to
note that the conclusions about the effectiveness and precisions of the geo electrical over the
seismic investigations are for the investigated area modeled in this paper.

Figure 6. Geological, geo electrical and seismic profile

CONCLUSION

157
When investigating a research area with appliance of more than one geophysical method is
concluded that the geological structures depending of their characteristics with some
investigations are detected whereas with others cannot be identified and are modeled as a
whole geological environment. That is because the different geophysical methods are based on
different physical principles. Particularly in the seismic investigations the part of the geological
complex was modeled as one whole because of the same or similar geo mechanical
parameters of the geological structures. According to the seismic principles those geological
environments are characterized as one. Because of the different conductive properties of the
complex, when applying the geo electrical investigations can be modeled as a complex
composed from different geological environments with similar elastic characteristics.

With application of more than one geophysical methods is increased the data by which the
investigated area is modeled, in the same time the scope of parameters by which are identified
the geological structures. Because of this reasons for obtaining detailed and reliable model of
the under surface structure of the investigated area its desirable to be used several different
geophysical investigations.

REFERENCES:
[1] Delipetrov T., Basics of geophysics, University of Sts. Cyril and Methodius -
Skopje, Faculty of mining and geology, 2003
[2] andorSlimak (1996) Inenjerskageofizika

[3] J.J.Jakosky (1960) GeofizikaIstraivanja

[4] PremV.Sharma (2004) Environmental and engineering geophysics

158
 WHY THE ASSAREL OPEN PIT MINE HAS TO BE MINED IN
STAGES
Prof. St. Hristov, PhD in Technical Sciences, eng. D. Nikolov

Abstract
The paper presents the development of Asarel mine in stages where the advantages and disadvantages of the
development stages are pointed out. The possibilities for three stage opencast development of the Asarel
deposit are described. A flowchart of the development stages of Asarel mine during its expansion is presented.

Introduction

The copper deposits in Bulgaria are steeply dipping layers at a depth of 700 1,000 m and deeper. At
the same time, they are preferentially mined using an opencast method down to a depth of 400 600 m which
is the case of the Elatzite and Assarel mines. Their more profound deepening increases the volume of waste,
the areas around the surface outlines of the pit and also the hazard of large failures to appear. This leads to an
irregular duty of operation and calendar planning of mining works as well as dumping large volumes of waste
at external dumps.
So far, the Assarel open pit mine has been working along the approved B-medium contour down to level
555 which covers about 270 million tonnes of ore. According to the Terms of Reference prepared by Assarel-
Medet JSC, other technical and economic contours are also possible going deeper to levels 450, 400, 300,
etc. These contours cover ore reserves which are from 3 to 10 times bigger than the contained in B-medium
contour of cut-off grade of 0.11 0.15% Cu and they allow the life of the mine to be increased with 30 to 50
years.
AMEC, Australia, are currently preparing a new conceptual design of the Assarel open pit mine. Ten
(10) options have been developed based on which the optimal pit contour will be determined and its
throughput will be preserved or increased at the same time. Due to the long dipping height of the deposit, its
significant reserves and long mining term, it is currently impossible to select the exact efficient pit contour. This
is related to the inaccuracy of geological and geomechanical data concerning the rocks, errors in the technical
and economic calculations and world metal price fluctuations.
The former operation of the pit is characterized with relatively low quality indices and complex mining
and geological conditions (availability of failures, cracks, etc.), which requires significant operation costs.
These costs are particularly high when the deposit is mined along its entire surface contour when deformations
occur in the massif and additional volumes of waste are removed. In order to preserve or increase the
efficiency of the deposit mining method, it needs to be mined at stages by shaping temporary non-working
edges, reducing the width of the mining areas, providing water drainage and ensuring the slope stability. The
stages shall be for a period of 10 12 years. However, the accuracy of determining the contours will be

159
different. The first stage will be determined at the highest accuracy and the next ones will contain a bigger
error. This will continue until the open pit mining becomes inefficient.

Peculiarities of Staged Mining

Minesurveying
data and plans

Technological Engineering-geological data,

environmental parameters DATABASE profiles, isolines, isopowers,
and economic data etc.

Staged approach in
Pit slope stability development of the mining
OPTIMIZING OF THE PIT
CONTOUR
Technological and environmental
Economic requirements requirements, pit capacity, average
outing, etc.

Mining duty of the Calendar Planning

activities by options
Vo=f(H), Vuc=F(H), Vo=f(Vuc) V, Vuc = f (T)

TECHNOLOGICAL ECONOMIC
ASSESSMENT
OF THE OPTIONS

SELECTION OF OPTIMUM STRATEGY

FOR STAGED DEVELOPMENT OF THE
MINING ACTIVITIES

Fig. 1. A flowchart of the staged development of the Assarel open pit mine

160
The dimensions of the Assarel deposit and the necessity for its efficient mining are the main prerequisites
which predetermine that a strategy for a staged mining and leaving temporary non-working edges be applied
(Fig. 1).

A staged mining of steeply dipping deposits (like Assarel) leads to a significant capital costs reduction.
Undoubtedly, the application of staged mining for the deposit will require new technical and economic
solutions which will allow a maximal quantity of ore of the best indices to be mined.
The advantages of the staged mining of the Assarel open pit mine are the following: reducing the
reconstruction period; increasing the mining intensity; increasing its capacity; selecting the best technology
and equipment; bigger potential to manage the slope stability; working with a dynamic contour at which the
massif will be updated; providing planned development of the company and the maintenance and repair
schedules. Thanks to the separation of the pit by stages, the duty of mining works and the waste calendar
schedule will be improved. Its efficient mining will be enhanced.
The main disadvantages of the open pit staged mining are the following: the complexity of the mining
activities will be increased; a necessity of special equipment and funds for development of the mine in the
temporary non-working edges will occur.
Considering this separation of the deposit into three (3) stages, a more thorough mining of the reserves
could be achieved as well as the safety of the mining activities and the operation period can be extended.
When preparing the working plans for the individual mining stages, their technical and technological
solutions shall be interrelated and shall be accepted as a complex taking into consideration the time factor and
accuracy in their performance.
Each intermediate contour will be determined based on economic criteria in which the time factor will be
considered (for example the current stripping ratio t shall be equal to the border stripping ratio bor ) so that
the criterion that medium (contour) stripping ratio shall be equal to the border stripping ratio, i.e. med = bor for
the next stages. This will be reiterated until the depth and the edge location are found to be inefficient for open
pit mining.
The application of the staged mining of the deposit will allow a reliable determination of the optimal
boundaries of the Assarel open pit mine and mining of a maximal quantity of ore reserves.
Admittedly, after the expiration of each 10-12-year operation period, the stage sizes will be specified
again based on the actual technical and economic indices of the open pit mining and the world metal prices
which are applicable for the specific time moment.
We consider that such an approach will result into a more efficient usage of the available natural
resources. Additionally, the duty of the mining activities and the calendar schedule with their technical and
economic evaluation will be developed for each stage.
During the stage period, the monument benchmarks placed in the mine will be constantly observed
which will be beneficial for enabling a prompt response and balancing of the active and passive powers in the
prism volume of a possible failure. This will be done by accelerating or retarding the mining activities. Certain
efficient strengthening initiatives are also possible in some weak areas in the pit.
The facilities constructed on the surface will be gradually removed during the staged mining of the
deposit which will result into a more uniform distribution of capital costs. Operation costs will be also reduced
since the removal of failure material will be of a smaller volume and the normal operation of the mine will be
restored faster.
The staged mining of deep open pits has proven its advantages in practice.

Staged development of the mining activities in the Assarel open pit mine

Currently, the mining activities in the deposit are being developed in compliance with the approved
technical project for B-medium contour of the Assarel open pit of a bottom level 555. The development of the
mining activities reached down to level 660 by the end of 2014 (Fig. 2).

161
Fig. 2. Mining stages for the Assarel open pit

162
 Our studies and observations so far show that at maximal slope face angles of 33 35, the pit
perspective contour is possible to reach a depth for open pit mining down to bottom level 400 [1] (Fig.3). In
this case, we suggest that three (3) stages of mining activities development be implemented. The first stage
shall be down to level 550 for about 10-12 years of pit operation. The second stage shall also be for a period
of 10-12 years down to level 400. The third stage shall be developed from level 400 to level 300 after
performing a serious analysis of the operational data via combined or underground method.
During the design of the first stage, there will be sufficient information about the reserves available as
well as the constructive and economic parameters of the pit. It is natural that the first stage be characterized
also with an advanced mining of the high grade areas and the low grade areas shall be left for a later mining
stage. During this stage the accuracy for determining the contour is very high. The error is like 5 10%. The
second stage which will be developed after 20 25 years will be designed with an error of 20 25% and the
error during the design of the third stage after 30 35 years will be more than 50% (Fig. 2).

References

[1] Hristov St. Technological and geomechanical issues in the open pits and quarries designing and operation.
Sofia, St. Ivan Rilski Publishing House, University of Mining and Geology, 2013 p. 374.
[2] Hristov St. Staged development of the mining activities in the Assarel open pit - A necessary condition for
efficient mining. Annual Yearbook of the University of Mining and Geology,, ,1993.
Hristov St., D. Nikolov. Necessity for a staged development of mining works in the operation of deep open pit
mines. Geology and Mineral Resources Magazine, Issue 10, 2012.

163
Fig.3 Calculation of the slopes stability for Profile 1 at different stages of development of the mining works
in Assarel open pit mine

164
 LADDER PROGRAM FOR A BLENDING PROCESS
Stelian Valentin Casavela 1
1
University of Petrosani, Petrosani, Romania, [email protected]

ABSTRACT
Two liquid substances (liquid A and liquid B) are mingled together in a tank by an agitator.
The resulted substance is drained from the mixer through a drain valve. The process is divided
into functional areas and individual tasks. The area for ingredients A and B is followed by the
mixing tank area and the drain area. Programming the FBs (function blocks) for the motors
and valves from any areas and the interconnecting of these is our ladder program.

KEYWORDS
logic blocks, symbolic addresses, feed pump, sensor, valve, function block, network, input,
output.

1. THE PROCESS AREAS AND LOGIC BLOCKS

Dividing in tasks and areas, safety requirements and describing them. From the four distinct
areas, the areas for the A and B ingredients employ the similar equipments. 1) A: Feed pump ,
Inlet valve, Feed valve, Flow sensor; 2) B: similar 3) Mixing tank : Agitator motor and a switch
for tank level measurement. 4) Drain: Drain valve.
The different devices are of electrical or mechanical types and for implementing digital inputs
and digital outputs for each task, for achieving of different interlocks and dependencies
between the individual tasks.
The pumps, motors, and valves used in this industrial blending process are described below.
The feed pump motors : flow rate: 300 l/min, rating: 80 kW at 1200 rpm. The pumps are
started and stopped by a human operator situated nearby the mixing tank.
The pumps must operate comply with conditions : the mixing tank is not full, the drain valve
of the mixing tank is closed, the emergency is off. To switch off the pumps, there must be the
conditions:- after the pump motor is turned on, the flow sensor has signaled no flow 8 seconds
;- the flow sensor signals that the flow has ceased. The draining uses the gravitation and its
valve contains a solenoid with a spring return.
The activation means open, in the next conditions: the agitator motor not moving, no "Tank
empty" signaled by the level sensor, no "Emergency off". All are controlled by a human
person. The pumps are turn off if the "Tank empty" signal is received from the tank level
sensor. The level switches in the tank, interlock the feed motors and the agitator motors. The
activation means open, in the next conditions: the agitator motor not moving, no "Tank
empty" signaled by the level sensor, no "Emergency off".

165
 Figure 1: Displays and Controls

Figure 2: The process areas

Configuration Diagram. Input / Output diagram for our motors. (see figure 3 ).

Figure 3: I/O diagram for motors

Three motors, for the feed pumps and agitator, are used in process. Any motor is driven by a
motor converter block, the same for each one. This block has six inputs: motor start or motor
stop, a reset of the maintenance display, a response from motor (running / not running), one
166
for the time in which the response has to be received and one for the number of the counters,
employed to measure the time. The diagram also requires 4 outputs: 2, to show the starting
or the turning off the motor, 1,to signal faults, and 1, to warn that the motor must be sent to
maintenance. An in/out is to control the motor: Motor, for activating it, but at the same time,
it is also used in the program, for the "motor block" converter.
Each valve is controlled by its own "valve block" that is the same for all valves used. The logic
block has two inputs: one to open the valve and one to close the valve. It also has two outputs:
one to indicate that the valve is open and the other to indicate that it is closed. The block has
an in/out to activate the valve. It is used to control the valve but at the same time is also edited
and modified in the program for the "valve block."

Figure 4: The valve block

Those circuits act independently of the logical controller (but in coordination with its main
program, using an I/O interface). There is a matrix for each actuator, configured for
connecting it to its own "emergency off range". The matrix is used in building the diagrams of
the safety circuits. The designing contains necessary interlocks between the all automation
tasks, circuits for the process apparatus, allowing them to be operated by human in an
emergency, other further safety requirements. The safety logic circuit contains a switch off ,
which disconnects the next devices, without the accord of the PLC: feed pump for liquid A, feed
pump for liquid B, the stirrer motor, valves. The switch is situated on the operator station. The
emergency state is signaled to the PLC.
CPU and Interfaces. The diagram of configuration contains: type of Central Processor Unit,
modules of Input /Output , their configuring.

Figure 5: Blending Control

167
Conditions for supplying with the ingredients A and B (see Figure 2). The inlet and feed
pipes contain flow sensors. When the tank level sensor indicates that it is full, the both feed
pumps must be stopped. Also when the drain valve is open. The inlet and feed valves have to
be opened in maximum 2 sec after the feed pump is started. These valves have to be closed
immediately after receiving the signal from the flow sensor indicating that the feed pumps are
turned off, for to prevent a leakage from the pump.
Mixing area: The agitator motor must be turned off when the level sensor returns the signal
"level below minimum" or the drain valve is open. The agitator motor signals after reaching its
rated speed. If no signal appears within 10 seconds after starting, the motor must be stopped.
Drain area:- A solenoid valve prevents drainage of the tank. This solenoid valve is handled by
the operator hand, but must be closed by the "tank empty" signal. The solenoid valve
opening is interlocked when the agitator motor is running or the tank is empty.
Operator Station. It is equipped with the following: switches for stages of the process.
Blocks in the User Program. (see Figure 6). OB1 has the main program, from OB1 are
called FB1 and FC1 and are transferred to them the control parameters. FB1 controls all two
pumps and the agitator motor the requirements being identical. DBs 1, 2, 3 are associated with
FB1. FC1: The feed valves with only the function "open and close" are programmed.

Figure 6: Logic blocks and hierarchy of their Calls

2. VARIABLES OF THE FUNCTION CONTROL BLOCS FB1

The symbol table(see Figure 5). contains the symbolic names and the absolute addresses of
elements.
Designing of the FB as FB1 for the Motor. It contains the logical functions:
- start and a stop input,
-interlocks ("Motor_enable," "Valve_enable") which status is saved in the temporary local data
(L stack) of OB, and is logically combined with the start and stop inputs when the FB1 for the
motor is processed.
-Feedback from the devices. Otherwise, an error or fault would occur. The FB1 function then
stops the motor.
-The moment and the length of the response or error/fault cycle has to be specified
-With the start button pressed and the motor validated, the motor switches itself on and runs
until the command of stop button
168
-When the motor is switched on, a timer counter starts. If the feed back signal from the process
is not arrived in duration, settled in timer, the motor stops.

Figure 7: The inputs and outputs of the FB1

169
 Figure 8: Symbol address table for FB1
The general parameter names for the inputs and outputs have to be used, because there is a
multiple instance FB1 for the motor (both pumps and motor). The Declaring Variables Table of
the FB1 follows. (see Figure 9)

Figure 9: Variables Table of FB1

170
3. THE PROCESS AREAS AND LOGIC BLOCKS

FB1 is written in STL, LAD and FBD languages. (see Figure 10).

Figure 10: Program of the FB1

171
4. REFERENCES

Ladder Logic Language Reference. Chapter 8: www.triplc.com/documents/

[1]
Chapter8.pdf
Rockwell Automation Publication 1756-PM011F-EN-P - October
[2]
2014.....literature.rockwellautomation.com/.../1756-pm
Clinical Ladder Reference Manual *UPDATED 7/28/2015*. Requirements.
[3]
uthealth.utoledo.edu/.../PEN%20Clinical%20La

172
 POSSIBLE APPLICATION OF INTERNET OF THINGS IN
THE MINING INDUSTRY
Yordanka ANASTASOVA1, Nikolay YANEV2
1
University of Mining and Geology St. Ivan Rilski, Sofia, Bulgaria, [email protected],
2
University of Mining and Geology St. Ivan Rilski, Sofia, Bulgaria, [email protected],

ABSTRACT
In recent years in the field of information technology enters the use of so-called Internet of
things (IoT), which offers advanced capabilities in the use of modern computer applications
such as intelligent networks.
The focus in this dynamically developing area of IT (Information Technology) is placed on the
analysis and evaluation of data received from intelligent networks, leading to the generation of
practical benefits such as accelerating the process of making managerial decisions in order to
optimize processes, introduction of innovative technologies, competitiveness, etc.
As two of the five main directions in this new area (IoT) are Smart Enterprise and Smart
Environment and these two areas are inextricably linked at work in the mining industry the
authors considered appropriate to be explored the possibilities for application of intelligent
systems for analysis and evaluation of data and consequently increase the level of reliability of
process management in the mining industry.
Some of the companies in the mining industry implement complex specialized solutions covering
a whole process, starting from embedded sensors for monitoring by the applications for its
management. Advantage of these solutions is that they are created for a specific purpose and
can provide an ideal solution for a specific process. The disadvantage however is that they are
expensive, inflexible and are deprived of the possibility to easily integrate and exchange data
with other information systems used for monitoring and management.
Modern trends in the field of IoT are directed not to develop separate modules, and the
construction of complete platforms through which to carry out integration with other available
information systems and intelligent networks. This article is focused on exploring the
possibilities for implementation of such applications in the mining industry.

KEYWORDS
Analysis, Evaluation, Reliability, Application, Intelligent Networks, Mining Industry

1. INTRODUCTION

Internet of things is a modern computer conception that describes a network of physical objects
(or things) embedded with electronics, sensors, software and connectivity with each other.
Each of the devices ("things") is uniquely identified through its embedded computing system),
but they are able to interact (i.e., to communicate with each other) in the framework of the
173
existing Internet structure, using existing Web standards. For this reason, this type of devices
and their connectivity are also called "intelligent" systems.
The overall objective pursued with the application and use of the Internet of Things is the
achievement of greater value and more efficient processes to achieve automation in almost all
areas of industry and human life.

2 EXISTING AREAS OF APPLICATION OF INTERNET OF THINGS

The concept Internet of Things has been promoted and developed since 1999, making it one of
the newest and most perspective information technologies. Currently, it is used in many areas
of industry and human life, which we will discuss shortly.
One of the first applications is the use of smart devices in transport management. Internet of
Things helps the integration of communications, monitoring and informatization processes in
different transport systems. Its application is extended to all aspects of these systems, including
automobiles, transport infrastructure and even the drivers themselves.
The dynamic relationship between these components provided by Internet of Things, allows
both for internal communication between them, and for communication with smart devices out
of them. Real working applications in this area are the smart traffic control, smart parking,
electronic systems for logistics and management of vehicles, logistics, control and safety
systems, smart travel and emergency assistance.
The management of large datasets is another area of application of Internet of Things. Big
companies accumulate huge datasets, which need to be analyzed to determine the preferences
and trends for a product or process. The technologies using Internet of Things help in rapid
analysis of this data almost in real time, which provides not only a higher degree of awareness,
but also a competitive advantage in today's dynamic market.
Another major area of application of Internet of Things, which is undergoing continuous
development, is the monitoring and protection of the environment. The use of smart sensors
assists not only in monitoring the quality of water and air, but also in the monitoring of weather
and soil conditions, as well as in the distribution of flora and fauna in a given geographical area.
The latest generation of smart sensors in this area helps in early warning of various natural
disasters (particularly floods, tsunamis and earthquakes). Characteristic of this type of smart
devices is that they are mobile and are in the process of continuous development and
improvement.
Waste management is directly linked to the monitoring of the environment; this area is the
latest area where Internet of Things is used.
Internet of Things is successfully applied in monitoring and control of infrastructure, both in and
outside urban areas, helping in the planning and carrying out the necessary infrastructure
works.
Internet of Things finds application in the field of medical and health care, being used mainly
for remote diagnosis and monitoring of patients.
Internet of Things is increasingly used in the processes in industry. According to the forecasts
of the experts precisely the industry is expected to become the center of the Internet of Things
in the coming years. The concept Internet of Things in the production process is based on the
idea of a fully automated environment via analog and digital sensors and intelligent control
systems that communicate with each other via the IP protocols, and optimize the work and
effectiveness of connected devices and equipment. [2], [6]
Another area of application of Internet of Things is the energy management. This term includes
not just the management of large energy networks systems, but also the optimization of energy

174
consumption as a whole. Energy management can be realized both for a separate house and
for the whole enterprise. [3]
No matter what area you apply to Internet of Things the emphasis is on the analysis and
evaluation of intelligent data received from the network, which leads to the generation of
practical benefits such as speeding up the process for making managerial decisions,
optimization of production processes, introduction of innovative technologies, competitiveness,
etc. [4]

3 EXISTING APPLICATIONS OF THE INTERNET OF THINGS IN THE MINING

INDUSTRY

Although the Internet of Things, also called Industry 4.0 (The Fourth Industrial Revolution),
covers more and more processes in the field of industrial production, its implementation in the
field of mining industry is still in its beginning.
The authors found a few applications and ideas for application of Internet of Things in the
mining industry, as they cover individual processes in a particular mining enterprise.
Application of Internet of Things in monitoring the groundwater is in the process of
implementation in the coal mines in the China. The level and drains of water are monitored and
data are collected and processed through a system of sensors in order to prevent flooding of
the work horizons.
Another application of Internet of Things is in the extraction of oil, but this application as
described is still in the conceptual design phase and is yet to come.
One of the most successful applications of elements of the Internet of Things is presented in
the management of mining works in the Chelopech mine, which is part of the Dundee Precious
Metals Inc. group. On the basis of systems for integration of information streams coming from
different sources, information is automatically collected and processed in a single distribution
center, allowing monitoring of mining works, equipment and personnel in real time and taking
timely management decisions. [1]

4 OPPORTUNITIES FOR APPLICATION OF INTERNET OF THINGS IN THE

MINING INDUSTRY

Based on the research and analysis made by the authors, the following main directions for the
most effective applications of Internet of Things in the field of mining industry can be
recommended:

4.1 Application of Internet of Things in the automation of manufacturing processes

Many companies in the mining industry implement complex specialized solutions covering the
overall specific production process, starting from embedded sensors for monitoring to
applications for its management. The advantage of these solutions is that they are created for a
specific purpose and can provide an ideal solution for a specific process. The disadvantage
however is that they are expensive, not flexible and are deprived of the possibility to easily
integrate and exchange data with other information systems (or processes), also used for
monitoring and management.
Information systems in the industry gradually evolved. The beginnings of IT systems are those
for Enterprises Resource Planning (ERP), Material Requirements Planning (MRP), moving on to
the next stage in the systems for Manufacturing Resource Planning (MRPII) systems and
Manufacturing Execution Management (MES).

175
The application of Internet of Things suggests the transition of these systems into an integrated
platform that spans business tools, asset management, supply and availability, production
schedules, and optimization solutions, operating in real time. The final aim is to have synergy
between the smart information technology and staff in order to achieve the desired efficiency of
production.
The vision for the integration of Internet of Things functionality is based on the connectivity of
the various sensor, control and information systems with solutions for integrating, processing
and analysis of data, which could significantly optimize the processes and to increase their
effectiveness. The adaptation of the Internet applications of Things is a logical step for
increased productivity and better integration of various production and business systems.
To achieve the maximum effect of the application of Internet of Things in the mining enterprise,
it is necessary to constantly exchange data between various departments, providing for the
production process. It is necessary always to have a fairly high degree of exploration of the
deposits of minerals, which allows precision in planning mining works and efficient operation of
the equipment and staff.
The process of implementation of the Internet of Things can turn out to be long and expensive,
so it's good to assess in advance the benefits and possible difficulties and shortcomings.

4.2 Application of Internet of Things in ventilation management processes

The ventilation of an underground mine, regardless of what minerals are extracted is essential
for the operation of the mining equipment and staff. The amount of air fed and numerous
parameters related to its quality are monitored to ensure the optimum conditions for work as.
Many of the proposed modern ventilation systems for underground mines (and other
underground facilities, such as tunnels, subway, etc.) have built-in sensors that transmit real-
time information about the performance of the air. The data from these sensors are usually sent
to the operator, who can remotely manage the submission of air jets.
The application of Internet of Things will allow the data from these sensors to be processed
automatically and submitted as appropriate and to undertake measures such as dewing,
filtering, and others with the aim of improving air quality. For this purpose it is necessary to
build an information platform that can bring together the data and manage the processes.

4.3 Application of Internet of Things in environmental monitoring

The extraction of raw materials and the monitoring and recovery of the environment are two
inextricably linked processes in the mining industry. The possible applications of the Internet of
Things here cover a wide range of activities, which can be categorized in a summary in the
following way:
Monitoring and management of groundwater;
Monitoring and control of tailings (wastes);
Management of waste from the production;
Minimizing the risk of harmful effects for the population, flora and fauna in the particular
geographic area.
The possibilities for application of intelligent information systems in this field are many.
Depending on the specific type of minefield smart irrigation system of the tailings pond to
reduce dust, system separation and recycling of waste from the extraction and much more can
be applied.

176
4.4 Application of Internet of Things in the management of traffic flows

This is actually one of the first applications of the Internet of Things in general, which is fully
applicable and in the mining industry.
It is possible to use technique fully equipped with sensors and managed remotely from a safe
distance for work in dangerous or insecure areas.
It is possible to optimize the routes and their compliance with specific weather conditions
through the use of sensors and information systems, which would optimizire the fuel
consumption and increase safety during the disposal of the ore out of the pits.
In the case of rail transport it is possible to implement completely automated management after
deployment of the devices for automation and information system.
Contemporary conditions require each machine and facility to be equipment with sensors for
positioning in real time in order to enhance safety and minimize the risk of accidents when
working on large mining sites, which are usually open cast mines.

4.5 Application of Internet of Things in managing large datasets of data

The present information systems and technologies in the mining industry generate huge
datasets of data only for a particular process, which greatly hampers the processing and
analysis. As a typical example in this respect, we can point the generated data from sensors and
the express analyzers in the enrichment of the ore.
When you attempt to merge the data from all processes observed in a mining enterprise the
scale of generated data increases enormously, which practically makes almost impossible the
monitoring and management of all processes.
To realize these opportunities, it is necessary industrial automation that is used at present to
become gradually a comprehensive digital communication sphere which supports all systems
related to the various applications used in the industry.
Mobile technology and cloud services are leading to increased opportunities for processing and
analyzing huge volumes of data and making them operational information resource. According
to the research, their use is entirely possible in the mining industry, and for this purpose it is
necessary to build an appropriate information and communication infrastructure.

5 CONCLUSION

In order to implement intelligent technologies and the mining industry to make the most of
their advantages, it is necessary all devices, equipment and personnel to be able to
communicate with each other. The same is true for the business enterprise level devices, such
as using a unified IP network infrastructure.
This is necessary because only the features of the Internet Protocol can provide scalability and
harmonious coexistence of the services in the Internet of Things and create the conditions for
progressive innovations in the platform that will allow full communication of the various devices
between them.
The number of devices used in industrial automation, which are connected to the Internet of
Things has been rising steadily in recent years. Only for the period 2012-2015 there is a
combined growth rate of 36,3%. There is also continuous growth of the number of all devices
connected to the Internet of Things, for the same period the increase was over 100% (Figure
1.) [7]

177
 Figure 1: Number of devices connected to the Internet of Things
Source: https://www.ncta.com

Specifically in connection with the development of the Internet of Things in the field of industrial
automation leading world companies in the field of information technologies join forces to
resolve the challenges that arise in the implementation of the so-called intelligent systems. [5]
In the field of the industry as a whole and in particular in the mining one there are already
applications that are able to process and visualize the planned activities. Such examples are the
possibilities of integration of CAD systems and planning, control and monitoring of mining
activities and processes.
The current trends in the field of Internet of Things are not targeted at developing separate
modules, but at building complete platforms through which to carry out the integration with the
existing information systems and smart grids.

6 REFERENCES

Georgiev, N., N. Gesheva, M. Andrews.: Chelopech Mine planning and

management of underground mining activities in real time. Third national scientific
[1]
conference with international participation Technologies and practices in
underground construction and mining extraction, Devin, Bulgaria, 2012, pp. 5-13.
Sheppard, Rob.: Best practices for implementing the Internet of Things, 2014,
[2] http://www.theinquirer.net/inquirer/industry-voice-blog/2373771/best-practices-for-
implementing-the-internet-of-things
The importance of Industry 4.0. and Internet of Things for the Bulgarian industry
[3]
Engineering review magazine, 2015, May, pp. 65.
Internet of Things in industrial automation, Engineering review magazine, 2015,
[4]
May, pp. 66-74.
Intel has come up with a unified platform for the Internet of things, PCWorld
[5]
magazine, 2015, http://pcworld.bg
What the Internet of Things (IoT) Needs to Become a Reality, White paper,
[6]
http://www.freescale.com/files/32bit/doc/white_paper/INTOTHNGSWP.pdf
[7] https://www.ncta.com
178
 PERTURBATIONS IN THE METHANE ACCUMULATION
SYSTEM FROM THE MINE WORKINGS AFTER THE
OCCURRENCE OF AN EXPLOSION - CASE STUDY, COAL
BED 13, LIVEZENI MINING UNIT, PETROSANI-ROMANIA -
Cristian TOMESCU1, Constantin LUPU2, Doru CIOCLEA3, Nicolae VLASIN4,
Ion GHERGHE5, Vlad PSCULESCU6
1
INCD INSEMEX, Petrosani, Romania, [email protected]
2
INCD INSEMEX, Petrosani, Romania, [email protected]
3
INCD INSEMEX, Petrosani, Romania, [email protected]
4
INCD INSEMEX, Petrosani, Romania, [email protected]
5
INCD INSEMEX, Petrosani, Romania, [email protected]
6
INCD INSEMEX, Petrosani, Romania, [email protected]
ABSTRACT
In coal mines, the share of mining faults with disastrous consequences upon mining workers and upon
the deposit is represented by methane explosions and burnings.
Although the geological and technical factors were known when opening and exploiting coal from coal
bed no. 13, Livezeni mining unit, located in the centre of Jiu Valley coal field, there occurred an explosion
generated by methane releases over the maximum admitted limits.
After the occurrence of the explosion (year 2003) in current mine workings, from panel 2, coal bed no.
13, bl. IX, horizon 100, the coal reserve had been flooded for several years, after which, in 2013, it was
re-opened for exploitation.
In re-opened mine workings, there havent been registered methane concentrations at the known and
measured level before the mining fault.
The paperwork proposes a technical analysis on the gaseous-dynamic regime of methane from coal bed
no. 13, in order to increase the safety level of the coal deposit and of the underground workers, when re-
opening the exploitation workings, taking into account the quartering places, the methane gas migration
paths and the causes which have led to this phenomenon.

KEYWORDS
methane, explosion, migration, pressure, mine workings, flooding

1 INTRODUCTION

In Romania, hard coal mining is performed only in Jiu Valley basin, the largest hard coal deposit
in the area, with an industrial reserve of over 300 million tons, this activity having a dominant
chare in the areas economy.
Livezeni mine unit is located in the eastern part of the basin and has an annual production
capacity of 340,000 tons of coal.

179
Methane releases recorded at mine level are determined by the absolute flow qa=15.7 m3
CH4/min and relative flow qr=14.0 m3 CH4/ton.
Mining process is performed over two coal beds, coal bed no. 3 and no. 13, on different
horizons, the current paper work focusing on coal bed no. 13, horizon 100.
Mining this coal bed generated difficulties related to methane releases and accumulations, being
recorded two spontaneous combustion phenomena, and because of this occurred a methane
ignition in the mechanized coalface panel 2, coal bed 13, block IX, followed by an explosion
after approximately 7 hours, hazardous events which led to the temporary work incapacity of 7
workers.
Following these events, in order to liquidate the fault, there has been decided to insulate the
entire horizon by total flooding, the coal deposit remaining immobilized for several years.

2 GEO-MINING STRUCTURE OF JIU VALLEY AND OF LIVEZENI MINING

PERIMETER

As a whole, Petrosani tectonic depression is an asymmetric synclinal oriented ENE-WSW. The

sediment complex of Petrosani is formed of deposits from the Upper Cretaceous, Paleogene,
Neogene and Quaternary. It has a width of approx. 150 300 m and comprises compact clays,
sandstone, marl, brown marls and has a number of 21 coal beds. The coal beds have variable
extent and width, of centimetres up to tens of meters, with variations within the same bed,
both on the direction and on the inclination. The northern part has variable inclinations ranging
between 250 and 400, and the southern part ranges in inclination between 100 and 350. The
disjunctive elements are represented by a system of cross-section and directional rifts with
various extents and amplitudes.
Livezeni mining field frames into the eastern part of Petrosani tectonic depression, being
located in the area in which the basin has the largest width, and neighbouring with Petrila
mining perimeter in the North, Salatruc in the South and Dalja in the West. The mining field is
characterised by an anticlinal fold with the area of maximum deposits lifting in the north-
eastern part. Fault lines which split the deposit have the general direction NW-SE or SW-NE.
From East to West, there is noticed the descending of formations, with inclinations ranging
between 100 - 150 towards the south-west.
Exploration workings performed within Livezeni mining perimeter intercepted 10 coal beds. The
coal beds from the perimeter have various extents and widths, but we are going to focus only
on the exploitable ones 3, 5 and 13, which fulfil the technical economic conditions for being
subject to mining. In the order of their sedimentation, coal beds are the following:
Coal bed 3 is the main bed from the perimeter. The coal bed has the shape of a complex of coal
benches with clay intercalations. The thickness of the bed is in average 28 32 m in the central
and northern area, and in the south the width decreases. It is located at a 10 20 m distance
from coal bed no. 2. The roof consists of alternations of sandstone and clay, and the roof of
hard chalky sandstones or clays with fossil plants remains.
Coal bed 5 is the second important coalbed of the perimeter, of 2-6 m in thickness. It is located
approximately at 40 60 m from coal bed 3. It is formed of two coal benches separated by thin
clay intercalations. The roof is formed of an alternation of clays, grey marls with fauna and the
floor is made of sandstones and clays with siderite concretions.
Coal bed 13 has a uniform extent in the perimeter. It is formed of 1 2 coal benches. The roof
consists of clays and marls with limestone concretions and remains of fauna, and the floor is
made of sandstones and clays with siderite concretions.
When the event occurred, the object of the mining was represented by the coal reserve from
coal bed 13, block IX, opened at horizon 100. The horizontal thickness of coal bed 13 records

180
values comprised between 3.8 and 4.2 m, and the average inclination of the coal bed in the
area of block IX is 40- 60.

3 MINING VENTILATION AND WORK TECHNOLOGY

3.1. Ventilation

Fresh air enters underground on the Main Shaft and Auxiliary Shaft and reaches horizon 300,
one part entering on the collection plane horizon 300-100, and another one of Blind shaft no. 6.
The two pathways unite at the level of horizon 100 and the air continues its way over the
collection gallery of panel 3, the connection gallery of panel 2 and through the main gallery
reaches the coal face. Return air is exhausted on the head gallery of the coal faces, on the
ventilation rising of coal bed 13, on the ventilation plane from coal bed 13 and from here on the
connection gallery to the main ventilation station from the ventilation Shaft East (Fig. 1).

Figure 1: Spatial ventilation diagram of mine workings from horizon 100

3.2 Work technology

Coal face panel 2, coal bed 13, block IX had 120 m in length, a maximum height of 3.5 m,
being equipped only with a mechanized support type SMA-2, a coal shearer type KS-3M and a
conveyor type TR-7 (Fig. 2). The work technology from the coal faces consists of the following
operations: cutting coal in the work face, exhausting coal from the face and the slipping of
conveyor TR-7, supporting the coal face and intersections, circulating the mining pressure and
digging the niches from the end of the coal face.

Figure 2: Mechanized mining in coal face panel 2, coalbed 13, block IX

181
4 METHANE RELEASES, ACCUMULATIONS AND MINING FAULT

For the methane releases in the mechanized coal face are considered the following influencing
factors: achieved production (1100 t/day), advancing speed (vm=24 m/month) and the manner
for directing the roofs pressure (with mechanized supports, by caving rocks from the beds
roof). Scheduled measurements for controlling methane concentrations recorded values from
0.4 % vol. on the main gallery, in the coal face 0.7 % vol. and 1.2 % vol. on the head gallery.
In the area of the longwall, methane releases have in general a regulated characteristic, and
they can be managed by proper ventilation. Although, there are situations in which methane
concentrations sharply increase to values higher than the average ones, generating disorders in
the underground technological process as a consequence.
In case of the studied coalface, panel 2, methane measurements recorded before the
occurrence of the event, registered during a year approximately 31 accumulations over the
admitted limits, of which 15 accumulations when directing the mining pressure, 5 while
removing coal from the roof of the coal face following the cutting with the shearer and 8
accumulation due to other causes (changes in the ventilation system, open doors).
In addition, besides these accumulations recorded by automatic alarming installations which
uncouple power when exceeding the limit threshold, from the reports concluded the fact that
on the alignment of the coalface, during the cutting or stepping operations, there occurred
methane accumulations of over 2% vol., which due to the high air flow circulated in the coal
face (Q=1256 m3/min) were diluted and the detection sensors sensed methane concentrations
with values under the pre-established limit of 1.7 % vol.
The risk exposure of methane accumulations increased because in the mined coalbed has
occurred spontaneous combustion phenomena. Overlapped in time and space with methane-air
mixture, there have been fulfilled the elements required for the occurrence of a mining fault
type methane ignition and explosions, fact which imposed the measure to insulate the
exploitable reserve, for the health and safety of workers and of the deposit.

5 GAS-DYNAMIC REGIME FOR THE HORIZONS REOPENING

The removing of the mining fault from horizon 100 has been achieved by permanent insulation
of the inclined planes for transportation, ventilation and ventilation risings which connect with
horizon 300. For a higher efficiency of technical measures, horizon 100 was flooded, the water
level reaching elevation +175 in Blind Shaft no. 6.
The immobilization of the reserve lasted for years, nowadays the works for mining coal bed 13
from block IX have been resumed, at a new panel, adjacent to panel 2.
For re-opening purposes, the area flooded with approx. 242000 m3 industrial water has been
dewatered, mine workings have been restricted step-by-step with dams, on which there have been
performed periodical monitoring of gas concentrations, sampled air and analysed using gas-
chromatography, in order to assess the safety state of the deposit and the safety of the workers
entrance in the area.
The analysis of gas concentrations measurements O2, CO2, CO and CH4 performed directly and
indirectly through gas-chromatographic processing, in mining works from horizon 100, highlighted a
normal situation, with inert atmospheres of areas sealed with insulation dams and gas
concentrations framing in the limits allowed by the OHS regulation, on the entire pathway of the
opened mine workings.
But what is of interest for the technical analysis is the current methane emission regime, because
compared to the level from 13-15 years ago it is much lower, in opening and preparation works, the
frequency of methane accumulations over the allowed limit decreased. Therefore, the average
value of methane concentrations from the profile of mine workings performed in coal do not exceed
182
0.2 0.5 % vol. according to on-site measurements or the ones recorded by the detection
installation. From the exploitation history of coal bed no 13, both at Livezeni mine unit and at other
Jiu Valley mines (Petrila mine unit) it is known the fact that this is a coal bed with high methane
content, therefore it is raised the issue of its migration, of its storage areas and migration pathways.

6 METHANE MIGRATION

From the specialized literature, there is known that for a cubic meter of coal has formed up to
250 m3 methane and 200 m3 carbon dioxide. The methanes genesis is related to the
biochemical transformation of vegetation, during the carbonisation process. During geologic
eras, part of these gases were lost into the atmosphere, and another part migrated into the
pores, fissures and cracks of sterile surrounding rocks. In this manner may be explained the
presence of mine gas in surrounding rocks.
The analysis of methane migration phenomena in mine workings related to block IX, horizon
100 from Livezeni mine unit involves several discussions on more hypotheses.
Firstly, there has to be taken into account the fact that horizon 100 has been flooded between
elevations +80+175 m (minimum elevation of mine workings and the maximum flooding
elevation from the shaft) and as a consequence there is a hydrostatic pressure of approx. 9.5
bar exerted by the water column on the coal massif.
Secondarily, there have to be taken into account the factors influencing the gas storage
capacity: gas pressure in the coalbed, temperature gas type, coal ranking (content of volatile
matters), humidity, ash content, rock pressure and coal porosity. We will take into account the
methane solvability in water and the permeability of coal and surrounding rocks.
Thirdly, there shall be taken into account the tectonics of coalbed no 13 and the presence of
block rifts.
Having these input data, there may be drawn up several hypotheses of the methanes natural
degasification from the deposit:
1. Methane migration from mine workings in coal bed 13, horizon 100 occurred due to
hydrostatic pressure generated by the water column. The phenomenon is possible if the gas
pressure in coal and surrounding rocks is lower than the water columns pressure. Possible
migration pathways may be: goafs, rifts from block IX, pores of coal and surrounding rocks and
surrounding seams located in the strata-graphic column.
2. Methane migration through immersion into the water column and from here into mine
workings from the waters free surface, in case the gas pressure in the deposit is higher than
the hydrostatic column pressure.
3. Methane migration from the massif into the water column and its solubilisation, taking into
account the solubility in water (55.6 l/m3). The horizon was flooded several years with 242,000
m3 of water and humidity is a factor which decreases the gas storage capacity.
4. Methane migration in gaps from the coal beds surrounding rocks, because the geological age
(cretaceous, quaternary) and the mineral framework (sandstone, marl, limestone) indicates a
profile having a large gaps index.
5. Methane explosion in panel 2, coal bed 13, bloc IX occurred due to gas accumulation, having
as ignition source a spontaneous combustion phenomena, could have created a depression
which to degas the coal bed to some extent.
All gas migration hypotheses are supported by the physical-mechanical properties of coal and
surrounding rocks, the geological profile of the deposit and the convincing proofs obtained from
research and measurements conducted during the insulation period as well as after the re-
opening of the deposit.

183
Until the completion of this work, coal mining in coal bed 13, horizon 100 has not been
resumed, only preparation and opening works for a new production facility in a coalface
adjacent to panel 2, panel 4, with the same geometric parameters and exploitation technology.
It represents a new phase for continuing the research on this phenomenon.

7 CONCLUSIONS

This paper analysed a case study at a coal mine from Jiu Valley, Petrosani Romania, on
perturbations in the system for methane accumulation in mine workings, following the
occurrence of a methane explosion.
Research took into account the geology of the coal deposit from Livezeni mining perimeter, the
ventilation system and the applied working technology, as well as the methane balance in panel
2, coal bed 13, block IX, horizon 100, based on measurements and analyses of gas
concentrations before the event, after the insulation of damaged mine workings by flooding and
when re-opening the works on the horizon, several years after the event.
There have been identified five hypotheses of gas migration from coal bed 13, based on the
physical-mechanical properties of coal and surrounding rocks, on the tectonic s influence,
effects generated by an explosion as well as on the impact of a technical measure for insulating
a coal reserve through water flooding.
Research upon the dynamics of methane from coal bed no. 13, horizon 100, rom Livezeni mine
unit will continue on the new production capacities from the exploitation schedule, from
occupational safety reasons (establishing fresh air flows required for diluting methane from the
deposit under the maximum admitted limits enforced by the legislation) as well as for
establishing the level of available gas resources in order to implement methane recovery and
capitalization applications.

8 REFERENCES

[1] Livezeni mine unit: Mine fire no. 7 act, sector IV-Production, (in Romanian),
Petrosani, 2004
[2] Hunedoara Territorial Labour Inspection: Research record on the event dated
December 18th 2003, in coal bed 13, block IX from Livezeni mine unit, (in
Romanian), Petrosani, 2004
[3] Tomescu C., Cioclea D.: Results on on-site measurements, Livezeni mine unit,
Technical report, (in Romanian), Petrosani, 2014
[4] Tomescu C., Cioclea D. a.s.o.: Point of view related to the characterisation of the
closed underground area panel 2, coalbed 13, block IX, horizon 100, Livezeni mine
unit, for re-opening purposes, (in Romanian), Petrosani, 2014
[5] Tomescu C.: Research on increasing the safety level in the process for recovering
and capitalisation of methane from Jiu Valley coal field, (in Romanian), Doctoral
thesis, Petrosani, 2015
[6] Todorescu A., Popescu A.,: Fundamentals of mining and rock mechanics, (in
Romanian), Didactical and Pedagogical publishing house Bucharest, 1983

184
 NATIONAL REGULATIONS REGARDING
INTERVENTION AND RESCUE ACTIVITIES IN
TOXIC / EXPLOSIVE / FLAMMABLE ENVIRONMENTS

Daniel PUPZAN 1, George Artur GMAN 2, Angelica CLMAR 3, Cosmin ILIE 4

1
INCD INSEMEX, Petroani, Romania, [email protected]
2
INCD INSEMEX, Petroani, Romania, [email protected]
3
INCD INSEMEX, Petroani, Romania, [email protected]
4
INCD INSEMEX, Petroani, Romania, [email protected]

ABSTRACT
After Romanias adherence to European Union on 1 May 2007 and harmonization of Romanian
legislation with European law, the Technical Prescriptions of the Specific Directions for Labor
Protection in Coal, Schist and Bituminous sand Mines, were replaced with the Norms regarding the
organization of intervention and rescue activities at industrial units with potential emissions of toxic
and / or explosive gases.
Unlike previous regulations, which included a number of 111 articles and 6 annexes, the current
legislation is more concise and well structured, setting the bare minimum regarding the organization
of rescue activities at underground or surface activity economic agents, within 22 articles and 5
annexes.
Within INCD INSEMEX Petrosani the Rescue Authorization Group acts as certification service of
compliance with the Norms regarding the organization of intervention and rescue activities at
industrial units with potential emissions of toxic and / or explosive gases, which primarily aims to
establish general provisions for organizing intervention and rescue activities at industrial units with
potential emissions of toxic / explosive/ inflammable gases, thus supporting economic agents on its
application.

KEYWORDS
intervention and rescue staff, mining industry, training facility, protective breathing equipment.

1. Intro
Given the legal vacuum created after the repeal of the Technical Prescriptions of the Specific
Directions for Labor Protection in Coal, Schist and Bituminous sand Mines, both mining industrys
economic agents and inspection authorities acutely felt the need for a new regulatory framework for
this field.
In this context, INCD INSEMEX Petrosani in cooperation with state authorities started a
process of drafting a legally and statutory regulatory document regarding the organization of rescue
activities within Romanian economy. Thus, on 19th June 2007 the joint Order of the Minister of

185
Economy and Finance and the Minister of Labor, Family and Equal Opportunities was published,
regarding the approval of Norms regarding the organization of intervention and rescue activities at
industrial units with potential emissions of toxic and / or explosive gases.

2. National legislative provisions

The regulatory document aims to establish general requirements for the organization of
intervention and rescue activities at industrial units with potential emissions of toxic/ explosive/
flammable gases.
The Regulation sets out the following provisions:
1) The Regulations apply to all economic operators whose activity is likely to generate events,
work accidents or dangerous incidents as a result of accidental releases of toxic/ explosive/
flammable gases.
2) In the event that during the production process arises the danger of gas, vapor and toxic,
asphyxiating flammable or explosive dusts emissions, the economic operator must establish a station
for intervention and rescue in toxic/ explosive/ flammable environments within the unit.
3) Only the activity of the rescue stations authorized and supervised by the National Research
Institute for Mining Security and Explosion Protection - INSEMEX Petrosani is permitted.
4) In order to acquire the functioning approval, economic operators will have to submit to
INCD INSEMEX a technical documentation for setting up a rescue station, which will include:
- Brief description of the current activity;
- Table containing all toxic / flammable / explosive substances used in the production process
or resulting from it;
- Situation plans and emplacement plans;
- Specifying the total number of employees (including contractors) and their distribution
during shifts and departments;
- Details regarding the space assigned for the rescue station;
- Structure of rescue stations personnel;
- List of necessary equipment for optimal performance of activities conducted by the rescue
station;
- Intervention regulation;
- Appropriate procedures regarding:
- Proceeding to action and work in confined spaces;
- The best way to quickly alert rescuers;
- First aid;
- Conducting (within the rescue station) periodic theoretical training (listing of
theoretical themes) and practical training in conjunction with specific work
consumption.
5) The rescue stations will be serviced by operational rescuers, control and coordination staff
and rescue station mechanics.
6) Personnel working in the rescue stations will be trained and authorized by INSEMEX (Fig.
1).

Fig. 1 Intervention and rescue personnel

186
 7) Spaces assigned for the rescue station should provide:
a) Appropriate conditions for rescue station personnels theoretical training;
b) Keeping insulating devices, control equipment, resuscitation equipment;
c) Storage for rescues materials and spare parts;
d) Storage for transportable pressure containers used in respiratory protection equipment,
observing applicable ISCIR technical requirements.
8) Spaces assigned for the rescue station should be located in an easily accessible place for
both rescuers and vehicles and be connected through a telephone line with the economic operator.
a) Access for persons without duties;
b) Carrying out activities that are not rescue station related.
9) Minimum rescue station equipment consists of:
a) One properly functioning isolating apparatus for each rescuer and one backup isolating
apparatus for every 5 isolating apparatuses;
b) One universal control apparatus for every 10 isolating apparatuses, but not less than
two;
c) One resuscitation apparatus for every 10 isolating apparatuses, but not more than two;
d) For each isolating apparatus, two loaded cylinders of compressed oxygen (air), as
backup;
e) One health kit bag for each team;
f) One safety rope belt equipped with and carbines and hooks for each five isolating
apparatuses;
g) One stretcher for every 5 isolating apparatuses.
10) Requirements for the employment of rescue stations personnel are:
a) Age between 20-50 years for operational staff and up to 55 years for control and
coordination staff;
b) Training and authorization by INCD INSEMEX Petrosani (fig. 2, 3);
c) Candidate must be declared medically and psychologically fit to perform intervention
and rescue activities in toxic/ explosive/ flammable environments.

Fig. 2 Training of intervention and rescue personnel

187
 Fig. 3 Authorization of intervention and rescue personnel

11) Control and coordination of rescue activities during interventions is carried out by
personnel with technical qualification.
12) The rescue teams intervention program to the affected area will include:
a) Demarcation of the affected area and threatened areas;
b) Access and evacuation of routes for rescuers;
c) Security point;
d) Method for personnel evacuation from affected area and endangered areas;
e) Works carried out in the affected area in order to reduce the effect of the event,
accident or dangerous incident and liquidation thereof;
f) Safety precautions to be taken while working in the affected area;
g) List of people who may give instructions during interventions in the affected area.
13) Upon completion of intervention shift, the team/ group leader makes out a detailed report
which will include:
a) Number of rescuers who worked during the intervention;
b) Work performed;
c) Difficulties encountered and gas concentrations in the affected area;
d) Rescuers behavior;
e) If work was performed with the isolating apparatus in operation;
f) Observations, failures, proposals.
The intervention program and report on the intervention conduct will be recorded in the
register.
14) Only persons named in the intervention program have access to the affected area;
15) In order to receive an operating license a rescue station must meet all the following
conditions:
- To have a sufficient number of authorized rescuers personnel (minimum 2% from the
overall unit personnel - including subcontracting companies staff carrying out activities in the
operators area, but at least 10 rescuers) in order to be able to intervene in case of damage
occurring.
- Industrial units organized as subunits will have a minimum number of rescuers of 2% of the
overall unit personnel (including subcontracting companies staff carrying out activities in the
operators area).
- Industrial units with more than 200 employees will organize the intervention and rescue
activity on their own or through other economic operators that have authorized rescue stations.
- Industrial units that have multiple locations can organize their intervention and rescue
activities by establishing a central station at their headquarters and rescue intervention points for
each location.
- Industrial units with an effective range of 100 200 employees may choose, with the
approval of INCD INSEMEX, to conclude a service contract with the nearest economic agent who
disposes of a rescue station. In this situation the industrial unit will have a team of at least 6 rescuers
of its own personnel, trained, certified and equipped according to the specifications of this procedure.
188
 - Industrial units with an effective range of 50 100 employees may choose, with the
approval of INCD INSEMEX, to conclude a service contract with the nearest economic agent who
disposes of a rescue station. In this situation the industrial unit will have a team of at least 3 rescuers
of its own personnel, trained, certified and equipped according to the specifications of this procedure.
- Industrial units having less than 50 employees may choose, with the approval of INCD
INSEMEX, to conclude a service contract with the nearest economic agent who disposes of a rescue
station, without the obligation of having their own rescue team.

3. Rescue Authorization Group GAS

Within INCD INSEMEX Petrosani the Rescue Authorization Group acts as certification service of
compliance with the Norms regarding the organization of intervention and rescue activities at
industrial units with potential emissions of toxic and / or explosive gases.
Specific activities of the Rescue Authorization Group:
- Training and licensing intervention and rescue personnel;
- Training and licensing control coordination personnel;
- Training and licensing maintenance and repair mechanics for rescue equipment;
- Licensing rescuers to work in conditions of high humidity and temperature;
- Initial authorization and annual monitoring of rescue stations.
The training for intervention and rescue personnel/ control and coordination staff consists of
two components:
1. The theoretical component held in a classroom equipped with the latest equipment, approaching
the following issues:
- Relevant legislation;
- Principles of intervention and rescue activity in toxic/ explosive/ flammable
environments;
- Thorough knowledge of respiratory protective equipment;
- Procedures of alarm, intervention and first aid in case of injury;
- Knowledge of injured resuscitation devices;
- Specifics of work in confined spaces.
These issues are addressed using both theoretical and practical demonstrations, followed by
their actual assimilation by organizing restricted workshops for different categories of equipment.
2. Practical component - consisting in training exercises conducted in the training facility, which is
unique at national level.
In these trainings staff gets familiar with operative intervention wearing isolating apparatus in
conditions of difficult movement, working in confined spaces, reduced visibility, smoke and gas, high
temperature and humidity and sustained effort.
Supervision of trainees during training is conducted both by video monitoring and direct
assistance of qualified trainers and medical staff.
Also, the trainees are undergoing heavy training wearing isolating apparatus, within an
exercise room equipped with fitness equipment, assisted by medical staff, in order to monitor
changes in physiological parameters during interventions.
The testing and training facility (fig. 4, 5, 6, 7) used by intervention and rescue personnel in
toxic/ explosive/ flammable environments is unique at national level, being similar to those found in
countries with a long tradition in this filed and includes training spaces for rescuers practical
exercises and installations, equipment and operations used during training are designed to be close to
the actual conditions encountered in situations when different types of failures occur.

189
 Fig. 4 Training facility
.
The rescuers testing and training facility disposes of the following spaces:
- Room with treadmill and fixed ladders;
- Room for endurance testing using ergo meters in environments with smoke and low
visibility;
- Room that simulates movement through narrow spaces (on three levels) and running
through a maze route;
- Two sections vertical construction equipped with metal ladder and wooden stairs.

Fig. 5 Training facility

Also within this training facility are performed tests, under strict medical monitoring, for
personnel intervening in toxic/ explosive/ flammable environments working in conditions of high
temperature and humidity, while wearing isolating apparatuses.

Fig. 6 Training facility

The training facility is equipped with a video monitoring system that has fixed cameras and a
central monitor.

190
 Fig. 7 Training facility

In the application of the regulatory documents provisions, INCD INSEMEX has developed two
specific procedures:
- Specific procedure for the authorization and supervision of rescue stations at industrial units
with potential emissions of gases, vapors or toxic/ explosive/ flammable dusts.
- Specific training-authorization procedure (training and authorization renewal) for
intervention and rescue personnel in toxic / explosive / flammable environments.

4. Romanian intervention and rescue stations, specialized for

underground
Because at national level, since 1990, many mines were closed, this has automatically led to
the closing of corresponding intervention and rescue stations.
Currently in Romania there are four mining areas, divided as follows:
1.Jiu Valley - coal extraction.
In this area 2 companies carry out activities, them having 5 respectively 3 intervention and
rescue stations, as follows:
- Hunedoara Energetic Complex has 4 intervention and rescue stations, at its 4 sub-
units and one central mining rescue station that serve all 4 units composing the
complex.
- Jiu Valley Mine Closing National Association has 3 rescue stations at its three sub-
units. This company manages the three mines that are being closed by 2018.
2. National Salt Company - extraction and processing of salt. It has two subordinate
interventions and rescue stations located at the largest and most important salt mines in the
country. One of the two rescue stations has 5 intervention points at saline found nearby.
3. National Uranium Company - extraction and processing of uranium ore. It is in charge of
one intervention and rescue station from a mining unit.
4. Oltenia Energetic Complex - coal extraction. It is in charge of one intervention and rescue
station from a mining unit.

Conclusions:
1. Development of this regulatory document led to the possibility of implementing
intervention and rescue activities in all economic agents, where there is potential for emissions of
toxic/ flammable/ explosive gases.
2. For each economic agent, intervention and rescue activities (organizing personnel,
provision of rescue equipment, work procedures and intervention procedures in case of events) are
customized according to the types of failures specific to work performed by them.
3. Rescue Authorization Group - GAS within INCD INSEMEX Petrosani implements the
provisions of this regulatory document and along with other institutions of Romania authorizes the
operation of rescue stations at economic agents.
4. Each year specialists from GAS INCD INSEMEX supervise authorized rescue stations,
allowing continuous compliance with the initial conditions from when the rescue station was
authorized.
5. Application of this regulatory document, both for underground and surface industries, leads
to reducing negative effects on workers health and safety in the event of fire or explosion due to the

191
ignition of inflammable substances or harmful physical effects arising from chemically unstable
substances or mixtures of substances.

References:
1. Order 1637/391 approving the Norms regarding the organization of intervention and
rescue activities at industrial units with potential emissions of toxic and / or explosive gases, 2007.
2. George Artur Gman - Procedures and regulations of intervention and exploitation teams in
toxic/ explosive/ flammable environments, INSEMEX Publishing, 2009.
3. Cosmin Ilie, George Arthur Gman, Daniel Pupzan Increasing the efficiency of rescue
activity by using computers for training rescuers, "SESAM" International Symposium, 2009.
4. Cosmin Ilie, George Arthur Gman, Daniel Pupzan - Evaluation system for intervention
and rescue personnel in toxic/ flammable/ explosive mining industry environments, "Universitaria
SIMPRO" International Symposium, 2012.
5. George Artur Gman, Daniel Pupzan, Cosmin Ilie - Risk management for mining rescue
activities, ITM Symposium 2012.
6. Cosmin Ilie, George Arthur Gman, Daniel Pupzan - Systems used to evaluate the
personnel operating in toxic /explosive / flammable atmospheres in the mining industry, Mining
Journal, 2013.

192
METHODOLOGY FOR ESTABLISHING THE UNDERGROUND
MINING WORK ENVIRONMENT AFTER THE OCCURRENCE
OF AN EXPLOSION
Doru CIOCLEA1, Constantin LUPU2, Ion GHERGHE3, Florin RDOI4, Emeric CHIUZAN5,
Cristian TOMESCU6, Vlad Mihai PSCULESCU7
1
INCD INSEMEX, Petrosani, Romania, [email protected]
2
INCD INSEMEX, Petrosani, Romania, [email protected]
3
INCD INSEMEX, Petrosani, Romania, [email protected]
4
INCD INSEMEX, Petrosani, Romania, [email protected]
5
INCD INSEMEX, Petrosani, Romania, [email protected]
6
INCD INSEMEX, Petrosani, Romania, [email protected]
7
INCD INSEMEX, Petrosani, Romania, [email protected]

ABSTRACT
The explosion type phenomenon is an extremely complex physico-chemical process leading
both to the physical change of objects and objectives encountered over the propagation path as
well as to the chemical change of the underground atmosphere in the area of influence. During
the development of the explosion-type phenomenon, due to the energy of the dynamic wave
are generated significant mechanical effects at the level of affected mining works and at the
level of ventilation constructions. In addition, due to severe burning reactions at high
temperatures are generated major effects related to the compositions and concentration of the
underground atmosphere in the area of influence.
Simulations performed on the ventilation network have been conducted using the Australian
software Ventsim Visual Advanced. The methodology for establishing the work environment
after an event comprises the purpose, objectives and means required for achieving the
objective, developing the hypotheses, establishing work steps and obtaining the results.

KEYWORDS
explosion, methodology, modelling, simulation, ventilation

1 INTRODUCTION

In normal conditions of hard coal exploitation, in the underground work environment occur a
variety of gases of various concentrations. The most representative and at the same time the
most hazardous ones for working staff are methane, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide.
Highest gas quantities are usually released from active coal faces during technological
processes and during the coals spontaneous combustion processes.

193
In order to establish gas concentrations at the level of a coal face, there shall be performed
specific measurements during a one week time period. The maximum concentration is recorded
during actual exploitation works, and the minimum values are recorded during the resting
periods from the end of the week.
After the occurrence of an explosion type phenomenon, the level of concentrations in air is very
close or even identical to the one recorded in the resting days.
Significant for establishing the work environment after the occurrence of an explosion are the
information related to the changes of gas concentrations (CO2, CH4, CO) and of air flow [4, 6,
11].

2 ESTABLISHING THE STRUCTURE OF THE VENTILATION NETWORK

AFFECTED BY AN EXPLOSION

In this regard, for establishing environmental conditions after the occurrence of an explosion,
several steps are required to be performed:
Simulation of explosive and or toxic gas dispersion, in normal exploitation conditions;
Establishing the structure of the ventilation network after the occurrence of an
explosion;
Simulation of explosive or toxic gas dispersion after the occurrence of an explosion.
For performing gas dispersion simulations at ventilation network level, the ventilation network
has to be solved first. In this regard has been chosen the ventilation network of Vulcan mining
unit.

2.1 Establishing the ventilation networks structure after the occurrence of an

explosion

In order to establish the structure of the ventilation network after the occurrence of an
explosion /1; 2; 3;8;9;12/, the following steps shall be performed:
Establishing the influence of the explosion type phenomenon upon the ventilation
network;
Solving the ventilation network by taking into account the changes generated by the
explosion.
The explosion of a gaseous mixture is an extremely complex physic-chemical process depending
on various factors: explosive mixture volume; type of explosive gas; structure of the
accumulation area; gaseous mixture flow regime; existence or non-existence of support over
the propagation path; type of ignition source etc. Any change of one of the factors of influence
leads to a high variation of explosivity parameters [5, 10, 13].
or establishing the average gradient of pressure loss dP/dx there were taken into account two
experiments performed in underground conditions. The first experiment was conducted in
Romania by Bana F. in the 100 m in length experimental tunnel from INSEMEX Petrosani [1, 2,
9]. Within this experiment was ignited a 50 m3 explosive mixture with 5% vol. methane
concentration.
The second experiment was performed in China by Z. Zheng and J. Li in the 896 m long tunnel
from Chongqing Research Institute belonging to Coal Scientific Research Institute /14/. In this
experiment was ignited an explosive mixture of 200 m3 having a 9.5% vol. methane
concentration. Taking into account experiments have been performed in tunnels with relatively
reduced lengths of 100 m, respectively 896 m compared to the length of the mining works from
within an underground mine which may add up to tens of km, with a high complexity degree
from the structural point of view, there is considered the maximum pressure loss gradient of
dP/dx = 0.35 bar / 100 m to be covering [15].
194
3 SIMULATION OF EXPLOSIVE OR TOXIC GAS DISPERSION AFTER THE
OCCURRENCE OF AN EXPLOSION

For conducting the simulation in order to establish the dispersion of explosive and or toxic
gases after the occurrence of an explosion type phenomenon [15], the following steps shall be
performed: Simulation of CH4 dispersion at the level of the ventilation network; Simulation of
CO2 dispersion at the level of the ventilation network; Simulation of CO dispersion at the level of
the ventilation network.
Changes of the ventilation networks structure bring along the change of airflows at branch
level and there occur major changes of gas concentrations in areas of influence.

3.1. Simulation of CH4 dispersion at ventilation network level

Figure 1 provides the simulation of methane dispersion at the level of the ventilation network of
Vulcan mine unit, representing the area of the active coal face no. 1/3/VIII.

Figure 1: CH4 dispersion in the undermined coal bed no. 1, layer no. 3, block VIII

3.2 Simulation of CO2 dispersion at ventilation network level

Figure 2 provides the simulation of carbon dioxide dispersion at the level of the ventilation
network of Vulcan mine unit, representing the area of the active coal face no. 1/3/VII.

Figure 2: CO2 dispersion in the undermined coal bed no. 1, layer no. 3, block VII

3.3 Simulation of CO dispersion at ventilation network level

Figure 3 presents a detail of the carbon oxide dispersion the level of Vulcan mine unit
ventilation network, representing the area of the active coal face no. 1/3/VII.

195
 Figure 3: CO dispersion in the undermined coal bed no. 1, layer no. 3, block VII

4 METHODOLOGY FOR ESTABLISHING CHANGES OF THE WORK

ENVIRONMENT AFTER THE OCCURRENCE OF AN EXPLOSION

4.1 Purpose of the methodology

The main purpose of the methodology for establishing changes of the work environment after
the occurrence of an explosion in relation with its intensity is the prior identification of
underground atmosphere in affected coal faces and mine workings in order to decrease human
losses, to establish precisely the retreat pathways, respectively to forecast the risk of an
explosion to repeat.

4.2 Objectives of the methodology

For establishing changes of the underground work environment after the occurrence of an
explosion in relation with its intensity, the following objectives have to be reached:
Detailed knowledge of the analysed mine ventilation network, regarding the complexity
of ventilation circuits and sub-circuits;
Identification of underground work environment parameters in normal exploitation
conditions;
Analysis of the ventilation network using specialized tools which allow its modelling,
simulation and solving;
Establishing changes which occur at ventilation network level, after the occurrence of an
explosion in relation with its intensity;
Knowledge of underground work environment changes after the occurrence of an
explosion in relation with its intensity.

4.3 Tools required to achieve the objectives

For achieving the objectives are applied modern IT tools, usage of specialized software for
modelling, solving and simulating ventilation networks, such as CANVENT 3D, VENSIM, VENT-
GRAF, VENPRI, Mine Ventilation Services, Venet PC, Duct SIM, Clim SIM, MIVENA, VUMA,
ICAMPS Mine Vent etc.

4.4 Hypotheses development

For establishing changes of the work environment at mine level after the occurrence of an
explosion in relation with its intensity is required the approach of some hypotheses which keep
in mind the actual underground conditions:

196
 Ventilation network has a simple or complex structure from the point of view of the
number and position of ventilation circuits;
Ventilation network has an average or high aerodynamic resistance, at the level of the
entire network;
At mine level are registered low, average or high methane releases;
At mine level exist coal faces which are ventilated under the general depression of the
mine;
At mine level exist coal faces which are ventilated using partial ventilation installations;
The explosive air-methane mixture is accumulated on the entire volume of the coal face;
The initiation of the explosive mixture is generated by a spontaneous combustion
phenomenon;
The support structure of mine workings is relatively affected to small extent by the
explosion type phenomenon;
The explosion equally affects ventilation doors and insulation dams.

4.5 Work phases establishment

For obtaining the changes of the work environment after the occurrence of a low intensity
explosion is required to perform the following steps:
Choosing the mine unit;
Conducting a campaign of complex measurements;
Solving the ventilation network;
Simulating gas dispersion on the modelled and solve ventilation network;
Establishing the ventilation constructions affected by the explosion;
Solving the ventilation network in relation with the new conditions generated by the
explosion;
Simulating gas dispersion at ventilation network level in relation with the new conditions
generated by the explosion;

4.6 Results obtainment

Following the steps performed for obtaining changes of the work environment at mine level
after the occurrence of an explosion in relation with its intensity, results a series of data such
as:
Air flows at branch level Q, n m3/s;
Aerodynamic resistance R, n Ns2/m8;
Depression developed by the fan H, n Pa;
Pressure developed by the explosion P, n bar;
Pressure loss gradient n bar/m;
Ventilation network configuration obtained using VENTSIM VISUAL ADVANCED;
Configuration of gas dispersion pathways in relation with the release source obtained
using VENTSIM VISUAL ADVANCED;
Methane concentrations % vol;
Carbon dioxide concentrations % vol;
Carbon monoxide concentrations ppm.

5 CONCLUSIONS

Identifying environmental conditions after the occurrence of an explosion consists of the

following phases:
o Simulation of explosive or toxic gases dispersion in normal exploitation conditions
197
 o Establishing the structure of the ventilation network after the occurrence of an
explosion
o Simulation of explosive or toxic gas dispersion after the occurrence of an
explosion.
The establishment of explosive or toxic gas dispersion in normal exploitation conditions
and after the occurrence of an explosion claims the simulation of gas dispersions at the
level of the mines ventilation network;
The methodology for establishing changes of the work environment after the occurrence of
an explosion comprises the following elements: purpose of the methodology, ovjectives of
the methodology, tools required for achieving the objectives, hypotheses development,
work phases establishment, results obtainment.

6 REFERENCES

[1] Bana F.: Study on the explosion mechanism of flammable environments constituted
of methane and/or coal dust in mixture with air in order to establish characteristic
effects, (in Romanian), C.C.S.M. study, Petrosani, Romania, 1985
[2] Bardocz V.: Establishing the characteristic effects of mining faults generated by the
ignition or explosion of a flammable environment, in order to reproduce the
conditions in which it occurred, (in Romanian), S.C.S.M. Study, Petrosani, Romania,
1973
[3] Barthnecht W.: Explosionen, Springer Verlag, Berlin, 1981
[4] Bltreu R., Teodorescu C.: Ventilation and Occupational Safety in Mines (in
Romanian), Didactical and Pedagogical Publishing House, Bucharest, Romania, 1971
[5] Crloganu C.: Rapid combustions, (in Romanian), Technical Publishing House
Bucharest, Romania, 1986
[6] Cioclea D.: Ventilation network solving based on pressure measurements in order to
establish air flows, depressions, aerodynamic resistances overt the workplaces, in
order to put into operation the new VOD 2.1 fans station from shaft no. 10- Valea
arsului, Research Study, INCD INSEMEX, Petrosani, Romania, 2006
[7] Cleuet A., Gros P.: Les melanges explosifs, INRS Bulletin, Marseille, France, 1994
[8] Freytag H.H.: Raumexplosionen, Heraugeber Chemie Gmbh Weinheim, 1965
[9] Hndoreanu E.: Establishing the characteristic effects of mining faults generated by
the ignition or explosion of a flammable environment, in order to reproduce the
conditions in which it occurred, S.C.S.M Study, Petrosani, Romania, 1972
[10] Lei P., Jialei T., Yabo X.: Hazard characteristics from gas explosion in underground
constructions, International Symposium ISSSE, China, 2012
[11] Patterson A.M.: The Mine Ventilation Practitioners DATA BOOCK, M.V.S. of South
Africa 1992. Patterson, A.M.: The Mine Ventilation Practitioners DATA BOOK, M.V.S.
of South Africa, 1992
[12] Plasche F.: Wetterlehre und brandbekampfung im bergbau, Fachbuchverlag Leipzig,
1955
[13] Sochet I.: Blast effect of external explosions, 8th International Symposium on
Hazards, Prevention, and Mitigation of Industrial Explosions, Yokohama, Japan, 2010
[14] Zheng Z., Li J.: Surface pressure of the mine refuge shelter in underground gas
explosion, International Conference MEMS, 2012
[15] User Guide, Ventsim Visual Advanced, 2012

198
199
 TECHNICAL ASPECTS REGARDING SPONTANEOUS
COMBUSTIONS MONITORING
Emeric CHIUZAN1, Constantin LUPU2, Doru CIOCLEA3, Ion GHERGHE4, Cristian
TOMESCU5, Florin RDOI6, Corneliu BOANT7, Vlad Mihai PSCULESCU8
1
INCD INSEMEX, Petrosani, Romania, [email protected]
2
INCD INSEMEX, Petrosani, Romania, [email protected]
3
INCD INSEMEX, Petrosani, Romania, [email protected]
4
INCD INSEMEX, Petrosani, Romania, [email protected]
5
INCD INSEMEX, Petrosani, Romania, [email protected]
6
INCD INSEMEX, Petrosani, Romania, [email protected]
7
INCD INSEMEX, Petrosani, Romania, [email protected]
8
INCD INSEMEX, Petrosani, Romania, [email protected]

ABSTRACT
One of the most important hazard that might occur in coal mines is represented by
spontaneous combustions. This phenomenon endangers safety of the working staff, of
equipment and of the deposits. For monitoring the evolution of this extremely dangerous
process, a large range of fire indices are employed and among them, Graham index (R1) and
Breathing index (R2) may be cited. The use of these fire indices is sometimes limited especially
when the differences among the oxygen concentrations are very small. As a result, the
interpretation of the fire indices in this range is difficult. The paper deals with these aspects and
aims to settle certain limitations with the purpose of an increased accuracy when interpreting
the two fire indices, Graham and Breathing. There is also presented a non-invasive method for
detecting areas with self-heating phenomena.

KEYWORDS
fire indices, monitoring, spontaneous combustion

1 INTRODUCTION

Underground coal mining involves the perforation of coal seams during preparation workings
and cutting and extracting the useful mineral substance through specific mining works. During
these works, oxygen from the air required to ventilate workface directly enters into contact with
uncovered coal surfaces, leading to the well-known oxidation reaction with exothermal effect.
In certain conditions, this reaction may lead to spontaneous combustion and finally to
endogenous fires. These phenomena are one of the major risks in coal mines.
For controlling these phenomena, experts from countries having well-developed mining industry
tried to identify connections between percentage increases or decreases in concentration of
gases which are released during the oxidation process and its development stage. In this
200
regard, new fire indices emerged, with the help of which practitioners can estimate the
evolution stage of the spontaneous combustion phenomena, in order to establish the optimal
moment for intervening with special tools for stopping this process.

2 SHORT HISTORY

Since the early twentieth century [1] special attention has been granted to fire indices, T.Rhead
and R.Wheeler in 1910 being the first ones to study them in detail. They said that the CO2/CO
ratio decreases once with the temperature increase. T.Winmill and J.Graham in 1913 1916
noticed the following:
CO/O2 ratio increases once with the temperature increase;
CO2/CO ratio increases in time;
CO2/CO ratio decreases once with the increase in temperature.
In Romania, Tomus I. granted special attention to this problematics since the 50s [2, 3, 4]. He
studied and applied several fire indices, of which only two are currently applied: Graham index and
Breathing index.

3 FIRE INDICES USED IN ROMANIAN MINING

Currently, several fire indices are known, but the most used ones are the following:
Graham index R1 (R1 = 100), increase of the CO content generated by an oxidation
fireplace
CO
R1 = 100 (1)
- O2
Breathing index (Young) R2
CO 2
R2 = 100 (2)
- O2
Carbon oxides index
Ethylene index C2H4 /18/
Acetylene index C2H2 /18/
Absolute carbon monoxide flow qCO

qCO = Ci * Q * 10-3 l/min (3)

where:
Ci carbon monoxide concentration ppm;
Q air flow in the mine working m3/min;
10-3 uniformity constant.

4 LIMITATIONS OF FIRE INDICES

Graham and Breathing indices are influenced by a series of factors, respectively they have
certain limitations.

201
4.1 Graham index R1

This index is influenced by the following factors:

4.1.1 Adsorbed oxygen content

In Romania, O2 is 0.3% vol., but in practice there are no limitations from this point of view.
For solving this problem, there is proposed to use another index in parallel and especially in the
range 0 0.4 % vol. of the oxygen concentration adsorbed in the oxidation process, namely:
absolute CU flow qCO which has a critical value of qCO 10 l/min. This critical value is recognized
at European level [5, 6]. In figure 1 are drawn up the O2 = ct lines in a (R1; CO) system of
coordinates. Figure 2 presents the variation curves of the proposed qCO index in a (Q; CO)
system of coordinates.

Figure 1: O2 = ct Figure 2: qCO index variation curves

4.1.2 Carbon monoxide content

This may arise from the following sources, different the oxidation fireplace:
From the base level of carbon monoxide generated from slow coal oxidation, but whose
values remains small and approximately constant (several ppm). Error due to this source
may be cancelled by performing the difference between CO concentrations from the
head gallery and the base gallery of a coal face.
From sources arising from the surface and which enter the mines general ventilation
circuit, sometimes up to 10 ppm.
From blasting works or from Diesel engines operating on the horizon in the fresh air
circuit. These sources may reach in short time tens of ppm, but they disappear after a
time period.
From coal spontaneous combustion.
Due to these facts, few sources consider that the Graham index can have a normal
interpretation only if the CO concentration > 20 ppm. For Jiu Valley mines, the proper
value is considered to be 10 ppm.

4.1.3 Graham index interpretation

The Graham index value may point out the spontaneous combustion process development.
The lower limit under which the situation is considered to be normal varies from country to
country.
In Romania: R1 0.4 normal situation
R1 0.4 self-heating phenomenon start

202
 R1 = 2 - 3 lower limit of the auto-ignition process when the fire may
be noticed by smell
R1 25 endogenous fire
R1 60 exogenous fire.
As a consequence, for an interpretation of the Graham index as clear as possible are required
research through which its non-hazardous values for each seam can be determined.

4.2 Breathing index R2

Breathing index depends on the following parameters:

Adsorbed oxygen content.
This parameter has the same effect as the one presented for the Graham index.
Carbon dioxide content
Carbon dioxide may arise both from atmospheric air, as well as from sources other than the
oxidation process, namely:
Exhaust gas from internal combustion engines;
Gases resulting from the blasting process;
Human factor presence, carbon dioxide resulting due to physiological activities;
Natural releases from the deposit
Carbon dioxide adsorption in water or in the deposit;
The interpretation of this index is the following:
R2 60 normal situation
R2 60 signals the existence of an auto-ignition phenomenon.

5 NON-INVASIVE MONITORING OF SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTIONS

In addition to fire indices for monitoring the evolution of spontaneous combustion

phenomena are used other technical methods. Of these methods, of high interest is the
method for temperature measurement, parameter which is directly proportional to the
development of the spontaneous combustion phenomenon. For measuring temperature are
used classic thermometers, sensitive thermometers, and electronic equipment.
Temperature was measured using electronic equipment in two variants:
With electronic thermometers devices type ECON-S;
With infrared thermometers infrared imaging type 469PROBEYE; MEL, respectively
infrared thermometers type INFRATRACE 1000 and HEATSPY.
Currently, there exist electronic equipment such as thermal vision cameras which are able
to scan and view temperature fields at the level of the targeted object. Such an equipment
is Drager UCF 7000 presented in Figure 3 [7].

Figure 1: Drager UCF 7000 thermal vision

camera

203
By using this equipment there can be obtained not only the visualisation of temperature
fields, but also the temperatures of targeted objects in a non-invasive manner. By focusing
the infrared fascicle is obtained from the distance the temperature value of the chosen
area, and by directing the device towards a certain area is instantly obtained its
temperature spectrum. Within a coalface, during the monitoring period may be obtained a
thermal image of the coal face Figure 4. In this figure werent noticed clear heating areas.
Also, there may be tracked staff in the coal face, as presented in Figure 5.

Figure 4: Coalface thermal imprint Figure 5: Coalface human thermal imprint

Figure 6: Coalface conveyor thermal Figure 7: Coalface electrical cable thermal

imprint imprint

Figure 8: Coalface heated water thermal Figure 9: Coalface discharged heated coal
imprint thermal imprint

Figure 10: Coalface coal from the massif thermal imprint

204
If the conveyor increases in temperature due to friction, this phenomenon may also be
tracked Figure 6, if there are overburdened electrical cables then their imprint may be
obtained Figure 7. Figure 8 presents the imprint of heated water from the coal face. In
case of an in development self-heating phenomenon in the goaf or at the level of the
undermined coal bed from the work sublevel, the discharged coal has a temperature which
is higher than the normal one as presented in Figures 9 and 10.
Using this method for determining the temperature, the time for investigating a coalface is
diminished, the safety in tracking the heated areas increases, there may be determined the
temperatures of areas from the goaf located at high distances and the time for samp le
collection in order to track down the incipient phases of spontaneous combustion
phenomenon decreases.

6 CONCLUSIONS

Underground coal mining involves the presence of major risk factors. Such a risk is
represented by the occurrence of spontaneous combustion which may lead to endogenous
fires.
In order to control these phenomena and to follow-up their evolution in time, a series of fire
indices emerged, of which the most important ones are the Graham index (R 1) and the
Breathing index (R2).
In addition, there may be applied other fire indices such as the absolute carbon monoxide
flow qCO.
Besides fire indices, for the early detection of spontaneous combustion phenomena are used
methods for determining temperature using thermal vision cameras.

7 REFERENCES

[1] Morris RM.:A new fire ratio for determining conditions in sealed areas, Mining
Engineer 147(317):369-375., 1998
[2] Tomu I.: Continuation of the study on underground endogenous fires evolution
indices and ventilation in fire areas, (in Romanian), Research Study, ICEM Petroani,
1959
[3] Tomu I.: Technical assistance in applying new methods for fighting against and for
liquidating underground fires (in Romanian), Research Study, ICEM Petroani, 1961
[4] Tomu I.: Fire evolution indices in order to establish the fire state, (in Romanian),
Research Study, ICEM Petroani, 1960
[5] ***: Summary activity report Safety and Health Commission for the Mining and
Other Extractive Industries 1985-95
[6] ***: Methods and manners for preventing and fighting against spontaneous
combustions and endogenous fires applied in mines from CAER Member States,
February 1989
[7] ***: Thermal Vision Camera User Manual

205
 UPDATING THE VENTILATION NETWORK OF PETRILA
MINING UNIT SUBJECT TO CLOSURE
Florin RDOI1, Constantin LUPU2, Doru CIOCLEA3, Ion GHERGHE4, Cristian
TOMESCU5, Emeric CHIUZAN6, Vlad Mihai PSCULESCU7
1
INCD INSEMEX, Petrosani, Romania, [email protected]
2
INCD INSEMEX, Petrosani, Romania, [email protected]
3
INCD INSEMEX, Petrosani, Romania, [email protected]
4
INCD INSEMEX, Petrosani, Romania, [email protected]
5
INCD INSEMEX, Petrosani, Romania, [email protected]
6
INCD INSEMEX, Petrosani, Romania, [email protected]
7
INCD INSEMEX, Petrosani, Romania, [email protected]

ABSTRACT
Maintaining health and safety conditions in the underground, especially where there is possible
the occurrence of potentially explosive atmospheres, mainly depends on the manner in which
the ventilation system is achieved, applied and conducted. The optimization of the ventilation
systems management involves in depth and complex analyses upon the ventilation network,
requiring huge amount of data which can only be processed using computer technology. In this
paper, there is presented an analysis of Petrila mining unit ventilation network using computer
technology for simulating situations which may occur in the ventilation systems during the
closure process.

KEYWORDS
closure, modelling, simulation, solving, ventilation

1 INTRODUCTION

Optimal management of the ventilation system of a mine unit involves the use of computational
techniques in order to achieve a proper analysis and to successfully prevent the occurrence of
hazardous situations. Forecasting changes which may occur in the ventilation network based on
possible hypotheses can be performed by simulating them using specialized software in the
mines solved ventilation network [1, 3].

2 GENERALITIES

For obtaining optimal underground work conditions, the primary protection has to be ensured,
namely the ventilation. Mine workings ventilation aims to reach three main objectives:
Ensuring the oxygen concentration required for underground staff;

206
 Diluting explosive and/or toxic gases from the mine workings network;
Taking over heat released in the mine workings network due to human activities and
geo-thermal gradient.
For achieving proper ventilation at the level of each mine working is required the optimization
of air flow repartition over each branch of the network. In this regard is required the ventilation
network solving. An example of a complex ventilation network is the one belonging to Petrila
mine unit.

3 PETRILA MINE UNIT VENTILATION NETWORK

Petrila mine unit ventilation network has been extremely complex. Nowadays, due to subjective
causes explosions or objective causes-depletion of useful mineral substances reserve, it is
subjected to closure. Therefore, the ventilation network comprises two shafts for fresh air
input: Center Shaft and New Shaft with Skip. Also, it comprises a ventilation shaft with the
related ventilation station (Ventilation Shaft), two underground mine workings disposed over 5
horizons (horiz. -250; horiz. -200; horiz. -150; horiz. 0; horiz. +150). These mine workings
consist of cross-sectional galleries, directional galleries, diagonal galleries, numbering cross-
sectional galleries, inclined plane, coal faces, connection risings.
The entire network comprises 126 junctions (nodes) and 154 branches [2].

4 MINE VENTILATION NETWORK SOLVING

In order to solve such a complex ventilation network was used the Hardy Cross method for
successive approximations. This method lays ground for Canadian specialized software,
CANVENT [3, 5]. Using this software there could be performed the ventilation network solving
and the optimization of air flow repartition at branch level.
Solving the ventilation network of Petrila mine unit required several steps to be performed,
namely:
Marking the junctions (nodes) of the ventilation network on the spatial map of the mine;
Collecting geodesic coordinates for the identified junctions;
Inputting the geodesic coordinates of the existing junctions and branches into the
database of the software Figure 1;

Figure 1: Geodesic coordinates specific for the ventilation network

Carrying out specialized measurements in situ:

o Measurements regarding the aerodynamic parameters of the mine workings;
207
 o Measurements regarding the geometric parameters of the mine workings;
o Measurements regarding the physical parameters of air.
Calculating the aerodynamic resistances related to each branch;
Inputting the values of specific parameters of the ventilation network into the database of
3D-CANVENT Figure 2

Figure 2: Parameters specific for the ventilation network

2D or 3D representation of the ventilation network;

Balancing the ventilation network;
Solving the ventilation network. This phase identifies the direction and optimal
repartition of air flows over each branch Figure 3;
Results obtainment

Figure 3: Petrila mine unit ventilation network

In this final phase, the data regarding the graphical solving of the ventilation network are
available electronically or in paper.
Ventilation network of Petrila mine unit was updated in 2013. For solving the ventilation
network, the entire ventilation network of Petrila mine unit was taken into account.
The current update of Petrila mine unit ventilation network has been performed in relation with
the previously solved ventilation network. Also, it was taken into account the fact that the
undermined coal beds 434E and 434W are mined in a single field 434 at sublevel II, under

208
horizon -150, and that the undermined coal faces 431 and 433 are mined in a single field 433 at
sublevel V floor, horizon -250.
In order to update the ventilation network were removed the following circuits and mine
workings: circuit related to undermined coal bed no. 237W, seam 3, Bl. II, horizon -250; circuit
related to undermined coal bed no. 238, seam 3, bl. II, sub-horizon -250; circuit related to
undermined coal bed no. 239, seam 3, bl. II, horizon -250; circuit related to undermined coal
bed no. 331, seam 3, bl. II, horizon -250; circuit related to undermined coal bed no. 333, seam
3, bl. II, sub-horizon -200; circuit related to undermined coal bed no. 434W, seam 3, bl. II, sub-
horizon -150; circuit related to undermined coal bed no. 434E, seam 3, bl. II, sub-horizon -150;
circuit related to undermined coal bed no. 336, seam 3, bl. II, sub-horizon -150; main cross-
sectional gallery horizon -250; cross-sectional gallery horizon 250; rising 433, between
horizon -250 and -215 elevation; cross-sectional gallery 433 horizon -200; cross-sectional
gallery 434 horizon -150; directional gallery W, horizon -200, PO 15 circuit horizon -100.
Also, there have been inserted into the ventilation network: circuit related to undermined coal
bed no. 433, seam 3, bl. II, horizon -250; circuit related to undermined coal bed no. 434, seam
3, bl. II, horizon -150; rising 434, between horizon -250 and -200; cross-sectional gallery 434
horizon -200; cross-sectional gallery 433 horizon -200; cross-sectional gallery 434 horizon -150.
At the same time have been placed ventilation constructions on the following locations: main
cross-sectional gallery -250; cross-sectional gallery no. 237 horizon -250; cross-sectional gallery
433 horizon -250; directional gallery W, horizon -250; cross-sectional gallery 434, horizon -200;
connection gallery coal face 434, sublevel II, sub-horizon -150; directional gallery W, horizon -
150; inclined plane 336-337; cross-sectional gallery no. 336, horizon -200; cross-sectional
gallery no. 237, horizon -200; diagonal gallery, horizon -150; cross-sectional gallery no 336,
horizon -150; connection gallery horizon -250 to plane -300-250; directional gallery E, horizon -
200; cross-sectional gallery horizon +150.
Compared to the previously solved ventilation network, the following results were obtained:
Air flow on the fresh air supply circuit at horizon -250, main cross-sectional gallery
significantly decreased with 2.44 % from 13. 92 m3/s to 13.58m3/s.
Air flow at the level of the undermined coal bed no. 433 is 3.71 m3/s.
Air flow at the level of the undermined coal bed no. 434 is 3.23 m3/s.
Air flow at level of horizon -200, mai cross-sectional gallery significantly increased with
62.12 % from 9.03 m3/s to 14.64m3/s.
Air flow at level of horizon -150, main cross-sectional gallery substantially increased with
204.87 % from 6.36 m3/s to 19.39m3/s.
Air flow at level of horizon - 100, main cross-sectional gallery substantially increased
with 82.54 % from 1.26 m3/s to 2.30 m3/s.
On the main return air exhaustion circuit, horizon -100 horizon +0, air flow
moderately increased with 23.37 % from 27.73 m3/s to 34.21 m3/s.
At mine level, on the Ventilation Shaft, air flow moderately decreased with 12.47 % from
51.8 m3/s to 45.15 m3/s.
At the level of the main ventilation station, air flow moderately decreased with 24.5 %
from 61.93 m3/s to 46.48 m3/s.
In terms of short-circuiting, on the Ventilation Shaft, air flow significantly decreased with
87.15 % from 10.35 m3/s to 1.33 m3/s.

5 SIMULATIONS PERFORMED ON THE VENTILATION NETWORK

CANVENT software for solving ventilation networks allows the simulation of changes which may
occur in the ventilation network. Therefore, in the ventilation network of Petrila mine subject to
closure were simulated the following situations:

209
Simulation no. 1 Closure of undermined coal bed no. 433, seam 3, block II, sublevel V,
horizon -250 and setting into the general depression of undermined coal bed no. 433, seam 3,
block II, sublevel I, horizon -250.
Simulation no. 2 Closure of undermined coal bed no. 434, seam 3, block II, sublevel II, sub-
horizon -150 and setting into the general depression of undermined coal bed no. 434, seam 3,
block II, sublevel III, sub-horizon -150
Simulation no. 3 Closure of ventilation circuit no. 336, seam 3, block II, between horizons: -
100 and -200.
Simulation no. 4 - Closure of ventilation circuit no. 433, seam 3, block II.
Simulation no. 5 - Closure of ventilation circuit no. 434, seam 3, block II.
Simulation no. 6 Closure of productive horizons, between horizons -250, -200 and -150.
Simulation no. 7 Closure of Blind Shaft (PO) 15 between horizons -250 and 0.
Simulation no. 8 Closure of horizon 0 connections.
For exemplification is presented Simulation no.1 - Closure of undermined coal bed no. 433,
seam 3, block II, sublevel V, horizon -250 and setting into the general depression of
undermined coal bed no. 433, seam 3, block II, sublevel I, horizon -250.
In order to perform this simulation, there have been removed 6 branches related to
undermined coal bed 433, seam 3, block II, sub-level V, horizon -250, respectively there have
been inserted 9 branches related to undermined coal bed 433, seam 3, block II, sub-level I,
sub-horizon -250.
Changes conducted within this modelling are presented in Figure 4.

Figure 4: Ventilation network - simulation 1

Compared to the ventilation network updated in 2013, the following results were obtained:
Air flow on the fresh air supply circuit at horizon -250, main cross-sectional gallery
insignificantly decreased with 2.87%, from 13.58 m3/s to 13.19 m3/s.
Air flow at the level of the undermined coal bed no. 433 insignificantly increased with
1.88%, from 3.71 m3/s to 3.78 m3/s.
Air flow at the level of the undermined coal bed no. 434 insignificantly increased with
2.47%, from 3.23 m3/s to 3.31 m3/s .
Air flow at level of horizon -200, main cross-sectional gallery insignificantly increased
with 1.64%, from 14.64 m3/s to 14.88 m3/s.

210
 Air flow at level of horizon -150, main cross-sectional gallery insignificantly decreased
with 19.39 m3/s to 19.17 m3/s.
Air flow at level of horizon - 100, main cross-sectional gallery insignificantly increased
with 1.13%, from 2.30 m3/s to 2.34 m3/s.
On the main return air exhaustion circuit, horizon -100 horizon +0, air flow
insignificantly decreased with 0.09%, from 34.21 m3/s to 34.18 m3/s.
At mine level, on the Ventilation Shaft, air flow insignificantly decreased with 0.09%,
from 45.15 m3/s to 45.14 m3/s.
At the level of the main ventilation station, air flow remained the same 46.48 m3/s.
In terms of short-circuiting, on the Ventilation Shaft, air flow insignificantly increased
with 0.75%, from 1.33 m3/s to 1.34 m3/s.

6 CONCLUSIONS

Solving ventilation networks using computational techniques is a giant step forward which
allows the optimization of ventilation management and real-time visualisation of the networks
changes.
The ventilation network used for exemplification belongs to Petrila mine unit and comprises 2
shafts, 1 ventilation shaft, horizons and many mine workings (cross-sectional, directional,
diagonal galleries, inclined planes, connection risings and coal faces).
Solvingthe ventilation network of Petrila mine unit has been performed using CANVENT
software and required 10 main steps for reaching this objective. The application of CANVENT
software allowed the performance of eight simulations in the ventilation network of Petrila mine
unit, of which simulation no. 1 was presented, and which represent changes which may occur in
the ventilation system during the closure process.
The method for solving the ventilation network using computational techniques, allows
modelling and solving ventilation networks, as well as any other simulation of changes which
may occur in the ventilation system, regardless of its complexity.

7 REFERENCES

[1] Bltreu R., Teodorescu C.: Ventilation and Occupational Safety in Mines (in
Romanian), Didactical and Pedagogical Publishing House, Bucharest, Romania, 1971
[2] Cioclea D. a.s.o.: Ventilation network solving based on pressure measurements in
order to establish air flows, pressures, aerodynamic resistances, in work places from
Vulcan mine unit, (in Romanian), INSEMEX Research study, 2006
[3] Gherghe I. a.s.o.: Services for modelling and simulating Lonea mine unit ventilation
network, (in Romanian), INSEMEX Research Study, 2008Lonea, INSEMEX Study,
2008
[4] Teodorescu C., Gontean Z., Neag I.: Mining Ventilation (in Romanian), Didactical and
Pedagogical Publishing House, Bucharest, Romania, 1980
[5] CANVENT Mining and Minerals Sciences Laboratories Underground Mine
Environment and Ventilation, Manual de utilizare program 3D CANVENT 2K

211
 THE ASSESSMENT OF ELECTRIC DETONATORS IN TERMS
OF DELAYS ACCURACY, ACCORDING WITH EUROPEAN
HARMONIZED STANDARDS

Gabriel VASILESCU 1, Emilian GHICIOI 2, Attila KOVACS 3, Daniela RUS 4, Edward

GHEORGHIOSU 5, Ciprian JITEA 6, Sorin BORDO 7
1
INCD INSEMEX, Petroani, Romania, [email protected]
2
INCD INSEMEX, Petroani, Romania, [email protected]
3
INCD INSEMEX, Petroani, Romania, [email protected]
4
INCD INSEMEX, Petroani, Romania, [email protected]
5
INCD INSEMEX, Petroani, Romania, [email protected]
6
INCD INSEMEX, Petroani, Romania, [email protected]
7
INCD INSEMEX, Petroani, Romania, [email protected]

Abstract
Determination of the delay precision of the electrical detonators regarding the legislation in
force and the applicable standards on field, ensure the conditions of garanty the safety
characteristics of these kinds of products. Applying procedure methodological instruments for
testing and assessment of electrical detonators it is possible to evaluate the functioning
(detonation) outside the range of the nominal succession for neighbour delay number.

KEYWORDS

Electric detonators, delay time, delay precision, algorithm, acceptance triangle, overlying
probability

1. GENERALITIES

For an explosive charge to detonate at a stable speed level, conditions in which maximum
energy is release, it must be excited / initiated with a sufficiently high shock, this is the role of
the initiation systems.
Currently are used only constructive types of detonators (fig.1), for initiating the explosive for
blasting, this having the significant structural differences and time delays ranging from instant
millisecond or the order of seconds. The delay is intrinsically (resulting from the constructive
parameters) or the electronic detonators is programmable in a wide range, noting that this type
of detonators involves significant costs.
European harmonized standards EN 13763-16 SR: 2004 and SR EN 13763-1: 2004 states from
the technical point of view the technical method for testing, regarding the precision
determination of electric detonators delay.

212
 Fig.1 Constructive types of detonators for use in mining

2. THE CALCULATION ALGORITHM ON THE ACCURACY OF DELAY AT THE

ELECTRIC DETONATORS
From a procedural standpoint, to determine the specific indicators to determine the precision of
delay is required the following steps:
Calculation of average time delay ( k) and the standard deviation (sk):

k= (1.1) sk= (1.2)

where: nk=30 represents the number of electric detonators which are test subjects for each
stage of delay k=110.
The calculation of adjusted nominal delay time (tnom adj,k) and adjusted nominal time
difference (tnom adj,k):
= ( (1.3)
where: tnom,k is the nominal delay time (in milliseconds) for the interval number k, indicated by
the manufacturer with the operating instructions manual:
= ( (1.4)

Calculation of the largest and the smallest delay time (tnom adj,kmin i tnom adj,k max):
= ( (1.5)

= ( (1.6)

Determination of interval limits in accordance with Grubbs test for determining the
exceptional values and the limits of the range using the adjusted nominal delay times and
adjusted nominal time difference:
= (1.5)

= (1.6)

The calculation of factors ck:

= = [ (1.7)
where: QFk is the quality factor for the number of interval k.
213
 Setting up the triangles of acceptance following the calculation of the essential points:
- The height of the triangle, skmax (ms)

skmax = (1.8)

- The lowest point of the triangle, tiv (ms)

tiv = (1.9)

- The uppermost point of the triangle, tuv (ms)

tuv = (1.10)

- Triangle center, tc (ms)

tc = (1.11)

3. METHODOLOGICAL AND PRACTICAL INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE TESTING

ACCURACY, FOR DETERMINATION OF ELECTRIC DETONATORS DELAY

From the methodological point of view trying to determine the accuracy of delay is carried out
on specimens consisting of a total of 30 electric detonators for each number of delay time, with
the same chemical composition, charge, size and material of construction.
Equipment necessary to carry out the test, consisting of a power source capable of producing
a continuous current according to the manufacturer specification, a timer device or
oscilloscope to measure the time of delay required between starting the impulse and the
impulse to stop, means, both for the start-up an impulse (trigger circuit to ensure an effective
electrical pulse when the ignition current is applied), and to provide an impulse stop, the timer /
oscilloscope (optical sensor or pressure sensor capable of providing an electrical impulse when
the base charge is initiated, respectively the secondary load of the electric detonators) and a
conditioning room capable of maintaining a temperature in the range from about 1530 0C
20C.
The procedure for testing these types of products, aiming a first stage conditioning them at
least 2 hours before the test, at the temperature specified by the manufacturer, in the range
from about 1530 0C, thereafter there follows the test phase, which must be made, in 2 0C
from the temperature conditioning.
After connecting and the introduction of the electric detonators, inside the stand they are
initiated, and then record the individual delays and the number of missed ignitions (Figure No.
2, 3 and 4).

Fig.2. Stand for testing electric detonators as Fig. 3. Electric detonators prepared
required by harmonized European standards for testing

214
 Fig.4. The measuring and command equipment for the stand for
determine the precision of detonators delay

4. THE CASE STUDY

To determine the precision of delays, the millisecond electric detonators were made a number
of attempts in the INSEMEX Polygon, with harmonized European standards SR EN 13763-16:
2004 and SR EN 13763-1: 2004.
After testing were obtained the following values of the delays (Table 1):

Table 1

The values of measurement delay times / of delay stage, to k=1,10

Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
of
attempt
snki,
Nominal time / Delay stage, (ms)
k=1,10
i=1,30 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300
The times of delay measured (ms), tk
1 32,10 58,50 81,37 119,84 139,54 166,31 182,06 221,93 261,02 266,49
2 35,08 52,85 73,50 110,72 142,81 168,18 220,07 196,30 247,54 268,22
3 38,48 59,16 76,93 118,38 137,77 167,70 207,25 133,03 30,966* 271,09
4 34,75 62,67 81,45 110,38 139,39 160,70 180,38 74,42* 255,37 259,86
5 33,42 52,70 77,00 109,73 135,65 178,16 186,37 85,09* 253,87 259,66
6 32,21 52,35 76,50 106,28 134,28 173,79 46,515* 226,73 224,83 263,25
7 31,42 52,78 75,40 114,06 31,120* 160,18 3721,29* 223,95 226,42 270,47
8 23,20 54,91 82,51 104,29 140,11 173,61 196,32 167,73 257,72 108,97*
9 34,00 58,23 84,34 104,22 134,36 166,47 193,22 162,51 236,57 212,04
10 26,83 52,01 80,65 107,54 139,33 174,75 2893,45* 221,26 247,59 39,684*
11 24,22 54,54 73,42 109,80 145,27 173,93 197,74 176,21 224,15 262,72
12 24,61 50,54 79,70 106,31 142,84 170,83 172,39 217,25 235,57 268,84
13 32,13 56,16 79,55 107,60 146,40 176,96 199,49 219,34 233,04 249,82
14 25,05 54,58 73,80 110,48 141,39 176,12 201,27 102,74 221,11 259,60
15 32,81 55,89 70,80 50,08* 133,86 175,83 176,65 227,98 232,97 173,81*
16 30,04 55,85 82,20 103,94 136,18 176,75 53,833* 233,67 226,06 262,71
17 31,43 50,32 90,30 109,04 140,34 177,75 188,09 241,33 233,87 278,95
18 35,80 55,93 81,00 122,58 141,36 170,75 188,39 69,63* 216,88 261,81
19 32,56 54,21 79,55 106,30 133,19 171,75 179,96 231,91 231,37 198,29*
20 33,03 53,75 88,00 115,42 135,15 166,16 184,13 56,08* 246,24 259,55
21 30,64 51,46 77,52 109,86 133,45 174,44 190,40 138,31 248,08 247,73
22 29,60 57,86 95,20 103,57 4034,40* 174,91 197,60 57,72* 222,23 265,97
23 32,00 50,77 84,90 106,77 138,45 175,73 193,00 220,06 245,54 268,46
24 33,62 55,64 84,00 116,85 134,20 165,07 5589,99* 114,9* 5196,799* 277,12
25 27,81 57,38 76,82 107,26 130,55 168,25 196,00 62,42* 58,683* 187,40*
26 25,62 56,95 85,39 106,47 131,12 173,32 194,31 53,84* 225,89 277,10
27 33,61 56,67 80,75 103,84 146,11 174,64 193,10 19,53 251,36 264,02
28 34,63 55,11 80,54 103,19 124,41 175,23 194,73 228,46 251,80 154,24*
29 31,78 49,21 83,90 108,20 133,67 174,54 192,45 146,67 225,83 228,74
30 25,69 48,53 78,00 106,00 138,34 173,15 194,85 191,24 224,54 6564,44*

Note: *- exceptional values according SR EN 13763-16:2004

215
 After statistical processing of the specific values of tests carried out resulted in the following
synthetic indicators (table 2):

Table 2
Delay stage, for ki, i=1,30
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Result Nominal time/ Delay stage (ms)
indicators 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300
The times of delay measured (ms), tki
The average
of delay times, 30,939 54,7231 80,833 109,132 137,482 172,303 192,008 198,195 237,313 255,556
tk med., (ms)
Standard
3,885466 3,175094 4,992858 5,095756 5,066773 4,525412 10,02035 35,2432 13,08942 16,1223
deviation, sk
Number of
ignitions 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
missed
Inf. 18,88 44,87 65,34 93,31 121,76 158,26 160,91 88,83 196,69 205,52
tGrubbslimit
Sup. 42,99 64,57 96,32 124,94 153,20 186,34 223,10 307,55 277,92 305,58
tnominal Inf. 15 45 75 105 135 165 195 225 255 285
limit Sup. 45 75 105 135 165 195 225 255 285 300
Number of
exceptional 0 0 0 1 2 0 5 7 3 7
values

2,282514
The factor, ck 5,117857 4,330752 1,652406 1,146744 0,693003 -0,42216 -1,0755 -1,91091 -9,2591
(cmin*)

Nominal time
30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300
of delay, tnom,k

Note: *- the factor ck minimum according to the standard SR EN 13763-1:2004

Graphic-analytical representation of the results obtained through acceptance triangles (Figure

No.5) allows highlighting how compliance/non-compliance with the requirement applied,
depending on the positioning of the points represented in the diagram whose coordinates are
statistical parameters specific to each slot number, respectively average value and standard
deviation.

Thus, the result located within the triangle of acceptance, afferent number of interval the
requirement is considered fulfilled, otherwise ascertaining the failure to fulfill the requirement.

To configure triangles of acceptance was necessary to calculate the critical points whose values
are shown in Table 3:
Table 3

Parameters of triangles for acceptance

Delay
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
stage
50,24 50,24 50,24 50,24 50,24 50,24 50,24 50,24 50,24 50,24
The height
Lowest 15,00 45,00 75,00 105,00 135,00 165,00 195,00 225,00 255,00 285,00
point
Uppermost 45,00 75,00 105,00 135,00 165,00 195,00 225,00 255,00 285,00 150,00
point
30,00 60,00 90,00 120,00 150,00 180,00 210,00 240,00 270,00 217,50
Center

216
 Fig.5. Graphical representation of acceptance triangles, to assess whether
compliance / non-compliance to achieve the level of requirement applied

From the analysis of the diagram can be seen in Figure No. 5 that for late stages 1, 2, 3 and 6
applied the requirement is met, in fact supported by positioning points inside the blue of the
triangles corresponding of acceptance the delay involved and the delay stages 4, 5, 7, 8, 9 and
10 red points are located outside of the acceptance triangles, emphasizing while a displacement
to the left thereof, which proves the existence of overlapping high probability of delay time over
the interval numbers adjacent afferent or confirmation detonation outside the proposed
sequence.

5. CONCLUSIONS
- The test for the determination of the accuracy of the electric detonators delay shall be made
in accordance with the European harmonized standards EN 13763-1: 2004, in order to
guarantee the security quality of such products;
- After statistical processing of the data obtained from measurements made with suitable
equipment, such as: the average delay and standard deviation; nominal delay time adjusted
and the nominal time difference adjusted; limits of the time interval delay, according to Grubbs
test; ck factor, specific indicators are obtained by numerical results that can be quantified and
valued by graphic-analytical triangles acceptance;
- The study case highlights in the test of the electric detonators recently tested at the INSEMEX
Polygon, the graphic-analytical method for determining the probability of overlapping of the
delay times over those afferent of interval numbers adjacent as confirmed by finding out the
detonation sequence proposed for delay steps 4, 5, 7, 8, 9 and 10.
- Failure to fulfil of this functional parameter for the electric detonators may cause technical
events that can result either with partial failures, or situations that may lead to cut of the
connectors for holes loads or disturbing the pattern front. These technical incidents can
generate considerable economic loss due to costs for their elimination or accidents resulting in
human casualties.

6. BIBLIOGRAPHY

[1] Fodor, D., Ingineria mpucrilor materiale i tehnici de lucru, vol. I

Editura Namaste Timioara, Editura Corvin Deva, 2007.
[2] EN 13763-1: 2004 Explosives for civil uses. Detonators and relays Part 1
Requirements
[3] EN 13763-16: 2004 Explosives for civil uses - Detonators and relays - Part 16:
Determination of delay accuracy
[4] Council Directive 93/15/EEC of 5 April 1993 on the harmonisation of the provisions
relating to the placing on the market and supervision of explosives for civil uses

217
 INFLUENCE OF THE NATURAL DRAFTS DEPRESSION
UPON MINING VENTILATION NETWORKS
Ion GHERGHE1, Doru CIOCLEA2, Constantin LUPU3, Cristian TOMESCU4, Florin
RDOI5, Emeric CHIUZAN5, Vlad Mihai PSCULESCU7
1
INCD INSEMEX, Petrosani, Romania, [email protected]
2
INCD INSEMEX, Petrosani, Romania, [email protected]
3
INCD INSEMEX, Petrosani, Romania, [email protected]
4
INCD INSEMEX, Petrosani, Romania, [email protected]
5
INCD INSEMEX, Petrosani, Romania, [email protected]
6
INCD INSEMEX, Petrosani, Romania, [email protected]
7
INCD INSEMEX, Petrosani, Romania, [email protected]

ABSTRACT
In underground hard coal exploitation is required the circulation of significant air flows at the
level of all underground works. Air flows are circulated using powerful fans located at the
surface within the main ventilation stations. For the optimization of the mining ventilation are
required both the knowledge of air flow repartition at branch level and the knowledge of the
ventilation networks evolution in perspective. By using specialized software for solving
ventilation networks, there can be identified and modelled situations technically possible and
the manner in which the ventilation is performed in such situations. In this paperwork will be
presented a particular situation, technically possible, regarding the influence of the natural draft
upon the ventilation network which is subject to restructuring, in case of accidental stop of the
main ventilation fan.

KEYWORDS
natural draft, ventilation, ventilation network

1 INTRODUCTION

Mine ventilation is an extremely sensitive and complex domain that includes several disciplines
used to accomplish and preserve safe conditions in underground [1, 5]. In this spirit, a good
ventilation network developed with the IT is a huge step forward that allows the experts to see
in real time the changes occurred in this network and, more important, to anticipate the
possible disturbances in the ventilation system.

218
2 GENERAL NOTIONS

The mine network necessary for the mining of useful mineral substances displays a high
complexity, different shapes and cross-sectional areas and can reach tens of kilometres in
length.
For getting the best possible working conditions in underground, it is necessary to provide the
primary protection, i.e. a suitable ventilation. The purpose of this ventilation is to:
provide the concentration in oxygen necessary for the personnel currently working in
underground;
dilute the explosive and/or toxic gases existing in the mine network;
diminish the heat emitted inside mine workings, both due to human activities and to
thermal gradient.
A good ventilation of each mine working involves the best possible repartition of air flows along
each branch of the ventilation network. In this spirit it is necessary to settle the ventilation
network of each mine. An example of complex ventilation network is the one belonging to
Uricani mine.

3 DESCRIPTION OF THE VENTILATION NETWORK OF URICANI MINE

The ventilation network of Uricani mine is quite complex. Therefore, the ventilation network
includes three ventilation shafts: Skip Shaft, 4 Shaft, 8 Shaft and 15 ventilation incline. It also
includes two ventilation shafts with the related ventilation stations (East Shaft and West Shaft)
and underground mine workings located on four levels (level 580; level 500; level 400; level
300). These mine workings are made of main cross sectional galleries, directional galleries,
diagonal galleries, plain cross sectional galleries, inclines, working faces, connection raises.
The whole ventilation network includes 291 junctions (knots) and 300 branches [2, 3, 4, 6]

4 PROVIDING THE SOLUTION FOR THE VENTILATION NETWORK OF THE

MINE

For providing the best solution available for such a complex ventilation network, we have used
the Hardy-Cross method for successive approximation. This method represents the grounds of
anexpert software CANVENT designed in Canada. This software helped us to provide the
solution for the ventilation network as well an optimization of the air flow distribution within the
ventilation branches [6]
This process made necessary to run several stages:
Marking the junctions of the ventilation network on the spatial diagram;
Determining the geodesic coordinates of the identified junctions;
Inputting the geodesic coordinates of junctions and the existing branches into the
database of the software - Figure 1;
The carrying out of measurements in situ; these measurements include:
o measurements of the aerodynamic parameters of mine workings;
o measurements of the geometrical parameters of mine workings;
o measurements of the physical parameters of the air;
Calculation of aerodynamic strength specific to each branch;
Inputting the values of parameters specific to the ventilation network into the expert
software CANVENT - Figure 2;

219
 Figure 1: Geodesic coordinates of junctions

Figure 2: Values of parameters

The 2D or 3D drawing of the ventilation network;

Balancing the ventilation network;
Settling the ventilation network. Both the direction and the optimum distribution of the
air flows along each branch are being identified in this stage - Figure 3.
Getting the results.

Figure 3: 3D presentation

This final stage provides the data on electronic support or paper regarding the graphic
settlement of the ventilation network. The method shown above allows to give solutions to any
ventilation network, irrespective of their level of complexity.

5 PROSPECTIVE SIMULATION OF THE VENTILATION NETWORK

There has been performed a simulation using 3D CANVENT in order to view the prospective
operation of the ventilation network if it will be restructured by stopping a main ventilation
stations (West ventilation Station), respectively of related ventilation circuits. For simulating the

220
ventilation network of Uricani mine unit were removed 95 junctions and 143 branches. Changes
performed are presented in Figure 4.

Figure 4: Restructured ventilation network

There have been removed from the ventilation network the following circuits and mine
workings: circuit of shaft W horizon 500 and horizon 400; circuit of main gallery W horizon 300,
circuit of transportation plane horizon 300-400; circuit block III N horizon 300-400; circuit of
conjugated directional gallery bl. V-S; circuit of diagonal gallery bl. V-S and VI-S horizon 340;
main collector gallery no.1 horizon 500; coal face panel no. 14, seam 5, bl. IV-N; undermined
coal bed panel , seam 3, bl. IV-S, surface connection workings.
There have been inserted in the ventilation network the following workings: inclined plane
access Silo bl. IV S horizon 300; front face panel 17, seam 5, bl. IV N,; undermined coal bed 5,
seam 3, bl. IV S; directional gallery E horizon 300; surface connection workings.
There have been modified ventilation constructions on the following locations: shaft with skip
aux. shaft horizon 500; cross-sectional gallery access plane 15 horizon 500; main eastern
gallery horizon 500; main conjugated gallery horizon 400; delta demag. Horizon 400; cross-
sectional gallery head ventilation rising bl. VI S, 300-40; main eastern gallery horizon 300;
ventilation gallery horizon 340; access gallery panel 2, seam 3, horizon 340; ventilation gallery
horizon 340.
Also, there have been placed ventilation constructions in the following locations:
Ventilation doors: dir. Gal. E horizon 500; main Demag. Gal. horizon 400; access plane
panel 5/3/IV S; ventilation gal. bl. IV S horizon 340; E main gallery; coal face panel 17,
seam 5, bl. IV N horizon 300;
Ventilation dams: main W gallery horizon 500; main gal. W demag. Horizon 300; belts
flow; delta gal. horizon 400 ; ventilation gallery horizon 400; panel 5 seam 3 bl. IV S;
pan. 5 seam 3 bl. IV S; head gal. panel 5 seam 3; panel 14 seam 5; panel 14 seam 5;
gal. access Silo horizon 300 bl. V S; gal. access rising 300-400 horizon 340 bl. VI S;
ventilation gal. pan 3 seam 5 bl. V S; rising300 - 350 bl. VI ; vent. Rising. bl. VI S 300.
Compared to the current optimized situation, the following results have been obtained:
Air flow on the fresh air supply circuit horizons 300, 400 and 500 decreased from 56.94
m3/s to 38.22 m3/s.
Air flow on the inclined plane 500-400 is 10.19 m3/s.
Air flow on the inclined plane 400-300 is 7.67 m3/s.
Air flow on the southern frame horiz. 300 is 5.09 m3/s.
Air flow on the southern frame horiz. 500 is 4.09 m3/s.
Air flow on the northern frame horiz. 400 is 2.18 m3/s.
Air flow on the longwall no. 17, seam 5 bl. IV N is 6.04 m3/s.
Air flow on the undermined coal bed no. 8, seam 3 bl. IV S is 8.57 m3/s.

221
 On the return air exhaust circuit related to bl. V S, air flow at horizon 500 decreased
from 25.74 m3/s to 9.65m3/s.
At mine level, air flow decreased from 43.89 m3/s to 38.22 m3/s on ventilation shaft E.

6 INFLUENCE OF THE NATURAL DRAFT IN CASE OF THE MAIN FANS

ACCIDENTAL STOPPING

After the prospective solving of Uricani mine unit ventilation network, there was needed to
know the air flow reparation in size and direction at branch level in case of the accidental
stopping of the main fan. For performing this simulation was taken into account the
prospective modelled and solved ventilation network.
There has to be mentioned the fact the the natural ventilation through natural draft of
underground mine workings is allowed by the OHSR CNH Petrosani 2007. The aeration of a
ventilation network only through natural draft is accidentally performed if the main ventilation
station is stooped.
The natural draft permanently operates upon ventilation networks and has different values and
directions depending on the day-night cycle, seasons, and on weather and microclimate
conditions.
For calculating the natural draft was used Protodiakonovs method [1, 5].

hn = 353 g (Pa) (1)

where:
z1 depth of the air input shaft (m), (in our case 398 m);
z2 depth of the air output shaft (m) (in our case 402 m);
T1; T2 air absolute temperatures in the two extremities (K), (in our case 298.16 K respectively
295.16 K);
T average absolute temperature between the two extremities (K), (in our case 293.16 K).
hn = 353 9.81(398/298.16 - 4/ 296.66 - 402/295.16)
hn = 3462.93 (1.3348 0.0134 1.3619)
hn = - 140.24 - 140 Pa
For conducting this simulation, there is removed the depression generated by the main
ventilation stations and is applied at the E shaft a negative depression of 140 Pa, which means
a reverse in air flow direction at the level of the entire ventilation network. Changes performed
in this modelling are presented in Figure 5.

Figure 5: Effect of the natural draft upon the ventilation network

222
Comparing with the prospective optimized situation, the following results have been obtained:
Air flow on the fresh air supply circuit horizons 300, 400 and 500 decreased from
+56.94 m3/s to 11.42 m3/s.
Air flow on the inclined plane 500 400 is -3.04 m3/s.
Air flow on the inclined plane 400 300 is 2.29 m3/s.
Air flow on the southern frame horiz. 300, respectively horizon 500 is 1.52 m3/s,
respectively 1.22 m3/s.
Air flow on the northern frame horiz. 400 is - 0,65 m3/s.
Air flow on the main directional gallery E, demag. Horizon 400 is 1.04 m3/s.
Air flow on the longwall no. 17, seam 5 bl. IV N is 1.81 m3/s.
Air flow on the undermined coal bed no. 8, seam 3 bl. IV S is 2.56 m3/s.
On the return air exhaust circuit related to bl. V S, air flow at horizon 500 decreased
from +25.74 m3/s to 2.88 m3/s.
At mine level, air flow decreased from +43.89 m3/s to 11.42 m3/s on ventilation shaft
E.

7 CONCLUSIONS

Giving solutions for the ventilation networks with the help of it is a huge step forward that
allows optimum ventilation and a visualisation of the changes made on the network in real time.
The ventilation network given as example belongs to Uricani mine and includes 3 shafts and
one ventilation incline, 2 ventilation shafts, 4 levels and several underground workings (cross-
sectional galleries, directional galleries, diagonal galleries, inclines, connection raises and
working faces).
The best solutions available for the ventilation network of Uricani mine have been obtained with
the help of the Canadian software called CANVENT. It includes the run of 10 main steps.
Using the specialized software as performed a prospective modelling and solving of the
ventilation network in case of removing a main ventilation stations and related circuits. On the
prospective modelled and solved ventilation network was simulated the situation in which the
natural draft operates upon the network. There has been noticed the fact that the circulated air
flow at network level drastically decreased and the air flow directions was reversed.

8 REFERENCES

[1] Bltreu R., Teodorescu C.: Ventilation and Occupational Safety in Mines (in
Romanian), Didactical and Pedagogical Publishing House, Bucharest, Romania, 1971
[2] Gherghe I. a.s.o.: Services for modelling and simulating Petrila mine unit ventilation
network, (in Romanian), INSEMEX Research Study, 2006
[3] Cioclea D. a.s.o.: Ventilation network solving based on pressure measurements in
order to establish air flows, pressures, aerodynamic resistances, in work places from
Vulcan mine unit, (in Romanian), INSEMEX Research study, 2006
[4] Gherghe I. a.s.o.: Services for modelling and simulating Lonea mine unit ventilation
network, (in Romanian), INSEMEX Research Study, 2008
[5] Teodorescu C., Gontean Z., Neag I.: Mining Ventilation (in Romanian), Didactical and
Pedagogical Publishing House, Bucharest, Romania, 1980
[6] CANVENT: Mining and Minerals Sciences Laboratories Underground Mine
Environment and Ventilation, User Manual 3D program CANVENT 2K

223
224
 RESEARCHES REGARDING DETERMINATION OF THE
ELECTRICAL PARAMETERS FOR SAFE AND RELIABLE
INITIATION OF THE ELECTRICAL DETONATORS

Leonard LUPU 1, Adrian JURCA 2

1
INCD INSEMEX, Petroani, Romania, [email protected]
2
INCD INSEMEX, Petroani, Romania, [email protected]

ABSTRACT
This paperwork approaches the performance improvements in the present electric
detonators testing system aiming for a safe initiation during blasting works.

KEYWORDS
Keywords: electric detonators, electric parameters, ignition current

1. Generalities

The electric detonators have been used on a wide scale within industrial activities as
component of the blasting process, both in underground and surface workings. In order to
mitigate the explosion risk in these environments - potentially explosive atmospheres
generically named "Ex zones", equipment in special construction for potentially explosive
atmospheres are to be used, which shall not generate energy sources that could initiate an
explosion, and the blasting operations have to take place in reliable and sure conditions.
The field of civile use explosives is represented by the European Directive 93/15/EEC
of 5th of April 1993 regarding harmonization of provisions regarding placing on the market
and control of civile use explosives. The electric detonators used in blasting processes have
to meet the essential safety requirements addressing their safe and reliable ignition. Testing
of electric detonators is of a particular importance taking into consideration the existing
explosion risk that has to be minimized in order to ensure safety of human life and health.

225
 2. Construction, operating and classification of electric detonators

Regardless of the electric detonator's type [1], from a constructive standpoint they
are similar. The main components are shown in figure 1 and they consist in:
1 electric detonator's tube;
2 initiation charge;
3 intermediary charge;
4 disruptive charge;
5 ignition cherry consisting in: filament, flammable paste deposed on the filament
and filament electrodes;
6 insulating protective sleeve;
7 obturating plug;
8 Copper or steel wires;
9 delaying body;
10 delaying charge;
11 indicator for the delaying step

Fig. 1. Construction of an electric detonator

Electric detonators operating is based on the head released by the filament towards
the flammable paste when an electric current passes through it. The amount of heat
developed by the filament may be expressed by the following formula:

Q 0.24 I 2 R f t (1)

In the formula it can be noticed that the main role in developing the amount of heat
required for flammable paste ignition, is held by the value of current and its duration of
passing through the filament. Thus, when a sufficiently high amount of current (a specific
value) is passing through filament, the amount of heat developed is enough to start the
paste ignition reaction, respectively detonator's operation. Otherwise, the thermal balance
may settle in at a temperature inferios to the one required to ignite the paste (approx. 260
280 C ), case when the electric detonator does not work, regardless of the current
travelling duration.

226
 Classification of electric detonators based on the non-ignition current is given in table 1.

Tabelul 1

Electric detonators class Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Class 4

Non-ignition current, Inf (A) 0,18 Inf 0,45 0,45 Inf 1,20 1,20 Inf 4,00 4,00 Inf

Non-ignition minimum 0,5 8 80 500

impulse, Wnf (mJ/)

ESD (electrostatic discharge) 0,3 6 60 300

impulse(mJ/), for the
"electrode-to-electrode"
configuration

ESD impulse, (mJ/), for the 0,6 12 120 600

"electrode-to-mass"
configuration

3. Analysis of testing methods for electric parameters of electric

detonators
The test for determination of non-ignition current of electric detonators is performed
starting with a preliminary test (for example a Bruceton test) using 30 detonators [3], in
order to obtain an estimate on the value of current for a 50% ignition (I0,5) and the standard
deviation (s). The squared impulse duration has to be adjusted at 10 s, if the non-ignition
current declared by the manufacturer is lower or equal to 2 A, and 5 min if is higher than 2
A. The non-ignition current is then calculated using the PBBS tests. The probability and trust
levels are set at 0,01 % and respectively at 95 %. The non-ignition current is calculated and
it should correspond to the class specified by the manufacturer.
For the test for determination of ignition current of electric detonators connected in
series, the current amplitude is set at ignition current in series Is declared by the
manufacturer, and a time period is chosen for the impuls of at least tI, given by:

Waf
tI 5 (2)
I s2

where Waf = the total ignition impulse in J/ohm, declared by the manufacturer.

The electric detonator is connected to the power supply and the Is is applied for a
time tI , in miliseconds, then the time of reaction to current is recorded, tb, in miliseconds.
Finally the minim value of time of reaction to current tb min is determined, and for the
instantaneous detonators the average value t b is calculated, as well as the standard
deviation sb. No ignition failures should occur during the in series ignition test.
The safe ignition impulse represents the minimum electric energy required to ignite
all the detonators connected in series, divided by the value of the total resistance of the
complete circuit.

227
 The non-ignition impulse represents the maximum electric energy divided by the
value of the total resistance of the complete circuit, that, when delivered over a short time,
does not generate ignition on any of the electric detonators [2].
Improvement of testing methods is aquired by developing test stands for electric
detonators, by aquiring a voltage supply of high current needed in order to fulfill the testing
requirements of detonators electric parameters.

Fig. 2. High current voltage supply

The laboratory high current voltage supply (fig. 3) provides a good testing accuracy
for electric detonators, such as to ensure a high current required for high intensity
detonators at the following tests: ignition current, non-ignition current and safe operation
impulse of electric detonators.
This voltage supply has a high range of currents, with the following features:
Aceast surs are un domeniul inalt al curentului avnd urmtoarele caracteristici:
050 Ampers, 0 20 Volts, digital display, energy supply from the common distribution
network - 220 V.

4. Conclusions

The requirements regarding the electric parameters of detonators, materialized by a

series of tests such as determinatio of ignition current, determination of non-ignition
current, determination of non-ignition impulse, have a considerable weight in their testing
process.
Testing of electric detonators is of a particular importance taking into consideration
the explosion risk and this is the reason why the requirements regarding detonators electric
parameters have to be fulfilled aiming to obtain a safe and reliable igniton of detonators.
Analyzing the safety requirements of electric parameters of detonators pointed out a
need of improving the testing methods and procedures and to achieve this goal, a voltage
supply should be aquired, capable to generate high currents. Thus, the ability of performing
tests on the whole range of electric detonators is extended, from the low intensity ones up
to the high intensity electric detonators.

228
REFERENCES:

1. Ghicioi E, - Metode de diagnosticare a explozoarelor

2. Lupu L, - Studiu PN 07 45 02 59 - Cercetri privind determinarea parametrilor
electrici de iniiere pe cale sigur i fiabil a capselor detonante electrice.
3. SR EN 13763-1 - Explozivi pentru uz civil. Capse detonante i relee ntrzietoare.
Partea Cerine

229
 PARTICULARITIES OF ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT WITH
TYPE OF PROTECTION FLAMEPROOF ENCLOSURE "D"
DESIGNED FOR USE IN FIREDAMP UNDERGROUND
MINES

Lucian MOLDOVAN 1, Sorin BURIAN 2, Mihai MAGYARI 3, Martin FRIEDMANN 4 ,

Drago FOTU 5 , Marcel RAD 6
1
INCD INSEMEX, Petroani, Romania, [email protected]
2
INCD INSEMEX, Petroani, Romania, [email protected]
3
INCD INSEMEX, Petroani, Romania, [email protected]
4
INCD INSEMEX, Petroani, Romania, [email protected]
5
INCD INSEMEX, Petroani, Romania, [email protected]
6
INCD INSEMEX, Petroani, Romania, [email protected]

ABSTRACT
The purpose of the paper is to underline the constructive particularities that electrical
equipment with type of protection flameproof enclosure must exhibit and, in the same time,
to highlight the criteria used for their evaluation in order to provide protection to explosion.

KEYWORDS
Keywords: type of protection, flameproof enclosure, firedamp mines.

1. Generalities:

The risk of explosion represents an important aspect when referring to technological

installations used for extraction of existing energetic resources (in solid form coal, liquid
form oil or gaseous form natural gases), processing, storage or transport of them or of
the resulting combustible substances [2].
Equipments that operate in hazardous explosive atmospheres must be subjected to
certification procedures, according ATEX Directive 94/9/EC [4] (transposed in Romanian
legislation by Government Decision no. 752/2004).
Equipments intended for use in mines susceptible to firedamp - Group I equipments,
according ATEX Directive 94/9/EC, are divided in two categories [4]:

230
 Category M1 - equipment that must continue to operate when a potentially explosive
atmosphere is present;
Category M2 - equipment that does not operate when a potentially explosive
atmosphere is present.
If electrical equipment is to be placed in a hazardous explosive area, this shall be
designed, manufactured and operated so as not to cause the ignition of the surrounding
explosive atmosphere. There are three basic approaches to provide explosion protection to
electrical circuits in hazardous location [3]:
Explosion confinement
Ignition source isolation
Energy limitation.
The type of protection represents all specific measures applied to electrical
equipment in order to avoid ignition of a surrounding explosive atmosphere in which these
equipments are designed to operate [6].
The type of protection flameproof enclosure applies generally to electrical apparatus
which in normal operation produces electrical arcs and sparks, and consists in placing the
parts that could ignite an explosive atmosphere inside of an enclosure that can withstand
the pressure developed during an internal explosion of an explosive mixture and which
prevents the explosion transmission to the explosive atmosphere surrounding the enclosure.
This type of protection is based on explosion confinement approach [5].
Electrical equipment with type of protection flameproof enclosure has a general use,
this beeing used in any place in which gases, vapours or mists can occur and form explosive
atmospheres in mixture with air. Thus, a lot of electrical equipment placed in the
underground of firedamp mines (electric motors, luminaires, junction boxes, push buttons,
electric pannels etc.) are made with type of protection flameproof enclosure.

2. Safety parameters of electrical equipments with type of

protection flameproof enclosure "d"
The potentially explosive atmosphere, generated by flammable substances in the
technological process, is capable of entering inside of the equipment enclosure, where it can
be ignited and generating an explosion. Preventing the transmission of an internal explosion
to the external explosive atmosphere that surrounds the enclosure is due to the fact that all
the external connections of the enclosure are made in a special form of joints and calibrated
gaps [3].
These gaps have the property of cooling the flame and products resulted from an
internal ignition, due to heat absorption (by the materials of the flanges) and adiabatic
expansion. The cooled burned gases and particles made and heated in the explosion, at
their exit from the enclosure, are not capable of igniting the explosive mixture from the
surrounding atmosphere [3].
The specific elements that ensure the protection to explosion for flameproof d
equipment are represented by flameproof joints. A flameproof joint represents the place
where the corresponding surfaces of two parts of an enclosure, or the conjunction of
enclosures, come together, and which prevents the transmission of an internal explosion to
the explosive atmosphere surrounding the enclosure [5].
There are three types of flameproof joints: non-treaded (flanged, cylindrical, spigot),
threaded (cylindrical threaded joints and taper threaded joints) and special joints (cemented
joints).
Non-threaded flameproof joints are characterized by two parameters: the width and
the gap of the joint.
The width of flameproof joint, L, represents the shortest path through a flameproof
joint from the inside to the outside of an enclosure.

231
 The gap of flameproof joint, i, represents the distance between the corresponding
surfaces of a flameproof joint when the electrical apparatus enclosure has been assembled.
For cylindrical surfaces, forming cylindrical joints, the gap is the difference between the
diameters of the bore and the cylindrical component [5].

Key:
c width of the plane part;
d width of the cylindrical part;
f - faze

Fig.1 Spigot joint

Flameproof enclosures and all supporting elements are subjected to mechanical

calculus, taking into account the maximum pressure of the explosion that occurs inside the
enclosure [3].
When designing flameproof enclosures a series of factors shall be considered, like:
explosion group of the gas for which the equipment was designed influencing the
dimensions of flameproof joints and over the thickness of enclosure walls;
ignition temperature of the gas for which the equipment was designed - influencing
the size dimensions of enclosure that has to ensure dissipation, in the surrounding
environment, of the thermal energy generated inside the enclosure in order to limit
the external temperatures;
the apparatus mounted inside the enclosure - influencing the enclosure dimensions,
construction and assembling of covers to the enclosure, distribution of pressures
following an internal explosion etc.
Explosionproof electrical apparatus, with the type of protection flameproof enclosure
d, intended for use in the underground mines susceptible to firedamp are included in
Group I of electrical equipment (according [4]and [6]).
For electrical equipment of Group I, the maximum surface temperature shall not
exceed [6]:
150 C on any surface where coal dust can form a layer,
450 C where coal dust is not likely to form a layer (i.e., inside of a dust protected
enclosure).

3. Testing of electrical equipments with type of protection

flameproof enclosure "d"
For certification of electrical apparatus with the type of protection flameproof
enclosure, this is subjected to type and routine tests [1].
In the routine tests category is included the overpressure routine test (that has to be
performed by the manufacturer), which has the purpose of verifying enclosure resistance to
pressure and that the enclosure does not contain holes or cracks connecting to the outside
of the enclosure.
In the type tests category are included, beside other tests, the tests in explosive
mixtures which are in fact the most important tests in order to verify the safety

232
characteristics of this type of protection [1]. There are three kinds of tests in explosive
mixtures that have to be performed:

A) Determination of explosion pressure

The reference pressure is the highest value of the maximum smoothed pressure,
relative to atmospheric pressure, observed during these tests.
Each test consists of igniting an explosive mixture inside the enclosure and
measuring the pressure developed by the explosion.
For Group I electrical equipment three tests shall be performed with (9,8 0,5) %
methane, in volumetric ratio with air and at atmospheric pressure [5]. This explosive
mixture is considered to give the highest explosion pressures when ignited.

B) Overpressure test
For Group I electrical equipment the test shall be made using either of the following
methods, which are considered as equivalent [5].
a) Overpressure test First method (static)
For group I electrical equipment, the relative pressure applied shall be:
1,5 times the reference pressure, with a minimum of 3,5 bar, or
4 times the reference pressure for enclosures not subject to routine overpressure
testing, or
10 bar, when reference pressure determination has been impracticable.
The period of application of the pressure shall be at least 10 s and the test is made
once.
b) Overpressure test Second method (dynamic)
The dynamic tests shall be carried out in such a way that the maximum pressure to
which the enclosure is subjected is 1,5 times the reference pressure, but with a minimum of
3,5 bar.
When the test is carried out with mixtures specified for the determination of the
reference pressure, these may be precompressed to produce an explosion pressure of 1,5
times the reference pressure. The test shall be made once for electrical apparatus of
Group I.

C) Test for non-transmission of an internal ignition [5]

C.1 Preparation of test samples
Gaskets shall be removed and the enclosure is placed in a test chamber. The same
explosive mixture is introduced into the enclosure and the test chamber, at atmospheric
pressure.
The flamepath lengths (engagement) of threaded joints of the test specimen(s) shall
be reduced (as presented in Table 1).
Flanged gaps of spigot joints, where the width of the joint L consists only of a
cylindrical part shall be enlarged to values of 1 mm for Group I.

Table 1 Reduction in length of a threaded joint for non-transmission test

Type of threaded joint Reduction in
length
Cylindrical, complying with ISO 965, fit medium or No reduction
better
Cylindrical, with larger tolerances than permitted 1/3
above
Taper thread (NPT) No reduction

233
 C.2 Gas mixtures used for the test
The gaps iE of the enclosure shall be at least equal to 90 % of the maximum
constructional gaps iC as specified in the manufacturer's drawings (0,9 iC iE iC).
For electrical apparatus of Group I, the explosive mixture to be used, in volumetric
ratio with air and at atmospheric pressure, is (12,5 0,5) % methane-hydrogen [(58
1) % methane and (42 1) % hydrogen].
In case the gaps of a test specimen do not fulfill the above condition, one of the
following methods may be used for the type test for non-transmission of an internal ignition:
o a gas/air mixture with a smaller MESG value:
iE / iC Mixture
0,75 55 0,5 % H2
0,6 50 0,5% H2
o precompression of the normal test mixtures according to the following
formula:
iC
Pk = 0,9 (1) where Pk is the precompression factor.
iE
With the help of equation (1), the pressure of the explosive mixture could be
calculated for different values of iE/iC ratio. The same equation is applied for equipment of
group IIA and IIB. The diagram in Figure 2 [1] presents the influence of iE/iC ratio over the
testing mixture in case of Group I, IIA and IIB equipment and also a comparison to the
influence of iE/iC ratio over the testing mixture in case of Group IIC equipment (where Pk =
iC/iE x 1,35).

Fig.2 Influence of iE/iC ratio over the testing mixture pressure

From the diagram it observes that for small values of the testing gap relative to the
constructive gap, high values of the testing mixture pressure are obtained; and for the
testing gap values smaller than those of the constructive gap, smaller values of the
explosive mixture pressure are obtained, possible smaller even than the atmospheric
pressure. Because of this reason, in case of testing gap value higher than the constructive
gap value, the non-transmission of an internal ignition test for a group I equipment will be
done at the atmospheric pressure.
For apparatus with flamepaths, other than threaded joints, and intended for use at
an ambient temperature above 60 C, the non-transmission tests shall be conducted under
one of the following conditions [5]:
at a temperature not less than the specified maximum ambient temperature;

234
 at normal ambient temperature using the defined test mixture at increased pressure
according to the factors in Table 2;
at normal atmospheric pressure and temperature, but with the test gap iE increased
by the factors noted in Table 2.

Table 2 Test factors to increase pressure or test gap (iE)

Temperature up to (C) 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 125
Test factors (12,5 % 1,00 1,06 1,07 1,08 1,09 1,10 1,11 1,12
CH4/H2)

During the tests in explosive mixtures it was observed that, when the enclosure of
the equipment has the internal free volume in the form of a mono volume regular geometric
shape (cylinder, parallelepiped, cube, sphere), the pressure curve resulted after the test for
determination of explosion (reference) pressure has a pattern like the one presented in fig.
3.

Figure 3. Example of pressure diagram resulted from testing of group I

flameproof enclosures having a regular geometric shape

Also, in case of equipments with the internal free volume in the form of a regular
geometric shape, when performing the overpressure test, with an air-gas mixture at 1,5 bar,
the pattern of the pressure curve remains the same as in case of reference pressure
determination, and the maximum pressure is approximately 1,5 times higher than in case of
reference pressure determination.
When testing equipments with enclosures having the internal free volume divided in
two or more compartments that communicate between them through small orifices (for
example the enclosure of an electric motor) the pattern of the pressure curve resulted after
the test for determination of explosion (reference) pressure is like the one presented in fig.
4. In this case the pressure pilling phenomena (which represents the results of an ignition,
in a compartment or subdivision of an enclosure, of a precompressed gas mixture, for
example, due to a primary ignition in another compartment or subdivision) occurs, resulting
in higher values of the pressure than in case of non-compartmented enclosures.

235
 Figure 4. Example of pressure diagram resulted from testing the main
compartment of a
Group I electric motor

4. Conclusions:
This paper revealed the constructive particularities and safety characteristics of
equipments with type of protection flameproof enclosure "d" designed for use in the
underground mines susceptible to firedamp.
The specific methodology for performing the tests in explosive mixtures (which are in
fact the most important tests) of Group I electrical equipment was also underlined.
It was analyzed the influence of the gap over the precompression factor of the
explosive mixture for the non-transmission of an internal ignition test.
The pressure pilling phenomena was considered. It is not recommended that the
pressure pilling to occur when testing the enclosures in explosive mixture because of the
high stresses to which the enclosure is subjected during the tests, higher than in normal
conditions (without the precompression of the gas). From this point of view, it is a
recommendation for the manufacturers to find the best designing solutions for the
flameproof enclosure equipments in order to prevent, as much as possible, the occurrence
of pressure pilling when running the tests in explosive mixtures.

REFERENCES:

[1]. Moldovan L., Friedmann M., Magyari M., Fotu D., Considerations regarding the tests
in explosive mixtures made upon the electrical apparatus with the type of protection
flameproof enclosure d, 5th International Multidisciplinary Scientific Symposium,
Universitaria SIMPRO 2012, Conference proceedings, ISSN 1842-4449
[2]. Moldovan L., Burian S., Ionescu Jeana, Friedmann M., Magyari M., Technical
solutions applicable to electrical equipments designed for use in explosive gas
atmospheres, World Energy Systems Towards Sustainable and Integrated Energy
Systems, Buletinul AGIR, Anul XVII, nr. 2, aprilie-iunie 2012, ISSN-L 1224-7928
[3]. S. Burian, J. Ionescu, M. Darie, M. Magyari et all. Installations used in underground
firedamp mines, Editura INSEMEX, ISBN 978-973-88590-4-3, 2007
[4]. *** Directive 94/9/EC - on the approximation of the laws of the Member States
concerning equipment and protective systems intended for use in potentially Explosive
Atmospheres

236
[5]. *** SR EN 60079-1:2008, Explosive atmospheres - Part 1: Equipment protection by
flameproof enclosures "d", ASRO, 2008
[6]. *** SR EN 60079-0:2013, Explosive atmospheres - Part 0: Equipment General
requirements, ASRO, 2013

237
 INVESTIGATION OF AIR HUMIDITY INFLUENCE OVER
THE IGNITION SENSITIVITY OF GASEOUS EXPLOSIVE
ATMOSPHERES FROM THE UNDERGROUND OF
FIREDAMP MINES

Marius DARIE 1, Sorin BURIAN 2, Jeana IONESCU 3, Tiberiu CSASZAR 4 , Lucian

MOLDOVAN 5 , Cosmin COLDA 6 , Adriana ANDRI7
1
INCD INSEMEX, Petroani, Romania, [email protected]
2
INCD INSEMEX, Petroani, Romania, [email protected]
3
INCD INSEMEX, Petroani, Romania, [email protected]
4
INCD INSEMEX, Petroani, Romania, [email protected]
5
INCD INSEMEX, Petroani, Romania, [email protected]
6
INCD INSEMEX, Petroani, Romania, [email protected]
7
INCD INSEMEX, Petroani, Romania, [email protected]

ABSTRACT
This paper presents an investigation by statistical analysis of the influence of humidity on
the ignition sensitivity of explosive gas atmospheres in the underground of firedamp mines
from the low current equipment and installations.
The first part briefly describes the test rig used and the results obtained from
experimentation.
Because of the stochastic behavior of the results there were used statistical methods of
analysis.
The second part presents statistical analysis of experimental results obtained from tests with
explosive mixture of air-methane.
The third part presents the resulted theoretical model.

KEYWORDS
firedamp mines, explosive atmospheres, sensitivity to ignition, humidity.

238
Introduction
The process of coal mining by using underground mine works is constantly accompanied by
the risk of explosion due to the presence of methane and coal dust, released into the
atmosphere from underground during the extraction of coal.
Considering the classifications of explosive atmospheres one can say that the atmosphere in
the underground of firedamp mines has the highest ignition threshold, whether it takes into
account the electrical criteria (260 J) or the thermal criteria (450 C).
Experimental study of the probability of ignition [4] revealed an approximately exponential
dependence [2] of the probability of ignition depending on voltage, in capacitive circuits.
Other mentions [5] presents an exponential dependence of the ignition probability
depending on the logarithm of the current value, in inductive circuits.
Another concurrent factor influencing the sensitivity to ignition of underground atmospheres,
characterized by the presence of methane, is its humidity content.
On the other hand, the phenomenon of explosion propagation in areas characterized mainly
by one-dimensional development involves pre-compression phenomena and increase the
speed of propagation of the explosion wavefront and leads to events of very high gravity
that includes both casualties and material losses.
Additionally, an explosion causes in the underground damage to ventilation system that has
cascading consequences in terms of reducing the capacity of exhausting the methane
emissions and also decreasing the capacity of providing the required oxygen level to the
workers caught in the associated underground mine works [1].
Experimental study of the dependence of ignition sensitivity of methane explosive
atmospheres against humidity showed a slight linear relationship to the logarithm of the
number of rotations at which the ignition of the test mixture has occurred [3].

Brief presentation of experimental data

Experimentation was carried out using the test infrastructure for ignition by spark (spark test
apparatus). A chamber, that contains a transducer, has been additionally connected at the
air intake for measuring environmental parameters including humidity.
An 8,3% air-methane test mixture was used and having the relative humidity of the air at
the intake between 11 38% RH.
The electric parameters of the circuit in which the spark test apparatus has been connected
were Uo=24Vcc, L=121mH, Io=110111mA.
During the performance of the test the inlet air humidity varied according to the diagram in
Figure 1 and the value of the number of rotations at which the ignition occurred is shown in
the diagram in Figure 2.
The procedure for conducting the experiments included successively:
- conditioning of spark test apparatus according to B.1.3 in [5] at the beginning of the
test series then
- cycles of 15 tests conducted as follows:
o purging with air of the transducer chamber for a period of between 4 to 10
minutes;
o purging the chamber of the spark test apparatus and related gas ducts with
10 volumes of mixture;
o starting the spark test apparatus with specified electrical parameters;

239
 o recording the number of revolutions to which the ignition has occurred;
o reading the indicated value for the intake air humidity and recording, in an
identical manner, for all the tests in the cycle. The reason is to allocate the
time needed to stabilize the humidity value indication of the device.
For the first 140 tests the time needed to stabilize the instrument indication wasn't booked,
that is the reason why these were dropped-out (on the left of the line) - see Figure 1.
Although the conditioning of the cadmium disk was performed, on the first 60 tests an
anomaly was found in the distribution of the number of rotations values at which the ignition
had occurred. See Figure 2.

Figure 1. Variation of the intake air humidity

Figure 2. The number of rotations at which the ignition occurred

Distribution of values of the air relative humidity at the inlet and of the number of rotations
at which the ignition has occurred is shown in the diagrams in Figures 3 and 4.
After removing the first 140 tests from the initial set of experimental data the density
distribution diagram was built - Figure 5.

240
 Figure 3. The histogram of values of air relative humidity at intake

Figure 4. The histogram of the number of rotations at which the ignition has occurred

241
 Figure 5. Distribution of density for the number of rotations at which the ignition occured
and relative humidity of air at intake

Preliminary statistic test

The set of results was divided in two series, one with the air relative humidity at intake
smaller than 21 % RH and the other with higher relative humidities.
Application of the statistical test for the two series showed application of Student test for the
two series showed that the difference between the arithmetic mean of rotations for the two
sets is statistically significant - is between 5.75 26.40 (means 50.16729 and 66.24389
rotations) with a confidence level of 95%.

Theoretical model of transformation

In order to highlight the influence of the air relative humidity at the intake on the ignition
sensitivity for normalization of rotation values at which the ignition has occurred, the
function in equation (1) was proposed, based on the combination of logarithm function with
the CoxBox transformation.

(1)

In equation (1) the parameter is a coefficient and its value is determined by an

optimization process that reduces the value of the objective function proposed in equation
(2).

(2)

In equation (2) X represents the vector of rotations values at which the ignition has
occurred and represents the argument of the optimization function.
Following the application of the optimization process a value of 1.303125 for has resulted.
Then the function defined in equation (1) applied on the rotation vector values to which the
ignition has occurred.

242
The histogram of the converted values of rotations at which the ignition has occurred
together with the empirical density distribution curve and the theoretical density curve
(Gauss) are shown in the diagram in Figure (6).

Figure 6. The histogram of converted values of rotations at which the ignition has occurred

Figure 7. QQ diagram of values for rotations transformation to normal distribution (Gauss)

243
 Figure 7. Distribution density of the transformation of the rotations number at which the
ignition has occurred and the relative humidity of the air at the inlet

On the density diagram of experimental points the transformation of rotation versus the
relative humidity of air at intake the regression line was drawn whose slope is observed that
is slightly positive.
Application of Student statistical test for the slope value of the diagram of rotation
transformation depending on the air relative humidity at intake revealed that its value is in
the range 0.0004697686 0.04825771 with a confidence level of 95%. Also, the probability
for the slope to be zero or negative is 0.6%.
Further, boostraping has been applied for the regression slope value of random subsets of
values and distribution of slope values is shown in the diagram in Figure 8.

Figure 8. Histogram of regression line slope values

244
CONCLUSIONS
1) Preliminary analysis of data resulting from experiments showed that there is a
statistically significant difference between arithmetic mean of the number of
rotations at which the ignition occurred for relative humidities of air at intake below
21% and those over 21%.
2) Due to the asymmetric shape of the distribution of rotation values at which the
ignition of the test mixture occurred, the use of a transformation based on a
combined logarithm function and Box-Cox was proposed.
3) In order to determine the parameter of the chosen transformation an objective
function was proposed and used, which aims to reduce both asymmetry and excess
kurtosis.
4) For the data set obtained after applying the transformation the regression line was
determined and its slope was analyzed.
5) Following statistical analysis of the slope of the regression line resulted that this has
values greater than zero, with a probability of 99.4%.
6) Due to the large dispersion of values for the number of rotations at which the
ignition has occurred, this paper failed to identify a dependency relationship to
ignition sensitivity, but only established that the relative inlet air humidity
significantly influences the sensitivity to ignition of 8.3% air + methane mixtures.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This paper represents a summary of the researches regarding the determination of the
humidity influence of the air used in the test mixtures of 8.3% air + methane on the ignition
sensitivity. Preliminary tests and statistical analysis were performed in the national project
"Study of the test mixture humidity influence over the sensitivity of the spark test
apparatus" National Research Program no.45N / 31.01.2007-2015.

REFERENCES
[1] Cioclea Doru, Artur George Gman, Ion Gherghe, Florin Rdoi,Corneliu Boant, Vlad
Pasculescu, Possibilities to priorly establish the structures of ventilation networks affected by
underground explosions, The 24th International Mining Congress and Exhibition of Turkey,
14 17 April 2015, Antalya, Turcia, ISBN 978-605-01-0705-0, Pag. 991-997, 2015
[2] Darie M., Ionescu J., Burian S., Csaszar T., Moldovan L., (2012), Ignition probability
assessment of low current circuits designed for use in explosive atmospheres, Environmental
Engineering and Management Journal, volume 11/2012, No.5
[3] Darie M., Burian S., Ionescu J., Csaszar T., Moldovan L., Andri Adriana (2014), Air
Humidity a Significant Factor on Ignition Sensitivity of Gaseous Explosive Atmospheres,
Proceding of ELSEDIMA International Conference 18 19 September 2014, Cluj-Napoca,
Romania.
[4] Johansmeyer U., (1994), Investigations into the Intrinsic Safety of field bus systems,
PTB-Bericht.
[5] Standard IEC 60079-11: 2012 - Explosive atmospheres -- Part 11: Equipment
protection by intrinsic safety "i".

245
 IGNITION TIME IN COMPUTATIONAL SIMULATIONS OF
METHANE-AIR EXPLOSIONS
Nicolae-Ioan VLASIN1, Vlad Mihai PSCULESCU2, Marius UVAR 3, Eugen COZMA 4,
Maria PRODAN 5, Emilian GHICIOI6
1
INCD INSEMEX, Petrosani, Romania, [email protected]
2
INCD INSEMEX, Petrosani, Romania, [email protected]
3
INCD INSEMEX, Petrosani, Romania, [email protected]
4
University of Petrosani, Romania, [email protected]
5
INCD INSEMEX, Petrosani, Romania, [email protected]
6
INCD INSEMEX, Petrosani, Romania, [email protected]

ABSTRACT
This paper treats the first step of the methane-air combustion reactions, by computational
modelling of the preheating phenomena of the reaction compounds from the proximity of the
spark location. By means of the CFD tools provided by ANSYS FLUENT, the computational
simulations aimed to develop an ignition model of the air-methane mixture with incorporated
chemical kinetics, respectively the oxidation mechanism of the species produced during the
oxidation process of methane in presence of the oxygen. An optimized combustion mechanism
GRI-Mech 3.0 was used, mechanism with 53 species and 325 reactions, reduced to the import
capacity of FLUENT application. As final result, the time between the spark activation and fast
development of the combustion was monitored. These times are known as ignition time,
induction time or preheat time. Afterwards, the ignition time was verified by comparison with
physical experiments and results from the specialized literature.

KEYWORDS
ignition time, methane combustion, methane explosion, methane reactions

1 INTRODUCTION

Combustible mixtures may be ignited by electrical spark, by adiabatic compression, by heating

up to the ignition temperature, by chemical reaction which can generate local high
temperatures, by detonating substances, by contact with hot surfaces, by compression waves,
by catalytic surfaces etc.
Between the local heating of the combustible mixture up to the temperature required for
ignition and the beginning of the combustion passes a certain time period, namely the ignition
time. This time is considered to represent the period required for forming a concentration fo
radicals, enough for supporting a flame or for the propagation of an explosion [1].
Although the explosion may be seen as a singular event due to its extremely fast development,
the phenomenon may be divided into several actions which take place each time and which

246
have their own rules. The chained reactions which characterise an explosion type phenomenon
may be defined by three phases:
Initiation, during which are formed atoms or free radicals through the action of
initiators, of light or temperature;
Propagation, phase in which are formed products, as well as new atoms or free radicals
which can generate other propagation reactions;
Interruption, defined by reactions in which atoms or free radicals disappear, after the
consumption of reactants.
The initiation and interruption phases take place only once or few times during the process,
while propagation reactions take place repeatedly until the consumption of reactant elements.
In time, concerns for explaining the combustion phenomenon lead to the development of
mechanisms which to comprise oxidation reactions and the reduction of these mechanisms
down to the smallest possible number of reactions, in order to ease the calculation process (i.e.
Jones and Linstedt with a 4 step mechanism for methane oxidation).
One of the mechanisms which is frequently used nowadays for the computational modelling of
methane gas combustion is GRI-Mech 3.0, comprising 325 chemical reactions and 53 species
[2]. GRI-Mech 3.0 is provided by the Combustion Laboratory at the University of California at
Berkeley, Stanford University, The University of Texas at Austin, and SRI International.

2 REDUCING THE METHANES OXIDATION MECHANISM

It is useful to know that CFD tools are large consumers of hardware resources. Therefore, the
entire community which uses such applications tries to find manners for simplifying the models,
from the geometry up to the methods for reproducing fluid flow, for impact analysis etc.,
without influencing the final results.
This simplification is desired especially when integrating chemistry in virtual simulations,
because every chemical species added leads to an increase of the mechanisms number of
reactions.
Taking into account that each species participates in the simulation with 14 NASA polynomial
coefficients only for defining specific heat, enthalpy and entropy, and each reaction holds three
terms required for the Arrhenius equations used for calculating the reaction rate coefficient,
besides the other properties of the species and equations which define chemical and
thermodynamic mixing laws, the concerns for simplifying the computational chemical
mechanisms fully justify their importance.
In this regard, for reducing the GRI-Mech 3.0 mechanism there has been used in this work
Chemked, an application intended for thermodynamic data and chemical kinetics processing in
order to solve complex issues of gaseous phases.
The thermodynamic databases and chemical reaction can be generated by the application in
Chemkin format, a text file format and used as input data in Chemkin type subroutines or other
applications [3].
Based on the GRI-Mech 3.0 mechanism graph (Figure 1 [2]) there could be established the fact
that for a 0.0001 seconds value of air-methane ignition time corresponds a temperature of 1712
K (104/T = 5.84), this representing the first input data for the present case.
Starting from this, the GRI-Mech mechanism has been imported into Chemked, with 53 species
and 325 reactions, for the conditions of 2.04 atm. pressure, 1712 K temperature and = 1,
where is the equivalence ratio.

247
 Figure 1: Ignition time for GRI-Mech 3.0 mechanism

Based on these values and on the thermodynamic database of GRI-Mech mechanism, the
evolution of temperature in time has been drawn up using the Chemked solver.
Benefiting of the same thermodynamic database but by removing the argon which does not
participate in methane oxidation there has been developed a mechanism consisting of 42
reactions.
As in the case of the 325 reactions mechanisms, for the 42 reactions mechanisms has been
drawn up the temperature curve in time, in the same conditions for pressure (2.04 atm),
temperature (1712 K) and with the same equivalence ratio = 1. By comparison with the GRI-
Mech mechanism, Figure 2 a and b presented the two graphs for the temperature evolution.

a. b.
Figure 2: Temperature evolution related to GRI-Mech 3.0 (a) and to the 42 reactions
mechanisms (b)

It may be noticed that the difference between the two ignition periods is in the order of 10-6, an
irregularity which may be assumed considering the major reduction of the original mechanisms,
from 325 reactions to only 42 reactions, thus leading to the significant decrease of a virtual
models processing time. The 42 reactions representing the reduced mechanism are presented
in Table 1.

248
Table 1: Reactions comprised by the reduced mechanism

1. O + CH4 <=> OH + CH3

2. O2 + CO <=> O + CO2
3. O2 + CH2O <=> HO2 + HCO
4. H + O2 + N2 <=> HO2 + N2
5. H + O2 <=> O + OH
6. H + CH3 (+M) <=> CH4 (+M)
7. H + CH4 <=> CH3 + H2
8. H + CH2O (+M) <=> CH3O (+M)
9. H + CH2O <=> HCO + H2
10. OH + OH (+M) <=> H2O2 (+M)
11. OH + CH3 <=> CH2(S) + H2O
12. OH + CH4 <=> CH3 + H2O
13. OH + CO <=> H + CO2
14. OH + CH2O <=> HCO + H2O
15. OH + C2H6 <=> C2H5 + H2O
16. HO2 + CH3 <=> O2 + CH4
17. HO2 + CH3 <=> OH + CH3O
18. HO2 + CO <=> OH + CO2
19. HO2 + CH2O <=> HCO + H2O2
20. CH2 + O2 <=> OH + H + CO
21. CH2 + CH4 <=> CH3 + CH3
22. CH2(S) + N2 <=> CH2 + N2
23. CH2(S) + O2 <=> H + OH + CO
24. CH3 + O2 <=> O + CH3O
25. CH3 + O2 <=> OH + CH2O
26. CH3 + H2O2 <=> HO2 + CH4
27. CH3 + CH3 (+M) <=> C2H6 (+M)
28. CH3 + CH2O <=> HCO + CH4
29. CH3 + C2H6 <=> C2H5 + CH4
30. HCO + O2 <=> HO2 + CO
31. CH3O + O2 <=> HO2 + CH2O
32. C2H5 + O2 <=> HO2 + C2H4
33. N2O + O <=> N2 + O2
34. N2O + OH <=> N2 + HO2
35. N2O (+M) <=> N2 + O (+M)
36. NNH <=> N2 + H
37. NNH + M <=> N2 + H + M
38. NNH + O2 <=> HO2 + N2
39. NNH + CH3 <=> CH4 + N2
40. O + CH3 <=> H + H2 + CO
41. CH2 + O2 <=> H + CO2 + H
42. CH2 + O2 <=> O + CH2O

249
3 COMPUTATIONAL SIMULATION OF A METHANE-AIR EXPLOSIVE MIXTURE
IGNITION

In order to define the ignition time of the air-methane explosive mixture in case of using the 42
reactions mechanisms into a mathematical model, in ANSYS Fluent has been conducted a 2D
computational simulation, based on the primary input data of the two cases described before.
For reasons of the models simplification (once again simplification), the geometry consists in a
rectangle having 50x200 mm, its mesh having 10000 cells and 10251 nodes. The ignition
source has been placed on the left side wall, the right side wall being of outlet type. The other
sides are defined as wall type.

Figure 3: Virtual model geometry mesh

Input data have been the same as the ones used in Chemked, respectively 2.04 atm. pressure,
1712 K temperature and the equivalence ratio = 1. There has to be mentioned the fact that
there havent been brought changes on the reaction ration or specific heat, fact which could
have been performed by UDF (user defined functions), changing the evolution if temperature in
time. Also, the air-methane mixture has been defined as ideal gas, its specific heat calculation
being performed using the mixing law. Following the computational simulation, the graph in
Figure 4 has been obtained.

Figure 4: Temperature and time step size increase

250
From Figure 4 there can be noticed that the temperatures increase ratio starts to increase its
value from iteration 40, corresponding to a time of 0.00008 seconds, resulting e deviation of
only 0.02 ms from the ignition time of the 325 reactions mechanism.

4 CONCLUSIONS

Using Chemked for reducing chemical mechanisms of methane oxidation provides results
with an extremely low deviation from the original mechanisms, providing at the same
time the possibility for exporting in a format compatible with ANSYS Fluent. Although
Chemked is an open source application, it proved to be an extremely useful tool for CFD
analysts, leading to high-precission results.
The final error of the ignition time compared to the GRI-Mech 325 reactions
mechanisms, after conducting the computational simulation using the 42 reactions
mechanism is of the order of 10-5, extremely acceptable for most cases which require a
higher precission.
In the case of the 42 reactions mechanisms, time for performing the simulation was
16.8 seconds, while in case of using the 325 reactions mechanisms this time was of the
order of several hours.

5 REFERENCES

[1] Crloganu C.: Fast combustions in powders and gases, (in Romanian), Technical
Publishing House, Bucharest, Romania, 1986
[2] Gregory P. Smith, David M. Golden, Michael Frenklach, Nigel W. Moriarty, Boris
Eiteneer, Mikhail Goldenberg, C. Thomas Bowman, Ronald K. Hanson, Soonho Song,
William C. Gardiner, Jr., Vitali V. Lissianski, and Zhiwei Qin
http://www.me.berkeley.edu/gri_mech/
[3] http://www.chemked.com/;

251
 CONSIDERATIONS REGARDING THE CONSEQUENCES OF
SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION ON MINE VENTILATION
SYSTEMS
Roland Iosif Moraru1, Mihai Popescu Stelea2,
1
Faculty of Mines/Department of Mining, Surveying and Civil Engineering,
University of Petroani, Petroani, Romania, [email protected]
2
Faculty of Mines/Department of Mining, Surveying and Civil Engineering,
University of Petroani, Petroani, Romania, [email protected]

ABSTRACT
During the last years significant progresses were achieved regarding the diminishment of
spontaneous combustion assurance hazard in underground mines. However, several cases of
unprepared collieries for this kind of emergency situations are registered, mainly due to the
introduction of techniques and equipment which can develop unanticipated mine fires potential
risks. New materials in use can generate extremely toxic combustion products. In the present
paper, the authors are describing the effects induced by these on mine ventilation systems.

KEYWORDS
Mine ventilation, Spontaneous Combustion, Consequences

1. INTRODUCTION

One of the most threatening hazards for the underground active personnel consists in the so-
called Spontaneous Combustions. The fresh air supply is reduced and, consequently, mine
workings will be embedded with smoke and noxious gasses, both toxic and explosive. The
priority in these issues is related to the extinguishing, emergency and-not at the least-the
warning actions, major decisions being adopted in view of minimizing the ignition sources and
combustible materials in the affected subsurface area. When a fire occurs, a fast action is
essential.
On the other hand, in several mines the working faces are completely isolated and the
mounting of classical communication systems is very expensive. The usual warning systems, in
use both in Romania and abroad, are using air flows or compressed air networks to transport
chemically generated odors. Even if the disadvantages of the above-mentioned systems are
well known, especially for low values of air velocities, it is used on a large scale, while other
ones are not available and/65 efficient.
In the same time, the systematical control of mine workings in view of detection of mine fires
will remain the basic method for determining the ignition location of a mine fire, even if the
method claims a sustained effort, particularly in large collieries, where the inspectors are
submitted to serious hazards of indication with gasses, smoke and particulate, and often the
252
location of fire cannot be properly assessed because the inspector cannot physically go further
in an affected area.
The early detection of a spontaneous combustion can considerably increase the probability of
miners survival and, also, the decrease of the time lapse required to re-entry of personnel after
such a technical accident. The detection of a mine fire in early stages facilitates also the
evacuation of the workers from the underground, before smoke and noxious gasses can reach
dangerous levels or affects the visibility.

2. EFFECTS OF MINE FIRES ON VENTILATION SYSTEMS

The relationship between a mine ventilation network and a spontaneous combustion process
can be mainly approached by two ways:
a) Ventilation magnitude and air leakages, which are representing major causes of the self-
ignition process;
b) The existence of spontaneous combustions induces consistent alterations in the ventilation
system.
The most appropriate conditions for mine fires are generated by alternative increases and
decreases of air losses through the goaf or the reversal of their direction. The part of air
leakages can be explained by the quantitative changing of heat transferred in the rock massif
submitted to fracturing processes. This variation of air leakages corresponds to the start of the
self-heating process. The time lapse which separates this stage from the symptoms specific to a
fire varies from a few days to several months.
If compared with the total air quantity ventilating a mine, the air having fairly small values, but
anyway high enough to dissipate the resulting heat and to avoid the temperature increase until
the stage of self-heating.
It is obvious that the major cause of air leakages results from high aerodynamic resistances
specific to main return ways from the mine, inducing correspondently high values of pressure
losses. Over-dimensioned air flow leads, meanwhile, to pressure loss increases and-implicitly
to increased air losses through the goaf.
The main elements allowing the anticipation of an open fire consists in:
- air moisture content is increasing, perspiration of coal surfaces and presence of mist;
- aromatic hydrocarbons and sulphide dioxide smells;
- air, water and surrounding rock temperature increases.
- combustion products and smoke are appearing.
Open flame fires are inducing an air temperature increase.
The air expansion, as a consequence of the spontaneous heating, acts on the ventilation system
by two specific effects, namely;
the throttling effect, resulting from air expansion in both ways of the airway together with an
air quantity diminishment;
the natural draft effect, caused by heat conversion in mechanical energy, due to air density
decrease and heated air capacity increase.
The understanding of both effects improves the possibility of a rigorous design of mine
ventilation systems, determining also the adequate selection of mine fire suppression strategy.

253
2.1 The throttling effect

In view of determining the throttling effect magnitude, we will consider an airway before it will
be affected by the mine fire. In this case the air is flowing through the branch with a mass M
(Kg/s), achieving a frictional mechanical work F (J/Kg).
The energy loss induced by friction (P), and yielded to the surrounding environment of F and M,
namely:
P F M , W (1)
The occurrence of a mine fire has as consequence on the friction lass energy (P) a status
depending on natural ventilation pressure and alterations induced in the whole ventilation
network. If a deliberate action on these parameters its not carried out, it would be rational to
estimate that P can sensitively with the square of air quantity.
Consequently: h 2
(2)
F Rt Q , J/kg

where:
h frictional pressure loss, Pa;
- air density, Kg/m3;
Rt total aerodynamic resistance of the airway induced by turbulence, m-4
Q average value of air quantify, m3/s.
Combining the equations (1) and (2), it results:
P F M Rt Q2 M

or
3

P Rt M ,W (3)

2

considering that:
M
Q

Equation (3) can be rewritten as:
1

P 2
2
(4)
M

3

t
R
While P and Rt are representing constant values, if follows that;
M 2/3 (5)
where means proportional to
While the instantaneously presence of ,,heated air + gasses mixture diminishes the air density,
it comes that the fluid mass will decrease for the same energy loss value. This phenomena
produces the throttling effect.
Because M Q , equation (5) can be expressed as:

Q
1
, m 3 /s (6)
1

It can be observed from equation (1) that as the fluid mass M increases, the mechanical work
required to surpass friction, should increase for every Kilogram of air and, implicitly the air
quantity and turbulence should follow the same trend.

254
The throttling effect can be assumed as an artificial increase of the airways resistance. For
standard air density, the value of this ,,false resistance, Rt, can be estimated as a function of
temperature . From equation (3) it comes that:
2
Rt P 3
, m 4
M
So, for any fixed (standard) value of air density and constant energy consumption, the value of
Rt can be obtained by the following equation:
1
R /t
M3
From equation (5) it results that M 2/3 (representing the fluid mass diminishment at the
considered time), by substitution it will be obtained:
Rt11/2
For simplification purposes, substituting the density from the law of ideal gases low, it results:
1

T
where:
T absolute temperature, Kelvin.
and:
1
R /t
T2
The value of Rt is proportional to the square of absolute temperature. This increase can be
estimated through the content of carbon dioxide released by combustion.

2.2 The buoyancy natural draft effect The buoyancy natural draft effect

The direct effect exerted by the fire-generated heat an air flows is strictly local. A decreased
density determines the elevation and displacement of air and combustion products mixture
along the mine workings roof. This leads to generation of a smoke and hot gasses layer along
the roof, which in a descending working will turn off in a counter current against the main
direction of airflow, developing problems in the areas located upstream from fires hotbed.
This roll-back effect is hardly observable in the condition of smoke and mist presence. Anyway,
even if high carbon monoxide and other noxious gasses concentrations are registered, they
have no time-lasting persistence.
The basic method applied to suppress the roll-back effect is a gradual increase of air quantity in
the ventilated mine working. This technique must be very carefully employed, because
sometimes it can lead to a higher than acceptable fire spreading velocity.

CONCLUSIONS

Hard coal exploitation in Valea Jiului basin is conducted in difficult mining and geological
conditions, causing numerous hazards relating to the health and safety of underground
personnel. To the most serious mining hazards belong underground fires and firedamp
explosions, which far too many times were the reason of mining catastrophes. However, in
spite of many achievements of science and technology in this field, fires and explosions still
occur, creating a potential hazard for miners and contributing to the generation of considerable
costs of fire-fighting and rescue actions, temporary output suspension or loss of longwalls. As
coal gets hotter, oxidation reactions become more efficient meaning more products produced

255
for less oxygen consumed. Detailed observations were carried out, in time, regarding the
spontaneous combustions, and lots of data were gathered and interpreted on the subject.
Despite all the improvements achieved in prevention of mine fires, it can be stated that there is
not, at the time, available a model dedicated to the quantification of complex interactions
between mine fires and underground ventilation systems. New software, allowing computer
simulation of the process, will be a valuable tool for all those concerned by mine safety and
health.

3. REFERENCES

Cioca, LI., Moraru, RI, Explosion and/or Fire Risk Assessment Methodology: A
[1] Common Approach Structured for Underground Coalmine Environments, Archives of
Mining Sciences Vol. 57 Issue 1 (2012) pp. 53-60
Cliff, D., Rowlands, D., Sleeman, J., Spontaneous Combustion in Australian Coal
[2]
Mines, 113 p (Simtars:Redbank), 1996
Mc Pherson, M. J. Subsurface Ventilation and Environmental Engineering, London,
[3]
U.K., 1992.
Moraru, R.I, Bbu,G.B., Cioca I.L., Adressing the Human Error Assessment and
[4]
Management,Archives of Mining Sciences, Vol. 55 issue 4 (2010), pp. 873-878,
Moraru, R.I., Bbu, G.B., Cioca, L.I., Rationale and Criteria Development for Risk
[5] Assessment Tool Selection in Work Environments, Environmental Engineering and
Management Journal, Vol. 13, No. 6 (2014), pp. 1371 1376
Shojafar, Mohammad, et al. "FUGE: A joint meta-heuristic approach to cloud job
[6] scheduling algorithm using fuzzy theory and a genetic method." Cluster Computing
(2015): 1-16.
Shojafar, Mohammad, et al. "Improving Channel Assignment in Multi-Radio Wireless
[7] Mesh Networks with Learning Automata." Wireless Personal Communications (2014):
1-20.
Todera, M., Moraru, R.I, Mine Pressure and Rock Displacement Temporal Variation
Analysis for Jiu Valley Directional Drifts in the Context of "N" Stability Criterion/
[8] Analiza cinie i chwilowych przemieszcze ska w badaniach kierunkowych wyrobisk
w kopalniach w dolinie jiu z uwzgldnieniem kryterium stabilnoci n, Archives of
Mining Sciences (Arch. Min. Sci.), Vol. 59 (2014), No 2, p. 347358

256
 USE OF CIVIL EXPLOSIVES IN THE FIELD OF OIL
EXTRACTION
Edward GHEORGHIOSU 1, Artur George GMAN 2, Emilian GHICIOI 3, Attila
KOVACS4, Gabriel VASILESCU 5, Marin DOROBANU 6
1
INCD INSEMEX, Petroani, Romania, [email protected]
2
INCD INSEMEX, Petroani, Romania, [email protected]
3
INCD INSEMEX, Petroani, Romania, [email protected]
4
INCD INSEMEX, Petroani, Romania, [email protected]
5
INCD INSEMEX, Petroani, Romania, [email protected]
6
WEATHERFORD ATLASGIP Ploieti, Romania, [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Due to the characteristics they have, explosives for civil are used in various fields of national
economy, for various technical purposes.
One of the most important domains where Romania has a long tradition and remarkable
achievements significant the use of explosives and where is the oil.
The energy developed by detonating them in boreholes at established depths produce opening
oil fields, important step in exploiting these mineral resources.
For this operation are developed blasting techniques, including special charges and charges of
explosives called perforation, assembled in different configurations for the achievement a
system that allows producing oil releasing holes.
The charges must meet certain essential safety and performance requirements, for specific
characteristic working conditions.

KEYWORDS

Explosives for civil uses, shaped charge, blasting techniques, safety requirements, performance
requirements.

1. INTRODUCTION

To open the oil layers are developed specific blasting techniques in which are used explosives
for civil use.
Explosives for civil uses are placed in special metal constructions which must meet certain
security requirements.
Such special explosive construction are considered also shaped charges 1 11/16" and shaped
charges 2 1/8".

1
257
 1.1. In order to be used under pressure

Shaped charge 1 11/16" (fig.1), respectively shaped charge 2 1/8" (fig.2), are made up of
housings, made of alloy AE/OL/Zn 12, inside which is compressed on a metal cone from powder
mixture copper and tungsten (2), explosive hexogen phlegmatized (4) and non phlegmatized
(3).

Fig.1 - Shaped charge 1 11/16 Fig.2 - Shaped charge 2 1/8

The housing is composed of housing body (1), provided with a ring, through it passes the
detonation cord which initiates the explosive charge from the inside, the housing cover (5), the
two are assembled with a retaining ring (7) and a o-ring (6), both made of rubber.
Shaped charge 1 11/16" is component part of the drill 1 11/16 respectively shaped charge 2
1/8" is component part of the drill 2 1/8, both of them are used in drilling activities in oil
industries for layers opening.
Layout loads along the length of drills are carried out in one, two or four generators.
The initiation of the perforation charges is made by detonation cord with a minimum explosive
charge of 16 g / ml, which must meet specific security requirements conditions of use imposed
by the geophysical blasting operations.

Technical characteristics of the Shaped charge 1 11/16" . (Fig.3).

2
258
 Fig.3. Shaped charge 1 11/16

Explosive charge: - Hexogen non phlegmatized 1,5-2 g;

- Hexogen phlegmatized 11,5-12 g.
The outside diameter of the housing: max. 39,624 mm;
Length of the housing: 42,164 mm;
Weight load: 136 g;
Maximum working pressure: 600 bar;
The maximum working temperature: 1200C.
Performance characteristics:
The hole diameter at the entry into steel target: 8-14 mm;
Depth perforated in steel target: min. 45 mm.
Technical characteristics of the Shaped charge 2 1/8" (Fig.4):

Fig.4. Shaped charge 1 11/16

Explosive charge: - Hexogen non phlegmatized 1,5-2 g;

- Hexogen phlegmatized 13,5-14 g.
The outside diameter of the housing: max. 45,212 mm;
Length of the housing: 53,848 mm;
Weight load: 226,8 g;
Maximum working pressure: 800 bar;
The maximum working temperature: 1200C.
Performance characteristics:
The hole diameter at the entry into steel target: 7-12 mm;
Depth perforated in steel target: min. 63 mm.
For rational exploitation of resources, blasting works carried out in borehole to open oil layers,
using explosive construction which presents a high degree of reliability.
The verifications of performance parameters of these explosive charges is mainly done by
conditioning them to temperature and pressure for a certain period of time.
The conditioning is carried out with special equipment that is capable of reproducing the
conditions under which they must operate.
In the following are presented the results of research conducted in order to verify the influence
of pressure and temperature on the performance parameters specified.
To check the influence of pressure, shaped charges were individually weighed, they were
placed in a special stand (fig.5) in which was made a pressure of 600 bar for Shaped charge 1
3
259
11/16" ", respectively 800 bar for Shaped charge 2 1/8" ", maintained at this pressure for 1
minute.

Fig.5. Stand for pressure conditioning

After removing from stand, charges were individual reweighed to ascertain any differences
between the masses, situation that would highlight a major non-conformity of products.
To check shaped parameters, after maintaining the charge, at hydrostatic pressure were taken
three shaped charges/product type, which were detonated individual with detonating cord
initiated with electric detonator (fig.6) measuring the amount of penetration, hole diameter and
the amount of fragmentation.
The tests were carried out on a steel block OLC45.
Results of tests for resistance to hydrostatic pressure Shaped charge 1 11/16" respectively
Shaped charge 2 1/8" are shown in Table 1.

Table 1

Weight of the charges

Type of Pressure Functional parameters
No. (g)
shaped applied Penetration Diameter Value
Crt. Before the After the
charge (bar) value hole fragmentatio
test test (mm) (mm) n (mm)
1. 140,80 141,01
2. 140,89 141,10
3. 140,31 140,50 57,33 8,84 13,59
4. 140,75 140,94
5. 140,46 140,65
6. 140,90 141,07
7. 141,22 141,43
8. 1 11/16" 600 141,33 141,41 55,23 8,65 11,31
9. 140,51 140,70
10. 140,69 140,86
11. 140,35 140,52
12. 140,71 140,80
13. 140,13 140,24 55,39 8,43 9,19
14. 140,41 140,51
15. 141,02 141,14
16. 234,08 234,25
17. 232,22 232,43 92,32 9,35 14,97
18. 232,7 232,98
4
260
 Weight of the charges
Type of Pressure Functional parameters
No. (g)
shaped applied Penetration Diameter Value
Crt. Before the After the
charge (bar) value hole fragmentatio
test test (mm) (mm) n (mm)
19. 231,37 231,59
20. 2 1/8" 800 234,08 234,29
21. 231,76 231,99
22. 233,10 233,28
23. 233,14 233,34 89,13 9,03 22,86
24. 232,94 233,18
25. 232,36 232,58
26. 232,60 232,88
27. 231,9 232,23
28. 232,94 233,17 91,82 9,86 13,31
29. 232,25 232,37
30. 231,25 231,46

To check the influence of the temperature on the operating parameters shaped charges
(3 buc./product type), were kept in an oven at a temperature of 1250C for 1 hour, which were
detonated individual with detonating cord initiated with electric detonator (fig.6) measuring the
amount of penetration, hole diameter and the amount of fragmentation.

Fig.6
The tests were carried out on a steel block OLC45.
Test results on determining the safety and reliability at extreme temperatures are shown
in Table 2.

Table 2

Type of Penetration Fragmenta- Results:

Diameter hole
shaped value tion value DC =detonates complete
(mm)
charge (mm) (mm) ND = no detonation
59,44 9,78 10,56 DC
1 11/16" 57,75 9,54 10,08 DC
54,27 8,66 10,10 DC
88,84 9,80 18,25 DC
2 1/8" 89,70 8,16 15,51 DC
94,52 9,78 17,39 DC

5
261
2. CONCLUSIONS:

The very small differences in masses, determined after the weighing the perforation charges
before and after being maintained under pressure, does not indicate a non-compliance on the
tightness of carcasses.
The values of results obtained in the tests carried out after maintaining at pressure and
temperature, are within the ranges specified.
Research shows that pressure and temperature to which were conditioned did not influence the
functionality and performance parameters which have to meet shaped charges to be used for
the purpose for which they were made.

3. REFERENCES

[1] Product specification - Shaped charge 1 11/16" SP-51/20.09.2012, Revision 1.

[2] Product specification - PShaped charge 2 1/8" SP-52/20.09.2012, Revision 1.
[3] EN 13631-7:2003 - Explosives for civil uses - High explosives - Part 7: Determination
of safety and reliability at extreme temperatures.
[4] Operational Procedure PO-PRP 05.02. Manufacturing and control technology charges 1
11/16" and 2 1/8" - Revision 5.
[5] Test report LETI - E - no.005/25.09.2013;
[6] Test report LETI - E - no. 67/25.09.2013;
[7] Test report LETI - E - no. 006/25.09.2013;
[8] Test report LETI - E - no. 68/25.09.2013;

6
262
 ASPECTS RELATED DRILLING THE RESERVOIRS
SECTIONS WITH WITH ENVIRONMENTAL DRILLING
FLUID
prof. PhD. Eng.Lazr AVRAM1, Sr.Eng. Aurelian GANEA2, Eng. Dan ARON3
1
Petroleum - Gas University of Ploiesti, Drilling, Extraction and Transport of Hydrocarbons Department,
No. 39 Blvd. Bucharest, 100 680, Ploiesti, Romania
2
Schlumberger Norge AS
3
TM Drill Trgu Mure

ABSTRACT
Maximizing productivity of the well is the key objective in designing the optimally drilling fluid
for crossing productive layers. The first mechanism to minimize the invasion of solids particles
or higher aqueous phase in productive reservoirs layers involves creating a thin, waterproof,
mud cake. This small and thin mud cake will not affect the production rate of the well and will
not interfere with well completion operations. The paper aims to present some specific design
aspects of drilling fluids used for drilling and crossing productive reservoirs, as certain criteria
for selection of the systems in accordance with the nature of productive layers.

KEYWORDS
productive layers, environmental drilling fluids, layers crossing

1. INTRODUCTION

Continuarea interesului n dezvoltarea i exploatarea unor noi perimetre productive, la adncimi

din ce n ce mai mari i temperaturi ridicate, creterea regulilor impuse din punct de vederea al
mediului nconjurtor privind eliminarea detritusului i a performanelor limitate a fluidelor de
foraj pe baz de ap n zone greu accesibile, a stat la baza dezvoltrii unor sisteme de fluide de
foraj cu o performan ridicat i a mbuntirii lor continue pe baza datelor din antier.
Lucrarea actual i propune s actualizeze i s contribuie prin aducerea de noi date, la
elaborarea unui fluid de foraj performant i adaptat continuu la cerinele sondelor.
Fluidele de foraj existente pe baz de ap au uneori performane limitate comparativ cu fluidele
de foraj pe baza de produse petroliere sau sintetice. Performane legate de:
- inhibiie;
- rata de avansare;
- condiionarea fluidului de foraj.
Sistemul de fluid de foraj ultrainhibitiv cu proprieti superioare de inhibiie a argilelor, nu doar
mbuntete forajul seciunilor superioare, dar de asemenea are aplicaii n ntreaga operaie
de spare a sondei la adncimi mari i temperaturi ridicate. Fluid de foraj ecolologic mbuntit
reprezint un plus n tehnologia sistemelor pe baza de ap comparativ cu aplicaiile fluidelor de

263
foraj prezente, permind sistemului de fluid de foraj ecologic mbuntit, s fie compartiv cu
sistemele pe baza de produse petroliere i/sau sintetice.
Sistemul de fluid de foraj ecologic mbuntit este foarte inhibitiv, elaborat i gndit pentru a
asigura o stabilitate superioar i o capacitatea de forabilitatea a formaiunilor de argile reactive
i dispersabile. Sistemul propus poate ajuta ntr-un mod semnificativ i la traversarea cu foarte
bune rezultate a formaiunilor productive ce prezint un interes maxim. Fluidul de foraj ecologic
mbuntit este proiectat s asigure:
- o inhibiie maxim a argilelor;
- o stabilitate maxim a gurii de sond;
- o acumulare de particule de roc dislocate, aproape de zero pe ansamblul garniturii de
foraj i pe racordurile prajiniilor de foraj;
- meninerea uoar a proprietiilor fluidului de foraj;
- flexibilitate n densitatea cu care se lucreaz ;
- flexibilitate n alegerea sursei de ioni ( potasiu, sodiu );
- aplicabilitate n diferite zone sensibile din punct de vedere al reglemenatrilor cu privire la
mediu.

2. PRODUI COMPONENI AI FLUIDULUI DE FORAJ ECOLOGIC

MBUNTIT

Inhibitorul principal al argilelor (figura 1) n sistemul propus de fluid de foraj ecologic

mbuntit este o poliamida, urmat de un polimer cationic acrilamida mpreun cu un glicol
polialcalin, ce asigur inhibiia secundar a argilelor i stabilitatea de ncapsulare a detritusului.

Figure 1: Inhibitorul principal al fluid de foraj ecologic mbuntit

Inhibiia secundar a argilelor traversate poate fi obinut prin cationi de substituie cu

formaiunea de argile, prin utilizarea ionilor de potasiu i / sau sodiu n formularea sistemului de
fluide de foraj. Sistemul va conine deasemenea un produs care va preveni antiacumularea
detritusului, va ajuta la creterea ratei de avansare i va ajuta la micorarea gradului de frecare.
Fluid de foraj ecologic mbuntit, are multiple mecanisme de inhibiie, asigurate de inhibitorii
primari i secundari ai argilelor.
Primul component este o poliamida, un aditiv lichid ce acioneaz ca un reintor la hidratarea
argilelor, prin intercalarea i reducerea spaiului dintre stratele de argil astfel moleculele de
ap nu vor putea penetra i cauza umflarea argilelor. Concentraia recomandat este: 1.5 % -
3% v/v, funcie de reactivitatea argilelor traversate. Acest produs asigur i alcalinitatea
sistemului eliminnd orice aditie de NaOH sau KOH [2, 3].

264
3. INHIBITORI SECUNDARI AI FLUIDULUI DE FORAJ ECOLOGIC
MBUNTIT

Al doilea component al sistemului este un polimer cationic acrilamida (figura 2), responsabil
pentru ncapsularea i stabilizarea argilei. Concentraia n sistem este de 3-6 kg/m3 asigurnd o
cptuire protectiv de polimer ce i confer o integritatea bun rocii dislocate i previne lipirea
pe site sau a particulelor de roc ntre ele.

Figure 2: Polimer cationic acrilamida

Componentul al treilea este un poliglicol ce asigur un grad foarte mare de inhibiie al argilelor
mpreun cu componenii mai sus mentionai, stabilitatea pereilor gurii de sond, reducerea
filtratului n condiii de temperatur i presiune ridicate, precum i lubricitatea. Concentraia n
sistem este de 1- 2%. Este de asemenea foarte potrivit pentru forarea formaiunilor nisipoase
depletate, unde exist pericolul lipirilor difereniale, la sondele n ape adnci i la sondele
puternic deviate sau orizontale ce traverseaz argile foarte reactive.

4. AGENI DE CONTROL AI FILTRRII

Produsul PAC (celuloz polianionic) este de o calitate superioar fiind un polimer solubil n ap
pentru controlul fitrrii, cauznd doar o mic cretere n vscozitatea fluidelor de foraj. Produsul
celuloz polianionic, este foarte eficient n controlarea filtratului n fluide cu coninut de sruri (
ap de mare, NaCl, KCl ). n aplicaii unde curirea gurii de sond este o grij esenial
(sonde de tip: ERD, sonde orizontale), produsul celuloz polianionic mpreun cu un derivat de
amidon dezvolt bune proprietii de control al filtrrii i mbuntete profilul reologic
perminnd o vscozitatea mare la viteze de forfecare mici ( LSRV mai mare ) pentru o anumit
valoare a YP-ului ( tensiunii dinamice de forfecare ). O concetraie ntre 8 14 kg/m3 de PAC
va asigura un filtrat al sistemului de: 4 ml/30 min. Temperaturile mari ntlnite datorit forajului
la adncimi din ce n ce mai mari, presupune optimizarea fluidului de foraj ecologic mbuntit
cu stabilizatori de temperatur i polimeri sintetici pentru prevenirea degradrii produilor
utilizai i eliminarea riscului de creare a altor contaminri.

5. PRODUI DE NVCOARE AI FLUIDULUI DE FORAJ ECOLOGIC

MBUNTIT

Profilul reologic optim a sistemului este obinut prin utilizarea biopolimerilor de gum xanthanic
(figura 3), folosind concentraii ncepnd de la 0.5 -3.5 kg/m3, depinznd de diametrul gurii de
sond i profilul sondei. Fluidul de foraj ecologic mbuntit va dezvolta o reologie stabil ntr-
un domeniu larg de temperatur. ncepnd de la 15C pn la 200C, formularea sistemului i
265
menine capacitatea excelent de suspensie i curire a gurii de sond. Rezultnd c sistemul
este potrivit pentru sonde adnci i cu temperaturi ridicate [2,3].

Figure 3: Biopolymer xanthan gum de grad superior

6. AGENI DE MICORARE A COEFICIENTULUI DE FRECARE

Produsul PAC (celuloz polianionic) este de o calitate superioar fiind un polimer solubil n ap
pentru controlul fitrrii, cauznd doar o mic cretere n vscozitatea fluidelor de foraj. Produsul
celuloz polianionic, este foarte eficient n controlarea filtratului n fluide cu coninut de sruri (
ap de mare, NaCl, KCl ). n aplicaii unde curirea gurii de sond este o grij esenial
(sonde de tip: ERD, sonde orizontale), produsul celuloz polianionic mpreun cu un derivat de
amidon dezvolt bune proprietii de control al filtrrii i mbuntete profilul reologic
perminnd o vscozitatea mare la viteze de forfecare mici ( LSRV mai mare ) pentru o anumit
valoare a YP-ului ( tensiunii dinamice de forfecare ). O concetraie ntre 8 14 kg/m3 de PAC
va asigura un filtrat al sistemului de: 4 ml/30 min. Temperaturile mari ntlnite datorit forajului
la adncimi din ce n ce mai mari, presupune optimizarea fluidului de foraj ecologic mbuntit
cu stabilizatori de temperatur i polimeri sintetici pentru prevenirea degradrii produilor
utilizai i eliminarea riscului de creare a altor contaminri.

7. AGENI DE MICORARE A COEFICIENTULUI DE FRECARE

Primul produs este un amestec de surfactani ce va minimiza efectul de acumulare a

detritusului, de aderen a argilelor dislocate la suprafaa metalului (BHA-ului i/sau sap) de
asemenea va asigura lubricitate sistemului mpreun cu cel de-al doilea component care este un
ulei mineral. Concentraia optim va fi de 1-1.5 % vol/vol pentru primul component iar pentru
cel de-al doilea de 0.5-15 v/v, depinznd de greutatea specific a fluidului i de coninutul de
solide.

Figure 4: Ageni de lubrificare a sistemului

266
Pregtirea fluidului de foraj ecologic mbuntit este prezentat n tabelul 1.
Table 1: Concentraii uzuale i funciile produilor

Material Funcia Concentratia

Recomndat
Ap dulce Fluid de baz
Sod Calcinat Control duritate 0.5-1.5 kg/m3
Clorur de potasiu Inhibiie 95-100 kg/m3
Poliamin Inhibitor argil 1.5 3.0% (v/v)
Acrilamid polimer ncapsulare argil 3-6 kg/m3
Polimer celulozic Control filtrare 8-14 kg/m3
Poliglicol ncapsulare argil/Inhibiie 2-3 % v/v
Amidon modificat Control filtrare 2-4 kg/m3
Biopolymer xanthan gum Control reologie/LSRV 0.5 3.5 kg/m3
de grad superior
Mix Surfactant Anti-acumulare/ Lubricant 1.0 1.5% (v/v)
Ulei sintetic biodegradabil Lubricant 0.5-1.0 % (v/v)
Micro Barit Control densitate n funcie de
densitate
Materiale polimerice Stabilizator temperatur/ 6-10 kg/m3
alcaline Reducerea degradrii
PTS 200 ( MI ) polimerilor
Micro carbonat de calciu Control densitate /Podire n funcie de proiect

Fluid de foraj ecologic mbuntit va putea fi preparat cu o varietatea de saramuri i

deasemenea cu un domeniu larg n alegerea i utilizarea densitilor. Tabelul 2 dezvolt
proprietile fluidului de foraj ecologic mbuntit ntr-un domeniu minim - maxim pentru o
concentraie de: 9-10 % KCl a sistemului propus spre analiz [2, 3].

Proprietati Valoare Proprietati Valoare

Densitatea, SG 1.50 1.75 HTHP Filtrat, cc/30min <3.0
Vascozitatea Funnel, 55 80 MBT, kg/m3 < 42
sec/litru
R3/R6 3-5 / 5-7 pH 9.0-9.5
PV, cP < 42 Pm 3.0 - 6.0
YP, lb/100 ft2 5 15 Pf/Mf 2.5-4.5 / 3.0-
6.0
Gels, 10s/10m, 3-5 / 8-10 Chlorides, mg/L >90 000
lb/100ft2
Hardness (Ca++) 250 450

8. PREPARAREA I CONDIIONAREA FLUID DE FORAJ ECOLOGIC MBUNTIT

Unul din avantajele principale ale sistemului propus este simplitatea procesului de mixare.
Produi pot fi adaugai relativ repede, i de fapt exist i produi care sunt sub form lichid,
ceea ce salveaz i mai mult timp n procesul de preparare.
Posibilitatea de forfecare optim a fluidului de foraj a demonstrat c o unitate de forfecare cum
este un mixer puternic este benefic, astfel polimeri vor avea o hidratre mult mai bun i fluidul
de foraj va obine o performan maxim. Abilitatea sitelor de a prelua debitul de lucru este
mbuntit i de proprietile reologice ale fluidului. n Tabelul 3, este exemplificat modul de
preparare a unei probe de fluid la densitatea de 1.56 SG (350 ml echivalent 1 bbl de laborator).

267
Tabelul 3 Exemplul modului de pregtire a fluidului de foraj ecologic mbuntit, avnd
densitatea de: 1.56 SG respectiv 13.0 ppg.
Ordinea recomandat de mixare
Observatii
( pentru a obine o proba de 350 ml )
1. Adaugarea de ap testat, curat n paharul metalic de laborator (v350 ml). Soda
Se poate dezvolata o
Ash dac este cazul
uoar spumare. Se
2. Adaugare KCl pentru amestec cu apa, urmat de mixare trateaz cu
3.Poliamina antispumant
4. Adaugare ACRILAMIDA POLYMER prin mixerul Hamilton B
5. Adugare PAC
6.Poliglicol
6. Adaugare XANTHAN GUM DE GRAD SUPERIOR
7. Mixare Surfactant& Lubricant .
8. Stabilizator de temperatur
Timpul de forfecare a
9. Ingreunarea fluidului la densitatea de 1.56 SG adugnd micro barita lichid
produilor depinde de
debitul maxim prin
10. Mixat pn la 30 - 45 min noul fluid de foraj preparat prin mixerul Hamilton B
mixerul de preparare .

9. PERFORMANA FLUIDULUI DE FORAJ ECOLOGIC MBUNTIT CU POLIGLICOLI

Fluid de foraj ecologic mbuntit este un fluid pe baz de polimeri mbuntit (prezentat n
figura 5), care folosete tehnologia poliglicolilor pentru a realiza un grad foarte mare de inhibiie
a argilelor, stabilitatea pereilor gurii de sond, reducerea filtratului n condiii de temperatur
i presiune ridicate, precum i lubricitate.

Figura 5: Fluid pe baz de polimeri mbuntit

Este de asemenea foarte potrivit pentru forarea formaiunilor nisipoase depletate, unde exist
pericolul lipirilor difereniale, la sondele n ape adnci i la sondele puternic deviate sau
orizontale ce traverseaz argile foarte reactive.
Sistemul asigur un detritus mult mai ferm i mai bine conturat, o turta de colmataj mai subire
i mai rezistent, reducerea ratelor de diluie zilnice, toleran mbuntit pentru solide,
mbuntirea performanelor sapelor PDC, reducerea efectelor de manonare a ansamblului de
fund precum i cresterea vitezei de avansare. n plus, acest sistem nu afecteaz mediul
nconjurtor, datorit toxicitii lui foarte mici. Sistemul de fluid de foraj ecologic mbuntit are
un plus de inhibiie asigurat de inhibitorul al treilea prin dou mecanisme: prin adsorbie
chimic i prin formarea unei microemulsii.
Adsorbia poliglicolilor pe suprafeele argilelor duce la formarea unei bariere protectoare
mpotriva apei i a efectelor ei nedorite. Cel de-al doilea mecanism apare la atingerea unei
anumite temperaturi ("Cloud Point") la care poliglicolii devin insolubili din total solubili, formnd
picaturi coloidale sau micele (tulburare).
La temperaturi peste acest punct, picturile coloidale sau micelele duc la apariia unei
microemulsii. Aceast microemulsie furnizeaz stabilitatea gurii de sond prin podirea
microfisurilor i microporozitilor i prin formarea unei turte de colmataj mai subtire i mai
putin permeabil. Sistemul de fluid de foraj ecologic mbuntit se formuleaz cu saliniti
diferite, n scopul reglrii temperaturii de formare a microemulsiei i a creterii caracterului
inhibitiv.

268
Principalele aspecte care trebuie avute n vedere pentru meninerea corespunztoare a
sistemului sunt:
- meninerea concentraiei de inhibitori n sistem la un nivelul corespunzator;
- meninerea concentraiei de KCl n domeniul proiectat;
- pstrarea concentraiei de solide reactive la un nivel ct mai mic;
- valorile de MBT nu trebuie s depaseasca 42 kg/m3 ;
- utiliziarea de micro barit sub forma de barit lichid ;
- podirea se va realiza cu micro carbonat de calciu ;
O atenie deosebit trebuie acordat gradului de curire a fluidului de foraj, meninerea valorii
concentraiei de solide n domeniul proiectat reprezentnd o condiie esenial a pstrrii
valorilor reologice proiectate. Contaminarea cu solide provenite din detritusul de foraj duce la
creterea de clorur de potasiu, precum i la reducerea capacitii de inhibare a fluidului de
foraj. Pentru meninerea concentraiei de solide la un nivel ct mai mic se recomand echiparea
sitelor cu plase ct mai fine posibil i chiar utilizarea unui sistem de separare centrifugal. n
cazul acestui fluid devine i mai acut necesitatea folosirii centrifugilor n vederea micorrii
ratei de diluie.
Tratamentele zilnice se vor face cu pre-mix n care concentraiile de inhibitori i clorura de
potasiu s fie puin mai mari, pentru a compensa consumul lor n timpul forajului. Creterea
parametrilor reologici se poate face adugnd biopolymer xanthan gum de grad superior, iar
reducerea lor prin adugarea de pre-mix i folosirea cu eficien maxim a tuturor
echipamentelor de curare mecanic a solidelor. De asemenea, pentru a se evita creterea
valorilor de vscozitate plastic i yield point, coninutul de solide uoare nu trebuie s
depeasc 6 %. Doi parametri reologici foarte importani sunt zero-gel i gelatia la 10
secunde, acetia ajutnd foarte mult la suspensia i transportul detritusului la viteze foarte mici
de forfecare. Creterea gelaiei la 10 minute reprezint o indicaie a ncorporrii de solide
ultrafine n sistem. Pentru reducerea lor se recomand nlocuirea unei pari din fluid cu fluid
proaspt.
Inhibiia sistemului trebuie controlat n permanen astfel nct aceasta sa nu scad n timpul
forajului ( n special la viteze mari de avansare ). Un detritus bine conturat i uscat n interior
constituie un indicator al bunei inhibiii [3].

10. CURIREA GURII DE SOND CU FLUIDULUI DE FORAJ ECOLOGIC

MBUNTIT

Utilizarea unor programe de hidraulic (figura 6) naintea nceperii fiecrui interval va permite
optimizarea parametrilor i a regimului de lucru la forarea intervalului respectiv. Reologia i
valorile Low Shear Rate Viscosity trebuie ajustate n concordan cu condiiile impuse prin
utilizare produilor de biopolymer xanthan gum de grad superior. Detritusul generat trebuie
circulat deasupra ansamblului de fund naintea unei noi conexiuni.

Figura 6. Imagine din timpul forajului (simulare )

De asemenea manevrarea fiecarei bucai trebuie luat n considerare. Acestea vor minimiza
potenialul de cdere a detritusului n timpul conexiunii, evitnd fenomenul de packing off sau
de prindere a sapei. naintea marurilor ce se vor efectua se va circula cel putin 1 ori timpul
bottom up, astfel se va preveni fenomenul de gaur strns i a podirilor. Datorit
caracterului foarte inhibitiv a sistemului analizat i mbuntait, acest fluid de foraj ecologic va
269
genera un detritus mai mare decat a sistemelor uzuale pe baza ap. Acest fapt se va putea
constata dac se va utiliza:
- reologia recomdat;
- debitul optim;
- rotaia optim a garniturii de foraj;
- viteze mai mari n spatial inelar i citiri optime ale valorilor 6 i 3 rpm acestea fiind
necesare pentru transportul detritusului la suprafa.
Utilizarea programelor de hidraulic i a recomadrilor urmtoare vor influena semnificativ
procesul de foraj:
- alegera sapei de foraj este foarte important.
- rata de avansare ( ROP ) cu sistemul propus atinge valori ale performanei
sistemelor pe baz de produse sintetice;
Creterea reologiei excesiv poate reduce curirea gurii de sond. Primul pas cnd ntlnim
probleme de curire a gurii de sond este de a crete reologia sistemului i pomparea
dopurilor vscoase. Ambele proceduri pot avea un impact hotrtor asupra curirii gurii de
sond, n mod special la sondele deviate, prin permiterea modelului de curgere s se strecoare
deasupra aglomerrii de detritus i astfel nrutind problema. S-a observant c reologia
trebuie s fie mentinu ntr-un domeniu optim pentru a permite rocii dislocate de sap n
timpul procesului de foraj, sa fie efectiv ndepartat. Sistemul fluidului de foraj ecologic
mbuntit, prin testele de reologie realizate, sugereaz o valoare cuprins ntre 5-7 pentru
citirile de 6 de la Fann 35/A, la un YP =5-15 lb/100ft2, depinznd de: diametrul gurii de
sond, densitatea fluidului de foraj, condiiile de foraj [3].

11. REFERENCES

[1] Lazr Avram, Forajul Marin, Editura Univerisii de Petrol i Gaze din Ploieti 2005
[2] Popescu M. G., Fluide de foraj i cimenturi de sond, Editura UPG Ploieti, 2002.
Ganea Aurelian, Contribuii privind mbuntire fluidelor de foraj ecologice, Teza de
[3]
doctorat, Ploiesti

270
 EVALUATION OF WELLHEAD LOADS AND TENSIONS
USING FEM FOR DEEP WATER DRILLING WELLS
Lazar AVRAM1, Claudiu TANASA2, Marius STAN 3 , Dan ARON4.
1
Universitatea Petrol Gaze din Ploiesti, Ploiesti, Romania, E-mail
2
Universitatea Petrol Gaze din Ploiesti, Ploiesti, Romania, E-mail
3
Universitatea Petrol Gaze din Ploiesti, Ploiesti, Romania, E-mail
4
SC Foraj Sonde Tg Mures, Tg Mures, Romania, E-mail

ABSTRACT
This paper aims an analysis of a complex situation over the well head for an offshore well with
regards to the loads and stress impacting this equipment. The analysis is highlighting the
effects of the daily operations over the well head along with the loads envelope supported.
Those situations described are meant to verify the relevant API requirements but also an
analysis is performed with regards to those emergency situations which may encounter during
operations such as drive off and drift off. The objective of this paper is to evaluate the required
time allowable for drilling operations until the well head may be the subject of a fatigue rupture
and to propose improvement solutions in order to prolong the operational life of the equipment.

KEYWORDS
Keyword,

1. EVALUATION OF THE FATIGUE RUPTURE POSSIBILITY OF THE WELL

HEAD

As the water depth increases the possibility of a fatigue rupture of the chances to encounter a
well head rupture are more likely. Therefore, it is recommended that before starting the deep
water operations, this possibility needs to be assessed since the beginning of the well design
process.
The increased length of the riser column as well as the environmental factors specific for the
operational location (waves, currents etc.) are influencing the stability of the riser column by
inducing a specific movement in to the string and creating the conditions for the possibility of
an early fatigue rupture of the well head. Taking in to considerations all these factors can be
concluded that once the fatigue limit exceeded, the final rupture can occurs at any time.
For a normal well head the cyclic loads will highlight the manufacturing faults (normally the
welded zone is the most exposed one). Once the critical zone is reaching the critical limits the
final fatigue rupture will be initiated. In the picture 1 below are presented the most critical
areas for a generic well head.

271
 Figure 1: Well head hotspots
The well head is impacted by variable loads caused mainly by the environmental factors. One
factor which has to be taken in to account is the relative movement of the drilling unit on the
horizontal. In this case, if the tensioning system is not properly adjusted, may have an impact
over the riser column and then this can cause additional tensions over the well head.
Depending of the amplitude and the intensity of these loads, the well head is exposed to early
fatigue rupture as is represented in the below picture.

Picture 2 Load regime of the well head

As aforementioned, the early fatigue rupture of the well head is caused by excessive loads
caused by the drilling unit movement as well as the action of the environmental factors over the
raiser column. Therefore, a particular aspect of this issue is represented by the mechanical
characteristics of the well head material. Actually, the fatigue occurs during normal drilling
operations but the purpose of this paper is to highlight those factors which are amplifying this
process leading to an early fatigue rupture. One of the functions of the well head is to provide
stability of the BOP but this is in strict correlation with the soil characteristics as well as the
quality of the cementing job for the first section of the well.
One of the most important characteristics of the soil is stiffness and the most usual method for
establishing this is to apply P-Y curves. These are normally used to determine the foundation
characteristics in civil engineering. In order to determine the P-Y curves, the following
standards can be used:
ISO 19901:4;
ISO 19902;
API RP 2A.
272
These standards show different methods for P-Y curves calculations depending on soil
characteristics.
With regards to the fatigue resistance, this can be categorized as following:
Small fatigue resistance, when the well head can take less than 105 cycles
Increased fatigue resistance, when the well head can take more than 105 cycles
The firs case refers to a structure placed in the plastic deformation domain while the second
case is suitable for the elastic domain. According with this analysis and due to the operational
requirements the ideal case would be to have the well head placed in the second case.

2. THE LOADS REGIME OF THE DRILLING UNIT

A marine drilling system is the subject of different loads and forces which are impacting the well
head in terms of cyclic loads accumulation and those can be summarized as following (see also
picture 3):
Environmental data:
- Water depth
- Wind
- Marine currents
- Waves
Design characteristics of the drilling unit
- Response of the drilling unit during waves and wind impact
- Marine currents response
- RAO curves (Response Amplitude Operator)
Riser column
- Diameter
- Wall thickness
- The weight of the riser column
- Tensioning system
- Dynamic and riser mechanics
Mooring lines (as applicable)
- Mechanical properties
- Tension values of the lines

Picture 3 General overview of the main factors impacting the drilling unit stability
273
3. SIMPLIFIED METHOD FOR DETERMINATION OF THE OPERATIONAL DAYS

The exact determination of number of operational days for the well head cannot be determined
exactly due to multiple factors involved. However, a simplified method has been presented
which is evaluating few main parameters and based on that an approximation can be made.
Anyhow, the method presented in the biography section can provide an indication with regards
to the performance or not of the subsea system. After the completion of the analysis,
compensating measures can be taken in order to improve the system. The acceptance criteria
defined is based on the concept of standard BOP days and the reference was set for 365 days
in operation. If result of the analysis is exceeding this number, then compensation measures
are to be taken. Anyhow, compensating measures can be taken in any case in order to improve
the system performance as log those are economical viable. [1]
This method is using as input data basic the basic characteristics of the drilling system such as:
the height of the BOP stack, over pull at LMRP connector and bending stiffness of lower flex
joint.

Picture 4 The loads of the BOP stack [1]

The method described above has been applied to a real drilling system in order to evaluate the
performance of a given drilling system configuration. The result was not in accordance with
acceptable criteria and, consequentially, compensating measures were proposed as following:
1. The BOP weight to be reduced by using suspension cables connected to the platform. There
is a down side of this approach and is that the cables needs to be connected together with a
compensating system which needs to be synchronized in order to reduce additional stress in to
the BOP stack.
2. Remove one annular preventer from the BOP configuration.
This measure proves to be feasible and is reducing not only the weight of the BOP but also the
height.
It was proven an increase of 50 % of the performance of the system after taking the
compensating measures.
In addition, in order to verify the theoretical data obtained an analysis was completed by using
a software solution based on FEM method.

4. STATIC AND DYNAMIC STUDY OF THE WELL HEAD

The study was completed using Solidworks software in order to create the stress diagrams in
accordance with theoretical result obtained above. For this analysis the von Mises criterion was
used. From constructive point of view, the well head is presented in the picture below:
274
 Picture 5 Well head, general overview
A 3D model of the well head was design (picture 6) which represents the mesh structure of the
object.
The scope of this structure is to split the object in order to allow mathematical modeling of the
structure and finally the mechanical simulation to be completed.

Picture 6 FEM mesh structure of the well head

In the picture 7 is represented the torque moment (app. 210 kNm) transmitted over the inner
surface of the object for an inclination angle of 1 degrees.

Picture 7 Torque moment for 10 angle

275
Picture 8 represents the diagram of specific elastic deformations (tangential) oriented by the X
axis in Cartesian system for an angle of 1 degree. These tensions are produced in the support
area of the BOP stack. Also, the symmetry between the opposite values of elastically
deformations is given by the torsion and bending moments. Therefore, the blue area is
influenced by the compression and the red one is under elongation impact.

Picture 8 Diagram of elastic tangential deformation on X axis for 10 angle

Picture 9 is represented the diagram of specific elastic deformations following the Y axis of the
Cartesian system. Precisely, at the basis (in the weld zone) the fibre of the material is the
subject of elongation. This is generated by the bushing pressure in to the inner side which is
corresponding to a rigid domain of the deformation system.
Also in the upper part (blue) on the outside area a compression of the material fibre is
produced due to the inclination angle.

Picture 9 The diagram of the elastic deformation for the Y axis for 1 0 angle
Picture 10 is representing the diagram of specific deformation (tangential) following the Z axis
of the Cartesian system.
Like the case of the X axis, symmetrical elastically deformations is produced which can be
observed in the picture. This picture also highlights the section with the elongation caused by
the torsion and bending moments.
The compression would have been produced in the opposite side.

276
 Picture 10 The diagram of the tangential elastical deformations following Z axis for 10 angle

5. REFERENCES

Holden, H., Bjnnes, P., Russo, M. "A simplified methodology for comparing fatigue
[1]
loading on subsea wellheads", OMAE2013-11529, June 2013, Nantes, France
[2] ***https://en.wiki2.org/wiki/Von_Mises_yield_criterion

277
RISER COLUMN STABILITY CONCERNS FOR DEEP-WATER
AND ULTRA-DEEP-WATER DRILLING
Lazar AVRAM1, Claudiu TANASA2, Marius STAN3 Vasile TUDOR4
1
Petroleum Gas University of Ploiesti
2
Petrom S.A.

ABSTRACT
This paper proposes an analysis over the operational conditions encountered during drilling
operations. The analysis refers to those factors which are impacting the riser column stability
during operations. The results of these factors over the riser column are called riser mechanics.
Thus, the objective of the work analyse to which extent the riser column fulfils the applicable
API recommendations in force and obtaining theoretical results in this regard for drilling in deep
waters. These results constitute the starting point in the simulation with the help of specialized
software and getting useful results over optimal risers operations in deep water drilling
conditions.

KEYWORDS
deep water, ultra deep water drilling

1. RISER MECHANICS OVERVIEW

The riser column is a complex construction aimed to ensure the connection between the well
head and the drilling unit. The functions of this assembly are complex and are not limited only
to ensure the space necessary for cuttings removal from the well. As the water depth increases,
the working conditions of this assembly becomes challenging due to the complex forces and
extreme environmental conditions which are impacting the operational mode as well as the
stability. In this paper several aspects concerning riser mechanics and the behaviour of the riser
column will be evaluated against different operational situations.

1.1 THE DESIGN OF THE RISER COLUMN AND THE SELECTION CRITERIA

The optimal configuration of the riser column plays an important with regards to the operational
parameters. The dynamic characteristic of the drilling unit are taken in to consideration since
the design phase of the riser column being an important parameter during this stage and the
riser column should fulfil these minimum conditions:
The riser column should cope to the design forces which may affect the stability but also
integrity during the drilling process
- Regardless the normal operational conditions, the riser column should be able to fulfil
also designed emergency situations
278
- Fatigue elements and the extreme loads which can occur are design elements which
have to be taken in to account during the design phase
An important aspect which has to be taken in to consideration during this design stage is the
determination of the optimal weight of the riser column in the water. As a matter of fact, the
correct assessment of the buoyancy elements and correct positioning of those can ensure an
optimal stability of the riser column. A neutral position can be obtained in order to achieve a
reduction of the top tension as this is important for the tensioning system. However, there is a
down side in this scenario: the lower tension can increase and this will result in overloading the
well head [3]. The riser column can be considered a tube with high thickness walls which is
impacted by different type of loads (e.g. shear forces, compression etc.)
The forces acting over the riser column can be evaluated by using von Mises & Tresca relations
and the result have to comply with acceptable limits of the materials composing the riser
column.

Figure 1: von Mises & Tresca applied for a riser section [4]
Moreover, the requirements for the top and lower tension must be verified in order to ensure
the riser column stability for all operational phases, emergency situations included. As first step
in this direction should include stability verification of the riser column towards limit conditions
which may comprise of:
- Maximum water depth
- Maximum mud density
- Environmental conditions in connected mode
Moving forward, if the first condition has been fulfilled, the vertical deviation of the riser column
must checked against requirements as well as fulfilling safety operational conditions, regardless
the factors which may affect this. The API 2RD recommends a structural and dynamic analysis
of the riser column if is considered that the operational environment impose further risk
increase. Special simulations will be completed with a dedicated software, usually installed
onboard the drilling units, in order to evaluate the vertical deviations of the riser column.

1.2 MAIN FORCES WHICH INFLUENCE THE STABILITY OF THE RISER COLUMN Sub

The riser column can be represented as a beam connected at both ends with a spherical
articulation. The various axis movement of the drilling platform are compensated by dedicated
equipment (telescopic riser, upper flex joint and tensioner ring) in order to maintain the drilling
unit on the position. The linear weight of the riser is the difference between the linear weights
of the joint in water minus the linear thrust exerted through the thrust collar by the buoyancy
elements that are dressing it. The internal pressure generated locally by the mud column is
279
equal to the mud specific gravity multiplied by the local column height. The external pressure
generated locally by the sea water is equal to the sea water specific gravity multiplied by the
local water depth. It has to be noted that what acts against the walls of the riser joints is the
local difference in between the above two terms [2].
In the usual case of a riser string full of mud, the higher the mud weight & the water depth, the
higher the differential pressure on the bottom that tends to inflate the joints generating hoop
stress.

Figure 2: The action of different forces over the riser column

Should the riser for any reason be partially empty (mud heavy losses due to weak down hole
formation), the riser wall would be subject to the external pressure only in the void zone.
The hydrodynamic forces of the waves will impact the riser column on the upper part and this is
evaluated with MOJS equations (Morison, OBrien, Johnson and Schaaf) [2]. The resistance of
the riser column in to the water due to the oscillations is proportional with:
- A drag coefficient (friction, wake and added mass).
- The density of the sea water.
- The cross section of the riser string.
This approach is valid only if the current value is up to two knots. If this value is exceeded, the
vortex phenomenon occurs, which generate vibrations in combination with the wave
movement. The transversal vibrations are depending on the value of the tensions which are
propagating along the riser column.
If those conditions are exceeding the acceptable operational limitations the tensioning system
can be affected with consequences over the integrity of composed elements. A preventive
measure is to reduce the top tension for a short period of time awaiting the normal operational
parameters to be reinstalled.
However, the values exceeding two knots are not normal and therefore the solution of reducing
the top tension for a short period of time can be adopted but such solution can overload the
well head and may result in a fatigue rupture, as aforementioned, hence this measure should
be correctly assessed.
In order to exemplify those forces we can imagine that a wave with a speed of two knots can
generate a tension of 60-70 tones within the tensioning system for a water depth of 1 500
meters. Assuming a top tension of 350 tones and a lower flex joint tension of 150 tones an

280
angle of 7 degrees deviation from vertical can be expected. Under these circumstances the
acceptable operational limits are exceeded and the drilling process is suspended. The values
mentioned are valid as long the top and lower tension values are not modified. The angle is
modifying up to 3 degrees if the values mentioned are modified [1].
Another possibility to reduce the wave or currents influence is to modify the positioning of the
drilling unit but keeping under control the lower angle of the riser column. The resulted position
is meant to keep under control all parameters which may impact the vertical positioning of the
riser column which is in fact the mission of the riser management system.
According with aforementioned it is obvious that old methods for keeping the drilling unit on
position no long apply. Nowadays, its unthinkable to run drilling operations in deep waters
without the support of an advanced raiser management system which automatically adjust all
operational parameters in order to maintain the integrity of the riser column as well as safety of
the drilling operations. If the well head can be considered somehow rigid with regards to the
BOP this no longer apply. Depending on the soil characteristics as well as the quality of the
cement job for the upper section of the well, the BOP can oscillate with a range between 0-2
degrees during drilling operations which may cause damages to the drilling equipment as well
as increasing the cyclic loads over the well head which will end up with the final fatigue rupture.
The design length of the raiser column is influenced by the environmental conditions by means
of the horizontal movement of the drilling unit but also is related with the stroke of the
telescopic joint [3].
During the design stage of the riser column for a given location, the worst case scenario has to
be taken in to consideration. Also it is recommended to reduce as much as possible the lower
flex joint angle trough the positioning system of the drilling unit. Any uncontrolled movement
generated by the environmental conditions can generate additional stress over the riser column
and finally will impact the well head which can be exposed for early fatigue rupture. Due to the
fact that the lower and upper flex joint are not design to absorb the axial movement of the
drilling unit these tensions, somehow will impact the tensioning ring and finally ,these excessive
loads, will impact the tensioning system as well.
Finally, the best way to manage efficiently the riser column, is to keep the positioning of the
drilling unit under control within the operational parameters established before starting the
drilling program and especially design for a given location with an adequate top tension and this
is the big challenge.

2 REFERENCES

References in the text should be numbers in square brackets [1], and then there should be a
key to such numbers at the end, as shown below.Please use table in template; numbering is
automatically. NOTE: You can sort second column with word alphabetically. These examples
also show the expected reference format:
Evans, J. T., McGrail, J., An evaluation of the fatigue performance of subsea
[1]
wellhead systems and recommendations for fatigue enhancements, 2011
Morison, J. R., Johnson, J., Schaaf, S., The force exerted by surface waves on piles,
[2]
Journal of Petroleum Technology, vol. 2, 1950
[3] ***DNV RP F204 Riser Fatigue

281
 BENCHMARKING STRATEGY EFFECTIVE INSTRUMENT
FOR IMPROVING PERFORMANCES AND INCREASING THE
ORGANISATIONS EFFICIENCY

George BALAN1, Lucian GRIGORESCU2, Ioan Achim MOISE3, Ilie BOGDAN4

1
Romanian_German University of Sibiu
2
"Nicolae Balcescu" Land Forces Academy
3
,,1 Decembrie 1918``University of Alba Iulia
4
Oil and Gas University of Ploiesti

ABSTRACT
In recent years Western companies have learnt, mostly due to the competition with Japan, the
importance of cooperating with the others, using as criterion their performances. The
comparison is often made with companies that have implemented the best practices and
obtained the best results in the field, the principle being that only when you know where the
leaders are situated you can set better the tasks and goals for your own company. This type
of practice got the name of benchmarking, after the English word expressing the craftsmans
habit to compare different sizes with a standard in his field. Between the alignment requirement
to EU policies and the real difficulties caused by the current situation of the Romanian
economy, research on the concept and techniques of benchmarking, including the applications
made to an economic agent in difficulties, led to the conclusion that these comparisons could
bring an important contribution to the recovery of lags, given that the Romanian industry and
economy entered the globalization equation.

KEYWORDS
benchmarking, efficiency, performance, change

1. INTRODUCTION

Economic efficiency is a complex reality, which expresses in the most comprehensive manner,
the results obtained from an economic activity, measured in terms of the resources used to
carry out that activity. The relationship between the volume and quality of efforts is determined
through it, as factors generating effects and the results obtained during a given period, as a
consequence of achieving these efforts. The concept of sustainable development is goal-
oriented, which means that resources should be used so as not to diminish their value and
benefit can be achieved continuously, i.e. to rely on the rational exploitation of resources, but
without being limited to it [1]. Economic efficiency is complex, which requires a detailed
analysis of all efforts and effects obtained in terms of the volume and structure and social

282
importance. Moreover, given the market economy, economic efficiency should be calculated
both at microeconomic level and at the level of national and global economy.
Therefore, we initiated a benchmarking study, as a strategy aiming at improving performance, a
better efficiency, a higher quality of services, all resulting from the acceptance of change [2].
Benchmarking aims to increase productivity and spending the money efficiently, better quality
and services. To reach this goal, the full commitment of managers of those activities is
required, or of those who make the policies at the decisional level, so that resistance to change
is overcome and the necessary support for the right direction is provided. Benchmarking must
be understood as an instrument to support those who make the development policies of a
particular activity. It should be based on research, by using some quantitative indicators and
qualitative analyses on the best practice. Benchmarking indicates the performance and also the
target that needs to be reached. The presentation of the best practice will inspire those
interested and may serve them as a model for learning how to improve their own activity or
even to exceed the performances of the pattern.

2. BENCHMARKING TECHNIQUES AND INSTRUMENTS FOR IMPLEMENTING

THE MODERN SYSTEMS OF INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT IN
AN ECONOMIC ORGANISATION

To get the desired effect from the investment effort devoted to improving the management
methods and techniques, benchmarking provides information on the philosophy of the most
accurate manufacturing which refers to the most intelligent and rational way of working,
permanent improvement of products and processes quality, reducing costs, reducing
manufacturing and delivery times and establishes a more responsible role for the employees,
extending staffs skills in the production process; extending the importance given to team work;
interest and thus increased staff involvement in the production process [4].
For testing the benchmarking techniques and instruments, we thought suitable to choose a
company from Sibiu, which represents a complex, representative environment for a great
number of economic agents in Romania. The chosen organisation is a highly integrated
company in the machine manufacturing industry, with a wide variety of technological processes,
from the manufacturing of semi-finished products to the general assembling process. The
diversity of technological processes derives from the different dimension range of the parts that
are operated in the company and the variety of materials that these parts are made from.
In order to substantiate the options regarding the strategic solutions to business restructuring
of this organisation in the current period, the informational basis is its economic-financial
statement, in which we first noticed the critical situation of profitability, generated by the
accumulated action of several negative factors, such as: the critical decline in the volume of
orders (due to the contraction of activity in the machine manufacturing industry); maintaining
the surplus staff at a relatively high level; increased salary costs while there is lower production
and failure to maintain the correlation between increasing the wage fund and the increase of
work productivity; the increase of prices for materials, raw materials and energy and of the
expenses with the depreciation of production costs by increasing consumption specific to hot
manufacturing; financial blockage, etc. With regard to the analysis of applying the specific
management methods and techniques (designed for solving some problems associated to the
different management functions), we noticed that there are mainly used: extrapolation used
in elaborating short-term forecasts based on plans and programmes prepared on the basis of
firm orders; meeting widely spread in all organisational levels; delegation of authority used
more frequently in comparison with the delegation of competence; diagnosis found as the
management report of the Board of Administration accompanying the financial balance sheet;
cost calculation methods outlining the calculation articles for the products.

283
The diagnosis of managerial instruments shows, on one hand, the reduced number of
management systems and methods used on a daily basis by the organisation and, on the other
hand, the failure to comply with the methodological elements recommended by the
management science in the implementation process.
Acknowledging the empirical character of the managerial processes conducted is reinforced by
the lack of concern to develop new development strategies, based on realistic diagnoses,
marketing studies and macroeconomic forecast. The consequences of this situation, the
overstraining of the managements operational side by affecting the competitive potential and
adaptability of the companys activity are enhanced by the inappropriate structural sizing of the
organisation and human capital of some activities such as forecasting and budgeting.
By synthesizing the aspects of the management activity diagnosis at the chosen organisation, a
management system with delimitations between components occurs (informational,
organisational, methodological and decisional) and without establishing all the required
connections between them. The implications of such inconsistency of the managerial body are
directly reflected in the low level of performances of the scientific management valences in the
process of making the companys activity more efficient.
All these disorders are currently generating additional costs, which have a negative impact on
the companys profitability, adopting restructuring measures being necessary.
The economic objectives summarise and quantify the long-term goals envisaged by the owner,
the higher management and major stakeholders.
The fundamental objectives of the organisation are: increasing the turnover; increasing market
share; increasing work productivity; increasing product quality. The priorities given to increasing
the turnover and increasing the market share are due to the fact that recently, the economic
agent works long periods of time below the break-even rate. Increasing work productivity is a
prerequisite for achieving a primary social objective, related to remuneration, but also of a
future economic objective to make a entrance the profitable activities. Increasing the quality of
products and services contributes to achieving a priority economic objective which is
strengthening the market position of the products manufactured by the company but also to
gain insight by making higher profit rate of resources.
Social objectives can, in time, have a major impact on the development and performance of the
company. As for the chosen organisation, the main social objectives are: remuneration and
working conditions of the employees; customer satisfaction through quality, sustainability and
price of the offered products; cooperation with the authorities; environmental pollution control.
Among the approaches or strategic methods to be considered for the chosen economic
organisation, we mention: renewal of products and technologies, creation of strategic alliances,
entering new markets, company modernisation, redesigning the management system,
computerisation of activities.
The companys management will be put in a position to combine several strategic options. To
have an idea over the combination between the strategic options regarding modern
management methods to be used and the market to be approached, the matrix
market/management methods is used, shown in Table 1.
The economic organisation may create a competitive advantage by perceiving and discovering
new and better ways to compete, this actually being an act of innovation. Innovation is defined
here more broadly, including both technological improvements and modern management
methods and techniques [5]. It can manifest in changing the products, new market approaches,
new types of distribution and new concepts on the purpose. Internationally, innovations that
bring competitive advantages anticipate both the national needs and those outside the national
borders. In order for an organisation to get competitive advantage, the perception of new
market demands and a more rapid and more aggressive movement to exploit opportunities are
required.

284
 Table 1: Market/management methods for the chosen economic organisation
Traditional Less modernized Modern management
management management methods methods and techniques
methods
REFORMULATION REPLACEMENT
Requires the New management methods
Unchanged
establishment of a new and techniques replace the
market
balance between effort previous ones
and result
RESALE UPGRADED EXTENSION OF
Management METHODS METHODS
methods are Due to the Because of the extension of
applied in a modernization of management methods and
new way. management methods techniques, productivity
Enhanced
and techniques, increases and costs decrease,
market
productivity increases. which result in increased
The further profits (gain of competitive
modernization of these advantage)
methods and techniques
is required.
NEW USE MODERNIZED
The benefits PRODUCTS/NEW
created by PRODUCTS
new findings New customers require
DIVERSIFICATION/NEW
New concerning the further increase of
MANAGEMENT METHODS
market the methods competitive advantage.
AND TECHNIQUES
of
management,
attract new
customers

Therefore, information should play an important part in the innovation process. Benchmarking
can give the chosen entity a series of data on the ability of some leaders in their field of activity
to improve their management methods through a collective and continuous effort. As it could
be noticed from the experience of some leaders, the most sustainable competitive advantages
depend on the quality of human resources and on the internal technical ability.
In this respect, Kaizen philosophy finds fertile ground for affirmation in the field of modern
management methods, where quite obvious and spectacular progresses have been made, and
maintaining on the market requires an own permanent effort to pursuit and apply the best
practices, but also to highlight its own creativity potential [6].
For the planning phase used in benchmarking, the diagnostic method was employed.
Diagnostic-analysis was initiated as a method to improve the management of a company and it
was focused on the classical concept of function of the enterprise [2]. The primary sources of
information were the operational data of the analysed company, work reports, interviews,
observations on the occasion of visits, and also table of data.
The next stage in the development of benchmarking is the partner search stage. For their
search, the basic rule should be mentioned, according to which, all partners will have to learn
from a benchmarking study [3]. This is guaranteed through the selection of benchmarking
partners whose performances are not very different. This creates the condition that each
partner can benefit from taking part in these studies. A very important moment in
benchmarking is the confrontation with questions from outside its own process. In certain

285
situations, aspects that have not been given enough attention could be identified. Therefore,
many new things can be discovered [2].
Thus, we proceeded to identifying new potential study partners the main characteristic
envisaged being the implementation in different stages of some modern production
management methods and techniques and also the development of production activities in the
field of industrial production.
For the phase of data collection, necessary to the benchmarking study, we have chosen the
questionnaire method, which provides the opportunity that the questions are clear and
sufficient to obtain all desired information, in view of making a real image on the benefits that
can be gained from the implementation of these modern production management systems [2].
Given the results of this benchmarking study, we have depicted some conclusions which might
apply both to the organisation for which the study was made, but also for the whole industrial
production in Romania.
Therefore, we can say that, after the visits to the selected organisation, we noticed that this
organisation continues to have a layout of equipment based on the principle of processing
workshops (turnery, milling workshop, drilling workshop, etc.), although there are no longer
any large scale production processes, which, in certain outdated concepts, would require the
organisation of production spaces according to this principle [6].
As known from theory, layout of production areas consists of the physical location of plant,
machinery and equipment involved in the production process. Any plant layout project or
rearrangement of production stands should have its own objectives, which differ depending on
the managers opinions, the companys policy, as well as the actual conditions of this project.
Based on these theoretical aspects, and given the current existing conditions of the chosen
organisation, due to the production of small quantities of a great variety of products, we
considered it appropriate that the processing workshops are straight-line, depending on the
technological manufacturing process. Therefore, I believe that the cellular method must be
applied, which consists of establishing the theoretical layout scheme of the jobs in relation to
the links between jobs and the volume of materials or products to be transported between
them. According to this method, jobs will be located so as to ensure the best rational
technological flow possible, by minimizing the volume of internal and crossed transports, since
it is well known that long and unnecessary movements are a waste of energy from the
employees and a waste of time, which can also be found as costs in the final price of the
products manufactured by the company.
Having established the order of machinery layout in the workshops, I believe it is necessary to
analyse the possibility of positioning the machines in parallel lines, wanting that, through this
arrangement, an operator can service multiple machines. To make the servicing of multiple
machineries by a single operator, they need to have multiple qualifications, namely to service
different types of machineries.
For the successful implementation of these modern production management systems, serious
discussions with the suppliers of materials and raw materials need to take place, suppliers who
should be aware of the fact that, without their help, there cannot be the best conditions to
carry out the activities within their own company.
Therefore, if suppliers will not deliver in time the materials or raw materials necessary to the
production process, the company is forced either to interrupt this technological process, for lack
of materials, or to over-supply, and store them in special places, for whose planning space and
staff is required.
In addition to storage areas for the surplus of materials or raw materials and staffing to handle
and maintain them, they can be damaged either during handling, or due to the action of
atmospheric factors from the storage areas. These issues have an impact on the final costs of
the products manufactured by the company, costs that will be supported by the customers.
Once solved the problems listed below, depending on the financial resources of the company,
we can move to the implementation stage of one of the modern organisation and management
286
methods of the industrial production from the enterprise (Kanban, Just in Time, MRP, etc.), and
therefore a feedback system should be provided, through which the decision factors from this
enterprise can intervene in the event of deviations from the initially established objectives or
improve performances of the ongoing system.

3. CONCLUSIONS

We believe that efficiency value added are the main performances of gaining market power of
the company, since market competitiveness, in the context of change, with its basic, customer-
oriented component, is the life belt of any economic organisation.
With such a role, the competitiveness of economic organisations on the market should become
priority 0 in the management of organisations, especially in industrial organisations. The
problem of ensuring market competitiveness, namely winning the customer, has become even
more complicated, as a result of the devastating effects of this crisis, which destroyed even the
fragile balances that have been made on the markets, but especially the global ones.
Recovering these balances and finding a new place on the market is not only an urgent, but
fundamental problem for any organisation.
We also tried to emphasize the role of benchmarking in the process of continuous
improvement. Therefore, we have tried to elaborate some new modular structures to make the
production systems more flexible, in view of generalizing them. The managements of some
organisations intend to start a process of continuous improvement and use benchmarking
instruments and techniques, aimed at: researching, designing, developing new modular
structures with higher performances for the construction of devices, tools and machinery
modernization, developing highly complex technologies, developing and using calculation
methods, mathematical methods, algorithms and computer aided design for technologies and
equipment.
Given the results of the research regarding the ways in which manufacturing activities can be
improved in some companies, I believe that this is a way to streamline the management of
industrial production, and by extending the method to macroeconomic level, it could be an
actual way to revive this segment of the national economy, especially given the current
economic crisis in which the national and international economy is [6].

4. REFERENCES

Iagru Romulus, Diagnostic Analysis of thr diversification of Economic Activities in

the Rural Area. Case Study: the Depresion of Sibiu. Conference proceedings 2 the
[1]
18th International Conference The Knowledge-Based Organisation, (2012) p. 128-
134.
[2] V. Scurtu, C. Russu, I. Popescu, Benchmarking, Editura Economic, Bucureti, 2006;
t. Mitu, M. Neagu, G. Frumuanu, Benchmarking, Editura Fundaiei Universitare
[3]
Dunrea de Jos, Galai, 2000;
M. Zairi, Competitiv Benchmarking. An Executiv Guide. TQM Practitionen Series,
[4]
Editura Tehnical Comunications (Publishing) LTD- Londra,1997;
B. C. Richard, J. A. Nicholas, Production&Operations Management. A Life Cycle
[5]
Approach, Irwin Editor, Illinois, 1992;
I.L. Grigorescu, Teza de doctorat Elemente de managementul produciei industriale
[6] la nivel mezoeconomic (pe exemplul judeului Sibiu), Universitatea Lucian Blaga
din Sibiu, 2011.

287
 THE INFLUENCE OF THE MAIN TAX CATEGORIES IN THE
EAST EUROPEAN COUNTRIES
Ilie BANU1, Anne-Marie BARTALIS2, Madalina POMANA (CARAUS) 2, Mirela SOGLU
(CALUGAREANU) 3 Mihai Aristotel UNGUREANU

ABSTRACT
Taxation serves to acquire the necessary funds for public expenditure, to redistribute income, to
stabilize the economy, to address externalities (environmental taxes, taxes on alcohol and
tobacco), to determine the allocation of resources, at the same time being support for
sustainable growth. Starting from Myles surveys simulation models on the effects of different
tax reforms on growth, in particular the effects of tax shifts, we subscribe using SAS software
on finding relationships between the impact of indirect, direct and social contributions on the
public budget deficit and public debt on East European Countries and Romania in a globalized
world. The conclusions of the modelling in the countries considered are that fiscal pressure
influences the public deficit and public debt in different levels.

KEYWORDS
tax shifts, public debt, budget deficit, sustainable, economic growth

1. INTRODUCTION

Taxation serves to acquire the necessary funds for public expenditure, to redistribute income
(progressive income taxation), to stabilize the economy, to address externalities (environmental
taxes, taxes on alcohol and tobacco), to determine the allocation of resources, at the same time
being supportive to growth. Therefore, the quality of taxation is a concept with many
dimensions. Quality of taxation is dealing with designing tax policies to achieve desired policy
objectives (redistribution, allocation, stabilization, etc.) in the most effective way - that is by
minimizing undesired distortions, promoting growth, and minimizing the cost of tax collection.
The Commission underlined the crucial role that quality of taxation and particularly the tax
structure plays for economic growth and fiscal consolidation.
Taxes on labor can affect the production factor human capital in three main ways, by altering:
i) the allocation of time between labor and leisure, ii) human capital accumulation and iii)
occupational and entrepreneurial behavior and choices.
High marginal tax rates can also affect entrepreneurial activity, due to changes in the after tax
rewards for taking risk related to it.
Taxes on capital are the most damaging to growth, by their effect on theinter-temporal
allocation decisions.

288
Myles (2009a) theoretical models show that the long-run optimal tax rate on capital should be
zero. The corporate tax system can affect: (i) where firms choose to locate their investment, (ii)
how much they invest, and (iii) where they choose to locate their profits.
Consumption taxes are often regarded as less distortionary than income taxes, as they do not
distort inter-temporal decisions the way income taxes do.
In the case of environmental taxes the distortionary, rather the corrective effect of taxes is
welcome, as they aim to influence consumers and producers via price incentives towards the
desired, for example, less environmentally harmful behavior.
Taxation of immovable property is considered as least distortionary, because these taxes do not
affect the decisions of economic agents to provide labor, to invest in human and physical capital
as straight as other taxes do. Moreover, the immobility of the tax base is another attractive
property.
Myles (2009a) surveys simulation models on the effects of different tax reforms on growth, in
particular the effects of tax shifts. Despite widely varying effects for tax-reform simulations on
growth (from zero to non-negligible), Myles concludes: "almost all the results support the claim
that a move from income taxation to consumption taxation will raise the rate of growth even
though the predicted effect may vary." (Myles (2009a), p.44). This conclusion is supported by
the simulation with the European Commission's Quest III Model, which finds that a
consolidation through an increase in property taxes and consumption taxes is most favorable of
all tax based consolidations as regards long run GDP (EC 2010b). Using econometric
estimations led Arnold (2008, OECD WP) and Johansson et al (2008 OECD WP) conclude
similarly that corporate and personal income taxes are the most damaging to growth, while
consumption, environment and property taxes are least toxic (Taxation trends in the EU, 2011).
When referring to the classification of taxes into direct and indirect, we summarize the first
significant direct tax advantages: tax equity and providing relatively stable income to the state.
Direct taxation has, however, the major disadvantage of slow charging taxes at wide intervals
of time. In addition, direct taxation is obvious and extremely irritable for taxpayers having a low
yield. On the other hand, indirect taxes have a significantly higher yield, having also the
advantage of higher speed of tax collection, while compliance costs required are lower. The
great inconvenient of indirect taxation is tax inequity (due to the proportionality of the tax rate)
and the fact that is not taking into account the particular situation of the payer. (Duma F.,2009)
In selected OECD countries, we outline the key trends in taxation between 1965-1999:
- taxes applied to income increased from about 7% of GDP in 1965 to almost 10% at the
end of the period under review
- fees applied to companies have remained stable in the period around 3% of GDP
- compulsory social security contributions applied to both individuals and legal entities
have nearly doubled (from 5.4 in 1965 to 10.3 in 1999)
- consumption fees remained stable in the analyzed period, being around 7% of GDP
- property tax burden has remained constant under 3% of GDP (Bailey S.,2004)
We emphasize that some taxes are less "harmful" than others in terms of the 4E. Considering
this aspect, we consider that decision-makers are putting too much emphasis on consumption
taxes (which actually are creating jobs) and insufficient attention on "negative" fees regarding
negative externalities, for example, activities related to consumption of goods and services that
pollute the environment).
Figure 1: Share of revenues by source from total taxes in 2010, in some OECD countries

289
Source: OECD (tax revenue by sector of total taxation), authors compilation

We selected some European countries from the OECD member states and ordered them
descending, considering taxes on income, profit and capital gains. As shown in the above
figure, Nordic countries are in the top, but another statement would be that both taxes (income
taxes, profits and capital gains taxes and social security taxes) are constant in the countries
analyzed, variations being small. For example, Slovakia, the country with the lowest rate
applied to income, profits and capital gains (18.1%) has a 43.3% share of social security taxes,
compared with Denmark which has the sum of the two rates by only 2 percentage points
higher. Property taxes have a relatively low share in total and range from 1.1% in Estonia and
8.5% in France.

2. THE STRUCTURE OF TAX REVENUES

60.0
53.2
% Indirect taxes
50.0
43.642.442.1
41.841.741.241.040.940.840.540.3
38.337.836.9
40.0 36.435.435.0
34.533.9
32.632.132.132.031.9
29.929.5
30.0

20.0

10.0

0.0
Figure 2: The structure of indirect taxes in total taxes in EU27 - 2009
SL
SL
MA

DA

OL
CI

POL
LE

CE

BE
POR

GR
SU
LI
BU

UN

RO

IT

FI
IR

UK
FR

GE
ES

LU

SP
AU

In general, the structure of taxes in East European countries, characterized by a lower tax rate,
differs. While most states have a structure of direct, indirect and social contributions quite
balanced, Eastern European countries have a high rate of indirect taxes (Bulgaria - 53.2%,

290
Estonia - 42.4%, Poland - 41.2%, Romania - 40.9%). Romania has a percentage of indirect
taxes higher by 3.2 percentage points related to the EU average. If we consider the evolution of
the share of indirect taxes in total tax rate, we can figure out that the share in Romania is
relatively high. If Romania ranks 26 according to the pressure exerted by total taxes, it ranks 9
among the EU27 according to the share of indirect taxes in the total tax levy. Analyzing also the
ranking of the 6 countries that joined the EU in 2004 we can see a high rate in Estonia (ranking
3rd place), Hungary (ranking 4th place), Poland (ranking 7th place) and a medium one in
Slovenia (ranking 13th place) and Slovakia (ranking 15th place).
In the chart below, we have presented the evolution of indirect taxes compared with the EU27
average and the euro area.

Figure 3: The structure of direct taxes in total taxin EU27 in 2009

Considering direct taxes, Romania has, on average, 6.9 percentage points less than the
European Union, but the same trend applies also in the rest of Eastern European countries. The
European average has the same value as countries like Netherlands, Austria and Portugal.

Figure 4: The structure of compulsory social contributions in total tax rate in EU27 in 2009

The low share of direct taxes in Eastern European countries is offset by high rates of indirect
taxes and compulsory social contributions. Romania ranks 12th place with a percentage of
social contributions in total tax levy of 35%, with3.6 percentage points higher than the EU27
average. Czech Republic and Slovakia occupy the first two places with the largest share of

291
social contributions of the 27 countries analyzed, followed by Slovenia on the 5thplace, Estonia
8thplaceand Poland 10th place with 35.7%.

3. CASE STUDY: EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS OF THE IMPACT OF INDIRECT TAXES,

DIRECT TAXES AND SOCIAL CONTRIBUTIONS ON THE SUSTAINABILITY
OF PUBLIC FINANCE INDICATORS

This statistical analysis was performed by using EUROSTAT databases considering indirect,
direct taxes and social contributions taxes rates in GDP, budget deficit to GDP ratio and public
debt to GDP ratio.
The next step was processing data in SAS software and compiling a set of simulations.
- The impact of indirect, direct and social contributions tax rates to GDP on the budget deficit to
GDP ratio at EU27 level
The regression equation in standard form is:
Y = a + b1* X1+ b2* X2+ b3* X3
Given the performed simulation, the regression equation becomes:
Rdefbug / GDP= -39.54 + 2.45 * Rinto dialogue / GDP+ 2.01 * RIdir / GDP+ (-1.87) * Rcs / GDP
Parameter's values are summarized in the table below:
Table 1: Results generated for impact of indirect, direct and social contributions tax rates
to GDP on the budget deficit
Value for Value for R
Parameter Value for t
Rdefbug/PIB p(t) coefficient
a -39.54826 -0.9 0.3859
Riind/PIB 2.4547 1.61 0.1352 0.701484473
Ridir/PIB 2.0104 2.09 0.0605 0.491624981
Rcs/PIB -1.8734 -0.77 0.4556 -0.586349375
Source: authors compilation in SAS

Thus, from the analyzed data presented, we can conclude that the budget deficit to GDP ratio is
influenced mainly by the independent variable, direct taxes to GDP ratio followed by indirect
taxes to GDP ratio and social contributions to GDP ratio, these ago influencing indirectly and
negatively the budget deficit to GDP ratio.
Analyzing the value of t = -0.9, and p (t) = 0.39 indicates a moderate influence (negative) to
the rate of GDP budget deficit.
A correlation coefficient can range between [-1,1], and indicates the relationship between the
two analyzed variables. In this case, the rate of the budget deficit to GDP ratio of indirect taxes
in GDP is strongly correlated (R = 0.7). Regarding the budget deficit ratio to GDP correlated
with the rate of indirect taxes in GDP, the value of R equals 0.49.
As a graphical representation of the period 1995-2009, we have chosen a PLOT (cloud
scattering) generated with the GPLOT procedure and Bubble and Bubble2 option in which we
have represented two vertical axis, on the left side being presented the indirect taxes to GDP
ratio and on the right scale the social contribution to GDP ratio.
The impact of indirect tax to GDP ratio on the budget deficit ratio drawn in the graph with red
bubbles with green text (dot represents the adjusted rates of direct taxes). The influence of
social contributions to GDP ratio on the budget deficit to GDP ratio is indicated by blue bubbles
with violet text (representing the adjusted size of debt ratio).

292
 Figure 1: The impact of indirect tax to GDP ratio on the budget deficit ratio
Source: authors compilation in SAS software

For example, for an indirect taxes rate of 13,377 and the budget deficit to GDP ratio of -6.9
(effective values), the ratio of direct taxes to GDP corresponds to an adjusted value of 11.46.

4. THE IMPACT OF INDIRECT TAX RATES, DIRECT, SOCIAL CONTRIBUTIONS

AND THE BUDGET DEFICIT TO GDP RATIO ON GOVERNMENT DEBT IN
EASTERN EUROPE

The regression equation is:

Rdatpb/PIB= -117.26 + (-1.36)*Rdefbug/PIB +(1.68)*Riind/PIB + (1.63)*Ridir/PIB+(-11.04)*Rcs/PIB
Parameters values are summarized in the table below:

Table 2: Results generated for impact of indirect tax rates, direct, social contributions and the
budget deficit to GDP ratio on government debt

Parameter Value for t Value for p(t)

a -117.26 -2.5 0.0314
eu27def -1.363 -4.38 0.0014
eu27ind 1.6815 0.96 0.3578
eu27dir 1.63398 1.39 0.1941
eu27cs 11.038 4.3 0.0016

Source: authors compilation in SAS

- The impact of indirect, direct and social contributions to GDP ratio on the budget deficit to
GDP ratio in the 7 Eastern European Countries (Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Poland,
Romania, Slovenia and Slovakia)
Given the simulation performed, the regression equation becomes:
Rdefbug/PIB= 42.56 + 0.24*Riind/PIB + (-0.07)*Ridir/PIB+(-3.84)*Rcs/PIB
Where the parameter values are summarized in the table below:

293
Table 3: Results generated for the impact of indirect, direct and social contributions to GDP ratio
on the budget deficit to GDP ratio
Value for
Parameter Value for t p(t)
a 42.56424 2.31 0.0413
Riind/PIB 0.24125 0.28 0.7829
Ridir/PIB -0.07758 -0.25 0.8085
Rcs/PIB -3.84492 -3.86 0.0027
Source: authors compilation in SAS
Considering the results presented in the table above, which refers to the six countries which joined the
EU in 2004 plus Romania, the budget deficit to GDP ratio is negative and significantly influenced by social
contributions to GDP. The remaining variables do not have a significant influence on the rate of the
budget deficit to GDP ratio.The chart below represents the impact of social contributions to GDP ratio on
the budget deficit to GDP ratio.

Figure 2: Impact of social contributions to GDP ratio on the budget deficit to GDP ratio
Source: authors compilation in SAS

5. THE EFFECT OF DIRECT TAXES, INDIRECT TAXES, SOCIAL

CONTRIBUTIONS AND BUDGET DEFICIT TO GDP ON PUBLIC DEBT TO GDP
RATIO IN EAST EUROPEAN COUNTRIES

Given the simulation performed the regression equation becomes:

Rdatpb/PIB= 74.90 + (-1.63)*Rdefbug/PIB +(0.92)*Riind/PIB + (-2,78)*Ridir/PIB+(-
3.09)*Rcs/PIB
Where the parameter values are summarized in the table below:

Table 4: Results generated for the effect of fiscal pressure and budget deficit to GDP on
public debt to GDP ratio

294
 Parameter Value for t Value for p(t)
a 74.8997 2.08 0.0646
eu27Rdefbug/PIB -1.63793 -3.38 0.007
eu27 Riind/PIB 0.91656 0.67 0.5209
eu27 Ridir/PIB -2.7829 -5.53 0.0003
eu27 Rcs/PIB -3.087 -1.26 0.2372

Source: authors compilation in SAS

The conclusions drawn from the results presented in the table above is that direct taxes to GDP
ratio, budget deficit to GDP ratio and social contributions to GDP ratio have a negative and
significant impact on public debt ratio to GDP. Indirect taxes to GDP ratio influence in a positive
way the dependent variable, but not significantly.

6. THE INFLUENCE OF INDIRECT, DIRECT AND SOCIAL CONTRIBUTIONS

RATIOS ON THE BUDGET DEFICIT TO GDP RATIO IN ROMANIA

Given the simulation performed, the regression equation becomes:

Rdefbug/PIB= -7,53 + 0,88*Riind/PIB + 0.07*Ridir/PIB+(-0.69)*Rcs/PIB
The parameters values are summarized in the table below:

Table 5: Results generated for the effect of fiscal pressure and budget deficit to GDP on public
debt to GDP ratio

Parameter Valuefor t Value for p(t)

a -7.53854 -0.5 0.6298
RORiind/PIB 0.88251 0.92 0.3777
RORidir/PIB 0.0717 0.1 0.9215
RO Rcs/PIB -0.68869 -0.96 0.3586
Source: authors compilation in SAS

Considering the following simulation regarding the evolution of the indicators analyzed in
Romania, we found out that direct taxes to GDP do not affect the budget deficit ratio.
Regarding social contributions to GDP ratio, the influence is moderate and negative. On the
other hand, indirect taxes to GDP have a moderate but positive influence on the budget deficit
to GDP.

7. THE IMPACT OF INDIRECT AND DIRECT TAXATION, SOCIAL

CONTRIBUTIONS AND BUDGET DEFICIT TO GDP ON PUBLIC DEBT TO GDP
IN ROMANIA

Given the simulation performed, the regression equation becomes:

Rdatpb/PIB= 43.13 + (-0,31)*Rdefbug/PIB +(-4.10)*Riind/PIB + (-
2,46)*Ridir/PIB+(4.03)*Rcs/PIB
295
Where the parameter values are summarized in the table below:

Table 6: Impact of indirect, direct, social contributions and budget deficit to GDP on public debt to
GDP
Parameter Value for t Value for p(t)
a 43.12929 1.8 0.102
eu27def -0.31344 -0.67 0.5209
eu27ind -4.10057 -2.63 0.025
eu27dir -2.45699 -2.21 0.0516
eu27cs 4.03429 3.45 0.062
Source: authors compilation in SAS

Regarding the results presented in the paper, we can observe a significant and negative
influence of indirect and direct taxes to GDP on public debt to GDP ratio. Budget deficit to GDP
ratio has a negative but not so significant influence on public debt to GDP ratio.
Social contributions to GDP ratio have a positive and significant effect on public debt to GDP
ratio.
Table 7: Correlation coefficient of variables analyzed for Romania

Source: authors compilation in SAS software

The results obtained under PROCCORR procedure have the following understanding. Each
variable is correlated with the other five variables. On the diagonal correlation variable with
itself is always one, so the main diagonal is marked by the value 1, and correlation coefficients
matrix is symmetrical to this diagonal. The first line of each box shows the strength of the link
between the two variables, and the second row indicates the likelihood of the correlation
coefficient between the two main variables in the community under the assumption the value of
R = 0. For example, the correlation coefficient between variables RODat and Rocs is 0. So there
is a strong positive connection.

8. REFERENCES

Eurostat, European Commission, 2011 Edition,Taxation trends in the European Union

2011, pp. 38-39 available at
[1]
http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_OFFPUB/KS-DU-11-001/EN/KS-DU-11-
001-EN.PDF, accessed at 20.04.2012
[2] Duma Florin- Public Finances, available at ubbcluj.ro/interactiv/cursuri
[3] Bailey S.,2004 - Strategic public finance, Macmillan Palgrave, pp. 151

296
THE IMPACT ON THE ENVIRONMENT TRIGGERED BY THE
INCREASED ENERGY CONSUMPTION IN CHINA
SOLUTIONS FOR A SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Ileana-Sorina RAKOS1, PhD. Maria CIUREA2,
1
Postdoctoral student at the International Economic Institute of Bucharest, Romania,
[email protected]
2
University of Petrosani, Faculty of Sciences, Romania, [email protected]

ABSTRACT
By this paper we aim to highlight the fact that the greatest pollution in the world today is
produced by China, which uses over 60% coal in its energy mix. This aspect has very strong
negative consequences on the environment on a local, regional and global level, by the
important quantities of SO2 and CO2 reaching the atmosphere. At the same time, we wish to
highlight the impact on the environment triggered by an excessive consumption of fossil fuels in
China and what this country could do to use its primary resources to produce energy -
efficiently. For its own economic growth, China needs energy, becoming dependent on the
resources from other countries, such as: Russia, Middle East, and Africa. Therefore, by the
research we have undertaken, we have tried to find solutions for a sustainable development of
China. In our research, we started from the question: What solutions could be implemented in
China for optimal energy consumption, in the context of sustainable development, knowing
that, during the last thirty years, the annual GDP increase of China has been around 10%
annually?, the market of China representing now 8% of the world goods and services trade,
leaving behind even the United States of America. China needs to adopt a way of maintaining a
solution to keep its GDP increase high, yet without endangering its own future and the future of
the world. Today, increasingly more, pollution has become a serious problem leading to severe
climate changes, which have been affecting the Earths climate dramatically. The paper ends by
the authors conclusions concerning the environmental problems triggered by an uncontrolled
energy production by China.

KEYWORDS
environment, energy, sustainable development, coal, pollution

1. INTRODUCTION

Today, one of the most important problems that the contemporary society is faced with is the
issue of environmental quality and protection because pollution has been recording maximal
levels.

297
Even since the oldest times, the issue of environmental quality has preoccupied man; yet,
today, when mankind is faced with the aspects of industrialization, of the extension of the
economic area, with the development of agriculture and the increase of the population number,
the environmental quality constitutes one of the major concerns worldwide. One of the most
significant world pollutants, following its rapid development during the last decennia, is China.
The population of China, during the latest census of the year 2010, was of about 1,370,550,000
people. Although there are strict regulations in the environmental domain, such as the
Environmental Protection Law of the year 1979, they are often ignored by the local
communities and the governmental officials, in favor of a fast economic development, and a
serious health problem in China is caused by its urban air pollution, given the fact that 16 out of
the 20 most polluted cities worldwide are in China. Another serious problem of China, beside
the massive carbon dioxide pollution is the pollution of more than 40% of the water resources,
by industrial and agricultural wastes. Although in the year 2013 China has implemented a five-
year plan, worth 277 billion USD, to reduce air pollution, especially in the north of the country,
it has remained the greatest world pollutant in point of CO2.Therefore, your full paper must
comply with the format described here. The required text styles illustrated in this Microsoft
WORD document must be used as a template for production of the full paper, by replacing the
relevant text with your own. Please use word pre-defined styles in this template. The easiest
way to use this paper form is by cutting and pasting unformatted text into each section to
maintain the documents present format. The content should be compiled without changing the
styles.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW

The issue of environmental pollution following the excessive consumption of primary energy
resources by China and their impact on the environment has been studied by the Chinese
specialists but especially by international European and world organisms such as the
International Energy Agency, which publicized the results obtained both under the form of
articles, and as ample analyses carried out on the level of each country in the world, in various
publications such as: Energy Climate and Change, Tracking Clean Energy Progress 2015, China
Daily in English , Science Ecology, Alternative Energy, Wind Energy, Solar Energy, Global
Warming, Climate Changes, Reports of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change / IPCC.
According to the researchers, the emissions have grown faster between the years 2000 and
2010 than during the previous three decennia, and about half of the carbon dioxide emissions
of the period 1750-2010 are due to the last 40 years, having a worrying effect on the planet,
which determines the need that by the year 2100 the gas emissions worldwide should tend to
zero for life to continue on Earth. Consequently, the importance of the global pollution issue
triggered by China comes mainly from the concerns of different researchers in this respect, both
on the level of China, and especially on the international level.

3. RESEACH METHODOLOGY

To gather the information necessary for our study we have used the theoretical documentary
research specific of any scientific approach, to acquire knowledge in the domain under
analysis in order to start the empirical research process. To extract the theoretical information,
the data were gathered from the databases of world publications in the domain of energy and
industry of the International Agency for Energy. To analyze the various international reports, we
have used the deductive and the statistical method, to understand their informational content
and to arrange the material observations, quantified, clearly and concisely, for a good graphical
representation of the data and for their correct interpretation. Practically, we consider that we
have used a methodology merging fundamental and applicative research. The fundamental
298
research undertaken has the advantage of putting together an important amount of data,
offering, on the one hand, possible ways of reaching a consensus for all the existing debates on
this topic and, on the other hand, highlighting future research directions relying on questions

long is life on Earth going to continue?

4. GENERAL APPROACHES REGARDING SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN

CHINA
The notion of sustainable development as it has been defined at different summits on this topic
of the UN (Rio de Janeiro, Kyoto), refers to a model of socio-economic development that takes
into account resource preservation and enviornmental protection. The most quoted definition of
sustainable development is the one in the Brundtland Report of WCED: sustainable
development aims to meet the needs of the present without compromising the possibility of the
future generations to meet their own needs. We consider that there are three key data in the
appearance and development of the concept of sustainable development: - the first would be
the year 1972, namely the moment of the Stockholm Conference; the second would be the year
1987, in the framework of the World Commission for Environment and Development,
Department of Education (Western Cape) and the third would correspond to the year 1992,
namely the Earth Summit. The concept has begun to be dealt with in a broader sense in the
year 1987 as the Report Our Common Future was published, moment when the principles and
laws of sustainable development were set. The Report pleaded for reconciling the economy with
the environment, the accent falling on the development of the whole planet, present and
future. As a development model in the urban areas, sustainable development has a number of
peculiarities, given by the fact that, in the big cities, the environmental dimension, the
economic and the social dimension condition one another the most strongly. The three domains
refer to aspects such as: the economic domain - a certain level of revenues allowing a decent
living for man; the social domain - covering a large array of topics such as child development,
education, access to social care; these correspond to social, cultural and health needs, for a
more equitable distribution of the revenues within and among the nations; the environmental
domain - the future generations need to be able to breathe clean air and to benefit of the
natural resources of the ground and underground having the role of maintaining the long-term
viability of the ecosystems. Sustainable development appears only when the objectives of the
three different zones (economic, environment and social) are met simultaneously. By attaining
the objectives of two out of these three zones, the result is only a partial integration of
sustainable development. In the large Chinese cities are concentrated the most numerous
environmental problems, yet, at the same time, here are also concentrated most of the
resources able to solve them: the most numerous economic operators, the most numerous
investments, the most numerous human and financial resources. The latest act on sustainable
development, the Kyoto Protocol, signed in 1997 and put into practice beginning with the year
2005 refers to the commitments of the international community on reducing greenhouse effect
gases. The Popular Republic of China has not signed this agreement. The WHO Report
highlights that only 31% of the Chinese cities meet the air quality standards. The cost of the
damage triggered on the environment through pollution represents for China about10% of the
GDP. These numbers highlight the fact that one of the greatest environmental problems in
China is the pollution generated by burning fossil fuels. China holds the first position worldwide
regarding carbon dioxide emission and the contribution to the annual global warming. China is
the largest coal producer worldwide, with a continually growing production: from 2.226 billion
tonnes in 2005 it reached 3.660 billion tonnes in 2013, which represents an increase of over
64%. By the end of the year 2006, the coal reserves of China were of 114 billion tonnes (black
coal and lignite), situating it on the third place worldwide, after the USA and Russia. If the
exploitation level remains on the level of the year 2012, China will exhaust its coal reserves in

299
the next 31 years. The extraordinarily dynamic rhythm of the Chinese economy is likely not to
decrease in the near future and, to maintain it, China introduces a new coal-based power plant
every 7-10 days. In 2013, the power produced increased by 50 gigawatts compared to the
previous year, which represents about seven times the annual power consumption of New York
City. At the same time, China holds the record regarding the hidden costs involved by the
power production. Regarding the coal use, it is necessary either to increase the GDP based on
the continued exploitation and use of coal, or to generate power with a different intensity,
produced using renewable energy resources. We can therefore ask ourselves the question:
What policies should be put into operation to permit the implementation of a maximal
sustainable development scenario? What could be done to decrease the emissions to a level
that could be environmentally sustainable? To put China back on a sustainable track, we should
rely on a price increase analysis to calculate the elasticity of the prices of the polluting
emissions in China. To build such a price, it is not enough to throw a profit margin over the
fixed and variable costs of the coal product or over the power provision service. Practically, we
should test the market, how much it is willing to offer, in relation to the volume sold. The
correct price is neither small nor great but exactly that amount of money which, covering the
costs, maximizes the profit. Ideally, the provider should not remain with any unsold power
quantity, and in order to do so, it should not produce only quantitatively, but also qualitatively,
with as few gas emissions in the atmosphere as possible. Starting from the idea that when the
price of a good or service decreases, the quantity demanded increases, next we shall discuss
about how the optimal price for power can be set, as we wish the Chinese state to sell a
cleaner and more affordable energy. The best known instrument for setting it is the price
elasticity, which shows how the volume of the demand is affected compared to the price
modification. Let us take a concrete example, a Gcal produced by a mine in China for a price of
53 USD/Kwh, for which it has 100 consumers. Several months later, let us say that the
respective mine increases the respective price to 60 USD/Kwh, yet it notices that it has fewer
consumers, namely 80. We shall naturally ask ourselves the question: How should the provider
proceed the following month? Decrease the price, or increase it a little more? Price elasticity
PE X X / X , P P / P
where: X is the quantity and P is the price.
To interpret price elasticity, the minus sign is not taken into account.
PE > 1 Demand is elastic; a change of price triggers a major change in quantity;
PE = 1 Demand is unitary, a change of price triggers a proportional change of quantity;
PE < 1 demand is inelastic, a change of price triggers a minor change in quantity.
The last case is desirable, because a significant price increase will affect to a lesser extent the
demand. PE = 0, the demand is perfectly inelastic, a major price change does not determine
any quantity change. In our case, the demand is elastic; the provider will cash in less. The
demand is very sensitive to price variation. In order to have had a unitary-elastic demand, it
should have been of 100 consumers; therefore a modification by the same percentage of the
price would have attracted the same number of consumers. Thus, the provider will decide to
lower the price, waiting for larger sales. Supposing that the evolution would be proportional
(often it is even exponential), one can calculate the form of the function, which is:
f(x) = - x + 75 (useful for price projections).
If the break even point (the moment when neither profit, nor loss is recorded) of the provider is
50 USD/kwh, then he can expect a number of 110 consumers for this price. If the production
cost were lower, then it would be more profitable for the provider to choose the price variant of
50 USD/kwh. If, however, the real cost is 49 USD/kwh, the provider would earn the same
amount of money, both for the price of 53 USD/kwh, and for that of 60 USD/kwh. It remains up
to him to decide if he wants to win a market share including a larger number of consumers.
Price is more often than not the first impression that a consumer associates to the service. The
300
price segments the market and more often than not a too small price can be repulsive, while a
big price can inspire trust, yet if the consumer does not receive the desired quality, he will
reject the offer in the future. Why is demand elasticity smaller for certain goods, while for
others it is bigger? The main factor is related to the existence or the inexistence of some
alternative power sources. Coal could be substituted by wind, solar, hydro, nuclear power etc.
An increase in the coal price will determine an increased demand for the substitutes
enumerated above and a decrease of the number of consumers of the energy produced based
on fossil fuels. Consequently, the services for which there is not a great number of substitutes
tend to have an elastic demand, whereas a product for which there are no substitutes tends to
have an inelastic demand. Yet, elasticity also depends very much on the weight of the service
price in relation to the budget of a person or of a family. The elasticity of the demand also
depends on the time horizon. A price increase does not trigger, in the short term, a decrease in
the consumption, yet, in the long run, the consumers find solutions to diminish the expenses,
such as isolating their homes. The price setting strategy can be everything. This can be the
difference between impetus and collapse, between being the service that everyone will talk
about or not. Thus, we can also state that sustainability in the energy sector can be considered
by means of three approaches:
Maintaining the revenues per capita. The idea of maintaining the welfare standards is an
essential component of sustainability keeping the total capital constant in time;
Internalizing power externalities. Power consumption or production is accompanied by
emissions that are sometimes damaging for human health or for the environment.
Pigou, a British economist, has shown that the negative externalities caused by pollution
would be internalized by the market, if the pollutants were to pay a tax equal to the
marginal social cost pertaining to the polluting emissions. Thus, during the last few
years, an effort has been made to quantify these negative external costs related to
power. Indeed, by evaluating the externalities of any power source and by internalizing
them in the economic decisions of the power producers, it would be possible to have a
more efficient power system;
Eliminating power subventions. Subventioning the power sector has social, economic
and environmental consequences. In reality, these subventions are not as attractive as
people might expect. In poor countries, these subventions are meant to improve the
fate of the population with average revenues, yet, however, they tend to practically
improve the situation of a part of the population with large revenues because the poor
population does not have access to the power network or cannot even afford to buy
power benefting of subventions. Regarding the economic consequences, subventions
reduce the price of fossil fuels, which will increase the coal quantity consumed and
naturally will increase the quantity of polluting gases or greehouse gases reaching the
atmosphere. Subventioning power, leads to global and local warming, thrugh an
increase of the CO2, SO2, NOX and particulate matter emissions which are unfavorable
for the environment.
There are very many discussions regarding the precise definition of subvention in the domain of
energy and very little information regarding the level of the subventions in each country. In
specialized terms, subvention means the payment, the funding by the State or by private
persons usually non-reimbursable given to firms, private industrial groups, State groups,
mixed groups or natural persons to cover the difference between the producers cost and the
sales price, in principle, when the price is smaller than the marginal cost, and in order to realize
some specific actions and objectives. The power supply at accessible and reliable prices has a
strong influence on economic sustainability, energy being vital for the economic development.
Even though power subventions are very widely spread worldwide, it should be noticed that
non-CEDO countries spend about twice as much as CEDO countries on power subventions. We
actually consider that eliminating power subventions would support the three main goals of

301
sustainable development, namely: social welfare, environmental protection and economic
growth.
If power subventions were eliminated, the population would benefit from the
perspective of the three domains as follows:
for the social component the benefit would consist in the fact that the access to
electricity improves the quality of life, by imprving public heealth, mobility and
education;
for the economic component, the benefit would consist in the elimination of this burden
from the shoulders of the Chinese people, because practically this subvention granted by
the government is public money, coming from the population from taxes and the money
resulted from the elimination of this subvention could be used in the social domain
health, culture, education etc.;
for the environmental component, the benefit would be immense, first of all for the
environment and secondly for the health of the population.
The impact of the elimination of this subvention will depend on the circumstances specific of
China, such as energy policies, the state of development of the power markets, the efficiency of
the competition on the market, the power for which subventions are received and their level
etc. Reducing (or eliminating) subventions permits to reduce the stimulation of the consumption
or over-consumption of polluting energy sources. First of all, by removing a subvention, the
Government would allow the energy prices to give correct signals to the consumers,
consequently, the consumers would reduce the quantity of fossil fuels consumed, and the
producers would decrease the coal production, promoting better technologies or at least less
polluting than the fuels. The economic policies need to eliminate subventions for fossil fuels in
order to protect the local and global environment, and then need to determine the producers to
pay for the externalities they create by gas emissions, through carbon dioxide taxes, sulphur
taxes etc.; this is how the Government can reduce the pollution. According to the specialists in
this domain, over a billion domestic and industrial consumers of China do not pay bills equal to
the real power price, adding 2,300 billion dollars to the burden of global subventions. The
specialists consider that if the subventions for coal, oil and gas were eliminated, the level of
CO2 emissions (contributing the most to the greenhouse effect) could go down by 20%
worldwide, which will be much more efficient than any previous attempt to reduce pollution,
while continuing to use fossil fuels. Consequently, several variants to reduce gas emissions
in the atmosphere would be possible, namely:
eliminating subventions;
increasing prices;
making an increase use of alternate sources (solar, wind, hydro, nuclear, bio-mass
energy);
internalizing externalities (by applying a price to the gas emissions in the atmosphere)
which is one of the most common ways of approaching pollution;
reducing the number of cars etc.

5. THE INFLUENCE OF COAL DEMAND ON POWER CONSUMPTION AND THE

IMPACT OF THE LATTER ON THE ENVIRONMENT

China is the most populous country in the world and the second world economy after the USA.
To support its economy, China needs huge quantitites of energy, especially electricity. For many
scores of years, the coal consumption in China has had just one direction: up. China has huge
coal reserves, being situated on the third place worldwide after Russia and the United States,
the coal held by China representing approximately 12% of the world reserves. Since the basic

302
energy mix produced by China could be characterized as rich in coal and poor in oil and natural
gas, China continues to rely on coal to generate energy. According to some of the research in
this domain, the energy proportion obtained from coal rises to 72% of the total capacity
installed and 80% of the total electricity generated. During the last few years, the proportion
represented by coal in this mix increased because of the rise in the oil prices and because of its
repeated absence. During the last 30 years the annual coal consumption in China went down
only on two occasions, the most recently in 1997. Considering the political orientation of China
towards diversifying the energy production system beyond coal and the great accent on air
quality, the question is whether this tendency is going to stop soon, the result being a coal
demand peak after the year 2019. The Chinese electricity market is the second in size
worldwide, after that of the USA. Annually, 1950 billion Kwh are generated by the Chinese
power plants. About three thirds of this quantity is produced by coal-based power plants. From
here, one can deduce two important consequences: air pollution and increased CO2 emissions,
leading to the amplification of man-made global warming. There is a possibility that both of
these problems of the Chinese economy could be mitigated through the use of schyst gas. In
the year 2015, about 65 % of the electricity generated has come from burning coal, around
15% from gas, about 15% from hydro resources and 1% from oil and around 4% from nuclear
resources, namely uranium. From the perspective of consumption, most of the electricity
generated by China is used in the industry, which represents over 75%. The rest is consumed
by the dwelling sector 12%, trade sector 10% and agriculture 3%. The energy demand in the
industry is given by the continual growth of the sectors of steel, cement and aluminium, which
consume much energy. However, China, as a developing country, is not responsible for most of
the bad things happening now in matters of pollution. It is responsible for the cumulated CO2
emissions of the period 1900-2015, along with the USA and the EU, which represent more than
half of these emissions. It is true that, during the last few years, the emissions of China have
suddenly increased, China taking the place of the USA as the first CO2 emitter worldwide, and
in the year 2030, the Chinese emissions have been estimated to be 66% larger than those of
the USA, which, at present, is situated on the 2nd place worldwide. This is a factor motivating
this country to be interested in acting responsibly in this domain. Consequently, the following
question emerges: What policies should be implemented to realize a maximally sustainable
development scenario? What could be done to decrease the emissions to a sustainable level
from the environmental perspective? The increase of the energy consumption is expected to
have significant implications on the world energy market. China will be responsible for most of
the demand for more coal.
For example, the coal consumption in the year 2030 will represent almost 60% of the energy
production and around 40% of the world increase of the energy demand. The sectors with the
greatest subventions are the greatest consumers of energy and the greatest producers of
carbon such as coal and oil extraction and the electricity sector. An economy without these
subventions would consume less energy and would produce less carbon dioxide, because only
the best and the most efficient companies would survive. The specialists foresee that until the
year 2030, coal will remain the dominant fuel for the production of energy, with a ratio varying
between 52.6% and 63.2% of the entire energy produced in China, while the consumption of
the other energy resources will increase less, an exception being the consumption of renewable
energy resources, which will experience a certain impetus. The future of the Chinese coal
depends very much on investments. If investments are made to improve productivity and
transport, in order to protect the environment, China will remain a strong coal user. If not,
because of the local, regional and global pollution, it might have to reduce its dependence on
coal. However, according to most studies, China will continue to use over 50% coal in its
energy mix, even in the year 2030.

303
 100%

80%

60%
the rest of
40% the world

20% China

0%
cola oil gas nuclear hydro renewable

Figure 1: Energy production forecast, on the level of the year 2030 based on primary resources
Source: World Energy Outlook, International Energy Agency
http://www.worldenergyoutlook.org/media/weowebsite/2008-1994/weo2008.pdf

The main coal user remains the energy sector, and represents two thirds of the energy
demand. China consumes today 40% of the world coal and this ratio coud go up to 50% until
2030. Its demand is forecast to grow to 3487 Mtec in the year 2030 (IEA, 2008). Regarding the
production it is expected to grow to 3.399 Mtec in the year 2030, an aspect that might trigger
extraordinary consequences on the environment. The decline of the Chinese emissions can be
attributed to the decreasing coal consumption on the level of the country, the last years
decrease being the first of this kind in this century. The Greenpeace/Energydesk China analysis
announced that the coal use in China decreased by 8%, and the CO2 emmissions decreased by
5% during the four months of the year, compared to the same period of the year 2014, and the
process has been going on. As part of a reform of this sector, China has decided to close over
1,000 coal mines and the use of this resource has been decreasing, its percentage of reduction
being set at 7.4% per year. An analysis of these data by Greenpeace/Energydesk, regarding the
coal consumption in China, suggests that it has decreased by about 8%, and the CO2 emissions
by about 5% during the first four months of the year, compared to the same period of the year
2014. If the reduction in the coal use continues until the end of the year, it will be the greatest
recorded from year to year and also the greatest reduction of the CO2 emissions. At the same
time, for the first time in the last 40 years, a stagnation of the CO2 emissions in the energy
sector has been recorded, to the level of those of the year 2014, an all the more important
aspect as it is not due to the economic decline of China.

Table 1: Coal consumption - million tonnes

Name of indicator January-April 2014 January-April 2015 Difference
Coal production 1225 1150 -6,1%
Coal imports 111 69 -37,71%
Stocks -9 -22
Source: data by Greenpeace/Energydesk, 2014 and 2015

The calculation relies on a variety of sources, mainly on data regarding the industrial production
of China for the month of April of the year 2015, which revealed a reduction of 6.1% of the coal
production, during its first four months. This has been combined to a reduction of about 38% of
the coal imports, and a reduction of the coal stocks. This calculation relies on the fact that each
tonne of coal produced or imported needs to be consumed, stocked or exported. The data
regarding the production come from the National Statistics Office of China while those
regarding the stocks are from the National Energy Administration.

304
 Table 2: Decrease of CO2 emissions, during the first four months of the year 2015
following the use of energy resources t/TCE (IPCC)Coal
Resource Growth Primary energy ratio CO2 factor, t/tce
(IPCC)
Coal -7.7% 66% 2.77
Oil 4% 17.2% 2.15
Gas 6.6% 5.5% 1.64
CO2 -5.2%
Source: National Energy Administration 2015

One can notice a growth in the use of oil and gas of respectively 4% and 6.6% and a decrease
in the use of coal of 7.7% triggering a decrease of carbon emissions of 5.2%, on the
background of a growing use of solar and wind energy.

6. CONCLUSIONS

During the last decennia, China has suffered because of the pollution and of the serious
deterioration of the environment. While regulations such as the Environmental Protection Law
of 1979 are quite strict, they are nevertheless badly applied, being often ignored by the local
communities and the governmental officials, in favor of a rapid economic development. The
urban air pollution triggers serious health problems in the country, the World Bank estimating
that in the year 2013, 16 out of the 20 most polluted cities in the world were situated in China.
The country also has problems related to potable water. About 298 million Chinese, from the
rural areas, have no access to drinkable water; until the end of the year 2011, 40% of the
rivers of China were polluted by industrial and agricultural wastes. Despite the efforts made, the
global greenhouse emissions have grown to unprecedented values. At present, China is doing
its best to change the actual state of the atmosphere, which has become unbreathable on the
Chinese territory. These changes could occur at reasonable costs, through a good collaboration
of the world states regarding the world climate policy and through Chinas own development
mechanisms. With the money that could be saved by suppressing the subventions and with the
money gathered from the internalization of externalities (the pollution price), the Chinese
government would be able to fund new infrastructures, and also to implement policies meant to
improve the fate of the most underprivileged population. The realization of this desideratum of
sustainable development and implicitly the fight against pollution can only be achieved by
changing the present production and consumption patterns, unfriendly to the environment, by
giving up on short-term approaches and visions, by correlating the sectorial, local, regional,
national and international strategies and by counteracting some inertial forces that go against
the sustainable development criteria and principles. What has turned China into a world leader
in the industrial production is due to the low labor force costs, high productivity and relatively
good infrastructure.
This paper has been financially supported within the project entitled Horizon 2020 Doctoral
and Postdoctoral Studies: Promoting the National Interest through Excellence, Competitiveness
and Responsibility in the Field of Romanian Fundamental and Applied Economic Research,
contract number POSDRU/159/1.5/S/140106. This project is co-financed by the European Social
Fund through Sectoral Operational Programme for Human Resources Development 2007-2013.
Investing in people!Please numerate the figures and tables consecutively in the document.
Figures should be embedded directly in the document. To reduce the size of your final paper, it
is possible to compress all images in the document by right-clicking on an image, choosing
Format Picture, Compress and reducing all images in the document to printing resolution.
Numbering is automatic by Style definition (style=figure).

305
7. REFERENCES

Arnold, W. (2014), Chinese Finance Official: Please Excuse Us While We Renovate

[1]
Our Economy, Wall Street Journal 12.04.2014
Alexeeva O.V. et Roche I. (2014), La Chine en transition nergtique : Un virage
[2] vers les nergies renouvelables? , https://vertigo.revues.org/15540 accessed on
27.05.2015
Brown L.R. (2005), China Replacing the United States as worlds leading consumer,
[3]
February 16, 2005-1, Earth Policy Institute
Cohen, A. (2014), Learning from China: A Blueprint for the Future of Coal in Asia,
[4] The National Bureau of Asian, http://www.nbr.org/research/activity.aspx?id=418
accessed on 5.06. 2015
Gomes, J., Is America giving up?, http://www.cnbc.com/2014/04/17/is-america-
[5]
giving-up.html accessed on 5.06.2015
Hang L., Tu M. (2007), The impacts of energy prices on energy intensity: evidence
[6]
from China, Energy Policy, Vol. 35, pp. 2978-2988
Harjani, A., (2014), China GDP puts to rest worst fears over economy,
[7] http://www.cnbc.com/2014/04/16/china-gdp-puts-to-rest-worst-fears-over-the-
economy.html accessed on 2.06.2015
International Energy Agency, (2015), World Energy Outlook 2015, IEA,
[8] https://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/weo-2015-special-
report-energy-climate-change.html accessed on 28.05.2015
Keqiang Li,.(2014) The Annual Gathering of Business and Political Leaders in China,
[9]
http://blogs.wsj.com/chinarealtime/tag/li-keqiang/ accessed on 3.05.2015
Kot S., Mcri M., (2015), Companies Operation Environment in a Global Economy
(Chapter 4), in Systemic Approaches to Strategic Management: Examples from the
[10] Automotive Industry, by Ioan Constantin Dima, Publisher IGI Global USA,
http://www.igi-global.com/chapter/companies-operation-environments-in-a-global-
economy/117484
Mcri M. (2009), Cererea i oferta n economia concurenial de pia, Publishing
[11]
Arves, Craiova
[12] Mcri M. (2013), Bazele economiei, Publishing Universitas, Petroani
Mcri M., Man M., (2014), Approaches to the international capital flows in the
globalized economy, Journal Internal Auditing & Risk Management, Pubisher
[13]
University Atheneum, Bucharest, Year IX, No.4(36),
http://www.univath.ro/files/pdf/Nr_46(3)_2014.pdf
Mcri M. Grabara I. (2014), Production cost in conditions of the global economy a
form of nonverbal communication (Chapter 10), n current communication
[14]
difficulties, Zip Publishing, Columbus, Ohio - SUA, Publisher SITECH Craiova,
Romnia, 2014
Sinton J.E., (2008), How much is enough? Chinas Appetite for coal, Presentation to
Electricity Policy Research Group, Judge Business School, University of Cambridge,
[15]
27th October, http://www.eprg.group.cam.ac.uk/wp-
content/uploads/2008/12/jonathan-sinton.pdf accessed on 23.05.2015
Rakos, I.S., Antohe, A. (2014), Environmental Cost - An Environment Management
Accounting Component, International Journal of Academic Research in Accounting,
[16]
Finance and Management Sciences, Vol. 4, No.4, October 2014, pp. 166175,
HRMARS ,www.hrmars.com
[17] http://www.iea.org/countries/non-membercountries accessed on 20.05.2015

1
306
 STRATEGII DE MANAGEMENT N ECONOMIA MINIER
CRISTIAN ALEXANDRU DOBRE1, CRISTINA BTUARU2, ALEXANDRA OTETEA3,
MIHAI ARISTOTEL UNGUREANU4
1
Universitatea Lucian Blaga din Sibiu, Sibiu, Romania, [email protected]
2
Universitatea Lucian Blaga din Sibiu, Sibiu, Romania, [email protected]
3
Universitatea Lucian Blaga din Sibiu, Sibiu, Romania, [email protected]
4
Universitatea Lucian Blaga din Sibiu, Sibiu, Romania, E-mail

ABSTRACT
Situaia actual a exploatrilor miniere din Romnia ne prezint o exprimare a deciziilor
manageriale a acestui domeniu care dac nu va fi mbuntait poate duce n viitor la o stopare a
exploatrilor miniere nu datorit neprofitabilitii acestui sistem ci datorit slabei gestionri a
resurselor, a oportunitailor i a punctelor tari din acest sector industrial. Prezentm n aceast
lucrare cteva strategii de management care pot ajuta n armonizarea profitabilitii minelor cu
impactul economic, social dar i cu influena n mediului nconjurtor. Transparena minelor i
organizarea acestora ntr-un sistem eficient poate fi o binecuvntare ci nu o povar pentru
Romnia.

KEYWORDS
Management, mining, strategy

1. INTRODUCERE

Sectorul industriei miniere din Romnia reprezint un segment deosebit de important menit s
susin activ dezvoltarea economic a rii prin furnizarea unei game variate de produse
minerale, utilizate ca atare sau ca materii prime.
Gestionarea eficient i utilizarea durabil a resurselor minerale pentru a asigura aprovizionarea
pe termen lung cu materii prime la nivel naional, crend n acelai timp condiiile prealabile
pentru dezvoltarea economic ntr-un mediu global cu oportuniti pentru activiti generatoare
de afaceri internaionale.
Factorii implicai:
- mediul de afaceri;
- autoritile responsabile ale statului (MECMA, ANRM, ARDDZI, etc.);
- nvmntul i educaia;
- institutele de cercetare-dezvoltare-inovare;
- organizaiile profesionale, sindicale, asociaii patronale, ONG-uri,etc..
n prezent, n Uniunea Europeana, ct i pe plan mondial, cererea de produse miniere, n
special pe sectorul non-energetic este n cretere, acelai lucru manifestndu-se i n Romnia.

307
Iniiativa Comisiei Europene privind materiile prime este esenial pentru funcionarea durabil
a societii moderne. Asigurarea unui acces fiabil i constant la materii prime constituie un
factor din ce n ce mai important pentru competitivitatea UE i prin urmare un element esenial
pentru creterea economic i a locurilor de munc n Europa.
n noiembrie 2008, Comisia European a adoptat Iniiativa privind materiile prime
satisfacerea celor mai importante necesiti ale noastre privind dezvoltarea i locurile de munc
n Europa (Raw Materials Initiative) care a propus o strategie integrat a Uniunii Europene ca
rspuns la diferitele provocri legate de accesul la materiile prime ne-energetice. Aceasta a unit
diferite politici ale Uniunii Europene, att externe (ex. relaii externe, comer, dezvoltare), ct i
interne (ex. mediu, competitivitate, inovare) i a promovat o mai strns cooperare ntre statele
membre, acolo unde este cazul. Strategia se bazeaz pe trei piloni:
1. garantarea accesului la materii prime pe pieele internaionale n aceleai condiii ca i
ceilali concureni industriali;
2. determinarea condiiilor la nivel comunitar, capabile de a favoriza o aprovizionare durabil
cu materii prime din surse europene;
3. dinamizarea eficacitii globale a resurselor i promovarea reciclrii n scopul de a reduce
consumul de materii prime principale n Uniunea European i de a reduce dependena fa de
importuri.

2. OBIECTIVE STRATEGICE ALE INDUSTRIEI

2.1. Obiective strategice generale:

- asigurarea resurselor minerale necesare dezvoltrii durabile a rii, cu prioritate din producia
intern;
- armonizarea interesului naional cu necesitatea atragerii de capital de investiii i cu incadrarea
n cerinele de sustenabilitate;
- atragerea n circuitul economic a unui numr ct mai mare i variat de resurse
minerale;
- reducerea dependenei de importurile de resurse de energie primar i de materii prime
minerale.

2.2. Obiective strategice specifice i directii prioritare privind cercetarea i

dezvoltarea tehnologic

Atingerea obiectivelor strategiei necesit pe lng expertiza acumulat i formarea profesional

i recrutarea unei noi generaii de specialiti practicieni i cercettori. Mediul de afaceri are de
asemenea, o contribuie important n acest domeniu alturi de administraia central din
Romnia, Ministerul Economiei, Comerului i Mediului de Afaceri, Ministerul Educaiei i
Cercetrii i Autoritatea Naional de Cercetare tiinific - ANCS.
ANCS va trebui s investeasc n programe de cercetare n sectorul resurselor minerale. Trebuie
pus n aplicare un program de cercetare n sectorul resurselor minerale, cu scopul de a dezvolta
produse noi i inovative, procese i servicii care s cuprind toate aspectele legate de lanul de
utilizare al resurselor minerale.
O colaborare mai strns ntre grupurile de lucru din cercetare i din industria extractiv (i cele
conexe) poate fi sursa unor noi oportuniti. Alturi de alte state membre, Romnia va milita
pentru includerea vizibil de propuneri din sectorul resurselor minerale n cadrul Programului
(2014-2020), astfel nct acesta trebuie s devin un obiectiv cheie.

308
2.3. Obiective prioritare pentru cercetare-dezvoltare:

- minerit invizibil i inteligent;

- procese tehnologice, automatizare i optimizare inovativ;
- utilizare eficient a materialelor, energiei i a apei;
- minimalizarea emisiilor de gaze;
- procese chimice i biologice de mbogire;
- sisteme de date geodezice i modelare multi-dimensionale;
- tehnologii de explorare inovative;
- extragere i mbogire bazate pe high-tech a metalelor;
- reciclare, materiale noi i alternative;
- cuantificarea i managementul impactului asupra mediului.
Programul de cercetare general trebuie s stea la baza fundamentrii i susinerii politicilor i
strategiilor naionale de dezvoltare a sectorului minier, identificrii tendinelor noi, a direciilor
critice n domeniul consumului, extraciei, valorificrii resurselor miniere i aspectelor sociale. n
acest scop sunt necesare:
- studii economice privind dimensiunea cererii de materii prime minerale, dinamica achiziiilor i
tendinele pieei care vor sta la baza elaborrii strategiilor, modelelor alternative i
metodologiilor pentru susinerea politicilor de dezvoltare naional;
- studii pentru diversificarea, protejarea i punerea n valoare a bazei de materii prime minerale,
fezabile i adaptabile la conjuncura de pia;
- studii interdisciplinare privind capacitatea de producie corelat cu impactul social i gradul de
epuizare a rezervelor;
- studiul impactului de mediu asupra ariilor afectate n contextul modului i principiilor de
exploatare a unui zcmnt prin opiunea, n subteran sau la suprafa;
Programul de cercetare geologic trebue s conduc la constituirea bazei naionale de date cu
privire la resursele minerale, s clarifice asupra perspectivelor de identificare a noilor zcminte
s conduc la finalizarea lucrrilor geologice n zonele cu perspective de conturare a unor
rezerve valorificabile.
Cercetarea geologic poate fi structurat astfel:
- studii de reevaluare i valorificare a fondului de date acumulate n ultimii ani,
sistematizarea i interpretarea acestuia, in corelare cu datele existente anterior, n
scopul evalurii gradului de cunoatere a teritoriului i a perspectivelor de punere n eviden a
unor zcminte noi;
- studii de reevaluare a fondului naional de rezerve de substane minerale utile, innd seama
att de conjunctura actual i tendinele pieei ct i de evoluia tehnologiilor de extracie i
prelucrare;
- studii de sintez pentru evaluarea gradului de cunoatere a condiiilor de genez,
metalogenez i dezvoltare a faciesurilor purttoare de mineralizaii, n vederea localizrii ariilor
de perspectiv i fundamentrea programelor de cercetare viitoare.
- studii n vederea evalurii, din punct de vedere cantitativ i calitativ, a depozitelor
antropogene (tehnogene) rezultate din activitatea de extracie i preparare a minereurilor
(iazuri de decantare, halde de steril);
Cercetarea sectorial trebuie s conduc la diversificarea i perfecionarea opiunilor
tehnologice de producie i valorificare a produsului minier, s promoveze recuperarea
substanelor minerale utile din toate sursele disponibile (inclusiv zcminte izolate, depozite

309
antropogene, deeuri sau ape uzate), s detalieze cadrul tehnic att la scar macro, pentru
operatori mari ct i la scar micro pentru IMM-uri.
Arii tematice de cercetare tiinific, dezvoltare i inovare tehnologic:
- cercetri privind elaborarea de noi tehnologii n scopul valorificrii superioare a substanelor
minerale utile i utilizarea metodelor biotehnologice pentru tratarea deeurilor i epurarea
apelor reziduale;
- optimizarea fluxurilor de producie din punct de vedere al asigurrii utilitilor de baz:
energie, microclimat, transport;
- adaptarea metodelor de deschidere, pregtire i exploatare, n condiiile reevalurii rezervelor
din zcmnt i innd seama de schimbrile intervenite pe piaa productorilor de maini i
utilaje miniere;
- analiza stabilitii fizice i chimice a perimetrelor miniere i depozitelor de steril i studierea
comportrii n timp a reabilitrii perimetrelor miniere i depozitelor de steril innd cont de
condiiile meteorologice i a potenialului local;
- studii i cercetri privind realizarea la nivel naional a hrilor specifice privind
emanaiilor de gaze din lucrrile miniere subterane i a zonelor de influen asupra
comunitilor locale, stabilirea cadrului legislativ necesar clasificrii;
- dezvoltarea de tehnici, proceduri, tehnologii noi n scopul creterii gradului de securitate i
sntate n munc, creterii randamentului la lucrrile de mpucare i reducerii pierderilor de
substane minerale utile;
- cercetri noi asupra cauzelor apariiei fenomenelor tranzitorii specific atmosferei subterane,
metode de prevenire i combatere a lor n cazul exploatrii subterane a substanelor minerale
utile; profilaxia i combaterea fenomenelor de combustie spontan a substanelor minerale utile
(crbune, sulfuri, etc.), cu proprieti de oxidare din subteran, suprafa i depozite;
- optimizarea reelelor de ventilaie n care sunt prezente atmosferele potenial explozive i/sau
toxice n scopul prevenirii, limitrii i combaterii fenomenelor de explozie care pot s apar la
exploatarea n subteran a substanelor minerale utile;
- dezvoltarea i aplicarea unor tehnici noi (inclusiv gazeificare) n ceea ce privete extragerea i
valorificarea gazului metan din crbune, din straturile de roci i substane minerale utile
purttoare, inclusiv cercetri privind metode noi de valorificare a gazelor combustibil la
concentraii mici din curenii de evacuare din subteran, la minele de crbune i petrol la nivelul
staiilor principale de ventilaie;
- cercetri privind dezvoltarea unor metode neconvenionale de recuperare a energiei termice
din subteran, respectiv a energiei geotermice;
- cercetri privind identificarea unor destinaii noi a reelelor de lucrri miniere subterane (de
exemplu: depozite subterane, fitoculturi, etc.);
- cercetri privind dezvoltarea de tehnici i metode noi privind depozitarea de CO2;
- cercetri privind valorificarea substanelor minerale utile pentru reluarea exploatrii n
perimetrele aferente minelor nchise sau n conservare, utiliznd metode de exploatare cu un
randament crescut i cu costuri investiionale minime.

2.4. Obiective prioritare pentru Substanele Minerale Utile

2.4.1. Obiectivele prioritare pentru lignit

- concentrarea activitii n perimetrele miniere cu potenial de eficien economic;

- extinderea perimetrelor existente n vederea exploatrii raionale i valorificrii

310
superioare a zcmntului n concordan cu cererea de lignit la nivel naional pentru perioada
strategiei;
- asigurarea bazei materiale pe termen lung prin deschiderea unor noi perimetre n condiii de
eficien economic;
- masuri legislative pentru achiziionarea proprietilor imobiliare (terenuri, gospodrii) necesare
dezvoltrii exploatrii n cel mai scurt termen, dup o just despgubire;
- continuarea programului de reabilitare, retehnologizare i modernizare a fluxurilor tehnologice
mijloacelor de producie corelat cu asigurarea bazei materiale pe termen lung;
- atragerea de surse de finanare de pe piaa de capital;
- refacerea mediului n cel mai scurt timp n zonele care nu mai sunt afectate de
activitatea minier i diminuarea maxim a impactului asupra mediului natural n zona de
activitate;
- atenuarea problemelor sociale determinate de ncetarea activitii ca urmare a
epuizrii rezervelor n anumite perimetre sau din alte cauze;
- perspectiva repoziionrii crbunelui ca sursa primara de energie strategic.

2.4.2. Obiectivele prioritare pentru huil

- restructurarea activitii de exploatare n entiti separate viabile/neviabile, cu

afilierea celor viabile la structuri noi care s permit funcionarea n condiii de
rentabilitate;
-retehnologizarea exploatarilor miniere viabile n vederea eficientizarii activitii de extracie;
- msuri legislative pentru ncurajarea exploatrii gazului metan din crbune n
perimetrele concesionate (CBM);
- prelungirea termenului de operare a concedierilor colective pn n anul 2018;
- perspectiva repoziionrii crbunelui ca surs primar de energie strategic.
aper should include the following sections: Introduction, Methods, Results, Discussion, and
References.

3. COMUNITATE LOCAL I IMPACT SOCIALFIGURES / PICTURES /

REFERENCES

3.1. Maximizarea beneficiului social

Se va promova conceptul de cooperare ntre comunitile locale, companiile miniere i

autoritile de reglementare, pe parcursul ntregului ciclu de via al activitii miniere.
Companiile trebuie s adopte o responsabilitate social corporativ, dezvoltndu-i
performantele economice ntr-o manier etic (respect fa de oameni i comunitile locale).
Aciunile ntreprinse pentru atingerea acestui obiectiv trebuie s:
- in cont de necesitatea de a respecta i de a promova protecia drepturilor omului;
- susin responsabilitatea social corporativ a ntreprinderilor (CSR);
- practice politici de mprire a veniturilor, asigurndu-se c o parte rezonabil a acestora
merge la comunitile n cadrul crora se desfoar activitatea de exploatare, echilibrnd
conflictele i sprijinind interesele locale.
- sprijine echitabil mediul de afaceri local, comunitile, asociaiile de femei i alte pri
interesate sau afectate de activitile miniere.

311
3.2. Protecia vieii i sntii lucrtorilor din domeniul industriei miniere

Pentru protecia vieii i sntii lucrtorilor din domeniul industriei miniere subteran,
suprafa i activiti conexe- se va aplica i pe mai departe abordarea naional de cooperare
ntre Ministerul Muncii Familiei si Protectiei Sociale (prin departamentele specializate de
securitate i sntate n munc), Inspecia Muncii (prin Inspectoratele teritoriale de Munc) i
Institul National de Cercetare Dezvoltare pentru Securitate Minier i Protecie la
Explozie-INSEMEX Petroani, instituie abilitat pentru efectuarea expertizelor
tehnice a evenimentelor generate de explozii i incendii soldate cu victime sau pagube
materiale, protejarea lucrtorilor, evaluarea i atestarea tehnologiilor, instalaiilor,
echipamentelor, articolelor pirotehnice, explozivilor (inclusiv capse detonante, mijloace i
dispozitive de iniiere sau control) i personalului implicat n activiti n legtur cu atmosferele
potenial explozive i/sau toxice, caracterizarea proprietilor i carcateristicilor amestecurilor
explozive (salvatori, energeticieni, mecanici, operatori i/sau responsabili).
Se va elabora un sistem dinamic de gestionare a riscurilor profesionale din industria minier
care s cuprind cel puin urmtoarele:
- definirea politicii de securitate i sntate n munc a angajatorilor care s
cuprind: enunarea obiectivelor de S.S.M, angajamentul angajatorului (efectele financiare),
indicarea responsabilitilor i a responsabililor pentru fiecare obiectiv, organizarea serviciului de
prevenire i protecie, serviciul de medicin a muncii, pilotarea demersului de gestionare a
riscurilor, identificarea pericolelor, evaluarea i caracterul riscurilor;
- planificarea prevenirii riscurilor: planul de prevenire i protecie, aprobarea
planului n cadrul Comitetului de Securitate i Sntate n Munc al fiecrui Angajator.

3.3. Asigurarea Resursei Umane- Personal competent, specializat n domeniul

resurselor minerale

Sectorul resurselor minerale se confrunt cu o situaie grea datorit numrului redus de

specialiti. Media de vrsta a acestora este ridicat n tot sectorul i datorita perspectivelor de
extindere i dezvoltare, necesarul de specialiti va crete cu siguran. Pregtirea personalului
n Romnia ultimelor dou decenii a fost slab coordonat n acest sector, programele de
pregtire fiind reduse, iar profesorii pensionai. n plus, sectorul resurselor minerale nu este
atractiv pentru tineri, datorit imaginii generale a sectorului. Industria minier cere ns for de
munc profesional calificat, antrenat n tehnici miniere moderne i domenii hightech
emergente, lucru care necesit programe adecvate n universitii de tiine aplicate, colegii
tehnice i coli profesionale.
Conceptul de durabilitate cu privire la utilizarea resurselor naturale trebuie s devin o parte
integrant acceptat a sistemului de nvmnt, n scopul de a promova o nelegere mai larg
a importanei materiilor prime, alturi de alte activitati didactice n stiintele naturii, nc din
primii ani de coal. Acest lucru este important pentru planul de nvmnt general, i n
studiile economie i studiile comerciale. Programe de formare n sectorul resurselor minerale
trebuie s fie promovate n continuare pe termen mediu i lung, cu eforturile de a consolida i
legturile internaionale. Statul va asigura o finanare preferenial programelor de studii n
domeniul resurselor minerale.
Aceste obiective trebuie aliniate cu cele ale tinerilor n micare, proiecte emblematice ale
planului de dezvoltare Europa 2020, care are drept scop mbuntirea rezultatelor sistemului
de educaie i facilitarea accesului tinerilor pe piaa muncii. Astfel, Romnia trebuie s

312
promoveze activ includerea obiectivelor de educaie n sectorul minier i geologic n cadrul
programelor de formare ale Uniunii Europene.
Statul va ncuraja prin msuri specifice (prin acordarea de burse, contracte privind integrarea n
mediul economic la absolvire, etc.) dezvoltarea nvmntului vocaional pentru minerit i
geologie. Acest lucru se va realiza prin parteneriate cu administraiile publice locale i agenii
economici interesai.
Formarea personalului competent din domeniul minier i geologic prin:
-coli profesionale,
-cursuri postliceale,
-cursuri de calificare,
-colegii tehnice,
- nvmntul superior tehnic,
- cursuri universitare,
- cursuri postuniversitare,
- masterate,
- stagii doctorale i postdoctorale,
- specializri, n scopul meninerii i dezvoltrii expertizei tehnice a geologiei miniere.
Pentru acele categorii profesionale i meserii care vor fi necesare ca urmare a evoluiei
tehnologice n domeniul exploatrii resurselor minerale se vor propune noi standarde
ocupaionale, respectiv se vor actualiza cele existente, respectndu-se prevederile legale
referitoare la formarea profesional a adulilor.

3.4. Impactul industriei miniere asupra mediului

- includerea prevederilor privind conservarea biodiversitii n proiectele miniere;

- minimizarea deeurilor generate, prin modele de producie i de consum modificate,
contribuind la prevenirea generrii deeurilor i la reutilizarea, reciclarea i transformarea
deeurilor n produse;
- creterea reciclrii i reutilizrii apei i a altor resurse naturale, protecia mpotriva
contaminrii a apelor de suprafa i subterane i reducerea la minimum a energiei folosite
pentru a produce materii prime i produse derivate;
- implementarea la nivel naional a cadrului legislativ european pentru industria minier pentru
proiectarea iniial a instalaiilor de depozitare, de decantare i de gestionare a deeurilor, de
nchidere, post-nchidere i remediere a siturilor miniere abandonate n aa fel nct s prezinte
risc neglijabil pentru sntatea public, pentru mediu, i un impact social i de mediu redus n
timpul funcionrii i dup nchidere.

4. Domeniul finanelor

Este esenial ca industria minier s contribuie semnificativ prin chirii, redevene i alte forme
transparente de pli, la o distribuire echitabil ntre veniturile companiilor, cele ale autoritatilor
locale i ale statului romn.
Activitile miniere contribuie la dezvoltarea durabil n cazul n care genereaz venituri
adecvate i echitabile. Reprezentantii industriei miniere i statul, vor milita mpreun pentru un
regim fiscal solid i echilibrat, precum i pentru o bun gestionare a resurselor financiare,
necesare pentru a garanta beneficiile pe termen lung.

313
CONCLUZII

- Trebuie avut n vedere maximizarea beneficiilor sociale ale zonei de exploatare minier dar i
a zonelor laturalnice atunci cnd se implementeaz o strategie pe termen lung cu privire la
deciziile managementului si administrrii bazelor miniere.
- Asigurarea resurselor minerale necesare dezvoltrii durabile a rii, cu prioritate din producia
intern;
- Armonizarea interesului naional cu necesitatea atragerii de capital de investiii i cu
incadrarea n cerinele de sustenabilitate;
- Atragerea n circuitul economic a unui numr ct mai mare i variat de resurse minerale;
- Reducerea dependenei de importurile de resurse de energie primar i de materii prime
minerale.

5. REFERENCES

Comisia Comunitilor Europene Comunicare a Comisiei Ctre Parlamentul

[1]
European i Consiliu privind Materiile Prime, Bruxelles 2008
[2] Comisia European EUROPA 2020, Bruxelles 2010
Consiliul Uniunii Europene Concluziile Consiliului referitoare la abordarea
[3]
provocrilor privind materiile prime i de pe pieele de mrfuri, Bruxelles 2011
Comisia European Comunicare a Comisiei ctre Parlamentul European, Comitetul
[4]
Economic i Social European i Comitetul, Bruxelles 2011
Comisia European Comunicare a Comisiei ctre Parlamentul European, Comitetul
[5]
Economic i Social European i Comitetul Regiunilor, Bruxelles 2012
[6] Comisia European Parteneriate pentru Inovare, Bruxelles 2012
[7] Proiect de Strategie Energetic a Romniei pentru Perioada 2011-2013
[8] https://www.google.ro/
[9] https://www.wikipedia.org/
[10] http://liceunet.ro/
[11] http://www.e-referate.ro/
[12] http://eur-lex.europa.eu/

314
 CUANTIFICAREA EFECTULUI REDUCERII ACTIVITATII
EXTRACTIVE IN VALEA JIULUI. SCENARII ENERGETICE
POSIBILE
prof. univ. dr. ing. Nicolae Ilia1, drd. ec. Eduard Mija 2, drd. Ing. Dan Constantin
Marinescu 2 drd. ec. Inga Roioru Cioara1
1
Universitatea din Petroani, Petroani, Romania
2
Complexul Energetic Hunedoara

ABSTRACT
The future of the Jiu Valley coal mining is acutely hardened by a multitude of factors, arising
from the interference of force lines of different decision centers, which effects often exposing
a cumulative and n some cases even antagonist manner- may lead to irreparable
consequences. Avoiding to take into account all the economic, socio-geographic, technogenic
and anthropogenic aspects n their embedment have not allowed until now the delivery of
realist and viable scenarios which cut the Gordian knot of the multilevel challenge which this
socio-industrial complex is facing with, scenarios which fundaments a coherent and consequent
strategy, challenges which unsolved may produce irreversible an dramatic effects not only at
area level, but also on a national scale. The paper intend to offer at least as a methodological
frame- an assessment based on scenarios of the achievements/losses which may occur by
ignoring or no-taking into a fair account of the role of this industrial complex in the future
picture of Romanian energy producing industry.

KEYWORDS
Scenariu, energetic, huil, Valea Jiului

Motto: Daca exista hotrre, soluiile pot fi gsite spunea George Samuel Clason ( 1874-
1957)

1. CONSIDERAII TEHNICO-ECONOMICE

O analiz, am putea zice acum superficial a deciziei de nfiinare a Complexul Energetic

Hunedoara (CEH) n noiembrie 2012, demonstreaz c aceasta s-a bazat n primul rnd pe
criterii legate n principal de interdependena accentuat dintre furnizorul de resurs energetic
(productorul intern de huil energetic, fostul CNH-SA Petroani, divizat n anul 2012 n dou
entiti independente, SNH respectiv SNIMVJ), i cei doi productori de energie electric i
termic existeni n zon, respectiv termocentralele Mintia si Paroeni, i n al doilea rnd, dar
poate cel mai important, pe criterii de natur social, legate de caracterul cvasi-monoindustrial
al zonei.
Cele dou termocentrale incluse n structur sunt diferite din mai multe puncte de vedere:
315
 Termocentrala Mintia are o capacitate instalat teoretic de 1285 MWh, n 6 grupuri (5
grupuri de 210 MWh, din care unul retras din exploatare n 2012, i unul retehnologizat de
235 MWh), dar care se confrunt cu probleme deloc de neglijat, i anume:
o Retragerea din exploatare a dou grupuri deoarece nu ndeplinesc normele europene n
ceea ce privete cerinele de mediu;
o Dezafectarea total a unui grup care este propus la casare;
o Investiii n retehnologizare i instalaii de desulfurare i lam dens pentru celelalte dou
grupuri rmase care se estimeaz la aproximativ 203,5 milioane euro.
Termocentrala Paroeni dispune de un singur grup retehnologizat (respectiv grupul IV), cu
o capacitate de 150 MWh, dat n exploatare comercial n august 2007. Cerinele de mediu
sunt ndeplinite parial, investiia n desulfurare i lam dens ncepnd la mijlocul anului
2013, cu termen de finalizare estimat la 31 de luni de la demararea investiiei.
Aa cum s-a precizat principalul punct comun al celor dou termocentrale l reprezint
combustibilul cu care funcioneaz, respectiv huila energetic extras n bazinul minier Valea
Jiului. Teoretic corect, integrarea minelor viabile (aflate n subordinea SNH, devenit ulterior
Divizie Minier n cadrul CEH), n acest complex a fost fcut fr o analiz economic profund
i fr a avea la baz un program coerent de restructurare i retehnologizare. Necesitatea unui
astfel de program este demonstrat de costurile de extracie ale huilei, costuri care variaz de
la 92 lei/Gcal n cazul minei Vulcan i 157 lei/Gcal n cazul minei Livezeni, cu o medie la nivelul
diviziei miniere de 130 lei/Gcal.
Barometrul viabilitii ntregului complex graviteaz n jurul preului de vnzare a energiei
electrice pe piaa concurenial, pre mediu situat la nivelul lunii august 2015 la 180 lei/MWh
(PZU) i la 163,47 lei/MWh pe PCCB LE . Ca baz de comparaie, costul producerii unui MWh
se situeaz la nivelul de 330 lei n condiiile n care huila era partial achiziionat la 52 lei/Gcal
de la SNIM VJ.
n condiiile n care peste 70 % din costul unui MWh l reprezint huila, iar acesta ar fi fost
asigurata doar din explotarile miniere ale complexului ar rezulta un cost de producie de 456
lei/MWh.
n aceste condiii, Complexul Energetic Hunedoara trebuie sa rezolve probleme care nu au fost
rezolvate din 1990 pn n prezent.

2. SCENARII POSIBILE PRIVIND VIITORUL COMPLEXULUI ENERGETIC

HUNEDOARA

Pornind de la cele prezentate mai sus, putem formula cteva scenarii cu privire la viitorul
Complexului Energetic Hunedoara, i anume:

A. Scenariul 1- foarte pesimist :

a. insolvena,
b. eecul privatizrii,
c. falimentul Complexului Energetic Hunedoara,
d. disponibilizarea i trimiterea n omaj a tuturor angajailor complexului.
B. Scenariul 2 pesimist moderat
a. insolvena,
b. externalizarea componentelor actual viabile, respectiv Electrocentrale Paroeni i a maxim
dou exploatri miniere,
c. nchiderea activitilor neviabile, adic a Electrocentrale Mintia i a celorlalte mine,

316
d. Disponibilizarea i trimiterea n omaj a 2/3 din angajaii complexului.
C. Scenariul 3 pesimist moderat
a. insolvena,
b. externalizarea grupurilor energetice viabile (Grup IV Paroeni i grupurile 3 i 4 Mintia),
c. nchiderea total a activitii extractive,
d. casarea i valorificarea grupurilor rmase de la Mintia, import de crbune i achiziie parial
de la SNIM Valea Jiului.
D. Scenariul 4 optimist
a. evitarea insolvenei
b. realizarea investiiilor,
c. triplarea productivitii extractive,
d. ncadrarea n costuri,
e. supravieuirea i consolidarea complexului
n cazul scenariului 1, n care dispariia industriei extractive a huilei n judeul Hunedoara va
deveni efectiv, efectele socio-economice vor fi att imediate ct i pe termen lung. Aceste
afirmaii sunt susinute de o serie de date prezentate n continuare.
Ameninarea asupra industriei extractive a huilei n judeul Hunedoara se poate msura att n
efecte imediate ct i n efecte n timp. Totui, considerm c cele dou societi constituite la
sfritul anului 2012, care divizeaz exploatrile miniere n mine viabile i mine neviabile
trebuie s reprezinte doar o etap n drumul spre revigorare a activitii n bazinul carbonifer al
Vii Jiului.
Pe de o parte Societatea Naional de nchideri Mine Valea Jiului, care nglobeaz exploatrile
miniere Petrila, Paroeni i Uricani are c orizont de timp anul 2018. n cifre ns acesta
societate nseamn cheltuieli cu bunuri i servicii de 57.052 mii lei, cheltuieli cu impozitele,
taxele i alte vrsminte asimilate de 7.799 mii lei i alte cheltuieli de exploatare de 9.609 mii
lei. La acestea se mai adaug cheltuieli cu salariile, bonusurile i alte cheltuieli cu personalul,
inclusiv cheltuieli de mandat de 82.241 mii lei i cheltuieli cu asigurrile i protecia social
(inclusiv platile compensatorii) de 47.475 mii lei. Cheltuieli pentru investiii au fost estimate la
12.800 mii lei . La finele anului 2014 societatea avea un efectiv de 1.856 persoane i un ctig
salarial inclusiv bonusurile de 3.964 lei.
De cealalt parte Societatea Complexul Energetic Hunedoara, compusa din fosta
SocietateNaional a Huilei (incorporata n urma unui proces de fuziune prin absorbie n
Complexul Energetic Hunedoara la mijlocul anului 2013) nglobeaz minele Lonea, Vulcan,
Livezeni i Lupeni, Exploatarea de preparare a crbunelui i Staia de salvare miniera precum si
Termocentralele Mintia si Paroseni. In cifre acesta societate nseamn cheltuieli cu bunuri i
servicii de 309.877 mii lei, cheltuieli cu impozitele, taxele i alte vrsminte asimilate de 35.002
mii lei i alte cheltuieli de exploatare de 183.251 mii lei. La acestea se mai adaug cheltuieli cu
salariile, bonusurile i alte cheltuieli cu personalul, inclusiv cheltuieli de mandat de 309.194 mii
lei, cheltuieli cu asigurrile i protecia social de 109.325 mii lei i cheltuieli financiare 33.950
mii lei. Cheltuielile pentru investiii au fost estimate la 115.360 mii lei. La finele anului 2014
societatea avea efectiv de 6.597 persoane i un ctig salarial inclusiv bonusurile de 3.906 lei.

317
 Figura:1. Structura organizatoric a industriei miniere n Valea Jiului
Efectivele de personal ale celor dou societi reprezint 7.68 % din efectivul salariailor
nregistrat la sfritul lunii decembrie 2014 la nivelul judeului, cca. 30% la nivelul Vii Jiului
(n.a. estimat din lipsa de date statistice) respectiv (0.16% la nivel naional) iar ctigul salarial
al personalului din cele dou uniti reprezint o influen important asupra nivelului salarial
mediu brut de 1.888 lei nregistrat n jude la sfritul aceleai luni.
Contribuiile salariailor la bugetul consolidat al statului, reprezentnd CAS , CASS, SOMAJ,
Impozit salarii s-ar situa anual la aproximativ 127.219 mii lei, iar din salariile nete principalele
destinaii sunt cheltuielile bneti pentru cumprarea de alimente i buturi aproximativ 78.473
mii lei, cumprarea de mrfuri nealimentare 71.286 mii lei, plata serviciilor 58.207 mii lei,
impozite contribuii cotizaii i taxe 56.252 mii lei.
Pentru anul 2015 Societatea Naional de nchideri Mine si-a propus venituri totale n sum de
217.256 mii lei iar Societatea Complexul Energetic Hunedoara venituri totale n suma de
563.824 mii lei.
Pornind de la scenariile formulate cu privire la viitorul complexului putem estima pierderile
suferite de statul roman :
A. Scenariul 1- foarte pesimist :
Statul romn c urmare a ncetrii activitilor de extractive a huilei pierde anual n mod direct
aproximativ 199.601 mii lei din contribuii la bugetul de stat i bugetele locale la care se adaug
ajutoarele de omaj care trebuie pltite fotilor sau potenialilor viitori angajai. omajul la nivel
judeean ar urma s creasc n mod direct cu peste 7.68 puncte procentuale.
In mod direct cifra de afaceri a societilor comerciale partenere i conexe industriei extractive
ar scdea cu aproximativ 366.929 mii lei anual, iar pierderea din contribuia salariailor la cifra
de afaceri/veniturile societile/instituiile publice care produc si/ sau comercializeaz bunuri
alimentare, mrfuri nealimentare, servicii, contribuii, taxe, cotizaii, etc. ar fi de 264.219 mii lei
anual.
B. Scenariul 2 pesimist moderat:
Statul roman c urmare a diminurii activitilor de extractive a huilei pierde anual n mod
direct aproximativ 133.733 mii lei din contribuii la bugetul de stat i bugetele locale la care se
adaug ajutoarele de omaj care trebuie pltite fotilor sau potenialilor viitori angajai. omajul
la nivel judeean ar urma sa creasc n mod direct cu peste 5.15 puncte procentuale.
In mod direct cifra de afaceri a societilor comerciale partenere i conexe industriei extractive
ar scdea cu aproximativ 245.842 mii lei anual, iar pierderea din contribuia salariailor la cifra
de afaceri/veniturile societile/instituiile publice care produc si/ sau comercializeaz bunuri
alimentare, mrfuri nealimentare, servicii, contribuii, taxe, cotizaii, etc. ar fi de 177.026 mii lei
anual.
318
C. Scenariul 3 pesimist moderat
Statul roman, c urmare a stoprii activitilor de extractive a huilei, pierde anual n mod direct
aproximativ 107.148 mii lei din contribuii la bugetul de stat i bugetele locale la care se adaug
ajutoarele de omaj care trebuie pltite fotilor sau potenialilor viitori angajai. omajul la nivel
judeean ar urma s creasc n mod direct cu peste 4.45 puncte procentuale.
In mod direct cifra de afaceri ale societilor comerciale partenere i conexe industriei extractive
ar scdea cu aproximativ 230.114 mii lei anual, iar pierderea din contribuia salariailor la cifra
de afaceri/veniturile societile/instituiile publice care produc si/ sau comercializeaz bunuri
alimentare, mrfuri nealimentare, servicii, contribuii, taxe, cotizaii, etc. ar fi de 154.923 mii lei
anual.
D. Scenariul 4 optimist
Nu ar exista pierderi, veniturile la stat s-ar ridica la un nivel de aproximativ 199.601 mii lei din
contribuii la bugetul de stat i bugetele locale, contribuia la cifra de afaceri ale societilor
comerciale partenere i conexe industriei extractive ar fi de aproximativ 366.929 mii lei anual,
iar contribuia salariailor la cifra de afaceri/veniturile societile/instituiile publice care produc
si/ sau comercializeaz bunuri alimentare, mrfuri nealimentare, servicii, contribuii, taxe,
cotizaii, etc. ar fi de 264.219 mii lei anual.

3. ANALIZA SWOT PENTRU VALORIFICAREA HUILEI

Puncte tari:
Existena unei rezerve industriale de circa 260 milioane de tone, n cele apte perimetre
active aflate n concesiunea celor dou societi miniere, din care circa 94 milioane tone rezerv
exploatabil cu actuala reea de lucrri miniere. Aceast rezerv poate asigurarea producia de
energie pe baz de huil la actualul nivel pentru circa 100 de ani;
Infrastructura existent, la suprafa i subteran, pentru extracia huilei i pentru
transportul ei, pe calea ferat, la beneficiari;
Concentrarea teritorial a exploatrilor miniere ntr-o zon relativ restrns;
Distana redus fa de beneficiari;
Existena personalului calificat n activitatea minier, tradiie i expertiz profesional la
toate nivelurile;
Necesarul de personal de specialitate este acoperit att din punct de vedere calitativ ct i
numeric;
Contribuia esenial la securitatea energetic naional n situaii de criz a altor resurse;
Parametrii produselor realizate cu actualele tehnologii de exploatare i preparare
compatibile cu instalaiile de ardere a crbunelui, existente la beneficiari;
Instalaiile de preparare deinute pot realiza produse cu un coninut energetic mrit;
Termocentralele romneti sunt concepute s funcioneze cu combustibil solid avnd
parametrii calitativi ai huilei din Valea Jiului, ceea ce le creaz o anumit dependen de
exploatrile miniere;
Beneficiarilor li se pot asigura cantitile necesare de crbune energetic, la calitatea
adecvat nevoilor proprii i la un pre mai mic dect cel al crbunelui din import;
Rezervele strategice de huil pot juca un rol antispeculativ, fapt subliniat de Uniunea
Europeana n contextual incapacitii Uniunii de a negocia preurile resurselor energetic i de a
exercita presiuni pe aceste piee;
Ponderea ridicat a costurilor pentru transport n preurile crbunelui importat (circa 50%

319
din preul crbunilor energetici importai din Europa i Japonia), fapt care pledeaz pentru
utilizarea huilei din ar.
Puncte slabe:
Condiiile geologo-miniere dificile de exploatare concretizate prin: adncimea mare de
exploatare, tectonica complicat, prezena gazului metan,s.a. ;
Puterea caloric sczut a crbunelui din Valea Jiului, comparativ cu oferta de pe pieele
externe i coninutul mare de sulf din crbune;
Posibilitile reduse de mbuntire semnificativ a calitii produciei, cu actuala tehnologie
de exploatare;
Gradul sczut de mecanizare a exploatrii, utilaje i echipamente miniere uzate fizic i
moral (complexe mecanizate pentru exploatarea crbunelui, combine de naintare i de
abataj, echipamente pentru perforare, echipamente de transport subteran a crbunelui,
echipamente pentru evacuarea apelor subterane, instalaii de aeraj, instalaii de extracie,
echipamente pentru automatizare i dispecerizare);
Lipsa unor tehnologii performante adaptabile condiiilor de zcmnt, insuficienta dotare cu
echipamente performante pentru tierea crbunelui, susinerea abatajelor, perforarea
gurilor, tierea rocilor n lucrrile de pregtire i deschidere a cmpurilor miniere i pentru
forajul sondelor;
Dificulti n exploatarea selectiv a crbunelui;
Cost de producie ridicat;
Productivitatea muncii la nivelul exploatrilor, sub 300 t/persoan/an, situat mult sub
nivelul mondial;
Riscul crescut de producere a accidentelor miniere favorizat i de lipsa mijloacelor de
monitorizare a spaiului din abataje;
Neexecutarea la timp a lucrrilor de investiii, necesare pentru punerea n exploatare a
noilor capaciti de producie, la majoritatea exploatrilor miniere;
Rmneri n urm n executarea lucrrilor de cercetare geologic, pentru identificarea unor
poriuni de zcmnt care ofer condiii bune de exploatare, cu implicaii directe asupra
dezvoltrii capacitilor de producie viabile;
Construciile industriale dezafectate n incintele minelor, c urmare a restrngerii activitii i
neutilizate n alte scopuri.
Oportuniti
Necesarul crescnd de surse de energie primar;
Piaa de desfacere relativ stabil;
Posibilitile de cretere a veniturilor prin mbuntirea calitii produselor;
Creterea ponderii crbunelui n producia termoenergetic pe plan mondial;
Costurile nc ridicate ale producerii energiei electrice din surse regenerabile;
nfiinarea Complexului Energetic Hunedoara.
Meninerea unei infrastructuri miniere adecvat exploatrii huilei astfel nct s fie asigurat
continuitatea produciei pe o perioad mare de timp;
Posibilitatea implementrii proiectelor de captare a metanului din crbune i a emisiilor de
metan din zcmintele aflate n exploatare.
mbuntirea calitii crbunelui vndut, cu mici investiii n retehnologizarea sortrii de la
fiecare exploatare minier;
Ameninri
Agravarea crizei economice mondiale;
320
 Vulnerabilitatea exploatrii crbunelui fa de caracteristicile i condiiile geo-miniere;
Creterea costurilor de producie generat de obligativitatea asigurrii unor condiii
suplimentare de securitate i sntate n munc i de protecie a mediului;
Vulnerabilitatea social mare datorat caracterului monoindustrial al zonei, a
deteriorrii situaiei financiare;
Reducerea numrului locurilor de munc din Valea Jiului prin restrngerea activitii miniere
n condiiile lipsei unei alternative economice reale;
Dependena produciei de crbune de funcionarea celor dou termocentrale;
Lipsa unui pre reglementat al crbunelui, apropiat de costul de producie;
Lipsa fondurilor pentru dezvoltarea extensiv a exploatrii;
anse reduse de asigurare a necesarului investiional pentru rentabilizarea minelor viabile n
condiiile actualei forme de organizare;

4. PROPUNERI TEHNICO ECONOMICE PENTRU VALORIFICAREA HUILEI

Propunerile elaborate pleac de la adevrul verificat n practic, c Fr investiii orice

activitate este sortit inevitabil eecului.
1. Stabilirea rolului huilei n balanta energetica a Romaniei si dimensionarea reala a productiei
2. Realizarea unui program de investiii n tehnologii i utilaje care s determine reducerea
costului de producie a crbunelui;
3. Investiie ntr-un nou bloc energetic de 200 MWh cu parametrii supracritici la Paroeni;
4. Realizarea investiiilor de retehnologizare, desulfurare i lam dens la grupurile 3 i 4 de la
Mintia;
5. Implementarea proiectelor de captare a metanului din crbune i a emisiilor de metan din
zcmintele aflate n exploatare;
6. Investiii n instalaii de producie auxiliare instalaiilor de desulfurare i lam dens;
7. Retragerea din exploatare i casarea treptat a grupurilor 2, 5 si 6 de la Mintia
8. Realizarea unui nou grup de 400 MWh la Mintia ciclu combinat cu turbine cu gaze;
9. Realizarea unui depozit central n Valea Jiului, pentru omogenizarea i livrarea crbunelui
spre beneficiari.

CONCLUZII

Pentru evitarea insolvenei este extrem de importanta viabilizarea unor exploatri miniere,
valorificarea metanului care nsoete zcmntul de crbune din Valea Jiului precum i
gestionarea deeurilor. In acest mod se contribuie la asigurarea independenei energetice si
totodat se pot rezolva i alte probleme comune acestei zone geografice care vizeaz i
asigurarea viitorului CEH. CEH se afla intr-o situaie delicata generat de dificultile prin care
trece Sistemul Energetic Naional, i anume un excedent de energie electric din surse
regenerabile i hidro pe fondul scderii dramatice a consumului n Romnia precum i Acordurile
semnate de Guvernul Romniei cu creditorii externi FMI BM - CE privind viitorul Complexului
Energetic Hunedoara - privatizare i n caz de eec, insolven .
Se apreciaz c aciunea de privatizare este sortit eecului, iar intrarea n insolven, convenit
prin Scrisoarea de intenie cu FMI - BM CE, se va solda cu intrarea n faliment att a minelor
viabile ct i a Termocentralei Paroeni.

321
Dac privatizarea va eua, pentru a nu se ajunge n situaia de a se decide administrarea
judiciar, moment din care este practic imposibil de evitat falimentul , se propun urmtoarele:
a) - Elaborarea, de ctre specialitii din cadrul CEH Sucursala Paroeni, Divizia miniera,
SNMVJ, Universitatea din Petroani i Administraia Locala, a unui proiect pentru identificarea
tuturor potenialilor consumatori de energie electric i termic, furnizat de Termocentrala
Paroeni, pe fondul scumpirii gazelor naturale. Principalele msuri propuse pentru acest
document strategic sunt:
- Dezvoltarea sistemului de termoficare n toat Valea Jiului prin lucrri de reabilitare a
conductei magistrale , extinderea conductei magistrale n Uricani i Petrila;
- Reabilitarea reelelor de distribuie a agentului termic i a punctelor termice existente i
construirea unor reele noi n Uricani i Petrila;
- Furnizarea energiei electrice de la Termocentrala Paroeni pentru toate administraiile locale,
populaie si ageni economici prin practicarea unor tarife concureniale;
- Demararea de investiii colaterale care s foloseasc infrastructura energetica existent;
- Achiziionarea unei instalaii ecologice de ardere a deeurilor menajere i valorificarea
agentului termic n reeaua de termoficare.
b)- Eficientizarea minelor din Valea Jiului. Se apreciaz c necesarul de crbune, corespunztor
consumului de energie al Vii Jiului, nu depete cca. 1,5 milioane de tone pe an, dac inem
seama i de energia suplimentar produs din arderea deeurilor i din arderea gazului metan
recuperat din zcmnt. Aceast producie se poate obine cu 2.500 3.000 de angajai. Pentru
exploatare trebuie selectate, dup criterii tehnico-economice bine fundamentate, poriunile de
zcmnt care ofer cele mai favorabile condiii de aplicare a tehnologiilor moderne de lucru.
Rentabilizarea activitii n Valea Jiului se poate face numai prin identificarea unor noi
consumatori i creterea cererii de energie termic i electric i prin realizarea investiiilor
propuse.

5 REFERENCES

[1] Mesagerul Energetic. Buletin informativ al CNR-CME., nr. 144/oct.2013.

Chiril,G., Ilia,N., Radu,S.M., Gruneanu, I.,-Environmental protection and opportunities
for harnessing jiu valley's hard coal energetic potential . First International Conference
[2]
on MOLDAVIAN RISKS - FROM GLOBAL TO LOCAL SCALE 16-19 May 2012, Bacau,
Romania
Andras, I., Ilias, N., Barbu, D., Cioara, I., Toma, L., Codreanu, L.-The energetic policy
[3]
in Romania. Moscova, Conferinta internationala Nedelia Gorniaka, 2013;
Hotrrea nr. 328/2013 privind aprobarea bugetului de venituri i cheltuieli pe anul
[4] 2013 pentru Societatea Naional de nchideri Mine Valea Jiului - S.A., aflat sub
autoritatea Ministerului Economiei
Hotrrea nr. 603/2013 privind aprobarea bugetului de venituri i cheltuieli pe anul
[5] 2013 pentru Societatea Naional a Huilei - S.A. Petroani, aflat sub autoritatea
Ministerului Economiei.
Statistica Teritoriala 2013 Cheltueili totale ale gospodariilor Regiunea de Vest
[6]
www.insse.ro
ISPE, Prognoze privind evoluia sistemului energetic naional n perioada 2011-2035,
[7]
septembrie 2010

322
 UN MODEL DE MARKETING INDUSTRIAL PENTRU PIAA
ECHIPAMENTELOR MINIERE BAZAT PE ECONOMIA
SPAIAL
Gabriel Pun , Ph.D. Student
Politehnica University, Bucharest

ABSTRACT
Fa de caracteristica general a pieelor industriale n general, piaa echipamentelor pentru
industria extractiv se caracterizeaz n primul rnd prin numrul redus de furnizori - ca
rezultat al mergingului i achiziiilor-, numrul redus de clieni - companii miniere
multinaionale sau de stat puternice, i din acest motiv caracterul concurenial al pieei nu este
determinant, iar studiile de pia bazate pe date statistice nu sunt relevante. Exist produse cu
caracter monopolist, caracter care se accentueaz mereu prin fuziuni i achiziii, sau oligopol
relativ echilibrat, iar fluiditatea pieei este redus pia mai degrab vscoas n special
datorit specificitii produselor i omogenitii ofertei. Piaa produselor industriale care face
obiectul marketingului B2B este o pia dispers, n sensul c productorii (furnizorii) i
consumatorii (clienii) sunt distribuii teritorial n spaiu. Procesul de vnzare-cumprare-
achiziie- furnizare se deruleaz n timp i spaiu. Metodele de stabilire a echilibrului ofert-
cerere ignor spaialitatea i presupun derularea procesului de marketing n mod instantaneu,
iar aspectele legate de costurile de transport sunt eventual tratate separat. Modelele de
echilibru spaial sunt cele care studiaz comportamentul n spaiu al agenilor economici, iar
procesele economice sunt analizate din punctul de vedere al dispunerii lor spaiale.

KEYWORDS
B2B Marketing, Spatial economics , Mining Equipment, Field theory

1 Specificitatea Utilajelor (Echipamentelor) Miniere din Punct de Vedere al

Marketingului Industrial. Caracterizarea Pieei

Fa de caracteristica general a pieelor industriale care caracterizeaz mai ales produsele

high-tech (mobilitate structural rapid, durat de via din ce n ce mai redus a produselor,
concurena indus n special de scarcitatea materiilor prime i a energiei), cea a echipamentelor
miniere se caracterizeaz prin impactul puternic al caracterului derivat al cererii cererea
depinde de cererea pieei din aval n care evolueaz clientul prin caracterul variabilitii
geografice determinat de mutarea centrului de greutate al activitii miniere ctre zone
geografice ndeprtate de locaia furnizorilor, la care se adaug o durat de via relativ ridicat
a produselor inclusiv posibilitatea de reabilitare tehnic a dotrii existente, datorit n special
323
valorii lor reziduale ridicate eterogenitatea cererii att pentru produse complexe ct i
pentru componente importan redus rigiditate fa de modificarea preurilor, etc.
Durata de livrare ridicat de ordinul lunilor, sau chiar anilor este de asemenea o trstur a
acestor produse.Clienii sunt informai, fiind profesioniti cunosc foarte bine produsele,
tendinele, au ateptri fundamentate raional. Inexistena verigilor intermediare n lanul de
furnizare, predominana vnzrii directe, reprezint o alt trstur. Existena leasingului ca
alternativ la cumprare este o tendin care se manifest continuu.
Tendinele identificate ntr-o recent analiz [1] arat c n domeniul mainilor de spat galerii
(tuneluri) RH (Roadheaders) i cele de extragere continu CM (Continuous Miners) respectiv
cele ce realizeaz n plus i susinerea cu ancore BM (Bolt Miners) s-au nregistrat n ultimii ani
(2012 fa de 2008, n.a.) urmtoarele tendine, interesnd att furnizorii (OEM) ct i clienii
(Companii miniere):
Pieele noi(ex. Rusia) nu s-au dezvoltat pe msura ateptrilor, n timp ce n Asia se
remarc un progres important n extinderea utilizrii acestor utilaje parial
automatizate2;
Comparaia cu 2008 arat c piee tradiionale, aparent dinamice (ex. SUA),
nregistreaz relative regrese i diminuri, n timp ce pieele noi (Australia, India) indic
un potenial accentuat de cretere;
Pieele n general cunoscute ca prefereniale (core markets) ca SUA, Africa de Sud,
Australia, rmn saturate (saturarea pieei) i rata de rennoire nu va depi 100 de
uniti datorit presiunii tehnologice a minelor mici care prefer tehnologia cu front lung
(LW) Long Wall, unde utilajele definitorii sunt susinerile mecanizate i combinele de
abataj n locul tehnologiei cu camere i pilieri R&P (Room & Pillar) care utilizeaz CM,
tehnologie tradiional n minele americane;
Cu toate acestea, metodele INOVATIVE care folosesc CM, i deci cererea de astfel de
utilaje va nregistra o cretere continu (de exemplu pentru lucrri de pregtire n
cadrul tehnologiei LW (LongWall), att n mineritul carbonifer ct i n cel necarbonifer.

2 Segmentarea de Pieei de Utilaj Minier

Schimbarea general a pieei din SUA afecteaz mprirea pieei mai ales c SUA reprezint
piaa domestic a firmei JOY GLOBAL. Scderea ponderii SUA n populaia CM a adus firmei JOY
o pierdere de cca. 4% din cota de pia. Ctigtorul este aparent SANDVIK deoarece produsele
lor pot cuceri piaa non carbonifer. SANY a avut o intrare furtunoas pe pia, dar aceasta a
fost ncurajat de o pia domestic puternic, pn acum aproape nu este nregistrat
prezena sa pe piaa din afara Chinei.

Aflat mult n urma liderului de pia, Africa de Sud arat o corelaie ntre aplicaiile majore i
diferiii productori specializai. Piaa clasic de R&P definete o cerere matur de CM i se
ntrevede o cretere n viitor a flotei. Cererea intern continuu crescnd i necesitile de
export a crbunelui australian stau la baza acestei prezumii.
Condiiile geologice i proprietile crbunelui australian impun construcii mai robuste de CM
dect n alte ri. Este de ateptat ca, n situaia n care condiiile geologice vor deveni mai
dificile, iar cererea de crbune va rmne cel puin la acelai nivel, necesarul de maini va
crete. n aceste circumstane, scderea n comparaie cu piaa CM i BM din SUA i Republica
Sud-African, cea australian este diferit. Lucrrile de pregtire pentru tehnologia LW
utilizeaz cca. 100 de uniti din cele 130 aflate n flot.
Avantajul comparativ al SANDVIK, specializat n aceste maini, se manifest printr-o cot de
pia de 31%.Scderea cotei JOY pe piaa Sud-African se explic doar prin accentuarea
competiiei. Aplicaiile CM i BM vor continua s rmn importante n mineritul carbonifer i al
rocilor moi i pe viitor.

324
 Piaa este divers i complex, dar rmne o provocare i o surs de avantaje pentru OEM, cu
diferene variabile ntre regiuni i tipuri de aplicaii.
Conform unui studiu efectuat de The Freedonia Group Inc., creterea anual a cererii globale de
echipamente miniere, n expresie valoric, va fi de 8.6% pn n anul 2017, ajungnd la 135
miliarde USD. Aceast cretere va fi realizat n pofida unor scderi uoare a vnzrilor pe
termen scurt.(Fig.2)
Creterea (cererii de echipamente) va fi stimulat de o cerere din ce n ce mai accentuat de
materii prime minerale n China, India i alte ri cu industrie n curs de dezvoltare, arat Matt
Raskind, analist la Freedonia. Creterea cea mai rapid se ntrevede n pieele mari, aflate n
dezvoltare(Brazilia, India, i n mod special China). Exprimat n termeni cantitativi, ponderea
produciei miniere de minereuri metalice va fi mai redus dect nemetalicele i crbunele, dar
segmentul cel mai important al pieei globale a echipamentelor este tocmai cel metalifer.
Aceasta n special datorit scderii continui a coninuturilor acestor zcminte, care implic o
mas minier mai mare de extras.

a) b)
Fig. 1. Distribuia ponderii pieei principalilor furnizori la nivel mondial n
anul 2008 (a) fa de 2012 (b)

De aceea creterea cererii de echipamente miniere pentru acest sector va nregistra cel mai
nalt ritm pn n anul 2017, stimulat de cererea de oel i aluminiu.
Creterea continu a populaiei va stimula de asemenea o expansiune a investiiilor n
agricultur i construcii, ceea ce va atrage creterea corespunztoare a vnzrilor de
echipamente pentru extragerea materialelor de construcie(agregate) i de ngrminte
chimice minerale(fosfai).

Fig.2 Evoluia i prognoza cererii de echipamente miniere

325
Cea mai mare cretere a vnzrilor de echipamente va fi n regiunea Asia/Pacific, determinat
de creterea ateptat a investiiilor n noi capaciti miniere. O cretere a cererii se va
nregistra n America de Sud, ca urmare a extinderii exploatrii de noi rezerve de bauxit, cupru
i minereu feros.
Saturarea pieei de cupru, observat n anii 2012-2013 se va calma, producnd o revenire a
preurilor i conducnd la o cretere a cererii de echipamente specifice n rile bogate n
minereu de cupru, cum sunt Chile i Peru. Africa/Orientul mijlociu, Europa de Est i de Vest,
precum i America de Nord, vor nregistra o cretere mai lent a cererii de echipamente,
reducerea cererii de crbune energetic fiind parial compensat de creterea cererii de material
de construcie, mai ales n rile n curs de dezvoltare. Aceasta va atrage o modificare n
tipologia echipamentelor miniere cerute.

3 Model de marketing bazat pe teoria economiei spaiale

Globalizarea pieelor industriale ridic noi provocri teoretice i operaionale n tiina i practica
marketingului. Coagularea productorilor n cteva centre de influen i concentrarea clienilor
n companii multinaionale dar dispersate geografic n zone de interes, readuce n actualitate
modelele economie spaiale aprute n perioada extinderii produciei agricole de mare
amploare n condiiile congestionrii transportului i lipsei accesibilitii prelucrtorilor.
Dac primele lucrri se refereau la binomul ferm-moar, astzi se poate aplica teoria localizrii
la relaia productor concentrat n arii geografice puternice economic i clieni care opereaz
n zone ndeprtate, n locaii disperse.
Acesta este cazul productorilor de echipamente miniere care s-au concentrat n rile
dezvoltate economic n zone ca America de Nord, America de Sud, Uniunea European,
Australia, dar i India, China, Federaia Rus. Clienii sunt n general marile corporaii miniere
multinaionale, cu unitile productive amplasate n zonele cu potenial mineral (includem aici i
crbunele i excludem petrolul i gazele).
n aceste condiii, pe baza studiului de caz referitoare la piaa echipamentelor pentru industria
minier, se pot aplica metodele economiei spaiale i teoriei localizrii. Piaa produselor
industriale care face obiectul marketingului B2B este o pia dispers, n sensul c productorii
(furnizorii) i consumatorii (clienii) sunt distribuii teritorial n spaiu. Procesul de vnzare-
cumprare- achiziie- furnizare se deruleaz n timp i spaiu. Metodele de stabilire a echilibrului
ofert-cerere ignor spaialitatea i presupun derularea procesului de marketing n mod
instantaneu, iar aspectele legate de costurile de transport sunt eventual tratate separat.
Modelele de echilibru spaial sunt cele care studiaz comportamentul n spaiu al agenilor
economici, iar procesele economice sunt analizate din punctul de vedere al dispunerii lor
spaiale.
Modelele clasice se bazeaz pe ipoteza 'punctualitii' economiei i ignor, de obicei, aspectul
siturii geografice a agenilor i pieelor. Problemele eseniale ale analizei economice ca, de
exemplu, ce trebuie produs, cum trebuie produs, pentru cine trebuie produs, sunt studiate fr
a lua in calcul distanele, costurile de transport sau alte neajunsuri generate de dimensiunea
spaial a pieei. Aceste imperfeciuni sunt nlturate de modelele economiei spaiale.
Avnd in vedere c activitile economice sunt derulate nu doar n timp, ci i n spaiu, aceste
modele introduc conceptul de regiune,care definete astfel un subsistem spaial al unei
economii.
Primele ncercri n domeniu sugerau formularea unor probleme de optimizare si echilibru
pentru piee separate spaial, care pot fi privite ca noduri ale unei reele n care costurile de
transport sunt luate n mod explicit n considerare, aceste modele fiind de fapt o generalizare a
problemei clasice de transport.

326
Exist dou abordri n modelarea economiei spaiale: abordarea discret sau continu.
Abordarea discret domin literatura de specialitate, deoarece aplicaiile practice opereaz cu
mulimi finite de date.
n aceast abordare, spaiul este considerat ca o mulime finit de noduri, n care se deruleaz
activiti economice (producie i/sau consum), noduri interconectate prin arce sau legturi de
comunicare. Toate atributele legturilor ca: inciden, costuri de transport, fluxuri, pot fi
reprezentate prin matrici.
Aceast structur algebric ns nu are semnificaie geometric de spaialitate cu atribute
specifice ca: dimensiune, mrime, form.
Alternativ, spaiul poate fi considerat ca un spaiu geografic bidimensional,continuu, proiectat
pe o oarecare hart, cu activitile economice posibil de a fi amplasate oriunde, iar fluxurile de
produse sunt descrise ca fiind cmpuri vectoriale n plan, cu mrime i direcie variabile n
spaiu. Aceasta a fost de altfel poziia clasicilor economiei spaiale. (von Thnen (1826),
Launhardt (1885), Lsch (1940)).
Avantajul punctului de vedere continuu, mai mult sau mai puin neglijat n ultimii ani este acela
c ofer o imagine realist a spaiului geografic, pe care se proiecteaz elementele specifice
pieei - producia, consumul, schimburile, preuri etc.
Punctul de vedere discret are avantajul formalizrii, prin doi indici de poziie (est-vest) sau
(nord-sud). Un motiv pentru care acest avantaj nu a fost exploatat este c n analizele spaiale
aria este discretizat n elemente finite de suprafa, de tip triunghiular mai degrab dect
rectangular, din motive de facilitate computaional.
Trecerea la spaialitatea continu, a relevat dificultatea tratrii n dou dimensiuni, ceea ce a
condus la majoritatea abordrilor, la analiza unidimensional, (duopolul arhicunoscut al lui
Hotelling, 1929).
Simplificarea a fost binevenit pentru validarea metodei, dar modelul unidimensional i-a atins
limitele atunci cnd s-a dorit a se lua n calcul i o variabil temporal.
Analizele spaio-temporale ulterioare nu au putut evita capcana bidimensional, deoarece,
timpul i spaiul, chiar reduse la o dimensiune nu sunt acelai lucru. Dac ntre stnga i
dreapta nu e nici o diferen, intre trecut i viitor, este. De aceea pentru studiul spaialitii
sistemelor liniare necesit a doua derivat, n timp ce pentru procesele temporale este
suficient prima derivat. Reducerea spaialitii la o singur dimensiune poate da natere la
nelegeri greite.
Alt cale de a reduce dimensionalitatea spaiului este s consideri o simetrie circular a sa cu
comunicare pe direcia radial, ca n teoria clasic a lui von Thunen. Aceste cazuri sunt aa
numitele abordri pseudo-bidimensionale.
Beckmann (1952) a fcut primul pas n direcia abordrii bidimensionale n cunoscuta sa teorie
a spaiului continuu al pieei pentru cazul unui singur produs sau bun. Modelul su folosete
cmpuri scalare i cmpuri vectoriale. Notnd coordonatele spaiului euclidian x1, x2, se
consider distribuia preului n acest spaiu cax1, x2). Notaia introdus de Beckmann
provine de la multiplicatorul Lagrange al minimizrii costurilor.
Din punct de vedere geometric, aceasta este o suprafa definit pe spaiul bidimensional
(planul) x1, x2. Din punct de vedere matematic este un cmp scalar.
Modelul lui Beckmann mai utilizeaz nc dou cmpuri scalare, i anume excesul local de
cerere z(x1,x2) care reprezint excesul de consum al produciei locale, aici considerat
dependent doar de amplasare, dar care n general depinde i de pre, z(x1, x2) i costurile
locale de transport k (x1, x2). Scris n acest fel, costul de transport este izotrop, adic
independent de direcie. Un mod mai general, este k (x 1, x 2, ), unde este direcia n care
are loc transportul. Dup cum s-a menionat deja, neregularitatea de reelelor rutiere reale
tinde s uniformizeze neregularitile direcionale, astfel c izotropia devine o simplificare
rezonabil.
327
Variabilitatea costului transportului ntre locaii depinde doar de proprieti locale ca densitatea
reelei (influennd necesitatea de ocoluri, care se abat de la linia euclidian), sau intensitatea
traficului fa de capacitatea de trecere (ca un factor determinant de al ntrzierilor datorate
congestiei n trafic).
Pe lng cmpurile scalare menionate, se introduc i cmpuri vectoriale. Acestea din urm
sunt vectori de bidimensionali a crui lungime i direcie variaz n funcie de amplasarea
punctului considerat al originii . Un astfel de cmp vectorial poate obine imediat din cmpul
scalar al preului prin gradientul su, adic:

(1)
Unde este notaia obinuit pentru gradient. Cmpul vectorial este gradientul
preului, a crui direcie indic direcia creterii celei mai abrupte a pantei suprafeei distribuiei
preului din locaia data spre celelalte zone ale regiunii studiate, i a crui norm (mrime
absolut), este :

(2)
reprezint creterea preului pe unitate de distan euclidian n aceast direcie abrupt
de cretere.
Pe lng acest cmp derivat din gradient, mai avem nevoie de un cmp vectorial general
pentru a reprezenta fluxul de mrfuri tranzacionate.
= (1 (x1, x2), 2 (x1, x2)) (3)
a crui norm,

(4)
reprezint volumul fluxului de mrfuri care traverseaz locaia (x1, x2) mprind
vectorul flux prin norma sa, obinem vectorul de lungime unitar (versor)

(5)
Evident, ||, , sunt coordonatele polare pentru 1,2, unde || este volumul de marf iar
este direcia fluxului in fiecare locaie . Ambele variaz cu coordonatele (x1, x2) ale punctului
considerat. Modificarea volumului fluxului de-a lungul unui parcurs trebuie pus n relaie cu
excesul de cerere local, z(x1,x2)
Pentru aceasta este nevoie de operatorul diferenial divergen, argumentat de urmtorul
raionament euristic: s considerm fluxul care trece printr-un ptrat mic cu laturile dx1 i dx2
in plan. Fluxul poate fi considerat ca avnd componentele 1 in direcia coordonatei (orizontale)
x1 i 2 in direcia coordonatei (verticale) x2 .
Trecnd prin acest dreptunghi infinitezimal, componenta orizontal 1 se modific cu
(1/x1).dx1 .dx2, n timp ce componenta vertical 2 se modific cu (2/x2) dx2 . dx1.
Prin nsumare, obinem schimbarea total

(6)
Sau, normaliznd pentru unitatea de suprafa

328
 (7)
Operatorul (de remarcat semnul . care indic produsul scalar) pentru divergen nu trebuie
confundat cu operatorul pentru gradient, primul aplicndu-se unui cmp vectorial avnd ca
rezultat un cmp scalar, iar al doilea unui cmp scalar avnd ca rezultat un cmp vectorial. In
accepiunea noastr, divergena are semnificaia de modificarea volumului fluxului datorat unei
surse (densiti) in cazul excesului de ofert care adaug o cantitate de produs fluxului
imergent sau a unui pu (excesul de cerere), atunci cnd ea este negativ, care reduce
cantitatea fluxului emergent.
Excesul de cerere ( cerere minus producie), q , poate fi definit ca o funcie de poziie in plan
q=q (x1, x2)
Acesta poate fi considerat ca un cmp scalar in spaiul bidimensional, avnd coordonatele
spaiale x1 i x2, in care se delimiteaz o regiune nchis, A.
Condiia de echilibru al pieei este ca in toat regiunea A sa avem

=0 (8)

Exceptnd cazul trivial al absentei comerului local, cnd q (x1, x2)=0, n orice punct, condiia
(1) impune existena unor puncte cu exces de cerere pozitiv, respectiv negativ (exces de
ofert). Micarea produselor se face de regul de la punctele cu exces de ofert ctre cele cu
exces de cerere. Micarea produselor este descris ca un flux al unui cmp.
In fiecare punct, cmpul are o direcie i o mrime, care mpreun definesc fluxul vectorului
(x1, x2).
n punctele unde nu exist nici producie i nici consum, ori unde local cererea i oferta sunt
echilibrate, fluxul este inexistent. In punctele singulare - n care de exemplu avem centre de
producie sau de consum, la frontiera domeniului etc. , exist mai multe direcii simultane ale
fluxului. Aceste puncte de regul sunt omise din integralele care determin influxuri sau ieiri.
Relaia dintre fluxuri i valorile locale ale excesului de cerere sunt analoage relaiei ntre fluxul
unui fluid i surse respectiv puuri, studiate in hidrodinamic, sau fluxul termic n relaie cu
sursele calde i reci, studiate termodinamica transferului de cldur.
Aceast relaie are forma binecunoscuta a ecuaiei lui Laplace:

Unde () este fluxul vectorial.

Se presupune ca fluxul normal care traverseaz frontiera domeniului este nul. Daca x este
preul produsului n locaia x i k(x) costul specific al transportului (costul transportului unitii
de produs pe unitatea de distan de la locaia x, rezult |grad | = k sau k/||= grad .
Aceasta este cunoscut ca ecuaia lui Beckmann.
Soluia ecuaiei k /|| = grad minimizeaz expresia costului A k || dx dy cu
ndeplinirea restriciei div + q (x, y) = 0.
Dac considerm o funcie de utilitate u n concordan cu cele de mai sus putem scrie
u = div(grad u)= -q k
Simbolul se numete laplacian i are expresia

iar ecuaia anterioar este o variant a ecuaiei lui Poisson.

Dac cunoatem distribuia regional a preurilor (x1,x2), a costurilor de transport k (x1,x2) i
excesul de cerere ( cerere minus ofert), q (x1, y2), care se consider o densitate a cantitii

329
 deci este punctual distribuit prin surse - productori respectiv puuri consumatori, ecuaia de
mai sus este clasica ecuaie a lui Poisson, n dou dimensiuni, similar cu ecuaia transferului de
cldur pe o plac conductoare cu surse de cldur respectiv pierderi de cldur concentrate,
membrul drept avnd semnificaia densitii (puterii sursei) iar membrul drept (sub semnul
Laplacianului, , este temperatura.
n cazul nostru, cu notaiile cunoscute i adoptate, u este o funcie de utilitate, a crui gradient
este fluxul de produse un cmp vectorial cu componentele x i y, sau mrimea || i
direcia
= Grad(u)=u
Dup rezolvarea ecuaiei Laplace, care n forma dat mbin ecuaia de minim a costului de
transport min (A k || dx dy) prin k /|| = grad i condiia de echilibru productie
consum flux, div + q (x, y) = 0, obinem funcia de utilitate, u, al crui gradient ne d
fluxul (cmp vectorial).
Integrarea de arie a fluxului ne d volumul de produse care traverseaz frontiera ariei.
In modelul nostru, am nlocuit pentru fiecare regiune intensitatea (densitatea) mrimii exces de
cerere cu un dipol, format din cerere i ofert, separate, distanate cu o oarecare valoare , care
reprezint similarul unui dipol electric.
Constnd dintr-o sarcin negativ i una pozitiv, respectiv o cerere i o oferta (excesul de
cerere nefiind util pentru a pune n eviden i fluxul intra-regional), mai ales n zonele in care
oferta local satisface parial cererea local ntr-o oarecare cot valoric, restul cererii locale
fiind asigurat de furnizori externi, respectiv excesul de ofert fiind redirecionat spre
consumatori externi.
Desigur, aceast mbuntire a modelului crete acurateea, dar o analiz mai aprofundat ar
trebui fcut pentru produse sortimental variate, cu un mix diferit de ofert i cerere.
Aceast analiz este complicat, dar nu imposibil. Pentru lucrarea de fa ne-am limitat la a
analiza un grup de utilaje tratate n studiul de cay anterior care sunt ca destinaie i
funcionalitate asemntoare, comercializate la preuri relativ egale, rezultate dintr-o echilibrare
natural de lung durat, dar mixul produciei i consumului pe zone geografice este diferit.
Cele 6 Zone geografice care caracterizeaz piaa global de utilaje sunt prezentate n figura 3.

3 5
1

4 6
2

Fig. 3 Zonarea geografic a consumatorilor i furnizorilor

Semnificaia notaiilor este dat n tabelul de mai jos:
No Regiunea Cerere OFERTA Exces de Cerere
1 NV America de Nord (SUA+CANADA) 0,12 0,40 -0,28
2 SV America centrala i de Sud 0,10 0,11 -0,01
3 NC Europa (UE) 0,12 0,30 -0,18
4 SC Africa 0,06 0,05 0,01
5 NE China+Rusia 0,20 0,11 0,09
6 SE Australia & Asia Pacific+ India 0,40 0,03 0,37
Total 1,00 1,00 0,00

330
n tabelul de mai jos am prezentat fluxurile globale ale produselor echipamente pentru
industria extractiv ntre furnizorii i consumatorii din cele 6 regiuni

1 2 3 4 5 6
1 x x x
2 x x x
3 x x x
4 x x x
5 x x x
6 x x x
Folosind datele din tabele, obinem distribuia surselor i a puurilor ca n figur (am utilizat
MathCad pentru generarea graficelor). Se observ c practic fiecare regiune este dezechilibrat
din punct de vedere al cererii i ofertei, dar piaa global este echilibrat. Excesul de ofert are
o tendin global de scdere de la Vest spre Est iar cel de cerere o tendin cresctoare de la
Nord la Sud. Este deci de ateptat ca fluxul principal s fie orientat NORD VEST spre SUD EST,
ceea ce este evideniat i n sursele de studii de pia analizate.
Continuarea studiului prin metoda propus va detalia i demonstra acest trend, i va justifica
oportunitatea metodei pentru analiza global a pieelor produselor de nalt specificitate de la
regiunile dezvoltate industrial spre zonele emergente n care tehnologia occidental i
pstreaz atractivitatea. Cum consumatorii sunt in cazul mineritului endemic legai de
zonele cu resurse minerale bogate, iar productorii de echipamente tradiional implantai n arii
cu tradiie industrial, acest fapt este evident.

0,8
0,7 0,4

0,3

0,8
0,9

0,9

KKT
Fig. 4 Distribuia spaial a cererii i ofertei Fig.5 Costurile de transport pe zone
Diagrama de variaie spaial a ofertei i cererii respectiv distribuia teritorial a
preurilor sunt prezentate n figurile 4 respectiv 5
n continuare s-a determinat gradientul preului, Fig.6 necesar pentru calculul
coeficienilor div()/k din ecuaia Poisson.
Prin mediere se obine in final pentru cele 6 regiuni matricea coeficienilor de corecie ai
densitii div()/k .

coefNE coefNC coefNV 0.808 1.12 1.582

div()/k =
coefSE coefSC coefSV 0.895 0.995 0.527

331
 Fig. 6. Gradientul preului
KKTT
Prin rezolvarea ecuaiei Laplace, folosind procedura din Mathcad, se obine funcia de
utilitate, u. Vrfurile sunt zonele de exces de ofert, iar adnciturile cele cu exces de cerere.
Ca o interpretare intuitiv, se poate asimila oferta/ cererea ca altitudine ntr-un spaiu
tridimensional, sub aciunea unui cmp gravitaional, iar micarea produselor ca traiectorie a
unei particule cu mas unitar sub efectul acestui cmp de fore. Particula se va deplasa de la
vrfuri spre puuri, pe traiectoria cu consum minim de energie, ctre puul cel mai atractiv, de-a
lungul liniilor de cmp, cu o vitez proporional cu aceasta.
Alturat s-a reprezentat linia valorilor izo-utilitate in valori normalizate. Aceste curbe pot
fi interpretate ca limite de influen ale unui anumit productor, respectiv limitele economice ale
influenei sale n spaiul pieei.

H1 Fig. 7. Diagrama spaial a utilitii i liniile echipoteniale

Geometria lor reflect zonarea presupus n ipotez, iar densitatea lor spaial indic
intensitatea fluxului de produse.
Liniile de curent (directiile fluxului), prezentate mai jos, confirm prezumpia anterioar,
i poate indica preponderena fluxului de produse pe regiuni (de exemplu zona NV este
preponderent exportatoare, iar zona SE preponderent consumatoare.
Aceste fluxuri concord n bun msur cu cele reale. Volumul de produse care circul
se poate determina din fluxurile pariale care pornesc (sau aflueaz) din (n) centrele regiunilor.
Determinnd divergena fluxului, gsim liniile de separaie ntre zonele achizitoare (divergena
pozitiv) i cele furnizoare (divergena negativ, separate prin liniile div=0, care reprezint
zonele n care transportul este scump sau preul este mic i nu acoper cheltuielile de transport,
respectiv n interiorul crora avem un echilibru ntre cerere i ofert.

332
 .
Fig.8. Diagrama divergenei fluxului i vectorii de flux

Suprapunnd cele dou diagrame ale fluxului i ale divergenei ca n figura de mai sus
- cele artate se confirm i mai elocvent.
Volumul intrat prin schimb este de 9,85 uniti valorice (UV), volumul ieit n schimbul
interzonal este 5,42 UV iar diferena 4,43 UV este volumul folosit intern n toate zonele.
Divergenta fluxului este 0,9 (pe tot spaiul pieei) ceea ce reprezint o abatere de cca
12% fa de valoarea 0, abatere rezonabil avnd in vedere nivelul de precizie al calculelor.
Se remarc delimitarea n 6 sectoare NV, NC, NE i SV, SC, SE

CONCLUZII
Analiza prezentat este util, relevant i oportun din mai multe puncte de vedere.
Din punct de vedere metodologic, este o prim ncercare de a transpune i aplica
metodele economiei spaiale n studiul pieelor produselor industriale destinate mineritului care
fac obiectul marketingului B2B, produse industriale care ocup o pondere important n
schimburile economice (cca 100 miliarde $ n 2015 cu o rat de cretere estimat de cca 8-10%
pe an).
Din punct de vedere operaional, metoda poate fi utilizat n prognozele de pia
avnd n vedere dinamica schimbrilor n structura furnizorilor i consumatorilor - dinamic
care este ateptat s devin mai rapid n urmtorii ani.
Din punct de vedere al cunoaterii poate fi un element de legtur ntre ceea ce
numim marketing operaional i abordarea scientologic reprezentnd un pas nainte ca
domenii de aplicare a teoriei spaialitii care a rmas captiv n domeniul economiei dezvoltrii
regionale i al pieelor produselor naturale ctre domenii actuale, specifice i cu dinamic
revigorat.
Constituind un nceput, extinderea cercetrii poate pe baza unor date i fapte mai
detaliate i cu un aparat matematic computaional mai puternic s conduc la elaborarea unui
sistem expert de analiz-previziune care s induc un suflu nou n domeniul B2B marketingului,
rmas, nc, n remorca marketingului de consum.

Dovleac, L., Marketingul produselor de nalt tehnologie marketing of high

1
technology products, Teza de doctorat, Universitatea Transilvania BRASOV, 2011
Losch,. The economics of location. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1954
2

Ake E. Andersson, A.E., Beckmann, M., Lfgren, KG , Stenberg A., Economics of

3
Space and Time: Scientific Papers of Tnu Puu, Springer, 2013

1
333
 TECHNOLOGICAL OPTION FOR THE RECOVERY OF THE
COAL FRACTION FROM FLOTATION TAILINGS STORED IN
PONDS

Ctlin VRNCEANU1, Diana MARCHI2, Srbu ROMULUS3

1
LCC-Compania Crbunelui Reia
2,3
Petroani of University

ABSTRACT
After processing coal by hidrogravitational and flotation methods, there were released
considerable amounts of tailings, generally under 3 mm, with a 30 percent content of coal
fraction. These were stockpiled in ponds and were considered secondary sources of solid fuel.
The technology for the recovery of the coal fraction from flotation tailings stored in ponds
consists in the combination of attrition-sizing, primary concentration in centrifugal field in a
special apparatus called centrifugal concentration apparatus connected at the overflow with a
conventional hydrocyclones battery, obtaining in the downflow a coal-bearing product, which is
drained through screening, and the overflow of the cleaning hydrocyclones, with a considerable
content of argillaceous fraction is drained through centrifugation.
The waste waters are totally recirculated in the installation and in order to obtain the right
dilution, to sprinkle the riddles and to cool off the installation there is used technological water.
The argillaceous tailing is deposited in authorized landfills. This technology has the advantage
that, on one hand it helps discharging the ponds in order to be used for their primary purpose
and on the other hand permits the exploitation of a secondary energy source.

KEYWORDS
tailings, coal, hydrocyclones, secondary energy source

1. INTRODUCTION

This paper is about a technology and a processing plant used for sterile raw tailings with a
variable content of coal fraction. The raw sterile tailings are stock-piled in ponds that contain
millions of cubic meters of tailing and extend for tens of hectares. The purpose of processing
these tailings in centrifugal field in a special apparatus called centrifugal concentration
apparatus connected at the overflow with a conventional hydrocyclones battery is to recover
the coal fraction that has proper characteristics to be burnt in steam power plants or other
power installation.

334
2. TECHNOLOGY DESCRIPTION

The main characteristic of the proposed technology is that after cleaning the material in a
scrubber, the coal fraction, separated from the argillaceous compound, regains its natural shine.
The next step is a sizing below 14 mm on a rotating screen, trommel type, part of the scrubber.
The screenings are mainly foreign material from the ponds shore, that represents about 1 to 3
% from the inlet and are removed from the plant like a course material. The sifting is the inlet
of the processing plant in centrifugal field, obtaining the coal fraction as a finite product in the
downflow, and the argillaceous fraction in the overflow. The final products are stock-piled on
special platforms.
Figure 1 shows the technological flux of the processing of raw sterile tailings extracted from the
ponds through mechanical and/or hydraulic methods. The extracted raw sterile tailing is
transported in the mixing tank (1), where water is added, in order to obtain a minimum dilution
of 3m3/t.

Figure 1: Technological flux of the processing of raw sterile tailings with coal fraction 1. Mixing
tank; 2. Centrifugal pump; 3. Attrition scrubber; 4. radial palettes ; 5. Trommel screen
6. Receiving tank ; 7. Centrifugal pump; 8. Centrifugal concentration apparatus; 9.
Special hydrocyclone 10. Conic drum ; 11. Cylindrical part; 12. Siphon pipe 13. Fix
spiral; 14. Pressure chamber ; 15. Gutter ; 16. Rotating discharger ; 17. Vibrating
screen ; 18. Sprinkler; 19. Belt-type carrier 20. Transfer tank ; 21. Centrifugal pump;
22. Hydrocyclons battery; 23. Sedimentation centrifuge; 24. Transfer tank; 25
Centrifugal pump.
From tank (1) the homogenized slurry is transferred with the centrifugal pump (2) to a rotating
scrubber (3) which has inside radial palettes (4) that raise the material to a certain height
above the water mirror. Afterwards the material falls again in cascades in the slurry current
thus accomplishing attrition which consists in the scaling of the argillaceous minerals from the
coal grains. Next the slurry is separated through a rotating trommel type screen (5), with the
14 mm meshes. The raw material is discarded
from the plant and deposited on the ponds
shore; the sifting passes to the receiving tank (6)
and that through the centrifugal pump (7) gets to
the centrifugal concentration apparatus (8), which
consists in a battery of 6 8 special
hydrocyclones (9) installed into a conic drum
(10).
A hydrocyclone from the battery consists in a
cylindrical part (11) in which there is installed the
Figure 2. Centrifugal concentration apparatus
functioning scheme 335
siphon pipe (12). In the space between the two cylinders there is a fix spiral (13) with a
constant declivity angle, that takes into account, on one hand the separation dimension and
density, and on the other hand the resultant force created by centrifugal, centripetal and
gravitational forces, giving a descending helicoidally movement to the mineral particles.
The inlet to the 6 8 hydrocyclones is achieved through the pressure chamber (14). The raw
material leaves the hydrocyclones and settles at the top of the conic drum (10) from where it
is continuously removed with the rotating discharger (16). The fine product leaves the
apparatus through the siphon pipes and it is collected in the gutter (15). Without the conical
part of the hydrocyclones they have to work underwater in order to achieve the separation
density and the right thickness. The usage of the rotating discharger is compulsory because it
achieves the consolidation of the apparatus and the humidity of the evacuated product. The
overflow collected into the gutter passes to the transfer tank (20) from where through the
centrifugal pump (21) it supplies the hydrocyclones battery (22), which retains the fine coal
fraction in the downflow and the sterile material in the overflow. The downflow material
obtained from both hydrocyclones batteries 8 and (22) goes on the vibrating screen (17), which
has clear water sprinklers (18) where the downflow is drained. the drained product is
transported with a belt-type carrier (19) in a warehouse. The overflow containing mainly
argillaceous minerals -0,063mm, its drained through a sedimentation centrifuge (23) with
flocculant agents. The drained material is deposited on a special platform while the fugat (clear
water) with the sifting (17) are collected in a tank (24), from where with the pump (25) it is
recirculated in tank (1). Waste waters are totally recirculated in the installation and in order to
obtain the right dilution, to sprinkle the screens and to cool off the installation there is used
technological water. The technological indicators obtained using this method, are shown in
table 1.

Table 1: Technological indicators

Indicator Material Value

Weight Rate A, [t/h] 150
Flow Q, [m3/h] 450
Raw 58.13
Ash content, [%] Coal 27.70
Sterile 69.52
Raw 1720
Calorific power, [kcal/kg] Coal 4100
Sterile 780
Coal recovery, [%] 28.32
Water recycling degree, [%] 75

3. CONCLUSIONS

The presented technology is good for all the sterile deposits with coal content, below 3 mm,
from tailing ponds or alluvial areas.
It is known that when the fine fraction, usually under 63 micrometers, has a high percent, the
gravitational methods of separation are inefficient therefore there are needed higher forces (10
-100) g. These forces can be obtained only in centrifugal field.
The presented technology is innovative, at least nationally, and it is based on coal fraction
separation in centrifugal field using hydrocyclonig in two stages:
- A harsh stage - separating the fraction over 250 micrometers, into a special
constructed hydrocyclones battery;
- A fine stage - separating the fraction below 63 micrometers, in conventional
hydrocyclones.
Generally the over 63 micrometers fractions consist mainly of merchantable coal, while the
under 63 micrometers fraction is composed of argillaceous minerals, representing tailings.

336
The proposed technology is flexible depending on the characteristics of processed raw material
and is suitable for automation responding to the requirements of modern mineral and
environmental engineering.

4. REFERENCES

Sarbu, R. I., Gravitational processing Gravitational concentration methods,

[1]
Litography of Technical University Petroani, 1993.
Sarbu, R. I., Srb N.A, tefan A., Centrifugal concentration apparatus , Innovator
[2]
certificate no.798/1988 Mining Institute Petroani, 1988.
Vrnceanu C, G,V,Calamariu N, Srbu R,I., Technology and installation for the
[3] recovery of coal tailings in centrifugal field, Invention proposal OSIM A/00742 from
19. 10. 2012.

337
 THE MAGNESIUM LIMESTONES
UNIVERSAL PANACEA
FOR THE ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH
KRAUSZ Sanda1 , CIOCAN Viorica2, DONEA Adriana Ioana3

1
University of Petroani, Petroani, Romania, [email protected]
2
SC Mondo Cariere SRL, Petroani, Romania, [email protected]
3
RCS & RDS SA Romania, Bucharest, [email protected]

ABSTRACT
The magnesium limestone or dolomitic limestone represents varieties with high content of
magnesium carbonate, which can reach 20-25%. They have a wide range of uses, for having
imposed a limit levels of CaCO3 and MgCO3. In many areas of use, the largest share (about
60%) is destined for environmental protection (water, air, soil) with extremely beneficial
effect in terms of economic profitability record. Based on these findings, the work contains
the results of research that shows the possibility of using these outstanding properties in an
integrated system: for advanced treatment of municipal sewage and to reduce soil acidity,
taking into account that in Romania, about 2 million hectares (23% of the agricultural area
of the country) are acid soils. These are presented in the form of a case study, all the stages
of the extraction, processing, purification of domestic waste water and in the end the use of
obtained fertilizer in agriculture.

KEY WORDS
magnesium limestone, waste water treatment, fertilizer

1. INTRODUCTION

Lately though, it has highlighted the importance and effect of magnesium oxide presence of
different materials containing limestone. Thus, since 1997, at the Kyoto Conference, when
161 countries including Romania- have completed an agreement that establishes the
terms and rules of the emanations of gases causing the greenhouse effect, it stressed the

338
high ability of magnesium oxide to retain CO2, functioning as a "Lung" of the Earth, even
when it is in the composition of building materials.
In many areas of use, the largest share (about 60%) is destined for environmental
protection (water, air, soil) with extremely beneficial effects in terms of economic profitability
record. Based on these findings, the work contains the results of research that shows the
possibility of using these outstanding properties in an integrated system: for advanced
treatment of municipal sewage and to reduce soil acidity, taking into account that in
Romania, about 2 million hectares (23% of the agricultural area of the country) are acid
soils. These are presented in the form of a case study, all the stages of the extraction,
processing, purification of domestic wastewater and in the end the use of obtained fertilizer
in agriculture. Research results have highlighted the possibility of achieving the two aims:
extremely effective reduction of harmful ions content in waste waters from 200 mg/l at 1
mg/l for the NO3 ion and at 50 mg/l in the 5 mg/l for the PO43- ion, the permissible values
for the discharge of domestic waste water in the emissaries
getting a usable precipitate as fertilizer of acidic soils in agriculture, in particular for
greenhouse crops, grapevines, fruit trees, potatoes, sugar beets, alfalfa, and clover.

2. PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF DOLOMITIC

LIMESTONE DEPOSITS FROM ROMANIA AND THEIR AREAS OF USE

The presence on our country of some significant deposits of limestone magnesium leads to
the idea of their complex capitalization in the field of environmental protection, quality of
materials in many deposits being very good for this direction of use, but not only.
The most valuable deposits are dolomitic limestone with brucite (MgOH)2 because through
calcination at relatively low temperatures (650o C) it highlights reactive magnesium oxide
that has a tendency to get into reaction with carbon dioxide in the water or in the air, but
also with other free ions from the environment in which they are located.
Deposits of dolomitic limestone with brucite on the territory of Romania are those in the
Bihor mountains, area Budureasa - Pietroasa. Main content thereof, evidenced by the
chemical analyses are presented in table 1.

Table 1: Average contents of limestone deposits with brucite from Romania [3]

Average content , %
Substance Budureasa-Valea Budureasa-Valea Pietroasa
Mare Srca
MgO 21,73 20,53 19,13
CaO 34,40 34,36 34,55
Mg(OH)2 11,12 9,86 7,55
CO2 36,18 37,42 37,54
Al2O3 1,14 1,39 1,53
Fe2O3 0,46 0,60 0,87
SiO2 2,57 2,48 3,80

Other major deposits of dolomitic limestone from Romania are those in Poiana Rusca
Mountains, Ovidiu (Constanta) and Volobeni (jud. Harghita). Their quality parameters are
presented in table 2.

339
 Table 2: Average contents of dolomitic limestone deposits from Romania [4]

Average content , %
Substance Poiana Rusc Ovidiu Volobeni
Hunedoara Constana Harghita
MgO 21,5-20,47 18-20 20,56-21,7
CaO 31,2-32,13 31,5-32,14 30,56-32,97
Al2O3 0,33-1,47 0,5 0,01-0,06
Fe2O3 0,46-1,47 1-2 0,01-0,08
SiO2 0,25-1,39 1-2 1-2

In addition to the field of environmental protection (wastewater treatment for extraction of

nutrients and heavy metals, SO2 and CO2 extraction from industrial gases in agriculture to
feed the soil and fertilization), magnesium limestone may have many other areas of use such
as:
- basic refractory products manufacture;
- preparation of magnesium electrolytic;
- obtaining magnesium alloys used in machine construction, in aerospace, consumer goods
industry;
-obtaining magnesium oxide used in the chemical industry (to manufacture melting pots
resistant to high temperature, electrical heating elements, in the manufacture of synthetic
rubber, the various catalysts in the manufacture of fading, the manufacture of solvents as
well as in the preparation of pharmaceutical and cosmetic products;
- soda ash with Mg is used in producing artificial silk (get magnesium acetate used to
neutralize the artificial silk fibres);
- pigment for objects of polyvinyl chloride and fillers for paints;
- fillers in the composition of boards for footwear and miscellaneous duroflex categories of
rubber;
- coating material for paper;
- the mixture constitutes the raw material for obtaining fine ceramics in faience, frit as a
table for glazes, in the composition of the glass;
-admixture in construction materials (replaces 50% of the lime mortar brickwork and plaster,
is a good addition in concrete as cement substitute in the manufacture of cellular concrete.

3. POSSIBILITIES OF MAGNESIUM LIMESTONE USING IN DOMESTIC

WASTE WATERS TREATMENT

The most reliable procedure of nutrient contaminated waste water purging proved to be the
precipitation as ammonia and magnesium double phosphate, a compound known as struvite.
The formed compound has such a low solubility in water so that it is used in analytical
chemistry to determine the magnesium concentration [8], [9]
The precipitation reaction is:
Mg2+ + NH4+ + PO43- = MgNH4PO4 (1)
The conditions necessary for the precipitation are also enhancing the partial removal of a lot
of other chemical elements such as Hg, Ag, Pb, Al, Fe, Mn, Zn either by co-precipitation or
adsorption from the polluted waste water. Arsenic ions precipitate as AsO43- under the same
conditions as well. The solubility product also indicates the low solubility of the residual
ammonia and phosphate ions remained in solution:

340
 Ps = [Mg2+][NH4+][PO43-] =2,510-13 (2)
The residual concentration of ammonia and phosphate ions is about 110-5 mol/l, but under
industrial conditions the outcome residual concentrations were not less than 0.1mg/l.
The ration between the ammonia and phosphate must be 18:95 according to the
precipitation reaction stoichiometry as well. Any deviation from this ratio will cause an
unwanted excess of reagent in water. In order to achieve the lab scaled research, an
experimental installation was set up to provide the household water conditioning with
different kinds of magnesium mineral substances.
In order to conduct the experiments two types of waste waters sampled from a household
waters purging station were reacted with the following mineral purging materials: raw
dolomite, roasted dolomite and concentrate enriched in MgO, obtained by dissolution of
dolomite in CO2 supersaturated solution.
The solution conditioning with each one of the mineral magnesium component was done
during 10 minutes, then after the filtration two products resulted: treated water and the solid
phase. Figure 1 shows the flow sheet of the applied lab research method and the resulted
products. The results of chemical analysis of the obtained products are synthetically
presented in table 3.

Figure 1 - The flow sheet of the laboratory research

The existent ammonia and phosphate ions contents of the raw household water sharply
declines after 10 minutes of solution (2) conditioning with the purging magnesium products
as it can be observed in figure 2.

341
 Table 3: Results using raw, roasted dolomite and magnesia

Mineral: raw dolomite Mineral: roasted dolomite Mineral: magnesia

Solutions Contents, mg/l Contents, mg/l Contents, mg/l
2+ 2+ - 3- 2+ 2+ - 3- 2+ 2+ - 3-
Mg Ca NO3 PO4 Mg Ca NO3 PO4 Mg Ca NO3 PO4
Sol.1
(feed) 2.12 39.83 1.2 23.77 2.12 39.83 1.2 23.77 2,12 39,83 1,2 23,77
Sol.2 19.5 29.1 uld* 9.1 24.85 17.17 uld* 6.8 0,03 130,5 uld* 4,13
Sol.3 22.4 22.84 uld 7.85 7.1 16.1 uld 3.1 0,13 13,63 uld 2,78
Mg MgO Ca CaO Mg MgO Ca CaO Mg MgO Ca CaO
Solid 1
(feed) 6.83 11.32 25.46 35.62 8.03 13.31 28.13 39.36 14,9 24,7 20,65 28,89
Solid 2 19.92 33.02 15.9 22.24 18.45 30.58 16.26 22.75 15,08 25 17,28 24,18
Solid 3 18.87 31.28 16.38 22.91 18.25 30.25 15.87 22.20 10,53 17,45 20 27,98

30

PO4, %
25
NO3, %

20

15

10

0
1 2 3 4

Figure 2 - The variation of PO43- and NO3- ions (1-residual water; 2-limestone; 3-roasted limestone; 4-
MgO concentrate)

The most simple technological alternative for dolomite processing and its use in the waste
water cleaning process is presented in figure 3. It consists in a dolomite processing and
preparation installation and the nutrient removal apparatus that basically represents a
fluidized bed reactor to assure the direct formation of struvite and its exhaustion from the
apparatus as marketable end product. The Installation for the product obtaining consists in a
subset (A) to process the activated concentrate of brucite limestones, which includes two
jaw crushers joined together by an inclined chute, one vibrating sieve whose reject is
redirected to a feeding chute of the posterior crasher, the sieved phase is conducted towards
a hammer mill and the crushed material is taken over and introduced in a silo. From this silo
the material can be introduced in an inclined calcinations furnace and the resulted activated
concentrate is conducted toward another silo. The subset (A) to process the activated brucite
limestone concentrate activated is linked to a subset (B) to fabricate the struvite, which
includes a vibrant dispenser which assures the feeding with pre-established flow rates of one
or more than one cylinder-conic fluidized bed reaction vats where the activated concentrate
is contacted with the household water.
This technology is easy to be implemented at all household water purging station, which
allows the subsequently recovery of these nutrients. The magnesium limestone use to obtain
the fertilizer and soil amendment represents a viable solution.

342
 Brucitic limestone

Crushing I

Crushing II

Classing 10 mm

Grinding 3 mm

Ensilage

CALCINATION 800-850 oC

Residual waters
Ensilage

DENUTRITIOUS

Dewatering Hydrocyclone

Filtration
Coarse product

Denutritious
Fine product
waters

Figure 5 -Technological flow sheet for dolomite processing

4. POSSIBILITIES OF UTILIZATION OF MAGNESIUM IN LIMESTONE IN

ACID SOIL FERTILIZATION

Romania currently has more of the magnesium limestone deposits estimated at over 100
million tons, which can be used effectively in this type of use and beyond. The U.S. currently
use in environmental activities and in agriculture, over 40% of the production of magnesium
oxide produced or imported, with special benefits.
In the composition of chemical elements enter the following plants: carbon (45%), oxygen
(42%), hydrogen (6.5%), nitrogen (0.5-5%), phosphorus (0.2-1,74%), potassium (0.2-5%),
silicon, magnesium, sulfur and sodium in proportion of 99.95%, and chlorine, aluminium,
iron, manganese, boron, copper, strontium, titanium, zinc, bismuth, lead, nickel, etc. at the
rate of about 0.05% [10].
Plants take water and minerals from the soil, and the oxygen and carbon dioxide (CO2) from
the air.
In the soil are found large quantities of the nutritious substances. Calculated per hectare on
a depth of 1 m, nitrogen accounts for 10-40 t/ha phosphorus 5-25 t/ha and potassium 220-
375 t/ha. Compared with the quantities lost harvest (100 kg/ha), soil reserves are very large.

343
In the soil the plants consume more nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. For plant growth
substances must be in a form readily conduct amounts to. If the ground substances
assimilated easily are insufficient or lacking, plants suffer from growing.
The necessary nutrients to plants that are not found in sufficient quantities in the soil can be
supplemented by fertilizer. Therefore, nutrients, fertilizers respectively, have an important
role in plant life.
The use of fertilizers in relation to the needs of their enrichment plant ensures the items
concerned, obtaining an increase in production and a qualitative improvement.
Proper use of mineral fertilizers increases crop yields for all crops by 40-50%, and in some
specific cases and more. Used to animal feed crops, improve quality and various products
(milk, eggs, meat, etc.). This will ensure an increase in production of agricultural products.
Application of Mg fertilizers are recommended when the arable soils cultivated with crops
from the field content of exchangeable Mg drops below 80 ppm Mg on sandy soils, under
120 ppm on soils with medium texture and below 200 ppm on the clay.
Draycott and others (2006) considered that the use of fertilizers with Mg becames efficient
when the contents Mg in soil drops below 35 ppm. After English researchers applying is
required under 25 ppm Mg to all cultures. Over these thresholds, the application is required
only when the soil has a high content of K or when it comes to greenhouse crops or fruit
trees.
It is recommended that the following indicative dosages depending on the crop and the soil
content in Mg: 30-40 kg/ha of MgO in the form of water-soluble salts to grasses, 30-60 kg in
legumes and 80-100 kg/ha to potato. Foliar splashing must be repeated 3-4 times with
magnesium sulphate solution (2%) can be effective in preventing the manifestation of Mg
deficiency at the vines and fruit trees. However, fertilizing the ground is most recommended.
Starting from scientific considerations summarized, it can be concluded that in any areas
affected by large emissions of sulfur dioxide and carbon dioxide, 1970s brucitice that contain
on average 19-25% MgO can be used as a soil improver and fertilizer affected by acid rain
formed in polluted areas.
The active components of brucitic limestone, magnesium hydroxide, respectively (brucite)
and calcium carbonate, in contact with soils and under the effects of acid rain, give rise to
magnesium sulfate (soluble component) and calcium sulfate (component insoluble).
Magnesium sulfate frees the magnesium ions which conducts to a beneficial growth of all
types of crop plants.

CONCLUSIONS

The aim of this paper was to present some new solutions and effective wastewater
treatment plant, in close correlation with the opportunity to improve the soils acidic.
The connection between these two areas, the product can be obtained from the
advanced treatment of wastewater, called struvite, which is an ammonium and
magnesium phosphate that can be used as fertilizer of acidic soils with very good
results. It can be obtained by using the process of magnesium limestone. The
magnesium oxide determines the phosphate and ammonium ions retention from
waste water, which currently can be found in wastewaters discharged to the envoys.
The technologies applied of waste water treatment station in Romania eliminate
phosphate only partially and oxidize the ammonia to nitrate ion. The old technologies
of nutrients elimination were based only on the phosphate precipitation as calcium
phosphate or hydroxyapatite.
A simple technology was elaborated that it easy to be implemented at all household
water cleaning station, which allows the subsequently recovery of these nutrients.
The magnesium limestone use to obtain the fertilizer and soil amendment represents

344
 a viable solution and is possible to be applied within a program involving three
economic fundamental fields : mineral resources exploitation environment
agriculture.
The results obtained at laboratory scale on household water using three different
types of mineral magnesium materials pointed out the possibility to decrease the
contents of phosphate and ammonia ions under the safety limit enforced by the law
for the waste water discharged in the emissary.
There is a possibility to revitalize two important fields in the global economic circuit,
which are tightly related with the environment, respectively the household waters
purging and the increase of agricultural potential of acid lands by simply use of the
dolomite from the ore deposits in Romania in a chain process.

References

[1] Barret S.- Economic Development and Environmental Policy, FAO, 1996.
[2] Bran F.- Ecology and environmental protection, Bucureti, Editura ASE, 2000.
[3] Ionescu C. Brucitul Mg(OH)2. Mineralogie i mineralogenez. Zcminte de brucit din
Romnia, Editura didactic i pedagogic, Bucureti, 1999.
[4] Petrulian N. Deposits of useful minerals, Editura Tehnic, Bucureti, 1973.
[5] Rojanschi V., Bran F., Diaconu G., Iosif G., Teodoriu F. - Economia i protecia mediului,
Bucureti, EdituraTribuna economic, 1997.
[6] Ciocan V., Traista E., Podariu M. Treatment of waste waters. Universitas Pb.H.,
Petrosani, 2000.
[7] Krausz S., Ilie P. Theory and technology of flotation, Monography, MatrixRom Pb.H.,
Bucharest, 2001, vol.
[8] Jaffer,Y. et all: Potential phosphorus recovery by struvite formation, Cranfield University,
Bedfordshire, pp.1-202, UK, 1995.
[9] Lee, JJ et all: A study of NH3-N and Prefixation by struvite formation in hybrid anaerobic
reactor, Chonnam National University, Gwangju pp 500-757, Korea 2001.
[10] Draycott P. Sugar Beet, Blackwell Publishing, Oxford, UK, 2006, pag. 198-199.
[11] Borlan Z, Hera C. Methods for assessing the condition of soil fertilization for the
purpose of rational fertilizer, Editura Ceres, Bucureti, 1973.

345
 COMPUTATIONAL MODELING OF STRUCTURE AND
PROPRIETIES
OF THE FLOTATION REAGENTS

SOLOZHENKIN Peter1, KRAUSZ Sanda2

1
Federal state budgetary establishment of a science Research Institute of
Comprehensive Exploitation of Mineral Resources of the Russian Academy
of Science (IPKON the RASci) Kryukovsky Tupik, 4, Moscow, 111020 Russia,
[email protected]
2
Universitatea din Petroani, Petroani, Romania, [email protected]

ABSTRACT
Science the inception of it using to the present, flotation was the broadest application
process for mineral separation, worldwide.
Although in Romania, the numerous flotation plants which produced large quantities of
concentrates, closed their activity, flotation is still in topicality; it is applicable for useful
compounds recovery from huge amounts of waste produced over the decades, in order
greening areas strong affected of their presence.
The main way of routing, control and adjustment of flotation process, in order to achieve
higher economic and technological indicators is to ensure the most adequate reagent
regime. For more efficiency of collectors action, lately is used computational modeling
technique of their structure, considering the existence of a strong interdependence between
the structural construction of molecule of collector and its chemical activity.
Quantum chemical research methods assures the determination of indicators of possible
reactions of the cations from mineral surface with collector even before its synthesizing.

KEY WORDS
Collector, computational modeling , flotation, mineral cluster

346
1. INTRODUCTION

The main way of routing, control and adjustment of flotation process, in order to achieve
higher economic and technological indicators is to ensure the most adequate reagent
regime, especially the most effective collector for each mineral.
Establishing the stereochemical representation of reagents is considered to be fairly
important for the study of flotation. In order to be realized, the strong dependence between
the spatial structure of the molecules and the chemical activity of the compound needs to be
considered. Soloviev M.E. and Soloviev M.M. demonstrated the efficiency of the research
using computer technology and chemistry software.
One of the key roles in using the dependence between the spatial structure of the collector
molecules and the chemical activity of the compound rests with the quantum-mechanical
researches which have been proven to be the necessary instruments for studying the
geometry of the molecular structure, in the study of the particularities of molecules
interactions, when analyzing the structure of different origins substances.
Tens of millions of compounds having a different chemical structure have been synthesized
nowadays, only tens of thousands being considered to have a practical use.
Each compound has its own physical-chemical characteristics. Therefore, it is quite important
to determine the quantitative correlations of the dependence between the structure and the
chemical characteristics of the compound. This determination, not only does it allow rapidly
choosing between the existent compounds, but also, choosing the most appropriate one, in
order to ensure the required synthesizing properties of new compounds.
Experimental determination of the physical-chemical properties often implies important
difficulties related both to the measurement technique as well as to obtaining, and purifying
the substances, their possible stability, toxicity and aggressiveness. These types of
determinations require large material expenses, a lot of qualified work and a lot of time.
The existence of quantum-chemical determination methods allows for the indicators of the
binding capacity of metallic cations to collector reagents (before the synthesized reagents
the properties of which are measured) be established, and respectively allows the selection,
from a series of unresearched compounds even more note yet synthesized of those
which according to the forecast, shall accomplish superior requirements.
Contemporary science disposes of a considerable number of technical methods which are
able to study in detail the structure of molecules, their reaction capacities the mechanisms of
these reactions.
India has carried out important computer modeling researches on oxydrylic reagents under
the attentive leadership of Pradip and Rai Beena. They have managed to realize a molecular
modeling study of oleate monolayers adsorbed at the surface of calcium minerals (Beena,
Pradip, 2003; 2008).
Pradip, Rai Beena and Rao T.K. (Pradip, Beena, Rao et al, 2002; Pradip, Beena, 2002;
Pradip, Beena, 2003) studied the interaction of alkyl hydroxamates with calcium minerals,
using for the research complex software: MOPAC 6.0, CERIUS version 4.0 as well as
Materials Studio.
Solozhenkin Peter M. and Solozhenkin Oleg I. have studied in detail the 3D models of
sulphydric collectors, of diaryl dithio-phosphonic acids, of mercapto compounds
(Solozhenkin, Solozhenkin, 2010a, 2010b, 2011).
Using the computer modelling method as well Kurkov A.V. and Pastukhova I.V. (Kurkov,
Pastukhova, 2010, 2011) have recently realised a series of important studies on a new class
of phosphorus containing reagents.
Medyanic N.L., Ghirevaia H.I. and Varlamova I.A. have applied the quantum-chemical
approach when choosing the collector reagent for the floatation of coal with a low degree of
metamorphism (Medyanik, Ghirevaya and Varlamova, 2005; Medyanik 2011, Shadrunova,
Medyanik, Kalugina, 2011).

347
For sulphydric flotation reagents three-dimensional molecular models have been
constructed. Distribution of partial charges to atoms in sulphydric reagents has been studied.
It is shown, that in diethyldithio phosphinate and diethylmothio phosphinate, the partial
charge on atom has high positive value. The partial charge thiol of sulfur in diethyldithio
phosphinate and diethylmonothio phosphinate has negative size that specifies in
strengthening of compound of atoms of sulphur with cation metals of minerals.
The basic computer parametres of the general energy flotation reagents are defined. Are
constructed molecular orbitals for sulphydric reagents and energy of their level is
calculated. Updating sulphydric reagents by acetic acid with reception potassium (xanthate)
acetate ROCS (S) CH2COO, sodium (dialkyldicarbamate) acetate (C2H5) NCS(S)CH2COO Na,
sodium (thiohinoline ) acetate has been executed.
At computer modelling key parametres connection (the general energy of compound, a
charge on atoms, are constructed molecular orbitals and their energy is calculated) have
been defined (Solozhenkin, Solozhenkin, Krausz, 2012).

2. METHODS

Computational modeling of minerals and reagents was performed using Chem Bio 3D and
ChemOffice2005 by Cambridge Soft with optimization by MM2. The semi empirical
calculations were provided by MOPAC 2012 in vacuum (Soloviev 2005; Khel`t`e 2012).
Molecular structures of mineral clusters were created.
DTF approach was used to determine the optimal molecular structure and calculate atomic
charge values, the compositions and energies of HOMO (Highest Occupied Molecular
Orbitals), LUMO (Lowest Unoccupied Molecular Orbitals) and SOMO.
The strategy of collector activity evaluation has been proposed as a consistent approach to
estimate the interaction between a collector and a mineral cluster as a difference of total
energy and sum of cluster energy and collector energy (Solozhenkin 2012a, 2012b).

E = E complex - (E cluster + E collector), eV

Complex formation have been established with the aid of computational docking technique.
The docking method is a search algorithm and a scoring function that predicts the preferable
orientation of one molecule to a second, to form a stable complex and estimate collecting
activity of reagents. The approach has proved useful in identifying relevant candidates for
several flotation applications (Solozhenkin, 2008, Solozhenkin, Solozhenkin, Krausz, 2012).
This index was named Prognosis of Collector Activity Evaluation (PCAE). The lower PCAE, the
stronger the ability of the collector to interact with the mineral cluster.
Based on the PCAE results, the synergistic effect of the combination of collectors on
different minerals ore flotation has been established: for candidates in collectors for minerals
of elements of platinum group flotation (Solozhenkin, Solozhenkin, Krausz, 2014), for
oxhydryl collectors for alkaline earth minerals flotation (Solozhenkin, Krausz, Ibrahimova,
2015).

3. MOLECULAR MODELS OF MINERALS AND FLOTATION COLLECTOR

CLUSTERS

As we made mention, the computational modeling applied was performed on different types
of flotation reagents, with a wide use in industrial practice.
We will present as an example, some results obtained in the study of molecular models of
oxhydryl collectors which are used in practice, such as oleic acid (OA) and modified collectors
which can be prospective reagents for non-sulfide flotation such as butylxanthatoundecanoic

348
acid (BXUA), - ((N,N-diethyl dithiocarbamato)undecanoic acid (DEDTCUA) and - (N, N-
dibuthyldithiocarbamato) undecanoic acid (DBDTCUA), used in flotation of alkaline earth
minerals.
Figure 1 shown the structural formulas and 3D models of alkaline earth mineral clusters for
barite, celestine and calcite.

Figure 1. Structural formulas ans 3D optimized models of mineral clusters of barite, celestine and
calcite

The modified fatty acids with the general formula R2N - C - S2 - (2) 10 COOH, where R
C2H5, C4H9, have been studied and geometrical structures have been created. The structure
and optimized 3D models of modified undecanoic acids are presented in Figure 2.

b c
Figure 2.Structural formulas of butylxanthatoundecanoic acid (BXUA) (a), optimized 3D models
- ((N,N-diethyl dithiocarbamato)undecanoic acid (DEDTCUA) (b) and
- (N, N- dibuthyldithiocarbamato) undecanoic acid (DBDTCUA) (c).

349
Computer optimized parameters of molecules of studied collectors are presented in table 1
and according to the obtained values, is obviously that the longer the hydrocarbon chain,
the stronger van der Waals interaction. The power of van der Waals interaction of three
collectors is followed as OA<DEDTCUA<DBDTCUA. These results should take into account
for improving the flotation performance.

Table 1: Computer optimized parameters of molecules of studied collectors

Reagent
Parameters OA DEDTCUA DBDTCUA
Valence-bonds tensile 1.0032 1.1604 1.3306
Dihedral angles flexure 2.4598 4.9058 5.4514
Flexural tensile correction coefficient 0.3164 0.4848 0.5408
Internal rotation -1.6081 1.9897 3.3070
Non van der Waals interaction -3.4402 -3.7662 -3.9787
van der Waals interaction 10.7999 11.6094 14.7534
Dipole/dipole interaction 1.6872 1.9300 1.8744
Total steric energy,kcal/mol 11.2182 18.3138 23.2788

Mineral and collector clusters form together a complex, as shown in Figure 3 for
butylxanthatoundecanoic acid attached to fluorite mineral cluster, as an example.

a b

Figure 3. Complex of fluorite cluster with a molecule of butylxanthatoundecanoic acid (BXUA)

attaching to calcium atom (a) and its optimized geometrical model (b).

Physical-chemical parameters of complexes created have been analyzed. It has been

established that HOMO and LUMO are carrying the negative charge. Absolute hardness and
chemical potential by Pearson and Parr have been calculated. Ca, Ba, Sr complexes with
BXUA have been studied using chelate and bidentate schemes. The bond distances between
(11)-(12) and (1)-(10) equal 1,595 and 1,208 respectively, which indicates the
strong interaction between calcium atom and a collector.

350
It was noticed that the normal covalent bond and the back donation covalent bond occur in
bidentate complexes. It was obtained that bidentate complex Ca- BXUA has HOMO/LUMO
and HOMO/LUMO. The oxhydryl collector transfers its HOMO electrons to a metal atom to
form the normal covalent bond. In addition the metal atom can transfer some of d-electrons
to LUMO of the collector forming back donation covalent bonds which should increase
interaction between a collector and a mineral. The results obtained show the decrease in
charge on a calcium atom of the mineral cluster.

4. PROGNOSIS OF COLLECTOR ACTIVITY EVALUATION (PCAE)

One of the most important achievements of the interaction between collector and mineral
clusters studies was establishing of the relationship allowing collector activity evaluation.
Thereby, has been proposed as a consistent approach to estimate the interaction between a
collector and a mineral cluster as a difference of total energy and sum of cluster energy and
collector energy (Solozhenkin 2012a, 2012b, 2012c).
E = E complex - (E cluster + E collector), eV
From the relevant studies conducting on PCAE it can be concluded that BXUA possesses the
higher collector activity (PCAE = - 8134,518 eV) comparing to OA (PCAE = - 4866,881 eV)
for flotation of alkaline earth minerals. The value of PCAE referring to total energy is followed
as CaCO3> BaSO4> SrSO4> CaF2 which corresponding to flotation. According to PCAE
referring to electronic energy the decrease of prognosis of collector activity evaluation
(PCAE) for minerals is in the following order: SrSO4> BaSO4> CaCO3> CaF2.
Based on the PCAE results the synergistic effect of the combination of collectors on alkaline
earth ore flotation has been established. The sharp decrease of PCAE with binary mixture of
collectors such as OA + BXUA and OA + DBDTCUA has been shown. The electronic energy
was decreased with the difference of 14048,864 eV (-23007,083-(-3353,58 -5604,639) for
CaF2 + OA + BXUA comparing to the same parameter for individual collectors. From the
previous discussion it is evident that the combination of collectors is more preferable
comparing to the single collector.

5. FLOTATION OF ALKALINE EARTH MINERALS AND ORES

To optimize the flotation operation the combination of oleic acid(OA) and - ((N,N-diethyl
dithiocarbamato)undecanoic acid (DEDTCUA) or - (N, N- dibuthyldithiocarbamato)
undecanoic acid (DBDTCUA), have been investigated with the ratio of 1:1. Application of
the binary mixture of OA and DEDTCUA (1:1) allowed to increase the recovery of fluorite as
well as the grade of the concentrate.
The flotation was performed by using OA (100 g/t) and DEDTCUA (100 g/t) with the feed
grade of 23,4% CaF2. By using this technique the fluorite concentrate was upgraded up to
96,3% with the recovery of 85,35%. (Solozhenkin P.M., 2008)

CONCLUSIONS

1. The use of the established physical-chemical characteristics and of the computer design
constitutes a strategy for the future, for choosing and using the most efficient reagents for
complex problems solving and minerals capitalisation.
2. Fundaments were brought for the use of a series of indicators as a criterion for the
assessment of the flotation activity of organic compounds in relation to the cations of the

351
metals representing the computer characteristics of reagents. It has been confirmed for a
series of new reagents to have identical indicators to the standard reagents.
3. Based on the PCAE results, the synergistic effect of the combination of collectors on
different minerals ore flotation has been established. Index PCAE has been calculated to
analyze the docking activity of modified fatty acids with alkaline metals from mineral clusters,
as an example. The approach has proved useful in identifying relevant candidates for alkaline
earth mineral flotation with modified fatty acids.
4. Molecular modeling of alkaline earth mineral and modified fatty acid clusters has been
created. The main physical-chemical parameters have been established.
5. The transfer of electrons has been investigated. It has been established that the classical
transfer of charge occurs in bidentate complex with the decrease in charge on the calcium
atom of the mineral cluster.

References

[1] Beena R., Pradip: A molecular modeling study of oleate monolayer adsorbed at calcium
mineral surfaces, in Proceedings of the XXII International Mineral Processing Congress (ed:
L. Lorenzen and D. J. Bradshaw), 2003, pp 1085/1093 (Cape Town, South Africa).
[2] Beena R., Pradip: Design of highly selective industrial performance chemicals: a
molecular modeling approach, in Molecular Simulation, Vol 34, 2008, pp 1209-1214 (Taylor
and Francis Group, Mortimer House, London).
[3] Kurkov A., Pastukhova I.: Computer modeling of the structure and action of a new class
of organophosphorous collectors, in Proceeding of the XIV Balkan Mineral Processing
Congress, (ed: S Mai), vol II, 2011, pp 905 -911 (OFF-SET Publishing House, Tuzla)
[4] Kurkov A., Pastukhova I.: Flotation as the Subject-Matter of Supramolecular Chemistry,
in Physical and Technical Issues of Mineral Development, No 4 , 2010, pp 87-94
(Novosibirsk, translated in Journal of Mining Science, USA)
[5] Medyanik N., Ghirevaia H., Varlamova, I.: -
- , ,
No 1, 2005, pp 8 -13, (Metallurghizdat, Moscow).
[6] Medyanik N.: Study of the interaction mechanism of a reagent and coal surface by
their quantum-chemical describtors, No 4, 2011, pp 8 -13, (Metallurghizdat,
Moscow).
[7] Pradip, Beena R., Rao T., K., Krishnamurthy S., Vetrivel R., Mielczarski J., Cases J. M.:
Molecular modeling of interactions of alkyl hydroxamates with calcium minerals in Journal
Colloid Interface Science, 256, 2002, pp 106-113, (Elsevier, Amsterdam).
[8] Pradip, Beena R.: Design of tailor-made surfactants for industrial applications using a
molecular modeling approach, in Colloids and Surfaces, 205, 2002, pp 139-148, (Elsevier,
Amsterdam).
[9] Pradip, Beena R., Rao T., K., Krishnamurthy S. , Vetrivel, R., Mielczarski J., Cases J,
M.: Molecular modeling of interactions of diphosphonic acid based surfactants with calcium
minerals, in Langmuir, (ed.: DG Whitten), 18, 2002, pp 932 940, (ACS Publication,
Washington).
[10] Pradip, Beena R., Rao T. K.: Design and development of novel reagents for the minerals
industry, in: Proceedings of Russian Indian Symposium on Metallurgy of Nonferrous and
Rare Metals, (eds: LI Leontiev, AI Kholkin, VV Belova), 2002, pp 25-41 (Russian Academy of
Sciences, Moscow).
[11] Pradip, Beena R.: Molecular modeling and rational design of flotation reagents, in
International Journal of Mineral Processing, (eds: K Heiskanene, DR Nagaraj), 72 , 2003, pp
95-110, (Elsevier, Amsterdam).

352
[12] Shadrunova I., Medyanik N., Kalugina N., Varlamova I.: Forecasting of reagents
properties by quantum-chemical descriptors, in Proceeding of the XIV Balkan Mineral
Processing Congress, (ed: S Mai), Volume I, 2011, pp160 -163, (OFF-SET Publishing
House, Tuzla).
[13] Soloviev M.E., Soloviev M. M.: Computer chemistry. 2005, p 536 (SOLON-Press
Publishing house, Moskow).
[14] Solozhenkin P. M.: Selection of flotation reagents with predicted characteristic on
example of phosphorus thioacids, in Tzvetnii Metalli, No3, 2003, p 15-17, (Ore and Metals
P.H, Sanct Peterburg).
[15] Solozhenkin P. M.: Synthesis of flotation reagents through prediction of physical,
chemical and technological properties, in Proceeding of XXIII International Mineral
Processing Congress, (Eds: G. Onal, N. Acarkan, M. S. Celik) Volume 1, 2006, pp. 499-503,
(PROMEDADVERTISINGAGENSY, Istanbul).
[16] Solozhenkin P. M., Solozhenkin O. I.: Computer chemistry flotation of reagents:
updating sulphydrylic of collectors carboxyl by acids and tetraphenylantimony, in Proceeding
of 14-th Conference on Environment and Mineral Processing, (Ed: P. Feko), Part II, 2010,
pp 5156, (VSB-TU Ostrava, Czech Republic).
[17] Solozhenkin P. M., Solozhenkin O. I.: Computer design sulphydrilic reagents and their
derivatives, in Tzvetnii Metalli ,No 7, p 11-14, (Ore and Metals P.H, Sanct Peterburg).
Solozhenkin, P,M, Solozhenkin, O, I, 2010. Computer modeling of structure sulphydrilic of
the collectors and their derivatives. Obogaschenie rud, No4, 2010b. p 31-34, (Ore and
Metals P.H, Sanct Peterburg)
[18] Solozhenkin P. M., Solozhenkin O. I.: Quantum - chemical representations of structure
phosphorous acids and forecasting of their technological properties at flotation of ores:
computer modeling flotation reagents, in Proceedings of the XIV Balkan Mineral Processing
Congress, (ed: S Mai) Volume II, 2011, pp 570 -578, (OFF-SET Publishing House, Tuzla).
[19] Solozhenkin P. M., Solozhenkin O. I.: Structures mercapto compounds, studying of their
technological properties on the data omputer modeling. Proceedings of the 15th Conference
on Environment and Mineral Processing, (Ed: P Feko), Part II, 2011, pp 5156, (VSB-TU
Ostrava, Czech Republic).
[20] Solozhenkin P. M., Solozhenkin O. I., Krausz S.: The quantum-chemical forecasting of
technological properties of organic compounds as mineral collectors. Proceedings of the XXVI
International Mineral Processing Congress, Delhi, 2012, vol.2, p. 638-646.
[21] Solozhenkin P.M., Solojenkin I.P., Krausz S.: Predict flotation of minerals of EPG
according to molecular modelling and technology of processing. Proceedings of the XXVI
International Mineral Processing Congress, Santiago Chile, 2014.
[22] Solozhenkin P.M., Krausz S., Ibragimova O.I.: Modified fatty acids as flotation
reagents for non-sulfide ores: molecular modeling for prognosis of collector activity
evaluation. Proceedings of the XVI Balkan Mineral Processing Congress, (ed.: N. Cali)
Volume I, 2015, pp 327 332.

353
 THE DIVERSIFICATION OF TECHNOLOGIES TO
CAPITALIZATION THE POTENTIAL OF ENERGY FROM
FOSSIL FUELS AND SOLID WASTE
HANES Nicolae1, CIOCAN Viorica2, CRISTEA Nicolae3

1
Asociaia Profesional Munii Apuseni , Brad, Romnia, [email protected]
2
SC Mondo Cariere SRL, Petroani, Romnia, [email protected]
3
Universitatea din Petroani, Petroani, Romnia, [email protected]

ABSTRACT

The investments' volume and profitability will depend on the proper choosing of the
technologies, compulsory based on a complex study of the influence factors. The
characteristics of the working material, the energy consumed for processing, the quality
requests of the fuel offered on the market and the environmental requirements regarding
the emissions released when burning, impose supplementary costs and so a product more
expensive then the traditional solid fuels. The work paper is showing the directions of the
preliminary research for settling the work parameters and the accurate sizing of the
technological equipments, which will ensure the obtaining of ecological fuels, competitive on
the market.

KEYWORDS

In situ gasification, Fuel waste, Ecological briquettes

1. EXTRACTION AND RECOVERY SITUATION OF ENERGETICAL SOLID

RESOURCES

The importance of the energy sector to society, as well as for all other economic branches,
the development of this sector is carried out under the supervision of the State, in the long
term through the development and implementation of a sectoral strategies, and in the short

354
term through the implementation of a policy related to the strategy. In an economy
increasingly more globalized world, a country's energy policy must to be implemented in the
context of the developments and changes taking place worldwide.
Total energy demand in 2030 will be about 50% higher than in 2003 and about 46% higher
for oil. Certain known reserves of oil can sustain a level of consumption only until 2040,
while those of natural gas, up in 2070. [6]
Forecasts indicated economic growth, which will involve an increased consumption of energy
resources.
In terms of primary energy consumption worldwide, the evolution and prognosis of reference
made by the International Energy Agency highlighted the growth of the share of natural gas
(which will outstrip coal) and renewable sources.

hydropower 10 000 TWh

fossil fuels 12 000 TWh

nuclear energy 8 000 TWh

others renewable 14 000 TWh

Figure 1: The evolution of the world demand of consumption of primary energy resources.
Source: International Energy Agency

These resources are made up of energy groups, with wearers for primary energy and from
transformation facilities, transport and distribution of energy.
Optimization criterion reflects the concrete plan, electricity company policy. In traditional
planning, most comprehensive and most economically justified is the criterion of minimum
total cost updated power system and, consequently, energy delivered.
The restrictions are generated by technical and technological aspects, the volume of capital
expenditure admitted (investment), fuel structure, accepted impacts on the environment.
For Romania, forecasting energy consumption is determined by the reference scenario of
energy demand in perspective that takes into account the evolution of the main
macroeconomic indicators forecast in 2007-2020, developed by the National Commission for
Prognosis. [5]
Diversification of energy sources and resources has become in recent years a process of
constant concern to most countries of the world.
It was developed simultaneously with an increase of interest and political/regulatory
decision-making for the purposes of the environment protection increasingly higher.
Criteria and environmental standards increasingly stricter were introduced producing an
important impact in the energy industry.
In this context, coal began to be perceived by the public opinion and global decision-makers
as a worn-out resource (in the broadest sense of the term), which is in a process of gradual
replacement with other fossil or renewable energy resources "cleaner".
Identifying and encouraging the various innovative technologies that allow both to cost
optimization and reduction of polluting emissions can give encouraging prospects of a new
future in using coal, but also an industry tradition that otherwise are likely to continue their
decline, despite political statements.

355
 2. THE CAPITALIZATION OF THE JIU VALLEY COAL THROUGH
GASIFICATION

2.1. GSC Technology The underground gasification of coal

2.1.1. Conditions of application

-The depth of the layer of coal to be greater than 200 m;

-High resistance of rocks located in the bunk and the roof of coal;
-Low permeability rocks from the roof of the bunk and sterile layer of coal;
-There should be the possibility of control of oxidants injection pressure in the combustion
chamber underground;
-The possibility of technological quick stop/gasification process;
-The minimum thickness of the layer of coal 2 m.

Figure 2 Schematic principle of energetic extraction and capitalization of fuel gas

2.1.2. Requirements for the effective implementation of the GSC

Technology

-The existence of geological studies to provide detail information about: the geological
structure, coal chemical analysis, coal strata and surrounding rocks, characterization of
waste rocks surrounding, hydro-geology of the area;
- The existence of necessary design and execution technology for boreholes routed to ensure
the oxidants injection and synthesis gas recovery;
- The existence of advanced systems of monitoring and modelling of underground
gasification process, which ensures information relating to: operating pressure, the process
temperature and the product gas flow and items pertaining to flow process thereof;
- The combined technology GSC-CCS offers the possibility of combining the coal exploitation
with filling space operated with combustion gases from thermo-electric power station. At a
suitable filling pressure it is possible increase the combustible mass recovery in production
wells. Depending on the gasification agent used can produce energy-gas or synthesis gas
sub-loan in chemical technologies.

356
 2.1.3. Conditions for applying to the coal deposit in the Jiu Valley

The research was carried out at the laboratory level, the process of gasification of coal in the
Jiu Valley, on models. Have studied 25 models, experimenting the drilling method (the
channel creation, ignition and gasification) and by mining works. Main parameters follow the
gas composition were correlated with temperature gasification agent and the resulting
process.
The most important issues addressed in the laboratory studies were:
- gasification kinetics of chemical reactions in different conditions of pressure and
temperature;
- the influence of gasification agent quality (air, oxygen);
- the simulation training small-scale channels;
- the research of permeability, fracturing and the cavity formation;
- the behaviour of surrounding rocks;
- the behaviour of materials used in gasification technology.
The conclusions of the laboratory research and documentation revealed the possibility of
experiments in situ of the coal deposit in the J Valley, [6] having regard to:
- expenditure minimum regarding the placement in areas of the work of preparation;
- the ensuring of utilities (electricity, compressed air, water, roads) from mining in the
area;
- the capitalization of the geological research conducted so far, by interpreting the results
of the application of the GSC;
- the evaluating the possibility of exploiting the gas obtained from establishments in the
area, to cover part of the cost of the experiment.

2.1.4. Comparison with the extraction technology of shale gas

In the Jiu Valley the geological research of coal deposit is advanced and detailed in some
blocks and the drilling depth is much smaller and in sedimentary rocks with medium
hardness. Application of the directional drilling reduces the cost for mining, rock
fragmentation by making useful at lower pressures than mining. The existence in the area of
utilities and industrial consumers and households reduce storage and transport costs of sub-
loan product.
Concern for coal gasification plants and surface in situ must be intensified. GSC is possible
for experienced in different blocks of the mining fields in the Jiu Valley, already identified
(the area of the former micro pit coal Jie-Vest, Petrila-Est, EM Lupeni, etc.), with conditions
for expansion in areas where the classic exploitation was stopped.
The proposed improvements in preparation techniques for gasification through drilling,
fracture and detailed process of getting gas would lead to the complete re-evaluation of
attitude towards this technology.

2.1.5. The solid waste gasification

Chemical recycling can be applied in the case of mixtures, sorted waste, industrial waste and
municipal waste.
Pyrolysis occurs in the presence of catalysts, which are designed to increase efficiency in
useful products, to develop pyrolysis products dehydrochlorination if waste containing PVC
and to convert potential toxic compounds in useful products [4].
Following pyrolysis processes are obtained: gas and liquid fuels, a solid residue or
monomers.

357
Composition of pyrolysis products depends on the conditions in which it is performed and the
composition of pyrolysis waste polymeric materials (MP).
It takes into account the laminated composite materials and pyrolysis of organic matrix,
aiming to recover the reinforcement materials, aluminum sheets (in the case of laminated
packages originating in the food industry) and the matrix, in the form of fuels.
Application of pyrolysis to1 tonne of urban waste, results :
- 100 kg of different metals (aluminium, iron, etc.);

- 200 kg synthesis gas ( 1m3 has a potential energy of sub-loan 11.2 kwh);

- 200 kg of hydrocarbons (1 kg has a potential energy of sub-loan 11.2 kwh);

- 300 kg coke/charcoal (used in the system; 6000 kcal/kg = 1,72 kWe)

Gas can be used in gas turbines, after a preliminary cleaning in special filters. Solid product
of gasification process weight is about 20 percent, while the melting volume is about 5% of
that of the original material.
Depending on the method of cooling you can get different types of material such as:
cooling with air, it forms vitreous black stones that can be used in concrete or asphalt;
can be molded into shapes and obtain prefabricated building materials;
compressed air supply through the flow of the melt flow we get mineral wool, twice more
efficient on thermal insulation than glass wool; it is also a good absorbent and can be used
in water remediation of petroleum products.
Emissions of pollutants in the atmosphere is estimated to be less than 20% of the maximum
permitted by the European legislation in force.
Benefits of pyro-gasification:
;

roducts that can be capitalized;

In the idea of sustainable management of resources, these facilities should be used only for
final waste (waste can no longer be recycled or reused) and on the ramps of historical waste
through the creation of mobile, in-situ processing, which may be moved to the next location
when they cleaned one waste area.

3. THE CAPITALIZATION OF THE ENERGETIC POTENTIAL FROM COAL MINING

DUMPS AND SOLID WASTE

The capitalization of energetic resources present on waste deposits, formed over time from
each coal processing plant and some mining exploitations (Petrila, Lupeni) requires a
detailed knowledge of areas with high levels of mass combustible, that is subject to
extraction and processing.
Activity recovery of fuel material should be consistent with the use, at least in part, of the
new waste for the production of building materials, eventually extracting some useful
mineral components.
In order to process the waste from dumps of processing plants (figure 3) must take into
account the following considerations:
- Extraction of waste on the dumps branches with mechanized installations, loading
and transport in accessible area; Designing a mobile workstation for processing waste and
deposit after ecological criteria favorable on environmental rehabilitation. It is possible that
the product resulting from the operation of fuel stockpiles to raise additional issues burn in

358
outbreaks of producing heat. Required water to be taken from banks upstream of the clear
branches.
- Design a facility suitable for the concentration of waste with high ash contents, in
laboratory and pilot phase, using a wider range of concentration installations in gravitational
and centrifugal field. On the basis of the obtained results can be made calculation of
probable technologic indicators.

Figure 3 Schematic technological flow and balance sheet for the quantitative - qualitative dump Lupeni

- The final waste deposit will raise issues due to higher clay contents in dumps, plus
much finer grain, whereas wet processing will promote the further degradation of mineral
component.
- Waste processing to extract some useful substances, is an area little explored and
waste dumps in the Jiu Valley mining may become Secondary Reusable Resources.
Extraction of fuels from waste dumps will require amendments to the current deposits
configuration in order to provide ecological rehabilitation works, activities that are stimulated
through governmental programs.

3.1. Potential fuel and ways of recovery

The densimetric analyses of waste below 20 mm from Coroeti, Petrila and Lupeni dumps
shows that, within the range of density 1.75-1.95 kg/dm3 is a sharp increase of recovery in
this area being placed the separation densities between energetic fraction and waste. The
biggest coal recoveries are possible at Lupeni dumps and lowest at Coroeti deposits with
intermediate values placing at Petrila dumps.
The most quickly solution adopted, with predictable costs lowest consists in the construction
of a classification-picking station and crushing to 40 mm. The final waste (+40 mm) can to

359
be used for carrying out a basis dam dig for the waste from the processing small class (40
mm). The concentration can to do it in a dense medium based on clay, or in Rheo washer,
for which there is experience in exploitation. Income estimated in this phase of the research
to be obtained from the mass of combustible recovery from dump Lupeni, we consider it
acceptable for an investment in the field and at the same time by processing facilities may
be made and eco-rehabilitation of the area, which can be backed up with money from
environmental protection [2]. The success of the experiment of recovery of fuel mass on the
first body Lupeni dump, may constitute an argument for the expansion and improvement of
this technology to other waste dumps in the Jiu Valley.

4. ECOBRIQUETTES SOLID FUEL FROM DOMESTIC CONSUMPTION

In the current situation of the market of fuels, is justified by the research possibilities of
obtaining clean briquettes. The research undertaken so far, [1, 3] have decided to establish
a briquetting technology with minimal investment through which a portion of the coal
extracted can be exploited in the form of briquettes for household customers. It was
envisaged the possibility of launching on the market a better fuel in terms of pollutant
emissions. Eco-briquettes are produced from coal, lime (as desulphurisation agent) and
biomass, such as wood waste, straw, manure, [3].
These ingredients are blended and then poured under pressure in briquetting machine. Eco-
briquette is considered to be compatible with the capacity of environment selfepuration. Ash
left after combustion has a favorable composition for improving soil uses.
Waste resulting from the operation of wood can be processed by drying and compaction in
the combustible briquettes that can be used for energy purposes. In this way, it achieves
both a superior use of waste from wood processing, as well as protecting nature of these
pollution byproducts. Biocoal training is done through a high compressive strength with a
desulphurisation agent such as Ca(OH)2 dispersed among the charcoal granules, favoring
the catalytic reaction between sulfur content in fuel and this agent. During combustion, thus
dropping to 60-80% of the pollutant in unpollutant solid compounds, that remain in the
ashes. The primary requirement toward such a clean fuel is the absence from his burning of
smoke and carbon black as well as harmful substances to human health and the
environment. The research has targeted several aspects:
working conditions, in terms of equipment and technology as possible to use;
physical-mechanical characteristics of the materials that will enter into the composition of
eco-briquette; optimal regime for briquetting; optimal shape and size of the briquette;
the mechanical properties of the new fuel; caloric intake and ash content
reaction to firing and the mode of the ecological requirements.
Resistance of briquettes is required to ensure the transport, handling and storage of their
size without degradation. Briquetting process at "cold" with the use of vegetable binding
material is economically advantageous and that polluting residues is recovered, with
minimum energy consumption. You can find that for every typo-briquetting press size there
is only one recipe for briquetting process results that satisfy the requirements of the market.
Development of complex installations for coal briquettes obtaining by mixing with sawdust
allows creation of new attitudes towards environmental issues, as well as creating
opportunities for recovery and the introduction into the economic circuit of the waste
deposits. If sawdust would be used in a mixture with coal for the production of biobriquettes,
could be produced annually 400,000 tonnes domestic fuel with a calorific power around
4000 kcal/kg, with a favorable impact on the environment, compared to direct use of fossil
fuel to heat dwellings.

360
 Figure 4 Effect of sawdust addition on resistance to pressure for various sizes of briquettes

CONCLUSIONS

1. Relaunch to exploit coal could be viable if it will resign to the "direct combustion" in
favor of complex capitalization through gasification, liquefaction, eco-briquettes with
combustible solid waste mixtures, etc.

2. The existence of geological detail coal fields in the Jiu Valley and mining areas from
Oltenia offer guidance on the most favorable areas, reducing the cost of application of GSC.

3. Mining dumps in addition to combustible mass and other components can be used in
the industry of building materials and extraction of some useful mineral components.

4. Eco-briquettes getting by using a wide range of various fuel sourcing with various
physicochemical properties requires complex research in order to ensure the production of a
marketable fuel.

5. The research undertaken proposed to establish a briquetting technology with minimal

investments through which a portion of the coal extracted can be capitalized together with
various combustible waste in the form of briquettes for household and industrial consumers.

REFERENCES

[1] Hane N.: Tehnologii ecologice pentru reducerea impactului asupra apelor, solului i
aerului a proceselor de extracie i preparare a crbunelui din Valea Jiului, 2005
[2] Hane N., Todeas O.: Evaluarea resurselor secundare din cadrul Exploatrii de
Preparare Petroani, 2000
[3] Hane N.: Factori de influen asupra calitii brichetelor ecologice, 2003
[4] Goia Maxim V.: Sisteme de conversie energetic prin gazeificarea crbunilor si biomasei
cu captare de CO2, 2011
[5] www.minind.ro/energie/Strategia_energetica_actualizata.pdf
[6]http://www.petroleumreview.ro/ro/revista/2015/februarie/39-februarie-2015/429-
carbunele-un-nou-orizont

361
 GOLD MINING AT APUSENI MOUNTAINS IN ATIQUITY
Ioan-Lucian BOLUNDU
Petroani, Romnia, [email protected]

ABSTRACT
Gold Dacia was the main cause of its conquest by the Romans, to save the Empire from
bankruptcy. Gold and silver deposits Dacian were stationed in the Golden Quadrilateral of the
Apuseni Mountains. It seems that when the Romans sacked 165.5 tons of gold and 331 tons of
silver, and 165 years of occupation have mined 500 tons of gold and 950 tons of silver. The
Romans were not satisfied with just taking over the mines and miners in the Apuseni
Mountains, but also brought the technique used when the main mining centers of Hispania and
Britannia Empire and skilled miners in Illyria. Archaeological research undertaken gives evidence
on the mining organization and technology applied here in antiquity in order to obtain gold. This
paper presents the organization of the ancient mining, mining methods used, ore transport,
groundwater discharge, ventilation and illumination of the mines.
KEYWORDS
gold mining in antiquity, mining organization, mining technology.

1.INTRODUCTION
Extraction and processing of useful minerals appears together with the history of mankind in
order to produce weapons and tools. The first rock to be employed was flint, but later on, in the
Neolithic, gold and copper came to be utilized. In the second millennium B.C., bronze was
discovered by amalgamating copper with tin or lead. Bronze tools and weapons were far better
than those made of copper, as they had a superior hardness and were easier processed during
molding. Such objects were discovered all over Romania, but more frequently in Transylvania
where there were also found several non-ferrous ore deposits. Still here were discovered many
treasures and gold items, with the assumption that those found at the East and South of the
Carpathian Mountains dating from the Bronze Age and the first stage of the Iron Age were
also made of gold that had been extracted and processed in Transylvania.
Probably, gold mining in the Apuseni Mountains (i.e. the Occidental Carpathians) started
somewhere during the 7th century B.C., when some of the Greeks that had left their country for
Caucasus in search of the Golden Fleece turned towards us, where they could also obviously
find such a fleece. Otherwise cannot be explained the multitude of coins, household and art
objects and of tools used at the extraction and processing of gold, all of Greek origin, which
were discovered here and dated from this period. Some sources say that the Phoenicians would
have been delving, as well, into this richness. By the 6th century B.C., some Scythian shepherds,
who had already known how to get the gold from the river sand, as they were passing their
sheep across the Carpathians, discovered the precious metal in the rocks of the mountains and
settled themselves down on the Mure River Valley to become outstanding gold producers.

362
About another branch of the Scythians the Agathyrsi there is also written evidence from
several ancient authors starting with Herodotus. As he describes the war of 514 B.C. of the
great Persian King, Darius, against the Scythians at the north of Danube, he mentions that
Agathyrsi used to live in the Apuseni Mountains area and that they mastered the art of mining
and of processing golden jewelry.
The art of extracting and processing of gold and silver was taken over from the Agatyrsi by the
Dacians, who did not neglect the use of iron in the making of weapons either. Starting from the
assertions of our great historian and archaeologist Vasile Prvan in his Getica, it was believed
for a long time that all the Dacian gold captured by the Romans would have been obtained only
from the river silt. But, between 1999 and 2006, a team of French archaeologists and
researchers from Centre National de Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) and from Unit Toulousaine
dArchologie et dHistoire (UTAH) together with geologists from Cluj-Napoca and Mnchen
executed researches in the field of mining archaeology in some very old mining works at Roia
Montan. On this occasion, there were also discovered some wooden structures of mine
sustaining elements. The dating of the samples of this wood, done by help of C14, goes back
somewhere between 295 and 90 B.C. that is, among 200 and 400 years before the Roman
occupation!

2. MINING ORGANIZATION

The riches of gold and silver available in the Apuseni Mountains were definitely known to the
Romans as well. The only significant gold deposits in the empire found in the Iberian Peninsula
had already been exhausted, so that, the single rescue from bankruptcy of the proud empire
could be the Dacian gold. Trajan already knew this very well so he couldnt leave anything
happen by chance, but prepared himself thoroughly for the conquest of Dacia the result of
the two military campaigns of 101102 and of 105106, carried out by him. Having defeated
the Dacians, Trajan remained here for another couple of months in order to organize the new
province and especially the gold mining in the Apuseni Mountains. On the grounds of a Lex
Provinciae the borders of the new province and its juridical basis were established, as well as
the imperial domains and the capital at Sarmizegetusa. The main imperial domain was the gold-
bearing area, directly subordinated to the imperial administration. Its headquarters were in
Ampelum and it was run by a procurator aurariarum who exercised his duties by means of an
administrative apparatus made out of technicians and clerks and which disposed of a limited
number of soldiers to ensure the military guard of the gold-bearing area. The procurator was in
charge of mining efficiency and he used to receive all the direct and indirect incomes of the
domain. There was also the possibility of renting some of these mines by little entrepreneurs,
the usual renting interval being up to 5 years without renewal. The renting fee was established
by the procurator and it had the average value of 4,000 sestreti per year (1 sestret = 1 gram of
silver) so, this was not too big. Among the most important mines worked by the Romans in the
Apuseni Mountains are to be mentioned those at Bucium, Roia Montan, Baia de Arie and
Zlatna, as well as those around the town of Brad. Initially, the hand labor employed by the
Romans consisted of local inhabitants transformed into slaves. They were not allowed to move
to a different place and could be sold or rented by their masters. In order to increase the
amount of the extracted gold and silver, the Romans brought here colonists from Dalmatia and
other areas having a tradition in working in mine deposits, to labor alongside natives.
Dalmatians were settled down at Bucium in establishments called vicus and castellum in quite a
large number, so that they organized themselves in a separate corporation run by Celesenius
Constans to whom Opellius, the governor of Sarmizegetusa, raised a tombstone at Ampelum,
the place where he died [Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, III, 1322]. A consequence of the
employment of both native and colonist miners at gold mining in the Apuseni Mountains was a
period of flourishing until the autumn of 167 which marked the beginning of the Macromanic
363
War (167175). Macromans were one of the Germanic tribes related to Suebians and
Longobards; they carried out two wars against the Roman Empire (167175 and 178180). In
the autumn of 167 they reached up to Ampelum and Alburnus Maior, destroyed the whole
mining area and pilfered all the gold and silver they found. The disaster was so great, that
other colonists had to be brought here to work in the mines. The Macromans were defeated by
Marcus Claudius Fronto, the governor of Dacia and of Superior Moesia (168170), to whom the
citizens of Sarmizegetusa raised a statue bearing an inscription in which they praised his
bravery [Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, III, 1457]. The great German historian and
archaeologist Theodor Mommsen (18171903), an expert in the history of the Roman Empire
and coordinator of the monumental work in 12 volumes, Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum,
believes that the inhabitants of Roia Montan and Bucium had hidden most of their riches from
the eyes of the Macroman invaders in places known only to them. Mommsen is right as the
same inhabitants will act in the same way along the next thousand years during the Barbarian
invasions.
Many of the written information on the mining organization in the Apuseni Mountains come
from a series of waxed tablets discovered at Roia Montan in the old Roman mine galleries
between 1786 and 1855. These are small wooden boards bound in sets of two (diptychs) or
three (triptychs) pieces together and coated with bee wax on which different texts could be
written. The total amount of discovered tablets was 40, of which only 25 have been preserved,
four of them being complete triptychs. They come from the time of the Roman emperors
Antoninus Pius (138161) and Marcus Aurelius (161180) and one of them from the time of
Hadrianus (117138). These texts contain contracts regarding the renting of the mines by
individuals, or different associations done in order to run the mining process, contracts of sale
and purchase of slaves, bills, an act regarding the dissolution of a funeral college, and a menu
with all the dishes of a party organized by a college of artisans. As a matter of fact, at this party
held on the eve of the calends of May, that is, on the 30th of April, the total amount of wine to
be consumed exceeded by far, half of the entire expenditure! This demonstrates the everlasting
validity of the saying: Food is swagger, drinkings the foundation!

Figure 1: Triptychs of waxed tablets, resembling books

364
3. MINING TECHNOLOGY

Dacian mining technology could not be restored in the absence of relevant archaeological
evidence. Certainly, they obtained the alluvial gold by the same procedures that had been used
until the Middle Ages, and even later. The golden veins found in the mountain areas were
washed by waters and the little parts of ore detached from the vein were taken down to great
distances and crumbled into pieces. Those looking for the alluvial gold nuggets used to have
simple tools. With the help of a hoe and of a container, the golden sand was taken out of the
river bed and downloaded on the superior side of an inclined surface made of wooden boards
and covered with a raveled woolen fabric. With a wooden dipper, water was taken out of the
river and poured over the sand placed on the slanted board, in order to make it move
downwards onto the woolen fabric. To help the sand move, there was also used a scraper. As
the fleece retained the gold nuggets, this was washed out into a two-handled water tub and
then, the resulting gold was separated from the remaining sand by help of a buddle.
It is hard to believe that the huge amount of gold gathered by the Dacians resulted only from
river silt. Going upstream they discovered the outcrops of the gold-veins and started mining,
initially at the surface, and then in the depth of the ground. Dacian mines were not such
elaborated as those found in the Iberian Peninsula or Britannia, being probably just narrow
coast galleries of short length or shallow wells dug into the veins. As already mentioned, it was
scientifically proved that Dacians had already practiced underground mining several centuries
prior to the Roman arrival.

Figure 2: Extraction of alluvial gold

The conquest of Dacia by the Romans also represented the improvement of both gold
extraction and gold processing technologies. They were not satisfied with simply taking over the
mines and miners in the Apuseni Mountains, but also brought along with them the technique of
those days, used in the major mining centers of the empire, as well as skilled miners. The most
interesting vestige of the Roman surface mining at Bucium is a trench called Ieruga , dug into
the southern slope of Corabia (i.e. The Ship) into the outcrop of the gold-vein with the same

365
name, and very rich in gold. It has a length of 500 m and an average depth between 20 m at
the top, and 30 m at the bottom. The width of its basis is of 15 m at the top, and 20 m at its
bottom. This work is a faithful copy of the Spanish Corrugates as seen and described by Pliny
the Elder (2379 A.D.) in his Naturalis Historiae. Exactly like in Spain, at the foot of this mine
work there was arranged a lake of 120 x 120 m, corresponding to the lake of 200 x 200 steps
described by Pliny, its water being necessary to separate the gold that resulted from the ore
crushed in the mills. Its been estimated that the Romans had extracted only from this place,
about 4 tones of pure gold. Nowadays, this area is forested, but in a picture made around 1900,
the old Roman mining work is obviously seen.
By the end of the 19th century, in the area of the old lake at the foot of the Roman trench,
there were discovered a grinding mortar made of amphibolic andesite and a stone of quartzy
conglomerate used at crushing the golden ore. Further on, the crushed ore was ground in stone
mills. The gathering of gold was done gravitationally, by help of the water in the pond which
caused the moving of the grinded product onto the slanted plane, as already mentioned. The
barren tailings were washed and taken away by water, while gold, heavier than that, remained
onto the sheepskin or shaggy fabric on the slanted board. In order to avoid material flowing to
the sides of the inclined plane, this had to be bordered. The gathered particles of gold were
then melted in crucibles made of fireclay and placed into the ember of an open hearth. The
melted content was actually an alloy of gold and silver, which also contained other impurities.
To obtain pure gold, they introduced salt (NaCl) into this mixture and so, separated gold from
silver, as described by the Roman historian of Greek origin Diodorus of Sicily in the 1st century
B.C. In this way, they obtained pure gold and silver chloride. The silver chloride was mingled
with the lead oxide of which, silver was separated by cupellation.

Figure 3: Ieruga dug by the Romans on the southern slope of Corabia

For the underground mining, the opening of mines was done by drifts dug from the surface. In
the area of the ore deposit, works were then continued either by directional galleries, mined
along the vein, or by cross-heading ones. Galleries (cuniculi) were opened as far as possible, in
hard and compact rocks and digging was done by help of chisel and hammer. Directional
galleries were between 2.1 and 2.7 m high, depending on the size of the vein, while the cross-

366
heading ones were between 1.5 and 1.8 m high and between 0.6 and 0.65 m wide. Where the
rocks were firm, galleries were not reinforced, but given a vaulted ceiling for a better
distribution of pressure onto the side walls (fig. 5. a). In the case of an inadequate ceiling,
reinforcement was done only with wooden beams tightened with wedges and lined with boards
(fig. 5. b.), but if the walls we not strong enough they had to be reinforced either with half (fig.
5. c), or with complete wooden frames (fig. 5. d).

Figure 4: Roman mortar used at crushing golden ore, discovered at Vulcoi

Museum of Geology in Budapest, Hungary

The work in the heading galleries in case of a hard rock was done by cutting a square
groove of 20 x 20 cm with a depth of 57 cm at the centre of the cross section of the drift;
then, the groove was enlarged to 40 x 50 cm and then to 70 x 90 cm. In the end, the entire
outline of the gallery was achieved and the wall was smooth, without cracks. This explains why
such galleries as those at Saints Peter and Paul have been preserved in such a good condition
for almost 2 thousand years. When the rock was very tough, the method of fire and water was
used. The first written evidence on this ancient technique belongs to the Greek historian and
geographer Agatharchides (2nd century B.C.) and later, this is described by Diodorus of Sicily.
First, the rock was heated by help of fire in order to produce its expansion, and then, it was
cooled down by sprinkling of water upon it, to cause a sudden contraction and thereby, to make
it crack or break into pieces. This is how the endless areas of sand in the desert came into
being, with great heats during the day and very cold nights. In the writings of the ancient
authors it is said that sometimes, water was replaced by vinegar, as the latter has a greater
destructive power, due to its higher contraction value.
Among the gold mining methods applied by the Romans on the veins at Bucium, are to be
mentioned:
a Mining in ascending directional strips, with the filling of the mined space; this was
practiced in those places where the rock was not too hard, and the material was dislocated by
help of the chisel and hammer. The amount of backfill was small and this could be produced
even in the working face drift, by cuttings done into the walls next to the vein.
b Mining in descending directional strips, without the backfilling of the mined space; this was
used in the diggings of Ieruga-Scursura, were the rock was hard and very hard. In this case,
the vein was left aside in one of the working walls while the sterile, more fragile, was removed.
The vein was then extracted with the chisel and hammer, by execution of grooves disposed
perpendicularly, in a way that created squares of various dimensions which were then cut out.
To avoid accidents, mined spaces were reinforced with wood.

367
c Operating by subsidence was used in the areas with a dense network of thin veins.
Advancing in the direction of the veins was done through overlapped galleries, separated
vertically by safety floors. By subsequent collapsing of these floors, there resulted some huge
empty spaces called Corands, such as the one at Dealul Frasinului (i.e. Ash Tree Hill) situated
between asa and Muntari.

Figure 5: Types of Roman galleries

Ore transport to the surface was done manually, by means of wattled baskets fastened onto the
shoulders. In the working face drift, an initial separation of sterile and useful ore was done, and
only the latter was taken to the processing place. To evacuate the ore excavated in the very
narrow directional galleries they used a sort of trough, that is, a vessel made by hollowing a
wooden trunk of 1.41.5 m length and 0.40.5 m width. This was pulled out by help of a rope
368
connected to a handle at its end. The uploading of the material was done with a wooden bowl.
Both these objects have been found in a Roman gallery in the mine of Saints Peter and Paul,
the bowl being made of ash tree wood.
Evacuation of water was one of the most difficult problems to work out with the technical
equipment of the time but, starting with the first century A.D., the Romans made use of two
such devices to evacuate water on the vertical: Archimedes screw and the Hydraulic wheel.
The first device had been invented by the great ancient scholar Archimedes (287212 B.C.) as a
military implement, afterwards being also used to evacuate waters from the gold mines of
Egypt and the Iberian Peninsula. This was built of a wooden cylinder in which a spiral snail with
the propeller made of wood or copper, was made to revolve. The screw was revolved manually,
by means of a crank. Such a device, discovered in the Roman gold mines of the Iberian
Peninsula, was about 35 m long, with an inner diameter of 2030 cm, and able to evacuate
3540 l of water/min and had an efficiency of 4050 %.
The hydraulic wheel, similar to that of a water mill, was built of a shaft with spokes and an
exterior rim having a diameter of 46 m, on which 2024 cups were fixed and made watertight
with resin and wax. The cups raised the water from a lower tank and discharged it into a
superior basin through an adjacent pipe. This operation was repeated on the vertical, up to one
of the drifts which was provided with a drain. The wheel was moved manually, by help of some
handles fixed on the exterior side of the rim or by treading by one or two persons on a
particular frame placed at the superior part of the wheel. The height at which water was lifted
was of of the wheel diameter and the water discharge reached up to 7080 l /min. The one
who described these hydraulic wheels was the Roman architect Vitruvius (1st century B.C.) and
several specimens were found in the Iberian Peninsula, Great Britain, and in Romania at Roia
Montan and Brad (fig. 7). At Rio Tinto, in Spain, 8 such wheels connected into a system that
was projected to evacuate waters by taking them to a height of 30 m, have been discovered.

Figure 6: . Archimedes screw Figure 7 :Hydraulic wheel

Mine ventilation was achieved by convection, that is, by taking advantage of the vertical
movement of the air, due to the lower density of the warm air inside the mine, compared to the
higher density of the cold air, outside. Ventilation was absolutely necessary in those places
where fire and water were used, in order to evacuate smoke and steam. This was realized by
digging above the main gallery, at a distance of 45 m, of another gallery and by joining them
together through ventilation wells. Clean air entered through the main shaft, while vitiated air
went out through a secondary one; at its end they used to make a fire in order to enhance
depression. The ventilation wells were dug at about 10 m distance from one another. As soon
as the new ventilation well was dug, the previous ones were backfilled in order to avoid
evacuation of the fresh air through the ventilation well, but lead it towards the working place.
369
Such works have been described by several ancient authors (Lucretius, Vitruvius, Strabo and
Pliny the Elder), and subsequently discovered in situ (i.e. in the site) at Rio Tinto in Spain.
Ventilation wells and galleries had quite small sections of about 1 sq. m. According to Plinys
description, the quality of ventilation used to be checked by help of a lamp; in case the lamp
failed to light, workers were evacuated and measures to improve ventilation had to be taken.
Mine illuminating was achieved by lighting lamps (lucernae). The lamp was made of burnt clay
and it illuminated by means of a wick which was introduced into a container filled with tallow,
lard or oil. The tank could be either open, or closed. In the latter case, the tank was endowed
with one hole for the fuel and with 13 orifices for the wick. At Vulcoi, there was discovered a
lighting lamp bearing the brand of FORTIS. The brand was always applied on the lower side of
the tank and it displayed the name of the manufacturer. In order to be carried, the lamps were
provided with a handle. Usually, they were placed in some niches carved in this respect, into
the walls of the galleries. Pliny the Elder believes that the oil lamps were also used to measure
the working time, probably a day, or a shift of 8 or 10 hours.

Figure 8: Ventilation in a Roman mine

Figure 9: Mining lamps

Traffic in the wells and between levels was done by wooden stairs made of trunks in which
steps were carved at a distance of 0.40.5 m. Such stairs have also been discovered in the
Roman mines at Vulcoi.

370
4. CONCLUSIONS

As already mentioned, the Romans had captured from the Dacians 165.5 tons of gold, and 331
tons of silver, and during the 165 years of occupation they extracted another 500 tons of gold
and 950 tons of silver. Following the Roman withdrawal from Dacia, the entire course of the
socio-economic life got a rural character. Economy turned back to grazing and extensive
agriculture and the crafts declined, receiving a predominantly domestic character. Mining made
no exception. After the Roman withdrawal, mining activity of the natives was reduced to the
use of metals for making agricultural tools, weapons and household utensils. Gold mining in the
Apuseni Mountains was probably reduced to the alluvial mining in the river beds, and mining in
some of the poorer gold veins found near the surface, which had no relevance to the Romans.
Yet, its hard to believe that miners remaining here after the Roman administration withdrawal
abandoned their job and started grazing animals as agriculture seems impossible in the area.
Gold and silver represented, for sure, a strong currency even in those troublesome times of
which we know very little.
Roman mining technology was so advanced that in the next 1.500 years it remained unchanged
not only in our country, but in the whole Europe, as well. On the land of our ancestors, the
barbarian invasions erased the RomanDacian culture and civilization for the next thousand
years and so, there followed the so-called dark millennium.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

[1]. Baron, M. Istoria mineritului n Romnia, Litografia Universitii din Petroani, 1999.
[2]. Bauer, G. A rudai 12 apostol bnyatrsulat aranybnyszyta, Bnyszati s Kohszati Lapok,
XXXVII/1904/2k, pp.289338, Budapest, 1904.
[3]. Croce, G. Breve storia delle lampade da minatore, Tipografia Nero su Bianco, Agordo, 2006.
[4]. Faller, G. (coordonator general) A magyar bnyszat vezredes trtnete, Orszgos Magyar
Bnyszati s Kohszati Egyeslet, Budapest, 1997.
[5]. Fodor, D. Pagini din istoria mineritului, Editura INFOMIN, Deva, 2005.
[6]. Maghiar, N., Olteanu, t. Din istoria mineritului n Romnia, Editura tiinific, Bucureti, 1970.
[7]. Nichitean, C., Jianu, C. M. Din istoria extragerii aurului aluvionar, www.anu-arulsargetia.ro/din-
istoria-extragerii-aurului-aluvionar.
[8]. Prvan, V. Getica, o protoistorie a Daciei, Cultura Naional, Bucureti, 1926,
http://www.scribd.com/doc/16740477/Vasile-Parvan-Getica-O-proto-istorie-a-Daciei.
[9]. Roman, B., Sntimbrean, A., Wollmann, V. Aurarii din Munii Apuseni, Editura Sport-Turism,
Bucureti, 1982.
[10]. Rusu-Abrudeanu, I. Aurul romnesc Istoria lui din vechime pn azi, Editura Cartea
Romneasc, Bucureti, 1933.
[11]. Tgls, G. A dcziai bnyszat lmpablyegei, Bnyszati s Kohszati Lapok, XLII/1909, pp.
484488, Budapest, 1909.
[12]. Tgls, G. Rmai bnymcsesek a ZalatnaBucsum kzti Korbia bny-szatbol, Bnyszati s
Kohszati Lapok, XLV/1912, pp. 204205, Budapest, 1912.
[13]. Xenopol, A. D. Istoria romnilor din Dacia Traian (Ediia a IV-a), Editura tiinific i
Enciclopedic, Bucureti, 1985.

1
371
 CRBUNELE - CEA MAI SIGUR SURS DE ENERGIE N
CONTEXT MONDIAL, EUROPEAN I NAIONAL
Daniel Antonie1, Ionu Predoiu 2,
1
Sucursala Divizia Minier Tg-Jiu , Tg-Jiu , Romania
2
University of Petrosani, Petrosani, Romania

ABSTRACT
Cele mai recente date arat totui c n prezent crbunele este folosit pentru a produce 40%
din cantitatea total de electricitate la nivel mondial, iar gradul su de utilizare a crescut cu
peste 50% n ultimii 10 ani.

KEYWORDS
Crbunele, energie, national

1. N PLAN MONDIAL

Producia global de crbune a nregisrat modificri uoare pn la 7,2 miliarde tone, crbunele
industrial pe baz de abur suferind o uoar scdere de la 6300 Mt la 6200 Mt, iar crbunele
cocsificabil o cretere cu 100 Mt pn la 1000Mt. Pentru prima dat din anul 1988, China a
produs mai puin crbune (3,87 miliarde tone; -2,5 %), cu toate acestea producia de lignit din
China a crescut. Producia n India de crbune este estimat la 585Mt, cu 3 % mai mult fa de
anul 2013. Australia a crescut producia de huil la 431 Mt (+5%). Statele Unite a crescut de
asemenea producia la 904 Mt (+1%), ns n acest caz a intervenit propunerea administrativ
prin Planul de Energie Curat de a reduce emisiile de CO2 cu pn la 30 % pn in 2030.
n ceea ce privete comerul global de crbune, huila ajuns la 1200 Mt n anul 2014. Australia a
crescut exporturile de huil cu 8,1 % la 387 Mt. Indonezia a sczut exporturile la 408 Mt (-4%);
India a importat 157 Mt de crbune (+12%). China a importat aproximativ 229 Mt (-9%) de
crbune. Statele Unite a exportat 88 Mt, dintre care 39,2 Mt ctre Europa. Exporturile totale de
crbune au fost sub 100 milioane tone engleze pentru prima dat din 2010. Columbia a nchis
portul Drummond pe o perioad de trei la nceputul anului, eliminnd aproximativ 6,5 Mt din
comerul pe mare. n total, Columbia a exportat aproximativ 75 Mt crbune pe baz de abur.
Preul pentru care crbunele pe baz de abur este n scdere i aceast tendin cel mai
probabil va continua. Principalul motiv pentru scderea preului la tona de crbune este o
capacitate prea mare datorat unei cereri prea mici, o consecin a ncetinirii ratei de cretere a
PIB_ului n Asia, n special n China, dar i a unei situaii economice globale slabe. O alt cauz
pentru scderea preurilor a reprezentat-o ratele de schimb; companiile miniere din Rusia,
Columbia, Australia i Africa de Sud au avut avantaj de moned care le-a permis s atenueze
veniturile mai mici din cauza preurilor sczute la crbune.

372
Dolarul american i-a consolidat n mod semnificativ poziia att fa de euro, ct i fa de
rubla ruseasc, producnd noi avantaje de pre pentru exportatorii de crbune din Rusia ctre
Europa (figura 1).

Figura 1: Fluctuaia dolarului american raportat la euro

Un alt motiv pentru scderea preurilor la crbune este c pn la sfritul anului trecut, ratele
de transport marf au sczut cu pn la 57 dolari americani pe ruta Richards Bay-Rotterdam,
contribuind la preuri mici pentru crbune n porturi precum ARA (Germania).
Ca o concluzie primar, putem spune c,volumul mare de rezerve de crbune existent n lume
face ca aceast materie prim s fie considerat ca o resurs important i sustenabil de
energie pentru viitor i care ar putea face posibil:
- planificarea pe termen lung a utilizrii crbunelui n viitor n sensul folosirii lui pe perioada mai
multor generaii;
- recuperarea capitalului investit de antreprenori: n centrale termice i electrice, uzine
metalurgice, infrastructur de transport, logistic, etc. i realizarea unor profituri pe termen
lung;
- efectuarea de cercetri privind folosirea i economia resurselor de crbune, nu numai n aria
de interes a tiinelor aplicate, dar i n cea a tiinelor fundamentale.
Zcmintele de crbuni sunt rspndite n peste 100 de ri de pe mapamond i ca urmare
locaiile geografice ale zcmintelor mari de crbune situate n diferite continente i regiuni ale
globului terestru protejeaz importatorii i utilizatorii de crbune fa de o eventual
monopolizare a furnizrii acestei materii prime.

2. N PLAN EUROPEAN

Una din provocrile majore pentru Uniunea European se refer la modul n care se poate
asigura securitatea energetic cu energie competitiv i curat, innd cont de limitarea
schimbrilor climatice, escaladarea cererii globale de energie i de viitorul nesigur al accesului la
resursele energetice.
Viziunea politicii energetice europene de astzi corespunde conceptului de dezvoltare durabil i
se refer la urmtoarele aspecte importante: accesul consumatorilor la sursele de energie la
preuri accesibile i stabile, dezvoltarea durabil a produciei, transportului i consumului de
energie, sigurana n aprovizionarea cu energie i reducerea emisiilor de gaze cu efect de ser.
UE elaboreaz o politic energetic ambiioas, care acoper toate sursele de energie, de la
combustibili fosili (iei, gaz i crbune) pn la energia nuclear i cea regenerabil (solar,
eolian, geotermal, hidroelectric etc.), n ncercarea de a declana o nou revoluie
industrial, care s duc la o economie cu consum redus de energie i limitarea schimbrilor
climatice asigurnd c energia pe care o consumm va fi mai curat, mai sigur, mai
competitiv i durabil.
State din Uniunea European dispun att de rezerve de crbune superior antracit i huil - ct
i de rezerve de crbune inferior crbune brun i lignit. n Uniunea European crbunele
superior este produs n Republica Ceh, Germania, Polonia, Romnia, Spania, i Marea Britanie.

373
Crbunele brun i lignitul sunt produse n Bulgaria, Republica Ceh, Germania, Grecia, Ungaria,
Polonia, Romnia, Slovacia i Slovenia.
Modernizarea pe scar larg a centralelor electrice pe baz de crbune din Europa ofer o cale
low-cost la reducerea emisiilor de gaze cu efect de ser prin mbuntirea eficienei. Alte co-
beneficii includ plante curate cu emisii reduse de poluani convenionali.
Preurile europene de autorizare de carbon 20152018 sunt ateptate s creasc uor, ns nu
la un nivel ngrijortor. Dup analize i evoluia preului pe pia (figura 2), proieciile cererii de
crbune art o stabilitate pentru urmtorii ani, n mod special cele din Europa.

Figura 2: Evoluia preului pe piaa de crbune n plan european pe ultimii doi ani
Piaa european de crbune a totalizat n anul 2013 o cantitate de 738, 7 Mt ( defalcat n
111,7 Mt producie intern de huil; 217,8 Mt importuri de hul i 409,2 Mt producie de lignit),
iar n anul 2014 a insumat 711,0 Mt (105,7 Mt producie intern de huil; 204,6 Mt importuri de
hul i 400,t Mt producie de lignit), aspecte evideniate n diagrama din figura nr.

Figura 3: Repartiia pieei de crbune n perioda 2005-2014 n Europa

n tabelul nr.1 se prezint producia de huil pentru anii 2013 i 2014, cu meniunea c
producia de huil din Bulgaria s-a modificat, fiind acum drept lignit, iar in figura 4 se red
digrama produciei de huil a rilor europene.
Table 1: rile productoare de huil din Europa

374
 Figura 4: Evoluia produciei de huil
n tabelul nr.2 se prezint producia de lignit pentru anii 2013 i 2014, iar in figura 5 se red
digrama produciei de lignit a rilor europene.
Table 2: rile productoare de huil din Europa

Figura 5: Evoluia produciei de lignit n rile europene huil

Astzi, mai mult de 90 % din producia de lignit i 67 % din cea de crbune superior se
folosete n Uniunea European n termocentrale pentru producerea energiei termice i
electrice.
n ceea ce privete producerea de energie electric a Uniunii Europene, lignitul i crbunele
superior deine un procent de cca 30 %.
Analiznd fiecare ar productoare de crbune din Uniune, reiese faptul c acest combustibil
va rmne o coloana vertebral absolut indispensabil a sistemelor de energie electric i
termic n multe state membre. Este una dintre sursele de energie cele mai fiabile pentru
Europa i fr ea nu exist o real securitate energetic european. n mod sigur crbunele de
care dispune limiteaz dependena Europei de importul de energie. De asemenea crbunele
diminueaz vulnerabilitatea Europei fa de criza energetic, datorit rezervelor proprii de
crbune i unei bune funcionri a pieei mondiale pentru aceast materie prim.

375
 3. N PLAN NAIONAL

Obiectivul general al dezvoltrii sectorului energetic al Romniei, n perioada 2014-2020, este

acela al acoperirii integrale a consumului intern de energie electric i termic, n contextul
creterii securitii energetice a rii, al dezvoltrii durabile i al asigurrii unui nivel
corespunztor de competitivitate.
n Romnia, la acest moment crbunele este deja resursa suprem ca pondere n producerea
de energie electric, asigurnd n jur de 30% din energia consumat la nivel naional i chiar
mai mult n perioadele de secet.

3.1 Importana crbunelui n Romnia

n cadrul sistemului energetic naional, exploatarea zcmintelor de crbune ocup un loc

prioritar n vederea asigurrii din resurse proprii, ntr-o proporie ct mai mare, a necesitilor
interne de energie electric.
Romnia dispune de o gam diversificat, dar redus cantitativ, de resurse de energie primar
fosile i minerale: iei, gaze naturale, crbune, minereu de uraniu, precum i de un important
potenial valorificabil de resurse regenerabile.
Rezervele de crbune superior din Romnia se cifreaz la aproximativ 800 milioane tone, iar
resursele de lignit din Romnia sunt estimate la circa 1.490 mil. tone, din care exploatabile n
perimetre concesionate 445 mil. tone, iar cele amplasate n perimetre neconcesionate se
ridic la valoarea de 1.045 mil. tone .
n ultimii doi ani, crbunele superior a fost extras dintr-o singur zon a Romniei i anume din
Valea Jiului, bazinul unde se gsesc cele mai importante rezerve de huil ale Romniei.

3.2. Oportunitatea crbunelui inferior n Romnia

Peste 90 % din ntreaga rezerv de lignit a Romniei este cantonat n zona Olteniei, motiv
pentru care acestei zone i se acord o atenie deosebit n asigurarea resurselor de crbune ale
rii.
Aproximativ 90 % din producia anual, se extrage din cele 13 cariere, care funcioneaz n
bazinele: Rovinari, Motru, Jil, Mehedini i din 3 cariere (perimetre de exploatare) din zona
Berbeti-Alunu.
Date fiind caracteristicile crbunelui extras n Romnia (huil energetic cu putere calorific de
3650 kcal/kg i lignit cu putere calorific ntre 1650-1950 kcal/kg) utilizarea acestuia se poate
realiza numai n termocentrale echipate pentru acest tip de combustibil i situate ct mai
aproape de furnizorii de lignit.
n cazul crbunelui inferior, se justific a fi folosit n termocentrale aflate la o distan de maxim
150 km fa de locul de exploatare.
Principalii beneficiari ai lignitului extras n bazinele miniere din Oltenia sunt termocentralele
Rovinari (cu o distan de transport a crbunelui de la locul de extragere de aproximativ 4 km
), Turceni (cu o distan de transport a crbunelui de la locul de extragere de 3 km ), Ialnia,
Craiova II, Halnga, Govora, Arad, Oradea, Timioara i Braov.
n Romnia exist un program de modernizare a termocentralelor, care implic i nchiderea
instalaiilor vechi i neprofitabile i care va fi implementat n totalitate n viitorul apropiat. Se
sper c modernizarea termocentralelor va duce la mbuntirea indicatorilor de producie i n
primul rnd la un pre competitiv al energiei produse pe baz de crbune.

376
3.2.1 Sucursala Divizia Miniera Tg-Jiu principalul furnizor de lignit din Romnia

Sucursala Divizia Minier Trgu Jiu (SDM), face parte din S. Complexul Energetic Oltenia S.A.,
al crei obiect principal de activitate este extracia lignitului din perimetrele miniere.
La momentul actual, n cadrul S.D.M. sunt n funciune 10 cariere (uniti miniere de carier) i
anume: UMC Roia, UMC Peteana, UMC Tismana, UMC Pinoasa, UMC Rovinari, UMC Jil Nord,
UMC Jil Sud, UMC Roiua, UMC Lupoaia, UMC Husniciora.
n anul 2014 la Sucursala Divizia Miniera Trgu - Jiu a fost realizat o producie total de 21,5
mil. tone i 137,3 mil. mc. steril din descopert.
Conform diagramei din figura nr.6, se observ c producia la nivelul carierelor variaz ntre 957
mii tone ( U.M.C Rovinari) i 3.045 mii tone (UMC Roia), n funcie de condiiile geominiere,
hidrogeologice, condiiile de zcmnt, dotarea tehnic s.a.

Figura 6: Dinamica produciei de lignit pe anul 2014 pe UMC-uri

Nota: UMC Berbesti externalizat; Mina Motru n conservare;
De asemenea, calitatea lignitului (puterea calorific) redat n figura nr. 7, variaz ntre 1693
Kcal/kg (UMC Jil Sud) i 1903 Kcal/kg (UMC Roia), la nivelul Sucursalei Divizia Minier
obinndu-se o putere calorific medie pentru anul 2014 de 1810 Kcal/kg.

Figura 7: Calitatea crbunelui realizat n anul 2014

Crbunele (lignitul) extras din carierele ce aparin Sucursalei Divizia Miniera din cadrul
Complexului Energetic Oltenia este un crbune inferior, folosit n termocentralele din ar, cu
urmtoarele caracteristici principale:
- putere calorific - 1700 1900 kcal/kg;
- cenu - 25 40%;
- umiditate total - 37 - 45%;
- coninut de sulf - 1,26 1,89%.
Din punct de vedere al puterii calorifice, conform diagramei de mai jos (figura nr.8) lignitul din
Romnia se situeaz la o valoare medie, innd cont de acelai tip de crbune din ri precum
Cehia i Germania.
377
 Figura 8: Comparaia valorii puterii calorice a lignitului
La nivelul Sucursalei Divizia Miniera, dotarea tehnica existent, este urmtoarea:
66 excavatoare cu rotor din care 27 modernizate;
48 maini de haldat;
391 transportoare de mare capacitate, cu o lungime totala de 225,6 km;
24 maini de depozit;
62 crucioare cu band pe enila;
Capacitatea de producie este de 25,5 milioane tone/an lignit energetic, la un
program de 5 zile/sptmn i 30,5 milioane tone/an lignit energetic, la un program
de 7 zile/sptmn, fiind determinat de dotarea tehnic, desfacere-livrare crbune, baza
material, productivitatea i condiiile tehnologice.
Ca urmare a msurilor ntreprinse i din analiza costului unitar realizat pe subuniti, a rezultat
diminuarea acestuia de la an la an (figura 9), respectiv:
71,89 lei/t n anul 2012;
68,53 lei/t n anul 2013;
65,53 lei/t n naul 2014;
i 50,91 lei/t programat pentru anul 2015.

Figura 9: Situatia costului unitar pe subunitati i total SDM ani 2012-2014 si plan an 2015
Din problemele ntmpinate se pot meniona:
Aciuni promovate n instane judectoreti de Asociaia BANKWATCH ROMANIA i
GREENPEACE CEE ROMANIA pentru suspendarea i anularea unor acorduri de mediu emise de
Agenia de Protecia Mediului Gorj i a deciziilor de scoatere din fondul forestier i de defriare
emise de ITRSV Vlcea.
Necesitatea votrii de ctre Parlament a Legii 255/2010 modificat i completat, privind
exproprierea pentru cauz de utilitate public necesar realizrii unor obiective de interes
judeean i local. -Dac Legea nr. 255/2010 - de utilitate public pentru exproprieri - ar fi n
vigoare, carierele ar fi deschise la capacitatea de producie proiectat i ar putea produce
cantiti mai mari de crbune, ceea ce ar conduce la rentabilizarea acestora.

378
 Finalizarea completrilor solicitate de ministerele Romniei privind documentaiile pentru
proiectul de HG, constnd n declanarea procedurilor de expropriere a imobilelor i
proprietilor private situate pe amplasamentul coridorului de expropriere necesar lucrrilor
miniere de utilitate public aferent carierelor Jil Sud, Jil Nord i Roia.

CONCLUZII

Lipsa unei legislaii adecvate care s permit exproprierea terenurilor necesare pentru
executarea lucrrilor miniere, conduce la costuri suplimentare n sensul c sunt necesare
transportoare cu band care trebuie montate n funcie de configuraia terenului n loc s fie
asigurate fronturi de lucru cu lungimi de 1,5 2 km, ceea ce ar nsemna reducerea costurilor
prin:
-reducerea timpilor de staionare aferente lucrrilor de montare a transportoarelor
cu banda pe alte amplasamente;
-creterea productivitii orare i implicit a masei miniere excavate prin
dimensionarea corect a fronturilor de lucru;
- scderea consumului de energie prin eliminarea transportoarelor suplimentare;
-reducerea numrului de personal de supraveghere i exploatare i a costurilor cu
munca vie;
-asigurarea decalajului necesar pentru treptele inferioare de excavare care n
general sunt purttoare de crbune i implicit creterea produciei care n final duce
la o activitate rentabil din punct de vedere economic.
n momentul de fa se fac eforturi pentru implementarea acestei Legii nr. 255/2010 privind
exproprierea terenurilor pentru utilitate public
Necesitatea implementrii unui program de restructurare a activittii miniere, este consecinta
mai multor factori interni si externi care au afectat indicatorii de performanta ai S. Complexul
Energetic Oltenia S.A.
Activitatea de extracie a lignitului se va desfura pe teritoriul a dou judee, Gorj i Mehedini,
n 13 perimetre miniere de suprafa la zi (10 unitati miniere de carier), prin tehnologii de
extracie n flux continuu cu excavatoare cu rotor, transportoare cu band de mare capacitate i
maini de haldat.
Sucursala Diviziei Minier Trgu Jiu deine licene de exploatare pentru toate cele 13 perimetre
miniere de suprafa, licente active pana in anul 2027.
Rezerva de lignit cantonat n perimetrele de exploatare, asigur funcionarea Complexul
Energetic Oltenia, pentru o perioad de cel putin 40 de ani.
Pe termen scurt, pentru revigorarea activitii din cadrul Sucursalei Divizia Minier se va trece la
nchiderea activitii n perimetrele miniere neviabile datorit condiiilor existente i
concentrarea activitii n perimetre de exploatare viabile, cu condiii mai bune, care s asigure
realizarea unor costuri i indicatori competitivi, comparabili cu cei realizai pe plan mondial.
n final trebuie s subliniez rolul carbunelui din Oltenia Ce se ntmpl cnd nu bate vntul i e
secet? Cam ceea ce se ntmpl n prezent i ce s-a ntmplat cu civa ani n urm:
hidrocentralele produc mai puin energie, eolienele mai mult stau, iar Cernavod se nchide,
pentru c debitul Dunrii scade i apar probleme la rcirea reactoarelor. Dac mai e i iarn,
nici termocentralele pe gaze nu mai pot produce, pentru c nu sunt suficiente gaze naturale.
Astfel, singurii care pot produce i pe care se poate baza economia naional rmn
termocentralele pe crbune. Practic, este vorba de sigurana sistemului energetic naional
i, n consecin, securitatea naional a Romniei.

379
1 REFERENCES

[1] *** EUROCOAL Market Report 1/2015;

[2] *** Coal industry across Europe, EURACOAL, 2013, 2014, 2015
I.C. Predoiu Crbunele din Oltenia, FOREN 2014, Seciunea de de comunicri
[3] tiinifice Crbune i tehnologii curate pentru producerea energiei pe baz de
crbune

380
 SITUAIA MINERITULUI DIN VALEA JIULUI N
CONTEXTUL DEZVOLTRII DURABILE
Davidoiu (Tecan) Alina Adela1
1
Universitatea din Petroani, 20, str. Universitii nr. 20, 332006, Petroani, Romnia

ABSTRACT
Conceptul de dezvoltare durabil n minerit este n faz incipient. Cu toate acestea industria
minier trebuie s adopte strategii de dezvoltare durabil care vor stabilii obiectivele dezvoltrii
precum i cile i mijloacele de realizare a lor.
Principalele probleme ale Vii Jiului sunt: dependena aproape total de exploatarea crbunelui;
lipsa altor activiti economice importante; starea necorespunztoare a infrastructurii tehnice;
starea necorespunztoare unei pri nsemnate a locuinelor; deteriorarea mediului nconjurtor;
concentrarea unui numr mare de persoane fr loc de munc; lipsa terenurilor cu potenial
agricol care s asigure alternative pentru subzisten; ponderea nsemnat a populaiei
provenite din afara zonei, nainte de 1989.
nchiderea minelor a condus, att la diminuarea veniturilor populaiei din zona Vii Jiului cu
consecine restrictive asupra economiei locale, ct i la diminuarea veniturilor bugetelor locale.
Analiznd evoluia personalului n cadrul Sucursalelor diviziei miniere este necesar o politic
sistematic de personal care s asigure n momentul ieirii la pensie a personalului care
ndeplinete condiiile de pensionare , nlocuirea cu personal calificat, care s i poat desfura
activitatea n condiii de sntate i securitate a muncii, att pentru ei ct i pentru utilaje i
zcmnt.

KEYWORDS
dezvoltare durabil, zone miniere, indicatorii de dezvoltare durabil

1 Introducere

Termenul de dezvoltare durabil a nceput s devin, foarte cunoscut dup Conferina privind
mediul i dezvoltarea, organizat de Naiunile Unite la Rio de Janeiro n vara lui 1992, cunoscut
sub numele de Summit-ul Pmntului. Ea a avut ca rezultat elaborarea mai multor convenii
referitoare la schimbrile de clim (reducerea emisiilor de metan i dioxid de carbon),
diversitatea biologic (conservarea speciilor) i stoparea defririlor masive. Tot atunci a fost
elaborat i Agenda 21 - planul de susinere a dezvoltrii durabile.
Ca ar membr a Uniunii Europene, Romnia i-a asumat obligaii precise n ceea ce privete
implementarea acquis-ului comunitar, inclusiv n ceea ce privete trecerea la un model de
dezvoltare durabil, nsuindu-i principiile, obiectivele i modalitile de lucru convenite n
cadrul UE. Prin urmare, Strategia Naional de Dezvoltare Durabil, aflat n curs de elaborare,
381
trebuie s restabileasc i s menin condiiile pentru codezvoltarea capitalului natural i a
sistemului socio-economic pe termen lung i foarte lung pe teritoriul Romniei.
Pentru a defini dezvoltarea durabil trebuie avut n vedere modul n care interecioneaz
domeniile economic, politic i cultural, ntre ele i cu domeniul social, natural i populaia uman
(Fig.1)
SOCIAL CULTURAL

POLITIC NATURA(resurse, servicii)

DEZVOLTARE
DURABIL

ECONOMIC POPULAIA UMAN

Figura 1: Domenii care interacioneaz pentru realizarea dezvoltrii durabile

Dezvoltarea durabil poate fi definit i ca pstrarea intact a potenialului de consum de bunuri

comercializabile i resurse naturale pe cap de locuitor al generaiilor viitoare. Potenialul de
consum este o funcie a celor dou tipuri de capital:
W=W(K,E), (1)
unde: W este potenialul de consum,
K stocul de capital creat de om,
E stocul de resurse naturale.
Valea Jiului este o microregiune alctuit din 3 municipii: Petroani, Lupeni, Vulcan i 3 orae:
Petrila, Uricani, Aninoasa, cu o populaie totala de 149.582 locuitori. Administrativ, localitile
din Valea Jiului au n componen alte localiti mai mici: Petrila are ca i localiti aparintoare
Lonea, Cimpa, Jie, Rscoala i Taia; Petroani cu localitile aparintoare Dlja Mare, Dlja
Mic, Sltruc i Livezeni; Lupeni; Aninoasa cu localitatea aparintoare Iscroni; Vulcan cu
localitile aparintoare Dealul Babii i Paroeni; Uricani cu localitile aparintoare Cmpul lui
Neag i Valea de Brazi.

382
 Figura 2: Bazinul minier al Vii Jiului
Bazinul Petroani (Fig.2) este constituit dintr-un fundament cristalin i depozite sedimentare de
cuvertur. Fundamentul cristalin apare la zi pe rama bazinului i este alctuit din roci
metamorfice cu grad diferit de metamorfism care aparin pnzei getice i domeniului autohton.
Depozitele sedimentare aparin Cretacicului superior, Paleogenului i Miocenului i sunt acoperite
n mare parte de formaiuni cuaternare.
Valea Jiului se nscrie n categoria zonelor urbane cu industrie n regres n care exploatarea
minier a devenit nerentabil. Restructurarea activitii miniere a atras dup sine o cdere
economic brusc a acestei zone i o amplificare a problemelor sociale, prin creterea
omajului.
Principalele probleme ale Vii Jiului sunt: dependena aproape total de exploatarea crbunelui;
lipsa altor activiti economice importante; starea necorespunztoare a infrastructurii tehnice;
starea necorespunztoare unei pri nsemnate a locuinelor; deteriorarea mediului nconjurtor;
concentrarea unui numr mare de persoane fr loc de munc; lipsa terenurilor cu potenial
agricol care s asigure alternative pentru subzisten; ponderea nsemnat a populaiei
provenite din afara zonei, nainte de 1989.
Valea Jiului se nscrie n categoria zonelor urbane cu industrie n regres n care exploatarea
minier a devenit nerentabil. Restructurarea activitii miniere a atras dup sine o cdere
economic brusc a acestei zone i o amplificare a problemelor sociale, prin creterea
omajului.
Principalele probleme ale Vii Jiului sunt: dependena aproape total de exploatarea crbunelui;
lipsa altor activiti economice importante; starea necorespunztoare a infrastructurii tehnice;
starea necorespunztoare unei pri nsemnate a locuinelor; deteriorarea mediului nconjurtor;
concentrarea unui numr mare de persoane fr loc de munc; lipsa terenurilor cu potenial
agricol care s asigure alternative pentru subzisten; ponderea nsemnat a populaiei
provenite din afara zonei, nainte de 1989.

2 Analiza SWOT a mineritului din Valea Jiului

Statisticile i prognozele internaionale arat c n balana energetic a lumii crbunele joac i

va juca un rol din ce n ce mai important. Ponderea acestuia este prevazut s creasc de la 30-
40%, ct este astazi, la cca. 50% pna n 2030.
n aceste condiii, se cer - att pe plan naional, ct i pe plan mondial rezolvate acele
probleme care nc determin o oarecare lips de atractivitate a sa ca resurs energetic, i
anume, emisiile de gaze cu efect de ser n urma arderii sale, degradarea mediului nconjurtor,
costurile relativ ridicate de transport i nu n ultimul rnd, expunerea personalului la riscuri
profesionale.
Exploatarea crbunelui pe plan mondial, dar i n Romnia, a fost, n ultimii 20 de ani, obiectul
unei profunde reforme tehnologice, generate, pe fondul progresului tehnologic general, de
aciunea factorilor specifici ai mecanismelor economiei de pia, precum i de unii factori
conjuncturali, legai n primul rnd de caracterul limitat sau creterea preului resurselor
alternative, precum i de nsprirea restriciilor de mediu.
Progresul tehnologic, realizat n primul rnd prin msuri tehnice, este supus continuu aciunii
restrictive a factorilor economici, eficientizarea procesului de extragere fiind rezultatul unor
msuri de ordin tehnic i managerial, deopotriv.
Pentru Romnia, care se caracterizeaz prin rezerve de crbune reduse n comparaie cu marii
productori mondiali, dar totui suficiente pentru a sta la baza asigurrii produciei unei pri
importante din energia electric necesar, problemele se pun la alt nivel, dar direciile de
aciune necesare sunt, n mare masur, aceleai.

383
 Tabelul 1 Analiza SWOT a mineritului din Valea Jiului
Rezerve exploatabile de peste 300 mil tone
Infrastructur deja existent
Concentrare teritorial a exploatrilor miniere ntr-o zon relativ restrns

Distan redus fa de beneficiari

Puncte tari
Personal calificat n activitatea minier
Instalaiile de preparare deinute pot realiza produse cu un coninut
energetic mrit
Condiii geologo-miniere dificile de exploatare
Grad ridicat de periculozitate a exploatarii
Putere calorific sczut
Grad de mecanizare a exploatrii sczut
Lipsa unor tehnologii performante
Puncte slabe Personal cu mentalitate rigid
Dificulti n exploatarea selectiv a crbunelui
Necesar crescnd de surse de energie primar
Pia de desfacere relativ stabil
Perspectiva realizrii Complexului Energetic Hunedoara
Oportuniti Meninerea unei infrastructuri miniere adecvate
mbuntirea calitii crbunelui vndut
Agravarea crizei economice mondiale;
Creterea costurilor de producie generat
Vulnerabilitate social mare datorit caracterului monoindustrial al zonei

Lipsa unui pre reglementat apropiat de costul de producie

Ameninri
Lipsa fondurilor pentru dezvoltarea extensiv a exploatrii

3 Rezerva geologic de bilan.

Rezerva geologic de bilan a zcmntului de huil din Bazinul Carbonifer Valea Jiului este de
aproximativ 244 milioane tone de huil, tab 2.

Tabelul 2: Situaia rezervelor geologice ale unitilor miniere din cadrul CEH n anul 2014
Unitate minier Rezerve geologice de bilan 2014
E.M.Lonea 22,407 mil. tone
E.M.Livezeni 76,141 mil. tone
E.M.Vulcan 23,304 mil.tone
E.M.Lupeni 31,061 mil.tone

384
Pentru toate perimetrele aflate n exploatare, CEH- SA deine licen de exploatare pn n anul
2024.
Rezerva industrial total (valorificabil) n perimetrele luate n concesiune de CEH- SA, n 2014
este de 54,355 milioane tone. Aceast rezerv poate asigura continuitatea exploatrii pe o
perioad de peste 36,5 de ani, la nivelul actual de producie de 1,490 mil. tone.
Producia de huil preconizat a fi extrasa de punctele de lucru ale CEH- SA n perioada 2015-
2035, cu mentinerea fortei de munca prin noi angajari si finalizarea programului investitional
privind achizitia de utilaj tehnologic minier, este prezentat n tab 3.

Tabelul 3 : Producia de huil preconizat a fi extrasa de punctele de lucru ale CEH- SA n perioada
2015-2035
ANUL PRODUCTIA (Tone)
2015 1.200.000
2016 1.586.000
. .
2035 1.586.000

Huila extras este supus unui proces de sortare n urma cruia cantitatea ce ndeplinete
parametrii de calitate este livrat celor dou termocentrale (Sucursala electrocentrale Deva-
Mintia, Sucursala Electrocentrale Paroeni componente ale C.E.H), pentru producerea
combinat a energiei electrice i termice. Aceast producie este preconizat a fi livrat sub
form de huil sortat.
Analiznd evoluia personalului, prezentat mai sus, n cadrul Sucursalelor diviziei miniere este
necesar o politic sistematic de personal care s asigure n momentul ieirii la pensie a
personalului care ndeplinete condiiile de pensionare , nlocuirea cu personal calificat ,care s
i poat desfura activitatea n condiii de sntate i securitate a muncii, att pentru ei ct i
pentru utilaje i zcmnt.
Lipsa personalului este vizibil atat la fronturile de lucru ct i la locurile de munc fr de care
activitatea din subteran nu se poate desfura. innd cont de faptul c n ultimii ani nu s-au
fcut angajri de personal care s asigure continuitatea personalului calificat la locurile de
munc, i avnd n vedere faptul c pregatirea unui muncitor calificat care s-i poat ndeplinii
sarcinile de munc dureaz, acestea trebuiesc demarate ct mai urgent.

4 Investiii de subteran

n cadrul Sucursalei Miniere a CEH, pentru eficientizarea activitii miniere subterane este
necesar creterea capacitilor de e producie, fapt care se poate realiza prin executarea de
lucrri miniere subterane de deschidere-pregtire. Acest fapt ar duce la reducerea costului total
de la 108,75 lei/Gcal, n anul 2015, la 58,56 lei/Gcal, n 2018, i creterea produciei extrase de
la 1.340.000 tone, n anul 2015, la 1.900.000 tone, n anul 2018, cu extindere la anul 2042.
Pentru aceasta sunt necesare investiii pentru:
Dotarea celor 4 exploatri miniere cu echipamente i utilaje tehnologice miniere
performante, fiabile, automatizate i cu productivitate ridicat
Complex mecanizat pentru stratul 13 la EM Livezeni. Investiia este necesar pn la
sfritul semestrului I al anului 2016 pentru echiparea panoului 5, bl IX, stratul 13, ct i
pentru echiparea urmtoarelor panouri din blocul VII, de aseenea cu posibilitatea
exploatrii stratului 3.

385
 Un complex mecanizat cu subminare i a utilajelor i instalaiilor necesare pentru
deservirea acestora la EM Livezeni. Echimamentul va fi plasat n blocul II, stratul 3 i va
fi pus n funcie n semestrul I al anului 2015.
Complex mecanizat uor la EM Lonea, care va fi intrdus n blocul III, stratul 3, pentru
exploatarea feliei F.XXXVI, ntre numerele 36 - 34. Acesta va fi pus n funcie n
semestru I al anului 2016. Acest complex mecanizat uor va nlocui un abataj frontal
clasic dublndu-i capacitatea, astfel crescnd productivitatea muncii i conducnd la
diminuarea costurilor de producie, n vederea producerii unei Gcal mai ieftine.
Combinele de naintare n steril i n crbune vor asigura creterea vitezei de avansare a
lucrrilor de deschidere i punerea n funcie mai devreme a abatajelor.
Echipament de exploatare mecanizat a pilierilor la EM Lupeni. Aceste echipamente vor
fi plasate n blocul IV i V, stratul 3, pentru exploatarea pilierilor de siguran dintre
dou abataje exploatate. Acesta va fi pus n funcie n semestrul II al anului 2017.

5 Investiii de suprafa

Dup finalizarea investiiilor din subteran, ncepnd cu anul 2017 se pot face urmtoarele
investiii la suprafa:
Achiziia de echipamente i tehnologii pentru procesarea sterilului din haldele de steril
inactive, recuperarea fraciilor crbunoase din aceste halde i reintroducerea acestui
combustibil n circuitul energetic.
Achiziia de echipamente i tehnologii pentru captarea CH4 din subteran n vederea
utilizrii acestuia pentru producerea energiei termice n anul 2015.
Dotarea fiecrei exploatri miniere cu instalaii de sortare performante, fiabile,
automatizate n vederea creterii calitii crbunelui livrat la cele dou termocentrale pe
parcursul perioadei anilor 2015 2016.

Concluzii

Aplicarea conceptului de dezvoltare durabil n minerit, n special n zonele miniere, n care

activitile sunt, n general, monoindustriale este dificil pentru c zcmintele sunt resurse
neregenerabile i, prin urmare, mai devreme sau mai trziu, ele se vor epuiza.
Prin urmare, n aceste zone ar trebui s fie un minerit profitabil, care s permit dezvoltarea n
continuare, sau n paralel, a altor activiti .
Nu este o soluie de a conserva astzi resursele naturale pentru a crea bunstarea generaiilor
viitoare .
Durabilitatea natural n proiectele miniere va fi sinonim cu creterea general i susinerea de
afaceri miniere. Acceptare internaional a unei astfel de dezvoltri este urgent necesar.
Aplicarea principiilor dezvoltrii durabile n activitatea minier va depinde mult pe practicile de
afaceri i de standarde.
Durabilitatea este un proces evolutiv. Industria minier la nivel mondial, de la bun nceput
trebuie s adopte principiile ecologice generale de control al polurii. Este nevoie a se impune
prevenirea i combaterea polurii, nu numai controlul polurii, care n curnd va fi de domeniul
trecutului n alte industrii.
nchiderea minelor a condus, att la diminuarea veniturilor populaiei din zona Vii Jiului cu
consecine restrictive asupra economiei locale, ct i la diminuarea veniturilor bugetelor locale.
Analiznd evoluia personalului n cadrul Sucursalelor diviziei miniere este necesar o politic
sistematic de personal care s asigure n momentul ieirii la pensie a personalului care
ndeplinete condiiile de pensionare , nlocuirea cu personal calificat ,care s i poat desfura

386
activitatea n condiii de sntate i securitate a muncii ,att pentru ei ct i pentru utilaje i
zcmnt.
Lipsa personalului este vizibil atat la fronturile de lucru ct i la locurile de munc fr de care
activitatea din subteran nu se poate desfura. innd cont de faptul c n ultimii ani nu s-au
fcut angajri de personal care s asigure continuitatea personalului calificat la locurile de
munc, i avnd n vedere faptul c pregatirea unui muncitor calificat care s-i poat ndeplinii
sarcinile de munc dureaz, acestea trebuiesc demarate ct mai urgent.

Bibliografie

Davidoiu (Tecan),A.- Criterii i indicatori de apreciere a dezvoltrii durabile, Raport

1
de cercetare doctorat, 2015
Davidoiu (Tecan),A. - Situaia actual i viitoare a mineritului din Valea Jiului,
2
Raport de cercetare doctorat, 2015
Georgescu, M. Dezvoltarea durabil n minerit, Al 9-lea simpozion SGER Bucureti
3
2014,
4 *** Strategia pentru Dezvoltare Durabil la nivelul Uniunii Europene
5 *** Strategia Industriei Miniere
6 *** Strategia energetica a Romaniei -huila-2014 Bruxeles

387
 IDENTIFICATION OF POSSIBLY POLLUTED AREAS WITH
PARTICLES COMING FROM THE TAILING PONDS FROM
PAROSENI POWER PLANT

Tataru Dorin 1 , Stanci Andreea Cristina 1 , Stanci Aurora 2 , R adu Sorin M ihai 1
1
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering and Transports, University of Petrosani, Petrosani,
Romania
2
Departament of Management, Environmental Engineering and Geology, University of Petrosani,
Petrosani, Romania
ABSTRACT
One of the sources of pollution in the Jiu Valley is the Thermal Power Plant Paroseni by the gas
emissions and by storing carbon and ash resulting from the technological process in ash and
slag deposits. Thermal Power Plant Paroseni has large areas of ponds decommissioned and not
reentered in natural cycles, and significant quantities of powders pollutants are transported by
wind. The purpose of this paper is to identify areas with high dust pollution through the study
of dispersion from the slag and ash ponds of the Thermal Power Plant of Paroseni.

Keywords: pollutants, dispersion, powders

INTRODUCTION
Jiu Valley is characterized by a mountain climate with average temperatures range from 5 C
to +6 C in winter, and +18 C to +28 C in the summer months. Due to depression location
are occurring thermal inversions, and reduced movements of air masses create favorable
conditions for stagnation of masses at low height above the ground. Relative air humidity, the
monthly averages are higher in winter (84-88%) and lower in the summer (62-70%). Wind is
having the NS direction - direction to Jiu Valley - especially predominant in the southern sector
(11%) and on the NW with a frequency of occurrence of 5.1%, calm atmosphere, in all cases
analyzed, has a frequency of 69, 9%. The EV transverse direction is almost zero wind speed
frequency. Affected by wind speed values were lower due to the effect of specific housing
depressions; prevailing winds are from the south and north.
Central Power Plant Paroseni is situated on the lower terrace of the right side of the river Jiu in
proximity to Vulcan city, 8-10 m from the railway Vulcan - Paroseni - Lupeni. This site was
determined by the existence of numerous coal extractions in the area (fig.1.1). It is located on
the national road DN 66 A, which connects Craiova and Targu Jiu.
Neighborhood: North - Railway Livezeni - Lupeni, South - DN 66 A, East - Mining Exploitation
access road Paroseni, West - Jiu River.

388
Thermal Power Plant Paroseni is a cogeneration power plant supplying heat and power
production. Works with coal as fuel base and provide heat for the residents of the 4 mining
towns in the area: Petrosani, Vulcan, Lupeni, Aninoasa.
Slag and ash deposits of the power plant Paroseni are having as surface area 56 ha:
Ash and slag deposit for case of accidents (S = 10 ha)
Deposit Valley Caprisoara (S = 46 ha)
Radon deposits (S = 10 ha), Ijak (S = 8 ha) and Feres (S = 10 ha) are reentered in natural
circuit and covered with grass.
Paroseni Thermal Power Plant is evacuating hydraulically the ash and slag discharged from the
combustion of coal in to the slag and ash deposit Caprisoara Valley. In case of accidents, slag
and ash is deposited in the special deposit for cases of crash. The ratio of the water / ash is
about 10: 1. Slag and ash deposit Caprisoara Valley is a valley deposit consisting of two
deposits, located at 1.5 km from the Power and Thermal Plant. It occupies an area of 46 ha,
with a total capacity of 5320000 m3.
Slag and ash deposition is made by levels, consisting from raised slats performed successively
in different compartments of the deposit. Water from ash and slag transport is recycled to the
Power Thermal Plant by pumping.
To avoid dissipation of ash from deposits is used a water network in order to spray the
deposits.
POLLUTING AGENTS
For the production of the electricity, the thermal power plants are using a source of primary
energy - solid fuels. Chemical elements in contact with oxygen that produce heat (exothermic
reactions) are: the carbon, hydrogen and sulfur. The final products resulting from the
combustion are: carbon dioxide, water and sulfur dioxide.
Solid fuels, in addition to fuel, contain more sterile, which will be found after the combustion
process in the form of slag and ash.
All products resulting from the combustion of solid are pollutants in the sense that they are
changing the balance of the external environment or act directly on the animals and plants.
The main pollutants from power plants that are emitted by the chimney are: sulfur oxides (SO2
and SO3), nitrogen oxides (NO and NO2), carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide (CO and CO2),
dust (fly ash particles unburned coal, clay, earth) and in smaller quantities: tars, hydrocarbons,
soot, sulfates, organic acids, etc.
All the usual fuels (coal, coke, fuel oil) contain ash from non-combustible solid substances.
Thermal Power Plants are located near water sources such as rivers. The water used for cooling
is reintroduced into the river at a temperature higher than that at which it was captured from
the river. Therefore, power plants contribute to increasing water temperatures in the river, with
all the negative effects for river ecosystem.
Slag and ash from Thermal Power Plant Paroseni has the following composition: 47.68% -
silicon dioxide (SiO 2 ), 22.16% - aluminum oxide (Al 2 O 3 ) 9.44% - iron oxide (Fe 2 O 3 ) 5.38% -
calcium oxide (CaO) 2.28% - magnesium oxide (MgO) 0.64% - sodium oxide (Na 2 O) 1.08% -
potassium oxide (K 2 O) and 10.78% of other elements.

THE EFFECTS OF PARTICLES AIR POLLUTION ON THE ENVIRONMENT

In the interrelationships between man and his ambient environment, the last one exerts
multiple influences on man, one of the most important is the effect on health.
Pollutant environmental action on the human body is very diverse and complex. It can start
from simple discomfort to human activity, so-called discomfort, to strong disturbances of health.

389
The direct influence of air pollution on human health consists from body changes that occur in
people exposed as a result of their contact with various air pollutants. In most cases, the direct
action of air pollution is the result of interaction of several pollutants simultaneously present in
the atmosphere and only rarely action of a single pollutant.
Air pollution dust could cause serious damage to the human body. Powders are irritant
pollutants, fibrosis, and allergy.
Affections that can cause air pollution with dust on the human body are inflammations, rhinitis,
pharyngitis, laryngitis, and bronchitis. If action is long lasting pollutant may occur chronic
diseases.
In addition to the affections listed above, powders, especially those with large density persist in
the lung, lung elasticity is decreasing as foreign body reaction with formation of new tissue
around, all that being causes of fibrosis.
Organic or mineral powders as gases (nitrogen oxides, sulfur, carbon) or volatile substances
from insecticides, detergents, plastics, drugs, may cause acute rhinitis, asthma or ocular
problems (ex.: conjunctivitis) or skin problems (eczema, hives, etc.)
On vegetation, dust particles are deposited on their leaves preventing normal development.
Depending on the thickness of particles deposited on, plants can even lead to death.
EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION
To identify possible polluted areas with high particles from settling ponds at Thermal Power
Plant Paroseni was used Meti-Lis software release 2.03.
Meti-Lis 2.03 software allows us to determine how the dispersion of certain pollutants from
human activities, taking into account the emission rate and other terms of issue such as
location, the amount of pollutant, temperature and meteorological factors every hour or during
the mediation.
Studies have been conducted on average values of the month of September 2014. For the
study we used the following climatic data:
The average monthly temperature +10C,
Average monthly wind speed - 10 m/s
Wind direction - NE.
Possible dispersion of powders obtained for the deposit Caprisoara, which belongs to Thermal
Power Plant Paroseni is shown in Figure 1.
The analysis was done for areas where ash and slag deposition ceased and for emergency
deposit. The rest of the currently active surface of the deposits does not raise problems relating
to entrainment of air dust particles as they are covered with water.
From the analysis of dispersion maps we can see that the dust raised from the lake Caprisoara
is transported by air currents toward Valcan massif, only a small part of them reaching the
habited vicinity of the Thermal Power Plant Paroseni.

390
Fig. 1
Wind dispersion of dust powders driven from the inactive lake Caprisoara

In case of emergency lake deposit, wind-blown dust from its surface affects residential areas
near the Thermal Power Plant Paroseni (Figure 2).

Fig. 2
Wind dispersion of dust powders driven from the emergency lake deposit
Due to overlapping dispersion of dust particles carried by wind from the two slag and ash
surfaces, although there are long distances from the source of pollution, pollutant load is high
(Fig. 3).
To reduce dust pollution from the slag and ash ponds of Thermal Power Plant Paroseni
measures are needed of redevelopment and to return them in natural cycles.
As a result of the dispersion of particles carried by wind from the slag and ash ponds lead to air
pollution. Non-reduction of pollution cause serious damage to environmental factors, with
greater impact on vegetation because of the way of dispersion of pollutants.

391
Fig. 3
Wind dispersion of dust powders driven from the emergency lake deposit and from the inactive
lake Caprisoara
CONCLUSIONS
One of the main air pollutants produced by Thermal Power Plant Paroseni is solid particle
pollution (dust).
From the lake surface of slag and ash, wind train large amounts of dust that is dispersed on the
surrounding areas.
Dispersion of pollutants raised from the slag and ash ponds from Thermal Power Plant Paroseni
is performed in the NE direction to Massif Valcan, not affecting large habited areas.
Emergency lake is affecting in the highest proportion habited area near the Thermal Power
Plant Paroseni.
To reduce particle pollution, redevelopment measures of the deposit are necessary to
reintroduce these surfaces in natural circuit.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
[1] BRAOVAN A. G., Impactul ambiental i reabilitarea haldelor de steril din sectorul vestic al
Bazinului Petroani (de la Aninoasa pn la Cmpu lui Neag). Teza de doctorat- Universitatea
Babe-Bolyai, Cluj-Napoca, Facultatea de tiina i Ingineria Mediului
[2] CIOLEA D. I., BOCIAT M. A., Aspecte privind noxele emise de C.E.T. Paroseni n atmosfer,
Buletinul AGIR nr. 3/2006 iulie-septembrie.
[3] DOROFTEI S, CHEPTNARIU D., SUCIU O., FIRA MLDINESCU C., PETRESCU C., PUTNOKY
S., BAGIU R. - Poluarea aerului cu pulberi - factor de risc pentru sntatea populaiei dintr-un
centru industrial, Revista de Igien i Sntate Public, vol.58, nr.3/2008 Journal of Hygiene
and Public Health, 2008.
[4] STANCI A., Metode i mijloace pentru determinarea caracteristicilor fizice ale materialelor,
Editura Universitas, Petroani, 1999.
[5] TIA M. C., Modelarea dispersiei atmosferice a poluanilor, Buletinul AGIR, Supliment
2/2012.

392
ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION OF OPTIMUM OPERATIONAL
STATUS OF ELECTRICAL STATIONS

M arin-Silviu Nan 1 , Ovidiu-Bogdan Tom u 2 , R zvan Popescu 3 , Andreea Ungur 4

1
Ph.D., Professor, 2Ph.D., Assist. Professor, 3Eng.Ph.D.Student, 4Eng.Ph.D.Student
University of Petrosani

1 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

Dimensioning of electricity transformation stations and points is made

when new consumers electricity supply is designed, and for periodic verification
of installed power(determination of load degree). Re-dimensioning of electricity
transformation stations and points is required when technologies and enterprises
are updated, entailing reducing electricity consumption, as well as in the case of
changing manufacturing profiles.
Adopting the optimum electricity supply solution for industrial consumers is
a complex issue involving the analysis of a great number of restrictions and
factors, with determining, quasi-determined and random character.

2 THEORETICAL BASIS OF OPTIMUM EVALUATION

In the design of SEE (SE, LE) connection of mining electricity distribution

systems, the following problems should be solved:
- satisfying requirements of mining consumers;
- ensuring optimum safety degree for each development stage (of the area of
the mining consumer), simple and economical solutions, adapted per categories
and classes of consumers;
- adopting modular and elastic schemes allowing adaptation, in any stage, to
modern solutions than might intervene in electricity installation, possibility of
electricity supply for unforeseen objectives;

393
- adopting a flexible structure of the optimization criterion allowing the
highlighting of possible differential solutions of influence factors;
Establishing electricity supply solutions for industrial consumers is a
complex activity in which a series of factors having a direct influence on those
should be considered.
The principal elements influencing the chosen solution are:
- Value of investment;
- Value of probable annual penalties caused to the consumer;
- Value of exploitation expenses;
- Number of electricity supply means;
- Type and place of fixing the automation equipment;
- Normal supply diagram of the consumer.
The preoccupation regarding the optimization of nominal power of
electricity transformers, and the optimization of the configuration of
transformation and distribution stations from the mining consumers, depending
on the absorbed power, is justified by the important savings of electricity that
might thus be obtained.
To obtain an as exact as possible value, most often two optimization
criteria are applied: "cost of minimum losses of power and electricity (CPW) and
total updated expenses) (CTA).
Operation of electricity transformers according to the optimum regime plan
involves establishing the number of transformers in operation and their loading,
so that the total losses would be minimal. It is required to disconnect the loaded
transformers with an average of less than 40% of the nominal load and
redistribution of power among the transformers left in operation, according to
the loads of the supplied consumers.
To impede the decrease of safety level in the electricity supply, an AAR
device is required, which should provide automatic connection of the stand-by, in
the situation of a possible disconnection of an operating transformer.
When the load od the distribution station supplying the mining consumers
undergo significant variations, in order to obtain a functioning regime as
favorable as possible from the point of view of total losses of power or energy,
and from the point of view of minimum annual cost, respectively, it is
recommended to install several transformers.
In this situation, the problem is connecting or disconnecting a transformer,
in case of total load variations per station, so that the plan of optimum
functioning should be permanently followed.
Single-core diagrams, frequently met for electricity stations above ground
in mines, are shown in Figs. 1 a, b and c.

394
 Fig. 1. Single-core diagrams of electricity distribution stations, MT/MT, used
above ground in mines (2x100% type configuration)

For the analysis, the following basic hypotheses are admitted: nominal
power of transformers is the optimum, the characteristics of the commuting
apparatus of the same type are identical, and the instant absorbed power (S) is
considered variable in time (along a working day). The commuting apparatus can
be provided with an AAR system.
a) With two transformer units of continuous bars on the MT (6kV) side;
b) With two transformer units of sectioned bars on MT (6kV), by isolator;
c) With two transformer units of sectioned bars on MT (6kV), by circuit
breaker.
The calculation formulae are shown below for the absorbed power where
commuting between the two situations is required, depending on the
optimization criteria applied and the factors of influence considered.
Considering the two possible situations mentioned above, and applying the
criterion of minimum power loss (CP), noting with:
P12 = P1 P2 (1)
The difference of total power losses in transformers, in kW, referring to the two
conditions, the following formulae are obtained:
When reactive power losses are ignored:

395
 2
P S
P12 = kn P0
2 S nT (2)
2 P0
S = S nT
Pkn
When the reactive power losses are considered as well :
2
S
P12 = (Pkn + k e Q0 ) (P0 + k e Q0 )
1
2 S nT (3)
2 (P0 + k e Q0 )
S = S nT
Pkn + k e Qkn
The optimum or economical power when the commuting of transformers
are justified, referring to the two situations, by the application of minimum cost
criterion for power and energy CPW, is determined by the formula:
2

1
(Pkn + ke Qkn ) S Ck (P0 + k e Q0 ) C0 = 0 (4)
2 S nT
The analytical calculation formula of the optimum power, expressed in
kVA, is:
2 (P0 + k e Q0 ) C0
S ec = S nT (5)
(Pkn + ke Qkn ) Ck
The optimum kunf loading coefficient for annual load peak is determined
with the formula:
2 (P0 + k e Q0 ) C0
k1.inf = (6)
(Pkn + ke Qkn ) Ck
The final result is the analytical expression of optimal power for which
commuting transformers are justified economically, with reference to the two
situations of reservation of the electric station(passive reserve and active
reserve):
2 (P0 + k e Q0 ) (C p + C w T f T20 )
S ec = S nT (7)
(Pkn + ke Qkn ) (C p + Cw mr T20 )
The meaning of the new values appearing in the above formulae and the
units is the following:
Tn updated value of a functioning duration of n years and the expression
is:

Tn = (1 + a )
n
x
(8)
x =1

C 0 cost in updated values of a unit of power loss in iron for n years of

functioning, in /kW;
C k cost in updated values of a unit of active power loss in short circuit
and in the hypothesis of an r rate of increase of the annual load peak, in
396
 /kW;
C p specific cost of installed power in basic power stations of equivalency,
in updated values, in /kW;
C w average specific cost per system of kWhour of losses, calculated at
the transformation station level of T/MT or MT/JT, in /kWh;
m r load multiplier as:
1 n 1
(1 + r ) 2 m
mr = (9)
(1 + a ) Tn m=0 (1 + a ) m
Where r is the increase rate of the annual load peaks in the respective
period, and a is the updating rate. When r=0 and n=20 years, and n=30 years,
respectively, the load multiplier m r =1;
The rest of the values have the known meaning shown before.
It can be seen that all the characteristics of the different values specific to
kWhour of losses C w go through the same point D (Fig. 2), where the derivate:
dk1
=0 (10)
dcw
The value of the ordinate of the intersection point D ends with the
formula:
T
D = f (11)
mr
The value of the ordinate of the intersection point D corresponds to the
specific cost of energy losses C w = 0 :
2 (P0 + k e Q0 )
k ID = (12)
Pkn + k e Qkn
Analogically, as in the case of CPW criterion applied for the determination
of the optimum load coefficient in the first year of exploitation of a transformer,
in this case as well, in the hypothesis of minim of costs of losses and power and
electricity, the theoretical field of variation of the optimal load in the annual load
peak is limited by two characteristics:
2 (P0 + k e Q0 )
k1.inf .1 = lim k1.inf = (13)
cw 0 Pkn + k e Qkn

2 (P0 + k e Q0 ) T f
k1.inf .2 = lim k1.inf = (14)
cw (Pkn + k e Qkn ) mr

397
 Fig. 2. Economical loads for the annual load peak, for the TT-AN and TTU-NL
type power transformer series

The optimum load coefficient at the upper limit is determined by the

formula:
2 (P0 + k e Q0 ) (C p + C w T f T20 )
k1.sup = 1.6 k1.inf = 1.6 (15)
(Pkn + ke Qkn ) (C p + Cw mr T20 )

3 TECHNOLOGICAL REFURBISHING POSSIBILITIES OF MEDIUM VOLTAGE

CELLS

One of the solutions of technological refurbishing of electricity distribution

stations implemented within C.N.H.-S.A. , and to which we took part, has been
the refurbishing of Romanian make medium voltage cells, with Siemens vacuum
circuit breakers, a solution adopted at TD 4 Petrila Mine.
It is generally acknowledged nowadays, that the superiority of vacuum
circuit breakers lies especially in the high reliability and durability and low
maintenance costs, compared to all the other known technologies, applied in the
control and protection of medium voltage electricity distribution.
The qualities of the vacuum circuit breakers are mainly due to:
- simple and robust design of the quenching room (Fig. 3);
- small distance between the contacts (approx. 1 kV/mm), due to the very good
dielectrical qualities (more than 340 kV/cm in even field) of the intense
vacuum(105 ... 10-9 mbar), leading to the execution of simpler designs for
actuation mechanisms and lower energy;
- extinguishing the electrical arc in maximum a semi-period (10 ms), irrespective
of the value and type of electricity (up to the nominal breaking capacity
398
warranted by the manufacturer), vacuum commuting apparatus being actually
known as apparatus with no critical electricity;
- low thermal strain of the contacts in the process of commuting, due to the
short period of time of burning of the electrical arc(<10 ms), to the low voltage
drop on the electrical arc(40 75V) and the specific development and burning of
the electric arc in vacuum.
For currents up to 10 kA or for contact system with axial magnetic field,
the electrical arc burns diffusely, all over the surface of the contact, thus the
specific energy developed per unit of contact surface is low, not being able to
cause serious wear to the contacts, and for higher voltages than 10 kA in the
case of radial magnetic field, the electrical arc is rotated on the contact ring(Fig.
4) with speeds of the order of 100 m/s for the intense voltages, the leg of the
electric arc always meeting cold surfaces, not being able to cause significant
wear to the contacts.

Fig. 3. Extinguishing room Fig. 4. Voltage lines and direction

[insulator, fix contact, mobile contact, of concentrated electric arc
metal vapor condensation screen, movement
bellows, gasket]

Due to these constructions, contact systems and phenomena (burning of

electric arc in intense vacuum), manufacturers warrant vacuum extinguishing
rooms with no maintenance for over 1000 shutdowns and breaks of short circuit
voltages for nominal capacity, simultaneously with 10 000 maneuvers of
shutting-opening at nominal current and voltage.
Based on these considerations, significant preoccupation exists in
Romania as well, both among manufacturers and users, to carry out and apply
medium voltage electricity distribution equipments, fitted with circuit breakers
based on vacuum commuting technology. Vacuum commutation circuit breakers
performances (exploitation parameters, size, weight) involved new tendencies in
the design if these equipments.
Medium voltage apparatus enclosed in interior metal case (cell) with
399
insulation in air, fitted with vacuum room extinction circuit breaker, is meant for
distribution and transforming stations supplied by cables. The tendency
worldwide is to manufacture these products with as low as possible costs in view
of reducing investment and maintenance expenses.
An important role in attaining the objectives from above is played by the
design, spacing and volume of the cell, as well as the design of the equipping
apparatus its technical level and functions achieved by it in a functional unit.
The principal tendencies have been the following:
- Use of insulating materials allowing reduction of volume of functional
units;
- Reduction of the number of compartments and access only in the front in
the case of apparatus in metal case resistant to free arc;
- Change of cell architecture by achieving a straight line for the primary
energy transfer circuit from the general bars to the cable;
- Change of architecture of the cell fitting to reduce size;
- Use of fitting apparatus with multiple functions;
- Use of special insulators allowing capacitive dividers 9for signaling the
presence of voltage), measuring sensors and voltage protection;
- Use of a multifunctional protection, measuring, control and signaling relay,
based on microprocessor method.

Solution adopted at P etrila M ine

Petrila Mine, like any of the other mines in general, is an important
industrial energy consumer, having in exploitation several medium voltage
distribution stations, providing operation of equipment and tools specific to
mining.
Taking into consideration the importance of continuous functioning of
certain types of equipment, such as: main ventilation stations, compressors, and
extraction machines, the problem of initiating modernization and technological
refurbishing of electricity distribution stations has been raised.
Medium voltage cell is made up of a case made up of the compartment for
cables, and general bars, compartment for carriages that could be de-fastened,
and low-voltage compartment.
Broaches provide the working position in the connected stage of the circuit
breaker on the general bars and isolated position in disconnected stage (Fig. 5).

400
 Fig. 5. Fixing the circuit breaker
The front part of the circuit breaker is accessible entirely from the outside,
connecting, disconnecting reinforcement maneuvers being easily done, with no
significant efforts. Both reinforcement and fastening of the breaker are done
with special keys, which make these maneuvers easier, circuit breakers adapted
to these types of carriages are manufactured by a manufacturer specialized in
them. The way of connecting reinforcements is also known, the system of bars
mounted in cells being Romanian make. For electricity and voltage transformers,
Romanian make has also been considered, with a known, classical solution of
fixing. Problems occurred in the modification of the front door, which had to
keep the aspect and size of the circuit breaker and to allow access to its front
part; cutting out at the exterior has been practical and looked well, but when
several circuit breakers had to be handled in neighboring cells, the width of the
front doors opened for de-fastening at least at 90, took up from the working
space, making them thus insufficient, interventions having become cumbersome.

4 CONCLUSIONS

Due to the relatively high duration of restarting these elements,

discontinuities occur in the production process, and in many situations,
dangerous working conditions. These fallouts of the network elements lead to
lack of voltage for consumers, which may be the signal for starting automatic
control, with the condition of an adequate interconnection of various network
elements, they not always being provided with spare elements, in the conditions
of meeting the restrictions required by the operation of equipment in potentially
dangerous atmospheres.
Control automation is possible in electricity transformation and distribution
stations, in distribution points providing for complex powered faces or main
401
conveying flows, in main transformation and distribution station on the ground,
where several transformers are connected in parallel, operating with low loading
coefficients. Automatic control is possible in other cases as well, but it is not
economically viable in all the cases, due to the less important consumers.
The analyses made so far regarding electricity distribution systems in
various underground showed that network elements with the highest influence
on mining electrical energy systems, in case of defects, are commutation
equipments for high and low voltage lines and mains.

5 REFERENCES

[1]. FOTU I. - Tendine n electroenergetica minier. Editura Sigma Plus,

Deva, 1998;
[2] FOTU I. Electroenergetic. Editura universitas, Petroani, 2003;
[3] NAN M.S., IACOB-RIDZI T., DANDEA L. Teoria sistemelor de transport.
Editura Universitas, Petro;ani, 2012;
[4] PSCULESCU M. Electrificarea exploatrilor miniere. Editura Tehnic,
Bucureti, 1988.

402
 COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF TRANSPORTATION FLOW
REGULATING SYSTEMS IN OIL PIPELINES

M arin-Silviu Nan 1 , Ovidiu-Bogdan Tom u 2 , Andreea Ungur 3 , R zvan Popescu 4

1
Ph.D., Professor, 2Ph.D., Assist. Professor, 3Eng.Ph.D.Student, 4Eng.Ph.D.Student
University of Petrosani

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
The study of possibilities of improvement of oil transportation system
parameters through main lines is a difficult problem, due to the fact that these
systems are complex constructions, operate along significant distances, of
thousands of kilometers, are exploited in in areas with great differences of
civilization, cultural level, legal system, political regime, risk level etc[3].
Besides, the owners of these systems avoid or forbid even the main
parameters and exact configuration to be known, for safety reasons. Moreover, it
is difficult to perform in situ research and the costs are high compared to the
value of the results obtained and sometimes are impossible to be done.
In the light of the above mentioned facts, there are several possibilities of
improving the transport system parameters, either based on theoretical studies
[2], and simulations on well-established models using performing software, or by
experimental research on physical models and laboratory studies. There also is a
variant in which the research method can be combined[1], if time and material
resources allow this.
COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF TRANSPORTATION FLOW REGULATING SYSTEMS
In order to highlight the differences between the resistive flow regulating
method and the method by pump rotation modification, in the oil transportation
system through main lines, two cases were simulated.

403
 Fig. 1. Simulation diagram in Matlab Simulink in case of resistive regulation
For resistive regulation case, the Matlab Simulink scheme is shown in Fig.
1. Unlike the case of regulating the flow by rotation speed modification,
presented above, it is noticed that a resistive element had been introduced along
the pressure line.
As a result of simulation, the diagrams shown in Figs. 2 5 were
obtained, as a result of simulations for flow rate, pressure drop, and absorbed
power by the motor and specific energy consumption variations. The simulation
was made in the situation of the use of the pump actuated by a motor with the
power of 160 kW and 1487 rpm, and the initial temperature of the transported
oil was considered to be 60oC.

Fig. 2. Flow rate variation versus time

404
 Fig. 3. Variation of pressure drop along the line

140
130
120
110
100
90
Power [kW]

80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
10
20
30
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Time [s]

Fig. 4. Variation of absorbed power by the motor versus time

For the same operating conditions, the case of flow regulation by
automatic regulation of the pump rotation was simulated. For exemplification, in
Figs. 6 and 7 the variation curves are presented for the absorbed power and
specific energy.
The analysis of the variation diagrams for the power absorbed by the
motor, Figs. 4 and 6 shows that in case of flow regulation by pump rotation
modification, the power absorbed by the motor is up to 500% smaller than in the
case of the use of resistive method of flow regulation.

405
 Fig. 5. Variation of specific energy consumption

Comparing Figs. 5 and 7, we can notice that in the case of resistive

regulating system the specific energy consumption increase dramatically with
reduction of pump motor rotational speed, even in a nominal working regime is
greater than in the alternative way, explained by the energy loss in regulating
valve. Another issue is the possibility of extrapolation of the results
obtained by simulation, along a line with equivalent given diameter and length.
In this sense, for a known system, the diameter influence on the pressure drop
have been studied.
Fig. 8 represents the variation curve for the pressure drop for various
diameters of the main transportation line.

140
130
120
110
100
90
80
Power [kW]

70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
10
20
30
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Time [s]
Fig. 6. Variation of absorbed power by the motor versus time

406
 Fig. 7. Variation of specific nergy consumption

It is noticed that this curve is polinomial with the form:

p = 216.2 d 4 , Pa (1)
where d is the inside diameter of the pipe in m.
With the help of this curve predictions can be made regarding the pressure
drop for other pipe diameters for the same flow handled.
It can be concluded that the simulation result for the equivalent length
considered can be extrapolated by similitude in a linear model, for any equivalent
length. If the main pipe diameter is modified, for the same flow of the pipe, that
is if both parameters are modified, then the other simulations are required to
obtain similar results.

Fig. 8. Variation curve of the pressure drop for various line diameters.

407
 CONCLUSION

To highlight the differences existing between the resistive flow regulation

and the pump rotation modification method, for the oil transportation systems
through main lines, the two cases were simulated, a series of dependencies
resulting, showing that by the use of flow regulation by means of pump rotation
modification, the power absorbed by the motor is up to 50% smaller than in the
case of using resistive method of flow regulation.

REFERENCES

[1] MAGYARI, A. Instalaii mecanice miniere, Ed. Tehnic, Bucureti, 1990

[2] OROVEANU T. - Mecanica fluidelor vascoase. Editura Didactica i
Pedagogic, Bucuresti, 1967
[3] OROVEANU, T. - Hidraulica si transportul produselor petroliere.
Editura Didactica i Pedagogica, Bucureti, 1966.

408
 MODIFICAREA TEHNOLOGIILOR PRIN MODERNIZARE I
EXTINDEREA CERINELOR PIEEI N DOMENIUL
EXPLOATRII I VALORIFICRII RESURSELOR
ENERGETICE/

THE TECHNOLOGY CHANGES BY UPGRADING AND

EXPANDING MARKET REQUIREMENTS IN THE
EXPLORATION AND EXPLOITATION OF ENERGY
RESOURCES
Ioan I. GF-DEAC 1 , Nicolae ILIA 2 , M aria GF-DEAC 3 ,
Cristina M onica VALECA 4 , Ioan R US 5
1
Senior Lecturer, PhD., SHU Bucharest, National Institute of Economic Research "Costin C. Kiriescu"
(INCE), Romanian Academy, Bucharest, Romania, [email protected]
2
PhD. Professor, University of Petroani, Romania, [email protected]
3
Senior Lecturer, PhD., SHU Bucharest, Romania, [email protected]
4
PhD., University of Piteti, Nuclear Research Institute (ICN), Romania, [email protected]
5
Phd, University of Petrosani, Romania

ABSTRACT
The paper shows that, in fact, the life cycle of technology in the exploration and exploitation of
energy resources reveals that saturation occurs. At some point the growth rate of technology
distribution market (productive economic environment in the exploration and exploitation of
energy resources) slows down progress in reaching stagnation and decline further. This paper is
a summary of takeover extension study entitled Modern Technologies (Author: Maria Gf- Deac,
Ed. FRM, ISBN 973-582-808-1, Bucharest, 2004) with the application of case law in expansion,
extractive mining and energy sectors, respectively in the nuclear industry.

KEYWORDS
energy resources, technological resources, technological risks, conventional technologies,
technological investment flows, technological.

1. Introducere

Ciclul de via a unei tehnologii n domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor energetice

evideniaz faptul c apare saturarea. ntr-un anumit moment rata de cretere a distribuiei
tehnologiilor pe pia (n mediul economic productiv, n domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii
resurselor energetice) i ncetinete evoluia ajungnd la stagnare i n continuare la declin.
409
Dac se cheltuiesc sume ridicate pentru dezvoltarea pieei i pentru meninerea unor relaii,
pentru acestea n condiiile unei tehnologii n domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor
energetice predispuse la erodare ansa meninerii canalelor de distribuie este redus.

2. Transformri ale tehnologiilor n domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii

resurselor energetice

Problema retragerii de pe pia a unei tehnologii n domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor

energetice este suficient de grav, mai ales c apare necesitatea reglementrii a cel puin dou
categorii de aspecte:
modificarea tehnologiei vechi (sau nlocuirea), ceea ce presupune un act investiional;
contracararea restrngerii pieei ocupat ntr-o etap de tehnologia sortit eecului (la
saturare).
Variantele de aciune pentru ieirea rezonabil din cadrul problematic de mai sus sunt formulate
divers i aplicate de la caz la caz.
n continuare se amintesc cteva situaii cu caracter exemplificativ.
a) Continuarea folosirii tehnologiei i cedarea drepturilor de pia unei alte companii din ar
sau strintate, care are acces la o pia (local sau extern) identificat ca fiind nc extins.
De exemplu, concernul Renault a cedat dreptul de pia i a transferat n anii 70 n Romnia
tehnologia de fabricaie a automobilelor marca Renault 10 (Dacia 1100) i n continuare Renault
12 (Dacia 1300), avnd n vedere c acesta a lansat n acea etap alte mrci (Renault 16,
respectiv 19 etc.) cu care ocupa mai performant noile segmente de pia. Tehnologiei i-a fost
astfel prelungit ciclul de via.
Un exemplu similar s-a nregistrat n cazul complexelor mecanizate de abataj pentru exploatarea
subteran a crbunelui, n anii 1977-1980 cnd firma Hemsheidt din Germania a cedat
drepturile de fabricaie i pia pentru tehnologia de construcie a elementelor hidraulice de
susinere, n momentul n care ea a lansat pe piaa german i n lume un alt tip de echipament
complex mai performant. n acest mod, tehnologia de susinere a abatajelor cu stive pitoare a
beneficiat de o extindere a ciclului su de via.
b) Continuarea comercializrii tehnologiei, dar ncetarea fabricrii acesteia. Tehnologia n
domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor energetice poate fi importat de la un productor
cu un cost mai redus (cererea se poate stimula prin reducerea preurilor).
c) Elaborarea de studii detaliate pentru resegmentarea pieei. Tehnologia n domeniul
exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor energetice va putea fi replasat (localizat) pe unele
segmente de pia cu caracter ultimativ n existena sa ca produs.
d) Exportarea tehnologiei n ri cu o economie mai slab dezvoltat, nfiinnd uniti de
producie pe teritoriul acestora n domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor energetice i
importarea unei pri a produciei de pe piaa rii companiei-mam. Exemplele de la punctul a)
pot fi luate n considerare i n acest caz.
e) Reabilitarea tehnologiei i extinderea cererii combinnd activiti cum sunt: reamplasarea
pieei, modificri calitative, modificri funcionale, schimbarea mrcii .a.
Modificrile operate asupra tehnologiilor n domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor
energetice de regul sunt protejate. Procedeele de protecie difer de la ar la ar ns, n
esen ele se refer la urmtoarele:
1) Protecia legal a noii tehnologii se realizeaz prin a) brevetare, b) nregistrarea mrcii de
comer i c) nregistrarea proiectului industrial.
Brevetul este un document care ofer deintorului dreptul de a stopa exploatarea de ctre alii
a inovaiei tehnologice care i aparine.

410
O invenie tehnologic (noutatea nserat n tehnologia care sufer astfel modificri) trebuie s
ndeplineasc unele condiii cum sunt: originalitatea, s aduc elemente de noutate, s poat fi
aplicat la scar industrial, s nu fie exclus prin definiie.
nregistrarea mrcii de comer a tehnologiilor marcheaz legtura ntre mrfurile (de natura
tehnologiilor) i productori sau comerciani, distingnd bunul tehnic ca fiind al unei companii,
firme .a.
Marca este protejat prin nregistrare, oferind astfel proprietarului dreptul exclusiv de a fi
folosit.
nregistrarea proiectelor industriale tehnologii n domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor
energetice conduce la protejarea tehnologiilor fa de imitaii. Acest demers se difereniaz fa
de brevetare prin faptul c nu trebuie s conin strict un element nou.
2) Adaptarea parametrilor constructiv-funcionali ai tehnologiei la cerere tehnologii n domeniul
exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor energetice.
Companiile productoare de tehnologii tehnologii n domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii
resurselor energetice realizeaz periodic investigaii att n teren ct i prin analize care
identific noile cerine constructiv-funcionale ale echipamentelor i utilajelor n raport cu
situaiile operaionale concrete ntlnite n fluxurile productive practice.

3. Ameninri i riscuri tehnologice n domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii

resurselor energetice

Un proiect de investiie n domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor energetice poate fi

afectat de dou tipuri de riscuri: fizice i financiare.
Pentru tehnologiile moderne, convenionale, riscurile fizice afecteaz exactitatea previziunii
vnzrilor, exigenele legate de tehnologie, necesarul de resurse materiale sau de for de
munc.
Pentru produsele pentru care deja exist un contract, posibilitatea de erori i omisiuni
tehnologice este redus. Dac baza de capital este estimat real, riscurile fizice scad.
Cnd rezerva pentru riscuri fizice depete 15-20% din baza de capital, este necesar
investigarea imediat a situaiei i cu ajutorul fead-back-urilor s se obin reglrile necesare
(reducndu-se astfel nivelul de risc).
Prin natura sa orice obiectiv economic, inclusiv tehnologic apare i funcioneaz n condiii de
risc i incertitudine. Riscul i incertitudinea n tehnologie n domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii
resurselor energetice sunt, n general, determinate de cauze obiective i subiective, cum sunt:
schimbri tehnologice rapide, n urma crora produsele devin depite, iar utilajele i
echipamentele de producie uzate moral;
erori de analiz tehnologic, tehnic, economic i financiar;
atitudinea exagerat de optimist sau pesimist a echipei de analiz a riscului tehnologic;
schimbarea condiiilor din mediul economic inclusiv invalidarea experienelor anterioare care
au stat la baza estimrilor n calculele asupra tehnologiei din punct de vedere economic i
financiar.
Luarea n considerare a riscurilor i incertitudinilor tehnologice n domeniul exploatrii i
valorificrii resurselor energetice se poate realiza prin:
metoda general (efectuarea de analize cost beneficiu n mai multe variante);
metoda variantelor optimist i pesimist (modificarea estimrilor din varianta
tehnologic de baz imprimnd analizei un sens favorabil optimist, i un sens nefavorabil
pesimist pentru a evalua efectele asupra rentabilitii);

411
 metoda analizei de sensibilitate (schimbarea uneia sau mai multor estimri ale
elementelor de calcul ntr-o direcie favorabil sau nefavorabil i reluarea analizei cost
beneficiu pentru diferite combinaii tehnologice ale elementelor favorabile i nefavorabile).
Analiza de sensibilitate se efectueaz pentru acele niveluri care au cele mai probabile posibiliti
de apariie.
Dintre elementele de influen se rein:
imposibilitatea maturizrii, respectiv consolidrii tehnologiei datorit neconvenionalitii sale
accentuate;
se realizeaz produse care au caracteristici convenionale (absorbante pe pia) sau cu totul
noi, neobinuite, care nu au utilitate previzibil, respectiv parcurg dificulti fa de posibilitatea
de acces pe o pia real;
se manifest o agresivitate real, direct asupra mediului nconjurtor (sau au un grad relativ
redus de afectare);
nivelul costurilor tehnologice n domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor energetice este
ridicat sau sczut;
diferite performane tehnice sunt pozitive, obinuite sau mai sczute n termeni reali,
comparabili.
n figura. 1., [18] este redat o tentativ de clasificare a unui grup de tehnologii, care dup
coninutul lor eman linii de ameninare n mediul productiv general.

Figura: 1. Gruparea domeniilor tehnologice dup nivelul de ameninare fa de sistemul de ansamblu

al societii omeneti
n mod obinuit, la evaluarea riscului rezultat din neconvenionalitatea tehnologiilor n domeniul
exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor energetice este necesar identificarea unui numr ct mai
semnificativ de factori de influen - din familia celor amintii mai sus astfel nct s se
cuantifice, cu un grad de obiectivitate ct mai reprezentativ, nivelul de risc convenional.
Tehnologiile n domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor energetice nu au ntotdeauna
finalitate benefic. Ele conin i ameninri ce pot fi refulate n sistemul general productiv
(inclusiv cel social) cu consecine directe n dezechilibrarea structurilor convenional acceptate.

4. Concluzii

Un proiect de investiie n domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor energetice poate fi

afectat de dou tipuri de riscuri: fizice i financiare.
Pentru tehnologiile moderne, convenionale, riscurile fizice afecteaz exactitatea previziunii
vnzrilor, exigenele legate de tehnologie, necesarul de resurse materiale sau de for de
munc.
Pentru produsele pentru care deja exist un contract, posibilitatea de erori i omisiuni
tehnologice este redus. Dac baza de capital este estimat real, riscurile fizice scad.

412
Luarea n considerare a riscurilor i incertitudinilor tehnologice n domeniul exploatrii i
valorificrii resurselor energetice se poate realiza prin:
metoda general (efectuarea de analize cost beneficiu n mai multe variante);
metoda variantelor optimist i pesimist (modificarea estimrilor din varianta
tehnologic de baz imprimnd analizei un sens favorabil optimist, i un sens nefavorabil
pesimist pentru a evalua efectele asupra rentabilitii);
metoda analizei de sensibilitate (schimbarea uneia sau mai multor estimri ale
elementelor de calcul ntr-o direcie favorabil sau nefavorabil i reluarea analizei cost
beneficiu pentru diferite combinaii tehnologice ale elementelor favorabile i nefavorabile).
Analiza de sensibilitate se efectueaz pentru acele niveluri care au cele mai probabile posibiliti
de apariie.
Dintre elementele de influen se rein:
imposibilitatea maturizrii, respectiv consolidrii tehnologiei datorit neconvenionalitii sale
accentuate;
se realizeaz produse care au caracteristici convenionale (absorbante pe pia) sau cu totul
noi, neobinuite, care nu au utilitate previzibil, respectiv parcurg dificulti fa de posibilitatea
de acces pe o pia real;
se manifest o agresivitate real, direct asupra mediului nconjurtor (sau au un grad relativ
redus de afectare);
nivelul costurilor tehnologice n domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor energetice este
ridicat sau sczut;
diferite performane tehnice sunt pozitive, obinuite sau mai sczute n termeni reali,
comparabili.

REFERENCES

Gf-Deac, I., Management i marketing pentru resurse minerale, Editura Tehnic,

Bucureti, 1997.
Gf-Deac, I., Conflictualitatea productiv i informaia n procesul conversiei
permanente a infrastructurii de producie militar, Colegiul Naional de Aprare,
Academia de nalte Studii Militare, Bucureti, 1996.
Gf Deac, M., Tehnologii moderne, Ed. FRM, ISBN 973-582-808-1, Bucureti, 2004
Gf-Deac, Maria, Posibiliti noi de formulare a deciziilor privind folosirea utilajelor
tehnologice, Revista minelor, Bucureti, nr.1/1992, p. 31.
Gf-Deac, Maria, Saturarea tehnologic i creterea economic negativ, Revista
Minelor, Bucureti, nr.1/2000, p.12.
Gf-Deac, Maria, Aspecte ale procesului de tiere cu combina n fronturile complex
mecanizate aflate n repliere, revista Mine, Petrol, Gaze, Bucureti, nr.3/1982, p.
33.
Gf-Deac, Maria, Experimentarea dispozitivelor de prelevare a probelor la iazurile de
decantare Studiu cercetare tiinific, Universitatea Bucureti, 1992.
Mansfield, E., The Social Rate of Return from Academic Research, University of
Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, 1989.
Martinet, B. La veille technologique, concurrentielle et comerciale, Ribault, J.M., Les
Editions dOrganisation, Paris, 1989.
Mc Kee, B., Sustainable Development With Clean Coal, U.S.Department of Energy
OFE, OC & PIE, Washington, 1997.

413
Morin, J. Sembat R., Le management de resources technologiques, Les Editions
dOrganisation, Paris, 1989.
Ponoran, I., Angelescu, A., Vian, S., Tehnologie i dezvoltarea tehnologic, Editura
Fundaiei Romnia de Mine, Bucureti, 1998.
Gf-Deac I.I., - Strategii naionale i regionale privind utilizarea resurselor naturale
n Europa i Asia Central, Lucr. t. Intl. Interdisciplinary Scientific Sym. Universitaria
Simpro 2005, Integrare n aria european a cercetrii, Vol. Ecologie i reabilitarea
zonelor afectate de procesarea resurselor i materialelor, Ed. Universitas, Petroani,
2005
Gf-Deac I.I., - The Integrated Sense of Social-Economic Transformation on Primary
Phase of Globalization in Romania,-Ses. Intl. de Com. t. Provocri ale securitii i
strategiei la nceputul secolului XXI, Ministerul Ap. Naionale, Univ. Na. de Aprare,
Sec. Istorie, Geopolitic i Geostrategie, Bucureti, 14-15 aprilie 2005
Gf-Deac I.I., - Bazele juridice i economice ale sistemelor de resurse n noua
economie, - Ed. Infomin, Deva, 2007, (www.infomindeva.ro), (ISBN 978-973-7646-
04-0)
Gf-Deac I.I., - Noua Economie ntre cunoatere i risc, - Ed. Infomin, Deva, 2010,
(www.infomindeva.ro), (ISBN 978-973-7646-11-8)
Gf-Deac I.I., - tiina administraiei i management public modern, Ed. Infomin,
Deva, 2010, (www.infomindeva.ro), (ISBN 978-973-7646-09-05),(165 p.)
Gf-Deac I.I., - Noile orizonturi juridice i globalizarea, - Ed. Infomin, Deva, 2002,
(www.infomindeva.ro), (ISBN 973-85031-7-5)
Gf-Deac I.I., - Elemente ale noii economii n Romnia n domenii puternic
formalizate pe diferite resurse naturale, - Lucrrile tiinifice International
Interdisciplinary Scientific Symposium Universitaria SIMPRO 2005, Integrare n aria
european a cercetrii, Vol. tiine Economice, Ed. Universitas, Petroani, 2005,
p.89-91, (ISBN 973-8260-91-4)
Gf-Deac I., - The particular strategy of restructuring the mineral resources industry
in Romania, Romanian Academy, Editura CEID, Bucharest, 2000 (ISSN 1222-5436)

414
 STUDY OVER THE STATE OF STRESS AND
DISPLACEMENTS FROM THE STRUCTURE OF THE TOWERS
OF THE HOIST DEVICES DUE TO operating LOADS

Pop Ioan Alex andru 1 ; Petrini M ircea Constantin 1 R adu Sorin M ihai 2
1
Eng, PhD Student, Department of Industrial Mechanical Engineering
and Transport, University of Petrosani
2
Univ. Prof., PhD, Eng., Department of Industrial Mechanical Engineering
and Transport, University of Petrosani

ABSTRACT

The demand of safety in the hoisting process continuously imposes the optimal functioning of
these devices, as important element in the transport flow of the mineral substance and the
waste rock as of personal, equipment , and different materials between the underground and
surface.
In the paper there is presented an analysis of the behavior of the towers of the hoisting devices
with regard to stress and displacements of the tower structure during the operation in case of
drums as wrapping element for the cables.

1. INTRODUCTION

The calculation the structure of the mining hoists towers is done taking into consideration all
the unfavorable combinations of the practically possible different loads called groups of loads
and are established taking into account in their form the compatibility of their acting
simultaneously.
The loads are classified into: permanent, short term - temporary, long term - temporary, and
exceptional. The groups of loads with loads that can be introduced into groups of loads are the
fundamental group of loads which contains permanent loads, long term loads, one or more
short term loads and the special loads grouped from the fundamental group and one of the
exceptional loads.
In order to establish the state of strain and displacements from the structure of the tower due
to the short term functioning loads transmitted through the extracting cables during an
extracting cycle, it has been taken into study the tower of the extracting installation ,, Auxiliary
well Valea Arsului Vulcan Mining Plant, which has the general and working data presented as
follows.

415
2. THE HOIST CONSIDERED FOR ANALYSIS

The hoist which works on auxiliary well Valea Arsului, from Vulcan Mining Plant, which is
destined [3] for the underground supply with materials and tools as well as for transporting
personal among levels 580, 650, and 700 the surface level being 783 m from the sea level.
The extracting installation that supplies the well (fig.1) is unbalanced and has an extracting
machine type 2T-3,5 1,7 (fig.2) equipped with one asynchronous motor type AKH -14 - 46

Fig.1.Hoisting device Fig.2.HOISTING machine Fig.3. Hoist tower

,,Auxiliary shaft type BAMERT 3 0,9 ,, Auxiliary shaft

-10, of 600 kW , 585 rpm. The reducer of the machine is of type TD-170 having the
transmittance ratio of 11,5. The extracting cables with diameters of 42 mm and a mass (on a
linear meter) of 6,9 kg/m on the left branch (from the extracting machine to the well) and 40
mm and a mass 6,17 kg/m on the right branch are wrapped around the two extracting pulleys
of 3500 mm with a mass (the pulley, the axis of the pulley and the bearing of the axis) of
3050 kg (fig.3), laying on the tower at a height of 23,7 m (pulley axel).
The cables are wrapped in a single layer (row) on each of the two wheels of the machine, from
which one is fixed and one is mobile and which are hooked at one end by the exterior end
(side) of them. The other end of the cables going through the extracting pulleys is hooked to
the extracting vessel through the cable tie device D.L.C.
The extracting vessels are cages with one level, with two trolleys per level weight a mass (own
mass plus D.L.C.) of 4661 kg. The mass of a trolley is of 650 kg, and the effective load is 1800
kg/trolley.

Fig.4. Pulley platform Fig.5. Leading component Fig.6. Abutment

The height of the tower (fig.3) till the pulley axis of 23,7 m. The structure of the tower is
composed of the extracting pulley platform (fig.4) sustained by the leading component(fig 5 )
and the abutment (fig 6) The extracting machine lies on the ground (at a height of 0.7 m to the
0 level of the well (well collar), sideways from the tower (well tower), at a distance (of the
wheel axis), towards the vertical portion of the extracting cables which enter the well of 42m.
The length of the cable chord (the distance between the tangent points of the cable to the
deviating pulley from the tower and the wheel of the extracting machine, in the central position
416
of the chord (perpendicular on the wheel axis)), is for the left branch L cs = 46,226m, and L cd =
46,358m for the right branch.
The incline angles of the cables chords are s = 340 04 29 for the left branch and d = 290 44
41, for the right branch, and the deviating angles (which are formed in the limit positions of
the cable chord towards the interior side (interior angle) or exterior (exterior angle) of the
wheel, over the central position of the chord) are: e st =1929 and i st =4521 For the left
branch and edr = 3153 and i dr = 3246 for the right branch.

3. LOADS TRANSMITTED TO THE TOWER

Considering the elevator leaving the horizontal 580m until it reaches the surface ramp (783
horizon) it has been considered for analysis, the case of personal transport entering the
underground when the left elevator full of personal is descending on the right wing (case 1);
the right elevator is descending on the right wing (case.2). The kinematics elements for the
cases taken into analysis are presented in fig 7 and 8.

30 1,5 320
3,3

Speed [m/s], Acceleration [m/s^2]

1
Speed [m/s], Acceleration [m/s^2]

-20 1 498 995 14921989248629833480 270

2,3
0,5
-70 220
1,3
0
Space [m]

Space [m]

-120 170
0,3
-0,5
-170 120 -0,7
-1
Space
-220 Speed 70 -1,7
Acceleration -1,5
Space
-270 -2 20 Speed -2,7
Acceleration
-320 -2,5 -30 1 354 707 10601413176621192472 -3,7
T ime *1/18 [s] T ime *1/18 [s]

Fig.7. Kinematic elements on the elevator Fig.8. Kinematic elements on the elevator
left climbing personal entrance, case1 left descending personal entrance , case 2

1,6 1,6
1,4 1,4
1,2 1,2
Angle [GRD]

Angle [GRD]

1 1
0,8 0,8
0,6 0,6
0,4 0,4 Left ext. angle
Left ext. angle
0,2 Right ext. angle 0,2 Right ext. angle
0 0
1 464 927 1390 1853 2316 2779 3242 1 343 685 1027 1369 1711 2053 2395
Time *1/18 [s] Time *1/18 [s]

Fig.9. Deviating angles Fig.10. Deviating angles

for case 1 from fig 7 for case 2 from fig 8
The calculation of loads has been done taking into consideration the static, friction and dynamic
forces [1], [2].
In the calculation of loads it has been used the dAlembert [1] principle decomposing the efforts
from the cable chords, in their touch points on the pulleys into components on three
perpendicular directions which correspond to the axis system chosen in the discretisation of the
structure of the tower of the installation. The components of the efforts from the cable chords

417
variate both because of the incline angles of the chords but also because of the deviation
angles of them (fig.9 and fig.10).
Considering the left bearing and the right bearing, of each deviating pulley, there is presented
the variation of the components of the forces on each pulley (fig.11 and fig.12) and the loads
on the entire tower (fig.15 and fig.16), for each case taken into study.

20000 21500

15000 16500

Force [N]
Force [N]

10000 11500

5000 Fxa botom Fxb botom 6500

Fxa top Fxb top Fxa botom Fxb botom
Fxa top Fxb top
0 1500
1 491 981 1471 1961 2451 2941 3431 1 361 721 1081 1441 1801 2161 2521
Time *1/18 [s] Time *1/18 [s]

-32000 -30000
1 493 985 1477 1969 2461 2953 3445 1 364 727 1090 1453 1816 2179 2542
-40000
-42000
Force [N]
Force [N]

-50000
-52000
-60000
-62000 -70000
Fya botom Fyb botom Fya botom Fyb botom
Fya top Fyb top Fya top Fyb top
-72000 -80000
Time *1/18 [s] Time *1/18 [s]

1500 1500

1000 1000
Force [N]
Force [N]

500 500
Fza botom Fzb botom Fza botom Fzb botom
0 Fza top Fzb top 0 Fza top Fzb top
1 484 967 1450 1933 2416 2899 3382 1 357 713 1069 1425 1781 2137 2493
-500 -500

-1000 -1000
Time *1/18 [s] Time *1/18 [s]

Fig.11. Forces in the pulley bearings Fig.12. Forces in the pulley bearings
left and right in case 1 left and right for case 2

4. STRESS AND DISPLACEMENTS

Due to the complexity of the tower the most appropriate method of study is
[1] that of the finite element.

418
 133000 140000

123000
120000
113000

Force [N]
Force [N]
103000 R botom 100000 R botom
R top R top
93000
80000
83000
73000 60000
1 498 995 1492 1989 2486 2983 3480 1 372 743 1114 1485 1856 2227 2598
Time *1/18 [s] Time *1/18 [s]

Fig.13. Forces on the pulleys elevator Fig.14. Forces on the pulleys elevator
left climbing, right descending, case 1 left descending, right climbing, case 2

208000 206000
206000 R botom+R top,
Case 1 204000
204000
Force [N]
Force [N]

202000 202000

200000 200000
198000
198000 R botom+R top,
196000
Case 2
194000 196000
1 496 991 1486 1981 2476 2971 3466 1 370 739 1108 1477 1846 2215 2584
Time *1/18 [s] Time *1/18 [s]

Fig.15. Total loads when the elevator Fig. 16. Total loads when the elevator
left climbing , right descending case 1 left descending, right climbing, case 2

Fig.17. Stress, case 1 Fig.18. Displacements, case 1

419
 Fig.19. Stress, case 2 Fig.20. Displacements, case 2

In order to analyze the state of stress and displacements with the method of the finite element
and the tower structure has been modulated the geometrical and mechanical characteristics
have been established and introduced into the calculation software. In the cases taken into
study the mass of the tower has been calculated with the help of the software. In fig 17 and 18
there are presented the strains and displacements for case 1, and in fig 19 and 20 for case 2.

5. CONCLUSIONS

The max values of strain and displacements have been determined from the tower structure, in
order to establish the measuring points and to verify through experimental measurements the
values obtained through numerical calculation. Following these results there have been
obtained information necessary in order to improve the maintenance of the extracting
installations and to improve the existing system of repair and supply for this type of
installations.

REFERENCE

[1] ITU, V., RIDZI, M.C.: Strains and displacements in the elements of the
metallic towers of the extracting installations due to the towers own weight. -
Mines Magasine , vol 170, no. 8/2005, p. 25-31;
[2] MAGYARI, A.: Mining mechanical installations. - Editura Tehnic, Bucharest,
1990;
[3] Technical documentation - Vulcan Mining Plant

420
 PRODUCIA MINIER URANIFER CA VARIABIL
STRATEGIC N NTREPRINDEREA EXTRACTIV/

URANIUM MINING PRODUCTION AS RANGING

STRATEGIC MINING COMPANY
M aria GF-DEAC 1 , M onica VALECA 2 , Eliza-Cristina BULZ 3 , Ioan I. GF-DEAC 4 , Andrei
NICOLAE 5 , Adrian BR BULESCU 6 , AnaM aria ANGHEL (REETAR ) 7

1
Senior Lecturer, PhD., SHU Bucharest, Romania, [email protected]
2
Lecturer, PhD., University of Piteti, Romania, [email protected]
3
Resch Account., Institute of Chartered Accoutance, Edinburg, Scotland, UK, [email protected]
4
Senior Lecturer, PhD., SHU Bucharest, National Institute of Economic Research "Costin C. Kiriescu"
(INCE), Romanian Academy, Bucharest, Romania, [email protected]
5
St. Rech., Jacobs University Bremen, Germany, [email protected]
6
PhD. St., E.M. Lupeni, University of Petrosani, Romania, [email protected]
7
PhD St., Sci.Resch.III, INCD-PM, Bucharest, Romania, [email protected]

ABSTRACT
The article shows that in ordinary economy, many businesses bravely abandons some phases of
production (manufacturing) resorting to alternative supplies. Such technological phases are
outsourced and businesses adjust overall costs with less favorable phases expenses met by
another manufacturer specific replacement for what the company initially produced a distinct
technological flow, localized (integrated in the classical manner). Relocation of production of
uranium by plants in the transfer areas (countries) where the cost of labor, low taxes are lower
is not always a viable strategic basis. One such action involved some elements that need - in
particular - taken into account, such as nuclear safety, insufficient control over nuclear
activities, duration and cost of training of staff, transport costs, transfer, special administrative
formalities etc. So not always transfer (relocation) production is strategically justified. This
paper is a summary of takeover extension study entitled Modern Technologies (Author: Maria
Gf- Deac, Ed. FRM, ISBN 973-582-808-1, Bucharest, 2004) with the application of case law in
expansion, extractive mining and energy sectors, respectively in the nuclear industry.

KEYWORDS
the uranium mining production, technological sophistication, organization of mining technology,
mining technology organization model, the strategic variable, mining company.

421
1. Introducere

Caracterul transnaional al activitilor productive uranifere desfurate de marile companii din

lume se bazeaz pe difuzia de tehnologii, ca purttoare de capaciti de transformare a
materiilor prime, materialelor, energiei i informaiilor.
La sfrit de secol XX cca. 100 de firme n clasamentul mondial al companiilor sunt considerate
noii stpni ai lumii.
Conferina ONU pentru Dezvoltare din septembrie 1999 arat c motorul sistemului productiv
mondial integrat este compus n ordine de ctre General Electric, Ford i Shell care n 1998 au
avut mpreun o cifr de afaceri de 2.100 miliarde USD, adic de 1,5 ori mai mare dect PIB-ul
Franei sau de 6 ori mai mare dect PIB-ul realizat de Mexic.
Cele 100 de ntreprinderi din fruntea economiei mondiale aveau 1.800 miliarde USD din activele
lor localizate n strintate.
Toat aceast extindere se bazeaz n principal pe tehnologii, care dobndesc rapid noi valene
calitative i de performan, ceea ce determin ca proprietarii lor s devin competitivi pe piee
i s colecteze profituri imense.
Globalizarea tehnologic cu mare expresivitate se regsete pentru exemplificare n sfera
industriei nucleare controlate, a comunicaiilor (satelii) i a computerelor.
Dup anul 1945 pn ctre sfritul secolului XX semnele globalizrii se regsesc sub trei
structuri care integreaz schimbrile:
a) globalizarea tehnologic;
b) globalizarea economic;
c) globalizarea politic.
n mediul internaional este recunoscut clasificarea (ierarhizarea) tehnologiilor n succesiunea
de mai sus. De fapt, prioritatea tehnologiilor n ansamblul transformrilor este nsuit practic
att la nivel microeconomic ct i la cel macroeconomic.

2. Tehnologiile n noul mediu productiv-economic dominat de concuren

Dimensiunea produciei unei companii se regsete ntr-un ciclu integrat caracterizat de o

anumit amploare. Producia minier, inclusiv cea din zcminte uranifere, nu mai este un
parametru aservit creterii ci chiar ea determin creterea.
ntre gestiunea executiv i gestiunea productiv minier ncep s se evidenieze diferene
necontradictorii.
Producia minier ncepe s conduc perspectiva unei ntreprinderi, deci ea dobndete
dimensiuni strategice. Tehnologiile constituie suportul efectiv al produciei uranifere.
n cmpul minier productiv contemporan se manifest:
tendina de accentuare a transformrilor n procesul productiv uranifer;
tendina de integrare a fluxului de materiale i materii prime uranifere;
tendina de integrare a fluxului de informaii tehnologice i productive uranifere;
cutarea unei coerene globale a ansamblului de faze tehnologice miniere concurente;
cutarea unui ansamblu optim al ciclului de producie uranifer.
n anii 70 integrarea se realiza n jurul unor tehnologii (n sistem) electromecanice (fizice,
spaiale, de transformare). ntreprinderea trebuia s procedeze la reunirea tendinelor
respective sub forma economiei de scar, cu serii lungi.
n principal, se asista la o localizare productiv pe o arie comun.

422
Instabilitatea pieelor i soluiile tehnologice extrem de diverse (uneori contradictorii, de
ruptur) au determinat delocalizarea produciei. Acest fenomen nu a putut prolifera n sectorul
extraciei i prelucrrii uraniului.
n economia obinuit, numeroase ntreprinderi abandoneaz cu curaj unele faze de producie
(fabricaie) apelnd la furnituri alternative.
Astfel fazele tehnologice sunt externalizate, iar ntreprinderile regleaz costurile de ansamblu cu
cheltuieli favorabile mai reduse pentru fazele satisfcute de un alt productor specific, nlocuitor
pentru ceea ce iniial producea compania ntr-un flux tehnologic distinct, localizat (integrat n
manier clasic).
Delocalizarea produciei uranifere prin transferul uzinelor n ariile (rile) n care costul forei de
munc, nivelul taxelor sunt mai reduse nu are ntotdeauna o baz strategic viabil.
ntr-o astfel de aciune intervin unele elemente de care trebuie - n particular - inut seama,
cum sunt: securitatea nuclear, control insuficient asupra activitilor nucleare, durata i costul
formrii personalului, costuri de transport, de transfer, formaliti administrative speciale .a.
Aadar nu ntotdeauna transferul (delocalizarea) produciei este justificat strategic.
Se apreciaz c parteneriatul productiv este o form mai viabil, care include caracteristici de
dezvoltare propriu-zis (tehnologic, managerial etc.).
Aa numita dezenclavizare a produciei conduce la efectul de sinergie comercialului cu
financiarul i aciunile de cercetare.
Procesele de mai sus arat c n tehnologii se produc mutaii, care prevd:
schimbarea propriu-zis a coninutului (performane, competitivitate) tehnologiei;
dislocarea unor faze din amonte sau aval de tehnologie, respectiv a unor faze din corpul
propriu-zis al tehnologiei.
Astfel, n sistemele tehnologice,de exemplu,- miniere, conceptul de coeren devine primordial,
iar mediul organizaional este afectat corespunztor.
Ansamblul transformrilor n manierele de mai sus semnific dimensiunea productiv ca fiind
una strategic.
Prin extensie dimensiunea tehnologic devine o variabil strategic major a companiei.
ns tehnologiile nucleare constituie resursa operaional cea mai important a globalizrii.
Traseul natere-cretere-maturizare-dispariie a unei tehnologii poate fi adecvat n tentativa de
a ntocmi o ierarhizare a importanei unei tehnologii n raport cu alta n mediul productiv i
social-economic.
Statutul tehnologiilor, inclusiv a celor nucleare, n cmpul productiv este influenat de gradul de
reprezentativitate a acestora din perspectiva atotcuprinderii coninuturilor operaionale
(figura.1). [9]
Pr incipii i
Tehnologii
concepte ELECTRONICA
FUNDAMENTALE
tehnologice

Procedee PRELUCRAREA
Tehnologii
(algor itmi) ELECTRONIC
NFURTOARE A INFORMAIEI
tehnologice

Maini
echipamente, Tehnologii COMPUTERIZAREA
dispozitive, APLICATIVE ROBOTICA
instalaii

Figura: 1. Clasificarea tehnologiilor dup nivelul coninuturilor operaionale

423
rile puternic dezvoltate sunt posesoare principale de tehnologii nucleare moderne
fundamentale. Ele impun restricii sau msuri de protecie fiind puternice distribuitoare a
tehnologiilor moderne n concurena de pe pia.
rile mediu dezvoltate au acces la tehnologiile nucleare moderne nfurtoare, avnd
capacitatea de preluare din mulimea tehnologiilor fundamentale a liniilor de maxim
operaionalitate n concordan cu cerinele pieei.
rile n curs de dezvoltare sunt preponderent deintoare de tehnologii aplicative, a cror
transpunere fizic rezult din nlnuirea (compunerea) operaional a modulelor sau direct a
mainilor, echipamentelor, instalaiilor .a.
De regul, aceste ri sunt importatoare de tehnologii. n aceast categorie productiv este
evideniat semnificativ ciclul de via al unei tehnologii care prin calificativul de modern se
identific drept actual.
Tehnologiile nucleare fundamentale au ciclul de via lung i foarte lung, n schimb tehnologiile
aplicative sufer schimbri rapide n coninut i destinaie.
Dezvoltarea tehnologic vizeaz studierea semnificaiilor de mai sus. Este identificat un ciclu al
ciclurilor de via tehnologic, atent urmrit de marile companii transnaionale.
Modulele din fig.1 subliniaz existena unei reele cu ntindere orizontal (Io) preponderent a
centrelor de tehnologii n raport cu ierarhizarea acestora dup performane (Ip).
Maximizarea eficienei structurilor nucleare tehnologice globale (STO) rezult din compunerea
reelei cu ierarhia:
MAX STO = Io * Ip (1)
n mediul economic curent deja nu se pune problema accentului pe un indicator structural sau
altul. Este recunoscut formula sub care reelele i ierarhiile trebuie s ndeplineasc
urmtoarele condiii:
a) extindere Io max
Ip max (2)
Io * Ip max

b) proporionalitate (Io ~ Ip) optim (3)

Io ~ Ip
c) eficien (E) Io * Ip E (4)
Io max
Ip max
Retehnologizarea reprezint intervenia direct asupra unui sistem tehnologic prin care se
realizeaz o transformare structural a configuraiei productive aflate n funciune.
Elementele de mai sus confer premisele reconsiderrii statului tehnologiilor nucleare n cadrul
ntreprinderilor.
Noua filosofie productiv uranifer presupune abordarea sistemic a restriciilor, accentul pe
corecii i fezabilitatea proiectelor nsoite de previziuni cu nalt grad de rezoluie.

3. Restructurarea tehnologic a sistemelor industriale miniere uranifere

Dimensiunea proceselor tehnologice uranifere este n schimbare. Unele categorii de tehnologii

se grupeaz n sfera celor reduse dimensional, concomitent cu creterea performanelor (C1 ).
Pe msura creterii dimensiunii acestora peste o limit natural, autoreglat, este posibil
scderea performanelor. (figura. 2). [9]

424
 P
(C2)

(C1)
P1 = ct

d1 D
Figura: 2. Corelaia performane-dimensiuni pentru sistemele tehnologice uranifere
P = performane; D = dimensiuni
Un al doilea caz de evoluie a raportului performane-dimensiuni este evideniat de alura curbei
(C 2 ).
Se observ c, n principiu, pn la o dimensiune optim d 1 , performanele tehnologice cresc
odat cu dimensiunile lanurilor din proces.
Dup momentul d1 performanele rmn constante (P 1 =ct), ceea ce nu mai justific creterea
dimensionat.
Retehnologizarea este un proces imediat, continuu i obligatoriu ntr-un mediu economic intern
i exterior n continu modificare.
Intensitatea retehnologizrii este diferit, depinznd esenial de:
1) resursele financiare cu suport pentru schimbare, i
2) programul concret care nfieaz elementele precise de schimbare.
n practic se regsesc circuite multiple de restructurare, dintre care cel de baz cuprinde n
principal urmtoarele:
1) Cercetarea situaiei actuale a pieei stabilindu-se dac produsele i tehnologiile prezente se
regsesc n poziii favorabile (fezabile);
2) Diagnosticarea sistemului tehnologic actual pentru obinerea datelor de performan
comparat i evidenierea stadiului atins de tehnologii n ciclul propriu de via;
3) Identificarea de noi cereri pe pia viznd att tehnologiile n sine (ca produse distincte) ct
i produsele ca rezultate ale procesului productiv;
4) Identificarea resurselor financiare pentru suportarea costurilor ce vizeaz schimbarea
tehnologic;
5) Achiziionarea de tehnologii noi care nlocuiesc sistemele prezente:
6) Perfecionarea managementului tehnologic n concordan cu noile tehnologii pentru
stpnirea complexitii acestora i a pailor productivi n fluxul tehnologic;
7) Operaionalizarea tehnologiilor noi care const n montarea, verificarea montajului, rodajul,
exploatarea i valorificarea funcional a modulelor productiv-industriale;
8) Obinerea de noi produse n concordan cu cele solicitate de pia (rezultatele examinrii
actualizate a pieei);
9) Satisfacerea noilor cerine ale pieei.
Se reine c relaia tehnologie-produs-pia joac rol fundamental n decizia de restructurare.
Odat implementat, aceast relaie semnific ndeplinirea unei schimbri structurale
industriale, prin retehnologizare, procesul derulndu-se ntr-un prim circuit de baz.

425
4. Fluxul investiional tehnologic uranifer

Scopul acestuia este atragerea de credite i capital. n principiu, un sistem tehnologic uranifer
complex, de mare dimensiune, nu ofer ntotdeauna suficiente elemente de atracie imediat
pentru investitorii strini.
Strategic ns, atragerea de credite i capital din strintate de exemplu pentru Romnia n
vederea implementrii sistemelor cu tehnologii nucleare moderne este esenial n perspectiva
compatibilizrii economiei naionale cu structurile productiv-tehnologice europene i mondiale (a
rilor dezvoltate).
Tactica adoptat prevede pornirea aciunilor de implementare a capitalului de la urmtoarele
premise:
partenerul local nu are disponibilitate financiar (local i valutar);
exist interes (pia) n rndul partenerului local;
partenerul strin (investitorul) de asemenea, se consider c nu are disponi-biliti valutare;
directe, imediate;
exist posibilitate tehnic, tehnologic i managerial din partea investitorului strin
(bonitare);
se ine seama c n prezent i n viitor, n lumea economic se realizeaz ntr-o manier tot
mai restrns, operaii cu capitalul prin vnzri i cumprri directe.
Avnd n vedere elementele de mai sus este posibil crearea unei activiti comune, reciproce
pentru aciuni de micare a creditelor, a capitalului strin i autohton (figura.3). [9]
Investiie
cel mult 50% cu
firme din exterior

COMPANIE
INVESTIIE STRIN
AUTONOM
(AGENTUL ECONOMIC)

Investiie cel puin 50%

cu firme romneti
(or izontal construcii de maini)

FIRMA ROMNEASC
DE COMER

CONSULTANT 1
PE DOMENIU

Rambursri
din GARANIE
rezultatele
FIRMA STRIN BANCAR
aplicrii CONSULTANT 2 MINISTERIAL
proiectului DE COMER PE DOMENIU ROMNIA
ASOCIAT CU O FIRM
ROMNEASC

CONSULTANT 3
PE DOMENIU

PREZENTARE PROIECT

CAPITAL STRIN

Garana unei
linii de credit extern

FIRMA 1 FIRMA 2 FIRMA 3 FIRMA 4 FIRMA 5 ... FIRMA n

Figure 1: Figura:3. Desfurarea fluxului investiional pentru tehnologii uranifere

n vederea atragerii pentru investiie a capitalului strin
Orice firm, are n vedere continuarea analizelor cu firme strine pentru atragerea acestora n
investiii cu caracter tehnologic pornind de la baza de materii prime, de la existena unei
infrastructuri de exploatare tehnologic i mai ales de la existena sigur a pieii interne de
desfacere n ar a diferitelor produse (figura.4). [9]

426
 Capital i know-how Capital i know-how
dintr-o alt ar

COMPANIE DIN ROMNIA

Societi mixte pentr u mater ii Materii prime i per sonal
pr ime i personal din alt ar

PARTENER EXTERN
Contracte de management i
pentr u cunotine tehnice

Acor duri de licene pentru

cunotine tehnice i know-how

Export de bunuri i ser vicii

(C) (P)

Sensul II (P spre C)

Sensul I (C spr e P)

Sensul I + II (C + P, cu ponder i difer ite)

Figura: 4. Posibiliti i forme de afaceri cu tehnologii uranifere ntre firmele autohtone i cele
strine
ntre partenerii autohtoni i cei externi se pot institui activiti i formule organizatorice de
aciune comun, conjugat, cum sunt:
schimb de capital i know-how nuclear;
societi mixte (joint-venture) pentru materii prime nucleare i personal;
contracte de management i contracte de implementare a cunotinelor tehnice;
acorduri cu licene pentru know-how nuclear;
exporturi de bunuri i servicii/energie nuclear.
Sensul derulrii activitilor poate fi unidirecionat sau bidirecionat.
Conducerea fluxului investiional tehnologic nuclear nu este numai o colecie de metode.
n mod obinuit, n mediul economic sunt aplicate formule extrem de diversificate care s
asigure la etapa considerat varianta ponderat maxim a afacerilor.Use this style for bulleting.

7. Concluzii

Tehnologiile nucleare fundamentale au ciclul de via lung i foarte lung, n schimb tehnologiile
aplicative sufer schimbri rapide n coninut i destinaie.
Dezvoltarea tehnologic vizeaz studierea semnificaiilor de mai sus. Este identificat un ciclu al
ciclurilor de via tehnologic, atent urmrit de marile companii transnaionale.
Apreciem c rile puternic dezvoltate sunt posesoare principale de tehnologii nucleare moderne
fundamentale. Ele impun restricii sau msuri de protecie fiind puternice distribuitoare a
tehnologiilor moderne n concurena de pe pia.
rile mediu dezvoltate au acces la tehnologiile nucleare moderne nfurtoare, avnd
capacitatea de preluare din mulimea tehnologiilor fundamentale a liniilor de maxim
operaionalitate n concordan cu cerinele pieei.
rile n curs de dezvoltare sunt preponderent deintoare de tehnologii aplicative, a cror
transpunere fizic rezult din nlnuirea (compunerea) operaional a modulelor sau direct a
mainilor, echipamentelor, instalaiilor .a.
427
REFERENCES

[1] Gf Deac, M., Tehnologii moderne, Ed. FRM, ISBN 973-582-808-1, Bucureti, 2004
Gf-Deac, I., Management i marketing pentru resurse minerale, Editura Tehnic,
[2]
Bucureti, 1997.
Gf-Deac, I., Conflictualitatea productiv i informaia n procesul conversiei
[3] permanente a infrastructurii de producie militar, Colegiul Naional de Aprare,
Academia de nalte Studii Militare, Bucureti, 1996.
Gf-Deac, Maria, Activitatea de prevenire n exploatare, revista Obiectiv, Bucureti,
[4]
anul XXVI, nr.7-9/1991.
Gf-Deac, Maria, Management, Baze generale i legislative, Editura Fundaiei
[5]
Romnia de Mine, Bucureti, 2003.
Gf-Deac, Maria, Management modern. Elemente de baz i studii de caz, Ed. FRM,
[6]
Bucureti, 2003.
[7] Kirquer, M.I., Perspectiva economic, Editura All, Bucureti, 1996.
Martinet, B. La veille technologique, concurrentielle et comerciale, Ribault, J.M., Les
[8]
Ed. dOrganisation, Paris, 1989.
Morin, J. Sembat R., Le management de resources technologiques, Les Editions
[9]
dOrganisation, Paris, 1989.
Laureniu Bogatu, Ioan I. Gf-Deac, Moise Bojinc, Ciprian Coandre, Ioana Andreea
Marinescu, Adrian Iordache, Georgian Lctu, Ioan Rus, Ionel Cosmin Gagiu, -
Conceptualizri juridice i economice pentru diferenieri ntre resurse naturale,
[10]
resurse i rezerve minerale, Revista pentru Dezvoltare Bazat pe Cunoatere RDBC,
Nr. 2/ 2015, Bucureti, ISSN 2393-2112 / ISSN-L 2393-2112, (www.e-
editura.ro/rdbc), p. 102-108
Ioan I. Gf-Deac, Constantin Sava, Aronel-Ovidiu-Corneliu Matei, Roxana Herbei,
Mihai Marius Nedelea, - Exploitation and recovery of the mineral useful in Northern
[11]
Dobrogea, Journal of Economics and Knowledge Technologies (ISSN 2360-5499 /
ISSN- L 2360-5499), No.3/March 2015, p. 81-87
Gf-Deac M., Management general pentru economia bazat pe cunoatere, Ed.
[12]
FRM, Bucureti, 2011
Gf-Deac M ., - Managementul modelrii structurilor tehnologice, Editura Infomin,
[13]
Deva, 2002
Gf-Deac I., - Bazele managementului doxastic, (in Romanian), Ed. Free Mind
[14]
Publishing, Bucureti, 2013, (ISBN 978-606-93321-5-3)
Gf-Deac I., - The particular strategy of restructuring the mineral resources industry
[15]
in Romania, Romanian Academy, Editura CEID, Bucharest, 2000 (ISSN 1222-5436)
Valeca, Cristina Monica, (col), Managementul Calitatii Proceselor si Produselor
Energonucleare, ISBN (13) :978-973-690-583-4, Ed. Universitii din Piteti, 2006

428
A SOLUTION FOR CARBON DIOXIDE STORAGE AND COAL
BED METHANE BENEFICIATION IN JIU VALLEY
COALFIELD

Nicolae Ilias 1 , Iosif Andras 1 , Lucian Preda 2

1 2
Prof. Dr. ing. , Doctorand, Universitatea din Petroani

Abstract:
The paper deals with a proposal of an integrated project for CO 2 storage coming from
the coal burning power plants and a joint CH 4 (so called CBM) recovery and its valorization in
energetic applications which will lead to a substantial reduction of the delivering price for the
produced energy.
Coal deposits considered to be non-exploitable for technical or economic reasons are
proven to be of major importance for the storage of CO 2 captured from industrial burning
installations because coal is characterized by the existence of large volumes of micro-pores
inside which are able to physically absorb various gases, one tone of coal containing even more
than 25 m3 of absorbed methane, and at the same time it being characterized by higher affinity
for carbon dioxide gas than for methane.
Because the capture, processing and transport of carbon dioxide are technically
resolved, the paper is focused mainly in the issue of storage, and the joint process of methane
gas replacemet and its boosted delivery from coal seams. In both these processes, the main
issue is the adsorbtion /desorbtion capability of the coal versus CO2 and CH4, on which basis
the in place methane amount and the carbon dioxide storing capacity can be calculated.
The main outcome of the study is the proof of feasibility of this technology in the Jiu
Valley coal basin, which will contribute to the revitalization of coal mining and energy
production activity in the area.
Keywords: carbon dioxide, Greenhouse Gas, beneficiation, Jiu Valley

1 FOREWORD

Among the large range of clean coal technologies, the Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS)
technology seems to be the most promising option, because of its high potential of reducing
carbon dioxide emissions, coming from the fossil fuel burning. Apart from other emission
429
mitigation technologies, the CCS can beneficiate from existing research results regarding
capture, sequestration, liquefaction and transportation already demonstrated in pilot projects,
proving its technical, technological and economic feasibility.
As the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Special Report states, ,,Carbon
dioxide (CO2) capture and storage (CCS) is a process consisting of the separation of CO2 from
industrial and energy-related sources, transport to a storage location and long-term isolation
from the atmosphere is considered ,,as an option in the portfolio of mitigation actions for
stabilization of atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations . Nevertheless, at the moment they
are a lot of unsolved financial, commercial, social and legal and also technical problems, related
mainly on the storage issues, which may have a strong influence on the global implementation
and development of this technology.
As a result of the coal mining downsizing in Jiul Valley coalfield, the extraction activity is
concentrated only in the perimeters which allowed optimal geologic-mining conditions to apply
mining methods leading to best economical results.
This downsizing of mining perimeters and the closure of non-performing mine plants led to the
situation in which only 30% of reserves are considered in concessions, and only 5% are
considered as industrial reserves.
The coal deposits considered to be non-exploitable by technical or economic reasons can be
used as storage environments for large volumes of the captured carbon dioxide resulted from
the burning in coal fired power plants, and, in plus, the injection of the carbon dioxide in the
virgin coal seams can be used as a stimulant of the contained methane gas, which produces a
double benefice: an environmental one, avoiding the emission of a GHG namely the methane,
and an economic one, by using it as a secondary energy resource or raw material for chemical
industry.

2. SEQUESTRATION OF CO 2 IN GEOLOGIC FORMATIONS

In order to be stored in geologic formations, the carbon dioxide must be compressed
until the supercritical (liquid) state, which is maintained as is in depths over 800 m, as a result
of the geothermal gradient and strata pressure joint action. As storage media, can be used
exhausted gas and oil reservoirs, coal seams, and deep saline continental or off-shore aquifers.
The storage media must satisfy many criteria, among which the most important are:
porosity, permeability and storage capacity; the presence of an impermeable rock overburden,
or a catching structure which avoid the vertical migration of the sequestrated CO 2 ; location at
a depth over 600 meters, where the strata pressure is high enough for maintaining the
supercritical state of the dioxide, maximizing the storage capacity.
The un-exploitable coal seams represent appropriate storage media for CCS technology.
The coal is characterized by the existence of a huge number of micro-pores in which different
gases are absorbed or adsorbed physically, mainly methane, e.g. one ton of coal can contain
about 25 m3 of methane.
Meanwhile, the coal presents a higher affinity for the carbon dioxide than for the
methane (figure 1), so the ratio of volumes
absorbed in the coal matrix
(VolumeCO 2 /VolumeCH 4 ), can vary from 1
(the case of anthracite), until 10 or more
for other sorts of coal.
While injecting carbon dioxide in
coal seams the methane will be released,
so by CCS the recovery rate of CBM can
reach 90 % in comparison with the usual
50 % of CBM drainage.
430

Fig.1 Absorbtion curves of diferent gases in

 Only the virgin coal seams can be candidates for CCS but it must be avoided a possible
future conflict between CCS and an eventual demand of mining out the coal seam considered.

3. POTENTIAL STORING CAPACITY ASSESSMENT

It exists many methods to establish the storing capacity, in general based on the
content of gas in place, to be replaced with CO2, and the geometry of the reservoir (strata).
A method largely accepted in Canada, Australia and UK [2 ], is used for many type of
reservoirs such as coal seams, exhausted oil/gas reservoirs, salt formations. For the non-
exploited coal seams, which are interesting for our study, one determines the initial gas volume,
IGIP (Initial Gas in Place) using the formula (1):

~ G (1 f f ), m 3
IGIP = A h n c c a m
(1)
Where:
A and h surface, respectively the thickness of the seam (in m2, respectively
m);
n c coal density (in t/m3);
G c gas content factor (m3/t);
f a and f m ash and respectively moisture content of the coal.

Nevertheless, while calculating the potential storage volume of a reservoir, one must
distinguish between. In this respect, the theoretical volume is based on theoretical models and
includes economically non-viable hypotheses, the effective volume take into account the
technical and technological limitations and the particularities of the strata, and the real volume
penalize the last one with economic restrictions.

4. DETERMINING THE CARBON DIOXIDE STORING CAPACITY IN COAL

In comparison with other storing media, e.g. exhausted oil/gas reservoirs, salt aquifers
etc., for which the research is somewhat advanced enough, the research regarding the storage
of CO 2 in coal seams is relatively recent, the results validating only partially the theoretical
assumptions.
For the assessment of storing capacity of carbon dioxide in Jiul Valleys coal seams, we
may use the results obtained till now regarding the methane absorption in hard-coal.
While in natural gas reservoirs where the methane under pressure fills the pores of host
rock, in coal seams this is only in a small amount in free state in the rocks pores, the main part
being physically adsorbed by Van der Waals bonds.
In coal seams, mainly in deep ones, the amount of trapped methane gas is about 30-60
3
m /t.
From point of view of the storage mechanism, at present three forms are accepted:
free gas, physically or chem ically bonded [3,5].
The quantity of free gas when the methane fills al the voids (pores, fractures, cleats)
represents only 5 to 10 % of total gas content, depending on porosity, pressure and
temperature.
The gas pressure may reach 30-40 bar, while the volume of pores able to store gas
depending on pressure and moisture content vary from 0,01 to 0,11 m3/t for coal and from
0,004 to 0,04 m3/t for sandstone.

431
 The largest share of gas in coal is stored in the form of physically or chemically bonded
in adsorbed, absorbed and chemosorbed state reaching in many cases 90 % of total amount.
In adsorbed state (in which we find about
of total stored gas volume) the bond between
gas molecules and the surface of solid matrix
micro-pores walls is realized by the
intermolecular attraction forces, called Van der
Waals forces, and the gas is forming a thin layer
around the coal molecules.
The most important aspect of this
kind of bond is represented by its
reversibility, the stored gas being easily
released by the coal matrix facilitating its
extraction.
In bonded state, the gas is present also in
absorbed state, in which case, the molecules of
gas penetrate among coal molecules, without
chemically react with, forming a solid solution.
The desorption of this quantity of gas is possible
only if the coal is highly grinded.
Fig. 2. Adsorption isotherms for dry coal
as a function of pressure and volatile In chemosorbed state, between the gas
material content molecules and the coal molecules a chemical
bond take place, and the release of the gas is
possible only by special procedures, but because of the reduced share of the gas existing in this
state (less than 3 %), it is not interesting in any aspect.
In order to have a correlation between the adsorption capacity of coal for methane and
carbon dioxide, we can refer to the results of lab researches for these two gases as a function
of volatile material content and absolute pressure (fig. 2).[3]
Analyzing the two graphs above, we can notice that:
- regardless the content of volatile materials, in the same conditions of pressure and
temperature the adsorption capacity is 1.5 times greater for carbon dioxide than for
methane;
- increasing content of volatile materials produces the decrease of the adsorption
capacity regardless the type of gas in question.
The storing capacity, i.e. the adsorbed gas
volume is dependent on pressure at a given
temperature and can be described by the
Langmuirs law [4] which states that when a gas
is in contact with a solid an equilibrium state
occurs between the gas and solid molecules,
which is dependent on relative stability of the
adsorbed (bonded) gas related to free state, the
gas-solid systems temperature at the separation
level and the pressure of the gas at same location.
Fig. 3. Dependence of adsorbed gas
The last two factors, i.e. the pressure and
volume on the pressure at different
the temperature has contradictory effects,
temperatures
regardless the kind of gas, so we can increase the
adsorbed volume by increasing the pressure and we can reduce it by increasing the
temperature. (figure 3).
At a given temperature, the adsorption capacity depends on the pressure according to
Langmuirs law, as in formula (2):
432
 Kc P
C P = C P 00 (2)
1+ Kc P
In which:
- C p represents the adsorbed gas quantity (m3/t);
- C P00 and K c coefficients depending on the nature of gas, temperature and the
characteristics of the adsorbing surface;
- P is the gas pressure (bar).
For this form of the Langmuirs law mathematical expression, the constants C P00 and K c
can be determined as a function of volatile material content, dependence which is presented in
figures 4 and 5.

Fig. 4 Dependence of coefficient CP00 on the

Fig. 5 Dependence of coefficient Kc on the
content of volatile materials
content of volatile materials.

Apart from these two parameters, i.e.

the pressure and the temperature, the researches revealed the existence of other parameters
influencing the storing capacity, such as the nature of the gas, the content of volatile materials
(the rank of coal), the petrographic composition of the coal, the moisture and the ash content.
Nature of the gas from this point of view the coal presents a higher affinity for the
carbon dioxide than for the methane or nitrogen (fig.2).
Content of volatile materials (rank of coal)- the minimal volume of adsorbed gas occurs
when the content of volatile materials is in range of 20-40 %(fig.6 and 7) regardless the
temperature and pressure.

35
35
MV[%]= 33
Quantity of absorbed gas , m3/t

33 5 31
Quantity of absorbed gas , m3/t

31 29
P [daN/cm2]=
10
29 27 50
27 50 25 30
25 15
23
20
20
23 21
21
40
19
10
19 30 17 5
17 15
0 10 20 30 40 50
15
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Content of volatile materials, MV %
Pressure, daN/cm2

Fig. 6. Adsorption isotherms for coal at 30o Fig. 7. Adsorption isotherms for coal at 30o C
C as function of pressure for volatile as function of volatile material content
material content between 5% and 40 % between 5% and 40% and pressure between
100 and 5000 kPa

433
 Moisture content the moisture content has an influence on the adsorption/desorption
capacity of coal, in the sense of its decreasing with the increase of moisture content, this
influence being illustrated in figure 8 ;
Ash content ash content influence
negatively the adsorption capacity, in the
sense of its reduction with the ash content
increase, because only organic material
contributes to gas adsorption;
Petrographic composition it
influence the adsorption capacity, but it is
difficult to be quantified, however it is known
that higher exinite, resinite and fusite
contents increases the adsorption capacity.
Fig. 8. The ratio wet/dry coal adsorption
capacity

5. METHODS OF DETERMINING THE METHANE GAS CONTENT OF COAL

SEAMS
Two category of methods are actually used for measuring or assessing the gas content
of coal seams, as follows:
- direct methods, which are based on the measurement of the gas volume released by coal
samples collected in sealed containers, in the process of forced desorption;
- indirect methods, based on empirical relations which correlates the storage capacity with
sorption isotherms determined in laboratory.
While using direct method, the desorption is realized in special containers on coal
samples as fresh as possible. During the desorption, the samples are maintained in the same
temperature as in place, and the
measured desorption rate allows the
assessment of the initial quantity of
gas in the sample. Periodically, the
released gas is conducted to a
measuring cylinder (figure 9) and
eventually chemically analyzed. The
remaining quantity of gas in the
sample is determined after its grinding
until the particle size is under 1 mm (
usually 20 m).
The overall gas content is
Fig. 9. Measuring equipment
composed by many partial contents,
which determination is made by
different procedures. The gas lost during the sample collection (Q 1 ) is assessed from the free
gas remaining in the container (Q 2 ), based on the necessary time for sample collection and
container sealing, until the moment of measurement, period in which a quantity Q 2 , has been
released, and the quantity Q 3 is determined by collecting and measuring the gas released after
grinding process.
In this way, the desorbed gas quantity from pure coal is given by the formula (3) :

Q + Q2 Q3 1
Q= 1 + I [cm3/g], or [m3/t]
M M 1 1.1c
(3)

434
 In which:
M mass of collected sample (g);
MI mass of grinded sample (g);
c ash content (%)

In the case of lack of data related to the gas content of a coal seam, obtained by direct
methods, which are difficult to be performed, we can use alternative methods, such as the
method proposed by Kim [4], based on the analysis of adsorption capacity of different kinds of
coal in seams located at different depths (figure 10).
In this respect, Kim proposes an empirical formula (4) in which the main parameters are
the moisture content, volatile material content, the absorbed gas volume by the wet coal, the
fixed carbon, seam thickness, and the temperature.

V = (100 M A) /100 [ Vw /Vd ] [K(P)N - (b T)] (4)

Where,

V - Volume of methane gas adsorbed (cm3/g)

M - Moisture content (%)
A - Ash content (%)
Vw/Vd = 1/(0.25 M + 1)
Vw -Volume of gas adsorbed on wet coal (cm3/g)
Vd - Volume of gas adsorbed on dry coal (cm3/g)

The values of K and N depend on the rank of the coal and can be expressed in terms of ratio of
fixed carbon (FC) to Volatile matter(VM)
K = 0.8 (F.C /V.M) + 5.6
Where,
F.C - Fixed carbon (%)
VM - Volatile matter (%)
N -Composition of coal (for most bituminous coals, N = (0.39 - 0.013 K)
b -Adsorption constant due to temperature change (cc/g/C).
T = Geothermal Gradient (h/ 100) + To
T - Temperature at given depth
To - Ground temperature
h - Depth (m)
For the case of Jiul Valley coal, the
studies revealed that the gas volume which
can be desorbed vary between 5 and 35
m3/ton, the value depending on the location of
the seam in the coalfield (western side having
higher methane content), the depth of seam,
the pressure and temperature in the sample
collection point.
In these conditions, the carbon dioxide
storing capacity in Jiu Valleys coal seams can
Fig. 10 Absorption capacity of gases in coal be assessed based on the data related to the
as a function of volatile material content435
and depth (according to Kim)
methane content using a multiplying factor of (1,52) /1 in the favor of CO 2. Using this
approach, the theoretical storage capacity is assessed to 116.5 billion m3 CO 2 .
The determination of the real storage capacity implies complex laboratory and in situ
studies, which allows the exact adsorption-desorption parameters for methane and carbon
dioxide, for each relevant coal seam and for each perimeter supposed to be appropriate for CO 2
storage and performing injection drill tests for validating the laboratory tests. The main issue is
to pay attention to both stages of the process, i.e. the CH 4 desorption and the CO 2 absorption.

6. EXTRACTION OF METHANE (CBM) BY CO 2 INJECTION IN JIUL VALLEYS

VIRGIN COAL SEAMS
The methane gas associated with virgin coal seams (CBM) represents valuable reserves
of natural gas outside the conventional oil and gas producing reservoirs. It presents a lot of
advantages, as follows: it is a clean energy resource, its extraction prior or simultaneously with
coal mining avoids the release in the atmosphere of a GHG gas and loss of a valuable resource;
beneficiation of CBM can increase the safety and profitability of coal mining.
In many cases, injection of CO 2 into a
geologic formation can improve the
recovery of hydrocarbons, adding value
to the base products, which may
compensate the costs involved by its
capture and sequestration. On the other
hand, the capture and sequestration of
carbon dioxide contributes to reduce the Fig. 11. The dependence of storage capacity on
emissions at the level of coal fired power depth
plants.
The storage capacity, due to its dependence on
temperature, pressure and rank of coal, reduced to
the dependence on depth reveals an optimal depth as
schematically shown in figure 11.
Taking into account all the available data and
considering only the virgin seams in closed or under
closure mining perimeters, we assessed the storing
capacity of CO 2 at a minimal value of 114 Mt CO 2 .
This potential has been calculated for a minimal gas
Fig. 12. Principle layout of the content of 5 m3 CH 4 / t , and for the conversion to
integrated system of carbon dioxide CO 2 a rate of 2 molecules of CO2 adsorbed for one
injection and methane recovery
molecule of desorbed CH4 (table 1).
In principle, the injection of carbon dioxide in coal seams integrated with CBM recovery implies
to drill at least two wells from the ground to the coal seam, one for CO 2 injection and the
second for methane recovery (figure 12).

Table 1 Storage potential of carbon dioxide in Jiul Valleys closed mining perimeters
Valea
Lonea Petrila Cmpu
Item \ coalfield Dlja Aninoasa Brbteni de Total
Pilier Sud lui Neag
Brazi
Coal reserve ( mil t) 125 80 160 100 130 65 100 750
Elevation ground level (m) 710 700 610 670 800 810 735
Minimal depth of coal seams -220 -350 -450 -200 -100 -50
CBM estimate (mil m3 CH4 ) 625 400 800 500 650 325 500 2800
CO2 storage potential estim. (Mt) 18,75 12 24 15 19,5 9,75 15 114

436
 The release of methane from the coal matrix is based on the different affinity of coal,
higher for CO 2 comparative with CH 4 , the absorption capacity being 30 - 35 m3CO 2 /t at
pressure over 5 - 8 MPa, one molecule of methane being replaced by 1,5 - 5 molecules of
CO2, depending on available pressure.
This estimated capacity may be greater, if the methane content, or the absorption
capacity will be higher in reality than those taken into consideration.

7. Conclusion
While the carbon dioxide from the coal fired power plants is responsible for about 80 %
of the total amount of GHG emissions, it is evident that the first actions to be performed in view
to reduce them is to be focused on this direction, mainly because the contribution of energy
production sector in the total emissions is the most relevant.
From the point of view of CCS technology, it is demonstrated that the underground
geologic structures are the most appropriate, due both to accumulated knowledge, high storing
capacity and safety.
This possibility is relevant for the unexploited coal seams in Jiul Valley coalfield, taking
into account that the main beneficiary of the mined out coal, the Paroseni power plant, is
located in the middle of the coal basin, so the maximal distance from the source to the storing
location is less than 20 km.
In plus, the implementation of an integrated project CCS CBM will pay back the
involved costs, by increasing the efficiency of the Energy Producing Complex.
While the capture, processing and transport of carbon dioxide are well studied, the
storage in coal seams is a subject of specificity of different coal basins, and in this respect, the
actual paper deals mainly with the aspects related to storage (sequestration), focusing on the
storage capacity and the factors which influence it.
Future research is to be performed to acquire more knowledge in view to highlight
some detail aspects, mainly related to the carbon dioxide absorption and methane release,
being aware that the classical CBM recovery attempts in the Jiul Valley coalfield were
unsuccessful because the low permeability of the coal.
This first estimation of the storing capacity for carbon dioxide based on the assessment
of total methane content of coal seams, based on available theoretical approaches and
experimental data is promising to continue the research in this issue.

REFERENCES
1. IEA, 2004: Prospects for CO2 capture and storage, ISBN 92-64-10881-5.
2. IPCC, 2005: Safeguarding the Ozone Layer and the Global Climate System: issues
related to Hydrofluorocarbons and Perfluorocarbons [Metz, B., L. Kuijpers, S. Solomon, S.O.
Andersen, O. Davidson, J. Pons, D.de Jager, T. Kestin, M. Manning, and L. Meyer (eds.)].
Special Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge.
3. Bbu, G, Matei, I (1995) Modele i metode de prognoz a emanaiilor de metan,
I.N.I.D Bucureti.
4. Kim, AG [1977]. Estimating methane content of bituminous coal beds from adsorption
data. Pittsburgh, PA: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines, RI 8245. NTIS No.
PB271218.
5. Teodorescu, C., Gontean, Z., Neag, I [1980] Aeraj Minier, Editura Tehnic, Bucureti

437
 CERCETRI PRIVIND CRETEREA FERTILITII
SOLURILOR TEHNOGENE. STUDIU DE CAZ
conf.dr.ing.Traist Eugen - Universitatea din Petroani,
drd. ing. Traista Camelia Universitatea din. Petroani,
prof.univ.dr.ing. Radu Sorin Mihai - Universitatea din. Petroani,

1 Rezumat
The present paper enrols to the actual general tendency-on the European Union-to identify and
implement of some measures and solutions to increase the performance of the ecological
rehabilitation activities made in the areas affected by the mining activities. In this respect is the
implemented experiment in the environment rehabilitation works of the Valea de Brazi Mine,
Hunedoara County, of which location was chosen due to the shortened distance due to the
deposit.Mainly, the experiment consists in ensuring the soil necessary for the emplacement of
the no.8 pit with a quantity equal to 720 m3 of old waste resulted from lumbering. Now, on the
experimented surface it is observed a very good rise rate which concludes that this solution may
be generalised in all the areas that disposes of similar deposits.
Introducere
Datorit particularitilor sale specifice, activitatea de extracie a substanelor minerale utile din
subteranul exploatrilor miniere sau din cariere are o influen negativ asupra mediului
nconjurtor acestora, prin crearea unor depozite de material steril rezultat de la executarea
lucrrilor miniere de deschidere, din claubarea produciei extrase sau din descopert.
Acest material steril, denumit sol tehnogen, creeaz o serie de probleme atunci cnd se
intenioneaz reabilitarea ecologic a terenurilor afectate de ctre exploatarea minier, dup
ncetarea activitii extractive din zon. n termeni ecologici, se consider c un ecosistem este
afectat de ctre o activitate antropic, atunci cnd este depit capacitatea sa de regenerare
natural.
Partea experimental
Oportunitatea de a experimenta o soluie de fertilizare a solului tehnogen s-a creat odat cu
demararea lucrrilor de nchidere i ecologizare a minei Valea de Brazi, situat n vestul
bazinului carbonifer Valea Jiului.
Lucrrile de reabilitare ecologic a suprafeei se desfoar n prezent n cele dou incinte
miniere care au asigurat utilitile necesare n subteranul minei, n perioada de activitate a
acesteia, i anume n incinta principal i n incinta puului de aeraj nr. 8.
n principal, reabilitarea ecologic a acestor incinte const din dezafectarea-demolarea cldirilor
care i-au pierdut utilitatea i care nu au fost solicitate pentru alt destinaie de ctre
comunitatea local, ct i ecologizarea terenului eliberat, prin executarea urmtoarelor activiti
principale: curirea terenului de materialele neacceptate, nivelarea acestuia cu mijloace
mecanizate acolo unde este necesar, aplicarea substanelor fertilizatoare, nsmnarea
terenului i plantarea de puiei pe zonele nclinate, n special pe taluzurile haldei de steril.
438
Incinta minier de la puul de aeraj nr. 8 a dispus de o hald de steril, care a fost amenajat
conform soluiilor tehnice cuprinse n proiectul tehnic aferent. Aciunea de haldare a sterilului a
nceput n anul 1987 i s-a ncheiat n anul 1994, cnd mina a intrat n faza de
conservare/nchidere. Halda ocup o suprafa de 0,3 ha i are un volum de cca. 4000 m3. Din
punct de vedere geografic, halda se ncadreaz ntre prurile Bilugu la vest i urii la est, la
altitudinea de 760 m.
Pentru evaluarea impactului haldei asupra factorilor de mediu locali, au fost prelevate probe de
material de la o adncime de 0 20 cm. Acestea au fost adunate ntr-o prob mixt
(amestecat), iar de aici s-a extras prin ciuruire o cantitate de cca. 2 kg de material, cu o
granulaie mai mic de 20 mm. Acest material a fost analizat fizico-chimic, rezultatele
ncadrndu-se n valorile maxime admise de ctre normele n vigoare.
Probele de sol martor luate din zon au indicat un necesar de humus de 5 10 % n zonele
amenajate. Suplinirea acestui procent s-a ncercat a se realiza cu o cantitate de 150 300 m3
compost la hectar. Acest compost, format pe cale natural, are o vechime de aproximativ 40 ani
i a fost identificat ntr-un depozit de rumegu din localitatea Buta, situat de cca. 8 km de halda
de steril de la puul de aeraj nr 8 Valea de Brazi. n acest depozit nu au mai existat depuneri de
material de peste 10 ani. n acest interval de timp, rumeguul rezultat de la prelucrarea lemnului
n zon s-a compostat pe cale natural, nemaiprezentnd pericolul de reacie acid. Acest fapt
a eliminat necesitatea neutralizrii compostului cu amendamente de calcar.
n prealabil implementrii experimentului in situ, au fost determinate proprietile compostului
menionat n laboratorul Universitii Petroani. Au fost utilizate semine de plante cu o cretere
rapid (iarb), semnate ntr-un amestec format din compostul studiat, amestecat att cu
materialul de hald ct i cu pmnt normal, n proporii volumice de 25, 50, 75 i 100 %.
Dup trecerea a 7 zile i apoi dup 28 de zile s-au determinat o serie de parametri, care au fost
comparai cu cei din proba 100 % pmnt normal: desfurarea nclzirii, lungimea mldiei,
greutatea probei proaspete, greutatea probei uscate i greutatea cenuii. Cu ajutorul acestei
metode a putut fi stabilit influena diferitelor amestecuri de compost, durata de fermentare a
compostului i care este amestecul optim pentru dezvoltarea plantelor.

Foto 1 Dezvoltare iarb n compost Foto 2 Dezvoltare iarb n sol tehnogen

provenit de la Buta (7 zile de la provenit de la Valea de Brazi (7 zile de la
nsmnare) nsmnare)

Foto 3 Dezvoltare iarb n compost Foto 4 Dezvoltare iarb n compost

provenit de la Buta (28 zile de la provenit de la Valea de Brazi (28 zile de la
nsmnare) nsmnare)
Pe suprafaa haldei de steril, amenajat din punct de vedere morfologic au fost executate
urmtoarele lucrri pregtitoare:
-aplicarea pe suprafaa amenajat a unui adaos de ngrminte chimice complexe tip NPK:
540 kg ngrmnt 15 : 15 : 15/ha;
-acoperirea suprafeei haldei cu un strat de compost cu grosimea de 3 5 cm;

439
-nsmnarea stratului de compost cu un amestec de iarb 60 % i trifoi 40 %, n cantitate de
400 kg/ha; nsmnarea s-a fcut n dou reprize, pe direcii perpendiculare, astfel nct s se
asigure o mprtiere ct mai bun a seminelor;
-greblarea solului pentru ncorporarea seminelor; adncimea optim de nsmnare a fost
stabilit la 1 cm;
-irigarea solului s-a fcut cu stropi mici, pentru a se evita splarea seminelor i a compostului;
-n lipsa precipitaiilor stropirile au fost fcute o dat la trei zile, dimineaa i seara.
Ca i n cazul experienelor efectuate n condiii de laborator, i refacerea solului tehnogen al
haldei de la puul de aeraj nr. 8 a dat rezultate excelente. Coninutul de humus, extrem de mic
iniial, a fost ridicat pn la valori de 1025 % din valoarea existent n zonele neafectate, prin
adaos de compost. Implicit s-a nregistrat o cretere a capacitii de schimb a solului. n
prezent, procentul de rsrire pe suprafaa ecologizat a haldei este foarte bun dup cum se
prezint n imaginile urmtoare:

Foto 5 Halda de steril Valea de Brazi dup reconstrucia ecologic (28 de

zile de la nsmnare)
Prin adaosul de ngrminte chimice de tip NPK, coninutul de elemente nutritive ale solului a
fost ridicat la valori de 2550 % fa de cel al solurilor neafectate existente n zon.
Structura covorului vegetal rezultat n urma reconstruciei ecologice difer de cea existent n
zonele neafectate, datorit predominanei plantelor erbacee i a trifoiului, cu sistem radicular
foarte dezvoltat, eficient pentru soluri srace.
Prin msurile luate n cadrul lucrrilor de reabilitate ecologic, s-a iniiat procesul de refacere a
solului, care are posibilitatea s se autontrein. Pentru a se evita ntreruperea acestui proces
este recomandabil interzicerea punatului i a circulaiei localnicilor pe terenul ecologizat
pentru o perioad de cel puin 2 ani.
n conformitate cu procedurile din domeniu aflate n vigoare n prezent, executantul lucrrilor de
ecologizare de la halda puului de aeraj nr. 8 are obligaia de a monitoriza suprafaa reconstruit
ecologic pe o perioad de 2 ani, care constituie garania de bun executare.
n zonele unde au loc lucrri de nchidere i ecologizare a unor obiective miniere care i-au
ncetat activitatea extractiv i unde exist uniti de prelucrare a lemnului situate la o distan
rezonabil se poate realiza compostul necesar pentru mbuntirea calitii solurilor tehnogene
dup metoda descris n continuare.
440
Pentru a obine un compost de bun calitate, este necesar utilizarea unui amestec de
materiale bogate n carbon (paie, rumegu, turb, carton, frunze de tei, de fag i stejar), cu
unele care au coninut crescut de azot (resturi de legume, snge uscat, gunoi de grajd, etc.),
astfel nct s se asigure o bun permeabilitate.
n obinerea compostului, o importan deosebit trebuie s se acorde gradului de umiditate a
amestecului, ct i unei bune aerri a compostului. Aerarea depinde att de coninutul de ap al
structurii ct i de structura i dimensiunea materialelor utilizate. n acest caz este necesar
amestecarea atent a materialelor cu dimensiuni si structuri diverse, pentru a asigura o
porozitate optim.
n cazul unui amestec de dimensiuni mari, o aerare bun se asigur prin utilizarea unor tuburi
groase de drenaj plasate vertical, la o distan de cca, 1,5 m, n centrul amestecului.
Compostarea se mai poate realiza n silozuri, pe platforme tradiionale sau pe seciuni
amenajate n aer liber.
Platforma reprezint cea mai practic structur utilizat la obinerea compostului nefiind
necesar nicio construcie special, materialul compostat depozitndu-se direct pe pmnt sub
form de piramid. Fa de compostarea n siloz platforma necesit mai mult spaiu, ns
procesul de fermentare este mai eficient, deoarece adugarea de material proaspt se face
lateral, fr a se perturba procesul de descompunere.
Odat adunat materialul necesar pentru realizarea unei platforme, se poate iniia stratificarea
acestuia, executnd o amestecare atent a diferitelor substane.
Primul strat se constituie dintr-un material mai grosier (ramuri i alte materiale reziduale,
rezultate n urma curatului pomilor), care va avea rolul unui grtar natural, pentru scurgerea
apei n exces. Apoi urmeaz un strat de material mai fin i un strat de pmnt bine umectat,
care dup adugarea gunoiului de grajd i de compost maturizat, asigur amestecului
ncrctura microbian necesar procesului,
Se continu n aceast ordine, alternnd straturile de material organic (pmnt amestecat cu
substane animale i vegetale bine umectate) cu gunoiul de grajd i compostul bine maturat,
ajungndu-se la nlimea dorit, dup care platforma se acoper cu paie, fn i cu un strat de
cca. 5 cm de argil fin.
Durata procesului de compostare depinde de clim, de materialele utilizate i de aranjarea
corect a platformei, n general fiind necesare cca. 6 luni. Compostul este considerat matur
atunci cnd s-a transformat ntr-un amestec de pmnt sfrmicios, de culoare brun-nchis, cu
un miros plcut, neneptor, fr insecte sau rme.
Forma i dimensiunile platformei trebuie s fie alese n aa fel nct s favorizeze procesele de
fermentaie aerobic ce stau la baza procesului de compostare.
n general, platforma nu depete 2 m lime i 1,82 m nlime, lungimea stabilindu-se n
funcie de cantitatea de material compostat. Amplasarea trebuie s se fac ntr-un loc umbros,
direct pe pmnt. n plus, n funcie de necesiti, se adaug elemente nutritive, n aa fel nct
s se corecteze eventualele carene ale solului.
Fabricarea compostului este procedeul prin care deeurile menajere din buctrie i curte sunt
transformate ntr-un compus bogat n nutrieni. Prin rentoarcerea nutrienilor n sol, compostul
reduce necesarul de fertilizatori chimici scumpi. Deeurile de natur organic pot constitui pn
la 40 % din deeurile menajere.
n vederea obinerii unei putreziri optime i a unui compost de calitate bun, este important s
se macine materiile organice mari i dure (de exemplu tieturi de copaci) i s se amestece cu
substane organice mai fine, menajere sau din grdin. Astfel se asigur condiii mai bune de
via pentru microorganismele care descompun i transform grmada de compost.
Procesul de compostare poate continua i n perioada de iarn, ns ntr-un ritm mai redus.
Dup ce s-a ales amplasamentul platformei, trebuie s se ndeprteze vegetaia de pe aceea
suprafa de teren i s se afneze zona. n acest fel, se va nlesni migrarea viermilor i a altor
animale mici care vor descompune deeurile organice. Pe de alt parte, lichidul ce se scurge

441
din grmad i apa de ploaie se evacueaz mai uor n sol, mpiedicnd stagnarea umiditii la
baza grmezii de compost.
Materiale acceptate pentru amestec:
-materiale verzi, bogate n azot, pine, boabe de cafea, hrtie de filtru de cafea, coji de ou,
frunze aciculare ale plantelor verzi, flori, coji i resturi de legume, iarb, plante de cas, frunze,
pliculee de ceai sau frunze de ceai, buruieni (naintea formrii seminelor);
-materiale brune bogate n carbon, pr, scame, blegar, grmezi de frunze uscate, paste, orez;
-rumegu (lemn netratat);
-hrtie rupt, ziare, cutii de carton, hrtie de mpachetat;
-paie, fn;
-achii de lemn;
Materiale neacceptate: oase, crbune, tieturi de iarb tratat chimic, cenu de crbune,
materie contaminat, produse lactate, plante bolnave sau infectate de insecte, grsimi, alimenta
grase, uleioase, resturi de pete, sticl, nmol, carne, metal, plastic, produse sanitare, coji de
nuc, buruieni cu semine mature.
Concluzii finale
Utilizarea materialului compostat pe cale natural n depozitele vechi de rumegu de lemn sau
create n mod special pe platformele descrise anterior, ct mai aproape de zona de punere n
oper, are o aciune semnificativ asupra solurilor tehnogene, rezultate de la activitile
desfurate de ctre exploatrile miniere. Coninutul de humus, extrem de mic iniial, a fost
ridicat pn la valori de 1025 % din valoarea existent n zonele neafectate, n paralel cu
creterea capacitii de schimb a solului.
Structura covorului vegetal rezultat n urma reconstruciei ecologice difer de cea existent n
zonele neafectate, datorit predominanei plantelor erbacee i a trifoiului, cu sistem radicular
foarte dezvoltat, eficient pentru solurile srace. Totui, din punct de vedere peisagistic, zonele
reabilitate se ncadreaz foarte bine n peisajul autohton.

Bibliografie

1. Bran, F. -Ecologie general i protecia mediului, Academia de Dincu, I. Studii

Economice, Bucureti, 1998.
2. Dumitrescu, I-Poluarea mediului, Note de curs
3. Iancu, A. -Creterea economic i mediul nconjurtor, Editura Politic, Bucureti,
1979.
4. Ionescu, Al. -Ecologie i societate, Editura Ceres, Bucureti, 1991.
5. Opri, T. -Din tainele lumii vii, Vol. I, Editura Didactic i Pedagocic, Bucureti, 1992.
6. Resmeri, I. -Conservarea dinamic a naturii, Editura Stiinific i Enciclopedic,
Bucureti, 1993.
7. Stugren, B. -Ecologie teoretic, Editura Sarmis,Cluj-Napoca,1994.

442
 DETERMINATION ON THE BASIS OF EXPERIMENTAL
MEASUREMENTS OF THE EQUATIONS GOVERNING THE
OPERATION CENTRIFUGAL PUMP ASSEMBLY - NETWORK
IN ORDER TO SIMULATE OPERATING CONDITIONS
ENCOUNTERED IN PRACTICE

Rada Andrei Cristian

Ph.D. student, University of Petrosani, Petrosani, Romania, e-mail

[email protected]

Abstract:
The paper aligns current global concerns regarding energy sustainability, focusing on issues of
operational sustainability of water pumping system. After an overview of the current situation
sectoral regulations and international, national and local issues of concern highlighted in this
background is developed in an approach multidisciplinary research that integrates conceptual
approaches, methodological and basic tools of the machines and networks hydraulics,
energetics industrial installations in the spirit of ISO 50001 energetics management and
sustainable development. The energetics system for the installation of a pumping groundwater
mining, identification and analysis of major components, energy flows and performance of this
system is the core of the article.

Keywords: turbo pumps, electric pumps, pump systems, hydraulic network, energy efficiency,
sustainable use of water pumping systems.

1. Introduction
Methodological instruments used mainly include operational tools in sustainable water
pumping systems and methods for quantifying the performance of energetics systems
(energetics analysis methods / exergetic, economic and quantify the environmental impact). On
these bases diagnoses the current state of the system are simulated operating conditions and
establish areas of operation corresponding to a performance indicator aggregate energy cost,
economic cost and the environmental cost, identifying measures / solutions to improve ahead,
compatible with sustainable development.

2. Theoretical consideration
The pumping station, pumping aggregates ensures the circulation of water in the basin
volume suction consumers who are connected to the network.
443
Figure 1 is the general case of a pump operating in a facility. The circulation of the fluid
between the suction tank RA and the discharge RR is provided by the pump P through the
suction tube draws CA and discharges through the discharge pipe CR. Additional gauges of
pressure were positioned in the suction nozzle (1) and the discharge (2).
The flow rate of the fluid that is circulated by a pump units can be expressed by: the
volumetric flow rate discharged, Q1 (m3 / s, m3 / h, L / s), the volumetric flow rate sucked Q2
(m3 / s, m3 / h, l / s), volume flow nominal Qn (m3 / s, m3 / h, l / s), volume flow optimally
Qopt (m3 / s, m3 / h, l / s), maximum flow and minimum Qmax, Qmin .
The load of pump or pumping the total height H (m) is useful mechanical work
submitted by the impeller to fluid or increase energy pumped fluid passage through paragraphs
(1) and (2)
fig.1.
Power Pump is mechanical work of the pump in unit time consumed in order to circulate
flow.

Fig.1. The operation of a pump in an installation

The unit of time, due to losses occurring in pumps (P=QH) to achieve output
power Pu, the pump must obtain a higher input power P p =QH/ p , p at the shaft - is the
overall efficiency of the pump.
Speed and direction of rotation of the pumps. They are driven by electric motors in
general, resulting from the relationship speed: n = k 60 f (rot / min )
p
where f is frequency of the current in the network; k - the coefficient of sliding
depending on the type of the motor (synchronous motors k = 1, and asynchronous motors
1<k); p - number of pole pairs of the motor.

3. Experimental results
Based on experimental measurements correlated with the performance specified in the
leaflets pumps were established significant parameters summarized in Tables 1 and 2. I built
with the utility EXCEL graphs of variation of significant parameters and I determined the
equations of the curves corresponding results (Figures 2, 3 and 4).

444
 Based on experimental measurements, correlated with information from literature and
the available documentation, using the model previously described for analysis of electro
LOTRU 100 yielded significant results regarding:
- The variation of pump parameters analzyed depending on time (fig.5.);
- Operating point network movement depending on the variable speed (fig.6.);
- Percentage change of characteristic parameters for varying speed (fig.7.);
- Percentage change in specific energy consumption depending on the method of
adjustment (fig.8.);
Table 1. Characteristics experimentally determined

Pump flow rate - Q [mc/h] 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

Load of pump - Hp [m] 47.5 49 47.5 45 42.5 39 35 29 22.5
Load of Network - Hr [m] speed
10 12 14 17 21 28 35 42
control
Pump efficiency- etaP [%] 0 25 42 55 61 64 63.8 60 53
Pump efficiency+motor - etaP+M
0 20 37 47 52 56 55.6 52 46
[%]
Power pump - Pp [kW] 2 2.5 2.8 3.1 3.8 4.1 4.22 4.5 4.8
Motor power - Pm [kW] 2.9 3.4 3.7 4 4.7 5 5.12 5.3 5.6
Load of Network - Hr + Hv [m]
20.4 22.5 24.2 26.5 30.1 34.5 42.7
adjustament tub

Fig.2. Trendline equation for pump and network characteristics

445
 Fig.3. Trendline equations for energetics characteristics of the pump

Tabel nr.2. Characteristics energetics experimentally determined

Pump flow-
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Q [mc/h]
Load of
Network - 47.5 49 47.5 45 42.5 39 35 29 22.5
Hp [m]
The power
output of
1.82 2.632 2.83 2.74
stream 0 0.6615 1.2825 2.295 2.43
25 5 5 05
water - Pucf
[kW]
Power at the
pump shaft - 2 2.5 2.8 3.1 3.8 4.1 4.22 4.5 4.8
Pap [kW]
Electrical
motor power 2.9 3.4 3.7 4 4.7 5 5.12 5.3 5.6
- Pm [kW]
Specific
0.26 0.17 0.15
energy - Esp 0 0.68 0.37 0.235 0.2 0.14
6667 0667 1429
[kWh/mc]
Specific
energy util- 0.0138 0.0077 0.00 0.005 0.00 0.00 0.00622
0 0.005529
Espu 78 89 5926 128 4876 5222 2
[kWh/mc*m]

446
Fig. 4. Trendline equations to specific energies, using a refined model regression

Fig.5. The variation of pump parameters analzyed depending on time

447
Fig.6. Operating point network movement depending on the variable speed

Fig.7. Percentage change of characteristic parameters for varying in specific energy

consumption

448
 Fig.8. Percentage change speeddepending on the method of
adjustment
4. Conclusions
It analyzed aggregate flow adjustment in pump systems with the following methods
described in detail:
changing pump performance curves (internal control);
changing characteristics of installations (external adjustment);
adaptation of different working groups pumps (in series or parallel operation working
pumps).

It drew charts variations versus time of characteristic parameters electropump,

moving the operating point to the network for varying speed, the percentage change in the
characteristic parameters for varying speed and the percentage change in specific energy
consumption depending on the method of adjustment.

REFERENCES

1. Ionel II - Adjustable pumping plants, Ed. Technique, Bucharest, 1976.

2. O. Adler, P. Vezeanu Installations and equipments thermotechnics, Ed.
Technique, Bucharest, 1970.
3. V. Burchiu Santu I., O. Alexandrescu - Pumping plants. Ed. Didactic and
Pedagogical, Bucharest, 1982.
4. I. Sarbu, - The energetics optimization of water distribution systems. Romanian
Academy Publishing, Bucharest, 1997.

449
 SELECT THE ELECTRICAL APPARATUS FOR USE IN
EXPLOSIVE GAS ATMOSPHERES FROM DETERMINING
REABILITY

Drd.ing. Marcel Daniel RAD

Prof.univ.dr.ing. Marian Silviu NAN
Drd.ing. Andrei-Lucian GIREADA

Abstract:
Where electrical apparatus is to be installed in areas where flammable gases may be
present in the atmosphere, protective measures are applied in order to reduce the
likelihood of explosion due to ignition by arcs, sparks or hot surfaces, produced either in
normal operation or under specified fault conditions.

1 TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

explosive atmosphere
- mixture with air, under atmospheric conditions, of flammable substances in the form
of gas, vapour, mist or dust, in which after ignition, combustion spreads throughout the
unconsumed mixture group (of an electrical apparatus for explosive atmospheres)
- classification of electrical apparatus related to the explosive atmosphere for which it is
to be used
Electrical apparatus for use in explosive gas atmospheres is divided into two groups:
group I: electrical apparatus for mines susceptible to firedamp;
group II: (which can be divided into subgroups): electrical apparatus for places with
an explosive gas atmosphere, other than mines susceptible to firedamp
group III: (which can be divided into subgroups): electrical apparatus for use in
places with an explosive dust atmosphere, other than mines susceptible to firedamp
maximum surface temperature
- highest temperature which is attained in service under the most adverse operating
conditions (but within recognized tolerances) by any part or surface of the electrical
apparatus, which would be able to produce an ignition of the surrounding explosive
atmosphere
450
The most adverse conditions include recognized overloads and fault conditions
recognized in the specific standard for the type of protection concerned.
The relevant surface temperature may be internal and/or external depending upon the
type of protection concerned.
type of protection
- specific measures applied to electrical apparatus to avoid ignition of a surrounding
explosive atmosphere

flameproof enclosure d
- type of protection in which the parts which can ignite an explosive atmosphere are
placed in an enclosure which can withstand the pressure developed during an internal
explosion of an explosive mixture and which prevents the transmission of the explosion
to the explosive atmosphere surrounding the enclosure

increased safety e
- type of protection applied to electrical apparatus in which additional measures are
applied so as to give increased security against the possibility of excessive temperatures
and of the occurrence of arcs and sparks in normal service or under specified abnormal
condition

intrinsic safety i
- type of protection based upon the restriction of electrical energy within apparatus and
of interconnecting wiring exposed to an explosive atmosphere to a level below that
which can cause ignition by either sparking or heating effects

pressurization p
- technique of guarding against the ingress of the external atmosphere into an
enclosure by maintaining a protective gas therein at a pressure above that of the
external atmosphere

encapsulation m
- type of protection in which the parts which could ignite an explosive atmosphere by
either sparking or heating are enclosed in a compound in such a way that this explosive
atmosphere cannot be ignited

oil immersion o
- type of protection in which the electrical apparatus or parts of the electrical apparatus
are immersed in a protective liquid in such a way that an explosive atmosphere which
may be above the liquid or outside the enclosure cannot be ignited

451
powder filling q
- type of protection in which the parts capable of igniting an explosive atmosphere are
fixed in position and completely surrounded by filling material to prevent the ignition of
an internal explosive atmosphere

type of protection n
- type of protection applied to electrical apparatus such that, in normal operation and in
certain specified abnormal conditions, it is not capable of igniting a surrounding
explosive atmosphere

2 REQUIREMENTS FOR SELECTING THE ELECTRICAL APPARATUS FOR USE

IN EXPLOSIVE GAS ATMOSPHERES

Electrical installations in hazardous areas shall also comply with the appropriate requirements
for installations in non-hazardous areas. However the requirements for non-hazardous areas
may be insufficient for installations in hazardous areas.

Electrical apparatus and materials should be installed and used within their electrical ratings for
power, voltage, current, frequency, duty and such other characteristics where non-conformity
might jeopardize the safety of the installation. In particular, care should be taken to ensure that
the voltage and frequency are appropriate to the supply system in which the apparatus is used
and that the temperature classification has been established for the correct voltage, frequency,
etc.

In order to facilitate the selection of appropriate electrical apparatus and the design of suitable
electrical installations, hazardous areas are divided into zones 0, 1 and 2 according to
EN 60079-10.

Electrical apparatus should, as far as is reasonably practicable, be located in non-hazardous

areas. Where it is not possible to do this, it should be located in the least hazardous area
practicable.

All electrical apparatus and wiring in hazardous areas shall be selected and installed in
accordance with CEI 60079-14 and the additional requirements for the particular type of
protection.

Apparatus shall be installed in accordance with its documentation. Care should be taken to
ensure that replaceable items, such as lamps, are of the correct type and rating. On completion
of the erection, initial inspection of the apparatus and installation shall be carried out in
accordance with EN 60079-17.

Assurance of conformity of apparatus is made by using certified apparatus to provide the

necessary assurance that apparatus meets the requirements of the appropriate standard.

452
In order to select the appropriate electrical apparatus for hazardous areas, the following
information is required:
classification of the hazardous area;

temperature class or ignition temperature of the gas or vapour involved;

where applicable, gas or vapour classification in relation to the group or subgroup of the
electrical apparatus;
Of the types of protection listed in EN 60079-0, the apparatus subgroup is only required for
protection types d (flameproof enclosures) and i (intrinsic safety). The apparatus subgroup
is also required for certain apparatus with protection types n, e or o (oil immersion).

external influences and ambient temperature.

Selection according to Ex classified zones

Apparatus for use in zone 0

Electrical apparatus and circuits can be used in zone 0 if they are in accordance with
EN 60079-11 (intrinsic safety ia), EN 60079-18 (encapsulation "ma") and with the
requirements from EN 60079-26.

Apparatus for use in zone 1

Electrical apparatus can be used in zone 1 if it is constructed in accordance with the

requirements for zone 0 or one or more of the following types of protection

Flameproof enclosures d according to EN 60079-1

Pressurized enclosures px or "py" according to EN 60079-2
Powder filling q according to EN 60079-5
Oil immersion o according to EN 60079-6
Increased safety e according to EN 60079-7
Intrinsic safety ib according to EN 60079-11
Encapsulation mb according to EN 60079-18

Apparatus for use in zone 2

The following electrical apparatus may be installed in zone 2:

electrical apparatus for zone 0 or zone 1; or

electrical apparatus designed specifically for zone 2 (for example type of protection n
according to EN 60079-15, pressurized apparatus "pz", intrinsic safety "ic",
encapsulation "mc"), or

453
c) electrical apparatus complying with the requirements of a recognized standard
for industrial electrical apparatus which does not, in normal operation, have ignition-
capable hot surfaces; and

1) does not, in normal operation, produce arcs or sparks, or

2) in normal operation produces arcs or sparks but the values, of the electrical
parameters (U, I, L and C) in the circuit (including the cables) do not exceed the values
specified in EN 60079-11 with a safety factor of unity.
The assessment shall be in accordance with the specification for energy limited
apparatus and circuits given in EN 60079-15.

Selection according to the ignition temperature of the gas or vapour

The electrical apparatus shall be so selected that its maximum surface temperature will
not reach the ignition temperature of any gas or vapour which may be present.

Symbols for the temperature classes which may be marked on the electrical apparatus
have the meaning indicated in table 1.

Table 1 Relationship between the temperature classes,

surface temperatures and ignition temperature

Maximum
surface Ignition
Temperatu
temperatur temperature
re class
e of of gas or
of electrical
electrical vapour
apparatus
apparatus C
C
T1 450 >450
T2 300 >300
T3 200 >200
T4 135 >135
T5 100 >100
T6 85 >85

If the marking of the electrical apparatus does not include an ambient temperature
range, the apparatus shall be used only within the temperature range 20C to +40C.
If the marking of the electrical apparatus includes an ambient temperature range, the
apparatus shall only be used within this range.

454
Selection according to apparatus grouping

Electrical apparatus of types of protection e, m, p and q shall be of apparatus

group II.

There are nevertheless occasions when some of these types of protection, which
are normally of apparatus group II, can be allocated within subgroups IIA or IIB
(to accommodate discharge of stored energy, static electricity, etc.).

Electrical apparatus of types of protection d and i shall be of apparatus group IIA,

IIB or IIC and selected in accordance with table 2.

Electrical apparatus of type of protection n shall normally be of apparatus group II

but, if it contains enclosed break devices, non-incentive components or energy limited
apparatus or circuits, then the apparatus shall be group IIA, IIB or IIC and selected in
accordance with table 2.

Electrical apparatus of type of protection o shall be of apparatus group IIA, IIB or IIC
for certain apparatus and selected in accordance with table 2.

Table 2 Relationship between gas/vapour subdivision

and apparatus subgroup

Gas/vapour Apparatus
subdivision subgroup
IIA IIA, IIB or IIC
IIB IIB or IIC
IIC IIC

3 External influences

Electrical apparatus shall be selected and installed so that it is protected against external
influences (e.g. chemical, mechanical, vibrational, thermal, electrical and humidity) which could
adversely affect the explosion protection.

Precautions shall be taken to prevent foreign bodies falling vertically into the ventilation
openings of vertical rotating electrical machines.

The integrity of electrical apparatus may be affected if it is operated under temperature or

pressure conditions outside those for which the apparatus has been constructed. In these
circumstances, further advice should be sought.

455
4 Bibliography

1. Ionescu Jeana, Moldovan L., Requirements for selecting the electrical apparatus
operable in explosive gas atmospheres, other than mines, Scientific Works of
International Symposium "Universitaria SIMPRO", 2005, ISBN 973-8260-91-4

2. EN 60079-14:2008 - Explosive atmospheres -- Part 14: Electrical installations design,

selection and erection

3. EN 60079-0:2009, Explosive atmospheres -- Part 0: Equipment - General requirements

4. EN 60079-1:2007, Explosive atmospheres. Part 1: Equipment protection by flameproof

enclosures d

5. EN 60079-2:2007, Explosive atmospheres -- Part 2: Equipment protection by pressurized

enclosure "p"

6. EN 60079-5:2007, Explosive atmospheres. Part 5: Equipment protection by powder

filling q

7. EN 60079-6:2007, Explosive atmospheres -- Part 6: Equipment protection by oil

immersion "o"

8. EN 60079-7:2007, Explosive atmospheres. Part 7: Equipment protection by increased

safety e

9. EN 60079-10-1:2009, Explosive atmospheres -- Part 10-1: Classification of areas -

Explosive gas atmospheres

10. EN 60079-11:2007, Explosive atmospheres -- Part 11: Equipment protection by intrinsic

safety "i"

11. EN 60079-15:2005, Electrical apparatus for explosive gas atmospheres -- Part 15:
Construction, test and marking of type of protection "n" electrical apparatus

12. EN 60079-18:2009, Explosive atmospheres -- Part 18: Equipment protection by

encapsulation "m"

13. EN 60079-26:2007, Explosive atmospheres -- Part 26: Equipment with equipment

protection level (EPL) Ga

456
 Study on the accuracy of volume determination
using interpolation methods
Lsconi Adrian Constantin

Keywords: Interpolation methods, digital terrain model (DTM), volume calculation,

surface modeling.

Three-dimensional representation of the topographic surface resulted from land surveys,

involves using a mathematical algorithm that generates in a precise way the measured land
forms. Since we cannot determine the spatial position (XYZ) of each surface point using
measurements, we must use an interpolation method and uniform distribution of the existing
points. Using a computerized three dimensional representation we can generate a digital terrain
model. The digital terrain model (DTM) is a three-dimensional digital representation of the
terrain, which uses the x and y coordinates and the elevation z. The resulting model is a
mathematical approximation of the topographic surface. Digital terrain models can be used in
volume calculation, contours representation and it is used in several Geographic Information
Systems (GIS) applications that requires a spatial representation of the topographic surface.

The present study aims to determine the volume of geometric solids, whose
mathematical formula is known, and then compared with the volumes resulted by using
computer interpolation methods using the Surfer software. Interpolation methods are included
in the program and the most used are: Triangulation with linear interpolation, Natural
Neighbor, Inverse distance, Kriging Method.
After determining volumes through computerized method with all the interpolation
methods listed, a comparison between them and the mathematical volumes obtain with known
formula will be made. The method that will achieve the more appropriate result to those
obtained using the mathematical formula, will be declared the most accurate and the most
recommended for volumes calculation.
This interpolation method can be used for volumes calculation resulting from surveying:
stocks, excavations, but also to display the terrain surface in a close three dimensional
representation.

457
 JIU VALLEY IN THE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Luca Sergiu

Ph.D. student University of Petroani, 20 University St., 332006 Petroani, Romania,

e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
Jiu Valley, a mono-industrial area, where mining was the main activity of the inhabitants , underwent many
transformations in recent years. Restructuring the mining industry, the large number of layoffs has led to rapid
increase in unemployment and decline in living standards of the inhabitants of Petrosani Depression .
In these circumstances, from the local authorities have identified tourism development as a complementary
activity / alternative to local economy.

Keywords : mountain environment , tourism , mining, unemployment

1 INTRODUCTION

In the south of Hunedoara county, in a triangle proved to be golden , on the border between
Transylvania, Banat and the Romanian Country, lies an area known generically under denu -
groom " Jiu Valley " and geographi-cally that " Petrosani Depression " region that has earned
the reputation as the " Land of black Diamond " (fig. nr. 1.).

Fig. no. 1. Valea Jiului location and map

458
2 REASON

Jiu Valley - a region made up of three municipalities: Petrosani,Lupeni, Vulcan and three
cities : Petrila, Uricani, alder, with a
total population of 120 734 inhabitants, the main economic activity was the coal mining industry
in the years after 1990 suffered transformations in economic, social and demographic changes
resulting from the restructuring of this activity sector.
Besides mining sector restructuring , the reference faced available - saw and activities related
to mining or provide services to the mining sector, which has led to diponibilizri from these
activities, leading to a high rate of unemployment in the area.
The main effects of restructuring were felt in particular by rising une-mployment and generated
by this decline in living standards of residents .
So the level of June 2015 CEA Hunedoara have registered a total of 3825 track of your
unemployed in the Jiu Valley , that which represents an une-mployment rate of around 3.17 %
( fig. nr. 2.).

Fig. no. 2 Distribution of unemployed in the Jiu Valley in the month of June 2015

In addition to official figures , representing the unemployed receiving monthly allowance , there
is the reality of everyday reflected in the image of more than 8,000 people who are looking for
a job, they nefigurnd on no evidence and therefore without income monthly guaranteed that
which is a percentage of between 6.5 - 8 % of the Jiu Valley .
Side effects will be even higher as the treatment of active and passive unemployment measures
is poor.
In these circumstances, local authorities assigned to this area, identi-fied the complex mountain
environment as complementary / alternative to zonal economy
Geographical breakdowns , environmental componennte mountainous area of interest , showing
the average complexity , structure and value for tourism, weave between them and the cultural
and historical potential ,as-pects and contrasts landscape varied and attractive crests that are
based valleys crossed by rivers interesting and leisure opportunities , the dense network of
communication routes that allow access to all targets of interest as well as tourist centers ,

459
recommends the mountain environment in the area Jiu Valley as a good absorber of redundant
mining labor , and not only as a weapon in the fight against unemployment.
The main strengths of the Jiu Valley are :
a natural mountain environment - still generous and well wooded with a rich
biodiversity;
mountainous rural population dynamic and healthy with a good percentage of youth still
agricultural , adapted - the key to development ;
economic and cultural traditions are partial preserved;
minor degree chemicalization in mountain agriculture and agri-food quality, ecological
type .
All these factors , coupled with positive implications of ecotourism such as :
support agricultural occupations , those crafts , food and leisure travelers ;
better exploitation of agricultural products that can be made directly available to tourists
;
raising living standards for the rural population ;
local population stability by diversifying the use of labor potential;
It recommends the Jiu Valley , the area conducive best practice in terms of ecotourism .
Highlighting the potential of natural , cultural , economic and human resources are the
subject of complex programs designed longterm , in support of sustainable
development.
Conduct programs at the regional level, by which to follow:
conducting training courses;
granting allowances for the unemployed falling before the expiry of unemployment;
hiring unemployed over 45 or single breadwinners of the family;
new graduates of educational institutions;
creating new jobs through lending to small and medium enterprises;
provision of consultancy and assistance to start self-employment or starting a business;
temporary employment of labor in public works of community interest;
related to the following priority axes and areas of intervention ( Table . 1):

Table 1 Portofolio projects and identifyingfunding sources

Source of funding
Nr. Project
Value
title Operational
crt. (euro) Area of
Program Priority Axis
intervention

0 1 2 3 4 5
2.1 .
Rehabilitation
Priority 2 : and
Realization of modernization
Regional Improvement
road of county roads
Operational of regional
1 infrastructure 10.000.000 and urban
Programme and local
Babii.- streets ,
transport
Merior construction /
rehabilitation of
ring roads

460
0 1 2 3 4 5
2.1 .
Rehabilitation
Modernization Priority 2 : and
DJ Regional Improvement modernization
664Vulcan- Operational of regional of county roads
2 2.000.000
county limit Programme and local and urban
GJ transport streets ,
construction /
rehabilitation of
ring roads
5.2.
Creation,
Priority 5 : development,
Sustainable modernization
Regional of tourism
Modernization development
Operational infrastructure
3 area Pasul 20.000.000 and
Programme for the
Vulcan promotion of
tourism exploitation of
natural
resources and
increasing
tourism services
2.1 .
Rehabilitation
Rehabilitation Priority 2 : and
Regional modernization
of DJ 709 F Improvement
Operational of county roads
4 and area road 4.484.000 of regional
Programme and urban
infrastructure and local
Parng transport streets ,
construction /
rehabilitation of
ring roads
2.1 .
Rehabilitation
Rehabilitation and
Priority 2 :
neighboring Regional modernization
Improvement
roads, alleys Operational of county roads
5 6.000.000 of regional
and city Programme and urban
and local
streets streets ,
transport
(Uricani) construction /
rehabilitation of
ring roads
5.2.
Creation,
development,
modernization
Realization of tourism
and Priority 5 : infrastructure
development Sustainable for the
Regional
of rural development exploitation of
Operational
6 tourism 16.000.000 and natural
Programme
infrastructure promotion of resources and
in the tourism increasing
Campusel - tourism services
Srba

461
 0 1 2 3 4 5

Infrastructure Priority 1
Program
for
Operaional Expansion Expansion and
sustainable
and modernization
7 tourism in the 10.556.000 Sectorial
modernization of water and
tourist area de Mediu of water and wastewater
Parang
(Petrosani wastewater

5.2.
Creation,
Rehabilitation development,
Priority 5 :
tourist resort modernization
Sustainable
Straja, Regional of tourism
development
landscaping Operational infrastructure
8 3.000.000 and
recreation Programme for the
promotion of
area and exploitation of
tourism
access routes natural
Braita resources and
increasing
tourism services

Priority Axis 1 - Human Resources Development

- Area of Intervention 1.1.- Adaptation of the working population in the region, the new
requirements of the business, materialized by:
- implementation of programs / retraining in occupations needed for new economic
sectors developed in the region;
- adapting curricula of secondary and higher education to the new vision of
development of the area;
- development of civic responsibility and involvement in projects run by government,
at the local level;
- training and management skills ;

Priority Axis 3 Infrastructure development in the region

- Area of Intervention 3.1. Transport infrastructure, materialized by:
- completion road Cmpu lui Neag - Herculane;
- rehabilitation of the access road to DN 7A Petrosani Voineasa;
- restoring the old way " of potalioanelor " linking Haeg Depression and Depression
Petrosani through Merior Dealul Babii - Vulcan ;
- further modernize roads, alleys and sidewalks;
- Area of Intervention 3.2. Branches of utilities, materialized by:
- preparation of feasibility studies for the development of projects of development of
the various utility branches;
- modernisation of street lighting systems;
- improving living conditions by restoring housing and utilities;

Priority Axis 4 Development of the area as a national and regional tourist attraction
- Area of Intervention 4.1. Recovery tourism potential, materialized by:
- rehabilitation access road infrastructure to tourist attractions in the Jiu Valley;
- development of an amusement park, theme in the Jiu Valley;

462
 - rehabilitation existing accommodation facilities and arrangement new ones at a
quality level as high as possible;
- arrangement and expanding areas suitable for winter sports: ski slopes, lift facilities
for people installing equipment for lighting at night, in winter;
- arangement a rural area-specific view practice agritourism ;
- Area of Intervention 4.2. Insurance and travel services competitive materialized by:
- formation professional workforce to ensure specific services;
- encouraging tourism companies to obtain quality certificates;
- arrangement new mountain refuges;
- capitalization crafted creation through tourism, crafts, folk archi-tecture and folk
manifestations zone;
- Area of Intervention 4.3 Activities to promote the area, materialized by:
- to promote a positive image of the Jiu Valley, to attract tourists, tour operators and
investment;
- realization billboards, flyers, catalogs main attractions at the Jiu Valley;
- arrangement a thematic tourist route with an emphasis on traditio-nal recipes, crafts
and craftsmen
- development tourist information centers and maintaining a website of the Jiu Valley
region as a means to promote tourism;

Priority Axis 5 Environmental protection

- Area of Intervention 5.1 Solving environmental sector materialized by:
- integrated waste management (collection, transport, storage and recycling) at
regional level;
- sustainable economic -development logging;
- ecological rehabilitation land in areas affected by intense economic activity ;

- and accessing funding sources for the development of projects viable and will result in
the Depression as the Jiu Valley area favorable economic development by replacing
dependence region of the mining industry.

3 CONCLUSION

Ecotourism as economic and social activity must become a component of sustainable

tourism in the mountain, the 10 principles for sustainable tourism development can be applied
in this case:
sustainable use of tourism resources (optimal exploitation, conservation,
protection);
reducing the consumption and wastage of interest;
preserving the diversity of natural, cultural and social development of rural areas;
integrating tourism in national development planning and strategy, regional and
local especially (general infrastructure development and technical - municipal)

463
 involvement of local communities in the tourism sector by supporting the initiative
groups for developing and supporting local supply, protecting the environment and cultural
assets;
specialists and public consultation in the development of tourism and the local
economy to avoid conflicts of interest between government policy and the local tourism
entrepreneurs and population;
sustainable development of tourism should be maintained through training, skills
development, training civic appropriate sociological and ecological;
promoting ecotourism marketing in the tourism market study of local and regional area
or nationally and internationally;
research and monitoring of ecotourism and actions to protect and conserve the
environment and tourism resources.

Positive impacts generated by ecotourism will be felt in the macro - economic, whereas the
Jiu Valley will be developed in terms of tourism can be promoted as a tourist region of national
interest.
Rural territory with its environment - natural and built resources related travel, is the
support and the raw material for ecological tourism, sustainable exploitation falls within the
concept of sustainable tourism
Ecotourism has implications for local tourist maximize resources and raise the living
standards of inhabitants bad in socio - economicdevelopment of the quality of rural and
community in general.
Not least in protecting and preserving the natural and built environment in the context
of economic activities on ecological principles (sustainable)

Acknowledgments

This paper was cofinanced from the European Social Fund through Sectorial Operational
Programme - Human Resources Development 2007-2013, project number
POSDRU/1871.5/S/155605, entitled Scientific excellence, knowledge and innovation through
doctoral programs in prioritary domains, Beneficiary University of Petroani

REFERENCES
1. Glvan V., 2000, Turismul i protecia mediului probleme prioritare, Revista romn de
statistic nr. 8-9, Bucureti
2. Ionacu Ghe., 2000, Protecia mediului montan, Ed. Academica
3. Tufescu V. Mocanu C-tin, 1964, Depresiunea Petroanilor, Ed. tiinific, Bucureti
4. http://www.por.ro/attach_files/strategia Valea Jiului

464
CRITICAL STUDY IN MATHEMATICAL APPROACH OF DATA
PROCESSING IN EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH ON THE
PHENOMENON OF ORGANIZATIONAL STRESS

Phd. Stud. mat. Pricope Sorin [email protected]

University of Petroani +(40)721 975 910
Phd.student. Psih.Pricope(Muntean) Luminia Doina [email protected]
University of Petroani +(40)723 669 311

Abstract :

This paper proposes four regression methods of processing experimental data to the
phenomenon of organizational stress. The four regression methods are: the method of linear
regression, polynomial regression method, the exponential regression method and logarithmic
regression method. Depending on the processing method we obtain an index R whose value
can vary depending on the method. The method that gets the lowest number R is the method
with the highest degree of reliability in researching the phenomenon of organizational stress.
Data-processing methods are much more numerous/ diverse, but we stopped on these four
herein. The database used for the study includes staff, decision makers, from EM Lonea (Mine
Lonea) and was collected in the field in August 2015.
Using mathematical regression formulas, we establish the laws of variation of the phenomenon
of stress within the organization Lonea Mine, Hunedoara County in Romania and the confidence
in each law of variation. Depending on the value of this ratio resulted from each method of
regression, comparing each other, we address in critical manner which of the laws of variation
caused by a particular method of regression is closer to the truth.

Key words :

Mathematical regression, mining, organizational stress, law of variation, compared criticity

465
1 Introduction. General concept of stress

Regardless if we want or not, we have to face with stress throughout our lives. It is a common
phenomenon but still we do not know how to guard against stress and its effects. We
experience anger, panic, apathy, we are tired, frustrated or fearful; rapid conclusion is: we are
stressed. And nothing is wrong: all of the above are masks of stress.
As etymology, stress as a concept comes from English and means "constraint, suffering" but
also has the sense of burden, stress, tension, being taken from physics, as excessive constraint
supported by a building material. In the modern sense we are interested in the study limits
(psychological and medical) to which man can face adversity.

Scourge of Humanity, we used to look at stress as something purely negative, although he has
a positive component. Stress, as an expression, and also as reality is so little understood. The
absence of stress is death, it means the absence of any physically and mentally response to
environmental stimuli.
Following physiological research, scholar defines the general adaptation syndrome as mental
stress and identifies three phases in the development and installation of the:
a)- alarm phase, with exacerbated symptoms, which generally mobilizes the body , to
meet the demands of extreme situations. This in turn has two components: the shock phase
and offensive phase.
b)- resistance phase as a systemic set of defense mechanisms, given by prolonged action
of noxious stimuli to which the organism has developed defense by personal means. In this
phase identifies the "cross-resistance": once became resistant to one type of stress, the body
increases its resistance threshold for other types of stress. This phase occurs if stress is
compatible with adaptation agent. The signs of alarm phase disappear, increasing resistance
above the normal.
c)- exhaustion phase when the body can no longer handle defense, adaptation is no
longer possible and usually ends with the death of the organism. At this stage adaptation, the
energy needed at a given time is exhausted, so the signs of alarm reappear, only now they are
irreversible, and if the stressor action continues, death occurs.
The length of the body resistance of the second phase varies from one organism to another,
but limited. Although we tend to think that once produced adaptation things go back to normal,
it is not. The energy required continuous adaptation is exhausted at a time, leaving the body
without resources.

2 Define and characterize the organizational stress

A particular stress is organizational stress. In literature, organizational stress is defined as an

emotional reaction type, cognitive and behavioral, due to aggressive and harmful aspects of the
work (referring here to the working environment, organizational climate). Another definition,
called stress as "those physical and emotional responses, harmful, occurring when work
demands do not match capabilities, resources and needs of the person, which may damage or
injury to health".
Organizational stress occurs in any organization, regardless of the number of employees,
workplace or other specific features. Discrepancy between work demands and individual
capacity to adapt characterize organizational stress, feeling of helplessness in solving,
increasing at a high level.
- It is a category of mental stress, involving responses both physiological and emotional
(psychological, emotional appear first, then installing the physiological ones)

466
 - Both physiological and emotional responses and then cognitive - behavioral ones arise
from the characteristics of the job.

3 Arguments, Methodology, Research area.

In this paper, to study the issue of organizational stress for its quantification, and establishing a
parameter variation laws, will assess the results of a questionnaire of organizational stress,
consists of 7 chapters with 132 items (Chapter I -12 items, items Chapter II -18, -10 items
Chapter III, Chapter IV - 44 items, Chapter V - 11 items, Chapter VI- 16 items , Chapter VII -
21 items), which addresses issues related to the profession plus biographical information ( 13
items), a total of 145 items. They collected a total of 52 valid tests, 77 tests, the organization's
employees Lonea Mine Hunedoara county, respectively decision makers. It will construct eight
functional matrices for each chapter plus a functional matrix for biographical information. Each
functional array will consist of rows and columns, to each the number of lines is 52 (the number
of available tests), and number of columns being given to the number of items.
Arrays function will be: chapter I M1 (52x12), chapter II M2 (52x18), chapter III M3 (52x10), to
Chapter IV M4 (52x44) ... Chapter VII M7 (52x21) for biographical information M8 (52x13).
These arrays will contain marked answers with values from 1 to 5 to each item in the chapter
given by each subject interviewed deciding factor.
As a principle and method we apply this critical study only 1 item of Chapter IV: "The source of
tension within your services" and only 1 item of Chapter VI: "The measure you feel you can
manage the situation at your place of work ". Working for all items of the 8 chapters the paper
it would work too extended. We want to establish a method of quantifying this phenomenon of
organizational stress and principles for determining the law of variation to each item, for all 52
subjects interviewed decision makers by using multiple method of math regression: polynomial,
logarithmic, exponential and linear, is sufficient to apply only for two items, each from a
different chapter. It will be sufficient to establish the principle and method of determining the
law of variation as well as the confidence, depending on the mathematical regression method.
Each of the mentioned regression method will give a distinct variation law with a different
degree of confidence R. Mathematical regression method that will give the variation law and the
best confidence R, it will be considered for that item as the most faithful to the truth and the
law of variation of the most accurate organizational stress phenomenon.
Each interviewees will answer each item with answers graded from 1 to 5 representing chapter
IV 1 = definitely not the source of tension, 2 = generally not the source of tension, 3 =
neutral, 4 = usually is source of tension 5 = categoric is source of tension, and chapter VI: 1 =
I have no opinion, 2 = disagree pronounced disagreement 3 = moderate, 4 = moderately
agree, 5 = strongly agree pronounced. As was done for other items within the 8 chapters.

4 Interpretation of results

For Chapter IV the source of tension within your service" We apply these regression methods
for item nr.28 "changes (adding new tasks, due to lack of staff and personnel qualification) in
job requirements" of whose values are shown in Figures 1, No.2 and No.3, and the four laws of
variation resulting from mathematical regressions are in Figure No.4-law variation using
polynomial regression, figure No. 5-law variation using logarithmic regression, figure No. 6-law
variation using exponential regression, Figure No. 7-law variation using linear regression.

467
Highest coefficient R is the resulted one and is shown in Figure No. 3, resulting from the
determined law variation of the phenomenon for item No. 2 in chapter I, using polynomial
regression.

Fig.1

Fig.2

Fig.3
468
To Figures No.1, No.2 and No.3 are visualized responses of 52 subjects interviewed
stakeholders, under Item No. 28 of Chapter IV, with grades from 1 to 5.
If we calculate by using the perfect weighted square mean, the coefficient of quantification of
the phenomenon characterized by the item No. 28 of Chapter IV, for the 52 subjects
interviewed decision makers Mine Lonea organization we get:
C4.28= [6x(1x1) + 14x(2x2) + 9x(3x3) + 20x((4x4) + 3x(5x5)] / [ 6x1 + 14x2 + 9x3 + 20x4 +
3x5] = 538 / 156 = 3,4487
This ratio number in conjunction with the graphs below, indicate an upward trend, increasing
the source of tension at work of the 52 subjects interviewed stakeholders. C4.3 This coefficient
was noted as C4.28, where C4 = Chapter IV, and 28 to item No. 28.

Figure 4The law of variation of the phenomenon determined by mathematical regression

polynomial type for the item 28 of Chapter IV

Figure 5The law of variation of the phenomenon determined using the logarithmic regression
mathematical for item 28 of Chapter IV

In the case of this item, the lowest rate of confidence for the variation law of the phenomenon
of stress is obtained by mathematical logarithmic regression method.
469
Figure 6The law of variation of the phenomenon determined using mathematical exponential
regression to item 28 of Chapter IV

Figure 7 Law of variation of the phenomenon determined using mathematical linear regression
to item 28 of Chapter IV.
For Chapter VI "The measure you feel you can manage the situation at your place of work" We
apply these methods regression item nr.3- "If you know what you want from your job, you find
out that job that satisfy your desire ', which amounts to answers marked from 1 to 5 are
represented and viewed in different ways in Figures 8, 9 and 10, and the four laws of variation
resulting from mathematical regressions Figure nr.11- are law of variation using polynomial
regression, figure no.12 law of variation using the logarithmic regression, figure no.13-law of
variation using exponential regression, figure- no.14 law of variation using linear regression.
Highest coefficient R is the one resulted and shown in Figure No. 11, as a result from
determining the law of variation of the phenomenon to item No. 3 of Chapter VI, using
polynomial regression.

470
Figure nr.8-Chapter VI Item 3

Figure nr.9 Chapter VI Item 3

Figure nr.10
Figures 8, 9 and 10 view the responses of 52 subjects, interviewed decision makers to item No.
3 of Chapter VI, with grades from 1 to 5

471
If we calculate by using the perfect weighted square mean, the coefficient of quantification of
the phenomenon characterized by item No. 3 of Chapter VI, for the 52 subjects interviewed
decision makers Mine Lonea organization gets:
C6.3= [4x(1x1) + 7x(2x2) + 6x(3x3) + 26x((4x4) + 9x(5x5)] / [ 4x1 + 7x2 + 6x3 + 26x4 +
9x5] = 727 / 185 = 3,9297
This ratio in conjunction with the graphs below indicates the downward trend, the subjects
regarding the situation in the workplace rule. It noted that rate of C6.3: C6 = Chapter VI, and 3
to item No. 3.

Figure No. 11 Law of variation of the phenomenon determined by using mathematical

regression polynomial type for the item No. 3 of Chapter VI.

Figure No.12 Law of variation of the phenomenon determined using the logarithmic regression
mathematical for item No. 3 of Chapter VI.

472
Figure No.13 Law of variation of the phenomenon determined using mathematical exponential
regression to item No. 3 of Chapter VI.

Figure No.14 Law of variation of the phenomenon determined using mathematical linear
regression to item No. 3 of Chapter VI.
We note in this case that the law of variation of the stress phenomenon for item No. 3 of
Chapter VI, determined by mathematical exponential regression has the lowest rate of
confidence.

5 Conclusion

Determination as accurate quantification as can get of the phenomenon, organizational stress,

establish a level and a value scale, thereby lead to the possibility of improvement, counteraction
as much as possible destructive effects / negative performance of individual operating in a
organization, and in personal.

Stress as phenomenon can be quantified using mathematical formulations. You can use the law
of variation measurements using different mathematical regressions types: polynomial,
logarithmic, exponential and linear type. You can make these quantifications and using
weighting methods: geometric type, least squares type, perfect squares type, harmonic
weighting etc.

473
It is to choose that variation law that gives the highest confidence rate. The purpose consists in
the most accurate determination of this phenomenon, the math processing and presentation in
a form as more "palpable and material" to be able to undertake the most appropriate measures
and adequately as possible to optimize in terms of stress as a phenomenon the individual
environment. We refer to both the organizational environment in which the individual carries on
its activity as well as the personal.

6 BIBLIOGRAPHY

[1] Bban A., Stresul i personalitatea, Editura Presa Universitar Clujean, 1998
[2] Bodea I., Importana abordrii problemelor psihosociale din mediul de munc, Program
twinning RO-IB-99-CO-01 Romnia Suedia, Timiul de Sus, 2002
[3] Bodea I., Bozdog A.F., Burdea F., Stresul, factor de risc important pentru sntatea i
securitatea n munc la minele din Valea Jiului, Conferina Jubiliar a Inspeciei Muncii,
Securitate i Sntate n Munc, Sibiu, Romnia, 2013
[4] Floru R., Stresul psihic, Editura tiinific, Bucureti, 1974
[5] Golu M., Stresul psihic // Dicionar de psihologie social, Editura Enciclopedic,
Bucureti, 1981, pp. 235-236.
[6] Holt R., Occupational Stress. In: Gulaberger, S. Breznitz. Ed. Handbook of stress.
Theoretical and Clinical Aspects. The Free Press, New York, 1982, pp. 419-444.
[7] Irimie S., Pricope (Muntean) L.D., Pricope S., Irimie S.I., Methodological Aspects
Regarding the Organizational Stress Analysis, 7th International Conference on Manufacturing
Science and Education MSE 2015, June 3-5, 2015, Sibiu, Romania
[8] Landy F.J., Psychology: The Science of People, Prentice-Hall, Inc, 1984
[9] Lazarus R. S., Folkman S., Stress, Appraisal and Coping, Springer Publishing, New York,
1984
[10] Health and Safety Executive UK, Tackling work related stress-a guide for employees,
http: //www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/indg341.pdf
[11] European Agency for Safety and Health at Work, https://osha.europa.eu/ro
[12] European Agency for Safety and Health at Work, Ghid electronic de gestionare a
stresului i riscurilor psihosociale, 2015, http://eguides.osha.europa.eu/stress/RO-RO/
[13] European Agency for Safety and Health at Work, Campaign Guide-Managing stress and
psychosocial risks at work, https://www.healthy-workplaces.eu/en/campaign-
material/introducing-the-campaign-guide, 21 March 2013, p.7
[14] Organizaia Internaional a Muncii, http://www.ilo.org
[15] Organizaia Mondial a Sntii, http://www.who.int
[16] Pricope Sorin, Sabina Irimie, Pricope(Muntean) Luminia , Mathematical Approaches In
Stdudying Stress, IBIMA 2015
[17] Sabina Irimie, Muntean(Pricope) Luminita, Pricope Sorin, Stress As Phenomenon, IBIMA
2015

474
 THE EVALUATION OF THE COMPLEX VENTILATION
NETWORKING OF PETRILA MINE DUE TO ITS STAGE
CLOSURE

PhD Student eng. Rdoi Florin, PhD Student eng. Gherghela Androo Paul,
PhD Student eng. Chindri Larisa Cristina

ABSTRACT
The basis of human society development is to ensure raw materials and
materials required for the development of all industrial sectors, both horizontally and
vertically. An important part of raw materials are obtained by mining activities. The most
difficult mining activity includes underground mining of useful minerals. The most
dangerous activity in the underground exploitation of minerals, refers to underground
coal exploitation under the presence of gassy atmosphere. To maintain optimal security
in underground coal exploitation, there is necessary to optimize the ventilation system.
In this paper, there is presented an analysis of Petrila mining unit ventilation network
using computer technology for simulating situations which may occur in the ventilation
systems during the closure process.

KEYWORDS: ventilation, modeling, solving, simulation, closure

1. INTRODUCTION

The Earths population increase entails an increase in primary energy

consumption worldwide. In 2010, the oil consumption exceeded 4000 million tons, coal
consumption exceeded 3500 million tons of oil equivalent and the natural gas
consumption exceeded 3800 million tons of oil equivalent [4].
At European level, from the total hard coal production of 125 billion tons, Poland
holds the supremacy with 77 billion tons, representing 61.6 %.
In Romania the main coal field is in Jiu Valley. Jiu Valley coal field is located in
the south-western part of Romania, within an inter-mountain valley and it is the main
hard coal supplier from Romania [1].
The industrial exploitation of hard coal began in the second half of the 19th
century. During its best time period, coal was extracted from 14 mining units, with a total
production of 11 million tons/year. Nowadays, hard coal is hoisted from 7 mining units,
475
of which 3 mines are comprised in the conservation-closure program, producing a total
of 3 million tons of hard coal per year.

2. VENTILATION NETWORK OPTIMIZATION

In order to cope with the restructuring process, the undermined coal bed
exploitation method has been introduced, method which has increased the underground
risk factors. In order to maintain a proper safety level, the optimum distribution of air
flows for each branch is required, as ventilation is the primary protection measure in
underground mining. In this regard, there have been used specialized software and
advanced IT equipment in order to solve the ventilation networks [2, 3].
In order to achieve proper conditions for working underground, there has to be
ensured the primary protection, namely the ventilation. The aeration of mine workings
ventilation, aims to achieve three main objectives:
- Ensuring the concentration of oxygen required by the staff working
underground;
- Diluting the explosive and/or toxic gases from the mine workings network;
- Taking over the heat released in the network of mine workings, due to human
activity and geothermal gradient.
In order to achieve a proper ventilation at the level of each mine working, there is
required to optimize the air flows on each branch of the ventilation network. In this
regard, the solving of the ventilation network at the level of a mine is required.

3. PETRILA MINE UNIT VENTILATION NETWORK

Petrila mine unit ventilation network has been extremely complex. Nowadays,
due to subjective causes explosions or objective causes-depletion of useful mineral
substances reserve, it is subjected to closure. Therefore, the ventilation network
comprises two shafts for fresh air input: Center Shaft and New Shaft with Skip. Also, it
comprises a ventilation shaft with the related ventilation station (Ventilation Shaft), whilst
also includes underground mining works arranged in five horizons (horiz. -250; horiz. -
200; horiz. -150; horiz. 0; horiz. +150). These mine workings consist of cross-sectional
galleries, directional galleries, diagonal galleries, numbering cross-sectional galleries,
inclined plane, coal faces, connection risings.
The entire network comprises 126 junctions (nodes) and 154 branches.

4. MINE VENTILATION NETWORK SOLVING

In order to solve such a complex ventilation network was used the Hardy Cross
method for successive approximations. This method lays ground for Canadian
specialized software, CANVENT [5]. Using this software there could be performed the
ventilation network solving and the optimization of air flow repartition at branch level.
Solving the ventilation network of Petrila mine unit required several steps to be
performed, namely:
Marking the junctions (nodes) of the ventilation network on the spatial map of the
mine;
476
 Collecting geodesic coordinates for the identified junctions;
Inputting the geodesic coordinates of the existing junctions and branches into the
database of the software Figure 1;

Figure 2: Geodesic coordinates specific for the ventilation network

Carrying out specialized measurements in situ:

o Measurements regarding the aerodynamic parameters of the mine
workings;
o Measurements regarding the geometric parameters of the mine workings;
o Measurements regarding the physical parameters of air.
Calculating the aerodynamic resistances related to each branch;
Inputting the values of specific parameters of the ventilation network into the
database of 3D-CANVENT Figure 2

Figure 3: Parameters specific for the ventilation network

2D or 3D representation of the ventilation network;

Balancing the ventilation network;
Solving the ventilation network. This phase identifies the direction and optimal
repartition of air flows over each branch Figure 3;
Results obtainment

477
 Figure 4: Petrila mine unit ventilation network

In this final phase, the data regarding the graphical solving of the ventilation
network are available electronically or in paper.
Ventilation network of Petrila mine unit was updated in 2014. For solving the
ventilation network, the entire ventilation network of Petrila mine unit was taken into
account.
The current update of Petrila mine unit ventilation network has been performed in
relation with the previously solved ventilation network. Also, it was taken into account
the fact that the undermined coal beds 434E and 434W are mined in a single field 434
at sublevel II, under horizon -150, and that the undermined coal faces 431 and 433 are
mined in a single field 433 at sublevel V floor, horizon -250.
In order to update the ventilation network were removed the following circuits and
mine workings: circuit related to undermined coal bed no. 237W, seam 3, Bl. II, horizon
-250; circuit related to undermined coal bed no. 238, seam 3, bl. II, sub-horizon -250;
circuit related to undermined coal bed no. 239, seam 3, bl. II, horizon -250; circuit
related to undermined coal bed no. 331, seam 3, bl. II, horizon -250; circuit related to
undermined coal bed no. 333, seam 3, bl. II, sub-horizon -200; circuit related to
undermined coal bed no. 434W, seam 3, bl. II, sub-horizon -150; circuit related to
undermined coal bed no. 434E, seam 3, bl. II, sub-horizon -150; circuit related to
undermined coal bed no. 336, seam 3, bl. II, sub-horizon -150; main cross-sectional
gallery horizon -250; cross-sectional gallery horizon 250; rising 433, between horizon -
250 and -215 elevation; cross-sectional gallery 433 horizon -200; cross-sectional gallery
434 horizon -150; directional gallery W, horizon -200, PO 15 circuit horizon -100.
Also, there have been inserted into the ventilation network: circuit related to
undermined coal bed no. 433, seam 3, bl. II, horizon -250; circuit related to undermined
coal bed no. 434, seam 3, bl. II, horizon -150; rising 434, between horizon -250 and -
200; cross-sectional gallery 434 horizon -200; cross-sectional gallery 433 horizon -200;
cross-sectional gallery 434 horizon -150.
At the same time have been placed ventilation constructions on the following
locations: main cross-sectional gallery -250; cross-sectional gallery no. 237 horizon -
250; cross-sectional gallery 433 horizon -250; directional gallery W, horizon -250; cross-
sectional gallery 434, horizon -200; connection gallery coal face 434, sublevel II, sub-
horizon -150; directional gallery W, horizon -150; inclined plane 336-337; cross-
sectional gallery no. 336, horizon -200; cross-sectional gallery no. 237, horizon -200;
478
diagonal gallery, horizon -150; cross-sectional gallery no 336, horizon -150; connection
gallery horizon -250 to plane -300-250; directional gallery E, horizon -200; cross-
sectional gallery horizon +150.
Compared to the previously solved ventilation network, the following results were
obtained:
Air flow on the fresh air supply circuit at horizon -250, main cross-sectional
gallery significantly decreased with 2.44 % from 13. 92 m3/s to 13.58m3/s.
Air flow at the level of the undermined coal bed no. 433 is 3.71 m3/s.
Air flow at the level of the undermined coal bed no. 434 is 3.23 m3/s.
Air flow at level of horizon -200, mai cross-sectional gallery significantly
increased with 62.12 % from 9.03 m3/s to 14.64m3/s.
Air flow at level of horizon -150, main cross-sectional gallery substantially
increased with 204.87 % from 6.36 m3/s to 19.39m3/s.
Air flow at level of horizon - 100, main cross-sectional gallery substantially
increased with 82.54 % from 1.26 m3/s to 2.30 m3/s.
On the main return air exhaustion circuit, horizon -100 horizon +0, air flow
moderately increased with 23.37 % from 27.73 m3/s to 34.21 m3/s.
At mine level, on the Ventilation Shaft, air flow moderately decreased with 12.47
% from 51.8 m3/s to 45.15 m3/s.
At the level of the main ventilation station, air flow moderately decreased with
24.5 % from 61.93 m3/s to 46.48 m3/s.
In terms of short-circuiting, on the Ventilation Shaft, air flow significantly
decreased with 87.15 % from 10.35 m3/s to 1.33 m3/s.

5. SIMULATIONS PERFORMED ON THE VENTILATION NETWORK

CANVENT software for solving ventilation networks allows the simulation of

changes which may occur in the ventilation network. Therefore, in the ventilation
network of Petrila mine subject to closure were simulated the following situations:
Simulation no. 1 Closure of undermined coal bed no. 433, seam 3, block II,
sublevel V, horizon -250 and setting into the general depression of undermined coal bed
no. 433, seam 3, block II, sublevel I, horizon -250.
Simulation no. 2 Closure of undermined coal bed no. 434, seam 3, block II,
sublevel II, sub-horizon -150 and setting into the general depression of undermined coal
bed no. 434, seam 3, block II, sublevel III, sub-horizon -150
Simulation no. 3 Closure of ventilation circuit no. 336, seam 3, block II,
between horizons: -100 and -200.
Simulation no. 4 - Closure of ventilation circuit no. 433, seam 3, block II.
Simulation no. 5 - Closure of ventilation circuit no. 434, seam 3, block II.
Simulation no. 6 Closure of productive horizons, between horizons -250, -200
and -150.
Simulation no. 7 Closure of Blind Shaft (PO) 15 between horizons -250 and 0.
Simulation no. 8 Closure of horizon 0 connections.
For exemplification is presented Simulation no.1 - Closure of undermined coal
bed no. 433, seam 3, block II, sublevel V, horizon -250 and setting into the general
depression of undermined coal bed no. 433, seam 3, block II, sublevel I, horizon -250.

479
In order to perform this simulation, there have been removed 6 branches related to
undermined coal bed 433, seam 3, block II, sub-level V, horizon -250, respectively there
have been inserted 9 branches related to undermined coal bed 433, seam 3, block II,
sub-level I, sub-horizon -250.
Changes conducted within this modelling are presented in Figure 4.

Figure 5: Ventilation network - simulation 1

Compared to the ventilation network updated in 2014, the following results were
obtained:
Air flow on the fresh air supply circuit at horizon -250, main cross-sectional
gallery insignificantly decreased with 2.87%, from 13.58 m3/s to 13.19 m3/s.
Air flow at the level of the undermined coal bed no. 433 insignificantly increased
with 1.88%, from 3.71 m3/s to 3.78 m3/s.
Air flow at the level of the undermined coal bed no. 434 insignificantly increased
with 2.47%, from 3.23 m3/s to 3.31 m3/s .
Air flow at level of horizon -200, main cross-sectional gallery insignificantly
increased with 1.64%, from 14.64 m3/s to 14.88 m3/s.
Air flow at level of horizon -150, main cross-sectional gallery insignificantly
decreased with 19.39 m3/s to 19.17 m3/s.
Air flow at level of horizon - 100, main cross-sectional gallery insignificantly
increased with 1.13%, from 2.30 m3/s to 2.34 m3/s.
On the main return air exhaustion circuit, horizon -100 horizon +0, air flow
insignificantly decreased with 0.09%, from 34.21 m3/s to 34.18 m3/s.
At mine level, on the Ventilation Shaft, air flow insignificantly decreased with
0.09%, from 45.15 m3/s to 45.14 m3/s.
At the level of the main ventilation station, air flow remained the same 46.48 m3/s.
In terms of short-circuiting, on the Ventilation Shaft, air flow insignificantly
increased with 0.75%, from 1.33 m3/s to 1.34 m3/s.

6. CONCLUSIONS

480
 Solving ventilation networks using computational techniques is a giant step
forward which allows the optimization of ventilation management and real-time
visualisation of the networks changes.
The ventilation network used for exemplification belongs to Petrila mine unit and
comprises 2 shafts, 1 ventilation shaft, horizons and many mine workings (cross-
sectional, directional, diagonal galleries, inclined planes, connection risings and coal
faces).
Solving the ventilation network of Petrila mine unit has been performed using
CANVENT software and required 10 main steps for reaching this objective. The
application of CANVENT software allowed the performance of eight simulations in the
ventilation network of Petrila mine unit, of which simulation no. 1 was presented, and
which represent changes which may occur in the ventilation system during the closure
process.
The method for solving the ventilation network using computational techniques,
allows modelling and solving ventilation networks, as well as any other simulation of
changes which may occur in the ventilation system, regardless of its complexity.

REFERENCES

[21] Bltreu R., Teodorescu C.: Ventilation and Occupational Safety in Mines (in
Romanian), Didactical and Pedagogical Publishing House, Bucharest, Romania,
1971.
[2]Cioclea D. a.s.o.: Ventilation network solving based on pressure measurements
in order to establish air flows, pressures, aerodynamic resistances, in work places
from Vulcan mine unit, (in Romanian), INSEMEX Research study, 2006
[3] Gherghe I. a.s.o.: Services for modelling and simulating Lonea mine unit
ventilation network, (in Romanian), INSEMEX Research Study, 2008 Lonea
[4] Morar Marius Simion, Sorin Mihai Radu, Doru Cioclea, Mititica Teodora, The
effects of explosions on the underground ventilation system, 14 th International
Multidisciplinary Scientific Geoconference, SGEM 2014, Science and
Technologies in Geology, Exploration and Mining, Conference Proceedings,
Vol.III, 17-26.06.2014, Albena, Bulgaria, pp.665-672, ISBN 978-619-7105-09-4,
[5] CANVENT Mining and Minerals Sciences Laboratories Underground Mine
Environment and Ventilation, Manual de utilizare program 3D CANVENT
2K

481
 POSIBILITATI DE REABILITARE A TERENURILOR
AFECTATE DE EXPLOATARILE MINIERE DE SUPRAFATA
DIN ZONA DORBOGEI -TURCOAIA
Mihai-Nicolae TIBA

1 PREZENTAREA GENERALA A ZONEI TURCOAIA

Turcoaia este localitatea situata in judetul Tulcea, Dobrogea. Comuna Turcoaia este situata in
partea de nord-vest a judetului Tulcea, pe malul drept al Dunarii .Pe teritoriului administrativ al
comunei Turcoaia, se aflau doua cariere : - Cariera Iacob deal, cea mai mare din tara si -
Cariera Turcoaia denumita si Fantana Manole.
ClimaClima se manifesta printr-un regim temperat cu pronuntat continentalism unde verile sunt
secetoase, iar iernile sunt friguroase si lipsite de umiditate. Temperatura medie anuala variaza
intre 10.5C si 11C. Vara, in iulie, se inregistreaza temperaturi medii cuprinse intre 22C, iar
iarna, in ianuarie, mediile termice se inscriu cu valorile intre -1,9C si -1,5C.ApelePrincipalele
rauri din Dobrogea de Nord sunt: Taita(57 km), Telita(48 km), Slava(38,3 km), care se varsa in
Lacul Razim si raurile Cerna, Aiorman, Jijila-Sarniar, care se varsa in Dunare. Lacurile din
aceasta zona se impart dupa geneza:- limane maritime (situate pe tarmul lacului Razim):
Babadag, Agighiol, Sarinasuf, Tuzla;- limane fluviatile: Peceneaga, Traian;- lacuri situate pe
albia unor brate parasite ale Dunarii: Beibugeac, Slatina, Sarat, Carpina.Rezervatii naturaleIn
Podisul Dobrigei de Nord exista patru rezervatii forestiere, trei rezervatii botanice, doua
rezervatii paleontologice si o rezervatie mixta, dar si Parcul National Muncii Macin:- Padurea
Valea Fagilor de le Luncavita (154 ha);- Dealul Pietrosul de la Agighiol (167m, 9,70 ha);-
Dealul Bujoarele de la Turcoaia (207m, 8ha);- Rezervatia mixta capul Dolosaman de la
Jurilovca (56m, 125ha);- Rezervatia Nationala Muntii Macin (1132 ha).

2 PREZENTAREA CARIEREI SI A HALDEI TURCOAIA

Lucrari miniere de exploatarePentru exploatarea zacamantului de granit se aplica metoda de

exploatare in cariera, in trepte descendente cu dislocarea masei miniere cu explozivi plasati in
gauri de sonda forate descendent, incarcarea masei miniere din frontul de exploatare cu
excavatoare cu cupa si transport auto la statia de concasare sortare mobila sau la halda de
steril.
Lucrari de haldareProdusele reziduale rezultate din activitatea de exploatare a granitelor
industriale si de constructii din perimetrul analizat sunt reprezentate de rocile sterile existente in
482
acoperisul masivului de granit.Rocile sterile rezultate din cariera Turcoaia au provenit din
lucrarile de deschidere si pregatire (descopertarea campului minier si partial din saparea
acceselor necesare deschiderii treptelor de exploatare) si din procesarea zacamantului.Haldarea
rocilor sterile provenite de la descoperta s-au realizat pe intreaga suprafata, pozitionata in
partea de sud a amplasamentului in partea stanga a organizarii de santier, pe terenuri
neproductive.Haldarea rocilor sterile provenite din fluxul tehnologic de prelucrare a agregatelor
minerale este pozitionata in partea de sud est a amplasamentului avand organizarea de santier
pe latura din stanga.
Etapele reabilitarii biologice ale unei halde de sterilMetoda de reabilitareEtapele specifice
reabilitariiI. Reabilitarea tehnicaa)Recuperarea si conservarea solului decopertatb)Decopertarea,
transportul si depunerea materialului sterilc) Construirea haldei de sterild) Stabilizarea haldeie)
Depunerea solului conservat pe halda stabilizataf) Ameliorarea solului antropic de pe haldeII.
Reabilitarea ecologicaa) Cultivarea forestiera a haldeib) Cultivarea agricola a haldei
Propunerea mea privind reintegrarea functionala a terenurilor afectate de la Turcoaia se pliaza
pe specificitatea structurii haldate, actionand in sensul personalizarii solutiilor si metodologiei de
reabilitare. Asadar trebuie urmarit, pe langa caracteristicile tehnice ale construirii, atat specificul
economiei regionale (potential eolian) cat si integrarea placuta in peisajul local (estetica
reamenajarii), toate acestea sugereaza faptul ca metoda de reabilitare recomandabila este de
natura ecologica, economica si durabila. Solutia propusa consta in realizarea unui parc eolian in
exteriorul arealului forestier de pe halda Turcoaia.Consider deosebit de util acestui proiect de
reintegrare functionala, asocierea unui centru de cercetare, in vederea asigurarii unei adaptari
continue la metodele metodologiile cele mai noi in domeniu

3 IMPLEMENTAREA ENERGIEI EOLIENE, ENERGIE REGENERABILA O

SOLUTIE DURABILA PENTRU REABILITAREA ECONOMICA A ZONEI DE
HALDARE A CARIEREI TURCOAIA

Potentialul tarii noastre in domeniul producerii de energie verde este astfel:producerii de

energie verde este astfel:-65% biomasa65% biomasa-17% energie eoliana17% energie
eoliana- 12% energie solara12% energie solara- 4% microhidrocentrale4%
microhidrocentrale- 1% fotovoltaica + 1% geotermala- 1% fotovoltaica + 1% geoterma
Legenda:I. Delta Dunarii (energie solara);II. Dobrogea (energie solara si eoliana);III. Moldova
(campie si podis - microhidro, energie eoliana si biomasa);IV. Muntii Carpati ( biomasa,
microhidro, energie eoliana);V. Podisul Transilvaniei (microhidro);VI. Campia de Vest (energie
geotermala);VII. Subcarpatii (biomasa, microhidro);VIII. Campia de Sud (biomasa, energie
geotermala si solara).
Energia Eoliana
Puterea vantului este conversia energiei vantului intr-o forma folositoare, cum ar fi
electricitatea, folosind turbine de vant. La sfarsitul anului 2010, capacitatea mondiala instalata a
generatoarelor eoliene era de 198 GW. Energia eoliana este produsa in ferme mari de eoliene,
conectate la reteaua de electricitate, dar si prin turbine individuale folosite pentru producerea
de energie electrica in locuri izolate.

483
 4 TRANSFORMAREA IMPACTULUI NEGATIV ASUPRA MEDIULUI
INCONJURATOR AL HALDEI EXTERIOARE TURCOAIA, INTR-UN IMPACT
POZITIV, PRIN AMENAJAREA UNUI PARC EOLIAN

In prezent folosinta actuala a terenurilor este de depozitarea sterilului. Potentialul viitor in

conditiile nerealizarii parcurilor eoliene este legat de resursele naturale.In cazul neimplementarii
planurilor, amplasamentul studiat isi va pastra actuala folosinta, fiind incorect exploatata si in
neconcordanta cu actuala intentie in ceea ce priveste dezvoltarea durabila a comunei Turcoaia
si cu cerintele actuale de valorificare din punct de vedere economic a resurselor din zona,
respectiv a potentialului eolian al zonei.
Flora de pe amplasamentSpeciile observate apartin unor familii caracterizate prin organe
vegetative carnoase ce acumuleaza apa, frunze prevazute cu peri sau tepi pentru reducerea
evapotransiratiei si pentru captarea apei din atmosferaFauna in zona amplasamentuluiEste
reprezentata de specii de rozatoare specifice: popandaul, orbetele, harciogul mic, dihorul de
stepa prezent doar in Dobrogea, la care se adauga reptile de origine submediteraneana: soparla
dobrogeana, gusterul, vipera cu corn, broasca testoasa de uscat, insecte.
IMPACTUL ESTIMAT ASUPRA FACTORULUI DE MEDIU AERIMPACTUL ESTIMAT ASUPRA
FACTORULUI DE MEDIU AER
Sursele de emisie a poluantilor atmosferici sunt surse la sol, deschise (cele care implica
manevrarea materialelor de constructii si prelucrarea solului) si mobile (utilaje si autocamioane).
In timpul functionarii obiectivului propus nu exista surse de poluare a aerului in timpul
functionarii obiectivului.
IMPACTUL PRODUS ASUPRA SOLULUI SI SUBSOLULUILa realizarea acestui proiect sunt posibile
decopertari minime, cu un impact redus asupra solului.In timpul constructiei, impactul asupra
solului va fi determinat de:- degradarea solurilor ca urmare a depunerilor particulelor in
suspensie rezultate pe parcursul excavarilor si a constructiilor;-praful de ciment, diversele
metale, uleiurile si lubrifiantii pot contamina solul din jurul zonei afectate si solul de-a lungul
drumurilor de acces;Dupa construire, obiectivul nu produce poluare asupra solului si
subsolului.IMPACTUL PRODUS ASUPRA BIODIVERSITATIIImpactul asupra biodiversitatii locale
in timpul constructiei obiectivului se manifesta in special datorita decopertarilor pentru
constructia fundatiilor turnurilor si a drumurilor de acces, a prafului produs de lucrarile de
santier si datorita zgomotului produs de utilajele folosite.Constructia parcului eolian nu va afecta
integritatea Parcului National Muntii Macinului, situandu-se la limita acestuia.
RECOMANDARI
Varfurile palelor centralelor eoliene se vor vopsi in culori vii pentru a evita lovirea acestora de
catre pasari.Turnurile se vor semnaliza cu lumina rosie intermitenta, cu interval mare de timp
intre doua aprinderi.Este interzisa deversarea apelor uzate rezultate din desfasurarea
activitatilor de constructie in spatiile naturale existente in zona. Pentru muncitori se vor folosi
WC-uri ecologice.In cazul unor posibile deversari accidentale de ape uzate, uleiuri sau
combustibili proveniti de la utilajele folosite, se recomanda colaborarea cu firme specializate in
depoluari.Este interzisa depozitarea materialelor sau circulatia autovehiculelor pe spatiile verzi,
cu exceptia celor destinate pentru organizarea de santier.Refacerea cu sol fertil a suprafetelor
afectate, incepand de la baza turnurilor, astfel incat sa nu ramana teren neintegrat in circuitul
agricol, in afara celui prevazut in proiect.Amplasarea turbinelor se va face astfel incat la limita
perimetrului amplasamentului, nivelurile de zgomot si vibratii sa se incadreze in limitele impuse
prin standardele in vigoare.Activitatea de prevenire a incendiilor trebuie sa fie sustinuta de
masuri adecvate conform legislatiei in vigoare si recomandarilor producatorului.

484
 CONSIDERATII FINALE

Efectul benefic al producerii de energie electrica prin metode nepoluante nu poate fi contestat,
deoarece aceasta metoda asigura producerea de energie eliminand emisiile poluante specifice
altor metode.Turbinele eoliene nu produc nici un fel de poluare asupra factorilor de mediu in
perioada de functionare deoarece energia eoliana este o energie verde.Amplasarea in zona nu
afecteaza in mod semnificativ flora sau fauna din zonelor protejate (parcuri, rezervatii
etc.).Amplasarea turbinelor eoliene in vecinatatea unor asezari umane este recomandata in
literatura de specialitate, deoarece pasarile migratoare ocolesc aceasta zona in mod normal, iar
zonele de cuibarit si hranire sunt alese in afara zonelor locuite.Turbinele eoliene vor contribui la
dezvoltarea economiei locale.

Bibliografie

[1] Fodor,D., Influena industriei miniere asupra mediului, Buletinul AGIR nr.3/2006.
[2] Georgescu, M., Utilizarea spaiilor subterane, curs e-learning, Petroani, 2012.
[3] Georgescu, M., Managementul riscurilor de mediu, curs on-line, Petroani, 2014.
[4] Robu, Brndua, Evaluarea impactului i a riscului induse asupra mediului de activiti
industriale, Ed.EcoZone, Iai, 2005.
[5] x x x, Strategia industriei miniere pentru perioada 2012-2035, Document programatic,
2012.

485
 CONSIDERATII GENERALE PRVIND FOLOSIREA
STERILULUI MINIER PENTRU STABILIZAREA CHIMICA SI
FIZICA A SOLURILOR SI CA ADAOSURI IN MATERIALE DE
CONSTRUCTII.
Drd. ing. Chindri Larisa Cristina, drd. ing. Rdoi Florin,
drd. ing. Gherghela Androo Paul
R EZUM AT:
In urma activitatii extractive si de procesare, rezulta o cantitate insemnata de deseuri miniere,
sub forma de steril mineral. Aceste deseuri sunt depozitate in mare parte in iazuri de decantare
sau halde miniere. Compozitia chimica a materialului depozitat in halda depinde de la o
exploatare la alta, in functie de tipul de zacamant si geneza acestuia precum si de compozitia
chimica si mineralogica a zacamantului. Un alt factor important in chimia steriului aflat in
depozite, reprezinta modul si tehnica de procesare a mineralelor. Pentru o buna perioada de
timp pe plan mondial, depozitele de steril au fost considerate deseuri fara posibilitate de
utilizare ulterioara. La ora actuala, se urmareste realizarea unor programe de cercetare
mondiale pentru a se putea determina posibilitatea utilizarii sterilului minier in varii domenii.
Principalul domeniu spre care se tinteste este cel al constructiilor, ca materie prima la fabricarea
betoanelor, mortarului sau n reteaua de infrastructura. O alta ramura unde au fost efectuate
cercetari este posibilitatea folosirii materialelor sterile ca sursa pentru fertilizarea terenurilor.
Prin aceste metode terenurile ocupate de depozite pot fi degajate in totalitate.
CUVINTE CHEIE: halda, steril, constructii, adaos

ABSTR ACT:
Following mining and processing activity, results a significant amount of mining wastes, in the
form of sterile mineral. These wastes are stored largely in mining tailing ponds or heaps. The
chemical composition of the sterile material depends from one mining site to another, being in
direct realtion to the type of deposit and its genesis, as well as chemical and mineralogical
composition of the deposit. Another important factor influencing the chemistry of the deposit is
the mineral processing technique. For long time worldwide, tailings deposits were considered
waste deposits, without the possibility of future use. Currently, the aim is to achieve and
determine though global research programs the possibility of using mining waste from mine
tailing in various domains. The main focuse area is that of construction, where mining waste
can be used for the production of concrete, or in infrastructure stabilization. Another area
where research has been conducted, is the possibility of using mining waste as a source of
fertilization. Through these methods, terrains occupied by deposits can be entirely cleared.
K EYW ORDS: tailing, sterile, construction, admixture

486
 1 Introducere

Romania este o tara care dispune de cantitati semnificative si tipuri variate de resurse minerale,
cum ar fi minereuri cu coninut aurifer, argint, magneziu, cupru, minereuri feroase si
polimetalice, smd.
Deeurile extractive sunt definite n Directiva privind managemetul deeurilor din industria
extractiva dup cum urmeaz: Deeuri rezultate din prospectare, din extracia, tratarea i
depozitarea resurselor minerale i din exploatarea n cariere.
In urma activitatii extractive si de procesare, rezulta o cantitate insemnata de deseuri miniere,
sub forma de steril mineral. Conform institutiilor de statistica Europene, activitatea miniera si
extractive din Europa genereaza peste 50% din totalul deseurilor industriale. Cea mai mare
cantitate din aceste deseuri este depozitata in halde si iazuri de decantare. (Castro-Gomes et
ale, 2011). Pentru o buna perioada de timp pe plan mondial, depozitele de steril au fost
considerate deseuri fara posibilitate de utilizare ulterioara. La ora actuala, se urmareste
realizarea unor programe de cercetare mondiale pentru a se putea determina posibilitatea
utilizarii sterilului minier in varii domenii. Procesarea sterilelor minerale solide si obtinerea de
subproduse utilizabile economic are importanta majora, atat din punct de vedere economic cat
si din punct de vedere al managementului mediului, avand un impact major asupra protejarii
mediului inconjurator. La nivel modial cat si national au fost efectuate cercetari care au urmarit
dezvoltarea de tehnologii de procesare a sterilelor miniere, in vederea obtinerii de produse care
pot fi valorificate.

2 Caracterizarea deseurilor rezultate in urma exploatarilor miniere

In urma operatiiunilor de preparare, rezulta deseuri miniere care se consituie in general in

material steril. Acesta se afla in aceasta faza in suspensie in apa. Acest amestec se introduce
intr-un bazin de decantare in vederea sedimentarii fazei solide.
Tipuri de depozite in industria miniera:
Dup modul de transport si stocare:
- depozitare i stocare n stare uscat halde;
- depozitare n amestec de ap iazuri de decantare.
In continuare vom descrie problemele si caracteristicile reziduurilor miniere in faza solida.
n Romnia, de-a lungul timpului, au fost construite, ca urmare a activitilor miniere, 64 de
iazuri de decantare, care ocup o suprafa de aproape 1350 ha i nmagazineaz peste 350
milioane m3 de steril. (Fodor, 2006).
Efectele negative generate asupra mediului nconjurtor de construirea i exploatarea iazurilor
de decantare si haldelor sunt: distrugerea i ocuparea unor mari suprafee de teren; poluarea
apelor de la suprafa sau din subteran cu elemente chimice dizolvate sau cu suspensii de
particule solide antrenate din diguri de ctre apele de ploaie sau de infiltraii; poluarea aerului
cu gaze rezultate din mineralele coninute n iazuri sau produse prin oxidarea i arderea
acestora; distrugeri materiale i de viei omeneti datorit pierderii stabilitii etc. (Fodor, 2006)
Utilizarea aproape universal a iazurilor de decantare ca metod principal de stocare a
sterilului i de tratare a apelor poluate din industria minier, provine fr ndoial de la faptul c
acestea pot ndeplini mai multe funcii, totul reprezentnd un sistem de depozitare i tratare a
sterilului i a apelor destul de ieftin.
Atunci cnd se abordeaz problema securitii iazurilor de decantare, anumite aspect
fundamentale tebuie luate in considerare: stabilitatea fizic, adic ruperea digului n urma unor
mecanisme de alunecare, scufundare, eroziune etc; urmatorul aspect privete stabilitatea
chimic, aceea care se refer la creterea aciditii apei; ultimul aspect urmareste infiltrarea de
material toxic.
487
 Figure 1: Elemententele principale ale unui iaz de decantare Victor Raduca, 2010
De asemenea, problemele i pericolele asociate haldelor de roci sterile generate de exploatrile
miniere, includ urmtoarele: instabilitatea taluzurilor, generarea de ape acide i descrcarea de
substane toxice care pot conduce la contaminarea apelor de suprafa i subterane din aval,
poluarea cu praf i eroziunea, degradarea terenurilor.
Exist dou concepte generale de remediere a zonei ocupate de depozitele de steril steril:
a) remedierea in situ,
b) relocarea complet.
Relocarea complet este recomandata atunci cand volumele ce trebuiesc dislocate sunt relativ
mici, iar raportul dintre volumul de deeuri i aria contaminat este de asemenea mic.
Dac relocarea este una din soluiile care pot fi adoptate, vor fi analizate raporturile dintre
costuri i beneficii.
n astfel de cazuri, trebuie avute in vedere urmatoarele aspecte:
ca distana dintre halda care urmeaz a fi relocat i noul amplasament s nu fie
semnificativ;
condiiile tehnice iniiale i de infrastructur pentru relocare sunt mai mult sau mai puin
ndeplinite, adic relocarea nu va atrage costuri suplimentare foarte ridicate n
conexiune cu msura de remediere propriu-zis (de exemplu, pentru construcia
drumului), iar disconfortul populaiei ca urmare a relocrii este n limite acceptabile.

3 Tipuri de deseuri miniere si utilizarea acestora in constructii

Utilizarea reziduurilor miniere ca material de constructii pentru taluzurle drumurilor,

autostrazilor, raurilor si indiguiri, in schimbul utilizarii materialelor naturale ori a materialelor de
constructii, a crescut in ultimii ani. (Yellishettya et ale, 2008). De asemenea, reziduurile miniere
sunt folosite la scara larga pentru imbunatatiri funciare precum si pentru umplerea exploatarilor
de suprafata dezafectate. (Skarzynska, 1995b).
Materialele de constructii traditionale, precum materialele refractare, cimentul, betonul, blocurile
de pavaj etc, sunt produse din resurse naturale existente. Metodele de productie afecteaza in
masura mai mare sau mai mica mediul, datorita exploatarii continue a resurselor naturale. Mai
mult, diverse substante toxice sunt eliberate in atmosfera in timpul procesului de fabricare.
Diferite cercetari au fost efectuate la nivel modial cu privire la utilizarea reziduurilor miniere ca
adaosuri in material de constructii. Dintre acestea amintim urmatoarele:
Reziduu de cariera este un reziduu rezultat din producerea agregatelor prin zdrobirea acestora
in unitatile de concasare. Reziduu de cariera poate fi utilizat ca substitut pentru nisipul folosit in
materialele de constructii. Utilizarea deeurilor carier ca un substitut de nisip n materiale de

488
constructii ar rezolva problemele de mediu cauzate de epuizarea surselor naturale de nisipuri de
rau, sa. (Ilangovana et al., 2008). Reziduu de cariera poate fi o alternativa cu impact economic
pozitiv asupra costului general de constructie. Acest aspect este puternic influentat de distanta
de transport.
De asemenea, reziduu de cariera este folosit si in constructiile de drumuri, iar Safiuddin et al.
(2007) au raportat ca adaosul de reziduu de cariera nu afecteaza lucrabilitatea, rezistanta si
modului elastic al betonului. Safiuddin et al (2000a,b) au produs betoane de inalta rezistenta
inlocuind partial in fabricarea acestuia, nisipul cu reziduu de cariera. Ho et al. (2002) a inclus
reziduu de cariera in betonul autocompactant pentru a studia imbunatatirea proprietatii de
autocompactare. Deasemenea, Felekoglu (2007) a aratat ca o cantitate reonabila de reziduu de
cariera poate fi utilizat in betoanele autcompactante fara a afecta rezistenta a compresiune a
acestuia. Asadar, utilizarea cu success a acestui material in betoanele de inalta performanta si
autocompactante, poate transforma acest rezisduu intr-o resursa valoroasa.
Reziduu minier, in mod special deseul format din roca, are adeseori proprietati asemanatoare cu
rocile folosite ca agregate. Acest lucru face poriuni ale rocilor sterile generate de industria
miniera sa poata fi folosite ca substitut al agregatelor de cariera. Este important de retinut c
trebuie a fi folosite numai roci sterile cu concentraii sczute de contaminani. (Yellishettya et.
Al, 2008)
Studii de caz au fost intocmite cu privire la utilizarea direct i dup zdrobire i sortare a
reziduurilor sterile. Extracia crbunelui genereaz cantiti mari de deeuri miniere i mai multe
fracii de deeuri pot fi utilizate pentru producia de agregate. (Bckstrm)
Mai multe grupuri de cercetare au studiat posibilitatea de a produce produse ceramice dintr-o
varietate de deeuri minerale solide (Fin i Heising 1968, Kluth, 1984; Treime-Stevens, 1995).
In cadrul West Virginia University s-a dezvoltat un procedeu de obinere a crmizilor de
construcie pornind de la deeuri miniere i steril. Universitatea Stanford a studiat posibilitatea
de a folosi steril silicios din iazul de decantare a unei mine de aur din California ca materie
prim pentru ca crmizi (Mining Journal, 2000).
De asemenea, Colorado School of Mines a efectuat numeroase investigaii n vederea obinerii
crmizi de construcie din diverse iazuri de min, situate pe intreg Colorado (BVING i Herold,
1967). Dean i colab. (1986) au investigat utilizarea sterilului rezultat din exploatarea
mineralelor si obtinerea cuprului, pentru a face crmizi de construcie. Ei observ c prin
utilizarea acestui material n activiti economice, problemele socio-economice ale nchidere a
minelor pot fi atenuate. Posibilitatea utilizari sterilului minier de hald n producerea de
blocurilor de caramida a fost investigat ca parte a cercetrii intensive n vederea valorificrii
deeurilor n 1970 (Collins i Miller, 1979).
Cupru, plumb, zinc i minereu de fier steril din diverse surse americane au fost folosite pentru a
produce blocuri cimentate. Investigaii n Statele Unite ale Americii, Canada i Marea Britanie au
artat c sterilul i deeurile miniere au potenial de utilizare n fabricarea de materiale de
constructii, sticla, ceramica .a. (Hansen et al., 1968).
n India, unele exemple sunt fabricarea sticlei prin utilizarea de cuar i feldspat din deeuri
miniere. (IBM, 2002, Kumar, 2000).
Mai multe studii ale Universitatii de Stat din Montana, Statele Unite ale Americii, au aratat ca
blocuri de beton realizate cu adaosuri de steril rezultat din exploatarea depozitelor de aur,
amestecate cu cenu de termocentrala i ciment de portland, au prezentat caracteristici fizico-
mecanice avansate fata de betonul standard (Trinity-Stevens, 1995).
n mod similar, blocuri de beton realizate cu adaosuri de materiale rezultate in urma
interventiilor de reciclare si ecologizare a haldelor de steril minier din metale comune din zona
Melbourne, Australia (Struthers, 1999), au prezentat rezistente la forte de compresiune
superioare fata de blocuri convenionale.

489
Williams (1996) au fcut, de asemenea, o trimitere cu privire la tendinele n utilizarea
deeurilor miniere i a deeurilor metalurgice in constructii. Deeuri miniere sunt uneori privite
ca o resurs i poate fi potrivit ca agregate pentru construcia de drumuri i materiale de
construcii. Exist propuneri de a le utiliza pentru a face beton. Cu toate acestea, volumul lor
este att de mare nct este greu de a vedea mai mult de o mic parte din acestea fiind folosite
n acest mod. De asemenea, acestea ar trebui s fie folosite cu grij, n special n industria
construciilor deoarece contaminanii regsii n deeuri miniere, uneori s-ar putea crea
probleme de mediu pe termen lung (Struthers, 1999).

4 Utilizarea reziduurilor miniere in stabilizarea solurilor argiloase

Pmnturile cu umflri i contracii mari, ntlnite sub denumirea de pmnturi expansive sau
contractile, reprezint o mare provocare pentru inginerii constructori i inginerii geotehnicieni
din ntreaga lume. Costurile asociate daunelor provocate de fenomenele de umflare-contracie a
argilelor active asupra construciilor se ridic la miliarde de euro anual.
Sol expansiv este un termen aplicat n mod general pentru a descrie orice pmnt care, n
special n situaia schimbrii regimului hidrostatic, prezint potenial de variaie a volumului,
aadar pot exista solicitri suplimentare n teren. (Al-Rawas et. Al, 2006)

Figure 2: Fisuri cauzate de scaderea nivelului hidric ntr-un sol bogat argil.
Photo courtesy of Yuna Mika.

Fenomene repetitive de contracie-umflare a argilelor active pot duce la costuri mari de

reparaie a daunelor provocate construciilor, iar, n unele cazuri, pot chiar s duc la
necesitatea demolrii cldirii, atunci cnd costul reparaiei depeste valoarea construciei.

5 Metode de mbuntire a Terenului de Fundare prin adaosuri

Pmnturile ale caror proprieti inginereti nu prezint siguran pentru amplasarea

construciilor inginereti sunt, n general, cele care conin fraciuni mari de argil, n special
argile montmorillonitice, deoarece acestea pot suferi variaii mari de volum atunci cnd sunt
supuse unui proces de uscare-umezire.
Diferite tipuri de tratare mecanic sau stabilizare chimic sunt disponibile pentru a reduce sau
elimina complet potenialul de variaie de volum a pmnturilor cu umflri i contracii mari.
Dintre metodele de tratare amintim: pre-umezirea solului, controlul umidittii, stabilizarea
chimic, controlul compactrii in situ, nlocuirea solului problematic, utilizarea elementelor de
armare.
O investigare riguroasa trebuie efectuata preliminar alegerii metodei de imbunatatire a
pamantului de fundare, pentru a alege solutia cu randamentul maxim, corelat cu utilizarea
ulterioara a constructiei si parametrii geotehnici care se doresc a fi atinsi dupa imbunatatire.
Fiecare procedura necesita aplicarea unei metodologii specifice si este recomandat o
490
documetare considerabila anterior aplicatii solutiei pentru a cunoaste limitarile fiecarei proceduri
in parte.

Figure 3: Curba de compactare Proctor

5.1 Reziduu de cariera

Sabat i Das (2009) au stabilizat un anumit tip de sol expansiv folosind praf rezultat din
exploatarea in carier i de var pentru consolidarea stratului de baza al unui drum rural pentru
trafic cu volum redus. Proprietile testate au fost de compactare (Proctor standard), UCS, CBR
i Ps. Aceasta metoda s-a dovedit a fi eficienta din punct de vedere economic in conditiile unui
trafic cu volum redus.

5.2 Praf de marmura

Praful de marmur este deeul / pulberea produs n timpul tierii i lustruirii marmurei. Swami
(2002) i, Palaniappan i Stalin (2009) sa stabilizat sol expansiv folosind praf de marmur i au
constata ca proprietile solului expansiv au fost in mod semnificativ mbuntirea. Zhang i
colab., (2013)
Gupta i Sharma (2014) au studiat efectul cenuii de termocentrala, nisipului i prafului de
marmur asupra compactarii i valorile CBR ale solului expansiv. nu a fost de aproximativ
cretere de 200% a CBR pentru proba de sol saturat cu sol -52.36%, nisip-22.44%, cenu
zburtoare -13.2% si marmura praf de 12%.

5.3 Var - Lime Stone Dust

AI-Azzo (2009) a studiat efectul stabilizator al varului asupra proprietilor mecanice ale solului
argilos expansiv. Diferitele procente de var adugat au fost 2, 4, 6, 8 i 10% . S-a constatat a
reducere in plasticitatea argilei i a scdere semnificativ a coeficientului de expansiune.

491
5.4 R eziduu m inier de halda - Ramesh et al. (2013)

A studiat proprietile amestecurilor de sol expansiv reziduu minier de iaz de decantare, cu i

fr var, luand in considerare inclusiv efectul perioadei de conservare i a gsit mbuntire a
proprietilor mecanice ale solului expansiv.

6 Concluzii

Impactul activitii miniere de exploatare este de o complexitate deosebit i are o aciune

direct cu efecte negative asupra factorilor de mediu, dar i asupra confortului comunitii
locale. Aceste activitati se defoar pe perioade indelungate i afecteaz arii extinse. Impactul
produs asupra mediului, se rasfrange atat local ct i zonale, cu efecte pe termen lung,
acumulate pe parcursul ntregii perioade de exploatare, dar i dup ncheierea acesteia.
Pentru o buna perioada de timp pe plan mondial, depozitele de steril au fost considerate
deseuri fara posibilitate de utilizare ulterioara. La ora actuala, se urmareste realizarea unor
programe de cercetare mondiale pentru a se putea determina posibilitatea utilizarii sterilului
minier in varii domenii i deci redarea ulterioara a zonelor afectate in circuitul natural.
Gasirea metodelor potrivite de valorificare a deseurilor miniere are un efect pozitiv atat asupra
mediului cat si asupra climatului economic.

Bibliografie:

[1] Reabilitarea halderlor de roci sterile si a iazurilor de decantare. www.minind.ro

[2] Recycling of Mine Wastes as Ceramic Raw Materials: An Alternative to Avoid
Environmental Contamination - Romualdo Rodrigues Menezes1, Lisiane Navarro L. Santana2,
Gelmires Arajo Neves2 and Heber Carlos Ferreira2 1Department of Materials Engineering,
Federal University of Paraba 2Academic Unit of Materials Engineering, Federal University of
Campina Grande Brazil
[3] Ilangovana R, Mahendrana N, Nagamanib K (2008). Strength and Durability Properties
of Concrete Containing Quarry Rock Dust as Fine Aggregate. ARPN J. Eng. Appl. Sci., 3: 20-26
[4] ROLUL PARAMETRILOR SEDIMENTOLOGICI I GEOCHIMICI N EVALUAREA IAZURILOR
DE DECANTARE IMPACT ASUPRA MEDIULUI Teza de doctorat Victor Rduc, Bucuresti
2010
[5] Utilization of solid wastes in construction materials Md. Safiuddin 1 *, Mohd Zamin
Jumaat 2 , M. A. Salam 2 , M. S. Islam 3 and R. Hashim 2, 2010
[6] Safiuddin M, Zain MFM, Yusof KM (2000a). Utilization of Quarry Dust in Developing High
Performance Concrete. In: Proceedings of the Third Structural Specialty Conference of Canadian
Society for Civil Engineering, London, Canada, pp 378-384
[7] Safiuddin M, Zain MFM, Yusof KM (2000b). Development of High Performance Concrete
Using Quarry Dust as a Partial Replacement of Sand. In: Proceedings of the PCI/FHWA/FIB
International Symposium on High Performance Concrete, Orlando, Florida, USA. pp. 173-182
[8] Reuse of iron ore mineral wastes in civil engineering constructions: A case study Mohan
Yellishettya, , Vanda Karpe b , E.H. Reddy b , K.N. Subhashb , P.G. Ranjitha, 2008
[9] Skarzynska KM. Reuse of coal mining wastes in civil engineering. Part 2. Utilization of
minestone. Waste Management 1995b;15(2):83126.
[10] Potential for reuse of tungsten mining waste-rock in technical-artistic value added
products J.P. Castro-Gomes a,*, Ablio P. Silva b , Rafael P. Cano c , J. Durn Suarez c , A.
Albuquerque a,b,c
[11] . Ramesh, H.N., Krishnaiah, A.J. and Shilpa shet, S. (2013) Effect of Lime on the Index
Properties of Black Cotton Soil and Mine Tailings Mixtures, IOSR Journal of Engineering, 3 (4),
Ver.3, 1-7.
492
[12] COMPENDIUM OF MINING AND PROCESSING WASTE MANAGEMENT TECHNOLOGIES,
Mattias Bckstrm, rebro university, Sweden
[13] Lucrare de Disertatie Analiza fenomenului de contracie-umflare a pmnturilor
argiloase : impactul pierderii umiditii solului asupra cldirilor uoare (2013) Larisa Cristina
Chindris
[14] Al-Rawas, A. A., & Goosen, M. F. (2006). Expansive soils: recent advances in
characterization and treatment. Taylor & Francis group.

493
 Aspecte privind modul de aplicare al legii civile n litigiile
cu privire la exproprierea pentru cauz de utilitate public
Coandre Ciprian
Abstract
Legea 33/1994 privind exproprierea pentru cauz de utilitate public definete cadrul legal prin
care statul este ndrituit sub rezerva edificrii unor lucrri de utilitate public s priveze
persoanele fizice/juridice de atributele dreptului de proprietate asupra imobilelor. n timp,
aplicarea acestor dispoziii legale a suscitat numeroase dezbateri doctrinare i a generat
numeroase litigii, aspectele de drept disputate viznd n esen procedura i formalismul
juridic al exproprierii, aspecte legate de calitatea procesual activ a persoanei expropriate,
cuantificarea prejudiciului i definirea noiunii de despgubire. Sub acest aspect, al practicii
judectoreti, vom analiza n cele ce urmeaz dou hotrri ale naltei Curi de Casaie i
Justiie, pronunate la nivelul anului 2014 i care dezleag n mod diferit probleme de drept
similare.
Cuvinte cheie: expropriere pentru cauz de utilitate public, jurisprudena naltei Curi de
Casaie i Justiie, expropriere de fapt, Legea 33/1994 privind privind exproprierea pentru cauz
de utilitate public, despgubire
Preliminarii
Prin Decizia nr. 254/28.01.2014 pronunat n DC 1523/97/2010 i Decizia 1221/10.04.2014
pronunat n DC 1524/97/2010, nalta Curte de Casaie i Justiiei, n soluionarea a dou
aciuni n constatare generate de aplicarea Legii 33/1994 privind exproprierea pentru cauz de
utilitate public, s-a pronunat n mod diferit, obiectul aciunilor introductive fiind identic, doar
persoana reclamantului fiind diferit n aceste aciuni civile. Vom rezuma n cele ce urmeaz
fondul dedus judecii n cele dou litigii, instituiile juridice incidente i elementele de
difereniere dintre cele dou hotrri din perspectiva atributului instituional de uniformizare a
practicii judectoreti pe care nalta Curte de Casaie i Justiie l exercit.
Prin aciunea ce a fcut obiectul DC 1523/97/2010, introdus la 01.10.2010, reclamantul M.I. a
chemat n judecat SC HIDROELECTRICA SA Bucureti prin Sucursala Hidrocentrale Haeg i a
solicitat instanei urmtoarele:
S constate c M. I. este n calitate de motenitor al lui J. I. (bunic) al lui M. A. (tat) i al
defunctei M. C.
- n. J. (mam), proprietar al suprafeelor de teren ocupate abuziv din anul 1990 de ctre
prta SC HIDROELECTRICA SA i expropriate pentru cauz de utilitate public declarat prin
HG 392/2002, suprafee individualizate n CF 145 Subcetate nr. cadastral 2112,2113, CF 735
Subcetate - nr. cadastral 1911, 2057/1, 2132, 2133, 2134, 2059/2, CF 210 Subcetate - nr.
cadastral 1910 S fie obligat prta SC HIDROELECTRICA SA, prin Sucursala Hidrocentrale
Haeg n calitate de expropriator, ntr-un termen stabilit potrivit art. 30 din Legea 33/1994, la
plata unei despgubiri aferente terenului ocupat, compus din:

494
valoarea real a terenului afectat de lucrrile de amenajare hidroenergetic a rului Strei, la un
pre de 9 euro/mp, echivalent n lei la data plii efective prejudiciul suferit prin lipsa de
folosin a terenului pe perioada 1990-2010, respectiv contravaloarea produselor i a recoltei
care s-ar fi obinut pe acest teren potrivit cu natura i destinaia acestui teren din cartea
funciar
Aciunea introductiv a fost soluionat n fond n sensul obligrii prtei SC Hidroelectrica SA
la plata cu titlu de despgubire a sumei de 264.409 lei(echivalent a 62.656 euro) reprezentnd
valoarea terenurilor expropriate i suma de 94.707 lei, reprezentnd prejudiciul creat
reclamantului pentru lipsa folosului agricol pe perioada 2002-2010 inclusiv.
mpotriva acestei sentine a fost declarat apel de ctre prta SC Hidroelectrica SA, cale de atac
ce a fost admis n parte, n sensul modificrii sentinei de fond sub aspectul limitrii folosului
de agricol pentru perioada 2007-2010(fa de 2002-2010 cum stabilise instana de fond).
Decizia Curii de Apel Alba Iulia a fost atacat cu recurs de ambele pri litigante, soluia naltei
Curi de Casaie i Justiie prin DC 254/28.01.2014 fiind de a respinge recursurile declarate i
n consecin de a menine decizia Curii de Apel Alba Iulia. Astfel, la finalizarea tuturor etapelor
jurisdicionale soluia pronunat n cauz a fost de a obliga prta SC Hidroelectrica SA la plata
cu titlu de despgubire a sumei de 264.409 lei(echivalent a 62.656 euro) reprezentnd valoarea
terenurilor expropriate i suma de 42.092 lei, reprezentnd prejudicial creat reclamantului
pentru lipsa folosului agricol pe perioada 2007-2010 inclusiv.
Prin aciunea ce a fcut obiectul D 1524/97/2010, introdus la 01.04.2010, reclamanta B.M. a
chemat n judecat SC HIDROLELECTRICA SA Bucureti prin Sucursala Hidrocentrale Haeg i a
solicitat instanei urmtoarele:
S se constate c BM este n calitate de succesoare a soului B. A., proprietar a suprafeelor
de teren ocupate abuziv din anul 1990 de ctre prta SC HIDROELECTRICA SA i expropriate
pentru cauz de utilitate public declarat prin HG 392/2002, suprafee individualizate n CF 579
Subcetate nr. cadastral 593/1, CF 816 Subcetate - nr. cadastral 1934/2, 1935/2, CF 890
Subcetate - nr. cadastral 674/1, 676/2, CF 1000 Subcetate - nr. cadastral 586, 587, CF 1137
Subcetate - nr. cadastral 470, 713, 930, 932, 934, 936 S fie obligat prta SC
HIDROELECTRICA SA, prin Sucursala Hidrocentrale Haeg n calitate de expropriator, ntr-un
termen stabilit potrivit art. 30 din Legea 33/1994, la plata unei despgubiri aferente terenului
ocupat, compus din:
valoarea real a terenului afectat de lucrrile de amenajare hidroenergetic a rului Strei, la un
pre de 9 euro/mp, echivalent n lei la data plii efective prejudiciul suferit prin lipsa de
folosin a terenului pe perioada 1990-2010, respectiv contravaloarea produselor i a recoltei
care s-ar fi obinut pe acest teren potrivit cu natura i destinaia acestui teren din cartea
funciar
Aciunea introductiv a fost soluionat n fond n sensul obligrii prtei SC Hidroelectrica SA la
plata cu titlu de despgubire a sumei de 244.377 lei reprezentnd valoarea terenurilor
expropriate i suma de 77.971 lei, reprezentnd prejudiciul creat reclamantei pentru lipsa
folosului agricol pe perioada 2002-2010 inclusiv.
Prile n litigiu au declarat apel mpotriva acestei sentine, Curtea de Apel Alba Iulia
pronunndu-se prin DC 61/2013 n sensul admiterii apelurilor i schimbrii n parte a sentinei
pronunat de tribunal, n sensul acordrii despgubirilor ntr-un cuantum majorat, potrivit
categoriei de folosin a terenului(arabil) respectiv 550.261 lei i limitrii folosului agricol pentru
perioada 2007-2010 87.920 lei.
nalta Curte de Casaiei i Justiie a fost investit cu soluionarea recursurilor declarate de
prile litigante i s-a pronunat prin Decizia 1221/10.04.2014 n sensul admiterii cilor de atac
cu consecina casrii deciziei recurate i trimiterii cauzei la instana de apel n vederea
rejudecrii.

495
Rezumnd, finele juridic al celor dou cauze civile dup epuizarea cii de atac a recursului i
pronunarea unor soluii de ctre nalta Curte de Casaiei i Justiie, rezult urmtoarele
evidene:
prin Decizia nr. 254/28.01.2014, cel mai nalt for jurisdicional din Romnia a respins recursurile
promovate i a meninut soluia de fond, respectiv constatarea calitii de proprietar i persoan
ndreptit la despgubiri pentru reclamant i obligarea prtei SC Hidroelectrica SA la plata
unei despgubiri reprezentate de valoarea imobilului expropriat i prejudicul creat prin lipsa de
folosin a terenurilor pe o perioad anterioar de 3 ani de la momentul promovrii aciunii
prin Decizia 1221/10.04.2014 , la 3 luni de la decizia amintit mai sus, nalta Curte de Casaie
i Justiie i infirm propria jurispruden, admite recursurile promovate i trimite cauza la
instana de apel n vederea rejudecrii enunnd n esen ca n rejudecare s fie avute n
vedere urmtoarele: reclamantul nu a fcut dovada proprietii terenurilor expropriate,
reclamantul nu a uzat de calea Legii 1/2001 sau a Legii 18/1991 i nu au fost respectate
dispoziiilor art. 26 din Legea 33/1994 cu privire la despgubire i cuantificarea acesteia.
Aspecte cu privire la aplicarea Legii 33/1994 de ctre nalta Curte de
Casaie i Justiie n soluionarea litigilor civile generate de exproprierea
pentru cauz de utilitate public
Reiternd sintetic cele dezvoltate anterior, amintim c aspectele factuale care au generat ivirea
litigiilor civile sunt date de ocuparea fr drept de ctre statul roman, n cursul anului 1990, a
unor terenuri proprietate privat. Terenurile au fcut obiectul unor amenajri hidroelectrice, iar
apoi retroactiv prin HG 392/2002 s-a declarat caracterul de utilitate public al lucrrilor i a fost
declanat post factum procedura de expropriere a terenurilor ocupate, procedur care nu a
fost finalizat pn n prezent prin despgubirea celor afectai i lipsii proprietatea terenurilor.
Soluiile pronunate n cauzele civile analizate sunt antagonice prin: aplicabilitatea n cauze a
dispoziiilor Legii 18/1991 i a Legii 1/2000, abordrile conceptuale ale Legii 33/1994,
interpretarea noiunilor de expropriere de fapt i despgubire corelativ cu jurisprudena CEDO n
cauza Burghelea contra Romniei, aplicarea eronat a dispoziiilor legale ce guverneaz
activitatea seciilor din cadrul naltei Curi de Casaie i Justiie potrivit Legii 304/2004 privind
organizarea judiciar.
n primul rnd se impune s amintim contradiciile flagrante strecurate n considerentele
Deciziei 1221/10.04.2014 cu privire la aplicabilitatea Legii 18/1991 i a Legii 1/2000. Astfel,
iniial dezlegnd o excepie de inadmisibilitate cu privire la aciunea introductiv, instana
statueaz nalta Curte constat ca nefondate argumentele prtului(n.a SC Hidroelectrica SA)
n sensul c reclamanta putea beneficia de dispoziiile din Legea 1/2000 ntruct aceast norm
este anterioar exproprierii i nu poate produce efecte ultraactiv pentru ca apoi s rein nu
s-a dovedit n cauz c autorul reclamantei sau succesori ai acestuia s-au adresat comisiei
speciale constituite n temeiul Legii nr. 18/1991, respectiv 1/2000 pentru obinerea titlului de
proprietate asupra terenurilor n litigiu. Apreciem c instana n deliberarea sa i n cntrirea
argumentelor de fapt i drept a omis s observe c aplicarea n timp a Legii 18/1991 i a Legii
1/2000 se ntinde pn la data de 1 ianuarie 1990 i ca atare nu pot fi incidente n cauz
dispoziiile legale amintite n condiiile n care preluarea fr just titlu a fost iniiat de statul
roman ulterior datei de 01.01 1990.
De asemenea, instana reine cu titlu critic, ca temei al casrii cu trimitere, c reclamanta nu a
fcut dovada proprietii asupra terenului de pe urma cruia a solicitat despgubirile aferente,
motiv pentru care se constat c decizia instanei de apel a fost dat cu nclcarea prevederilor
art. 2 din Legea 33/1994, conform crora pot fi expropriate bunurile imobile proprietatea
persoanelor fizice sau juridice. Mai mult, n interpretarea art. 26 din Legea 33/1994 instana
apreciaz c reclamantului nu i se cuvin despgubiri pentru lipsa de folosin a terenului
ntruct la momentul declarrii exproprierii (n.a 2002) nu mai avea posesia terenurilor n
litigiu. Aceste argumente sunt inapte juridic i lipsite de logic raportat la evidenele factuale

496
ale cauzei ntruct reclamantul/proprietarul expropriat nu a putut face dovada posesiei efective
datorit faptului c a fost lipsit de acest atribut al dreptului de proprietate chiar prin fora
arbitrar a statului, prin preluarea imobilelor ntr-o prim etap, fr titlu i formaliznd juridic
o situaie post factum, ca efect al HG 392/2002- prin expropriere. Apreciem c prin aceast
susinere nalta Curte de Casaie i Justiie lipsete de coninut noiunea de despgubire
prevzut de art. 26 din Legea 33/1994 i nelegerea pe care CEDO prin cauza Burghelea
contra Romniei o d acestei instituii justeea i proporionalitatea despgubirii raportndu-se
att la valoarea intrinsec a imobilului ct i la veniturile ce puteau fi obinute din cultivarea
acestor terenuri. Amintim aici c n cauza Burghelea/Romnia, statul roman a fost condamnat
de ctre Curtea European a Drepturilor Omului, ntruct nu a realizat justa i prealabila
despgubire potrivit dispoziiilor constituionale i ale Legii 33/1994. n soluionarea acestei
cauze instana european a invocat pentru prima oar noiunea de expropriere de fapt i a
definit aceast ficiune juridic ca fiind situaia n care statul preia/folosete fr titlu imobile
proprietate privat i nu realizeaz despgubirea celui lezat n dreptul su de proprietate.
Din punct de vedere al prerogativelor instituionale exercitate de nalta Curte de Casaie i
Justiie, pronunarea celor dou hotrri este n antagonie cu rolul i scopul acestui for
jurisdicional n paradigma de funcionare a justiiei civile n Romnia. Astfel, legiuitorul
consacr n mod expres prin dispoziiile art. 26 din Legea 304/2004 c n situaia n care una
din seciile din cadrul naltei Curi de Casaie i Justiie consider necesar s revin asupra
propriei jurisprudene este obligat s suspende cauza i s sesizeze Seciile Unite n vederea
lmuririi aspectelor jurisprudeniale. Prin urmare, ct vreme exista o practic constant la
nivelul seciei civile, ea nu putea fi reanalizat dect de ctre Seciile Unite ale naltei Curi de
Casaie i Justiie, iar mai apoi cauzele s fie soluionate n baza acestor orientri/lmuriri
jurisprudeniale.
Concluzii
Analiza celor dou cauze, surprinztoare prin antagonismul soluiilor pronunate relev cteva
concluzii:
n prezent dreptul substanial i dreptul procedural romn nu cunoate remedii juridice
pentru a ndrepta aceste regretabile inconsecvene jurisprudeniale la nivelul naltei Curi
de Casaie i Justiie
la o nou revizuire a dispoziiilor legale incidente se impune de lege ferenda ca
legiuitorul s completeze i s sancioneze procedural nclcarea dispoziiilor art. 26 din
Legea 304/2004
Bibliografie

1. Legea 304 din 28 iunie 2004 privind organizarea judiciar M.OF nr. 304/28 iunie 2004.
2. Legea 33/1994 privind exproprierea pentru cauz de utilitate public, publicat n MOF
nr. 139/02.06.1994 i republicat n MOF nr. 472/05.07.2011
3. Decizia nr. 254/28.01.2014 pronunat n DC 1523/97/2010 de nalta Curte de Casaie
i Justiie
4. Decizia 1221/10.04.2014 pronunat n DC 1524/97/2010, nalta Curte de Casaie i
Justiiei
5. Exproprierea de fapt. Un comentariu al hotrrii CEDO n cauza Burghelea c. Romnia -
Radu Chiri - Revista Studia - http://studia.law.ubbcluj.ro/articol.php?articolId=338
6. (HG 392/2002- privind declararea utilitatii publice pentru lucrarea de interes national
"Amenajarea hidroenergetica a raului Strei pe sectorul Subcetate - Simeria"- MONITORUL
OFICIAL NR. 294 din 30 aprilie 2002
7. (HG 392/2002- privind declararea utilitatii publice pentru lucrarea de interes national
"Amenajarea hidroenergetica a raului Strei pe sectorul Subcetate - Simeria"- MONITORUL
OFICIAL NR. 294 din 30 aprilie 2002
497
498
 ASPECTE LEGISLATIVE PRIVIND APLICAREA LEGII
FONDULUI FUNCIAR IN CAZUL EXPLOATARILOR MINIERE
LA ZI
Tivig Dumitru Filip, Mariana Negru

Rezumat
Exploatarea zcmintelor de substane minerale utile s-a fcut din cele mai vechi timpuri
in exploatri de suprafa si in subteran. In ultima suta de ani exploatrile miniere la suprafa
au obinut un randament si o productivitate ridicata odat cu dezvoltarea tehnologica si
progresul metodelor de exploatare. Exploatrile la suprafa sunt mult mai avantajoase dect
cele din subteran solicitnd resurse mai mici pentru capaciti de producie comparabile,
acestea producnd peste 75% din producia mondiala de substane minerale utile.

1 Introducere

La noi in tara multe din exploatrile miniere de suprafa si-au nceput activitatea nainte
de 1990, ncepndu-si activitatea in perioada in care Statul Roman era o republica comunista.
Suprafeele de teren pe care multe din exploatrile miniere le ocupa erau in proprietatea
Statului Roman, dup 1990 a fost adoptata o noua legislaie in domeniul funciar care sa
respecte dreptul la proprietate, prin care multe din terenurile preluate de Statul Roman prin
legi abuzive (colectivizare si naionalizare) au fost retrocedate vechilor proprietari.

2 Scurta prezentare a legislaiei privind fondul funciar

In decursul ultimilor 25 de ani au fost emise mai multe legi prin care s-au retrocedat
proprietile deintorilor (sau urmailor acestora) de la data in care au fost preluate de Statul
Roman, acestea formnd un pachet de legislativ care a fost emis succesiv si care au tratat
parial problematica funciara, rezultnd in final un sistem stufos si cu multe prevederi
contradictorii.
Dintre aceste prevederi legale, enumeram:
a) Legea fondului funciar nr. 18/1991 privind terenurile de orice fel, indiferent de
destinaie, de titlul pe baza cruia sunt deinute sau de domeniul public ori privat din
care fac parte, constituie fondul funciar al Romniei.

b) Legea nr. 169/1997 pentru modificarea i completarea Legii fondului funciar nr.
18/1991

499
c) Legea nr. 1/2000 pentru reconstituirea dreptului de proprietate asupra terenurilor
agricole i celor forestiere, solicitate potrivit prevederilor Legii fondului funciar nr.
18/1991 i ale Legii nr. 169/1997

d) Legea nr. 247/2005 privind reforma n domeniile proprietii i justiiei, precum i

unele msuri adiacente

e) Regulamentul privind procedura de constituire, atribuiile i funcionarea comisiilor

pentru stabilirea dreptului de proprietate privat asupra terenurilor, a modelului i
modului de atribuire a titlurilor de proprietate, precum i punerea n posesie a
proprietarilor, aprobat prin H.G. nr. 890/2005

f) Norma metodologic de aplicare a Titlului VII "Regimul stabilirii i plii despgubirilor

aferente imobilelor preluate n mod abuziv" din Legea nr. 247/2005 privind reforma n
domeniile proprietii i justiiei, precum i unele msuri adiacente, aprobat prin H.G.
nr. 1095/2005

g) O.U.G nr. 81/2007 pentru accelerarea procedurii de acordare a despgubirilor

aferente imobilelor preluate n mod abuziv

h) Legea nr. 193/2007 privind modificarea i completarea Legii nr. 1/2000 pentru
reconstituirea dreptului de proprietate asupra terenurilor agricole i celor forestiere,
solicitate potrivit prevederilor Legii fondului funciar nr. 18/1991 i ale Legii nr. 169/1997

i) Legea nr. 261/2008 privind modificarea i completarea art. 29 din Legea nr. 1/2000
pentru reconstituirea dreptului de proprietate asupra terenurilor agricole i celor
forestiere, solicitate potrivit prevederilor Legii fondului funciar nr. 18/1991 i ale Legii nr.
169/1997

j) Legea nr. 67/2010 pentru modificarea alin. (3) al art. 18 din Legea fondului funciar
nr. 18/1991

k) O.U.G nr. 62/2010 pentru modificarea i completarea Legii nr. 221/2009 privind
condamnrile cu caracter politic i msurile administrative asimilate acestora, pronunate
n perioada 6 martie 1945-22 decembrie 1989, i pentru suspendarea aplicrii unor
dispoziii din Titlul VII al Legii nr. 247/2005 privind reforma n domeniile proprietii i
justiiei, precum i unele msuri adiacente

l) Legea nr. 160/2010 privind completarea art. 23 din Legea nr. 1/2000 pentru
reconstituirea dreptului de proprietate asupra terenurilor agricole i celor forestiere,
solicitate potrivit prevederilor Legii fondului funciar nr. 18/1991 i ale Legii nr. 169/1997

m) Legea nr. 267/2011 privind abrogarea alin. (1) al art. 3 din Legea nr. 1/2000 pentru
reconstituirea dreptului de proprietate asupra terenurilor agricole si celor forestiere,
solicitate potrivit prevederilor Legii fondului funciar nr. 18/1991 si ale Legii nr. 169/1997

n) Legea nr. 165/2013 privind msurile pentru finalizarea procesului de restituire, n

natur sau prin echivalent, a imobilelor preluate n mod abuziv n perioada regimului
comunist n Romnia.

500
3 Absenta prevederilor legale privind responsabilitatea proprietarilor fata
de comunitate, in situaia in care exista rezerve de substane minerale
utile de interes public in subsolul proprietilor deinute.

Resursele minerale situate pe teritoriul i n subsolul rii i al platoului continental n

zona economic a Romniei din Marea Neagr, delimitate conform principiilor dreptului
internaional i reglementrilor din conveniile internaionale la care Romnia este parte, fac
obiectul exclusiv al proprietii publice i aparin statului romn. (Conform Legii minelor numrul
85/2003).
Articolul 44 din Constituia Romniei privind dreptul la proprietate privata prevede in
mod exclusiv numai drepturile proprietarului fr a se prevede si responsabiliti ale
proprietarului fata de comunitate, astfel:
(1) Dreptul de proprietate, precum si creanele asupra statului, sunt garantate.
Coninutul si limitele acestor drepturi sunt stabilite de lege.
(2) Proprietatea privat este garantat i ocrotit n mod egal de lege, indiferent de
titular. Cetenii strini i apatrizii pot dobndi dreptul de proprietate privat asupra terenurilor
numai n condiiile rezultate din aderarea Romniei la Uniunea European i din alte tratate
internaionale la care Romnia este parte, pe baz de reciprocitate, n condiiile prevzute prin
lege organic, precum i prin motenire legal.
(3) Nimeni nu poate fi expropriat dect pentru o cauz de utilitate public, stabilit
potrivit legii, cu dreapt i prealabil despgubire.
(4) Sunt interzise naionalizarea sau orice alte msuri de trecere silit n proprietate
public a unor bunuri pe baza apartenenei sociale, etnice, religioase, politice sau de alt natur
discriminatorie a titularilor.
(5) Pentru lucrri de interes general, autoritatea public poate folosi subsolul oricrei
proprieti imobiliare, cu obligaia de a despgubi proprietarul pentru daunele aduse solului,
plantaiilor sau construciilor, precum i pentru alte daune imputabile autoritii.
(6) Despgubirile prevzute n alineatele (3) i (5) se stabilesc de comun acord cu
proprietarul sau, n caz de divergen, prin justiie.
(7) Dreptul de proprietate oblig la respectarea sarcinilor privind protecia mediului i
asigurarea bunei vecinti, precum i la respectarea celorlalte sarcini care, potrivit legii sau
obiceiului, revin proprietarului.
Daca in subsolul terenului proprietate privata a deintorului persoana fizic sau juridica,
se afla resurse minerale, acestea vor putea fi exploatate doar in baza unei licene de exploatare
emisa in condiiile legii de ctre autoritatea competenta, aceasta fiind Agenia Naional de
Resurse Minerale.

4 Formele legale de obinere a accesului la rezervele din subsolul

teritoriului naional.

Conform articolului 6 din legea 85/2003 dreptul de folosin a terenurilor necesare

efecturii activitilor miniere din perimetrul de explorare/exploatare se dobndete, n condiiile
legii, prin:
a) vnzarea-cumprarea terenurilor i, dup caz, a construciilor situate pe acestea, la
preul convenit ntre pri;

b) schimbul de terenuri, nsoit de strmutarea proprietarului afectat i de reconstrucia

cldirilor pe terenul nou-acordat, pe cheltuiala titularului care beneficiaz de terenul
eliberat, conform conveniei ncheiate ntre pri;

501
 c) nchirierea terenului pe durat determinat, pe baz de contracte ncheiate ntre pri;

d) exproprierea pentru cauz de utilitate public, n condiiile legii;

e) concesionarea terenurilor;

f) asocierea dintre proprietarul terenului i titularul de licen;

g) alte proceduri prevzute de lege.

5 Aplicabilitatea legislaiei privind transferul dreptului de proprietate de la

proprietar la agentul economic.

Transferul dreptului de proprietate de la un proprietar la altul se poate face direct prin

acte juridice intre vii conform legii.
In cazul in care se dovedete utilitatea public a resursei/rezervei din subsol, atunci se
poate trece la exproprierea proprietilor private. Conform articolului 1 din legea 33/1994
exproprierea de imobile, in tot sau in parte, se poate face numai pentru cauza de utilitate
publica, dup o dreapta si prealabila despgubire, prin hotrre judectoreasca. De asemenea
pentru simplificarea demersurilor de expropriere si o reducere a timpului in care statul poate sa
intre in posesia unei proprieti private a fost emisa o noua lege Legea 255/2010. Aceasta
lege are prevederi exprese aferente lucrrilor de exploatare a zcmintelor de lignit, ce sunt
declarate de interes naional si care se execut n baza unei licene de exploatare aprobate.
Licenele de exploatare fiind acordate ctre operatorii economici aflai sub autoritatea Statului
Roman unde acesta are capital integral sau majoritar. Aciunea de expropriere trebuie sa
respecte articolul 44 din Constituia Romniei privind despgubirea proprietarului, care se poate
finaliza pe cale amiabila sau in justiie. Etapele succesive prevzute de normele de aplicare a
legilor funciare si de expropriere conduc la derularea acestora pe o perioada ndelungata.
Legislaia n vigoare solicita documente care nu sunt nc la dispoziia proprietarilor si a
autoritilor nici dup 25 de ani creeaz un blocaj major urmare a faptului ca in toata aceasta
perioada a fost realizata legtura intre proprietar si proprietate in mod unitar si sistematic.
Acest lucru a condus la omiterea de proprietari ndreptii sa fie pui in posesie si proprieti sa
fie individualizate coerent (fr a fi suprapuneri sau spatii neatribuite).
Emiterea de ctre autoriti de documente ntocmite sumar, cu omisiuni sau elemente spaiale
necorelate genereaz imposibilitatea utilizrii nainte de a fi ndreptate. Procedura legala de
ndreptare a documentelor deja emise este un consumator de timp si resurse materiale fapt ce
ntrzie declanarea faptelor juridice de schimbare a proprietarului att pe calea civila cat si prin
expropriere.
In Figura 1 se pot observa observ 3 imobile, proprieti private care au acelai proprietar si nu
sunt achiziionate de ctre agentul economic deintor al licenei de exploatare a resurselor
minerale de interes naional aflate in subsol. Aceste imobile au fost redobndite de ctre
proprietarul actual dup ce s-a nceput activitatea de exploatare miniera. Imobilul 1 se afla in
zona deja afectata de lucrri miniere, iar imobilele 2 si 3 se afla in zone neafectate.
Urmare a acestei situaii pentru a nu se sista activitatea de exploatare a ntregii
exploatri, sunt necesare efectuarea de lucrri miniere de ocolire, astfel fel nct proprietile sa
nu fie afectate de lucrrile miniere pana la finalizarea negocierilor de transfer a dreptului de
proprietate. Reluarea activitii de exploatare in aceasta zona se va putea face doar dup
achiziionarea imobilelor. Pentru continua extracia in perimetrul aprobat, pana la finalizarea
negocierilor, este necesar sa se realizeze lucrri tehnologice si netehnologice neprogramate de
ocolire a proprietilor si acestea genereaz costuri suplimentare de exploatare. In situaii
limita, pot sa se creeze zone imposibil de exploatat din punct de vedere tehnic si economic ce
au ca efect abandonarea de rezerve si pierderi economice importante.
502
 Figura 1.

In figura 2 blocul de culoare albastra poate fi exploatat numai in condiiile ocolirii

proprietilor private neachiziionate prin realizarea unui nou acces. Blocurile
tehnologice vor putea fi exploatate doar in condiiile modificrii fluxului de transport
prin procurarea si montarea de noi benzi transportoare suplimentare si scurtri sau
prelungiri la cele existente, fapt ce va cauza creterea costului de exploatare. Sensul de
avansare a frontului de excavare trebuie modificat datorita ocolirii proprietilor private
neachiziionate, crearea de noi accese pe unde sa poat avansa utilajele si o alta
succesiune de atac a blocurilor tehnologice. Prin modificarea planului de exploatare al
carierei se modifica parametrii dimensionali ai frontului de excavare, conducnd in
acest mod la creterea unghiului general al taluzului in lucru. In aceste condiii pentru a
evita eventualele accidente, se sisteaz excavaiile, genernd un blocaj total sau parial
al fronturilor de lucru, moment in care s-au epuizat toate posibilitile tehnologice de
funcionare.

CONCLUZII:

- Creterea cheltuielilor de exploatare ca urmare a staionarii liniilor tehnologice sau

lucrrilor tehnologice de evitare sau ocolire a zonelor neachiziionate.
- Creterea unghiului general in zona fronturilor de excavare.
503
- Blocajul total al fronturilor de lucru in momentul in care s-au epuizat toate posibilitile
tehnologice de funcionare.

Figura 2

Bibliografie:

[1] Constituia Romniei (http://www.cdep.ro)

[2] Monitorul Oficial al Romniei (http://www.monitoruloficial.ro)
[3] Dumitru Fodor, Exploatarea zcmintelor de minerale si roci utile prin lucrri la zi vol. I,
Editura Tehnica, Bucureti, 1995
[4] Dumitru Fodor, Exploatarea zcmintelor de minerale si roci utile prin lucrri la zi vol. II,
Editura Tehnica, Bucureti, 1995

Aceast articol a fost cofinanat din Fondul Social European prin Programul
Operaional Sectorial pentru Dezvoltarea Resurselor Umane 20072013 n cadrul
proiectului POSDRU/187/1.5/S/155631 cu titlul: Program e doctorale n
avangarda cercetrii de excelen n dom enii prioritare: sntate, m ateriale,
produse i procese inovative.

504
 MUTAIILE TEHNOLOGICE I NTREPRINDEREA N
SECTORUL DE EXTRACIE I VALORIFICARE A
RESURSELOR MINERALE I ENERGETICE/

TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGES AND ENTERPRISES ON

MINING EXPLOITATION AND RECOVERY SECTOR OF
MINERAL AND ENERGY RESOURCES
Cristina Monica VALECA1, Maria GF-DEAC2, Nicolae ILIA3, Ion Florin POPA4,
Ioan I. GF-DEAC5, Andrei NICOLAE6
1
PhD. University of Piteti, Nuclear Research Institute (ICN), Romania, [email protected]
2PhD. Senior Lecturer, USH Bucharest, Romania, [email protected]
3
PhD. Professor University of Petrosani, Petrosani, Romania, [email protected]
4
Senior Lecturer, PhD., Valahia University of Targoviste, Romania, [email protected] /
[email protected]
5
Senior Lecturer PhD. Law, Ec./Technical Science, SH University of Bucharest, INCE "C.C.Kiriescu",
Romanian Academy, Bucharest, Romania, [email protected]
6
St. Rech., Jacobs University Bremen, Germany, [email protected]

ABSTRACT
The paper shows that modern technologies are about to link the sciences. Purely empirical
approaches are declining productive. Technological dimension of the crisis (difficulties) going
through stages - or generalized - businesses appears study factor and overall performance.
Therefore, strong speed of technological change in substance is desired and highly favorable
(intrinsic) for a social system, but the realities of economic and productive environment, the
productive systems extractive minerals and energy resources, oppose some resistance. The
authors found that saturated or nearly saturated technologies in extractive productive systems
of mineral resources and energy into the family traditional techniques that have weaker
responses to contemporary social and economic demands. For example, the advent of
computers and electronic handling of information has contributed decisively to the degradation
of the electro-technological system could not maintain supremacy in the group of productive
systems. Instead, the nuclear industry, the configuration of computers already dominates
decision for safety and security of nuclear plants operation. This paper is a summary of
takeover extension study entitled Modern Technologies (Author: Maria Gf- Deac, Ed. FRM,
ISBN 973-582-808-1, Bucharest, 2004) with the application of case law in expansion, on
extractive mining and energy sectors, respectively in the nuclear industry.Type your abstract in
this field based on the following rules and it must be in English language.

KEYWORDS

505
technological changes, productive systems extractive minerals and energy resources, nuclear
technological sophistication, organization of mining technology / energy.

1. Mutaii tehnologice n sistemele productive extractive de resurse minerale

i energetice

Acceptnd ipoteza transformrilor continue a coninutului i configuraiei tehnologiei, n

sistemele productive extractive de resurse minerale i energetice, n mod necesar, este
acceptabil constatarea c mutaiile tehnologice influeneaz ntreprinderea n ansamblul su.
Totodat, n rndul tehnologiilor din sistemele productive extractive de resurse minerale i
energetice, se nregistreaz o tot mai accentuat i vizibil coeren.
Tehnologiile sunt pe cale s lege tiinele. Demersurile productive pur empirice sunt n scdere.
Dimensiunea tehnologic a crizelor (dificultilor) prin care trec etapizat sau generalizat-
ntreprinderile apare ca factor de studiu i interpretare global.
Transformrile tehnologice nu mai pot fi considerate o sum de constrngeri minore, care ar
putea fi rezolvate prin simpla achiziionare a unui sistem fizic de echipamente i utilaje miniere
performante.
Reducerea soluionrii numai la introducerea exclusiv a informatizrii n sectorul minier
extractiv este inoportun i frecvent ineficient cnd este aplicat n sine, unilateral, ntr-un
sistem industrial att de structurat, cvas-rigid.
Constatm c se manifest o cvasi-continu contradicie ntre creterea puternic a
productivitii (din surse tehnologice avansate) i regenerarea insuficient a cererii, care poate
conduce n diferite intervale de timp la o subfuncionare a economiei unei entiti.
De aceea, viteza puternic a schimbrilor tehnologice, pe fond, este dorit i extrem de
favorabil (intrinsec) pentru un sistem social, ns realitile din mediul economico-productiv n
sistemele productive extractive de resurse minerale i energetice, opun unele rezistene.
O eventual ncetinire a ritmului dezvoltrilor tehnologice n sistemele productive extractive de
resurse minerale i energetice, poate fi explicat adesea prin existena unei crize n sistemul
productiv de baz (figura. 1).[4]

Figura: 1. Influene date de criza sistemului productiv asupra dezvoltrii tehnologice n sistemele
productive extractive de resurse minerale i energetice
SP = sistem productiv; ST = sistemul tehnologiilor; 1 = dezvoltare expansiv a sistemului
tehnologic; 2 = dezvoltare echilibrat (echipotenial) a tehnologiilor mpreun cu sistemul
productiv; 3 = recesiune tehnologic; 4 = tendina de depire a crizelor sistemului de producie
minier cu ajutorul dezvoltrii tehnologice; 1= expansiunea sistemului productiv minier; 2=
recesiunea sistemului productiv minier; 3= relansarea (revigorarea) sistemului productiv extractiv
de resurse minerale i energetice
Pe de alt parte, n diferite entiti dezvoltate din punct de vedere industrial i social este
meninut teza potrivit creia marile descoperiri tehnologice provoac crize profunde n
ntreprinderi.

506
Deoarece acestea aduc creteri masive ale productivitii (apariia omajului), sunt induse
obligaii pentru schimbri structurale costisitoare ale infrastructurii ntreprinderilor, care
influeneaz creterea, schimb raporturile sociale i coninutul organizrii muncii.
Aspectul are proporii i coninuturi evolutive difereniate, specifice n sectoare cu nalt
rezoluie tiinific, precum n extracia i valorificarea uraniului, n industria nuclear minier i
energetic.

2. Statutul tehnologiilor n ntreprinderile miniere i energetice, inclusiv

nucleare

Ansamblul productiv poate fi analizat prin metoda separrii secvenelor (sub-structurilor), iar n
baza concluziilor obinute pot fi emise decizii de reglementare sau direcionare a evoluiei.
n practic ns, n ultimele decenii s-a produs o mutaie semnificativ privind coninutul
raportului dintre secvenele sau substructurile procesului productiv minier, inclusiv a celui
tehnologic energetic.
ntr-o astfel de situaie este de subliniat c tehnologiile n sistemele productive extractive de
resurse minerale i energetice, sunt deja integrate n gestiunea ntreprinderilor.
n acest fel, natura i statutul tehnologiilor s-au schimbat semnificativ.
Tehnologiile n sistemele productive extractive de resurse minerale i energetice nu mai au
caracter evolutiv autarhic. Ele sunt integrate n reeaua (sau construcia) ntreprinderii. Ele nu
sunt numai instrumente, prghii, proceduri folosite pentru transformarea materiilor n bunuri, ci
au devenit elemente de patrimoniu, respectiv componente active care pot influena radical
bazele companiei.
Ca atare, managementul i marketingul firmei, organizaiei, centreaz tehnologiile n mulimea
factorilor care pot influena decisiv soarta i bunul mers productiv-economic minier i energetic.
La nceputul secolului XX, dimensiunea fizic a unei tehnologii consemna puterea acesteia n
sistemul productiv.
n prezent, exemplificativ n domeniul industriei nucleare, tehnologia a devenit un element
integrator conceptual al ntreprinderii/organizaiei, deci o variabil de decizie.
n consecin, tehnologiile n sistemele productive extractive de resurse minerale i energetice
nu pot fi considerate numai simple ansambluri care ofer soluii materiale, ci i factori de
influen n luarea de decizii.
Tehnologiile au devenit un loc comun al deciziilor complexe, datorit faptului c ele ofer
variante multiple, ce pot fi ncadrate succesiv ntr-o schem combinatorie favorabil generrii de
noi soluii.
Datorit ptrunderii n sistemele productive a unei substane noi informaia , tehnologiile,
mai ales cele nucleare, au nceput s parcurg un proces de dematerializare.
Nu numai intrarea vertiginoas a informaiei n sfera configuraiilor tehnologice n sistemele
productive extractive de resurse minerale i energetice, ci chiar apariia unor materiale noi sau
a unor elemente de biologie avansat arat c dematerializarea industrial a parcurs pai
semnificativi.
Se observ c tehnologiile moderne nu mai sunt legate de ansambluri stabile de echipamente i
maini sau de soluii materiale imuabile, perene.
n aceste condiii, tehnologia n sistemele productive extractive de resurse minerale i
energetice, ami ales n sfera cercetrii i valorificrii potenialului energetic nuclear, este din ce
n ce mai mult analizat ca un ansamblu de funciuni.

507
Soluiile tehnologiei nucleare unitare sau modulare, dac sunt supuse combinrii, compunerii i
recompunerii ofer variante inedite de rezolvri i confirm faptul c se nregistreaz o cretere
a libertii conceptuale ntr-o ntreprindere.
n acelai timp, noile tehnologii moderne n sistemele productive extractive de resurse minerale
i energetice, nu au poziii liniare n cadrul unei ntreprinderi. Dimpotriv, ele constituie zone de
ricoeuri i determinri de dezvoltri noi pe orizontal sau vertical ale altor activiti din alte
sectoare productive i tehnologice specifice substructurilor firmei.
Aspectele de mai sus evideniaz c o tehnologie intern (n sistemele productive extractive de
resurse minerale i energetice) nu este doar o prghie, ci un loc real de decizie, nu doar un
mijloc de realizare productiv, ci o problem operaional complex care ia n considerare:
caracteristicile de produs, gradul de automatizare, gradul de integrare .a.
Tehnologia unei ntreprinderi miniere/energetice este considerat tot mai mult un sistem.
Dimensiunea tehnologic este luat n considerare n mod distinct la elaborarea noilor strategii
de integrare a companiilor n mediul productiv i economic global.
Rolul tehnologiei ntr-o ntreprindere n sistemele productive extractive de resurse minerale i
energetice,nu mai poate fi delimitat de rolul pe care l are managementul n asigurarea
funcionrii entitii.
Conductorii sunt preocupai de a crea la nivel de ntreprindere condiiile pentru atingerea de
ctre tehnologii a nivelului de maxim performan operaional (figura. 2). [4]

Figura: 2. Exprimarea rolului ntreprinderii miniere/energetice fa de nivelul maxim al

performanei unei tehnologii i a rolului substructurilor din organigram fa de
secvenele tehnologice
Avnd n vedere c o tehnologie, inclusiv n sistemele productive extractive de resurse minerale
i energetice, are n mod implicit cel puin trei compartimente operaionale (alimentare,
procesare i evacuare distribuie), noua tendin managerial este de suprapunere pe aceste
module a unor activiti relaionale specializate de organizare conducere i coordonare a
aprovizionrii, a produciei propriu zise i, respectiv, a desfacerii produselor (bunurilor) obinute.
Astfel, organigramele sunt formulate cu substructuri organizatorice de tip compartiment, birou,
direcie, divizie .a. care rspund relaional secvenelor tehnologice de baz instituite.

3. Saturarea tehnologic minier i energetic

Tehnologiile i sistemele tehnologice n sistemele productive extractive de resurse minerale i

energetice, pot atinge anumite limite ale existenei lor.

508
Este dificil de apreciat felul n care se manifest creterea n vrst a tehnologiilor. Exist
tehnologii a cror rezisten i consisten persist n jur de 100 de ani. Altele ating vrste
finale mai reduse (figura. 3). [4]

Figura: 3. Tendina de scdere a duratei de via a tehnologiilor i de cretere

a duratei de via a omului
La o etap dat se constat c o anumit tehnologie nu mai este capabil s determine
performane acceptabile, dorite mai ales cnd asupra ei acioneaz factori noi de constrngere
cum sunt: reorientarea spre reducerea dimensional a ntreprinderilor, complexitatea mai
ridicat a problemelor productive (ale produsului), poluarea, .a.
Aspectele de mai sus ndreptesc constatarea c apare o faz de saturaie pe care tehnologia,
inclusiv n sistemele productive extractive de resurse minerale i energetice, o nregistreaz
previzibil sau imprevizibil. Saturarea rezult prin degradarea raportului avantaje dezavantaje.
Acceptabilitatea social a tehnologiei devine tot mai erodat. Sistemul tehnologic minier
/energetic intr n contradicie mai ales cu cadrul su ecologic (mediul nconjurtor n care este
plasat fizic ansamblul productiv-economic respectiv).
Sistemul productiv centrat pe o tehnologie devine dezechilibrat deoarece se epuizeaz
oportunitile ndreptate spre pia ca urmare a afectrii indicatorilor tehnico-economici luai n
calcul pentru obinerea produsului sau serviciului final.
Totodat, se constat c tehnologiile saturate sau aproape saturate n sistemele productive
extractive de resurse minerale i energetice, intr n familia tehnicilor tradiionale care au reacii
mai slabe la exigenele economice i sociale contemporane.
De exemplu, apariia ordinatoarelor i a prelucrrii electronice a informaiei au contribuit
hotrtor la degradarea sistemului tehnologic electromecanic care nu i-a mai putut menine
supremaia n grupul de sisteme productive.
n schimb, n industria nuclear, ordinatoarele deja domin configuraia decizional pentru
siguran, securitate a funcionrii centralelor nucleare.
n evoluia procedurilor tehnologice se constat i manifestarea unor etape de randament
sczut a cercetrii, inclusiv o anumit epuizare a capacitii de inovare.
n figura. 4 [4] este nfiat traseul afectrilor factuale de la saturarea, respectiv autosaturarea
tehnologiilor pn la starea de cretere economic negativ [5], aspect frecvent aplicabil
(conceptual) n sectorul de extracie a combustibililor fosili.

509
 Figura: 4. Modul n care tehnologiile saturate n sistemele productive extractive de resurse
minerale i energetice, determin scderea economic (nregistrarea de creteri negative)
Se observ c atingerea propriilor limite ale unei tehnologii n sistemele productive extractive de
resurse minerale i energetice, induce scderea productivitii, concomitent cu reducerea
volumului rezultatelor satisfctoare din cercetare-dezvoltare. Produsele i serviciile devin astfel
nvechite, neatractive i cu grad sporit de dificultate pentru distribuie.
Criza relaiilor cu mediul i cea a raporturilor sociale n sistemele productive extractive de
resurse minerale i energetice, i au expresia n crizele secveniale (sectoriale) cum sunt cele
din domeniul petrolului, apei .a., precum i n starea critic a managementului i consumului.
Teza necesitii accelerrii progresului tehnic rezult tocmai dintr-o viziune similar celei
prezentate mai sus.
Argumentarea tendinei necesare de cretere a tehnicitii este nfiat de concluzia c ntre
anii 1967-1971, pe plan mondial, depozitele de brevete de invenie au cunoscut cea mai
agravant scdere direct (tendin de staionare).
Saturarea tehnologic n sistemele productive extractive de resurse minerale i energetice,
reprezint un proces obiectiv care, nesesizat la momentele limit, afecteaz (prin degradare)
sistemul productiv-economic al unei entiti, inclusiv starea social a societii.
Contradiciile ntre sistemele tehnologice n declin i cadrul social, organizarea muncii i
modelele de consum constituie indicii (semnalele) c mediul local i internaional parcurge
transformri ascendente continue n sfera productiv-economic.

4. Concluzii

Sistemul tehnologic minier /energetic intr n contradicie mai ales cu cadrul su ecologic
(mediul nconjurtor n care este plasat fizic ansamblul productiv-economic respectiv).
Sistemul productiv centrat pe o tehnologie devine dezechilibrat deoarece se epuizeaz
oportunitile ndreptate spre pia ca urmare a afectrii indicatorilor tehnico-economici luai n
calcul pentru obinerea produsului sau serviciului final.
Totodat, se constat c tehnologiile saturate sau aproape saturate n sistemele productive
extractive de resurse minerale i energetice, intr n familia tehnicilor tradiionale care au reacii
mai slabe la exigenele economice i sociale contemporane.
Este meninut teza potrivit creia marile descoperiri tehnologice provoac crize profunde n
ntreprinderi.

510
Deoarece acestea aduc creteri masive ale productivitii (apariia omajului), sunt induse
obligaii pentru schimbri structurale costisitoare ale infrastructurii ntreprinderilor, care
influeneaz creterea, schimb raporturile sociale i coninutul organizrii muncii.
Aspectul are proporii i coninuturi evolutive difereniate, specifice n sectoare cu nalt
rezoluie tiinific, precum n extracia i valorificarea uraniului, n industria nuclear minier i
energetic.

REFERENCES

Drucker, F.P., Inovaia i sistemul antreprenorial, Colecia Biblioteca BNR, Bucureti,

[1]
1993
Gf-Deac, I., Management i marketing pentru resurse minerale, Editura Tehnic,
[2]
Bucureti, 1997
Gf-Deac, Maria, Tehnologii moderne, Ed. FRM, ISBN 973-582-808-1, Bucureti,
[3]
2004
Gf-Deac, Maria, Saturarea tehnologic i creterea economic negativ, Revista
[4]
Minelor, Bucureti, nr.1/2000, p.12
Gf-Deac, Maria, Dimensiunea fizic a tehnologiilor i mrimea rezultatelor
[5]
proiectate, Revista Minelor, Bucureti, nr.2/2000 p.29
[6] Gf-Deac, Maria (col.), Tratat de tehnologii moderne, Ed. FRM, Bucureti, 2000
Gf-Deac, Maria (col.), Managementul dezvoltrii structurilor tehnologice Editura
[7]
Infomin, Deva, 2003
Hadj, S.A.E, Lentreprise face la mutation technologique, Les Editions
[8]
dOrganisation, 1989
Morin, J., Sembat R., Le management de resources technologiques, Les Editions
[9]
dOrganisation, Paris, 1989.
Ponoran, I., Angelescu, A., Vian, S., Tehnologie i dezvoltarea tehnologic, Ed.
[10]
FRM, Bucureti, 1998.
Quibel, J., Etre un decideur avec les nouvelles technologies, Les Editions
[11]
dOrganisation, Paris, 1988.
Valeca, Cristina Monica, Informatica conducerii fuzzy a sistemelor complexe, S.C.S.
[12]
Oradea, 2004
Valeca, Cristina Monica, Strategii evolutive modelate in conceptia Cromodinamicii
[13]
Industriale S.C.S. Oradea, 2004
Mriua Tudor erban, Ioan I. Gf-Deac, Ion Iulian Hurloiu, Gabriel Mihai, Elena
Burtea, Ana-Maria Reetar-Deac - Securizarea reelelor electronice de comunicaii
[14] prin criptografierea bazelor de date, Revista pentru Dezvoltare Bazat pe
Cunoatere RDBC, Nr. 1/ 2015, Bucureti, ISSN 2393-2112 / ISSN-L 2393-2112,
(www.e-editura.ro/rdbc), p. 22-29
Ioan I. Gf-Deac, Theodor Damian, Maria Gf-Deac, Andreea Condurache, Sorin
Pavl, Benedict Oprescu, Aurel Bucur, - Dimensionarea i difuzarea cognitiv a
[15] managementului general n condiiile globalizrii, Revista pentru Dezvoltare Bazat
pe Cunoatere RDBC, Nr. 2/ 2015, Bucureti, ISSN 2393-2112 / ISSN-L 2393-
2112, (www.e-editura.ro/rdbc), p. 79-82
Laureniu Bogatu, Ioan I. Gf-Deac, Moise Bojinc, Ciprian Coandre, Ioana Andreea
Marinescu, Adrian Iordache, Georgian Lctu, Ioan Rus, Ionel Cosmin Gagiu, -
[16]
Conceptualizri juridice i economice pentru diferenieri ntre resurse naturale,
resurse i rezerve minerale, Revista pentru Dezvoltare Bazat pe Cunoatere RDBC,

511
 Nr. 2/ 2015, Bucureti, ISSN 2393-2112 / ISSN-L 2393-2112, (www.e-
editura.ro/rdbc), p. 102-108
Ioan I. Gf-Deac, Constantin Sava, Aronel-Ovidiu-Corneliu Matei, Roxana Herbei,
Mihai Marius Nedelea, - Exploitation and recovery of the mineral useful in Northern
[17]
Dobrogea, Journal of Economics and Knowledge Technologies (ISSN 2360-5499 /
ISSN- L 2360-5499), No.3/March 2015, p. 81-87
Horia Ioan Georgescu, Mriua Tudor erban, Ioan I. Gf-Deac, Ilie Ionel Ciuclea -
Metadagramatic inserting model into database security systems, Journal of
[18]
Economics and Knowledge Technologies (ISSN 2360-5499 / ISSN- L 2360-5499),
No.2/February 2015, p. 18-22
Maria Gf-Deac, Th. Damian, A. Iordache, B. Preda, I. Rus, R. tefan, -Basic
[19] concepts on corporate management, Journal of Economics and Knowledge
Technologies (ISSN 2360-5499 / ISSN- L 2360-5499), No.1/ January 2015, p.10-15
Ioan I. Gf-Deac, N.u, I. Drglin, Maria Gf-Deac, M.M. Nedelea, I. Pascal, -
The development trough endogen status of the technical and technological changes,
[20]
Journal of Economics and Knowledge Technologies (ISSN 2360-5499 / ISSN- L
2360-5499), No.1/ January 2015, p.68-73
Maria Gf-Deac, M.T. erban, M. Gabriel, E. Burtea, Fl. Diaconescu, M.L. Enache, -
Privacy data under erosion of computational security in computing infrastructures,
[21]
Journal of Economics and Knowledge Technologies (ISSN 2360-5499 / ISSN- L
2360-5499), No.1/ January 2015, p. 96- 102
Gf-Deac M., Management general pentru economia bazat pe cunoatere, Ed.
[22]
FRM, Bucureti, 2011
Gf-Deac M ., - Managementul modelrii structurilor tehnologice, Editura Infomin,
[23]
Deva, 2002
Gf-Deac I., - Bazele managementului doxastic, (in Romanian), Ed. Free Mind
[24]
Publishing, Bucureti, 2013, (ISBN 978-606-93321-5-3)
Gf-Deac I.I., -Microeconomie,- Ed. FMP, Bucureti, 2013, (ISBN 978-606-93432-4-
[25]
1)
Gf-Deac I.I., -Macroeconomie, - Ed. FMP, Bucureti, 2013, (ISBN 978-606-93432-5-
[26]
8)
Gf-Deac I.I., - Strategii naionale i regionale privind utilizarea resurselor naturale
n Europa i Asia Central, Lucr. t. Intl. Interdisciplinary Scientific Sym. Universitaria
[27] Simpro 2005, Integrare n aria european a cercetrii, Vol. Ecologie i reabilitarea
zonelor afectate de procesarea resurselor i materialelor, Ed. Universitas, Petroani,
2005
Gf-Deac I.I., - The Integrated Sense of Social-Economic Transformation on Primary
Phase of Globalization in Romania,-Ses. Intl. de Com. t. Provocri ale securitii i
[28]
strategiei la nceputul secolului XXI, Ministerul Ap. Naionale, Univ. Na. de Aprare,
Sec. Istorie, Geopolitic i Geostrategie, Bucureti, 14-15 aprilie 2005
Gf-Deac I.I., - Bazele juridice i economice ale sistemelor de resurse n noua
[29] economie, - Ed. Infomin, Deva, 2007, (www.infomindeva.ro), (ISBN 978-973-7646-
04-0)
Gf-Deac I.I., - Noua Economie ntre cunoatere i risc, - Ed. Infomin, Deva, 2010,
[30]
(www.infomindeva.ro), (ISBN 978-973-7646-11-8)
Gf-Deac I.I., - tiina administraiei i management public modern, Ed. Infomin,
[31]
Deva, 2010, (www.infomindeva.ro), (ISBN 978-973-7646-09-05),(165 p.)

512
 DIMENSIONAREA TEHNOLOGIILOR DE EXTRACIE I
VALORIFICARE A RESURSELOR MINERALE I
ENERGETICE/

EXTRACTION AND RECOVERY SIZING TECHNOLOGY OF

MINERAL AND ENERGY RESOURCES
Maria GF-DEAC1, Nicolae ILIA2, Cristina Monica VALECA3, Ioan I. GF-DEAC4,
Andrei NICOLAE5, Ilie Ionel CIUCLEA6, Marian NICOLAE7
1
PhD. Senior Lecturer, USH Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania, [email protected]
2
PhD. Professor University of Petrosani, Petrosani, Romania, [email protected]
3
PhD. University of Piteti, Nuclear Research Institute (ICN), Romania, [email protected]
4
Senior Lecturer PhD. Law, Ec./Technical Science, SH University of Bucharest, INCE "C.C.Kiriescu",
Romanian Academy, Bucharest, Romania, [email protected]
5
St. Rech., Jacobs University Bremen, Germany, [email protected]
6
PhD.St. Ec, General Manager Supercom, University of Petrosani, Romania, [email protected]
7
Senior Lecturer, PhD., Bioterra University of Bucharest, Romania, [email protected]

ABSTRACT
The authors show that high technology material dimension (machinery, equipment, devices,
etc.) in productive systems extractive mineral and energy resources are not expressly subject to
(secure) their efficiency. As is demonstrated, for example, that the facilities streamlined with
smaller underground and surface quarrying, which can accomplish the same mining products
(or other upper) and energy to the configuration of equipment Initially lead to cost reduction,
restriction sites affected, reduction of environmental assaults, increased productivity (by
reducing the number of servers) etc. This paper is a summary of takeover extension study
entitled Modern Technologies (Author: Maria Gf- Deac, Ed. FRM, ISBN 973-582-808-1,
Bucharest, 2004) with the application of case law in expansion, extractive mining and energy
sectors, respectively in the nuclear industry. It concludes that all markets technologies and
products in one way or another, come at a time of declining. What varies considerably in this
process it is localized in time or fixed intervals. The main lines of development of a market are
closely related technologies, product placed on the market, and price competition.

KEYWORDS
sizing technology, technological sophistication, organization technology, mining technology
development organization model

513
1. Introducere

Una dintre caracteristicile importante ale comerului internaional contemporan cu tehnologii

este faptul c scopul urmrit nainte de toate nu este profitul imediat, ci mai degrab cucerirea
de segmente de pia i controlul tehnologiilor fundamentale (de baz).
Este important s se sesizeze creterea sau declinul unei piee, ns la fel de important este
sesizarea factorilor care o influeneaz.
n mediul productiv-economic de ansamblu, exist intenia cvasi-permanent de a se realiza
corelaii ntre dimensiunea tehnologiei i rezultatele practice considerate eficiente pe care
aceasta le poate oferi prin aplicare.
De asemenea, o mulime finit de tehnologii ofer rezultate compuse care formeaz o mulime
de reacii caracterizate de un anumit nivel convenional de eficacitate dorit.

2. Dimensiunea material a tehnologiilor n sistemele productive extractive

de resurse minerale i energetice

O sistematizare a acestor proporii n sistemele productive extractive de resurse minerale i

energetice arat c n timpul (t) fa de tendina de obinere a unor rezultate convenional
eficiente (R), dimensiunile tehnologiilor (D) sunt n scdere (fig. 1.) [11, [8].
Caracterizarea acestor dependene este dat de relaia:
D = R(t) (1)
Se observ c viteza de scdere a dimensiunilor D este mai redus dect creterea mrimii
rezultatelor programate, iar timpul de transformare depete n valoare absolut ceilali
parametri din relaia de dependen.
Astfel:
> > (2)

Aceast legitate demonstreaz c transformarea tehnologiilor (respectiv schimbarea lor),

urmrind concomitent reducerea lor dimensional i obinerea de rezultate superioare ntmpin
rezistene (constrngeri) n sistemele productive extractive de resurse minerale i energetice,
care pot fi nvinse n timp relativ ndelungat.
De altfel, perfecionarea (rafinarea) tehnologiilor (T) n sistemele productive extractive de
resurse minerale i energetice se reflect ca proces condus eficient (E) n msura n care se
obine minimizarea parametrului timp:
t min)
T (E ) ( Max (3)
Dimensiunea material ridicat a tehnologiilor (maini, instalaii, dispozitive .a.) n sistemele
productive extractive de resurse minerale i energetice nu constituie expresia obiectiv (sigur)
a eficienei acestora.
n timp se demonstreaz, de exemplu, c instalaiile raionalizate cu dimensiuni mai reduse n
subteran i la suprafa, n cariere, care pot realiza aceleai produse miniere (sau chiar altele
superioare) i energie fa de configuraia instalaiilor iniiale conduc la reducerea costurilor,
restrngerea amplasamentelor afectate, diminuarea agresiunilor fa de mediu, creterea
productivitii (prin scderea numrului de servani) .a.
n plus, n cazul tehnologiilor cu dimensiuni fizice mai reduse apare flexibilitatea i posibilitatea
sporit de adaptare.

514
 Figura 1: Tendina de miniaturizare a tehnologiilor de timp
t = timp; R= rezultate convenional eficiente; D = dimensiunile tehnologiilor;
P = performanele tehnologiilor o dat cu creterea rezultatelor ateptate;
a = unghi de transformare agregat a dimensiunii tehnologiilor
De exemplu, o anumit concepie a anilor 70 a condus la desfurarea practic a aglomerrilor
industriale masive n sisteme tehnologice de producie minier i energetic, i care, n fapt, s-
au dovedit ulterior a fi rigide.
n context, a fost demonstrat inconsistena dependenei rezultatelor dorite de dimensiunea
fizic a tehnologiilor i faptul c ntr-o etap dat n sistemele productive extractive de resurse
minerale i energetice se nregistreaz anumite limite de existen i funcionare tehnologic
optim.
Cutarea optimului n corelaiile de mai sus se poate opera n sistemele productive extractive de
resurse minerale i energetice prin diferenierea relaiei [D=R(t)], (1), imprimndu-se o pant
() care s poziioneze curba de dependen ntr-o tendin convenabil.

3. Criza sistemului tehnologic electromecanic n sistemele productive

extractive de resurse minerale i energetice

3.1 Manifestri indirecte i directe ale crizei sistemelor tehnologice

La nceputul anilor 70 analitii politici i economici au formulat explicaii concluzive fa de

fenomenul de criz aproape generalizat pe plan mondial.
S-a pornit de la diagnosticarea strii economiei mondiale la momentul respectiv i s-au putut
sistematiza cteva aspecte cum sunt:
efectele (rezultatele) economice n sistemul productiv general, respectiv n sistemele
productive extractive de resurse minerale i energetice, prezentau tendina de uoar scdere
sau de staionare cvasi-constant;
soluiile imaginate pentru creterea productivitii muncii i respectiv reducerea costurilor n
sistemele productive extractive de resurse minerale i energetice nu s-au dovedit a fi
reprezentative (adic accentuate ca influen);
familia noilor produse miniere i energetice lansate nregistra un ritm de mbogire calitativ
i nfiare de noi performane considerate prea lente;
modelele de consum mineral i energetic au rmas ntr-o cvasi-staionare, considerndu-se c
nu se nregistreaz o vitez corespunztoare pentru cereri noi;
n domeniul cercetrii tiinifice, rezultatele ca volum i calitate n sistemele productive
extractive de resurse minerale i energetice nu ofereau premise de rupturi pozitive n sistemul
productiv-industrial o dat cu aplicarea rezultatelor lor;

515
 curba consumurilor specifice a nregistrat (sub formul agregat) pante de descretere cu
unghiuri mici, nesatisfctoare;
tot mai frecvent crizele de organizare s-au identificat drept cauze n declinul companiilor
miniere i energetice.
Organizarea muncii pe fluxuri tehnologice intrate n procesul de erodare (nvechire) a rmas n
sistemele productive extractive de resurse minerale i energetice la stadiul aplicaiilor deja
clasice.
Au fost reinute semnale care denotau o criz a relaiilor ntre sistemele productive i mediul
nconjurtor. Ca o nfurtoare a conotaiilor enumerate a fost considerat criza de consens
social aferent etapei respective.
Concluzia semnificativ, cu grad ridicat de reprezentativitate, arat c la acel moment de ultim
sfert de veac, de fapt n sistemele productive extractive de resurse minerale i energetice s-a
nregistrat o criz a sistemului tehnologic electromecanic i chimic care a dominat n trecut, mai
mult de un veac, domeniul productiv-industrial.

3.2. Saturarea sistemelor tehnologice productive extractive de resurse minerale

i energetice

Sistemul tehnologic electromecanic minier i-a atins limitele sale interne, nemaifiind capabil de
performane semnificative. Realitatea de mai sus arat starea de saturaie nregistrat de
tehnologii, i prin extensie de ctre sistemele tehnologice miniere i energetice [9].
Saturaia se manifest prin:
incapacitatea tehnologiilor miniere i energetice de a rspunde exigenelor economice i
sociale;
dispozitivele mai evoluate ale tehnologiilor nu-i gsesc operaionalitatea mai accentuat n
cadrul fluxurilor productive, nregistrnd reduceri ale performanelor cu toate c ele dispun
potenial i latent de posibiliti noi de revigorare a procesului de producie i reproducie
minier;
capacitatea de inovare n sistemele productive extractive de resurse minerale i energetice
rmne constant sau n scdere; costurile de cercetare rmn ridicate n raport cu
descoperirea tiinific i efectele economice obinute prin aplicarea rezultatelor cercetrii.
Criza sistemului tehnologic electromecanic i chimic n sistemele productive extractive de
resurse minerale i energetice, o dat sesizat a fost supus aciunilor de contracarare.
Civilizaia tehnic mondial a beneficiat n continuare de o ruptur ntre etape, respectiv
trecerea peste un hotar al dezvoltrii prin impunerea unor noi tehnologii generice (electronic,
microelectronic, sistemele informaionale, prelucrarea infor-maiei .a.)

4. Blocajul tehnologic n sistemele productive extractive de resurse minerale

i energetice

Fenomenul abaterilor de la normalitate este exprimat elocvent de blocaj. Disfunciile, decalajele,

disproporiile, barierele sau diferite obstacole reflect manifestarea propriu-zis a blocajului n
sistemele productive extractive de resurse minerale i energetice.
Sistemele tehnologice ca entiti fizice funcionale nu sunt ferite de blocaje.
n principal, blocajul tehnologic n sistemele productive extractive de resurse minerale i
energetice const n:
rmnerea n urm, ntrzierea, decalajul, criza sau dezechilibrul dintre nivelurile tehnologice
ale unei companii miniere, subramuri, ramuri i al economiei, n general, existente ntr-o ar

516
fa de nivelul mediu mondial sau fa de cel atins de rile dezvoltate n sistemele productive
extractive de resurse minerale i energetice;
ritmul lent de asimilare i distribuie a noilor tehnici i tehnologii, precum i ntrzierea
modernizrii celor existente.
Uzura fizic i moral a tehnicii din dotare, nivelul sczut de modernizare, automatizare,
robotizare i cibernetizare a proceselor de producie n sistemele productive extractive de
resurse minerale i energetice mpiedic aplicarea metodelor de optimizare.
Decalajele tehnologice ca expresie fireasc a diferenierii se ntlnesc n economia intern a
unei ri sau n termeni comparativi ntre ri.
Nivelul sczut de dezvoltare economico-social, ritmul redus de realizare a PIB reflect
dimensiunea i amploarea decalajelor tehnologice ntre ri.
Pe parcursul vieii tehnologiilor se ntlnesc blocaje n cvasitotalitatea fazelor de la concepie,
proiectare ct i n exploatare, ntreinere i reparaii.
Dup G. Zaman i C. Ciutacu [1; 2], blocajul tehnologic se manifest prin:
meninerea n fabricaie a unor produse, tehnologii i echipamente nvechite, energofage i
mari consumatoare de materii prime;
creterea stocurilor de produse cu vnzare lent sau greu vandabile;
productivitatea i eficiena redus a produselor i serviciilor realizate;
ponderea sczut a subramurilor, ramurilor i produselor cu nivel tehnic ridicat n ansamblul
economiei;
nivel ridicat de afectare ecologic (poluare) a mediului nconjurtor.
Atenuarea decalajelor tehnologice n sistemele productive extractive de resurse minerale i
energetice se poate realiza cunoscnd situaia lor dimensional cantitativ i calitativ.
Decalajele tehnologice se refer att la produse, grupe de produse, ct i la nivelul tehnologic al
companiilor i al economiei unei ri n comparaie cu performanele atinse n alte ri.
Totui, msurarea exact a unui decalaj tehnologic n sistemele productive extractive de resurse
minerale i energetice constituie o operaiune dificil, ns evidenierea diferenelor perceptibile
(cuanti-ficate) ofer indiciile suficiente pentru o evaluare folositoare.
Pentru sublinierea amplitudinii i profunzimii blocajului tehnologic n sistemele productive
extractive de resurse minerale i energetice se poate apela la indicatorii de exprimare indirect
a acestei stri (indicatori economici, globali i pariali).
Efectele blocajului tehnologic se reflect n principal prin:
nivel redus al PIB pe locuitor;
productivitate social redus pe o persoan ocupat;
consumuri ridicate de energie i materii prime pe unitatea de produs sau monetar;
slaba competivitate a produselor;
volumul redus al exporturilor pe locuitor;
ponderea sczut a exportului unei ri n exportul mondial;
costuri ridicate de producie;
niveluri ridicate ale preurilor;
rentabilitate redus;
meninerea unui efort fizic crescut, condiii grele de munc, numr ridicat de accidente i
mbolnviri profesionale;
nivel ridicat de poluare.
ntre ritmul de cretere economic a unei ri i nivelul tehnologic exist o strns
interdependen.

517
Cu ct asimilarea progresului tiinific i tehnic este mai accentuat (rapid) cu att este mai
intens dezvoltarea economic.
Inveniile i inovaiile determinnd progresul tehnologic pot contribui la relansarea i
dezvoltarea durabil a economiei unei ri.
Eliminarea blocajului prin diminuarea decalajului tehnologic n sistemele productive extractive
de resurse minerale i energetice se poate realiza i prin aciuni de stimulare a dinamicii n
unele direcii cum sunt:
amplificarea activitii autohtone de cercetare tiinific i dezvoltare tehnologic;
intensificarea transferului de tehnologie, difuzarea eficient a informaiilor n domeniu.
Transferul de tehnologie, potrivit cercetrilor efectuate de G. Zaman i C. Ciutacu [1,2],
constituie un subprodus al inovrii.
creterea capacitii de asimilare a inovaiilor. Se apreciaz c inovaia determin ntotdeauna
perimarea performanelor prezente.
Blocajul tehnologic n sistemele productive extractive de resurse minerale i energetice este o
realitate aferent sistemelor tehnologice de la natere pn la destrmarea lor.

5. Tehnologiile miniere/energetice i ciclul de via al acestora

n funcionarea unei ntreprinderi miniere/energetice, pentru ca o tehnologie s nregistreze

rezultatele scontate este important s se compare elementele de for, dar i slbiciunile fa de
piaa (mediul) n care funcioneaz.
Toate pieele de tehnologii i de produse, ntr-un fel sau altul, intr la un moment dat n declin.
Ceea ce variaz considerabil n acest proces este localizat n timp sau intervale bine
determinate.
Este important s se sesizeze creterea sau declinul unei piee, ns la fel de important este
sesizarea factorilor care o influeneaz.
Liniile principale de dezvoltare ale unei piee sunt strns legate de tehnologii, produsul plasat pe
pia, concuren i pre (figura. 2) [8].
O analiz corelat pe faze evideniaz urmtoarele:
n faza de lansare (L):
Tehnologiile (t 1 ) sunt n starea de inovaie-invenie;
Produsul (p 1 ) este mai puin sofisticat;
Piaa (p 1 ) are segmente nguste de operare;
Concurena (c 1 ) este slab;
Preul produsului (p 1 ) este ridicat;
Marjele de aciune (M 1 ) sunt n general ridicate.
n faza de cretere de debut (CD):
Tehnologiile (t 2 ) sunt aplicate mai pregnant;
Produsul (p 2 ) nregistreaz dezvoltri ale rafinamentului su;
Piaa (p 2 ) nregistreaz n continuare segmente nguste de operare;
Concurena (c 2 ) este slab;
Preurile (p 2 ) se menin relativ ridicate;
Marjele de aciune (M 2 ) sunt largi.
n faza de cretere masiv (CM):
Tehnologiile (t 3 ) primesc mas semnificativ de materii prime i energie care urmeaz a fi
supus transformrilor, iar aplicaiile tehnologice industriale sunt mai pregnante;
518
 Se extinde gama produselor (p 3 );
Piaa (p 3 ) nregistreaz o lrgire a segmentelor;
Concurena (c 3 ) se intensific i apare efectul de antrenare;
Preurile (p 3 ) devin ceva mai reduse;
Marjele (M 3 ) de aciune ncep s se limiteze.

Figura. 2. Evoluia tehnologiilor i influena lor asupra

dezvoltrii unei piee n corelaie cu ciclul de via al unui produs
L lansare; C consolidare; E evoluii; CD cretere de debut;
M maturizare; T timp; CM cretere masiv
n faza de consolidare (C):
Tehnologiile (t 4 ) sunt supuse unui efect ce reflect experiena tehnologic dobndit, ceea
ce determin costuri de aplicare ceva mai reduse;
Gama produselor (p 4 ) se extinde;
Piaa (p 4 ) devine de mas;
Concurena (c 4 ) determin eliminarea de pe pia a produselor cu costuri ridicate;
Preurile (p 4 ) ncep s scad mai semnificativ;
Marjele de aciune (M 4 ) sunt tot mai reduse.
n faza de maturitate (M):
n faza de maturitate (M):
Tehnologiile (t 5 ) chiar dac sunt funcionale ncep s fie tratate cu rezerve. Se realizeaz
analize ale evoluiei tehnologiilor respective obinndu-se concluzii suges-tive asupra strii
noi nregistrate n evoluie. Este important de reinut c n aceast faz sunt iniiate aciuni
de dezvoltare a tehnologiilor de nlocuire (substituie).
Produsul (p 5 ) este n proliferare;
Piaa (p 5 ) nregistreaz caracteristic de mas, ns deja aceasta este segmentat;
Concurena (c 5 ) este dominant, amenin produsul aflat la maturitate i promoveaz cu
insisten noile produse de substituire (nlocuire);
Preurile (p 5 ) sunt deja sczute;
Marja de aciune (M 5 ) are caracteristici dimensionale medii.
Se observ n sistemele productive extractive de resurse minerale i energetice stricta
corelaie a tehnologiilor cu celelalte elemente din sistemul industrial, mai ales cu ciclul de
via al produsului.

519
6. Concurena i sistemele tehnologice miniere /energetice

Integrarea regional, subregional sau zonal creaz piee unice care induc o serie de efecte
asupra structurilor industriale i, n particular, asupra sistemelor tehnologice productive
extractive de resurse minerale i energetice. Dintre acestea se amintesc:
dispariia unor ntreprinderi miniere purttoare de tehnologii urmare a intensitii ridicate a
concurenei;
dezangajarea unitilor productive miniere care trebuie s-i caute noi legturi de producie
situate n centre noi cu preuri de revenire mai sczute (glisate din centre recunoscute pentru
excelena factorilor de productivitate);
achiziia de tehnologii miniere de la firme situate n interiorul pieii integrate care se regsesc
n situaii concureniale dezavantajoase i care nu se afl n momente suficient de atractive
pentru a putea fi oferite marilor companii transnaionale;
achiziia de ntreprinderi i tehnologii miniere din exteriorul pieii integrate astfel nct acestea
s se regseasc n interiorul ariei integrate;
achiziia i fuzionarea unor companii deintoare de tehnologii miniere moderne din motive de
integrare pe vertical, astfel nct s poat fi controlate elementele din amonte ct i cele din
aval ale sistemului de valori industriale;
fuziuni i realizri de societi mixte miniere i energetice (joint ventures) pentru refacerea
puterii tehnologice i a poziiilor ntreprinderilor n faa nevoii de a crete capacitile de
producie, a colaborrilor pentru distribuie i asigurarea resurselor pentru cercetare i
dezvoltare.
Industria minier i cea energetic, observate ca depozitare de tehnologii, considerate ca
fcnd parte dintr-un sistem general de valori, realizeaz trecerea materiilor prime prin diferite
stadii cu scop de obinere a valorii adugate, ajungnd la consumatorul final. Lund n
considerare existena fluxului menionat, este posibil formularea unui model pentru evaluarea
riscurilor schimbrilor pentru o ntreprindere minier/energetic deintoare de tehnologii
moderne, situat ntr-o pia nou, integrat.
Este important ca ntr-un astfel de model s fie evideniate probabilitile de schimbare care
afecteaz furnizorii de tehnologii i materii prime, clienii (utilizatorii de tehnologii) i concurena
propriu-zis. Un astfel de model n sistemele productive extractive de resurse minerale i
energetice poate indica punctele de tranzacie pentru tehnologii i produse (figura. 3) [8].
Se observ n sistemele productive extractive de resurse minerale i energetice c exist un lan
al tehnologiilor de-a lungul crora ele nsele au dou destinaii:
constituie suportul de realizare efectiv a produselor (bunurilor);
constituie chiar ele un produs (un bun) care poate fi tranzacionat.
Lanul produselor aparent distinct este legat de tehnologii.
Ambele lanuri sunt supuse din exterior unui atac convenional continuu.
Momentul important cutat n sistemul productiv este cel al compatibilitii efective (T) ntre
tehnologii i produsele realizate.
Se deduce c i n cadrul lanurilor exist condiionri reciproce ntre secvene.

520
 Figura. 3. Model simplificat al sistemului de valori industriale pentru tehnologii i produse i interaciunea principal de tranzacii (T)

Modelul simplificat prezentat mai sus trebuie optimizat. Fiecare element trebuie supus analizei
i, dup caz, adaptrii i reproiectrii fa de situaiile noi.
Unele secvene din cele dou nlnuiri paralele sunt cvasiconstante (aceleai pentru un interval
dat de timp, de obicei scurt), iar altele (precum concurena i clienii) sunt permanent variabile.
Modelul are caracter constitutiv obiectiv, ns politicile economice din mediul productiv general
conin msuri care stimuleaz chiar variabilitatea.
De exemplu, n sistemele productive extractive de resurse minerale i energetice, pentru
tehnologii miniere i energetice se ntlnesc ri i regiuni care au reguli semnificative de
generare a concurenei (pentru stimularea introducerii noutilor), de lrgire a pieelor
(clienilor), de cutare i diversificare a materiilor prime ieftine i de calitate superioar, de
reducere a stadiilor prin care trec materiile prime n situaii de semifinite .a.
521
Una dintre caracteristicile importante ale comerului internaional contemporan cu tehnologii
este faptul c scopul urmrit nainte de toate nu este profitul imediat, ci mai degrab cucerirea
de segmente de pia i controlul tehnologiilor fundamentale (de baz).
n mediul internaional este vehiculat chiar teza existenei unui rzboi economic continuu.
Confruntarea se localizeaz n dou niveluri:
cel al mrfurilor produse i vndute ctre ntreprinderi;
cel al ntreprinderilor, care pot fi vndute sau cumprate i care formeaz o pia de ordin
secundar.
Orice entitate care prefer prezentul viitorului poate sfri prin a disprea.
Patrimoniul tehnologiilor de vrf trebuie salvat, protejat ns i actualizat.
Referitor la competiia i la globalizarea activitilor industriale se poate sublinia faptul c n anii
80 ai secolului trecut a aprut un val de internaionalizare i sofisticare a pieelor, urmare a
influenei date de tehnologii. Capacitatea de a crea i implementa tehnologii a devenit cheia
competivitii industriale.
Pentru a putea concura n plan global, companiile miniere i energetice au nevoie de o nou
complexitate tehnologic de maximum de flexibilitate, dar i de produse tradiionale i de o
vast reea de aprovizionare.
Corporaiile acioneaz n prezent la scar global, cu ajutorul unui amplu sistem de relaii i
aliane externe. ntreprinderile depesc practicile lor tradiionale de export i n prezent ofer
faciliti externe pentru formularea de reele inter-naionale complexe, de cercetare tehnologic,
de producie i informaii.
Pe de alt parte este de reinut faptul c nu exist politic industrial fr politic tehnologic.
ncredinarea unui studiu sau a unei dezvoltri tehnologice unei ntreprinderi miniere/energetice
este un act major de politic industrial.

7. Concluzii

Concluzia semnificativ, cu grad ridicat de reprezentativitate, arat c la acel moment de ultim

sfert de veac, de fapt n sistemele productive extractive de resurse minerale i energetice s-a
nregistrat o criz a sistemului tehnologic electromecanic i chimic care a dominat n trecut, mai
mult de un veac, domeniul productiv-industrial.
ntre ritmul de cretere economic a unei ri i nivelul tehnologic exist o strns
interdependen.
Cu ct asimilarea progresului tiinific i tehnic este mai accentuat (rapid) cu att este mai
intens dezvoltarea economic.
Inveniile i inovaiile determinnd progresul tehnologic pot contribui la relansarea i
dezvoltarea durabil a economiei unei ri.
Pentru a putea concura n plan global, companiile miniere i energetice au nevoie de o nou
complexitate tehnologic de maximum de flexibilitate, dar i de produse tradiionale i de o
vast reea de aprovizionare.
Toate pieele de tehnologii i de produse, ntr-un fel sau altul, intr la un moment dat n declin.
Ceea ce variaz considerabil n acest proces este localizat n timp sau intervale bine
determinate.
Este important s se sesizeze creterea sau declinul unei piee, ns la fel de important este
sesizarea factorilor care o influeneaz.
Liniile principale de dezvoltare ale unei piee sunt strns legate de tehnologii, produsul plasat pe
pia, concuren i pre.

522
REFERENCES

Ciutacu, C., Zaman G., Restructurarea economic studiu ICE Academia Romn,
[1]
Bucureti, 1997.
[2] Crian, I., Tehnologia ca sistem, Ed. tiinific i Enciclopedic, Bucureti, 1977.
[3] Crum L.W., Ingineria valorii, Ed. Tehnic, Bucureti, 1976.
Gest, A., Grapps technologiques, les nouvelles strategie dentreprise, Mc Graw Hill,
[4]
1986.
Gf-Deac, I., (col)., Management i marketing pentru tehnologii, Ed. FRM.,
[5]
Bucureti, 2000.
Gf-Deac, I., Management i marketing pentru resurse minerale, Ed. Tehnic,
[6]
Bucureti, 1997.
[7] Gf Deac, M., Tehnologii moderne, Ed. FRM, ISBN 973-582-808-1, Bucureti, 2004
Gf-Deac, Maria, Saturarea tehnologic i creterea economic negativ, Revista
[8]
Minelor, Bucureti, nr.1/2000, p.12.
Gf-Deac, Maria, Experimentarea dispozitivelor de prelevare a probelor la iazurile de
[9]
decantare Studiu cercetare tiinific, Universitatea Bucureti, 1992.
Gf-Deac, Maria, Dimensiunea fizic a tehnologiilor i mrimea rezultatelor
[10]
proiectate, Revista Minelor, Bucureti, nr.2/2000 p.29.
Gf-Deac, Maria, Management, Baze generale i legislative, Ed. FRM, Bucureti,
[11]
2003.
[12] Gf-Deac, Maria (col.), Tratat de tehnologii moderne, Ed. FRM, Bucureti, 2000.
Gf-Deac, Maria (col.), Managementul dezvoltrii structurilor tehnologice Ed.
[13]
Infomin, Deva, 2003.
Hadj, S.A.E, Lentreprise face la mutation technologique, Les Editions
[14]
dOrganisation, 1989.
Kempf, H., Des flottments dans la politique energetique niponne, Le Monde, nr.
[15]
17009/2 octombre 1999.
[16] Kirquer, M.I., Perspectiva economic, Ed. All, Bucureti, 1996.
Martinet, B. La veille technologique, concurrentielle et comerciale, Ribault, J.M., Les
[17]
Editions dOrganisation, Paris, 1989.
Morin, J., Sembat R., Le management de resources technologiques, Les Editions
[18]
dOrganisation, Paris, 1989
Ponoran, I., Angelescu, A., Vian, S., Tehnologie i dezvoltarea tehnologic, Ed.
[19]
FRM., Bucureti, 1998.
Zgnescu, F. .a. tiinele spaiale - propulsorul secolului XX, Academica,
[20]
nr.11(107/septembrie 1999).
Valeca, Cristina Monica, (col), Ciclul de Combustibil Nuclear, Ed. Universitii Piteti,
[21]
ISBN: 978-973-690-778-4, 2008
Valeca, Cristina Monica, (col), Evaluarea impactului activitatilor nucleare de pe
[22] platforma SCN-FCN asupra medilui nconjurtor in anul 2004, SCN-RI 7469/, Piteti,
2006
Mriua Tudor erban, Ioan I. Gf-Deac, Ion Iulian Hurloiu, Gabriel Mihai, Elena
Burtea, Ana-Maria Reetar-Deac - Securizarea reelelor electronice de comunicaii
[23] prin criptografierea bazelor de date, Revista pentru Dezvoltare Bazat pe
Cunoatere RDBC, Nr. 1/ 2015, Bucureti, ISSN 2393-2112 / ISSN-L 2393-2112,
(www.e-editura.ro/rdbc), p. 22-29

523
 Ioan I. Gf-Deac, Theodor Damian, Maria Gf-Deac, Andreea Condurache, Sorin
Pavl, Benedict Oprescu, Aurel Bucur, - Dimensionarea i difuzarea cognitiv a
[24] managementului general n condiiile globalizrii, Revista pentru Dezvoltare Bazat
pe Cunoatere RDBC, Nr. 2/ 2015, Bucureti, ISSN 2393-2112 / ISSN-L 2393-
2112, (www.e-editura.ro/rdbc), p. 79-82
Laureniu Bogatu, Ioan I. Gf-Deac, Moise Bojinc, Ciprian Coandre, Ioana Andreea
Marinescu, Adrian Iordache, Georgian Lctu, Ioan Rus, Ionel Cosmin Gagiu, -
Conceptualizri juridice i economice pentru diferenieri ntre resurse naturale,
[25]
resurse i rezerve minerale, Revista pentru Dezvoltare Bazat pe Cunoatere RDBC,
Nr. 2/ 2015, Bucureti, ISSN 2393-2112 / ISSN-L 2393-2112, (www.e-
editura.ro/rdbc), p. 102-108
Ioan I. Gf-Deac, Constantin Sava, Aronel-Ovidiu-Corneliu Matei, Roxana Herbei,
Mihai Marius Nedelea, - Exploitation and recovery of the mineral useful in Northern
[26]
Dobrogea, Journal of Economics and Knowledge Technologies (ISSN 2360-5499 /
ISSN- L 2360-5499), No.3/March 2015, p. 81-87
Horia Ioan Georgescu, Mriua Tudor erban, Ioan I. Gf-Deac, Ilie Ionel Ciuclea -
Metadagramatic inserting model into database security systems, Journal of
[27]
Economics and Knowledge Technologies (ISSN 2360-5499 / ISSN- L 2360-5499),
No.2/February 2015, p. 18-22
Maria Gf-Deac, Th. Damian, A. Iordache, B. Preda, I. Rus, R. tefan, -Basic
[28] concepts on corporate management, Journal of Economics and Knowledge
Technologies (ISSN 2360-5499 / ISSN- L 2360-5499), No.1/ January 2015, p.10-15
Ioan I. Gf-Deac, N.u, I. Drglin, Maria Gf-Deac, M.M. Nedelea, I. Pascal, -
The development trough endogen status of the technical and technological changes,
[29]
Journal of Economics and Knowledge Technologies (ISSN 2360-5499 / ISSN- L
2360-5499), No.1/ January 2015, p.68-73
Maria Gf-Deac, M.T. erban, M. Gabriel, E. Burtea, Fl. Diaconescu, M.L. Enache, -
Privacy data under erosion of computational security in computing infrastructures,
[30]
Journal of Economics and Knowledge Technologies (ISSN 2360-5499 / ISSN- L
2360-5499), No.1/ January 2015, p. 96- 102
Gf-Deac M., Management general pentru economia bazat pe cunoatere, Ed.
[31]
FRM, Bucureti, 2011
Gf-Deac M ., - Managementul modelrii structurilor tehnologice, Editura Infomin,
[32]
Deva, 2002
Gf-Deac I., - Bazele managementului doxastic, (in Romanian), Ed. Free Mind
[33]
Publishing, Bucureti, 2013, (ISBN 978-606-93321-5-3)

524
 DECIZII COMPLEXE PRIVIND FOLOSIREA UTILAJELOR
TEHNOLOGICE N DOMENIUL EXPLOATRII I
VALORIFICRII URANIULUI/

COMPLEX DECISIONS FOR USING TECHNOLOGICAL

EQUIPMENT IN THE URANIUM EXPLORATION AND
EXPLOITATION
M aria GF-DEAC 1 , Cristina M onica VALECA 2 , Ioan I. GF-DEAC 3 ,
Andrei NICOLAE 4 , Ionel Cosmin GAGIU5
1
PhD., Senior Lecturer, Spiru Haret University, Bucharest, Romania, [email protected]
2
PhD., University of Piteti, Nuclear Research Institute (ICN), Romania, [email protected]
3
Senior Lecturer PhD. Law, Ec./Technical Science, SH University of Bucharest, INCE "C.C.Kiriescu",
Romanian Academy, Bucharest, Romania, [email protected]
4
St. Rech., Jacobs University Bremen, Germany, [email protected]
5
PhD.St. University of Petrosani, Romania, [email protected]

ABSTRACT
The paper shows that the optimal balance necessary for satisfying that productive uranium can
be determined accurately enough light more strongly two general factors: equipment and
usability. It concludes that in every industrial firm mining / nuclear power there is a level of
technological equipment. These facilities must determine the degree of use, taking account of
certain elements for the immediate and medium term perspective stage of introduction of
machinery into production uranium. Defining a dimension of its endowment involves
formulating quantitative, qualitative and (new nuclear machinery with new performances). In
choosing the best (effective) offers used nuclear will consider their adaptability to specific
operating conditions, without exaggeration retention suggestions bidders on modifying
technologies work on the equipment that generates, by introduction, technological costs
November whether the bidder is in the country or abroad. This paper is a summary of takeover
extension study entitled Modern Technologies (Author: Maria Gf-Deac, Ed. FRM, ISBN 973-
582-808-1, Bucharest, 2004) with the application of case law in expansion, extractive mining
and energy sectors, respectively in the nuclear industry.

KEYWORDS
management technologies, technological complexity, use of technology, exploitation of
uranium, uranium recovery, nuclear industry.

525
1. Introducere

n industria minier i energetic uranifer echilibrul necesar pentru satisfacerea cerinelor

productive uranifere, se poate determina suficient de exact innd seama mai pregnant de doi
factori generali: dotarea i gradul de folosire.
Se ajunge la concluzia c c n orice firm industrial minier/ de energetic nuclear exist un
nivel de dotare tehnologic.
Acestei dotri trebuie s i se determine un grad de folosire, innd seama de elementele certe
pentru etapa imediat i perspectiva medie de introducere a utilajelor n circuitul productiv
uranifer.
Definirea unei dimensiuni a dotrii presupune formularea cantitativ a acesteia, dar i cea
calitativ (utilaje nucleare noi cu performane noi).
n alegerea celor mai bune (eficiente) oferte de utilaje nucleare se va avea n vedere
adaptabilitatea acestora la condiiile de exploatare specifice, fr a exagera reinerea de sugestii
ale ofertanilor privind modificarea tehnologiilor de lucru n funcie de echipamentele ce
genereaz, prin introducere, costuri tehnologice noi indiferent dac ofertantul este din ar sau
din strintate.

2. Alternativele folosirii complexe a utilajelor ntr-o tehnologie nuclear

Experimentarea variantelor pentru folosirea utilajelor n sectorul industrial nuclear este mai
costisitoare dect experimentarea utilajelor.
n primul caz, sunt impli-ate ntr-o serie S un numr mai mare de utilaje de acelai tip S 1 sau
tipuri diferite S2 [18].
Ca atare, o variant tehnologic nuclear impus experimentrii conine:
S = S1 + S2 (1)
echipamente tehnologice distincte.
Utilajele de acelai tip S 1 pot fi noi S1 n sau S 1 r, refolosite (n domeniul minier, al extraciei
zcmintelor de uraniu) i n acelai fel utilajele de tipuri constructive diferite pot fi exprimate
prin:

(2)
n context se nregistreaz nsumarea de mai jos:

(3)
Comportamentul totalitii utilajelor nucleare S, care se include ntr-o tehnologie complex,
imprim accente experimentale puternice, mai ales prin termenii S 1 n i S2 ni, deoarece
parametrii funcionali ai acestor echipamente sunt iniial cunoscui i comparai mai mult
teoretic.
n interiorul variantei pot fi interpolate tendinele i concluziile privind folosirea unor
echipamente nucleare componente ale seriei, obinute din funcionri anterioare ale acestora, n
faza de prototip i n condiii de exploatare minier / energetic diferite.
Totodat, este posibil ca un element nuclear (utilaj) din serie, chiar dac are reacie (rspuns)
nedorit ca rezultate n tehnologia complex, acesta trebuie s nu compromit experimentul
propriu-zis.
Prin feed-back-uri se identific disfuncia respectiv i se acioneaz implicit pentru reglare.

526
Aspectele menionate se supun ateniei ca metodologie de abordare a definirii coninutului
noilor alternative de retehnologizare i dotare, n special minier, pentru perspectiva dezvoltrii
ntreprinderilor uranifere ia acentarlelor nuclear-electrice.

3. Despre folosirea extensiv a utilajelor ntr-o tehnologie nuclear

Se accept realitatea c n firmele miniere i n structurile industriale energetice nucleare dintr-o

entitate exist un nivel de dotare.
Notnd cu Q volumul total al utilajelor nucleare pentru prezent, dar mai ales pentru perspectiva
imediat i medie, ca extensie spre viitor, se impune delimitarea din aceast cantitate a
numrului q 1 , de echipamente cu grad de folosire cert (figura.1).

Q q 1(% )

q2(%)

Figura: 1. Delimitarea cantitativ a volumului de utilaje tehnologice nuclearec i tendina necesar

pentru creterea gradului de utilizare
Aceast fraciune, prin evaluare real de patrimoniu, devine operaional astfel:
= q * q1r
q (4)
n care:
q 1 este volumul operaional de utilaje din ntreprinderea minier i n structurile industriale
energetice nucleare;
q 1 r este volumul rezidual de utilaje (nefolosibile din cauze conjuncturale sau obiective, dar care
au disponibilitate i vor avea cerere cert de folosire).
Practic, n unitile industriale miniere i n structurile industriale energetice nucleare se
manifest raportul urmtor:
q1 < q2
(5)
n fapt, este necesar s apar tendina:
[q 1 q 2 ] ~ Q (6)
n condiiile n care: Qreal = (q 1 q 2 ) * (q 1 r q 2 r)
(7)
r
unde q 2 are aceeai semnificaie rezidual, ns pentru volumul de utilaje nefolosite sau cu certitudine
redus de utilizare.
Folosirea cantitativ a utilajelor i echipamentelor nucleare sub contextul relaional de mai sus conduce
la fructificarea potenialului dotrii existente.

4. Definirea unei dimensiuni a dotrii cu utilaje ntr-o tehnologie nuclear

La un anumit moment se consider c: exist o cantitate total Q a utilajelor nucleare din

dotare. Aceast dimensiune este discutabil din mai multe puncte de vedere pentru diveri
ageni nucleari/ economici (minieri i energetici) i anume:
a) Q este prea redus (deficiene cantitative de dotare);
527
b) Q este suficient ca mrime;
c) Q este mult peste necesarul activitii productive nucleare curente i de perspectiv imediat.
Toate cele trei aspecte se pot manifesta separat. Fa de ultima apreciere apare necesitatea
reevalurii dotrii cu utilaje ntr-o tehnologie nuclear.
Notnd cu Q m cantitatea reevaluat n minus, rezult:
Qm < Q (8)
Aadar, noua cantitate de utilaje rmas n dotare este:
Q1=Q=Q-Q m (9)
Cantitatea Q m se poate redistribui, conserva, vinde, licita sau se caseaz atunci cnd utilajele
ntrunesc condiiile respective.
Ca urmare, gradul de folosire G, aferent cantitii Q de utilaje nucleare din dotare devine G 1 i
se transfer la Q 1 .
Deci: G (Q)G 1 (Q 1 ), (10)
Apare necesitatea ca: G G1
(11)
Nu este ns suficient s se ndeplineasc numai condiia de mai sus. Degrevarea cantitii
totale de utilaje, de acele echipamente ce nu sunt necesare n etapa dat, optimizeaz
dimensiunea dotrii n raport cu folosirea.
ntr-o astfel de situaie scopul final este: G1 > G
(12)
Se pot aplica i variante triplu modificate, n care apare un al treilea grup de utilaje, respectiv
opiunea fa de utilajele nou achiziionate, intervenind astfel corecturi privind mrimea gradului
de folosire.
n figura 2 este redat variaia: f(Q) = G (13)

(Q)
tri p
f( Q
tripla

la
)=

mo
mo

f ic
di
G

ar
di

e(
f ic

1 +Q
Q
ar

(- i)
e

Qm Qi
) 2
Qt

G G1 (G)
Figura: 2. Creterea relativ a gradului de utilizare autilajelor nucleare n raport cu reducerea
dotrii
din care rezult o cretere relativ a gradului de folosire, o dat cu scderea numrului de
utilaje din dotare, precum i alternativa influenelor date de modificri de tipul (Q1),
reprezentnd utilaje noi.
n figura.3, relaia evideniaz variaia cantitativ a utilajelor (Q 1 ) n raport cu un grad de
folosire cerut, innd seama i de posibilitile diferite (G 1 ) ce rezult ca influene din
introducerea utilajelor noi n dotare.
i)
(- G

(Q)
Q
Gr)
G=
(+

Qt 2

f (G) = Q Q1
1

G1 Gt (G)

528
 Figura: 3. Variaia dotrii cu utilaje nucleare n raport cu un grad de folosire cerut de condiiile de
exploatare

Este important de reinut c optimul, respectiv echilibrul necesar pentru satisfacerea cerinelor
productive, se poate determina suficient de exact pe aceast cale, innd seama mai pregnant
de aceti doi factori generali (dotarea i gradul de folosire). Dar, aceste relaii este imperios
necesar s fie plasate ntr-o scar dinamic a evoluiei cererii procesului de producie proiectat.

5. Concluzii

n principal se desprind urmtoarele:

1. Formularea deciziilor de folosire a utilajelor n sectorul industrial nuclear fundamenteaz
prognozarea, mai exact pornirea procesului de retehnologizare.
2. Experimentarea variantelor este n mod cert mai costisitoare dect experimentarea utilajelor
nucleare.
Totui, retehnologizarea presupune schimbarea variantelor, alternalivelor, respective,
mbuntirea sau perfecionarea lor. Nu se poate trece ns peste necesitatea potrivirii
caracteristicilor utilajului nuclear individual cu condiiile productive specifice.
Aceast concluzie susine latura de natur financiar a retehnologizrii, pe baze ct mai
obiective.
3. Se accept realitatea c n orice firm industrial minier/ de energetic nuclear exist un
nivel de dotare tehnologic. Acestei dotri trebuie s i se determine un grad de folosire, innd
seama de elementele certe pentru etapa imediat i perspectiva medie de introducere a
utilajelor n circuitul productiv uranifer.
4. Definirea unei dimensiuni a dotrii presupune formularea cantitativ a acesteia, dar i cea
calitativ (utilajenucleare noi cu performane noi).
5. n alegerea celor mai bune (eficiente) oferte de utilaje nucleare se va avea n vedere
adaptabilitatea acestora la condiiile de exploatare specifice, fr a exagera reinerea de sugestii
ale ofertanilor privind modificarea tehnologiilor de lucru n funcie de echipamentele ce
genereaz, prin introducere, costuri tehnologice noi indiferent dac ofertantul este din ar sau
din strintate.
6. Pentru o mai bun corelare a utilajelor n retehnologizare trebuie avute n vedere aspectul
cutrii soluiilor optime de exploatare nuclear, eliminarea sau refacerea infrastructurii ce se
dovedete nepotrivit cu perspectiva propriu-zis a lucrrilor de exploatare.

REFERENCES

[1] Crum L.W., Ingineria valorii, Editura Tehnic, Bucureti, 1976.

Drucker, F.P., Inovaia i sistemul antreprenorial, Colecia Biblioteca BNR, Bucureti,
[2]
1993.
Franchou, A., Nous devons tre des antrepreneur du dveloppement, Le Monde, 2
[3]
nov. 1999, p.12.
Gest, A., Grapps technologiques, les nouvelles strategie dentreprise, Mc Graw Hill,
[4]
1986.
[5] Gf Deac, M., Tehnologii moderne, Ed. FRM, ISBN 973-582-808-1, Bucureti, 2004
Gf-Deac, Maria, Posibiliti noi de formulare a deciziilor privind folosirea utilajelor
[6]
tehnologice, Revista minelor, Bucureti, nr.1/1992, p. 31.
529
 Gf-Deac, Maria, Saturarea tehnologic i creterea economic negativ, Revista
[7]
Minelor, Bucureti, nr.1/2000, p.12.
Gf-Deac, Maria (col.), Tratat de tehnologii moderne, Editura Fundaiei Romnia de
[8]
Mine, Bucureti, 2000.
Gf-Deac, Maria (col.), Managementul dezvoltrii structurilor tehnologice Editura
[9]
Infomin, Deva, 2003.
Mriua Tudor erban, Ioan I. Gf-Deac, Ion Iulian Hurloiu, Gabriel Mihai, Elena
Burtea, Ana-Maria Reetar-Deac - Securizarea reelelor electronice de comunicaii
[10] prin criptografierea bazelor de date, Revista pentru Dezvoltare Bazat pe
Cunoatere RDBC, Nr. 1/ 2015, Bucureti, ISSN 2393-2112 / ISSN-L 2393-2112,
(www.e-editura.ro/rdbc), p. 22-29
Ioan I. Gf-Deac, Theodor Damian, Maria Gf-Deac, Andreea Condurache, Sorin
Pavl, Benedict Oprescu, Aurel Bucur, - Dimensionarea i difuzarea cognitiv a
[11] managementului general n condiiile globalizrii, Revista pentru Dezvoltare Bazat
pe Cunoatere RDBC, Nr. 2/ 2015, Bucureti, ISSN 2393-2112 / ISSN-L 2393-
2112, (www.e-editura.ro/rdbc), p. 79-82
Laureniu Bogatu, Ioan I. Gf-Deac, Moise Bojinc, Ciprian Coandre, Ioana Andreea
Marinescu, Adrian Iordache, Georgian Lctu, Ioan Rus, Ionel Cosmin Gagiu, -
Conceptualizri juridice i economice pentru diferenieri ntre resurse naturale,
[12]
resurse i rezerve minerale, Revista pentru Dezvoltare Bazat pe Cunoatere RDBC,
Nr. 2/ 2015, Bucureti, ISSN 2393-2112 / ISSN-L 2393-2112, (www.e-
editura.ro/rdbc), p. 102-108
Ioan I. Gf-Deac, Constantin Sava, Aronel-Ovidiu-Corneliu Matei, Roxana Herbei,
Mihai Marius Nedelea, - Exploitation and recovery of the mineral useful in Northern
[13]
Dobrogea, Journal of Economics and Knowledge Technologies (ISSN 2360-5499 /
ISSN- L 2360-5499), No.3/March 2015, p. 81-87
Horia Ioan Georgescu, Mriua Tudor erban, Ioan I. Gf-Deac, Ilie Ionel Ciuclea -
Metadagramatic inserting model into database security systems, Journal of
[14]
Economics and Knowledge Technologies (ISSN 2360-5499 / ISSN- L 2360-5499),
No.2/February 2015, p. 18-22
Maria Gf-Deac, Th. Damian, A. Iordache, B. Preda, I. Rus, R. tefan, -Basic
[15] concepts on corporate management, Journal of Economics and Knowledge
Technologies (ISSN 2360-5499 / ISSN- L 2360-5499), No.1/ January 2015, p.10-15
Ioan I. Gf-Deac, N.u, I. Drglin, Maria Gf-Deac, M.M. Nedelea, I. Pascal, -
The development trough endogen status of the technical and technological changes,
[16]
Journal of Economics and Knowledge Technologies (ISSN 2360-5499 / ISSN- L
2360-5499), No.1/ January 2015, p.68-73
Maria Gf-Deac, M.T. erban, M. Gabriel, E. Burtea, Fl. Diaconescu, M.L. Enache, -

530
 RETEHNOLOGIZAREA I PROGNOZA TEHNOLOGIC N
INDUSTRIA DE EXPLOATARE A METALELOR RARE I
URANIULUI
Cristina M onica VALECA 1 , M aria GF-DEAC 2 , Nicolae BULZ 3 , Ioan I. GF-DEAC 4 ,
Alex andru CHIOTOR OIU 5 , Andrei NICOLAE 6 ,
1
PhD., University of Piteti, Nuclear Research Institute (ICN), Romania, [email protected]
2
PhD., Senior Lecturer, Spiru Haret University, Bucharest, Romania, [email protected]
3
Professor PhD.,External research associate, PhD., Victoria Institute of Strategic Economic Studies,
Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia /Associate Professor at National Defence College, Bucharest,
Romania/ Honorary Researcher at World Economy Institute, INCE, Romanian Academy, Bucharest, /Vice-
President of Socio-Economic Cybernetics Commission of the structure of the Romanian Academy,
Bucharest, / Founder of the Interdisciplinary Laboratory <<M. Eminescu-S. Haret-V. Ghika>>, Romania,
[email protected]
4
Senior Lecturer, PhD., SHU Bucharest, National Institute of Economic Research "Costin C. Kiriescu"
(INCE), Romanian Academy, Bucharest, Romania, [email protected]
5
Dr. Univ., PhD, UMF Bucharest, Romania, [email protected]
6
St. Rech., Jacobs University Bremen, Germany, [email protected]

ABSTRACT
The article states that the review of nuclear technology looks can be achieved through a new
technology management; recomposition, resetting and alignment of sequences technical
performance of technology; introduce new technologies, more efficient compared to existing
ones; intervention on existing technologies in increasing the performance of essential
parameters positively influencing the flow changes, disposal of non-performing technologies
that induce inefficiency direct and indirect frequently productive throughout the work, setting a
deadline of life of existing technologies that have entered the stage of disintegration coupled
with forecasts for the technology replacement (with performance superior to that required to be
deleted). This paper is a summary of takeover extension study entitled Modern Technologies
(Author: Maria Gf-Deac, Ed. FRM, ISBN 973-582-808-1, Bucharest, 2004) with the application
of case law in expansion, extractive mining and energy sectors, respectively in the nuclear
industry.

KEYWORDS

531
energy crisis, the status of technology, life technologies, technological bottleneck, technological
restructuring, investment flow technology used for extensive, intensive use, technological
forecasting.

1. Introducere

n activitatea productiv nuclear sunt situaii n care apar semnele unui proces de depreciere
tehnologic.
Deteriorarea continu a nivelului tehnologiilor i echipamentelor se realizeaz de regul lent.
La sfritul secolului XX se constat c termenul de lent este meninut n uz pentru aprecieri
de genul celor de mai sus, att timp ct nu i se opune noiunea de instantaneu.
O tehnologie dup naterea sa nu poate nregistra deterioare instantanee, deoarece ea dac
nu ajunge la maturitate, respectiv consolidare, nu se nscrie n familia celor validate i
implementate n sistemele productive. n acest caz, ea poate fi denumit cel mult inovativ,
de ruptur sau de tranziie.
Lipsa de informatizare actualizat a ntreprinderilor i tehnologiilor, meninerea unui grad redus
de prelucrare, scderea competitivitii produselor i eficiena general redus a activitilor
economice constituie, de asemenea, elemente de erodare a tehnologiilor.
n mediul economico-productiv ntr-o companie minier/ energetic nuclear se pot lua
decizii care vizeaz aducerea n prim plan a unor intervenii tehnologice care dinamizeaz
schimbarea.
Se constat c nevoia de tehnologii este permanent. n mulimea tehnologiilor deja existente
(implementrile) se identific tehnologiile cu accente neperformante. Acestea sunt supuse
procesului decizional pentru a se hotr soarta lor.
Decidenii constat c pot opta pentru introducerea de tehnologii noi sau pot menine nc n
funciune tehnologiile validate (moderne) maturizate.
n schimb, n numrul de situaii tehnologice concrete se identific i existena tehnologiilor deja
clasice, n destrmare i a unora care trebuie scoase din uz, ca fiind neperformante. Ultimele
dou categorii de tehnologii nu sunt dorite i ele se afl la limita final a intervalului de
deteriorare lent.

2. Revizuirea strilor tehnologice

Tehnologiile stabile, inclusiv cele din domeniul uraniului, sunt supuse mbtrnirii iar semnul
vizibil al acestui proces este deteriorarea performanelor.
Aceast schimbare de situaii se manifest prin uzura fizic i mai ales moral a echipamentelor,
chiar scderea performanelor iniiale (considerate standard) cu consecine imediate n
creterea consumurilor specifice, a costurilor i reducerea productivitii i a profiturilor.
Gama de performane pozitive poate fi soluionat respectiv adjudecat prin retehnologizare.
Revizuirea strilor tehnologice nucleare se poate realiza prin:
- un nou management tehnologic;
- noi recompuneri, reaezri i ralieri performante ale secvenelor tehnice dintr-o tehnologie;
- introducerea de tehnologii noi, mai performante comparativ cu cele existente;
- intervenia asupra tehnologiilor existente n direcia creterii performanelor unor parametrii
care influeneaz esenial n sens pozitiv fluxul transformrilor.
- scoaterea din uz a tehnologiilor neperformante, care induc ineficiena direct i frecvent indirect
n ansamblul productiv n care mai funcioneaz.
532
- stabilirea unui termen limit de via al tehnologiilor existente care au intrat n faza de
destrmare, corelat cu previziunea asupra tehnologiei nlocuitoare (cu performane obligatoriu
superioare fa de cea care urmeaz a fi eliminat).
Retehnologizarea continu ca politic general acceptat n strategia economi-
co-productiv a unei ri presupune alocri semnificative de resurse din produsul intern brut
(PIB).
La semnalele incipiente de depreciere a tehnologiilor, rile dezvoltate reacioneaz operativ,
deoarece drumul spre profit este ntreinut cvasipermanent prin faza de cercetare-dezvoltare, ca
rezervor de inovare tehnologic.
n aceleai circumstane, transferul rapid de tehnologie suplinete variaiile progresului
nregistrat prin resurse proprii.
Demersurile de mai sus necesit capitaluri de modernizare pentru dezvoltarea tiinei i
tehnologiei i investiii alocate pentru schimbri structurale.
n plan sectorial, retehnologizarea evideniaz necesitatea mbuntirii structurii tehnologice a
investiiilor totale, n direcia creterii ponderii echipamentelor i utilajelor, a prilor active ale
investiiei.
Abordarea macroeconomic a retehnologizrii n mediul economiei de pia este dificil,
deoarece infuzia masiv centralizat de tehnologii nu este posibil din partea unui buget public
naional.
Modernizarea tehnologic a capacitilor de producie viabile, punerea n valoare a unor
avantaje tehnologice, competitive a oportunitilor tehnice i creterea capacitii de difuzare
tehnologic (spill-overs), constituie elemente de contribuie practic n procesul retehnologizrii.
Abordarea retehnologizrii la nivel microeconomic, n manier iterativ este calea cea mai util
de soluionare a strii performanelor, mai ales, n cazul n care instituiile statale sunt permisive
n privina introducerii noilor tehnologii (suport n mod stimulativ) din punct de vedere
legislativ i ca orientare strategic.
n orice sistem implicit cel tehnologic i productiv din perspectiva inteniei de a obine date
de desfacere a tehnologiilor viabile se deduce c intervin factori generatori de discontinuitate
sau de transformri calitative (structurale). Dintre acetia, cea mai semnificativi sunt inveniile i
inovaiile tehnologice.
Raionalizarea tehnologiilor este o aciune obiectiv independent de evoluia de ansamblu a
sistemelor tehnologice. Procesul are loc n dou sfere:
- n sfera intern proprie configuraiei tehnologiei (se desfoar aciuni asupra arhitecturii i
fraciunilor de baz ale tehnologiei pentru eficientizare);
- n sfera exterioar cnd inventarul tehnologiilor este strict necesar (se realizeaz clasificri,
ierarhizri, comasri, eliminri .a.).
n primul caz, complexitatea intern a sistemului tehnologic (a tehnologiei) induce influene
asupra performanelor sistemului managerial aferent aplicrii tehno-logiei respective, situaie n
care organizarea i conducerea trebuie aezate pe baze noi.
Noutile cu grad ridicat de probabilitate de aplicare pot produce unele rupturi de tendine, cu
consecine practice distincte.

3. Tehnologiile nucleare moderne i viitorul

3.1. Cercetarea tiinific i dezvoltarea tehnologic nuclear

Se consider c, n prezent, tiina este mai important pentru bunstarea unei naiuni dect
capitalul sau fora de munc. tiina a devenit deja principala resurs a dezvoltrii.

533
O sistematizare a unor direcii de aciune n sfera dezvoltrii cercetrii tiinifice se rezum n
principal la urmtoarele:
1. formularea practic a unor indicatori tiinifici cantitativi i raportarea lor la evoluia
dezvoltrilor n tiin i tehnologie;
2. formularea sistemelor de informare (informatic i informaional) n tiin i tehnologie;
3. cuantificarea rezultatelor interconexiunii elementelor de tiin cu cele de tehnologie;
4. identificarea proceselor optime (eficiente) de cunoatere (descoperire) n contextul socio-
organizatoric dat de mediul n care urmeaz a se dezvolta tiin i tehnologia;
Se constat c tiina contribuie fundamental la dezvoltarea tehnologiei. Aceast implicare este
mai accentuat ca oricnd n istoria dezvoltrii tehnologice. Rezultatele (beneficiile) obinute de
societatea uman din tehnologiile ce ating un nivel convenional acceptat al performanelor tind
s se regionalizeze, respectiv s dobndeasc rspndire mondial.
Tehnologiile neconvenionale se afl n avangarda (n primul front) al acestor implicaii i
transformri.
Deja n mediul internaional se identific grupri de specialiti abilitai direct cu elaborarea
procedeelor i stabilirea modelelor de aplicare mai rapid a tehnologiilor, cu deosebire a celor
avansate.
Raportul ntre cercetarea fundamental i cea aplicativ induce creterea proporiei n favoarea
celei dinti, care la rndul ei are totui n componen un domeniu suficient dimensionat de
cercetare empiric.
nc din anul 1959 s-a pus n discuie (analiz) impactul unei tiine naionale asupra
tehnologiei naionale. Astzi au loc interferri ntre tehnologiile europene i alte configuraii
tehnologice regionale sau chiar mondiale.
Este cert ns c economiile naionale sunt beneficiarele primare ale cercetrilor fundamentale.
n practic se ntlnesc legturi vizibile ntre tiinele fundamentale i cele aplicative.
Cercetarea tiinific ofer exemplele numeroase ale transpunerii practice a conceptului de
inovaie liniar. Acesta presupune luarea n considerare a cel puin trei etape de formare,
dup cum urmeaz:
E 1 Etapa tehnologiei teoretice-fundamentale. Cercetarea tiinific fundamental are n
vedere existena savantului cercettor (acumulator larg de cunotiine tiinifice), care prin
autoselectare i autoreglare a procesului de cutare identific o aa numit descoperire ce
dobndete calificativ (cu caracterizri specifice) de inven-ie. Invenia nglobeaz o cantitate
selectat de cunotiine tiinifice.
E 2 Etapa tehnologiei cvasiaplicative. Invenia este preluat de elementul un nou savant
cercettor care cristalizeaz noutatea n primele scheme logice de flux tehnologic. Este apoi
sarcina inginerului spre a consolida tehnologia nglobndu-i arhitectur concret i alocndu-i
funciuni care s o fac operabil n cmpul productiv economic. Inginerul va reine
sintetizat un volum mai redus de cunotiine tiinifice, care sunt condensate (deja nglobate)
n invenie (inovaie) n comparaie cu predecesorul su cercettorul.
E 3 Etapa tehnologiei aplicative-practice include valorificarea, prin lansarea i exploatarea
propriuzis a tehnologiei. n aceast etap - n mod sugestiv cunotiinele tiinifice nglobate
n tehnologie devin deja istorice. Este momentul n care un nou ciclu de cercetare provoac
prin noutate stabilitatea tehnologiei puse n oper. Cu alte cuvinte, o tehnologie descoperit,
pus n practic devine instantaneu veche, adic generatoare de dimensiuni care solicit nouti
cu performane superioare.
Se observ c n acest ciclu intervin urmtorii actori: savant cercettor, nou savant cercettor
i inginer, care prin atribuiile i rspunderile lor provoac disocierea ideii de tiin i tehnologie
naional i internaional. n inventarul tiinific al tehnologiilor rmne marcat sursa,

534
respectiv localizarea descoperirii ca expresie a potenialului de inteligen a unei naiuni sau a
unei entiti sociale.
tiina fundamental a devenit tot mai scump i depete n multe cazuri posibilitile
individuale ale unei ri.
Sfera tiinei s-a lrgit i domeniile de cuprindere a tehnicii i tehnologiei s-au extins. Deja sunt
operaionale tehnologiile economice, sociale, culturale, ecologice .a.
Mulimea instituiilor productoare sau consumatoare de tiin i tehnologie este de asemenea
n cretere.
n ntmpinarea dezvoltrii mondiale, n general, pot fi avansate cel puin dou oferte:
un cadru de garantare a dezvoltrii (care ar putea stabili limitele de variaie a preurilor
tiinelor i tehnologiilor);
msuri de mbuntire a accesului la tehnologiile cele mai importante, la managementul lor i
la schimbul de informaii tiinifice i tehnologice.
n practic se constat c evaluarea opiunilor tehnice de fapt desemneaz procesul de
nfptuire a unui echilibru ntre tiin i tehnic.

3.2. Conducerea tehnologiilor nucleare

Structura organizatoric (a firmei) pune n valoare tehnologiile din dotare cu scopul

transformrii materiilor prime, materialelor, energiei i informaiilor n produse, bunuri i servicii
[6].
Structurile productive cu dimensiuni mari parcurg delimitri mai pregnante care vizeaz:
a) conturarea tehnologiilor cu elemente de dezvoltare;
b) conturarea activitilor manageriale pentru asigurarea operaionalitii optime a tehnologiilor.
Un model de conducere a tehnologiilor reflect punerea n funciune a structurii acestora i
aplicarea de reguli de evoluie i comportament tehnic. Se identific cel puin 6 structuri de
management tehnologic (figura. 1). [6]

Figura: 1. Elemente structurale de influen a conducerii tehnologiilor 1. structura simpl sau

antreprenorial; 2. structura funcional; 3. structura productiv; 4. structura divizional
(diviziune a scopurilor); 5. structura de tip matrice; 6. structura reunit de tip federal.
Statistic, se constat c numeroase companii de dimensiuni mai mari aplic frecvent
conducerea tehnologiilor prin structuri de tip divizional (4) sau matrice (5) ns, practic, se
ntlnesc transpuse toate formulele enumerate.
Principalele alternative ce stau n faa firmelor atunci cnd abordeaz alegerea unei maniere de
conducere a tehnologiilor se refer la:
535
 centralizarea fa de descentralizare;
profesionism fa de management;
controlul fa de aciunea liber, nengrdit;
schimbarea fa de stabilitate.
Conducerea tehnologiilor se realizeaz n baza principiilor ce desemneaz funcionalitatea unui
sistem de producie.
Funciile managementului i procedeele de conducere pot fi aplicate fr rezerva n conducerea
tehnologiilor.
n schimb, n condiiile creterii complexitii tehnologice, a manierei noi de localizare a
companiilor n mediul economic transnaional, conducerea tehnologic este situat ntre resurse
i obiective (figura.2). [6]
MSURRI CANTITATIVE
RESURSE

r ii i;
zv d u le;
t r i
;
de n a
ol ce
- locur i

a c o on
de munc;

t e a si
ib ili i p t ea
t a t e fe
- deeuri;

ili t a r o
ex ib ir i t a
-fl flex gt b ili
-costur i;

- r e xi
E

p fl e
R

-
F - profit;
- cretere;
- aciunile pieei; E
OBIECTIVE

OBIECTIVE
I - ser vicii noi; - noi produse;
C - valoare vndut -ser vicii noi; Z
(volum de vnzr i) -calitate U
I -imagine agregat
E - poziie competitiv
L
favor abil
N - excelen T

- adaptabilitate A
ii d e
i
no

T
og a

ol a r e
h n iz

- stil manager ial E

t e u t il

- satisfacie - management
-

- realizr i - dezvoltare
- cultur de
fir m agregat

RESURSE
MSURRI CALITATIVE
Figura:2. Amplasamentul managementului tehnologiilor noi n sistemul resurse-obiective
La rndul lor, resursele sunt situate ntre msurrile cantitative i cele calitative.
Tehnologiile conduse convenional favorabil definesc la nivel de firm resursele n viziune
cantitativ care n principal pot fi: locuri de munc, deseuri i reglementarea eliminrii
(depozitrii) lor, costuri, flexibilitate n privina instruirii profesionale, flexibilitatea conducerii i a
dezvoltrii .a.
Aspectele calitative ale resurselor n procesul conducerii tehnologiilor se regsesc n stilul de
management aplicat, n managementul propriu-zis i dezvoltarea efectiv, formula agregat de
cultur de firm, nivelul satisfaciei i volumul realizrilor.
Obiectivele firmei se situeaz ntre nevoia (tendina) de a obine rezultate i eficien.
Conducerea favorabil a tehnologiilor vizeaz obinerea de rezultate care s reflecte creterea,
lansarea de noi produse i servicii nsoite de un nivel de calitate.

536
 (Variante rigide)

Elemente
de previziune DECIZIA
a per for manelor
variabilelor CARE
de tehnologii
OPERAIO-

Date de intrare
NALIZEAZ
ACIUNEA
CE
Cr iter ii i valor i MAXIMIZEAZ
de car acter izare
msurat CERINELE
a var iabilelor
tehnologice

(Variante flexibile)

Figura: 3. Schema simplificat a structurii lurii deciziilor n conducerea tehnologiilor

Eficiena este reflectat prin nivelul atins de profit, modul de racordare la aciunile pieei,
volumul livrrilor (vnzrilor), poziia ocupat n competiie (competitivitate) i n mod esenial
felul n care sunt utilizate tehnologiile noi, utilajele i echipamentele aferente. (figura.3) [6]
Viziunea expus este mult diferit n coninut i mod de abordare a laturilor conducerii
tehnologiilor fa de modelul clasic n care organizarea, atribuia de funciuni i controlul pe
liniile tehnologice productive sunt primordiale.
Incidenele din figura.3 subliniaz necesitatea lurii n considerare n mod conjugat (i compus)
a mai multor factori n sistemul resurse-obiective, ce n ultim instan se refer la acelai
model cibernetic al produciei, care simplificat cuprinde intrrile (resurse) procesarea
(conducerea propriu-zis a tehnologiilor) ieirile (obiective).
Decizia raional tehnologic este reprezentat de aciunile care realizeaz valoarea ponderat
maxim.
Schema simplificat a structurii lurii deciziilor n conducerea tehnologiilor este redat n
figura.3.
Gradul de libertate n elaborarea procesului de luare a deciziilor n domeniul tehnologiilor este
dependent de nivelul de cunoatere a coninutului tehnologic i de complexitatea decizional
abordat.
Criteriile i valorile de conducere a tehnologiilor trebuie s fie clare i simple, iar riscurile
elocvent conturate.

3.3. Organizarea tehnologiilor nucleare

Organizarea dezvoltrii este o expresie generic privind intervenia strategic n progresul unei
companii. Scopul unei intervenii este triplu:
dezvoltarea situaiilor individuale (punctuale, de natur tehnologic i uman);
dezvoltarea situaiilor de grup (de natur tehnologic i uman);
dezvoltarea ntreprinderii ca sistem.
Top managementul firmei de regul sprijin i este implicat n rezolvarea problemelor pe
termen lung i soluionarea proceselor de rennoire. Aceste implicaii se ndeplinesc prin
elaborarea efectiv a diagnozelor colaborative i a culturii manageriale a firmei.
Cu ajutorul unor grupuri formale de lucru, echipe temporare i intergrupuri i cu asistena
unui consultant facilitator se apeleaz la teoria comportamentului i la analiza de tehnologii
prin aciunea de cercetare complex.
ntr-un astfel de context tehnologiile sunt organizate, ele nsele, n propria configuraie i n
raport cu ntreprinderea ca sistem.

537
Organizarea tehnologiilor are drept scop identificarea zonelor de gol care pot fi completate cu
secvene practice operaionale viznd tehnologiile moderne. n fond, un astfel de demers
nseamn n esen asigurarea dezvoltrii firmei respective.
ntr-o ntreprindere este formulat ntotdeauna practic un model operaional tehnologic.
Periodic (etapizat) acesta este revizuit i adaptat, imprimndu-i-se tendina spre ideal
respectiv strategic. La rndul su, modelul tehnologic formulat (organizat) se regsete ntr-
un circuit care se centreaz pe organizarea dezvoltrii tehnologice de ansamblu (figura.4). [6]
nvarea Introducerea
Sesizarea (pregtirea) perfor manei
pr in cercetare pe grupe n oper aiunile
a nivelului profesionale productive
dezvoltr ii
(i feed-back)

ORGANIZAREA Dezvoltarea
inter feelor
DEZVOLTRII (tehnologii)
(sisteme)
TEHNOLOGICE

Formularea
modelului
Consolidarea Implementarea organizaional
dezvoltr ii dezvoltr ii tehnologic
tehnologice tehnologice str ategic (ideal)

Figura: 4. Organizarea tehnologiilor i modelul organizrii dezvoltrii tehnologice

n ordine operaional circuitul cuprinde:
sesizarea (prin cercetare) a nivelului de dezvoltare tehnologic n contextul organizatoric dat
al ntreprinderii i luarea n considerare a feed-back-urilor aferente;
pregtirea pe grupe profesionale (procesul de nvmnt) referitoare la schimbarea
tehnologic;
introducerea performanei n operaiunile productive, aferente tehnologiilor aflate n
exploatare;
dezvoltarea interfeelor (identificarea granielor i a barierelor) ntre tehnologii i alte sisteme
sau subsisteme interne i exterioare;
formularea modelului organizaional tehnologic strategic (ideal). Aceast etap constituie n
practic aplicarea principiilor organizrii n liniile tehnologice i asupra tehnologiei n ansamblu;
implementarea dezvoltrii tehnologiei propuse, urmare a noii configuraii organizatorice n
liniile de producie;
consolidarea dezvoltrii tehnologice prin msuri de meninere a tendinelor imprimate.
n circuitul enunat i n ipostaza dubl de element central organizarea dezvoltrii tehnologice
devine tem strategic n existena i funcionarea oricrei companii.

4. Concluzii

Organizarea tehnologiilor este mai mult tehnic dect uman. Utilajele, echipamentele,
dispozitivele au parametrii constructiv-funcionali bine definii. Astfel, n sistemul productiv se
procedeaz mai degrab la o relaionare structural cvasi-noit a modulelor tehnologice.
Climatul organizaional, de exemplu, are importan mai redus n organizarea tehnologiilor. n
schimb, modificrile structurale (organizatorice) tehnologice pot influena vizibil climatul
particular sau de ansamblu al firmei.
Angajamentul de munc poate fi raionalizat n cazul unei organizri noi, mai convenabile a
tehnologiilor.
Managementul dezvoltrii este o expresie (printre altele) i a organizrii tehnologice.
Conflictele organizaionale sunt distincte i de regul nelegate de organizarea tehnologiilor.
538
Organizarea tehnologiilor este afectat de mrimea forelor schimbrii.
Schimbarea tehnologic poate fi nsoit de urmtoarele:
modificri tehnice, tehnologice, de procedee i proceduri;
extinderea cunotinelor;
rapida schimbare ciclic a produselor tehnologice;
schimbarea naturii forei de munc;
schimbarea mediului de munc.
Rezistena la schimbare poate fi:
1) la nivel individual;
2) la nivel organizaional.
Rezistenele individuale fa de schimbrile ce pot produce organizarea nou a tehnologiilor
sunt:
percepia selectiv;
obinuina;
inconveniena pierderii unui grad de libertate clasic;
implicaii economice;
securitatea locului de munc;
slabe cunotine despre schimbare-organizare (netiina).
Rezistenele de schimbare tehnologic la nivelul ntreprinderilor au n vedere:
meninerea stabilitii;
investiia n resurse;
obinuina cu legturile i acordurile mai vechi;
tratamentul ce vizeaz puterea de influen.

REFERENCES

[1] Crian, I., Tehnologia ca sistem, Editura tiinific i Enciclopedic, Bucureti, 1977.
[2] Crum L.W., Ingineria valorii, Editura Tehnic, Bucureti, 1976.
Drucker, F.P., Inovaia i sistemul antreprenorial, Colecia Biblioteca BNR, Bucureti,
[3]
1993.
Gest, A., Grapps technologiques, les nouvelles strategie dentreprise, Mc Graw Hill,
[4]
1986.
[5] Gf Deac, M., Tehnologii moderne, Ed. FRM, ISBN 973-582-808-1, Bucureti, 2004
Gf-Deac, I., Management i marketing pentru resurse minerale, Editura Tehnic,
[6]
Bucureti, 1997.
Gf-Deac, Maria, Posibiliti noi de formulare a deciziilor privind folosirea utilajelor
[7]
tehnologice, Revista minelor, Bucureti, nr.1/1992, p. 31.
Gf-Deac, Maria (col.), Tratat de tehnologii moderne, Editura Fundaiei Romnia de
[8]
Mine, Bucureti, 2000.
Gf-Deac, Maria (col.), Managementul dezvoltrii structurilor tehnologice Editura
[9]
Infomin, Deva, 2003.
Mriua Tudor erban, Ioan I. Gf-Deac, Ion Iulian Hurloiu, Gabriel Mihai, Elena
Burtea, Ana-Maria Reetar-Deac - Securizarea reelelor electronice de comunicaii
[10]
prin criptografierea bazelor de date, Revista pentru Dezvoltare Bazat pe
Cunoatere RDBC, Nr. 1/ 2015, Bucureti, ISSN 2393-2112 / ISSN-L 2393-2112,

539
 (www.e-editura.ro/rdbc), p. 22-29
Ioan I. Gf-Deac, Theodor Damian, Maria Gf-Deac, Andreea Condurache, Sorin
Pavl, Benedict Oprescu, Aurel Bucur, - Dimensionarea i difuzarea cognitiv a
[11] managementului general n condiiile globalizrii, Revista pentru Dezvoltare Bazat
pe Cunoatere RDBC, Nr. 2/ 2015, Bucureti, ISSN 2393-2112 / ISSN-L 2393-
2112, (www.e-editura.ro/rdbc), p. 79-82
Laureniu Bogatu, Ioan I. Gf-Deac, Moise Bojinc, Ciprian Coandre, Ioana Andreea
Marinescu, Adrian Iordache, Georgian Lctu, Ioan Rus, Ionel Cosmin Gagiu, -
Conceptualizri juridice i economice pentru diferenieri ntre resurse naturale,
[12]
resurse i rezerve minerale, Revista pentru Dezvoltare Bazat pe Cunoatere RDBC,
Nr. 2/ 2015, Bucureti, ISSN 2393-2112 / ISSN-L 2393-2112, (www.e-
editura.ro/rdbc), p. 102-108
Ioan I. Gf-Deac, Constantin Sava, Aronel-Ovidiu-Corneliu Matei, Roxana Herbei,
Mihai Marius Nedelea, - Exploitation and recovery of the mineral useful in Northern
[13]
Dobrogea, Journal of Economics and Knowledge Technologies (ISSN 2360-5499 /
ISSN- L 2360-5499), No.3/March 2015, p. 81-87
Horia Ioan Georgescu, Mriua Tudor erban, Ioan I. Gf-Deac, Ilie Ionel Ciuclea -
Metadagramatic inserting model into database security systems, Journal of
[14]
Economics and Knowledge Technologies (ISSN 2360-5499 / ISSN- L 2360-5499),
No.2/February 2015, p. 18-22
Maria Gf-Deac, Th. Damian, A. Iordache, B. Preda, I. Rus, R. tefan, -Basic
[15] concepts on corporate management, Journal of Economics and Knowledge
Technologies (ISSN 2360-5499 / ISSN- L 2360-5499), No.1/ January 2015, p.10-15
Ioan I. Gf-Deac, N.u, I. Drglin, Maria Gf-Deac, M.M. Nedelea, I. Pascal, -
The development trough endogen status of the technical and technological changes,
[16]
Journal of Economics and Knowledge Technologies (ISSN 2360-5499 / ISSN- L
2360-5499), No.1/ January 2015, p.68-73
Maria Gf-Deac, M.T. erban, M. Gabriel, E. Burtea, Fl. Diaconescu, M.L. Enache, -
Privacy data under erosion of computational security in computing infrastructures,
[17]
Journal of Economics and Knowledge Technologies (ISSN 2360-5499 / ISSN- L
2360-5499), No.1/ January 2015, p. 96- 102
Gf-Deac M., Management general pentru economia bazat pe cunoatere, Ed.
[18]
FRM, Bucureti, 2011
Gf-Deac M ., - Managementul modelrii structurilor tehnologice, Editura Infomin,
[19]
Deva, 2002
Gf-Deac I., - Bazele managementului doxastic, (in Romanian), Ed. Free Mind
[20]
Publishing, Bucureti, 2013, (ISBN 978-606-93321-5-3)
Gf-Deac I.I., -Microeconomie,- Ed. FMP, Bucureti, 2013, (ISBN 978-606-93432-4-
[21]
1)
Gf-Deac I.I., -Macroeconomie, - Ed. FMP, Bucureti, 2013, (ISBN 978-606-93432-5-
[22]
8)
Gf-Deac I.I., - Strategii naionale i regionale privind utilizarea resurselor naturale
n Europa i Asia Central, Lucr. t. Intl. Interdisciplinary Scientific Sym. Universitaria
[23] Simpro 2005, Integrare n aria european a cercetrii, Vol. Ecologie i reabilitarea
zonelor afectate de procesarea resurselor i materialelor, Ed. Universitas, Petroani,
2005
Gf-Deac I.I., - The Integrated Sense of Social-Economic Transformation on Primary
[24] Phase of Globalization in Romania,-Ses. Intl. de Com. t. Provocri ale securitii i
strategiei la nceputul secolului XXI, Ministerul Ap. Naionale, Univ. Na. de Aprare,

540
 Sec. Istorie, Geopolitic i Geostrategie, Bucureti, 14-15 aprilie 2005
Gf-Deac I.I., - Bazele juridice i economice ale sistemelor de resurse n noua
[25] economie, - Ed. Infomin, Deva, 2007, (www.infomindeva.ro), (ISBN 978-973-7646-
04-0)
Gf-Deac I.I., - Noua Economie ntre cunoatere i risc, - Ed. Infomin, Deva, 2010,
[26]
(www.infomindeva.ro), (ISBN 978-973-7646-11-8)
Gf-Deac I.I., - tiina administraiei i management public modern, Ed. Infomin,
[27]
Deva, 2010, (www.infomindeva.ro), (ISBN 978-973-7646-09-05),(165 p.)
Gf-Deac I.I., - Noile orizonturi juridice i globalizarea, - Ed. Infomin, Deva, 2002,
[28]
(www.infomindeva.ro), (ISBN 973-85031-7-5)
Gf-Deac I.I., - Elemente ale noii economii n Romnia n domenii puternic
formalizate pe diferite resurse naturale, - Lucrrile tiinifice International
[29] Interdisciplinary Scientific Symposium Universitaria SIMPRO 2005, Integrare n aria
european a cercetrii, Vol. tiine Economice, Ed. Universitas, Petroani, 2005,
p.89-91, (ISBN 973-8260-91-4)
Gf-Deac I., - The particular strategy of restructuring the mineral resources industry
[30]
in Romania, Romanian Academy, Editura CEID, Bucharest, 2000 (ISSN 1222-5436)
Valeca, Cristina Monica, (col), Ciclul de Combustibil Nuclear, Ed. Universitii Piteti,
[31]
ISBN: 978-973-690-778-4, 2008
Valeca, Cristina Monica, (col), Evaluarea impactului activitatilor nucleare de pe
[32] platforma SCN-FCN asupra medilui nconjurtor in anul 2004, SCN-RI 7469/, Piteti,
2006

541
 COMPLEXITATEA TEHNOLOGIC N DOMENIUL
EXPLOATRII I VALORIFICRII RESURSELOR
MINERALE I ENERGETICE/

TECHNOLOGICAL COMPLEXITY IN THE EXPLORATION

AND RECOVERY OF MINERAL AND ENERGY RESOURCES
Ioan I. GF-DEAC1, Cristina Monica VALECA2, Nicolae ILIA3, Maria GF-DEAC4
Haralambie VOCHIOIU 5

1
Senior Lecturer, PhD., SHU Bucharest, National Institute of Economic Research "Costin C. Kiriescu"
(INCE), Romanian Academy, Bucharest, Romania, [email protected]
2
PhD., University of Piteti, Nuclear Research Institute (ICN), Romania, [email protected]
3
PhD. Professor, University of Petroani, Romania, [email protected]
4
Senior Lecturer, PhD., SHU Bucharest, Romania, [email protected]
5
Ph.D. student University of Petrosani

ABSTRACT
The paper shows that between complex and complicated differences manifest themselves
recognized. Complexity science and technology is defined as the ability of a system to record a
large number of different states in a defined time interval. Status of complexity depends on the
capacity (ability) technological system to evolve over time, the type of behavior by multiplying
its elements and the evolution and variability circuits between items. Status of sophistication of
technological systems assemblies depends on the type, number and differences between
elements, and the number and difference of relations between elements.
This paper is a summary of takeover extension study entitled Modern Technologies (Author:
Maria Gf- Deac, Ed. FRM, ISBN 973-582-808-1, Bucharest, 2004) with the application of case
law in expansion, extractive mining and energy sectors, respectively in the nuclear industry.

KEYWORDS
technological sophistication, technology status, life technologies, size of technology, utilizing
extensive use intensive technological forecasting

1. Introducere

n situaiile curente sociale i productive ntre complex i complicat se manifest diferene

recunoscute. Complexitatea n sfera tiinei i tehnologiei se definete ca fiind aptitudinea
unui sistem de a nregistra un mare numr de stri diferite ntr-un interval
determinat de timp [24].
542
De asemenea, nu trebuie confundat complexitatea cu dinamica sa. Anumite sisteme, de
exemplu, n domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor minerale i energetice, nu
nregistreaz dect o gam restrns de stri posibile.
Ele sunt mai puin dinamice, iar aceast restricie se opune complexitii. n acest caz
sistemele sunt considerate ca fiind simple.
Un exemplu de sistem simplu trivial l reprezint maina care ntr-o manier precis, invariant
are o intrare determinat, apoi pe baza unei funcii de aplicaie realizeaz transformarea
substanei intrate pentru a obine un rezultat prevzut, sigur.
Fiecrei intrri n domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor minerale i energetice i
corespunde ntotdeauna aceeai ieire. Acest tip de comportament este caracteristic mainilor.
Entitile complexe, nontriviale se comport ns ntr-o manier mai aleatoare. Aceeai intrare
poate s ajung n ieiri configurate divers n coninut, calitate, form .a.
Traseul intrri precise ieiri diverse are loc fr ca sistemul tehnologic s sufere disfuncii n
domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor minerale i energetice.
Studiul transformrilor imprevizibile arat c sistemului tehnologic i se aplic o funcie
nontrivial care se modific ea nsi n timp. Funcia respectiv are efecte de dinamic
proprie.
Astfel, acelai input realizat n dou momente diferite va putea nregistra dou maniere diferite
ale strii sale la etapa output.
Se poate aprecia c n domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor minerale i energetice
ieirea depinde de intrare, ns concomitent starea final depinde de situaia n care se afl
sistemul tehnologic la aplicarea intrrii respective.

2. Starea de complexitate i complicare tehnologic n domeniul exploatrii

i valorificrii resurselor minerale i energetice

Viaa proprie a sistemului tehnologic n domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor minerale i

energetice depinde deci de capacitatea de interaciune i modificare ntre componentele sale.
O relaie tehnologic oarecare indiferent n ce etap de transformare este considerat - poate
deci cunoate un curs diferit. Prin urmare, aplicarea funciei nontriviale de transformare i
relaiile interne ale sistemului tehnologic pot determina aa numita globalitate, i din punct de
vedere dinamic rezult o larg varietate de componente posibile.
De altfel, sistemele tehnologice n domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor minerale i
energetice pentru a fi acceptate profit de complexitatea lor ridicat.
Deja, n contemporaneitate, ntr-un sistem tehnologic modern managerii nu mai rmn
prizonierii reflexiei cauz-efect. Ei caut i comand msurile salvatoare care declaneaz
schimbri adecvate prin care se obin rezultatele ateptate.
Cu toate acestea, complexitatea face dificil inserarea n sistemele tehnologice n domeniul
exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor minerale i energetice a unei maniere simple de micare a
substanei n transformare. ntr-o prim evaluare se constat c tendina general este de
simplificare a complexitii obiective a sistemelor tehnologice superioare (glisarea de la
nontrivial la trivial).
Asimilarea ansamblului cu un sistem trivial n domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor
minerale i energetice pare justificat. Iniial se construiete un model simplu, stpnit, care
apoi treptat este lrgit, astfel nct realitatea complex s se comporte n final ca i modelul de
baz. Acest demers este chiar el complicat.
n practic, sistemele tehnologice simple n domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor
minerale i energetice urmeaz un drum (C) al complexitii (relativ complex, complex, extrem

543
de complex) i de readucere la starea de simplitate (S) pentru a facilita controlul i conducerea
lor (sistem extrem de complex, complicat, relativ complicat, simplu) (figura. 1). [5]

Figura: 1. Tendina de nregistrare a unei noi complexiti a sistemelor tehnologice n domeniul

exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor minerale i energetice i ncercarea de reducere la modelele
nontriviale, necomplicate de conducere a acestora
Starea de complexitate depinde de capacitatea (aptitudinea) sistemului tehnologic n
domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor minerale i energetice de a evolua n timp, prin
multiplicarea tipului de comportament a elementelor sale precum i de evoluia i variabilitatea
circuitelor ntre elemente.
Starea de complicare a sistemelor tehnologice n domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii
resurselor minerale i energetice depinde de tipul asamblrilor, numrul i diferenele ntre
elemente, precum i de numrul i diferena dintre relaiile stabilite ntre elemente.
Este important de remarcat c n domeniul tehnic sistemele tehnologice nu se construiesc i nu
pot fi definite ca entiti compuse din funcii invariante. O main, un utilaj, un echipament,
odat realizate i omologate, nu sunt destinate funcionrii hazardate.
Piesele i subansamblele .a. sunt programate pentru scopuri precise. Ansamblul tehnologic n
domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor minerale i energetice este regizat prin reguli
fixe, prestabilite de constructor.
Cibernetica mainilor permite actualmente elaborarea unei game largi a repertoarului de
comportamente. Cu toate acestea, frontierele de manevre rmn nc limitate.
De exemplu, roboii se autodirijeaz ns numai n interiorul unui cmp de aciune bine definit.
ntr-un anumit sens acest tip de maini rmn triviale, iar aciunile lor de transformare
justific aspiraia managerial de simplificare.
Dimpotriv, produselor tehnicii li se pot aloca (ataa) alte sisteme dect cele care le-au realizat.
De exemplu, ecosistemele sau sistemele sociale au pri vii, complexe.
Sistemele ecologic i social sunt necesarmente complexe. Ele nu au caracteristici finale triviale.
Complexitatea lor poate fi variabil i acceptat convenional ca nelegere de ctre
managerii din sistemele tehnologice.
n interiorul sistemului social, ntreprinderea din domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor
minerale i energetice este un instrument al managerilor pentru a naviga ntr-o complexitate
superioar, iar sistemele tehnologice se regsesc n structurile companiilor.
A surmonta complexitatea sistemelor n domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor minerale i
energetice nu nseamn a proceda la reducerea acesteia.

544
De exemplu, la exploatarea subteran a substanelor minerale utile i energetice, inclusiv
radioactive, este posibil protejarea presiunii miniere (construind i folosind utilaje,
echipamente deci folosind tehnologii adecvate care s lucreze ntr-un regim dat) fa de
combaterea nivelului presiunii respective [5].
Aadar:
complexitatea n domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor minerale i energetice este
aptitudinea unui sistem de a trece la un numr mare de stri distincte ntr-un interval scurt de
timp;
mainile sunt sisteme noncomplexe, deci triviale deoarece au un comportament predefinit,
previzibil;
sistemele ecologice i sociale sunt complexe, deci nontriviale, deoarece comportamentul lor
concret la un moment dat nu este previzibil.
n schimb, diversificarea surselor de schimbri tehnologice n domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii
resurselor minerale i energetice conduce la o complexitate specific n sistemele productiv-
industriale.
Tipul de surse, gama nevoilor, experiena tehnic a ntreprinderilor n domeniul exploatrii i
valorificrii resurselor minerale i energetice determin noi metode de aciune, prin nouti.
Complexitatea tehnologic n domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor minerale i
energetice poate fi gestionat deoarece programarea aciunii mainilor din fluxurile de
transformare denot tendina de obinere ct mai precis a rezultatelor dorite.
Un management neperformant, lipsa de reguli sau neaplicarea acestora (ori aplicarea limitat)
determin complexitatea tehnologic aparent.
Complexitatea proceselor productiv-industriale n domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor
minerale i energetice este n cretere deoarece n mediul economic general sunt vehiculate
informaii i reacii asupra crora planeaz o permanent incertitudine n privina validitii lor.
ntreprinderile din domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor minerale i energetice accept
constatarea c fluxurile productive devin mai complexe i c neralierea la aceast complexitate
risc s afecteze competitivitatea lor.
Dac n mod curent procedurile de dotare tehnologic complex, competitiv erau rezervate
unor domenii cu sprijin statal strict, direcionat sau cu interes privat accentuat (aeronautic,
armament, microelectronic .a.), n prezent se constat c i industriile ordinare se
angreneaz ntr-o astfel de tendin.

2. Tehnologiile dominante n sectorul exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor

minerale i energetice

Noile tehnologii, n general, nfieaz urmtoarele consecine principale o dat cu apariia i

aplicarea lor:
introducerea n procesele productiv-industriale a unor procedee i metode tehnice noi, cu
parametrii diferii, superiori, fa de cei actuali;
apariia de noi obiecte: produse i servicii cu grad mrit de noutate;
apariia unor noi lanuri de transformare a materiilor i materialelor ce intr n procesul
tehnologic n domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor minerale i energetice.
Noile tehnologii n domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor minerale i energetice formeaz
o familie cu elemente care, individual - ntr-un anumit interval de timp domin prin
competitivitate procesele productiv-industriale.
Concomitent, de la o etap la alta, are loc diversificarea materialelor. Rupturile ntre familiile de
tehnologii sunt date de gradul de dominan.
545
Diversificarea ofer o nou libertate a creaiei tehnologice i o nou evoluie a domeniului
productiv-industrial.
Familia tehnologiilor noi (F N ) n domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor minerale i
energetice, situat pe un palier superior (P S) are tendina de dominaie asupra familiilor
tehnologiilor actuale (F A ), situate pe palierul actual, contemporan (P A ), determinnd scoaterea
din starea de operaionalitate a tehnologiilor epuizate (F E ), i plasarea lor pe un palier istoric,
inferior (P E ). (figura. 2) [5].

Figura: 2. Amplasarea tehnologiilor dominante (F N ) n domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii

resurselor minerale i energetice
Pe msura avansrii n timp a ntregului ansamblu de tehnologii (F N; F A ; F E ) se constat c
tehnologiile noi n domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor minerale i energetice contribuie
la imprimarea urmtoarelor tendine:
se amelioreaz (se mbuntete) precizia n execuii;
crete viteza de lucru;
scade intervenia omului n procesul de obinere a produsului minier/energetic.
Patrimoniul tehnologic - mbogit , n domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor minerale i
energetice, constituie un avantaj rezidual semnificativ ca urmare a transformrilor
cvasipermanente suferite de tehnologii. Ierarhizarea, respectiv clasificarea dominaiei este
dificil, aceste operaii fiind valabile asemenea sondajelor pentru intervale de timp bine
definite.
Totui, se poate aprecia c n familia tehnologiilor dominante aparinnd prezentului, cu
potenila de transfer specific n domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor minerale i
energetice, se nscriu cele din sfera informaticii (informaionale), microelectronica, prelucrarea
electronic a datelor i informaiilor, tehnologiile militare, spaiale i parial un numr de
tehnologii neconvenionale intrate n atenie pentru aplicare ntr-un interval de timp mai
apropiat.

3. Cererile n domeniul tehnologiilor din domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii

resurselor minerale i energetice

Scopul teoriei cererii este s determine diferii factori care afecteaz cererea.
Raiunea de a fi a teoriei cererii este stabilit de legea cererii (care printre altele arat c
cererea pieei este potrivnic n general preului) ns este la fel de adevrat constatarea c
preurile concentreaz determinrile de cerere de pe pia. (figura.3) [5]

546
 EXAMINARE TRADIIONAL MULTIVARIAT N MULTIPIEE

Examinare
n teoria tradiional ETT Cerer ii ETT Cerer ii ETT Cerer ii
a cererii

1) pr eul 1) 1) 1)
tehnologic
2) 2) 2)
2) alte preur i
3) venitur i 3) 3) 3)
4) voin,
dor ine 4) 4) 4)

(P 1) (P 2) (P 3) (P n)

5) investiia 5) 5) 5)
consumator ului

6) pr eul 6) 6) 6)
altor
tehnologii

7) distribuia 7) 7) 7)
venitur ilor
(cheltuielilor )

8) totalul 8) 8) 8)
fir melor
interesate

9) modul 9) 9) 9)
de obinere
a creditelor

10) politici 10) 10) 10)

guvernamentale

11) nivelul
cererii din 11) 11) 11)
aceeai clas
n trecut

12) veniturile 12) 12) 12)

obinute
n trecut

( 1) ( 2) ( 3) ( n)

EXAMINARE MODERN-RECENT MULTIVARIAT A CERERII N MULTIPIEE

Figura: 3. Evoluia complexitii examinrii cererii de tehnologii pe pia n domeniul exploatrii i

valorificrii resurselor minerale i energetice
Cererea este o relaie multivariabil deoarece ea este susinut de numeroi factori cu aciune
simultan.
Unul dintre cei mai importani determinani ai cererii de pia pentru un produs distinct aa
cum este o tehnologie n domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor minerale i energetice
este propriul pre alturi de investiia consumatorului (achizitorului) i preurile altor bunuri,
dorinele achizitorului de tehnologie, distribuia venitului (a cheltuielilor), totalul firmelor
(populaie) interesate (absorbante), fiabilitatea, fezabilitatea i ecologia tehnologiei, modul de
obinere a creditelor, politici guvernamentale, nivelul cererii de tehnologii din aceeai clas n
trecut i volumul veniturilor obinute n trecut utiliznd tehnologii similare.
Teoria tradiional a cererii n domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor minerale i
energetice este concentrat de regul pe patru dintre determinanii de mai sus i anume: 1)
preul bunului (tehnologiei), 2) alte preuri, 3) volumul veniturilor i 4) voina, respectiv
dorinele achizitorului (utilizatorului de tehnologie).
Ceilali factori au fost introdui n teoria cererii, relativ recent.
Se precizeaz c teoria tradiional a cererii examineaz numai cererea final a consumatorilor
n domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor minerale i energetice, care poate fi
caracterizat durabil sau non-durabil.
Acest tip de demers arat c se manifest o anumit parialitate a examinrii cererii, care se
refer la stadiul ntr-o singur pia considerat izolat fa de cererile ce se manifest n alte
piee.
O simplificare asumat n teoria cererii este aceea c firmele i vnd produsele lor (tehnologiile)
direct consumatorului (utilizatorului) final n domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor
minerale i energetice.

547
Nu este ns cazul general n sfera afacerilor moderne pe plan mondial, cnd traseul vnzrii
este mult mai complicat, ceea ce are implicaii serioase n determinarea preurilor.
O alt viziune dificil generat de teoria tradiional a cererii se refer la faptul c ia mai
restrns n considerare vnzrile de bunuri de investiii (aa cum sunt i tehnologiile n domeniul
exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor minerale i energetice), prin neurmrirea accentuat a
cererilor distincte ce le sufer produsele intermediare (secvenele din lanul tehnologic).
n analize sunt incluse cererea total i cererea final, n timp ce cererile intermediare n
domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor minerale i energetice sunt cuprinse ntre total i
final [5].
Cererea final este divizat ntre cererile pariale ale consumatorilor (utilizatorilor) i cererile de
bunuri de investiii.
Teoria tradiional a cererii opereaz numai cu cererea consumatorilor, care este considerat
pentru fiecare o fracie din total cerere din ntreaga economie,
Cererile consumatorilor individuali n domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor minerale i
energetice n economiile dezvoltate se ridic la 30-40% din total cerere.
n context, n continuare se vor examina coninuturile diferitelor formule sub care opereaz
cererea (att maniera tradiional ct i cea modern) n domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii
resurselor minerale i energetice.
1. Teoria comportrii consumatorului de tehnologii (utilizator)
Teoria tradiional a cererii pornete de la examinarea comportrii consumatorului n condiiile
n care cererea pieii poate fi considerat o sum a cererilor individuale ale acestora. n primul
rnd se examineaz derivarea cererii pentru un consumator individual n domeniul exploatrii i
valorificrii resurselor minerale i energetice.
Consumatorul este presupus a fi raional n actul su de consum. Cheltuielile sale i preurile de
pe pia ale diferitelor bunuri l determin s-i planifice efortul pentru a obine cea mai mare
satisfacie sau utilitate. Aceasta este axioma utilitii maxime.
Totodat, n teoria tradiional a cererii se consider c un consumator este n posesia
cunotinelor complete care caracterizeaz produsul i are informaiile relevante pentru decizia
sa.
Pentru a atinge obiectivele sale utilizatorul (consumatorul n domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii
resurselor minerale i energetice) trebuie s fie capabil s compare utilitatea (de exemplu a
unei tehnologii) fa de o mulime de alte bunuri pe care le poate achiziiona prin cheltuiala sa.
Apar astfel dou posibiliti de abordare a problemei comparaiei utilitilor respective a)
abordarea cardinalist i b) abordarea ordinalist.
coala cardinalist postuleaz c utilitatea poate fi msurat. n timp au fost avansate diferite
sugestii pentru msurarea utilitii.
Sub o certitudine (de exemplu posesia de cunotine complete asupra condiiilor pieii i a
nivelului cheltuielilor pentru o perioad planificat) unii analiti din domeniu au sugerat c
utilitatea poate fi msurat n uniti monetare, n raport cu decizia consumatorului pentru o
alt unitate de produs (bun, tehnologie).
coala ordinalist postuleaz c utilitatea nu poate fi msurat, ns aceasta poate fi
considerat o magnitudine ordinal (o amplitudine).
Astfel, consumatorul n domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor minerale i energetice nu
ar avea nevoie s tie utilitatea n uniti specifice pentru a alege un bun (o tehnologie) dintr-o
mulime de alte bunuri (tehnologii). Pentru el este suficient cunoaterea clasei de produse
(tehnologii) din mulimea respectiv, n concordan cu voina sau dorina (necesitatea) sa de
achiziionare.
ntr-o astfel de situaie el trebuie s fie capabil s determine n ordinea preferinelor o
tehnologie, pe baza diferenelor ce le sesizeaz ntre tehnologiile din mulimea supus ateniei.
548
Teoria ordinalist se bazeaz pe clasa curbelor de indiferen i pe ipotezele relevante ale
preferinei.
n continuare se refer la unele elemente de baz ce vizeaz coninutul teoriei utilitii
cardinale, respectiv aspectele care au n vedere posibilitile de msurare, deci cuantificare a
indicatorului n raport cu cererea pieei.
Conceptul de utilitate msurabil este atribuit lui Grossen (1854), Jevons (1871) i Walras
(1874). O anumit contribuie provine de la Marshall (1890) care a introdus noiunea de utilitate
independent aditiv.
Considerentele principale luate n considerare sunt urmtoarele:
a) Raionalitatea (Rationality.) Consumatorul (sau utilizatorul de tehnologii n domeniul
exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor minerale i energetice) este raional. Scopul su principal
este maximizarea utilitii n comparaie cu cheltuielile pe care le efectueaz;
b) Utilitatea cardinal. Conceptul arat c n domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor
minerale i energetice utilitatea fiecrui bun este msurabil. Utilitatea este un concept cardinal,
respectiv cartezian.
Cea mai convenabil msurare este cu ajutorul banilor; utilitatea este msurat cu ajutorul
unitilor monetare, n condiiile n care consumatorul este pregtit s plteasc dac este mai
avantajos pentru o alt unitate de bun.
c) Utilitatea marginal constant a banilor (Constant marginal utility of money). Acest
considerent apare ca necesar din cauz c pentru msurarea utilitii sunt utilizai banii.
Aspectul esenial pentru un standard unitar al msurrii este ca acesta s fie constant.
Dac utilitatea marginal a banilor se schimb ca venituri-cheltuieli n cretere sau descretere,
msurarea utilitii trebuie s fie stpnit de o regul elastic, ceea ce nu este pozitiv pentru
msurarea propriu-zis;
d) Reducerea (diminuarea) utilitii marginale (Diminishing marginal utility). Utilitatea este
ctigat (obinut din evaluare) prin evidenierea unitilor succesive a bunurilor diminuate
(prin reducie). Cu alte cuvinte, utilitatea marginal a bunurilor diminuate este legat de cerina
n cantiti tot mai largi a acestor bunuri din partea consumatorilor. Aceasta este axioma
utilitii marginale diminuate (minime).
De exemplu, totalul utilitii unei mulimi de tehnologii depinde de cantitatea individual de
tehnologii cerute i introduse n folosin (consum) n domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii
resurselor minerale i energetice.
Dac exist un numr de tehnologii n cantitile (sortimentele constructiv-funcionale) x 1 ,
x 2 ,...,x n atunci utilitatea total U este [5]:
U = f (x 1 , x 2 ,...,x n ) (1)
n versiunea extrem de apropiat a teoriei comportamentului consumatorului, se poate
demonstra c utilitatea total este aditiv:
U = U 1 (x 1 ) + U 2 (x 2 ) + ,, + U n (x n ) (2)
Pentru a nfia echilibrul consumatorului (utilizatorului de tehnologii n domeniul exploatrii i
valorificrii resurselor minerale i energetice) se pornete de la un model simplu, lund n
considerare tehnologia X.
Consumatorul poate cumpra tehnologia X sau poate reine cheltuiala sa (s nu cheltuie) n
volum Y.
n aceste condiii, consumatorul este n echilibru (pot s cumpr pot s pstrez banii s nu
cumpr) atunci cnd utilitatea marginal (UM) a tehnologiei X este egal cu preul su de pia
(P x ), adic:
UM x = P x (3)

549
Dac utilitatea marginal a tehnologiei X este mai mare dect preul, consumatorul poate crete
capacitatea (posibilitatea) sa de a achiziiona mai ieftin sau de a achiziiona mai multe uniti de
tehnologie.
n mod similar, dac utilitatea marginal a tehnologiei x este mai redus dect preul,
consumatorul poate s-i ndeplineasc voina (dorina) de achiziionare diminund cantitatea
(volumul de lanuri procesuale) de tehnologie care s-i intre n posesie.
n acest caz, el se ateapt s maximizeze utilitatea prin:
UMx = P1 x (4)
n care P1 x este preul asiguratoriu pentru o anumit cantitate (dimensiune sau volum) de bun
sau produs.
Dac exist un numr mai mare de tehnologii n domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor
minerale i energetice considerate ca bunuri supuse comercializrii, condiia nregistrrii unui
echilibru din partea consumatorului este existena egalitii ntre raiile utilitilor marginale
individuale fa de preurile tehnologiilor respective.

3. Concluzii

Noile tehnologii, n general, nfieaz urmtoarele consecine principale o dat cu apariia i

aplicarea lor:
introducerea n procesele productiv-industriale a unor procedee i metode tehnice noi, cu
parametrii diferii, superiori, fa de cei actuali;
apariia de noi obiecte: produse i servicii cu grad mrit de noutate;
apariia unor noi lanuri de transformare a materiilor i materialelor ce intr n procesul
tehnologic n domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor minerale i energetice.
Noile tehnologii n domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor minerale i energetice formeaz
o familie cu elemente care, individual - ntr-un anumit interval de timp domin prin
competitivitate procesele productiv-industriale.
Concomitent, de la o etap la alta, are loc diversificarea materialelor. Rupturile ntre familiile de
tehnologii sunt date de gradul de dominan.
Diversificarea ofer o nou libertate a creaiei tehnologice i o nou evoluie a domeniului
productiv-industrial.
Teoria tradiional a cererii n domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor minerale i
energetice este concentrat de regul pe patru dintre determinanii de mai sus i anume: 1)
preul bunului (tehnologiei), 2) alte preuri, 3) volumul veniturilor i 4) voina, respectiv
dorinele achizitorului (utilizatorului de tehnologie).
n analize trebuie incluse cererea total i cererea final, n timp ce cererile intermediare n
domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor minerale i energetice sunt cuprinse ntre total i
final.

REFERENCES

Gf-Deac, Maria, Posibiliti noi de formulare a deciziilor privind folosirea utilajelor

[1]
tehnologice, Revista minelor, Bucureti, nr.1/1992, p. 31.
Gf-Deac, Maria, Saturarea tehnologic i creterea economic negativ, Revista
[2]
Minelor, Bucureti, nr.1/2000, p.12.
Gf-Deac, Maria, Experimentarea dispozitivelor de prelevare a probelor la iazurile de
[3]
decantare Studiu cercetare tiinific, Universitatea Bucureti, 1992.

550
 Gf-Deac, Maria, Activitatea de prevenire n exploatare, revista Obiectiv, Bucureti,
[4]
anul XXVI, nr.7-9/1991.
Gf-Deac, Maria, Dimensiunea fizic a tehnologiilor i mrimea rezultatelor
[5]
proiectate, Revista Minelor, Bucureti, nr.2/2000 p.29.
Gf-Deac, Maria (col.), Tratat de tehnologii moderne, Editura Fundaiei Romnia de
[6]
Mine, Bucureti, 2000.
Gf-Deac, Maria (col.), Managementul dezvoltrii structurilor tehnologice Editura
[7]
Infomin, Deva, 2003.
Hadj, S.A.E, Lentreprise face la mutation technologique, Les Editions
[8]
dOrganisation, 1989
Martinet, B. La veille technologique, concurrentielle et comerciale, Ribault, J.M., Les
[9]
Editions dOrganisation, Paris, 1989.
Morin, J. Sembat R., Le management de resources technologiques, Les Editions
[10]
dOrganisation, Paris, 1989.
Ponoran, I., Angelescu, A., Vian, S., Tehnologie i dezvoltarea tehnologic, Editura
[11]
Fundaiei Romnia de Mine, Bucureti, 1998.
Mriua Tudor erban, Ioan I. Gf-Deac, Ion Iulian Hurloiu, Gabriel Mihai, Elena
Burtea, Ana-Maria Reetar-Deac - Securizarea reelelor electronice de comunicaii
[12] prin criptografierea bazelor de date, Revista pentru Dezvoltare Bazat pe
Cunoatere RDBC, Nr. 1/ 2015, Bucureti, ISSN 2393-2112 / ISSN-L 2393-2112,
(www.e-editura.ro/rdbc), p. 22-29
Ioan I. Gf-Deac, Theodor Damian, Maria Gf-Deac, Andreea Condurache, Sorin
Pavl, Benedict Oprescu, Aurel Bucur, - Dimensionarea i difuzarea cognitiv a
[13] managementului general n condiiile globalizrii, Revista pentru Dezvoltare Bazat
pe Cunoatere RDBC, Nr. 2/ 2015, Bucureti, ISSN 2393-2112 / ISSN-L 2393-
2112, (www.e-editura.ro/rdbc), p. 79-82
Laureniu Bogatu, Ioan I. Gf-Deac, Moise Bojinc, Ciprian Coandre, Ioana Andreea
Marinescu, Adrian Iordache, Georgian Lctu, Ioan Rus, Ionel Cosmin Gagiu, -
Conceptualizri juridice i economice pentru diferenieri ntre resurse naturale,
[14]
resurse i rezerve minerale, Revista pentru Dezvoltare Bazat pe Cunoatere RDBC,
Nr. 2/ 2015, Bucureti, ISSN 2393-2112 / ISSN-L 2393-2112, (www.e-
editura.ro/rdbc), p. 102-108
Ioan I. Gf-Deac, Constantin Sava, Aronel-Ovidiu-Corneliu Matei, Roxana Herbei,
Mihai Marius Nedelea, - Exploitation and recovery of the mineral useful in Northern
[15]
Dobrogea, Journal of Economics and Knowledge Technologies (ISSN 2360-5499 /
ISSN- L 2360-5499), No.3/March 2015, p. 81-87
Horia Ioan Georgescu, Mriua Tudor erban, Ioan I. Gf-Deac, Ilie Ionel Ciuclea -
Metadagramatic inserting model into database security systems, Journal of
[16]
Economics and Knowledge Technologies (ISSN 2360-5499 / ISSN- L 2360-5499),
No.2/February 2015, p. 18-22
Valeca, Cristina Monica, (col), Investigarea posibilitatilor de separare si concentrare a
14C din probe de apa de suprafata in vederea masurarii activitatii acestuia in cadrul
[17]
programului de monitorizare radiologica a mediului la CNE Cernavoda- SCN-
R.I.8530/2009
Gf-Deac I.I., - Bazele juridice i economice ale sistemelor de resurse n noua
[18] economie, - Ed. Infomin, Deva, 2007, (www.infomindeva.ro), (ISBN 978-973-7646-
04-0)

551
 DIAGNOSTICAREA STRATEGIC A ENTITILOR
MODERNE DIN DOMENIUL EXPLOATRII I
VALORIFICRII RESURSELOR NATURALE /

STRATEGIC DIAGNOSTICS FOR MODERN ENTITIES ON

EXPLOITATION AND CAPITALIZATION OF NATURAL
RESOURCES
Dan MARTIN1
1
Ph. DSt. UMF University of Bucharest, Romania

ABSTRACT
The article shows that essentially diagnostic analysis is a measurement of self-reported
performance company in the exploration and exploitation of natural resources, embodied in all
indicators that highlight the rhythms of change from previous periods of various phenomena
and economic processes of economic and financial results obtained. In a practical context, the
business strategy of the company in the exploration and exploitation of natural resources can
be developed based on a model portfolio of activities. It notes that in modern facilities increase
the role of strategic options for diversification and renewal of production of its permanent
adaptation to new requirements of the competition. However, there is a significant increase in
financial resources needs of companies engaged in various businesses. Increasingly, every
enterprise in the exploration and exploitation of natural resources requires a thorough analysis
and multi-criteria competitiveness level.

KEYWORDS
diligence, the business strategy of the company, the exploration and exploitation of natural
resources.

1. Introducere. Despre analiza diagnostic a entitilor moderne din domeniul

exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor naturale

Analiza diagnostic vizeaz evaluarea potenialului ntreprinderii studiate din domeniul exploatrii
i valorificrii resurselor naturale i a mediului n care este integrat.
Are ca scop identificarea forelor i slbiciunilor care se manifest n posibilitile sale interne,
privite din diferite puncte de vedere, a ocaziilor i ameninrilor mediului ambiant al
ntreprinderii extractive/ de preparare.
Analiza-diagnostic are caracter istoric i se refer la situaia ntreprinderii din domeniul
exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor naturale n perioadele trecute, considerate de referin
pentru evaluarea performanelor realizate.
552
Se identific posibilitile interne ale ntreprinderii, punctele forte i slabe existente la nivelul
diferitelor laturi ale activitii acesteia.
Analiza-diagnostic privete ntreprinderea din domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor
naturale ca o entitate separat, ale crei fore i slbiciuni sunt determinate in exclusivitate de
posibilitile sale interne urmrite prin prisma evoluiei lor n timp.
n esen, analiza diagnostic este o msurare autorelativ a performanelor ntreprinderii din
domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor naturale, concretizat n ansamblul indicatorilor
care evideniaz ritmurile de modificare fa de perioadele anterioare a diverselor fenomene i
procese economice, a rezultatelor economico-financiare obinute.

2. Diagnosticarea strategic a ntreprinderii din domeniul exploatrii i

valorificrii resurselor naturale

Diagnosticarea strategic are ca obiect identificarea posibilitilor de dezvoltare a activitii

ntreprinderii din domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor naturale pe baza perspectivelor
de evoluie a acesteia.
Aceasta va asigura investigarea posibilitilor interne ale ntreprinderii din domeniul exploatrii i
valorificrii resurselor naturale n corelaie cu situaia altor competitori din sectorul extractiv i
de valorificare a resurselor natural n care i desfoar activitatea.
Punctele forte i punctele slabe identificate au un caracter relativ, manifestndu-se ntr-un
context concurenial ca avantaje i dezavantaje competitive.
Ele apar ca rezultate ale msurrii corelative a performanelor ntreprinderii i se exprim prin
intermediul indicatorilor de competitivitate financiari i de pia.
Procesul de diagnosticare strategic se bazeaz pe utilizarea unor metode i tehnici de
investigare a fenomenelor i proceselor diferite de cele ale diagnosticrii manageriale a
activitii ntreprinderii din domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor naturale.

3. Diagnosticarea strategic a activitii ntreprinderii din domeniul

exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor naturale prin grila colii Harvard

Se consider c strategia unei ntreprinderi din domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor

naturale este determinat n mod hotrtor de trei factori:
- potenialul ntreprinderii;
- mediul n care este integrat ntreprinderea din domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor
naturale;
- persoanele care decid strategia ntreprinderii.
Analiza potenialului ntreprinderii din domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor naturale se
refer n principal la trei domenii de baz.
1. Poziia ntreprinderii pe pieele sale,
2. Poziionarea ntreprinderii n raport cu factorii si de producie,
3. Poziionarea ntreprinderii n raport cu factorii de competitivitate.
Logica de abordare propus prin acest model poate fi aplicat n diferite domenii de activitate i
n orice context al diagnosticrii strategice.
Pe aceast baz poate fi explicat larga sa difuzare ca model de referin n toate demersurile
strategice.

553
3.1.4. Diagnosticarea strategic SWOT a activitii ntreprinderii din domeniul
exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor naturale

Modelul SWOT se bazeaz pe principiile generale ale grilei de diagnostic a colii Harvard.
Semnificaia denumirii SWOT provine din: S de la strength = for, trie, punct forte (tare); W
de la weakness = slbiciune, punct slab; O de la opportunity = oportunitate, ocazie; T de la
threat = ameninare.
Metoda SWOT cuprinde dou etape:
a) evaluarea potenialului ntreprinderii;
b) analiza mediului ambiant.
Evaluarea (analiza) potenialului ntreprinderii din domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor
naturale urmrete identificarea punctelor forte i a punctelor slabe ale activitii n comparaie
cu situaia celorlali competitori din sectorul n care este integrat i se refer la:
1. Capacitatea comercial a ntreprinderii;
2. Capacitatea financiar a ntreprinderii;
3. Opacitatea productiv a ntreprinderii;
4. Capacitatea managerial a ntreprinderii.
Fiecare dintre factorii supui analizei va fi ncadrat ntr-una din urmtoarele cinci categorii: 1)
for major, 2) for minor, 3) slbiciune major, 4) slbiciune minor i 5) factor neutru.
Procesul de diagnosticare se va orienta n principal spre forele i slbiciunile majore, care
exercit o influen semnificativ asupra evoluiei activitii ntreprinderii i a performanelor
sale economice.
n literatura de specialitate se recomand folosirea matricei de evaluare a factorilor interni"
(MEFI).
Fiecare factor de analiz este evaluat prin intermediul unui coeficient subunitar de importan
(K i ) i a unei note (N i ) de la -1 la 4. Nota acordat fiecrui factor evideniaz natura acestuia
pentru domeniul de analiz abordat.
Factorii notai cu 1 i 2 reprezint slbiciuni majore i, respectiv, minore pentru domeniul care
face obiectul analizei. Factorii evaluai prin note de 3 i 4 sunt considerai forte minore i,
respectiv, majore pentru domeniul abordat.
Pe baza factorilor crora li s-au ataat cele dou elemente de evaluare, se stabilete puterea
global intern a firmei (PGIF), pe domenii de analiz strategic precum: capacitatea
comercial, capacitatea financiar, capacitatea productiv, capacitatea managerial - sau pe
funciuni ale ntreprinderii din domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor naturale precum
cercetare-dezvoltare, producie, comercial, de resurse umane, financiar-contabil i pe
ansamblul acestora. Calculul acestui indicator se face cu relaia:
n
PGIF = K i N i (1)
i =1

n
cu condiia ca K
i =1
i =1

n funcie de nivelul puterii globale interne a firmei se evalueaz potenialul acesteia, sub
raportul fiecrui domeniu de analiz strategic i al fiecrei funciuni, precum i pe ansamblul
sistemului.
Analiza mediului ambiant are ca obiect investigarea factorilor din afara ntreprinderii din
domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor naturale, care acioneaz direct sau indirect asupra
activitii ei.

554
 Se recomand folosirea matricei ocaziilor (oportunitilor) mediului pentru gruparea acestora
n funcie de cele dou criterii de evaluare ntr-o abordare bidimensional: a) ridicat() sau b)
sczut().
n cadrul matricei se individualizeaz patru cadrane de grupare a ocaziilor mediului concurenial.
Cadranul 1 cuprinde ocaziile (oportunitile) majore, caracterizate printr-un grad de atractivitate
i o probabilitate de succes ridicate.
Cadranele 3 i 4 cuprind ocaziile definite printr-o atractivitate ridicat i o probabilitate de
succes sczut sau invers, printr-o probabilitate de succes ridicat i o atractivitate sczut.
Cadranul 4 include ocaziile (oportunitile) minore, caracterizate printr-o probabilitate de succes
i o atractivitate sczute.
n acelai context se elaboreaz matricea ameninrilor mediului.
n cadranul 1 sunt comasate ameninrile majore, caracterizate printr-o probabilitate de apariie
i o seriozitate ridicate.
n cadranele 2 i 3 se gsesc acele ameninri care se caracterizeaz printr-o seriozitate ridicat
i o probabilitate de apariie sczut i, invers, printr-o probabilitate de apariie ridicat dar un
grad de seriozitate sczut.
Cadranul 4 grupeaz ameninrile minore, caracterizate printr-o seriozitate i o probabilitate de
apariie sczute.
Fiecrui factor de caracterizare a mediului i se ataeaz un coeficient de importan (Ki) i o
not de evaluare (Ni) de la 1 la 4.
n urmtoarea etap se stabilete puterea global extern a firmei (PGEF), att pentru ocazii
i ameninri, ct i pe ansamblul acestora, folosindu-se o relaie similar cu cea a puterii
globale interne a firmei din domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor naturale.
Totodat, n diagnosticarea strategic se poate folosi matricea ocaziilor i ameninrilor
mediului.
Pentru formularea strategiei economice se propune folosirea unei matrice prin care se combin
concluziile evalurii potenialului firmei din domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor naturale
cu cele ale analizei mediului, cunoscut n lucrrile de specialitate sub denumirea matricea
puncte forte puncte slabe ocazii - ameninri (SWOT).
n interiorul matricei se individualizeaz patru cadrane de combinare a concluziilor aferente
celor dou etape ale diagnosticrii strategice.
ntr-un context mai practic, strategia economic a ntreprinderii din domeniul exploatrii i
valorificrii resurselor naturale poate fi elaborat n baza unui model al portofoliului de activiti.
Se constat c n ntreprinderea modern crete rolul opiunilor strategice de diversificare i
nnoire a produciei, de adaptare permanent a acesteia la noile exigene ale mediului
concurenial.
Totodat, se nregistreaz o mrire semnificativ a necesitilor de resurse financiare ale
firmelor angajate n diverse afaceri.
Tot mai mult, fiecare ntreprindere din domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor naturale are
nevoie de o analiz amnunit i multicriterial a gradului de competitivitate.
Modelele bazate pe portofoliu de activiti au cerina de integrare a strategiilor secveniale ntr-o
strategie concurenial global, adaptat la posibilitile firmei i la exigenele mediului de
competiie.
Aplicarea modelelor bazate pe portofoliu de activiti presupune efectuarea n prealabil a unui
proces de segmentare strategic a ansamblului activitilor firmei.
Segmentarea strategic este procesul prin care se definete fiecare activitate din portofoliul
unei firme din domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor naturale, n raport cu natura
celorlalte activiti.
555
n concepie intern, segmentarea strategic const n delimitarea i definirea diferitelor
subdiviziuni autonome de fundamentare, elaborare i aplicare a strategiilor la nivelul activitilor
firmei din domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor naturale.

4. Concluzii

Analiza-diagnostic privete ntreprinderea din domeniul exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor

naturale ca o entitate separat, ale crei fore i slbiciuni sunt determinate in exclusivitate de
posibilitile sale interne urmrite prin prisma evoluiei lor n timp
Analiza diagnostic vizeaz evaluarea potenialului ntreprinderii studiate din domeniul exploatrii
i valorificrii resurselor naturale i a mediului n care este integrat.
Are ca scop identificarea forelor i slbiciunilor care se manifest n posibilitile sale interne,
privite din diferite puncte de vedere, a ocaziilor i ameninrilor mediului ambiant al
ntreprinderii extractive/ de preparare.
Analiza-diagnostic are caracter istoric i se refer la situaia ntreprinderii din domeniul
exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor naturale n perioadele trecute, considerate de referin
pentru evaluarea performanelor realizate.
Se identific posibilitile interne ale ntreprinderii, punctele forte i slabe existente la nivelul
diferitelor laturi ale activitii acesteia.

This paper was cofinanced from the European Social Fund through Sectorial Operational
Programme-Human Resources Development 2007-2013, project number POSDRU/1871.5/S/
155605, entitled Scientific excellence, knowledge and innovation through doctoral programs in
prioritary domains, Beneficiary University of Petrosani

REFERENCES

Bbu G., Moraru R., - Cadrul general al managementului riscului de mediu, Buletinul
[1]
Agir, nr. 3/2006
Ceauu, I., - Dicionar Enciclopedic Managerial, vol. I-II, Editura Academiei de
[2]
Management, Bucureti, 2000
Gf-Deac, M., - Complexitatea managerial n condiiile noilor tehnologii
[3] informaionale, n Revista Management i Marketing Contemporan, nr. 6/2002,
Bucureti, p. 41-44
Gf-Deac, M., - Managementul modelrii structurilor tehnologice, Editura Infomin,
[4]
Deva, 2002
Gf-Deac M. Management corporativ. Bucureti: Editura FMP. 2015.-259p. ISBN 978-
[5]
606-8635-05-7.
Gf-Deac M. The development through endogen status of the technical and
[6] technological changes. In: Journal of Economics and Knowledge Technologies. ISSN
2360-5499 / ISSN- L 2360-5499, Bucharest: No.1/January 2015. p.68-73
Gf-Deac I.I., -Microeconomie,- Ed. FMP, Bucureti, 2013, (ISBN 978-606-93432-4-
[7]
1)
Gf-Deac I.I., - Strategii naionale i regionale privind utilizarea resurselor naturale
n Europa i Asia Central, Lucr. t. Intl. Interdisciplinary Scientific Sym. Universitaria
[8] Simpro 2005, Integrare n aria european a cercetrii, Vol. Ecologie i reabilitarea
zonelor afectate de procesarea resurselor i materialelor, Ed. Universitas, Petroani,
2005
556
 Gf-Deac I.I., - Bazele juridice i economice ale sistemelor de resurse n noua
[9] economie, - Ed. Infomin, Deva, 2007, (www.infomindeva.ro), (ISBN 978-973-7646-
04-0)
Gf-Deac I.I., - Noua Economie ntre cunoatere i risc, - Ed. Infomin, Deva, 2010,
[10]
(www.infomindeva.ro), (ISBN 978-973-7646-11-8)
Horia Ioan Georgescu, Mriua T. erban, Ioan I. Gf-Deac, Ilie Ionel Ciuclea -
Metadagramatic inserting model into database security systems, Journal of
[11]
Economics and Knowledge Technologies (ISSN 2360-5499 / ISSN- L 2360-5499),
No.2/February 2015, p. 18-22
Laureniu Bogatu, Ioan I. Gf-Deac, Moise Bojinc, Ciprian Coandre, Ioana Andreea
Marinescu, Adrian Iordache, Georgian Lctu, Ioan Rus, Ionel Cosmin Gagiu, -
[12] Conceptualizri juridice i economice pentru diferenieri ntre resurse naturale,
resurse i rezerve minerale, Revista pentru Dezvoltare Bazat pe Cunoatere RDBC,
Nr. 2/ 2015, Bucureti, ISSN 2393-2112 / ISSN-L 2393-2112, p. 102-108
[13] Moraru R.; Bbu G., - Analiza de risc, Ed. Universitas, Petroani, 2001
Rescher N.,- Epistemic Logic: Survey of the Logic of Knowledge, University Pittsburg
[14]
Press, 2005
Soroceanu V., - Creterea economic i mediul natural, Ed. Economic, Bucureti,
[15]
2000

557
 PERFORMANELE I COMPETITIVITATEA
NTREPRINDERII EXTRACTIVE A RESURSELOR
MINERALE

/ PERFORMANCE AND COMPETITIVENESS OF MINERAL

EXTRACTION ENTREPRISE
Laureniu NANCU1, Ileana Dana HANTULIE (OPRISESCU)1
1
Ph. DSt. UMF University of Bucharest, Romania

ABSTRACT
The article presents aspect expressing that economic and financial performance of trading size
characterization returning from mineral extraction. In this way, it takes place close results and
measuring performance using indicators such as turnover, production and added value year.
The evaluation starts by investigating complex these indicators compared with the objects in
dynamic and determined, overall and by various specific structures. Diagnostic analysis of
global production volume activity aimed at examining the mineral extraction enterprises
qualifying, completing the product has a relatively long duration and therefore holds a
significant share work in progress. The structure of global production (production year) returns
in profit or loss.

KEYWORDS
mineral extraction company, performance, competitiveness.

3. Performanele ntreprinderii extractive a resurselor minerale. Volumul

activitii i calitatea bunurilor/ serviciilorIntroducere

Performanele economico-financiare revin din caracterizarea dimensiunii activitii ntreprinderii

extractive a resurselor minerale.
n acest fel, are loc apropierea rezultatelor i msurarea performanelor cu ajutorul unor
indicatori precum: cifra de afaceri, producia exerciiului i valoarea adugat.
Evaluarea ncepe prin investigarea complex a acestor indicatori, n dinamic i comparativ cu
obiectele stabilite, pe total i pe diverse structuri specifice.
Analiza diagnostic a produciei globale vizeaz examinarea volumului activitii ntreprinderilor
extractive a resurselor minerale cu ciclu lung, n care finalizarea produselor are o durat relativ
mare i n consecin, producia neterminat deine o pondere semnificativ.
Structura produciei globale (producia exerciiului) revine din contul de profit i pierderi.

558
Producia global (producia exerciiului) este format din producia vndut (sau cifr de
afaceri n preuri de vnzare exclusiv TVA), producia stocat i producia imobilizat (ultimele
dou exprimate n costuri de producie). (Figura.1)
Producia vndut n preuri Consumuri ce privesc
de vnzare exclusiv TVA producia exerciiului
(global )
Producia stocat sau destocat
n costuri de producie Rezultatul aferent
Producia imobilizat produciei exerciiului

Figura. 1. Interaciuni ntre elementele produciei globale

Un neajuns al indicatorului l reprezint faptul c n timp ce producia vndut este exprimat n
preuri de vnzare (exclusiv TVA), celelalte dou componente sunt evaluate n costuri de
producie, ceea ce afecteaz comparabilitatea.
nlturarea inconvenientului se face prin folosirea costurilor (standard sau prestabilite) pentru
toate elementele.
Orice schimbare a elementelor componente poate s nsemne modificarea structural i o
anume dinamic a ei.
Cauzele modificrii produciei vndute (cifrei de afaceri), produciei stocate i a celei imobilizate
sunt i cauze ale modificrii produciei globale.
Cifra de afaceri este un indicator de baz pentru msurarea volumului activitii oricrei forme
de funcionare a ntreprinderii extractive a resurselor minerale.
Managerii ntreprinderilor extractive a resurselor minerale urmresc maximizarea cifrei de
afaceri, n limite n care s fie realizat un profit rezonabil.
Se constat c prioritatea cifrei de afaceri nu elimin profitul fr de care perenitatea
ntreprinderii extractive a resurselor minerale nu este asigurat.
Cifra de afaceri este considerat indicatorul fundamental al volumului activitii ntreprinderii
extractive a resurselor minerale.
Un nivel al cifrei de afaceri corespunde unei anumite structuri a activitii miniere.
Cifra de afaceri se calculeaz prin nsumarea veniturilor rezultate din livrri de bunuri (produse
minerale miniere), executarea de lucrri i prestri de servicii i alte venituri din exploatare, mai
puin rabaturile, remizele i alte reduceri acordate clienilor.
Procedee de analiz a structurii cifrei de afaceri a ntreprinderii extractive a resurselor minerale
vizeaz:
a 1 ) Coeficientul de concentrare (C c )
Este cunoscut sub denumirea Gini-Struck i ia n considerare ponderea produsului sau grupei de
produse minerale miniere i notat (Pi) n cifra de afaceri, ntr-o serie cu n termeni.

n Pi 2 1
Cc = (1)
n 1
Se constat c n practic C c [0,1].
Apropierea de zero (0) semnific o distribuie relativ uniform a vnzrilor pe structurile
implicate n calcul.
a 2 ) Msurarea gradului de diversificare a activitii pe diverse structuri ale ntreprinderii. Este
cunoscut sub denumirea de coeficientul Herfindhal (C H ).
n
C H = Pi 2 (2)
i =1

559
Valoarea coeficientului este nul dac ntreprinderea extractiv a resurselor minerale vinde un
singur produs mineral i este egal cu l/n dac producia sau vnzrile sunt reprezentate n
proporii egale n cadrul nomenclatorului acesteia.
a 3 ) Analiza structurii vnzrilor pe produse (Metoda ABC)
Se elaboreaz o curb teoretic de analiz, identificndu-se n total produse minerale miniere
comercializate o subgrup de produse i mrfuri reduse ca numr, dar care realizeaz o mare
parte a cifrei de afaceri. La aceasta se adaug alte dou subgrupe care ofer mai puin de
jumtate din cifra de afaceri, dar care controleaz majoritatea produselor realizate i, respectiv
comercializate.
Metoda este utilizat n teoria economic pentru investigarea structurii cifrei de afaceri pe
categorii de consumatori de resurse minerale miniere.
Coordonatele statistice ale curbei teoretice sunt urmtoarele:
Zona I arar c 10 - 15% din numrul de produse sau mrfuri reprezint 60 - 70% din cifra de
afaceri.
Aceast zon cuprinde produse cu o rotaie mai rapid, cu o marj a costurilor variabile i
respectiv comercial mai redus.
Repartiia optimal arat c 10% din clieni reprezint 60% din vnzri.
Zona I contribuie semnificativ la realizarea cifrei de afaceri, din punct de vedere al securitii
firmei este cea mai riscant.
Cu ct numrul de clieni este mai mic, cu att riscul ntreprinderii extractive a resurselor
minerale este mai mare.
Cnd numrul de clieni este foarte redus, ntreprinderea extractiv a resurselor minerale este
obligat s consimt la acordarea unor avantaje financiare, ceea ce-i poate afecta
rentabilitatea.
Zona II arat c 25-30% din numrul de produse sau mrfuri vndute prezint echivalentul a
25-30% din cifra de afaceri.
Cuprinde produse/mrfuri a cror rotaie i marje sunt apropiate de media ntreprinderii
extractive a resurselor minerale i 40% din clieni reprezint 30% din vnzri.
Aceast zon asigur cel mai mare grad de stabilitate, ca cifr de afaceri i rentabilitate.
Zona III arat c 65-70% din numrul de produse sau mrfuri concur cu 10-15% n cifra de
afaceri.
Este format din produse sau mrfuri cu rotaie sczut dar cu o marj mai mare. Aceast zon
ridic probleme legate de lansarea comenzilor, de aprovizionare i stocare.
Costul de aprovizionare i stocare este mai ridicat comparativ cu zonele I i II.
n zona III 50% din clieni reprezint 10% din vnzri.
Zona III cantoneaz numrul de clieni foarte mare; se caracterizeaz prin cheltuieli de
exploatare ridicate (livrare, facturare) atunci cnd comenzile au o valoare sczut.
Corelnd ponderea zonei n realizarea cifrei de afaceri cu tendina cheltuielilor de
exploatare, c zona dezavantajeaz ntreprinderea extractiv a resurselor minerale att n ceea
ce privete volumul activitii ct i rentabilitatea.
b) Ritmicitatea i sezonalitatea reflectate n producie i n cifra de afaceri
Ritmicitatea produciei i similar vnzrilor (distribuiei) se poate aprecia pe baza urmtoarelor
elemente procedurale:
- pe baza ponderii produciei fizice sau valorice pe diviziuni de timp n cadrul perioadei de
analiz;
- pe baza indicilor realizrii obiectivului pe diviziuni de timp n cadrul perioadei analizate;
- pe baza coeficienilor ritmicitii.

560
Ritmicitatea nu se confund cu uniformitatea. Ritmicitatea trebuie neleas ca realizare a
obiectivelor n concordan cu distribuia pe diviziuni de timp, programat sau n funcie de
cerere i capacitate de ofert.
n examinarea sezonalitii, pe lng coeficientul clasic al acesteia se pot utiliza i coeficienii de
concentrare sezonier Gini-Struck sau Herfindhal.
Totodat, este util analiza diagnostic de tip factorial a cifrei de afaceri i a reflectrii ei n
indicatorii de baz ai performanei economico-financiare a ntreprinderii extractive a resurselor
minerale.
Cifra de afaceri ca valoare se reflect n indicatori ai performanei economico-financiare a
ntreprinderii extractive a resurselor minerale, precum:
a) suma profitului aferent cifrei de afaceri;
b) valoarea adugat la 1 leu cifr de afaceri;
c) eficiena activelor de exploatare;
d) eficiena mijloacelor fixe (cifra de afaceri la 1000 lei mijloace fixe);
e) eficiena activelor circulante de exploatare (cifr de afaceri la 1000 lei active circulante de
exploatare);
f) eficiena stocurilor (ca element de baz al activelor circulante de exploatare; cifr de afaceri
la 1000 lei stocuri);
g) eficiena capitalurilor;
h) indicatorii de eficien stabilii pe baza profitului ca efect;
i) capacitatea de finanare i pe aceast baz alte echilibre financiare;
j) capacitatea de remunerare a capitalului (prin profit ca premis a mririi dividendelor i
dobnda pentru mprumut).
Ca structur valoric (luarea n considerare a influenei preurilor) cifra de afaceri are inciden
asupra:
a) sumei profitului aferent cifrei de afaceri (prin intermediul profitului mediu la 1 leu cifr de
afaceri);
b) valoarea adugat (prin valoarea adugat la 1 leu cifr de afaceri);
c) eficiena activelor de exploatare (pe baza profitului aferent cifrei de afaceri);
d) eficiena mijloacelor fixe (pe baza profitului i valorii adugate la 1000 lei mijloace fixe;
e) eficiena activelor circulante (n principal a stocurilor);
f) eficiena muncii pe baza profitului aferent cifrei de afaceri pe un salariat;
g) eficiena capitalurilor (pe baza profitului aferent cifrei de afaceri);
h) capacitatea de autofinanare i de remunerare a capitalurilor prin prisma ei profitul.
4. Evidenierea valorii adugate prin analiza diagnostic
Valoarea adugat dimensioneaz aportul ntreprinderii extractive a resurselor minerale n
procesul de producie i distribuie a bunurilor, iar prin nsumare contribuie la formarea P.I.B. cu
unele ajustri la nivelul economiei naionale.
Analiza diagnostic a valorii adugate prezint n primul rnd importan ca indicator de
performan economico-financiar a ntreprinderii extractive a resurselor minerale, i n al doilea
rnd n sistemul fiscalitii.
Analiza structural i dinamic a valorii adugate arat c:
- n dinamica valorii adugate se reflect structura produciei vndute la care, sub impulsul
cererii, pot avea loc deplasri n favoarea unor produse sau servicii cu rate ale valorii adugate
fa de cifra de afaceri (dup nivelul de comparaie) mai mari dect cea medie a acestuia;

561
- n analiza structural a valorii adugate esenial este cota parte i dinamica profitului, ca
indicator de baz al performanei economico-financiare a ntreprinderii extractive a resurselor
minerale (el preia i reducerea cheltuielilor materiale).
Analiza valorii adugate pe baza ratei fa de producia exerciiului i cifra de afaceri evideniaz
c:
- prin rata menionat se dimensioneaz cota parte a valorii create n activitatea ntreprinderii
extractive a resurselor minerale de ctre munc i capital, respectiv
- capitalul tehnic n cadrul cifrei de afaceri i reflect gradul de integrare a ntreprinderii
extractive a resurselor minerale;
- aprofundarea diagnosticrii la nivelul de produs nseamn examinarea consumurilor materiale
(valorice i fizice) i preurile produselor sub incidena inflaiei .a. (condiiilor formrii lor pe
piaa pe care activeaz ntreprinderea extractiv a resurselor minerale).
Analiza diagnostic de tip factorial a valorii adugate subliniaz c n cazul valorii adugate
aferente cifrei de afaceri, modelele sunt similare, doar c n loc de producia exerciiului se
folosete cifra de afaceri.
De regul, n practic o strategie a valorii adugate cu cuantificri relativ precise nu este
posibil datorit oscilailor efectelor valorice ale factorilor.
Oscilaiile sunt determinate de mediul economico-financiar al tranziiei sau de mecanismele
clasice ale economiei de pia.

2. Asigurarea condiiilor de competitivitate pentru producia ntreprinderii

extractive a resurselor minerale

ntreprinderea extractiv a resurselor minerale de nalt performan se caracterizeaz prin

capacitatea de a se lansa i menine n afaceri viabile, care-i asigur posibilitatea sporirii
profiturilor realizate i dezvoltrii pe aceast baz a activitii sale.
Modelul A.D. Little pentru ntreprinderea de nalt performan se refer la urmtoarele tipuri
de factori:
- latura organizatoric a ntreprinderii, definit prin cultura i structura ei;
- resursele de producie ale ntreprinderii, privite prin prisma cerinelor de asigurare i
gestionare eficient n condiii de concuren accentuat;
- procesele ntreprinderii, abordate sub aspectul preocuprilor de inovare a acestora i
produselor rezultate;
- beneficiarii afacerii ntreprinderii, cunoscui sub numele de stakeholders" care trebuie s fie
motivai prin satisfacerea eficient a ateptrilor particularizate.
Forma de evaluare se bazeaz pe msurarea autorelativ a performanelor economice ale
ntreprinderii.
Prin intermediul acestei forme, realizrile ntreprinderii extractive a resurselor minerale dintr-o
anumit etap sunt comparate cu cele obinute de ea ntr-o perioad anterioar, considerat ca
baz de referin.
Se identific i o alt form de evaluare, care are ca fundament msurarea corelativ a
performanelor economice ale ntreprinderii extractive a resurselor minerale.
Aceasta presupune compararea realizrilor ntreprinderii extractive a resurselor minerale
evaluate cu cele ale unei ntreprinderi similare, cu care concureaz ntr-un anumit sector de
activitate.
Pe baza principiilor ce caracterizeaz modalitatea de msurare corelativ a performanelor
economice ale ntreprinderii extractive a resurselor minerale s-a elaborat metoda de evaluare
benchmarking" (cotare de nivel).
562
Competitivitatea ntreprinderii extractive a resurselor minerale const n capacitatea ei de a
participa cu succes la competiia economic i de a aspira la ocuparea unor poziii avantajoase
n cadrul acesteia.
Competitivitatea sistemului de producie al ntreprinderii extractive a resurselor minerale se
reflect n capacitatea acestuia de a realiza o productivitate nalt pe baza utilizrii inovative a
resurselor de care dispune i de a crea o valoare sporit.
Nivelul de competitivitate a produciei ntreprinderii extractive a resurselor minerale este
influenat hotrtor de doi factori principali ai mediului concurenial: clienii i competitorii.
Avantajul (atuul) concurenial (competitiv) se concretizeaz n realizarea de ctre ntreprinderea
extractiv a resurselor minerale a unor produse superioare, dintr-un punct de vedere
semnificativ pentru clienii si, care le influeneaz n mare msur decizia de cumprare,
comparativ cu ofertele de produse similare ale concurenilor importani dintr-un anumit sector
de activitate.
Avantajul competitiv de cost poate prin producerea i distribuirea produselor cu cele mai mici
costuri. El este deinut de cel mai ieftin productor dintr-un anumit sector de activitate.
Avantajul competitiv de difereniere poate fi asigurat prin producerea i comercializarea unor
produse care sunt net diferite de cele oferite de concurenii ntreprinderii dintr-un anumit sector
de activitate.
Avantajul competitiv de flexibilitate exprim capacitatea sistemului de producie de a se adapta
operativ la nevoile concrete, cerinele i dorinele n continu diversificare i particularizare ale
clienilor, prin schimbarea a ceea ce face.
Avantajul competitiv al calitii permite ntreprinderii extractive a resurselor minerale s ofere
produse mai bune, executate pe baza respectrii stricte a specificaiilor tehnologice i de
proiectare constructiv.
Avantajul competitiv al tehnologiei definete posibilitatea ntreprinderii extractive a resurselor
minerale deintoare de a executa i oferi pe pia produse cu caracteristici tehnologice
deosebite
Avantajul competitiv de promptitudine reflect capacitatea sistemului de producie de a onora
comenzile primite repede i la timp.
Avantajul competitiv al serviciilor post-vnzare se bazeaz pe diversificarea serviciilor oferite de
ntreprinderea extractiv a resurselor minerale dup vnzarea produselor.
Avantajul competitiv de soliditate combin avantajul calitii cu cel al tehnologiei. El exprim
capacitatea sistemului de producie de a furniza permanent produse solide, care se
caracterizeaz prin parametrii tehnologici i de calitate superiori.
Avantajul competitiv de sensibilitate rezult din combinarea avantajelor de flexibilitate i de
promptitudine.

4.Concluzii

ntreprinderea extractiv a resurselor minerale de nalt performan se caracterizeaz prin

capacitatea de a se lansa i menine n afaceri viabile, care-i asigur posibilitatea sporirii
profiturilor realizate i dezvoltrii pe aceast baz a activitii sale.
Avantajul (atuul) concurenial (competitiv) se concretizeaz n realizarea de ctre ntreprinderea
extractiv a resurselor minerale a unor produse superioare, dintr-un punct de vedere
semnificativ pentru clienii si, care le influeneaz n mare msur decizia de cumprare,
comparativ cu ofertele de produse similare ale concurenilor importani dintr-un anumit sector
de activitate.
Avantajul competitiv de cost poate prin producerea i distribuirea produselor cu cele mai mici
costuri. El este deinut de cel mai ieftin productor dintr-un anumit sector de activitate.
563
This paper was cofinaced from the European Social Fund through Sectoral Operational
Programme - Human Resources Development 2007-2013,project number POSDRU /1871.5 /S/
155605, entitled Doctoral programs at the forefront of research excellence in prioritary
domains: health, materials, products and innovative processes, BeneficiaryUniversity of
Petrosani.

REFERENCES

GfDeac M. Reformularea managerial a economiei prin aplicaii ale

managementului corporativ / Economy Management Reformulation through
Corporate Management Applications. n: Material Intl. Conf. Knowledge Economy
[1]
Challenges of the 21st Century -, Perspectives on 2020. Europe, Where To?,
Seciunea: Politici financiare, contabile i guvernan corporativ. Piteti: Constantin
Brancoveanu University, 6-7 Nov. 2014, p.36-45
GfDeac M. Gestiunea fiscal corporativ. n: Material Conf. Na. Politica fiscal a
Romniei i influena acesteia asupra dezvoltrii societii romneti. Seciunea
Fiscalitate comparat. Evaziunea fiscal-prevenire i combatere. Comunicarea nr.3.
[2] Bucureti: Universitatea Cretin Dimitrie Cantemir Bucureti, Academia Romn,
Institutul de Cercetri tiinifice Multidisciplinare, Institutul Naional de Cercetri
Economice Costin C. Kiriescu, Centrul de Cercetri Financiare i Monetare Victor
Slvescu, 28-30 mai 2014, Comunicarea nr.3, p.63-62,
Gf-Deac M. Dimensionarea i difuzarea cognitiv a managementului general n
condiiile globalizrii. n: Revista pentru Dezvoltare Bazat pe Cunoatere RDBC.
[3] Bucureti: Nr. 2/ 2015. ISSN 2393-2112 / ISSN-L 2393-2112. (col. I.I. Gf-Deac, Th.
Damian, A. Condurache, S. Pavl, B. Oprescu, A. Bucur) (www.e-editura.ro/rdbc). p.
79-82
Ioan I. Gf-Deac, N.u, I. Drglin, Maria Gf-Deac, M.M. Nedelea, I. Pascal, -
The development trough endogen status of the technical and technological changes,
[4]
Journal of Economics and Knowledge Technologies (ISSN 2360-5499 / ISSN- L
2360-5499), No.1/ January 2015, p.68-73
Gf-Deac I.I., -Macroeconomie, - Ed. FMP, Bucureti, 2013, (ISBN 978-606-93432-5-
[5]
8)
Haoran P.,- The Evolution of Economic Structure under Technological Development
[6]
DAE, University of Cambridge, 2004
Leydesdorff L., The Knowledge-based Economy: Modeled, Measured, Simulated,
[7]
Universal Publishers, Boca Raton, Florida, 2006
Nicolescu O., Verboncu I., Management, Editura Didactic i Pedagogic, Bucureti,
[8]
Bucureti, 1992

564
RISCURILE ECONOMICE N NTREPRINDEREA COMPLEX
DE PRODUCIE A ENERGIEI NUCLEARE/

ECONOMIC RISK OF NUCLEAR ENERGY PRODUCTION IN

COMPLEX ENTERPRISE
Cristina Monica VALECA1, Ioana ZACHIU ALEXA2
1
PhD., University of Piteti, Nuclear Research Institute (ICN), Romania
2
Ph. DSt. USAMV University of Bucharest, Romania

ABSTRACT
Economic analysis of risks in complex enterprise production of nuclear energy allows formalizing
factors with positive or negative influence on economy and production, to determine the
compatibility between outputs and inputs, measuring profitability Energo-Nuclear plant, while
highlighting the evolution of economic indicators etc. Studies of economic analysis of risks in
undertaking complex production of nuclear energy requires a body of knowledge in the fields of
economy, statistics, computer science, mathematics, ecology, etc. psiho-sociology Therefore,
they have inter and multidisciplinary. The article presents the findings economic analyzes risk
enterprises of production of nuclear energy which is based on value judgments, in which
examination of quantitative (methods and specific procedures used), serves as a tool helps
qualitative analysis being determinative. Items undertaking economic analysis in complex risks
of nuclear energy production serve to a better understanding of reality and nuclear production
and enable better decision substantiation document management and developing alternative
weather or followed by economic interest theory and practice and energy production.

KEYWORDS
enterprises of producing nuclear energy, risk, operational, electronuclear power plant.

1. Riscul economic operaional sau de exploatare n ntreprinderea complex

de producie a energiei nucleare

Analiza riscului de exploatare n ntreprinderea complex de producie a energiei nucleare se

bazeaz pe structurarea cheltuielilor de exploatare n cheltuieli variabile i cheltuieli fixe:
Ce= Cv+ Cf (1)
n ntreprindere e complex de producie a energiei nucleare exist riscul nerecuperrii n
totalitate a cheltuielilor efectuate, urmare a neadaptrii acesteia, pe baza cerinelor de
recuperare a unor mari investiii, la exigenele economice concureniale.

565
Riscul de exploatare reprezint variaia aleatoare a cifrei de afaceri CA (fr TVA) care
afecteaz previziunile ce se refer la diferite criterii de gestiune: a) rezultatul exploatrii; b)
rentabilitatea economic; c) rentabilitatea financiar.
Ca atare, indicarea nivelului probabil al cheltuielilor la 1000 lei cifra de afaceri este o exigen
a managementului prin costuri viznd prevenirea riscului de exploatare sau a riscului
operaional.
Pentru evitarea manifestrii riscului de exploatare, este necesar ca volumul efectiv de activitate
(producere de energie nuclear) s fie mai mare dect volumul de activitate corespunztor
punctului critic sau pragului de rentabilitate.
Etapele determinrii gradului minim de utilizare a capacitii de producere de energie nuclear
sunt:
a) Se iniializeaz ecuaia care arat c volumul de activitate (producere de energie nuclear)
reprezentat prin cifra de afaceri, s acopere integral cheltuielile de exploatare a centralei
electronucleare:
CA = Ce (2)
b) Cheltuielile totale de exploatare a centralei electronucleare rezult prin nsumarea
cheltuielilor variabile cu cheltuielile fixe:
Ce = Cv + Cf (3)
c) Se recurge la egalaizarea celor dou relaii ecuaionale:
CA = Cv + Cf (4)
d) n continuare, se red gradul de utilizare a capacitii funcionale, dar critice, de producie
de energie nuclear dup formula:
CAcr
K= *100 (5)
Qmax
K - gradul de utilizare a capacitii de producie de energie nuclear;
Q max - capacitatea de producie de energie nuclear n expresie valoric.
Cf
K= *100 (6)
Qmax (1 R )
A ti, a cunoate riscul n economia unei centrale electronucleare semnific a cuprinde i
nelege raiunea operaional a obiectului i subiectului capacitii funcionale a entitii
complexe supuse organizrii i conducerii.
n managementul riscurilor n economia unei centrale electronucleare, cunotinele clasice i
neoclasice de organizare i conducere se folosesc pentru operaionalizarea eficient a
instrumentelor neconforme ale activitii productiv-economice (producere de energie nuclear).
Managementul riscurilor n economia unei centrale electronucleare cuprinde esenialul
concepiei i obiectului supus organizrii i conducerii.
Investitorii n infrastructura unei centrale electronucleare consider c este important s
cunoasc i s neleag, pentru nceput, riscul de ar.
n Romnia ct i n plan internaional, din observaii sistematizate,se deduce c pentru
evaluarea riscului n economia unei centrale electronucleare, sunt necesari operatori metrici, de
msurare pentru eliminarea nedeterminrilor fa de fezabilitatea sistemelui de producie de
energie nuclear i contracararea riscurilor.
Operatorii metrici, potrivit [10] pot fi: 1) riscul de ar, cuantificat determinativ i iterativ
prin riscul politic (se poate apela la instrumentul deja formalizat metodologic prin documentul
internaional cunoscut sub numele The International Country Risk Guides Political Risk; 2) -
riscul financiar; 3) - riscul economic; 4 )- indicele de risc compus (Composite Risk Indices) i
5)- rating (folosind aa numitul instrument metodologic Institutional Investors Country Credit
Ratings).

566
Riscul de ar poate fi auto-evaluat (pentru propria ar) sau evaluat (pentru alte ri).
Romnia, prin economia sa a intrat i intr permanent sub analize de risc.

2. Evaluarea riscurilor i a incertitudinilor operaionale sau de exploatare n

ntreprinderea complex de producie a energiei nucleare

Probabilitatea evenimentelor economice operaionale sau de exploatare n ntreprinderea

complex de producie a energiei nucleare poate fi modificat de evoluii externe sau interne
ale mediului.
Se asum incertitudinea referitoare la nivelul beneficiilor sau costurilor care apar n viitor, ns
este urmrit i apariia evenimentelor care pot avea eventuale efecte duntoare asupra
investiiilor nucleare i care ar putea conduce la pierderi financiare sau la eecul proiectelor
energonucleare.
De aceea, se contureaz alternativele productive nucleare i de eficien dintr-o anumit
perspectiv, n viitor.
Analiza de risc tehnic nuclear nseamn identificarea i evaluarea factorilor care pot afecta
reuita investiiilor n producia de energie nuclear, n ceea ce privete atingerea scopurilor
centralei energonucleare.
O astfel de analiz de risc se folosete pentru a evalua alternativele de investiii nucleare i
pentru a defini msurile preventive de reducere a probabilitii ca factorii negativi s apar n
producia de energie nuclear. [10]
Etapele analizei de risc n ntreprinderea complex de producie a energiei nucleare se refer la:
1. Identificarea n analiza de risc a probabilitilor de apariie a riscurilor n ntreprinderea
complex de producie a energiei nucleare
Calcularea probabilitilor const n analiza incidenei evenimentelor economice negative n
raport cu evoluia procesului investiional n ntreprinderea complex de producie a energiei
nucleare.
2. Msurarea consecinelor unui risc n ntreprinderea complex de producie a energiei nucleare
Se constat c acelai factor de risc poate avea n ntreprinderea complex de producie a
energiei nucleare impacturi diferite, sau opuse n legtur cu rezultatele activitii sau
investiiei n producia energiei nucleare.
3. Evaluarea riscurilor n ntreprinderea complex de producie a energiei nucleare
n context, se iau n considerare evenimente/ incidente de natur nuclear, care presupun
gestionarea riscurilor (n mod deosebit, situaii de riscuri de funcionare sau de mediu). De
aceea, are loc identificarea zonelor de risc pentru evaluarea riscurilor economice propriu-zise n
ntreprinderea complex de producie a energiei nucleare.
Prima zon este zona sigur, n care nu se preconizeaz nici o pierdere economic. Aceasta este
o situaie aproape imposibil n viaa real, respectiv n economia real, deoarece nu se pot
planifica activitile economice n ntreprinderea complex de producie a energiei nucleare ca
fiind 100% sigure. [10].
Cea de-a doua zon este zona de risc acceptabil, n care alternativa de a fi evaluat este util,
ntruct beneficiile calculate depesc pierderile.
Tehnologiile nucleare ale cror riscuri se ncadreaz sub nivelul de risc acceptabil pot fi folosite
n produciea energiei nucleare, fr ca beneficiarul s aib preocupri fa de riscurile pe care
le prezint pentru ceilali.
Urmtoarea zon, deja periculoas, este zona cu risc critic, n care pot aprea pierderi care s
depeasc beneficiile preconizate. Nu este rentabil s se deruleze activiti n ntreprinderea
complex de producie a energiei nucleare ntr-o astfel de situaie. n ceea ce privete

567
investiiile, un astfel de caz, trebuie studiat lundu-se n considerare o eventual cretere a
beneficiilor pe termen lung.
n zona cu risc catastrofal n ntreprinderea complex de producie a energiei nucleare pierderile
economice depesc nivelul critic i la o valoare maxim a acestora pot depi chiar i valoarea
bunurilor tangibile.
4. Gestionarea neutralizrii riscurilor n ntreprinderea complex de producie a energiei
nucleare
Pierderile cauzate de diverse riscuri n ntreprinderea complex de producie a energiei nucleare
sunt diferite; pe aceast baz derivat din realitate, beneficiarii iau decizii de gestionare a
neutralizrii riscurilor.
Mecanismele de neutralizare a riscurilor n ntreprinderea complex de producie a energiei
nucleare sunt create n raport de situaia de risc.
n general, msurile pentru combaterea posibilelor consecine ale unui risc potenial n
ntreprinderea complex de producie a energiei nucleare sunt:
Msuri preventive. (reprezint sarcinile de precauie luate din timp pentru a preveni posibilele
pierderi n infrastructurile din ntreprinderea complex de producie a energiei nucleare
ndeosebi, n cadul operaional i se refer la decizii administrative sau coercitive).
Msuri de compensare. (reprezint sarcinile luate pentru a compensa efectele adverse n
cazul afectrilor negative ale personalului i infrastructurii din ntreprinderea complex de
producie a energiei nucleare. Pe acest aliniament sunt instituite acorduri de grupare a
riscurilor, se dau asigurri i se recurge la constituirea unor planuri i fonduri de rezerv, care
se afl sub incidena decizional a managerilor).

3. Reconsiderarea metodelor i tehnicilor de management n cmpul

evenimentelor nepredictibile n ntreprinderea complex de producie a
energiei nucleare

n contemporaneitatea economic marcat de complexitate modelele de management a riscului

n ntreprinderea complex de producie a energiei nucleare este posibil s sufere stornarea
ctre riscul generat de managementul evenimentelor nepredictibile.
Semnalele de tip rezultat, tot mai frecvent ncep s nu se regseasc distribuite gaussian.
n cadrul enunat poate avea loc un proces de strpungere a cunoaterii cu ajutorul unor noi
tipuri de statistici, avansnd de la periferie spre un centru complet nepredictibil, dar care prin
nepredictibilitatea sa dovedit, reduce acionalitatea la certitudini finite n ntreprinderea
complex de producie a energiei nucleare.
Acceptarea distorsiunilor enunate mai sus consfinete imersiunea managerial ntr-un nou tip
de behaviorism, respectiv ntr-o nou structur comportamental n privina organizrii i
conducerii n ntreprinderea complex de producie a energiei nucleare.
Evaluarea riscului n ntreprinderea complex de producie a energiei nucleare presupune
analize de identificare parametric/factorial a abaterilor cu posibilitate efectiv de manifestare
ce pot fi nregistrate n viitorul evolutiv.
Fiecare risc n ntreprinderea complex de producie a energiei nucleare este clasificat n funcie
de nivelul su: sczut, mediu sau nalt.
n general, n ntreprinderea complex de producie a energiei nucleare se acord atenie
riscurilor individuale, ns nu ntotdeauna este strict necesar s fie procesate toate riscurile.
Are loc o concentrare pe riscurile majore i pe factorii de ameliorare sau eliminare a acestora.

568
4. Concluzii

Prin analiza riscurilor pot determina cauzele lor, fiind manifestat prilejul pentru luarea unor
decizii potrivite n raport cu reducerile sau creterile de venituri. Analiznd preul de cost, pentru
cheltuielile de desfacere neafectate de riscuri se pot adopta tacticile corespunztoare de
acceptare.
Scopul analizei economice a riscurilor este de a descoperi caracteristicile eseniale ale prilor
componente ale ntregului cercetat, interaciunile dintre ele, i de a obine concluziile necesare
sintezei la nivelul fenomenului sau procesului productiv studiat. [10]
Dup momentul n care se efectueaz, fa de fenomenele i procesele cercetate, n
ntreprinderea complex de producie a energiei nucleare analiza economic a riscurilor este :
- retrospectiv (post-factum) - pentru faptele petrecute ntr-o perioad anterioar;
- curent (operativ) - pentru actele i faptele economice examinate n timpul producerii lor;
- prospectiv (previzional) - pentru viitoarele tendine care se prefigureaz n activitatea
economic.
In raport de evoluia n timp a fenomenelor i proceselor economice, analiza economic a
riscurilor n ntreprinderea complex de producie a energiei nucleare este:
- static - n sensul c se cerceteaz activitatea economic la un moment dat;
- dinamic - n sensul c studiaz actele i faptele economice n micarea lor.
n funcie de laturile realitii studiate, analiza economic a riscurilor n ntreprinderea complex
de producie a energiei nucleare este:
- cantitativ - pentru actele i faptele economice care pot fi cuantificate, exprimate statistic;
- calitativ pentru interpretarea fenomenelor i proceselor economice i productive.

This paper was cofinaced from the European Social Fund through Sectoral Operational
Programme- Human Resources Development 2007-2013, project number POSDRU/ 1871.5/S/
155631, entitled Doctoral programs at the forefront of research excellence in prioritary
domains: health, materials, products and innovative processes, Beneficiary Carol Davila
University of Medicine and Pharmacy Bucharest.

REFERENCES

Dow, S.C., Hillard, J., Keynes, - Knowledge and Uncertainty, Edward Elgar,
[1]
Aldershot, 1995
Fumy W., Rietenspiess M., - Open systems security standards, A. Kent and J.G.
[2] Williams, edts., Encyclopedia of Computer Science and Technology, 34, 301334,
Marcel Dekker, 1996
GfDeac M., Roca P. Aprecierea principiilor gestiunii corporative a entitilor
[3] organizatorice n plan regional european. n: Analele ULIM, Seria Economie, nr. 13,
Chiinu: ULIM, 2012, p.73-76. ISSN1857-1468
Gf-Deac M. Dimensionarea i difuzarea cognitiv a managementului general n
condiiile globalizrii. n: Revista pentru Dezvoltare Bazat pe Cunoatere RDBC.
[4] Bucureti: Nr. 2/ 2015. ISSN 2393-2112 / ISSN-L 2393-2112. (col. I.I. Gf-Deac, Th.
Damian, A. Condurache, S. Pavl, B. Oprescu, A. Bucur) (www.e-editura.ro/rdbc). p.
79-82.
Gf-Deac M., Management general pentru economia bazat pe cunoatere, Ed.
[5]
FRM, Bucureti, 2011
[6] Gf-Deac M., - Managementul modelrii structurilor tehnologice, Editura Infomin,
569
 Deva, 2002
Gf-Deac I.I., -Microeconomie,- Ed. FMP, Bucureti, 2013, (ISBN 978-606-93432-4-
[7]
1)
Gf-Deac I.I., - Bazele juridice i economice ale sistemelor de resurse n noua
[8] economie, - Ed. Infomin, Deva, 2007, (www.infomindeva.ro), (ISBN 978-973-7646-
04-0)
Gf-Deac I.I., - Noua Economie ntre cunoatere i risc, - Ed. Infomin, Deva, 2010,
[9]
(www.infomindeva.ro), (ISBN 978-973-7646-11-8)
Horia Ioan Georgescu, Mriua Tudor erban, Ioan I. Gf-Deac, Ilie Ionel Ciuclea -
Metadagramatic inserting model into database security systems, Journal of
[10]
Economics and Knowledge Technologies (ISSN 2360-5499 / ISSN- L 2360-5499),
No.2/February 2015, p. 18-22
Leydesdorff L., The Knowledge-based Economy: Modeled, Measured, Simulated,
[11]
Universal Publishers, Boca Raton, Florida, 2006
Mriua Tudor erban, Ioan I. Gf-Deac, Ion Iulian Hurloiu, Gabriel Mihai, Elena
Burtea, Ana-Maria Reetar-Deac - Securizarea reelelor electronice de comunicaii
[12] prin criptografierea bazelor de date, Revista pentru Dezvoltare Bazat pe
Cunoatere RDBC, Nr. 1/ 2015, Bucureti, ISSN 2393-2112 / ISSN-L 2393-2112,
(www.e-editura.ro/rdbc), p. 22-29
Mikes, A.- Enterprise Risk Management in Action, - ESRC Centre for Analysis of Risk
[13] and Regulation, - London School of Economics and Political Science, DP no
35/August 2005
[14] Trigg, R.- Reality at Risk, Harvester Wheatsheaf, Hemel Hempstead, 1989

570
 EVALUAREA PERFORMANELOR NTREPRINDERII DE
PRODUCERE A ENERGIEI REGENERABILE PRIN ANALIZA
ECONOMICO-FINANCIAR/

EVALUATION OF FINANCIAL PERFORMANCE OF

RENEWABLE ENERGY PRODUCTION COMPANY
Laureniu LEICA1
1
Ph. DSt. USAMV University of Bucharest, Romania

ABSTRACT
The article shows that balance sheet bonds reflects the interdependence quantitative elements
of renewable energy production process analysis. They underlying the development programs
for current activity and future production of renewable energy undertaking. Economic analysis
in absolute phenomenon in an enterprise production of renewable energy, this change is
reflected in the records is determined as the difference between its actual value and the
reference value. Essentially, profitability is one of the most synthetic forms of expression
efficiency of the entire economic and financial activities of the enterprise for the production of
renewable energy. Economic efficiency of the production of renewable energy is essentially an
economic category comprehensive than profitability. Return is a production capacity of
renewable energy to profit by using inputs and capital, irrespective of their origin.

KEYWORDS
renewable energy production process, profitability, economic and financial analysis.

1. Aspecte de baz

n analiza economico-financiar se ntrevd performanele ntreprinderii de producie a energiei

regenerabile.
Se au n vedere metode cantitative ale analizei n strns legtur cu examinarea activitii de
producie i comercializare a energiei regenerabile.
Totodat, se identific elementele de caracterizare a rentabilitii.
Principalele metode cantitative se refer la:
2.1. Metoda input-output (balanier)
Se urmrete asigurarea unor proporii, a unui echilibru ntre resurse i necesiti n diferite
domenii de activitate (balana consumurilor de materiale, balana veniturilor i a cheltuielilor).
n relaia:
F = a+b-c (1)

571
notaiile sunt: F = fenomenul analizat; a, b, c = elementele care influeneaz procesul de
producie a energiei regenerabile.
Metoda se folosete n situaii n care ntre elementele procesului de producie a energiei
regenerabile analizat exist relaii de sum i/sau diferen.
Legturile balaniere reflect cantitativ interdependena elementelor procesului de producie a
energiei regenerabile analizat. Ele stau la baza elaborrii programelor pentru activitatea curent
i de perspectiv a ntreprinderii de producie a energiei regenerabile.
Analiza fenomenului economic n mrime absolut n cadrul unei ntreprinderi de producie a
energiei regenerabile, se concretizeaz n evidena modificrii acestuia care se stabilete ca
diferen ntre valoarea efectiv a acestuia i valoarea de referina.
F=F 1 F 0 (2)
n care:
F 1 = valoarea efectiv a procesului de producie a energiei regenerabile;
F 0 = valoarea iniial a procesului de producie a energiei regenerabile.

n mrime relativ, fenomenul este analizat cu ajutorul indicelui acestuia (I F ) care se determin
ca raport ntre valoarea efectiv i valoarea de referin a acestuia.

F1
IF = * 100 (3)
F0
2.2. Metoda iterrii (substituirilor n lan)
Se aplic n cazul relaiilor de tip determinist care mbrac forma matematic a produsului sau
raportului (proporionalitate direct sau invers).
Metoda substituirilor n lan implic respectarea urmtoarelor principii:
- aezarea factorilor se face n ordinea condiionrii lor economice, ceea ce nseamn c se
substituie nti factorul cantitativ i apoi cel calitativ;
- substituirile se fac succesiv (a, b, c, = factori);
- un factor substitutive se menine ca stare n operaiile ulterioare.

2. Analiza rentabilitii ntreprinderi de producie a energiei regenerabile

Rentabilitatea procesului de producie a energiei regenerabile este strns legat de eficiena

economic.
n esen, rentabilitatea este una din formele cele mai sintetice de exprimare a eficienei ntregii
activiti economico-financiare a ntreprinderii de producie a energiei regenerabile. Eficiena
economic a procesului de producie a energiei regenerabile, n esen, este o categorie
economic mai cuprinztoare dect rentabilitatea.
Rentabilitatea este capacitatea unei ntreprinderi de producie a energiei regenerabile de a
obine profit prin utilizarea factorilor de producie i a capitalurilor, indiferent de proveniena
acestora.
Legtura ntre rentabilitate i eficien economic rezult din coninutul definiiilor fiecrui
concept.
Potrivit lui Mrgulescu, D., (1994), eficiena economic reprezint cea mai general categorie
care caracterizeaz rezultatele ce decurg din diferite variante preconizate pentru utilizarea
(consum productiv, consum individual, vnzare) sau economisirea unor resurse (umane,
materiale sau financiare) intrate sau neintrate n circuitul economic.
572
Exprimarea rentabilitii procesului de producie a energiei regenerabile revine din dou
categorii de indicatori: a) profitul i b) ratele de rentabilitate.
Rentabilitatea, n mrime absolut este reflectat n profit.
Prin analiza structural a profitului procesului de producie a energiei regenerabile se urmrete
stabilirea contribuiei diferitelor tipuri de rezultate la modificarea total, precum i punerea n
eviden a schimbrilor intervenite pe elemente componente. (Figura.1)
Venituri din
exploatare
Marja brut fa
de cheltuielile - (minus)
variabile
Cheltuieli variabile
Rezultatul - (minus) de exploatare
exploatrii
Cheltuieli fixe
de exploatare

+ (plus)
Venituri
financiare
Rezultatul Rezultatul
brut - (minus)
financiar
al exerciiului
Cheltuieli
financiare

+ (plus)
Venituri
extraordinare
Rezultatul
extraordinar - (minus)

Cheltuieli
extraordinare

Figura.1 Elemente de analiz structural a rezultatului brut al ntreprinderii [14]

Pragul de rentabilitate poate fi determinat prin reprezentare grafic (Figura.1).
y
CA
C

ct

B D
CAcr

A cf

0 qcr qmax x

Figura.1 Reprezentarea grafic a pragului de rentabilitate pe produs [14]

Notaiile au semnificaiile:
Ox - reprezint volumul fizic al produciei procesului de energie regenerabil; Oy - indicatorii
valorici (cifra de afaceri, cheltuieli, etc); ct - cheltuieli totale pe produs; cv - cheltuieli variabile
pe produs; cf- suma cheltuielilor fixe pe produs; OAB - zona pierderilor; BCD - zona
profitului.
Profitul maxim (P r max ) ce poate fi obinut, n condiiile date este respectat de latura CD din
triunghiul BCD, i se poate determina prin relaia:
P r max = q max (p - cv) - cf = q max mbv cf (4)

Pragul de rentabilitate marcheaz acea dimensiune a produciei de energie regenerabil n care

costul unitar este egal cu preul de vnzare, profitul fiind zero.

573
3. Exprimarea rentabilitii procesului de producie a energiei regenerabile

Indicatorii de reflectare n mrime absolut a rentabilitii procesului de producie a energiei

regenerabile sunt:
Rezultatul exploatrii = venituri de exploatare - cheltuieli de exploatare;
Rezultatul financiar = venituri financiare - cheltuieli financiare;
Rezultatul curent = rezultatul exploatrii + rezultatul financiar;
Rezultatul extraordinar = venituri extraordinare - cheltuieli extraordinare;
Rezultatul brut = rezultatul curent + rezultatul extraordinar;
Rezultatul impozabil = rezultatul brut + elemente nedeductibile fiscal - elemente deductibile
fiscal;
Rezultatul net = rezultatul brut - impozit pe profit.
Analiza profitului procesului de producie a energiei regenerabile se nfptuiete prin:
a) Analiza structural a profitului (ASP)
Se poate efectua pe baza gruprii veniturilor i cheltuielilor dup natura lor sau a gruprii
cheltuielilor dup destinaia lor n cadrul ntreprinderii de producie a energiei regenerabile.
b) Analiza soldurilor intermediare de gestiune (SIG)
Prin solduri interne de gestiune se neleg principalii indicatori economico-financiari stabilii pe
baza datelor din contul de profit i pierdere, cu ajutorul acestora se caracterizeaz modul de
folosire a resurselor materiale, financiare i umane ale ntreprinderii de producie a energiei
regenerabile.

4. Concluzii

Exprimarea rentabilitii procesului de producie a energiei regenerabile revine din dou

categorii de indicatori: a) profitul i b) ratele de rentabilitate.
Rentabilitatea, n mrime absolut este reflectat n profit.
Analiza fenomenului economic n mrime absolut n cadrul unei ntreprinderi de producie a
energiei regenerabile, se concretizeaz n evidena modificrii acestuia care se stabilete ca
diferen ntre valoarea efectiv a acestuia i valoarea de referina. n esen, rentabilitatea
este una din formele cele mai sintetice de exprimare a eficienei ntregii activiti economico-
financiare a ntreprinderii de producie a energiei regenerabile.
Eficiena economic a procesului de producie a energiei regenerabile, n esen, este o categorie
economic mai cuprinztoare dect rentabilitatea.
Prin analiza structural a profitului procesului de producie a energiei regenerabile se urmrete
stabilirea contribuiei diferitelor tipuri de rezultate la modificarea total, precum i punerea n
eviden a schimbrilor intervenite pe elemente componente.

This paper was cofinaced from the European Social Fund through Sectoral Operational
Programme- Human Resources Development 2007-2013, project number POSDRU/ 1871.5/S/
155631, entitled Doctoral programs at the forefront of research excellence in prioritary
domains: health, materials, products and innovative processes, Beneficiary Carol Davila
University of Medicine and Pharmacy Bucharest.

574
REFERENCES

Audi R., - Doxastic Voluntarism and the Ethics of Belief, M. Setup, Ed. NY, Oxford,
[1]
2001
Barnes, S. (ed).,- Knoweledge management Systems Theory and Practice.
[2]
Thomson Learning, London, 2002
Drucker P.F.,- Management Challenges for 21 st Century, Leader to Leader, New
[3]
York, no. 16/2000
[4] Biri I., - Conceptele tiinei, (in Romanian), Ed. Academiei Romne, Bucureti, 2010
Ioan Gf-Deac, Ioan I. Gf-Deac, Nicolae Bulz, - Relaii doxastice ntre creterea
economic i centralizare, Revista pentru Dezvoltare Bazat pe Cunoatere RDBC,
[5]
Nr. 1/ 2015, Bucureti, ISSN 2393-2112 / ISSN-L 2393-2112, (www.e-
editura.ro/rdbc), p. 9-15
Maria Gf-Deac, Th. Damian, A. Iordache, B. Preda, I. Rus, R. tefan, -Basic
[6] concepts on corporate management, Journal of Economics and Knowledge
Technologies (ISSN 2360-5499 / ISSN- L 2360-5499), No.1/ January 2015, p.10-15
Gf-Deac M., Management general pentru economia bazat pe cunoatere, Ed.
[7]
FRM, Bucureti, 2011
Gf-Deac M ., - Managementul modelrii structurilor tehnologice, Editura Infomin,
[8]
Deva, 2002
Gf-Deac I., - Bazele managementului doxastic, (in Romanian), Ed. Free Mind
[9]
Publishing, Bucureti, 2013, (ISBN 978-606-93321-5-3)
Gf-Deac I.I., -Microeconomie,- Ed. FMP, Bucureti, 2013, (ISBN 978-606-93432-4-
[10]
1)
Gf-Deac I.I., -Macroeconomie, - Ed. FMP, Bucureti, 2013, (ISBN 978-606-93432-5-
[11]
8)
Gf-Deac I.I., - Bazele juridice i economice ale sistemelor de resurse n noua
[12] economie, - Ed. Infomin, Deva, 2007, (www.infomindeva.ro), (ISBN 978-973-7646-
04-0)
Gf-Deac I.I., - Noua Economie ntre cunoatere i risc, - Ed. Infomin, Deva, 2010,
[13]
(www.infomindeva.ro), (ISBN 978-973-7646-11-8)
Gf-Deac I.I., -Managementul resurselor umane n cmpul economic cu evenimente
nepredictibile n sectorul energetic,- Revista Minelor, (Index Baza de date
[14] Internaional EBSCO Publishing U.S.A., ISSN-L 1220-2053; ISSN 2247-8590),
Bucureti, nr. 11/2010, p.8-11, (http:/www.infomindeva.ro/revistaminelor), (autor
unic), (CNCSIS B+; /BD-ISI), (ISSN 1220-2053)

575
 ANALIZA CHELTUIELILOR NTREPRINDERII MINIERE/

MINING ENTERPRISE EXPENDITURE REVIEW

Alexandru Nicolae BOCIU1
1
Ph. DSt. USAMV University of Bucharest, Romania

ABSTRACT
The main objective of the mining company is to reduce production costs. It is therefore
necessary to analyze in detail the key expense categories that contribute to the cost. For
financing the mining production and mining investment, mining companies can turn to bank
loans, which bear interest costs are included or not, and usually affects the net profit of the
company.

KEYWORDS
m ining production, m ining investm ent ex penses, reduce production costs

1. Metode i tehnici de analiz a cheltuielilor ntreprinderii miniere

Analiza cheltuielilor ntreprinderii miniere permite nelegerea mecanismului de formare a

rezultatelor ntreprinderii miniere n funcie de volum, structur i tendinele diferitelor categorii
de consumuri.
Obiectivul prioritar al ntreprinderii miniere l reprezint reducerea costurilor de producie.
De aceea, este necesar analiza detaliat a principalelor categorii de cheltuieli care contribuie la
formarea costului.
Tipurile de analiz se refer la:
Analiza nivelului cheltuielilor la 1000 lei venituri totale
Cheltuielile i veniturile ntreprinderii miniere se grupeaz dup cum urmeaz:
a) Cheltuieli de exploatare, reprezentnd consumurile efectuate n scopul realizrii obiectului de
activitate:
materii prime, materiale consumabile, obiecte de inventar;
lucrri i servicii executate de teri (ntreinere, chirii, reparaii, .a.);
impozite, taxe i vrsminte asimilate;
salarii i cheltuieli asimilate acestora;
amortizri i provizioane.
b) Cheltuieli financiare, care cuprind:
dobnzile curente aferente mprumuturilor primite;
pierderile din vnzarea valorilor mobiliare de plasament;

576
 diferenele nefavorabile de curs valutar din operaiunile curente;
disponibilitile n devize;
sconturile acordate clienilor, .a.
c) Cheltuieli excepionale, care sunt formate din alte cheltuieli care nu sunt legate de activitatea
curent a ntreprinderii miniere.
Ele cuprind:
operaiuni legate de capital (valoarea contabil a imobilizrilor cedate i alte
cheltuieli excepionale);
operaiuni de gestiune (amenzi, penaliti, lipsuri de inventar, donaii, subvenii
acordate, pierderi din debitori insolvabili).
Veniturile totale ale ntreprinderii miniere se grupeaz n:
1)Venituri din exploatare, care cuprind:
- veniturile din vnzarea produselor, lucrrilor executate, serviciilor prestate i mrfurilor;
- veniturile din producia stocat;
- veniturile din producia de imobilizri (active fixe);
- alte venituri din exploatare.
2) Venituri financiare, care cuprind:
- dobnzi ncasate;
- venituri din titluri de plasament;
- diferene favorabile de curs valutar;
- venituri din participaii;
- venituri din sconturi obinute;
- venituri din alte imobilizri financiare, .a.
3) Venituri excepionale, reprezint acele venituri care nu sunt legate de activitile curente ale
ntreprinderii miniere.
Aceste se refer la:
- operaiuni de capital (venituri din cedarea activelor);
- operaiuni de gestiune (despgubiri i penaliti ncasate, donaii primite, .a.).
Pentru urmrirea evoluiei cheltuielilor aferente veniturilor se utilizeaz indicatorul rata de
eficien a cheltuielilor totale (cheltuieli la 1000 lei venituri).
n procesul de analiz este necesar precizarea unor aspecte legate de aciunea cheltuielilor la
1000 lei venituri pe categorii ale acestora, i anume:
cheltuielile la 1000 lei venituri din exploatare;
cheltuielile la 1000 lei venituri financiare;
cheltuielile la 1000 lei venituri excepionale.

Analiza nivelului cheltuielilor de exploatare la 1000 lei venituri din exploatare

Acest indicator are n vedere cheltuielile aferente activitii de exploatare totale a exerciiului
financiar inclusiv costul mrfurilor.
Pentru dimensionarea i urmrirea evoluiei cheltuielilor de exploatare se folosete indicatorul
rata de eficien a cheltuielilor de exploatare (cheltuieli la 1000 lei venituri din exploatare).
Analiza diagnostic a cheltuielilor la 1000 lei cifr de afaceri
Cheltuielile la 1000 lei cifr de afaceri implic diagnosticul urmtoarelor aspecte:
analiza dinamicii i structurii cheltuielilor la 1000 lei cifr de afaceri;
analiza diagnostic de tip factorial a cheltuielilor la 1000 lei cifr de afaceri;
577
 reflectarea cheltuielilor la 1000 lei cifr de afaceri n principalii indicatori ai
performanei economico-financiare a ntreprinderii;
estimarea probabil a cheltuielilor la 1000 lei cifr de afaceri i elemente de
baz ale strategiei reducerii lor;
analiza dinamicii i structurii cheltuielilor la 1000 lei cifr de afaceri;
Analiza diagnostic a cheltuielilor variabile (dup caz, directe) la 1000 lei venituri din exploatare
sau cifr de afaceri
Se au n vedere urmtoarele aspecte:
- analiza dinamicii i structurii costurilor variabile pe baza nivelului la 1000 lei venituri din
exploatare i respectiv cifra de afaceri;
- analiza diagnostic de tip factorial a nivelului cheltuielilor variabile la 1000 lei venituri din
exploatare i respectiv cifr de afaceri;
- analiza reflectrii nivelului cheltuielilor variabile n principalii indicatori ai performanei
economico-financiare a ntreprinderii;
- estimarea probabil a nivelului cheltuielilor variabile pe termen scurt i mediu;
Analiza eficienei cheltuielilor fixe
Se au n vedere:
- analiza dinamic i structural a nivelului cheltuielilor fixe la 1000 lei venituri din exploatare
sau/i cifr de afaceri;
- analiza diagnostic de tip factorial a cheltuielilor fixe;
- reflectarea cheltuielilor fixe n principalii indicatori ai performanei economico-financiare a
ntreprinderii;
Analiza eficienei cheltuielilor cu personalul
Se au n vedere urmtoarele:
- analiza eficienei cheltuielilor salariale;
- analiza corelaiei dintre dinamica productivitii muncii i dinamica salariului mediu.
- corelaia dintre dinamica productivitii muncii i dinamica salariului mediu se reflect n
indicatori ai performantei economico-financiare a ntreprinderii miniere precum:
a) nivelul cheltuielilor salariale la 1000 lei venituri din exploatare, cifr de afaceri, valoare
adugat (funcie de calculul productivitii muncii miniere)
b) profitul din exploatare, profitul aferent cifrei de afaceri, profitul aferent valorii adugate;
c) eficiena activelor de exploatare stabilit pe baza profitului din exploatare, sau celui aferent
cifrei de afaceri i valorii adugate ca efect:
d) eficiena mijloacelor fixe;
e) eficiena activelor circulante de exploatare.
Analiza cheltuielilor materiale
Din punct de vedere structural, cheltuielile materiale pot fi analizate pe elemente componente,
respectiv cheltuieli cu materialele i cheltuieli cu amortizarea mijloacelor fixe.
Eficiena cheltuielilor cu dobnzile
Acestea reprezint costuri ale capitalului mprumutat i n consecin eficiena lor prezint
interes n analiza economico-financiar (dobnzile pltite aferente mprumuturilor i datoriilor
asimilate).
Eficiena lor poate fi evideniat prin nivelul la 1000 lei cifr de afaceri.

578
2. Analiza cheltuielilor variabile ale ntreprinderii miniere

Cheltuielile variabile se mpart n:

cheltuieli proporionale;
cheltuieli progresive;
cheltuieli regresive;
cheltuieli flexibile.
n categoria cheltuielilor variabile se includ:
cheltuieli cu materiile prime i materialele directe;
cheltuieli cu manopera direct;
alte categorii de cheltuieli care variaz relativ proporional cu volumul de activitate.
Cheltuielile fixe propriu-zise sunt acele cheltuieli a cror mrime rmne relativ constant,
indiferent dac, n cadrul unei capacitii de producie, volumul produciei crete sau scade.
n aceast categorie se includ:
- cheltuieli privind amortizrile;
- cheltuieli privind serviciile telefonice;
- cheltuieli cu abonamentele radio-tv;
- cheltuieli cu primele de asigurare;
- cheltuieli cu impozite i taxe locale.
Cheltuielile relativ-fixe sunt formate din acele cheltuieli de producie care manifest o mare
sensibilitate fa de modificarea volumului fizic al produciei, respectiv n raport cu msura n
care este utilizat capacitatea de producie.
n aceast categorie se cuprind:
- cheltuieli cu salariile personalului;
- cheltuieli de deservire a seciilor ntreprinderii;
- cheltuieli cu protecia mediului nconjurtor;
- cheltuieli de natur administrativ.

3. Analiza cheltuielilor cu personalul n ntreprinderea minier

Cheltuielile cu personalul sunt structurate n funcie de criterii precum:

n funcie de elementele componente:
- salarii tarifare sau negociate;
- sporuri acordate;
- taxe de protecie social;
- impozite.
n funcie de categoriile de personal:
- pentru marcarea mutaiilor ce s-au produs n structura personalului sau pentru eventualele
comparaii cu firme similare);
n funcie de formele de salarizare practicate
- pentru a caracteriza eficienta acestora.
n raport cu modul de includere n costuri:
- localizarea rezervelor existente pentru sporirea eficientei cheltuielilor cu salarii.

579
Modificarea cheltuielilor cu salariile n mrimi absolute se determin ca diferena ntre
cheltuielile cu salariile realizate i cele aferente perioadei luata ca baza de comparaie.
Cs = Cs 1 - Cs 0 (1)
n care:
Cs - cheltuieli cu salariile.
Csr = Cs 1 - Cs a (2)
Csr modificarea relativ a cheltuielilor cu salariile;
Cs 1 - cheltuieli cu salariile realizate;
Cs a - cheltuieli cu salariile admisibile.
Cs0
Cs a = (3)
100
cu notaia: I v - indicele volumului de activitate (cifra de afaceri sau producia exerciiului)
n practic pot fi ntlnite urmtoarele situaii:
Cs1 < Cs a reprezint o economie relativ;
Cs1 > Cs a reprezint o depire relativ;
Cs1 >Cs a reprezint o cerin de baz pentru meninerea ratei de eficien a cheltuielilor
cu salariile la 1000 lei volum de activitate.
Pentru analiza factorial se pot utiliza urmtoarele modele:
__
Ve Cs
I. Cs = Ns * * (4)
Ns Ve
Ve
- productivitatea medie anual ( Wa );
Ns
__
Cs
- cheltuieli medii cu salariile la 1 leu venituri de exploatare ( Cs ).
Ve
T Cs
II. Cs = Ns * * (5)
Ns T
_
T
=t (6)
Ns
Cs ___
= Csh - cheltuieli medii cu salariul orar;
T
__ _ ___
Cs = Ns * t Csh (7)

4. Analiza cheltuielilor cu dobnzile n ntreprinderea minier

n analiza cheltuielilor cu dobnzile se urmrete evoluia acestora, comparativ cu perioada

anterioar, explicndu-se modificarea lor prin prisma factorilor care le determin.
Pentru finanarea activitii de producie minier i investiii miniere, ntreprinderile miniere pot
apela la mprumuturi bancare, purttoare de dobnzi care se includ sau nu n costuri, i de
regul afecteaz profitul net al firmei.
Pentru credite aferente activitii de exploatare, suma dobnzilor se exprim prin relaia:
___ __
ACR* K * Pd
Sd = (1)
100 2
___
unde: ACR - soldul mediu al activitii circulante;
580
 K - cota procentual de participare a creditului la finanarea activelor circulante.
CR
K= *100 (2)
ACR
unde: CR - soldul mediu al creditului pe termen scurt;
Pd - procentul mediu de dobnd.
___
Pd =
g ki * Pd i
(3)
100
unde: g ki - structura creditelor pe categorii;
P di - procentul de dobnd pe categorii de credite.

5. Analiza cheltuielilor cu amortizarea n ntreprinderea minier

Amortizarea este expresia valoric a uzurii mijloacelor fixe inclus n costul produselor.
Cheltuielile cu amortizarea fac parte din categoria cheltuielilor fixe.
Analiza lor se justific a fi efectuat ca nivel, la 1000 lei venituri de exploatare i 1000 lei cifra
de afaceri.

4. Concluzii

n analiza cheltuielilor cu dobnzile se urmrete evoluia acestora, comparativ cu perioada

anterioar, explicndu-se modificarea lor prin prisma factorilor care le determin.
Pentru finanarea activitii de producie minier i investiii miniere, ntreprinderile miniere pot
apela la mprumuturi bancare, purttoare de dobnzi care se includ sau nu n costuri, i de
regul afecteaz profitul net al firmei.

This paper was cofinaced from the European Social Fund through Sectoral Operational
Programme- Human Resources Development 2007-2013, project number POSDRU/ 1871.5/S/
155631, entitled Doctoral programs at the forefront of research excellence in prioritary
domains: health, materials, products and innovative processes, Beneficiary Carol Davila
University of Medicine and Pharmacy Bucharest.

REFERENCES

Darabont Al., Pece St., Dsclescu A., - Managementul securitii i sntii n munc
[1]
(vol. I i II) Editura AGIR, Bucureti, 2001
Nicolescu O., Verboncu I., Management, Editura Didactic i Pedagogic, Bucureti,
[2]
Bucureti, 1992
Gf-Deac M., Roca P. Principiile gestiunii corporative a entitilor organizatorice din
[3] Romnia. n: Analele ULIM, Seria Economie, nr. 14, Chiinu: ULIM, 2013, p. 98-110.
ISSN1857-1468
GfDeac M. Reformularea managerial a economiei prin aplicaii ale managementului
corporativ / Economy Management Reformulation through Corporate Management
Applications. n: Material Intl. Conf. Knowledge Economy Challenges of the 21st
[4]
Century -, Perspectives on 2020. Europe, Where To?, Seciunea: Politici financiare,
contabile i guvernan corporativ. Piteti: Constantin Brancoveanu University, 6-7
November 2014, p.36-45
[5] Ioan I. Gf-Deac, Theodor Damian, Maria Gf-Deac, Andreea Condurache, Sorin
581
 Pavl, Benedict Oprescu, Aurel Bucur, - Dimensionarea i difuzarea cognitiv a
managementului general n condiiile globalizrii, Revista pentru Dezvoltare Bazat pe
Cunoatere RDBC, Nr. 2/ 2015, Bucureti, ISSN 2393-2112 / ISSN-L 2393-2112, p.
79-82
Laureniu Bogatu, Ioan I. Gf-Deac, Moise Bojinc, Ciprian Coandre, Ioana Andreea
Marinescu, Adrian Iordache, Georgian Lctu, Ioan Rus, Ionel Cosmin Gagiu, -
[6] Conceptualizri juridice i economice pentru diferenieri ntre resurse naturale,
resurse i rezerve minerale, Revista pentru Dezvoltare Bazat pe Cunoatere RDBC,
Nr. 2/ 2015, Bucureti, ISSN 2393-2112 / ISSN-L 2393-2112, p. 102-108
Gf-Deac M., Management general pentru economia bazat pe cunoatere, Ed.
[7]
FRM, Bucureti, 2011
Gf-Deac M ., - Managementul modelrii structurilor tehnologice, Editura Infomin,
[8]
Deva, 2002
Gf-Deac I., - Bazele managementului doxastic, (in Romanian), Ed. Free Mind
[9]
Publishing, Bucureti, 2013, (ISBN 978-606-93321-5-3)
[10] Gf-Deac I.I., -Microeconomie,- Ed. FMP, Bucureti, 2013, (ISBN 978-606-93432-4-1)
Gf-Deac I.I., -Macroeconomie, - Ed. FMP, Bucureti, 2013, (ISBN 978-606-93432-5-
[11]
8)
Gf-Deac I., - Dezvoltarea structural a tehnologiilor moderne Ed. All-Beck,
[12]
Bucureti, 2001
Gf-Deac I.I., - Bazele juridice i economice ale sistemelor de resurse n noua
[13] economie, - Ed. Infomin, Deva, 2007, (www.infomindeva.ro), (ISBN 978-973-7646-
04-0)
Gf-Deac I.I., - Noua Economie ntre cunoatere i risc, - Ed. Infomin, Deva, 2010,
[14]
(www.infomindeva.ro), (ISBN 978-973-7646-11-8)
Gf-Deac I.I., - tiina administraiei i management public modern, Ed. Infomin,
[15]
Deva, 2010, (www.infomindeva.ro), (ISBN 978-973-7646-09-05),(165 p.)
Gf-Deac I.I., - Noile orizonturi juridice i globalizarea, - Ed. Infomin, Deva, 2002,
[16]
(www.infomindeva.ro), (ISBN 973-85031-7-5)
18. Gf-Deac I.I., -Tehnici analitice de msurare n domeniul resurselor naturale/
Analitical Measurement Techniques in the Natural Resources Field, - Buletinul
[17] Universitii Petrol i Gaze din Ploieti, Vol. LVII, Seria tiine Economice, Nr.
1A/2005, p.128-135, (http:/www.bulletin.upg-ploiesti.ro), (autor unic), (CNCSIS B+;
/BDI), (ISSN 1221-9371)
Gf-Deac I.I., - Present elements of Regulating Physical and Legal Recognition of
Natural Resource Accumulation in Romania,- FBM-CB, Answer to the Challanges of
[18] United Europe, Varna, Bulgaria, Edited by Scientific and TUMGM Ed, September 13-
17, 2005, D-5, p.428-434, (col. cu Ilia N., Gf-Deac I., Andra I., Ghioiu L., Andra
A.), /BD-ISI), (ISBN 954-91547-2-6)

582
 ANALIZA COSTULUI PE PRODUS MINERAL N CADRUL
NTREPRINDERII MINIERE. COSTURILE I VALOAREA
ADUGAT/ COST OF MINERAL PRODUCT IN MINING
COMPANY. COSTS AND ADDED VALUE
Oresti MICHELIS1
1
Ph. DSt. USAMV University of Bucharest, Romania

ABSTRACT
The article states that permit assessment of value added contribution to the achievement of
crude mining company and highlights the degree of vertical integration by reference to
production. However, it is noted that the mining company cost analysis in phase involves the
following: Determination of mineral products to be analyzed (mineral products are researched
priority to which costs have exceeded pre-calculated or normal); Explanation of the amendment
cost each mineral product in terms of expenditure categories (articles and items). It establishes
absolute and percentage contribution of each category to total change in product cost mineral /
mining.

KEYWORDS
mineral products, costs, mining company, added value and cost analysis

1. Analiza costurilor n cadrul ntreprinderii miniere

Analiza costurilor n cadrul ntreprinderii miniere presupune parcurgerea urmtoarelor faze:

- Stabilirea produselor minerale care urmeaz a fi supuse analizei (sunt cercetate cu prioritate
produsele minerale la care s-au depit costurile antecalculate sau normale);
- Explicarea modificrii costului pe fiecare produs mineral prin prisma categoriilor de cheltuieli
(articole sau elemente). Se stabilete contribuia absolut i procentual a fiecrei categorii la
modificarea total a costului pe produs mineral/ minier.
n principal, se recurge la urmtorul sistem de analiz:
Analiza elementelor de cheltuial (prin prisma factorilor direci de influen n cadrul
ntreprinderii miniere).
Practic, trebuie determinate abaterile pe fiecare categorie de cheltuial n parte, procedndu-se
la analiza acestora prin prisma factorilor de influen n cadrul ntreprinderii miniere. Aceste
demersuri ofer posibiliti concrete de aciune n vederea reducerii lor.
Analiza cheltuielii cu materii prime si materiale directe (C m )
Aceste cheltuieli sunt dependente de consumul specific i de preul de aprovizionare al
materialului respectiv n cadrul ntreprinderii miniere.

583
 __
Cm = Cs j * Pj (1)

Cs j - consumul specific din resursa material j;

P j - preul de aprovizionare a resursei materiale j.
Analiza cheltuielilor cu salariile directe (C sd )
__ _ ___
Csd = t *Csh (2)
La nivelul unitii de produs mineral/minier, aceste cheltuieli sunt dependente de productivitatea
_ ___
muncii exprimat prin timpul consumat pe unitatea de produs ( t ) i salariul mediu orar ( Csh ).
___
Analiza cheltuielilor indirecte pe produs ( Ci )
Aceste cheltuieli n cadrul ntreprinderii miniere se analizeaz n funcie de volumul fizic al
produciei extrase (q) i suma cheltuielilor indirecte astfel (Ci):
___
Ci
Ci = (3)
q
Analiza costului pe produs in funcie de gradul de utilizare a capacitii de producie minier
ntre evoluia volumului de activitate n cadrul ntreprinderii miniere i costul pe produs extras
exist o legtura de invers proporionalitate.
Costul unitar se exprim dup cum urmeaz:
Cf
C = Cv + (4)
q
C v - cheltuieli variabile;
C f - cheltuieli fixe;
Q - valoarea produciei.

2. Analiza valorii adugate n cadrul ntreprinderii miniere

Valoarea adugat permite aprecierea contribuiei ntreprinderii miniere la realizarea produsului

brut i evideniaz gradul de integrare pe vertical prin raportarea la producie.
Principalele metode de determinare a valorii adugate se refer la:
1. Metoda diferenei;
Presupune scderea din producia exerciiului sau din cifra de afaceri a consumurilor
intermediare provenite de la teri.
Relaiile de calcul sunt:
Qa = Qe C (5)
cu: Qa - valoarea adugat;
Qe - producia exerciiului;
C - consumul intermediar provenit de la teri.
Qa = (Qe + MC ) C (6)
n care: MC - marja comercial;
C - consumul intermediar provenit de la teri pentru activitatea de producie i comer.
2. Metoda aditiv
Presupune nsumarea urmtoarelor componente:
- salariu;

584
- contribuiile pentru asigurri i protecie social;
- amortizri;
- provizioane;
- cheltuieli cu impozite i taxe (fr impozitul pe profit);
- rezultatul exploatrii;
- cheltuieli financiare;

3. Analiza performanelor de producie i comercializare n cadrul

ntreprinderii miniere

Principalii indicatori de analiz n cadrul ntreprinderii miniere sunt:

Cifra de afaceri (CA); reprezint suma total a veniturilor din vnzarea produselor minerale
extrase i produciei miniere ntr-o anumit perioad determinat;
Producia marf fabricat (Qf); reprezint valoarea bunurilor, serviciilor i lucrrilor care sunt
destinate livrrii;
Valoarea adugata (Qa); reprezint valoarea realizat de activitatea firmei miniere, respectiv
capacitatea acesteia de a avea bogie;
Producia exerciiului (Qe); reprezint volumul total de activitate productive dintr-o anumit
perioad.
Modalitile principale de caracterizare a activitii de producie minier i comercializare se
refer la:
Corelaia dintre indicii principalilor indicatori valorici;

(7)

- dac I ca > I Qf rezult reducerea stocurilor de produse finite de nivelul de comparaie;

- dac I ca = I Qf rezult reducerea stocurilor de producie neterminat i a consumului intern
pn la limita desfurrii normale a activitii;
- dac I Qa > I Qe rezult reducerea ponderii consumurilor de la teri n volumul total de activitate
productiv;
dac I Qf > I Qe rezult c se reduc stocurile, respectiv, se reduc consumurile interne ale firmei.
Raportul static dintre principalii indicatori valorici.
Principalele raporturi statice sunt:
CA
1 se reflect modificrile intervenite n stocurile de produse finite i la nivelul altor
Qf
venituri din exploatare;
Qf
1 se reflecta evoluia stocurilor de producie in curs de execuie, precum si a
Qe
consumurilor interne;
Qa
1 se evideniaz modificarea ponderii consumurilor de la terti, iar in cadrul acesteia a
Qe
consumurilor de materiale.

585
Analiza cifrei de afaceri nseamn evidenierea veniturilor totale obinute din operaiile
comerciale miniere, respective din vnzri de mrfuri i produse, executarea de lucrri i
prestarea de servicii, ntr-o anumit perioad de timp.
Analiza factorial a cifrei de afaceri
Se pot utiliza urmtoarele modele:
I) CA = qv * p (2)
cu notaiile: q v - volumul fizic al produciei vndute;
p - preul unitar de vnzare, exclusiv TVA.
_
Qf CA
II) CA = Ns* * (3)
Ns Qf
_
n care: Ns - numrul mediu de salariai;
Qf - producia marf fabricat;
Qf
- productivitatea muncii;
Ns
CA
- gradul de valorificare a produciei marf fabricat.
Qf
__ ___

III) (4)
_
Mf M ' f Qf CA
CA = Ns* * * *
Ns Mf M ' f Qf
__
Mf
Cu notaiile: __
- gradul de nzestrare tehnic a muncii;
Ns
___
M' f
__
- ponderea mijloacelor fixe direct productive;
Mf
Qf
___
- randamentul mijloacelor fixe direct productive
M' f
___
IV) CA = T * Cah (5)
n care: T - fondul total de timp de munc;
___
Cah - cifra de afaceri medie orar.
___ __
T = Ns* t (6)
n care: t - numrul mediu de ore lucrate de un salariat.

4. Analiza situaiei financiare patrimoniale a ntreprinderii miniere

Obiectivele principale ale analizei financiare n cadrul ntreprinderii miniere a patrimoniului sunt:
- stabilirea patrimoniului net, respectiv a valorii contabile a averii acionarilor/statul;
-determinarea sntii financiare a ntreprinderii miniere, respectiv detectarea unor eventuale
situaii de dezechilibru financiar care pot periclita continuitatea exploatrii;
-stabilirea lichiditii i solvabilitii n cadrul ntreprinderii miniere;
-determinarea flexibilitii financiare n cadrul ntreprinderii miniere pe baza tabloului fluxurilor
de trezorerie;
-caracterizarea eficienei elementelor patrimoniale n cadrul ntreprinderii miniere;
586
-ntocmirea bugetelor de venituri i cheltuieli i a planurilor de finanare;
evaluarea performanelor n cadrul ntreprinderii miniere.
Bilanul este documentul contabil principal care prezint situaia patrimonial n cadrul
ntreprinderii miniere la un moment dat.
n activul bilanului sunt nregistrate toate drepturile de proprietate i de crean ale
ntreprinderii, n ordinea invers a lichiditii, iar n pasiv se nregistreaz toate obligaiile,
respectiv angajamentele asumate, angajate n ordinea cresctoare a exigibilitii (timpul ct
sursa respectiv rmne la dispoziia ntreprinderii).
Pasivul reflect sursele fondurilor n cadrul ntreprinderii miniere iar activul constituie utilizrile
crora le sunt afectate aceste fonduri, n consecin, nici o surs nu poate rmne fr alocare,
dup cum nici o nevoie de finanare nu poate exista fr surse de fonduri.
Egalitatea bilanier n cadrul ntreprinderii miniere este necesar deoarece activul i pasivul
sunt dou reprezentate ale aceleiai mrimi economice.
n practica economic n cadrul ntreprinderii miniere se ntlnesc aplicaiile ale dou teorii
fundamentale:
Teoria bilanului patrimonial (financiar). Are la baz analiza lichiditate - exigibilitate, numit n
practic analiza patrimonial. Aceasta pune n eviden riscul de insolvabilitate n cadrul
ntreprinderii miniere, adic incapacitatea firmei de a-i onora obligaiile de plat fa de teri.
Teoria bilanului funcional. Acest tip de bilan se obine n urma regruprii elementelor de
activ si pasiv dup criteriul de lichiditate si exigibilitate n cadrul ntreprinderii miniere.
Patrimoniul reprezint totalitatea drepturilor i obligaiile n cadrul ntreprinderii miniere ce pot fi
exprimate n banii aparinnd unei persoane fizice sau juridice ale cror nevoi le satisfac,
precum i bunurile la care se refer.
n cazul unei ntreprinderi miniere, patrimoniul se definete ca fiind activele ntreprinderii
negrevate de datorii sau averea acionarilor stabilita pe baza bilanului patrimonial.
Patrimoniul net sau activul net contabil n cadrul ntreprinderii miniere se poate stabilii astfel:
1. Ca diferen ntre activul total i datoriile totale (reprezint o exprimare material a
patrimoniului net);
2. Ca sum a elementelor de capitaluri proprii.
Patrimoniul net n cadrul ntreprinderii miniere este pozitiv i cresctor ca urmare a unei gestiuni
sntoase. Aceast situaie reflect atingerea obiectivului major, i anume maximizarea valorii
patrimoniale a acesteia.
Creterea patrimoniului net n cadrul ntreprinderii miniere se va nregistra n situaia n care
ritmul activelor totale devanseaz ritmul datoriile totale.
n practica economic n cadrul ntreprinderii miniere se pot ntlni situaii n care dinamica cea
mai accentuat o nregistreaz sursele constituite pe baza rentabilitii firmei.
Capitalul social n cadrul ntreprinderii miniere se modific prin noi aporturi i/sau prin conversia
unor datorii n capital social (stingerea unor datorii n schimbul unui pachet de aciuni).
Rezultatul reportat poate fi profit nerepartizat, fapt ce determin creterea patrimoniului net,
sau pierdere neacoperit, caz n care patrimoniul va fi diminuat.
Patrimoniul net poate s creasc pe seama surselor interne (rentabilitatea n cadrul
ntreprinderii miniere i pe baza unor surse externe (aporturi, primirea cu titlu gratuit a unor
active, conversia unor datorii n capital social.
Bilanul patrimonial are la baz criteriul de lichiditate i exigibilitate.
Se nregistreaz urmtoarele situaii:
a. Activul imobilizat se diminueaz cu valoarea activelor imobilizate fictive sau nonvalori
(cheltuieli de constituire, cheltuieli de repartizat asupra exerciiilor financiare viitoare, primele
pentru rambursarea obligaiunilor, debitori din capitalul subscris i nevrsat, diferene de
587
conversie activ), elemente care din punct de vedere al lichiditii nu au nici o valoare deoarece
nu dau natere unui flux de numerar.
Activele imobilizate se majoreaz cu partea de active circulante cu termen de lichiditate mai
mare de 1 an.
b. Activul circulant se diminueaz cu valoarea activelor circulante cu termen de lichiditate mai
mare de 1 an i se majoreaz cu valoarea imobilizrilor financiare cu termen de lichiditate mai
mic de 1 an.
II. Bilanul funcional
Ofer o imagine asupra modului de funcionare din punct de vedere economic al ntreprinderii,
evideniind att utilizrile ct i sursele corespunztoare fiecrui ciclu (de investiii, de
exploatare, de finanare i de trezorerie):
1. Ciclul de investiie cuprinde achiziionarea de active imobilizate, astfel imobilizrile regrupate
n funcie de investiie constituie nevoi (alocri) stabile (aciclice) care sunt finanate n mod
necesar din resursele durabile existente n pasivul bilanului.
2. Ciclul de exploatare cuprinde fluxurile de aprovizionare, producie i distribuie sub form de
fluxuri fizice ct i financiare.
3. Ciclul de finanare se refer la ansamblul operaiunilor dintre ntreprindere i proprietarii de
capital (acionarii) i creditorii ntreprinderii.
n practica financiar exist principii care stau la baza ntocmirii bilanului funcional, i anume:
1) Activele sunt luate n calcul la valoarea lor brut, adic la valoarea de intrare n patrimoniu,
iar n pasiv se iau n considerare amortizrile (rulajul contului 681) i provizioanele.
2). Imobilizrile nchiriate, deinute n leasing sau n locaie de gestiune sunt integrate n activ i
corespunztor n pasiv la mprumuturi i datorii asimilate deoarece ele servesc ciclului de
exploatare.
3). Conceptul de activ fictiv nu mai este operaional.
4) Cheltuielile care privesc exerciii financiare viitoare se asimileaz activelor imobilizate.
5) Efectele scontate neajunse la scaden, debitorii privind capitalul subscris i nevrsat,
primele privind rambursarea obligaiunilor i diferenele de conversie a activelor i pasivelor se
trateaz n acelai mod ca i la elaborarea bilanului patrimonial.
6) Amortizarea i provizioanele sunt incluse n pasivul bilanului funcional ca surse aciclice (care
rmn la dispoziia ntreprinderii o perioada mai mare de 1 an).

5. Concluzii

Patrimoniul net n cadrul ntreprinderii miniere este pozitiv i cresctor ca urmare a unei gestiuni
sntoase. Aceast situaie reflect atingerea obiectivului major, i anume maximizarea valorii
patrimoniale a acesteia.
Creterea patrimoniului net n cadrul ntreprinderii miniere se va nregistra n situaia n care
ritmul activelor totale devanseaz ritmul datoriile totale.
n practica economic n cadrul ntreprinderii miniere se pot ntlni situaii n care dinamica cea
mai accentuat o nregistreaz sursele constituite pe baza rentabilitii firmei.
Capitalul social n cadrul ntreprinderii miniere se modific prin noi aporturi i/sau prin conversia
unor datorii n capital social (stingerea unor datorii n schimbul unui pachet de aciuni).
Rezultatul reportat poate fi profit nerepartizat, fapt ce determin creterea patrimoniului net,
sau pierdere neacoperit, caz n care patrimoniul va fi diminuat.
Patrimoniul net poate s creasc pe seama surselor interne (rentabilitatea n cadrul
ntreprinderii miniere i pe baza unor surse externe (aporturi, primirea cu titlu gratuit a unor
active, conversia unor datorii n capital social.
588
This paper was cofinaced from the European Social Fund through Sectoral Operational
Programme- Human Resources Development 2007-2013, project number POSDRU/ 1871.5/S/
155631, entitled Doctoral programs at the forefront of research excellence in prioritary
domains: health, materials, products and innovative processes, Beneficiary Carol Davila
University of Medicine and Pharmacy Bucharest.

REFERENCES

Ioan I. Gf-Deac, N.u, I. Drglin, Maria Gf-Deac, M.M. Nedelea, I. Pascal, -

The development trough endogen status of the technical and technological changes,
[1]
Journal of Economics and Knowledge Technologies (ISSN 2360-5499 / ISSN- L
2360-5499), No.1/ January 2015, p.68-73
Gf-Deac M., Management general pentru economia bazat pe cunoatere, Ed.
[2]
FRM, Bucureti, 2011
Gf-Deac M ., - Managementul modelrii structurilor tehnologice, Editura Infomin,
[3]
Deva, 2002
Gf-Deac I., - Bazele managementului doxastic, (in Romanian), Ed. Free Mind
[4]
Publishing, Bucureti, 2013, (ISBN 978-606-93321-5-3)
Gf-Deac I.I., -Microeconomie,- Ed. FMP, Bucureti, 2013, (ISBN 978-606-93432-4-
[5]
1)
Gf-Deac I.I., -Macroeconomie, - Ed. FMP, Bucureti, 2013, (ISBN 978-606-93432-5-
[6]
8)
Gf-Deac I.I., - Strategii naionale i regionale privind utilizarea resurselor naturale
n Europa i Asia Central, Lucr. t. Intl. Interdisciplinary Scientific Sym. Universitaria
[7] Simpro 2005, Integrare n aria european a cercetrii, Vol. Ecologie i reabilitarea
zonelor afectate de procesarea resurselor i materialelor, Ed. Universitas, Petroani,
2005
Gf-Deac I.I., - The Integrated Sense of Social-Economic Transformation on Primary
Phase of Globalization in Romania,-Ses. Intl. de Com. t. Provocri ale securitii i
[8]
strategiei la nceputul secolului XXI, Ministerul Ap. Naionale, Univ. Na. de Aprare,
Sec. Istorie, Geopolitic i Geostrategie, Bucureti, 14-15 aprilie 2005
Gf-Deac I.I., - Criminalitatea informatic; elemente moderne de investigaie
[9] tiinific, Simpozionul Armonizarea legislaiei romne cu legislaia european, USH
Bucureti, 5-6 aprilie 2006
Gf-Deac I., (col.), - Management i marketing pentru tehnologii moderne Ed.
[10]
FRM, Bucureti, 2000
Gf-Deac I., - Dezvoltarea structural a tehnologiilor moderne Ed. All-Beck,
[11]
Bucureti, 2001
Gf-Deac I.I., - Bazele juridice i economice ale sistemelor de resurse n noua
[12] economie, - Ed. Infomin, Deva, 2007, (www.infomindeva.ro), (ISBN 978-973-
7646-04-0)
Gf-Deac I.I., - Noua Economie ntre cunoatere i risc, - Ed. Infomin, Deva, 2010,
[13]
(www.infomindeva.ro), (ISBN 978-973-7646-11-8)
Gf-Deac I.I., - tiina administraiei i management public modern, Ed. Infomin,
[14]
Deva, 2010, (www.infomindeva.ro), (ISBN 978-973-7646-09-05),(165 p.)
Gf-Deac I.I., - Noile orizonturi juridice i globalizarea, - Ed. Infomin, Deva, 2002,
[15]
(www.infomindeva.ro), (ISBN 973-85031-7-5)
[16] Hurloiu L., Burtea E., Hurloiu I.I., Meru A., Preda B.F., erban M., tefan R.M., -

589
 Documentele financiar contabile Management, control, audit, clasificare i
securitate, ISBN 978-9975-56-143-3, Chiinu, 2014
Hurloiu L., erban M., tefan R.M. - Security of Data Used in Financial Management
[17] and Control, Revista Management, Accounting and Management Information
Systems 2014, p. 137-141, ISSN 2344-3367, 2014
erban M., - Principles Of Security And Integrity Of Databases, International
[18] Conference Emerging Markets Queries in Finance And Business, Tg. Mure, 24-27
October 2013, ISI Proceedings, 2013
erban M., - Database security: monitoring and access control, Arad Academic Days
[19]
21-st Edition, Universitatea de Vest Vasile Goldi, May 20-22, 2011

590
 ELEMENTE PRACTICE N ORGANIZAREA I
FUNCIONAREA FIRMEI MINIERE/

ELEMENTS OF PRACTICE IN MINING COMPANY FOR

ORGANIZATION AND OPERATION
Alina JIANU DUMITRU1
1
Ph. DSt. UMF University of Bucharest, Romania

ABSTRACT
The general schematic of a mine is expressed through a flexible structure aimed at the market,
production and finance. Almost always, a functional structure of a mine is not in full (ideally)
diversified activities that occur quasi-permanently and to be organized and managed. A mining
company may increase (may develop), diversifying products and accessing new markets. The
phenomenon is contemporary and assists in an explosion of business complexity, in which
organizational structures can be increasingly difficult to separate business structures. By
modeling the structural organization ensures procedural organization of a mine. Organization
structure of a mine is the inside within which management tasks are completed and production.
The organizational structure of a mine is a plan of organization which the company is headed,
being established lines of authority and communication between departments and managers.
To this are added the data and information flowing in the respective lines.

KEYWORDS
mining company, organizational structure, structural organization, procedural organization
modeling.

1. Elemente de practica organizarii structurale a unei ntreprinderi miniere

Managerii se afl n fruntea unei organizaii/ a unei ntreprinderi miniere.

Orice organizaie/ ntreprindere minier este un tip de sistem, care reprezint un ansamblu de
uniti (abstracte sau concrete) legate ntre ele.
Funciunea reprezint ansamblu de activiti, omogene i/sau complementare, desfurate de
personal specializat, prin folosirea metodelor i tehnicilor specifice, n scopul realizrii
obiectivelor.[8]
Funciunile unei ntreprinderi miniere sunt: a) cercetare-dezvoltare, b) producie, c) comercial,
d) financiar-contabil si e) de personal.
Activitatea unei ntreprinderi miniere reprezint ansamblul de atribuii omogene care se
ndeplinesc de personalul specializat, n domenii mai restrnse.

591
Atribuia unei ntreprinderi miniere presupune un nivel mai mare de detaliere i reprezint
ansamblul sarcinilor executate periodic de personal specializat, n domeniu restrns.
Sarcina unei ntreprinderi miniere este componenta elementar a unui proces de munc
complex sau simplu, desfurat cu scopul realizrii scopului individual i care se atribuie unei
persoane.
Organizarea procesual a unei ntreprinderi miniere trebuie s porneasc de la sistemul de
obiective ale firmei care reprezint caracteristicile cantitative i calitative ale scopurilor urmrite.
Caracteristicile manierei de conducere (a managementului) unei ntreprinderi miniere sunt
determinate de: 1) componen (oameni, utilaje, materiale, bani); 2) structur; 3) comunicare;
4) control. [8]
Organizarea structural a unei ntreprinderi miniere reprezint gruparea funciilor, atribuiilor i
salariilor, n raport cu anumite criterii, i repartizarea acestora pe grupuri de angajai pentru
executare.
Compartimentele, serviciile, sectoarele, seciile, diviziile, birourile .a. reprezint produsul
organizrii structurale ale unei ntreprinderi miniere.
Prin organizarea structural se asigur modelarea organizrii procesuale a unei ntreprinderi
miniere.
Structura organizrii a unei ntreprinderi miniere este cadrul n interiorul n interiorul cruia sunt
realizate sarcinile de conducere i producie.
Structura organizatoric a unei ntreprinderi miniere este un plan al organizrii prin care firma
este condus, fiind instituite linii de autoritate i comunicaii ntre compartimente i manageri.
La acestea se adaug datele i informaiile care circul prin liniile respective. [8]
Structura organizatoric a unei ntreprinderi miniere are dou structuri:
- cea de conducere i
- cea de producie.
Elementele principale componente ale structurii organizatorice a unei ntreprinderi miniere sunt:
Postul reprezint un grup de obiective, sarcini, competene i responsabiliti ce revin spre
execuie unui singur angajat. Raionalitatea unui post este evideniat prin corelaia "sarcini
competene responsabiliti pentru ndeplinirea obiectivelor individuale" (triunghiul de aur al
organizrii) ( fig. 1).

Figura. 1 Triunghiul de aur al organizrii

AB = responsabiliti; BC = sarcini; CA = competene
Funcia este desemnat de totalitatea posturilor unei ntreprinderi miniere care sunt
caracterizate de aceleai trsturi principale. Funcia poate fi a) de conducere i b) de execuie.
Ponderea ierarhic desemneaz numrul de angajai (persoane) ai unei ntreprinderi miniere
conduse (coordonate) nemijlocit de un manager.

592
Compartimentul reprezint ansamblul persoanelor care presteaz munci omogene sau
complementare, de regul pe acelai amplasament.
Nivelul ierarhic este compus din totalitatea subdiviziunilor organizatorice (posturi,
compartimente) stabilite prin reglementri oficiale.
Relaiile organizaionale ale unei ntreprinderi miniere pot fi de autoritate, de cooperare i de
control. [8]
Variabilele organizaionale sunt factori interni i externi firmei care i condiioneaz ntr-o
anumit msur caracteristicile organizrii.
Organigrama unei ntreprinderi miniere este reprezentarea grafic a structurii organizatorice.
Dreptunghiurile reprezentnd posturi i compartimente legate prin linii desemneaz raporturile
ierarhice i funcionale ntre componentele structurii organizatorice. [8]
Regulamentul de organizare i funcionare al unei ntreprinderi miniere este o redare cu
urmtorul coninut:
- n prima parte sunt inserate date privind baza legal a constituirii i funcionrii firmei;
- se realizeaz o prezentare succint a obiectului de activitate;
- se include organigrama general a firmei;
- sunt relatate n continuare principalele caracteristici organizaionale (obiective, sarcini,
competene, responsabiliti);
- se prezint n detaliu compartimentele firmei, funciile i posturile.
Descrierea postului (fia postului) cuprinde: 1) denumirea postului, 2) obiectivele individuale, 3)
sarcinile, 4) competenele, 5) responsabilitile, 6) relaiile postului cu alte posturi, 7) cerine
specifice ale postului (caliti, aptitudini, cunotine .a.). [8]
Structura organizatoric a unei ntreprinderi miniere se clasific n:
- structur ierarhic (liniar). Are un numr redus de compartimente. Fiecare persoan este
subordonat unui singur manager (ef);
- structura funcional. Titularii posturilor de execuie primesc decizii att din partea
managerilor ierarhici direci, ct i de la compartimentele funcionale, prin dubla subordonare;
- structura ierarhic funcional reprezint o combinaie ntre elementele organizatorice
descrise anterior.
Realizarea unei structuri organizatorice ntr-o ntreprindere minier are n vedere aplicaii ce
rezult din coninutul unor principii precum:
- conducerea participativ, colectiv;
- supremaia scopurilor;
- unitatea de decizie i aciune;
- apropierea conducerii de execuie;
- interdependena minim;
- economia de comunicaii;
- armonizarea posturilor i a funciilor;
- concordana cerinei postului cu calitile titularului;
- flexibilitate;
- eficiena structurii;
- varianta structural optim.

593
2.Principii de formalizare a structurii organizatorice a unei ntreprinderi
miniere

Sistematizarea bazelor de formalizare a structurii organizatorice a unei ntreprinderi miniere se

refer la [8]:
1) Principiul diviziunii activitii firmei;
2) Principiul suprematiei obiectivelor si unitatii de actiune;
3) Principiul unitii de decizie i aciune;
4) Principiul apropierii conducerii de executie;
5) Principiul interdependentei minime;
6) Principiul permanentei conducerii;
7) Principiul economiei de comunicatii;
8) Principiul concordantei cerintelor postului cu caracteristicile titularului;
9) Principiul eficientei structurii;
10) Principiul flexibilitatii structurii;
11) Principiul variantei optime;
12) Principiul reprezentrii structurii.
Structura organizatoric reprezint legturile existente ntr-o ntreprindere minier
(ntreprindere, asociaie .a.), care constituie infrastructur pentru circulaie i aplicaie
regulilor, normelor i procedurilor ce stau la baza previzionrii conducerii i controlului. [8]
Definiia generalizat a structurii organizatorice a unei ntreprinderi miniere deriv din formulri
diferite, dintre care se amintesc:
- coordonarea planificat a activitilor unui numr de persoane pentru atingerea unui obiectiv
comun, munca i funciunile fiind mprite, iar autoritatea i responsabilitatea ierarhizate (E.
Schein); [8]
- schem a etajelor ierarhizate i de comunicare ntre diverse niveluri i administratori, n cadrul
acestei scheme circulnd informaiile necesare, cutate i utilizate pentru atingerea unor
obiective (A.D. Chandler); [8]
- un mijloc de diviziune a muncii, ntre sarcini i coordonarea lor (H. Mintzberg); [8]
- descriere a raporturilor dintre servicii i a legturilor ierarhice ntre administratori de pe diferite
niveluri (I.A. Krier); [8]
- schem de repartizare a sarcinilor i responsabilitilor n interiorul firmei (G. Predaglio). [8]
Structura organizatorica a unei ntreprinderi miniere este format dintr-un sistem coerent de
elemente materiale (uniti, amenajri, depozite, ci de acces, echipamente, utilaje) i
nemateriale (factorul uman, relaiile dintre angajai), alctuit pe baza unor principii, norme prin
care se creeaz cadrul activitii economice n condiii de raiune i eficien.
Structura organizatorica a unei ntreprinderi miniere de ansamblu a unei firme cuprinde doua
parti:
- structura de conducere, sau functionala, care este ansamblul persoanelor si compartimentelor
si relatiilor dintre ele, astfel constituite si ordonate incat sa asigure conditiile economice, tehnice
si de personal necesare desfasurarii proceselor de conducere si de executie.
- structura de productie, sau operativa, care este alcatuita din ansamblul persoanelor,
compartimentelor si relatiilor organizatorice prin care se asigura realizarea directa a produselor
si/sau serviciilor care constituie obiectul specific de activitate al organizatiei.
Structura organizatoric a unei ntreprinderi miniere descrie:
a) formula de conducere sau funcional i
b) formula de producie sau operaional.
594
 Prile componente ale structurii organizatorice sunt: postul, funcia, compartimentul,
relaiile ocazionale, nivelul ierarhic, ponderea ierarhic.
Proiectarea structurii organizatorice a unei ntreprinderi miniere se bazeaz pe aplicaia
decizional a unor principii:
- principiul obiectivului (concentrarea pe un scop, el, obiectiv);
- principiul specializrii (folosirea personalului i a infrastructurii specia-lizate);
- principiul combinat (focalizarea specializat pe un obiectiv).
Diagrama organizaional a unei ntreprinderi miniere este schema care reglementeaz
cooperarea i controlul n cadrul unei firme, viznd sarcini, responsabiliti, autoritate .a.
Constituirea diagramei organizaionale se bazeaz pe caracteristica funcionalitii
(respectiv, un angajat are mai muli superiori) i pe caracteristica liniaritii (un angajat are un
singur superior).
Nivelurile ierarhice ale unei ntreprinderi miniere reprezint etaje n cadrul diagramei
organizaionale, crora le sunt alocate sarcini, responsabiliti, autoritate i restricii.
Distribuia activitilor pe niveluri este:
- strategic (ideea de baz i obiectivele firmei, investiii, informatizare, coordonarea ntre
funciuni);
- tactic (buget i planificare, conducerea unei funciuni pe orizontal);
- operaional (cadrul decizional deja trasat, aciuni pe termene imediate i scurte);
- executiv (sarcini individuale).
Transpunerea practic a proiectelor i coordonarea funcionrii sistemului productiv
economic al unei ntreprinderi miniere se regsesc n linia operatorie a structurii manageriale.
Cea de-a doua linie de aciune este pentru concepie, prin iniierea i elaborarea
proiectelor de organizare.
Managementul unei ntreprinderi miniere asigur, prin organizarea de ansamblu a
ntregului sistem, condiii necesare desfurrii normale a activitii n fiecare loc de munc.
Proiectarea structurii manageriale a unei ntreprinderi miniere se bazeaz pe funciunile
unitii economice i anume [8]:
- funciunea comercial;
- funciunea de producie;
- funciune financiar-contabil;
- funciunea de cercetare-dezvoltare;
- funciunea de resurse umane.
Structura unei ntreprinderi miniere cuprinde organismele prin care se exercit
funciunile de mai sus, integrate ntr-un sistem optimizabil. Organismele acioneaz prin
intermediul oamenilor, ntre care se nasc relaii sociale de producie.
Structura unei ntreprinderi miniere se contureaz pe orizontal (nivel managerial
distinct) i pe vertical (subordonare ierarhic). Fiecare etaj al ntreprinderii se caracterizeaz
prin funciunile sale proprii i nivelul ierarhic la care se situeaz.
Relaii sociale de producie ale unei ntreprinderi miniere pot fi:
relaii de conducere operativ (B primete dispoziii numai de la A fa de care rspunde);
relaii de participare la conducere (B este membru cu drept de vot n consiliul de
administraie);
relaii de conducere funcional (B primete dispoziii de la A cu privire la o problem de
specialitate, fa de care rspunde);
relaii de avizare;

595
 relaii de ndrumare tehnic, de informare, de cooperare etc.
Structura unitilor operative pleac de la un loc de munc atelier, raion, perimetru,
sector, .a.
Structura unitilor funcionale se difereniaz calitativ prin: post (funcionar), birou,
divizie, compartiment, direcie, serviciu .a.
Efectele structurii se regsesc n managementul propriu-zis al unei ntreprinderi miniere.
Acesta se desfoar sub trei aspecte:
management liniar;
management funcional;
management mixt.
Structura managerial a unei ntreprinderi miniere deriv i din [8]:
analiza deficienelor constatate (paralelisme ntre compartimente, niveluri ierarhice
numeroase, lipsa de coordonare ntre compartimente, frmiarea funciunilor, neglijarea unor
sarcini neechilibrate, precizri incomplete de atribuii i influene schimbarea activitii s.a.);
precizarea obiectivelor urmrite frecvent. ntr-un astfel de caz are loc schimbarea structurii
produciei prin concentrare (comasare) sau specializare n sectoare noi, specializate;
transformarea unor subuniti descentralizate (cum sunt transporturile, atelierele, bazele de
aprovizionare .a);
proiectarea variantelor care cuprinde:
proiectarea managementului operativ;
proiectarea managementului funcional;
elaborarea unui regulament de funcionare;
formularea organigramei;
ntocmirea schemei de resurse umane.
n principiu, se urmrete definirea complet a fiecrui domeniu ce ine de: activiti,
competene, relaii, responsabiliti, autoritate, delegri.
Pe baza analizelor complete se alege varianta cu cele mai mari avantaje.
Modelul schematic general al unei ntreprinderi miniere se exprim printr-o structur
flexibil ce vizeaz piaa, producia i finanele.
Aproape ntotdeauna, o structur funcional a unei ntreprinderi miniere nu corespunde
n totalitate (ideal) activitilor diversificate ce apar cvasi-permanent i care trebuie organizate i
conduse.
O ntreprindere minier poate crete (se poate dezvolta), diversificnd produsele i
accesnd piee noi. Fenomenul este contemporan i se asist la o adevrat explozie a
complexitii afacerilor, situaie n care structurile organizatorice pot fi tot mai greu separate de
structurile afacerilor.

4. Concluzii

Proiectarea si perfectionarea structurii organizatorice este in stransa legatura cu restructurarea

sistemului informational al unei ntreprinderi miniere.
Structura organizatorica a unei ntreprinderi miniere determina orientarea fluxurilor
informationale in legatura cu sarcinile si competentele diferitelor posturi, pe niveluri ierarhice.
Sistematizarea principalelor principii care stau la baza proiectarii structurilor organizatorice a
unei ntreprinderi miniere sunt urmatoarele:
a) Principiul obiectivelor: Organizarea n ansamblu a unei ntreprinderi miniere i fiecare
component a acesteia trebuie s serveasc realizrii sistemului de obiective stabilit.
596
b) Principiul specializrii: In cadrul unei ntreprinderi miniere procesele de munc trebuie s fie
pe ct posibil restrnse, pentru a contribui la formalizarea practica a unei singure funcii,
respectiv a celei de conducere sau a celei de execuie.
c) Principiul coordonrii: Scopul specific al organizrii structurale a unei ntreprinderi miniere
este de a facilita coordonarea i a realiza unitatea eforturilor membrilor entitatii, deopotriva
manageri si executanti.
d) Principiul autoritii: Orice persoana/angajat, grup sau compartiment se subordoneaz unei
autoriti, care permite trasarea unei linii precise a autoritii pentru fiecare component a
structurii organizatorice in cadrul firmei.
e) Principiul definirii: In coninutul fiecrui post, atribuiile, sarcinile, autoritatea i
responsabilitatea, respectiv relaiile cu alte posturi trebuie precis formulate n scris i aduse la
cunotina titularului (manager/executat).
f) Principiul corespondenei: Fiecare post trebuie s reflecte concordana ntre sarcini, autoritate
i responsabilitate.
g) Principiul limitei de control: O persoan poate s controleze un numar limitat de alte
persoane aflate n relaii de interdependen.
h) Principiul echilibrului: Componentele structurii organizatorice in cadrul firmei trebuie
proiectate i meninute n echilibru.
i) Principiul continuitii: Reorganizarea trebuie sa fie un proces continuu, prin care se asigur
adaptarea firmei la cerinele mediului extern.
Principalele tipuri de structuri organizatorice in firme sunt:
a) Ierarhic. Se aplica in firme mici cu un grad redus de dotare tehnic. Are urmatoarele
trasaturi: numr redus de compartimente cu caracter operaional unde se desfoar
principalele activiti; fiecare persoan este subordonat unui ef; conductorul fiecrui
compartiment exercit n exclusivitate toate atributele conducerii.
b) Funcional. Se aplica in firmele cu variatia marimii gradului de mrime sau de
complexitate. Trsturi acestui tip de structura sunt: cuprinde, in egala masura, compartimente
operaionale ct i funcionale; conductorii pot fi specializai pe un anumit domeniu,
beneficiind de asistena compartimentelor funcionale;executanii primesc ordine att de la efii
ierarhici ct i de la conductorii compartimentelor funcionale.
c) Ierarhicfuncional. Se aplica n firmele mari i mijlocii. Structura cuprinde compartimente
funcionale ct i operaionale, iar executanii primesc decizii i rspund numai n faa efului
ierarhic.

This paper was cofinaced from the European Social Fund through Sectoral Operational
Programme- Human Resources Development 2007-2013, project number POSDRU/ 1871.5/S/
155631, entitled Doctoral programs at the forefront of research excellence in prioritary
domains: health, materials, products and innovative processes, Beneficiary Carol Davila
University of Medicine and Pharmacy Bucharest.

REFERENCES

Burdu, E., Cprrescu, G., Androniceanu, A., Miles, M.,- Managementul schimbrii
[1]
organizaionale, Editura Economic, Bucureti, 2003
Ceauu, I., - Dicionar Enciclopedic Managerial, vol. I-II, Editura Academiei de
[2]
Management, Bucureti, 2000
[3] Cooke, S., Slack, N., - Making Management Decision, Prentice Hall, London, 1991
[4] GfDeac M. Reformularea managerial a economiei prin aplicaii ale

597
 managementului corporativ / Economy Management Reformulation through
Corporate Management Applications. n: Material Intl. Conf. Knowledge Economy
Challenges of the 21st Century -, Perspectives on 2020. Europe, Where To?,
Seciunea: Politici financiare, contabile i guvernan corporativ. Piteti: Constantin
Brancoveanu University, 6-7 November 2014, p.36-45
Gf-Deac M. Dimensionarea i difuzarea cognitiv a managementului general n
condiiile globalizrii. n: Revista pentru Dezvoltare Bazat pe Cunoatere RDBC.
[5] Bucureti: Nr. 2/ 2015. ISSN 2393-2112 / ISSN-L 2393-2112. (col. I.I. Gf-Deac, Th.
Damian, A. Condurache, S. Pavl, B. Oprescu, A. Bucur) (www.e-editura.ro/rdbc). p.
79-82.
Ioan Gf-Deac, Ioan I. Gf-Deac, Nicolae Bulz, - Relaii doxastice ntre creterea
[6] economic i centralizare, Revista pentru Dezvoltare Bazat pe Cunoatere RDBC,
Nr. 1/ 2015, Bucureti, ISSN 2393-2112 / ISSN-L 2393-2112, p. 9-15
Gf-Deac M., Management general pentru economia bazat pe cunoatere, Ed.
[7]
FRM, Bucureti, 2011
Gf-Deac M ., - Managementul modelrii structurilor tehnologice, Editura Infomin,
[8]
Deva, 2002
Gf-Deac I., - Bazele managementului doxastic, (in Romanian), Ed. Free Mind
[9]
Publishing, Bucureti, 2013, (ISBN 978-606-93321-5-3)
Gf-Deac I.I., -Microeconomie,- Ed. FMP, Bucureti, 2013, (ISBN 978-606-93432-4-
[10]
1)
Gf-Deac I., (col.), - Management i marketing pentru tehnologii moderne Ed.
[11]
FRM, Bucureti, 2000
Gf-Deac I., - Dezvoltarea structural a tehnologiilor moderne Ed. All-Beck,
[12]
Bucureti, 2001
Gf-Deac I.I., - Bazele juridice i economice ale sistemelor de resurse n noua
[13]
economie, - Ed. Infomin, Deva, 2007, (ISBN 978-973-7646-04-0)
Gf-Deac I.I., - Noua Economie ntre cunoatere i risc, - Ed. Infomin, Deva, 2010,
[14]
(ISBN 978-973-7646-11-8
[15] Date C.J., - An introduction to database systems, Eight ed., Pearson Education, 2004
Gf-Deac I.I., - Issue Related to Security and Environment for Ensuring the
Consumption of Energy within the New Economy, - Revista Minelor, (Index Baza de
[16] date Internaional EBSCO Publishing U.S.A., ISSN-L 1220-2053; ISSN 2247-8590),
Bucureti, no.8/2010, p.37-40, (autor unic), (CNCSIS B+; /BD-ISI), (ISSN 1220-
2053)

598
 STADIUL ACTUAL I TENDINE N APLICAREA
SISTEMELOR GIS/GPS N MINERIT
Ramona-Elena KISS1, Constantin Alexandru STOICA2
1,2
Ph. DSt. University of Petroani, Romania

ABSTRACT
Aceast lucrare prezint stadiul actual i perspectivele aplicrii tehnologiilor GIS/GPS n minerit,
ca cel mai important adjuvant tehnologic recent intrat n sfera activitii minere, fiind de natur
s confere un spor de productivitate, eficien, siguran i performan acestei ramuri
industriale. n afar de aceasta se impun cu tot mai mult fermitate cerine de protecie a
mediului, care impun aciuni i costuri suplimentare att n faza de exploatare ct i mai ales
dup ncetarea activitii miniere.
Nevoia de competitivitate economic a companiilor minere, impune de asemenea, n mod
obligatoriu msuri de eficientizare a tehnologiilor de exploatare i o atenie deosebit pentru
conducerea proceselor de producie n vederea reducerii costurilor.
Acest deziderat impune i pretinde folosirea celor mai moderne concepte, tehnologii i utilaje.
Acest lucru se pot realiza eficient folosind mijloacele tehnicii moderne actuale, care fac apel
inclusiv la sistemele moderne de comunicaie i de poziionare prin satelit.
Datorit specificului su, activitatea din industria minier prezint un caracter conservator
datorit amplorii proceselor i costurilor tehnologiilor i utilajelor, urmare a creia, introducerea
progresului tehnic privind aplicarea de tehnici i tehnologii noi precum i extinderea
tehnologiilor inovative se desfoar mai lent i cu dificulti mai mari dect n alte ramuri
industriale.
Cu toate acestea, n ultimele dou decenii s-au schimbat nu numai paradigmele tehnologice
privind raportul intensiv/extensiv n procesul de dezvoltare, de tratare a constrngerilor induse
de caracterul limitat al resurselor, consumul de energie, criza forei de munc, nevoia de
securitate, restriciile de mediu i intensitatea de capital, competiie i costuri. S-a schimbat
mult i perspectiva privind tendinele de viitor, extrapolarea liniar a situaiei actuale nu mai
este util pentru elaborarea de strategii, nici pilonul exclusiv tehnologic nu mai este suficient.

KEYWORDS
GIS, GPS, sistem informatic, productivitate, eficien, minerit

1.Introducere

Industria minier rmne i va fi n continuare un furnizor de baz de materii prime minerale,

energetice, metalifere i nemetalifere. La ora actual, n marea majoritate a rilor cu activitate
minier important se pune un accent deosebit pe implementarea progresului tiinific i
tehnologic emergent n toate fazele acestei activiti.
5991
 Industria extractiv are ca obiect extragerea substanelor minerale utile, care servesc ca
materii prime pentru industrie. La toate categoriile de substane minerale utile, de la cele
energetice la cele pentru construcii, cererea nregistreaz o continu cretere. n ceea ce
privete substanele minerale utile metalifere i energetice fosile, se constat epuizarea n
mare msur a zcmintelor bogate, ceea ce impune trecerea la exploatarea celor cu
coninuturi mai sczute, fapt ce are ca rezultat extragerea unui volum mult mai mare de roc i
ca urmare pretinde costuri i consumuri mai mari de munc, energie i materiale i produce un
impact din ce n ce mai sever asupra mediului.
Toi aceti factori restrictivi impun cu necesitate optimizarea proceselor de extracie i a fluxului
de transport al produsului minier ctre beneficiari. Extragerea substanelor minerale utile n
cadrul exploatrilor miniere att subterane i prin lucrri la zi - se realizeaz preponderent cu
ajutorul mainilor, utilajelor i echipamentelor miniere. Procesul tehnologic presupune un numr
impus de operaii unitare i anume: tierea (derocarea, excavarea, dislocarea) substanelor
minerale utile, ncrcarea i transportul materialului (masei miniere), susinerea ( respectiv
asigurarea taluzurilor) urmate de preparare sortare depozitare-livrare.
SISTEMELE INFORMATICE GEOGRAFICE, cu toate componentele lor aplicative: sistem de
poziionare, sistem orientare i sistem de navigaie au ptruns n ultimul timp n multe domenii
cum ar fi: energetica, transporturile, ingineria mediului, aprare etc. i ncep a fi utilizate i n
minerit. Capacitatea acestor sisteme de a colecta, stoca, prelucra i utiliza informaii de natur
deopotriv spaial i nespaial a fcut posibil n ultimii ani aplicarea lor i n domeniul
ingineriei resurselor minerale.
Identificarea, evaluarea, localizarea i referenierea acestor resurse n faza preliminar de
prospeciune i explorare, precum i n fazele ulterioare de extragere i valorificare precum i n
cea final de refacere a zonelor afectate necesit colectarea, stocarea, prelucrarea, gestionarea
i utilizarea unor cantiti i varieti enorme de date.
Din acest motiv, n ultimii ani s-a nregistrat un progres continuu de implementare n industria
extractiv a sistemelor informatice geografice.
Majoritatea aplicaiilor existente i preconizate se refer n special la domeniul cadastrului
geologic i minier i mai puin la conducerea i gestionarea procesului propriu-zis de extragere
i la urmrirea funcionrii respectiv conducerea infrastructurii tehnologice.
Exist ncercri i realizri n domeniul controlului i supravegherii echipamentelor mari, al
urmririi n teren i a navigaiei vehiculelor de transport, al dispecerizrii i alocrii resurselor
tehnologice, acestea ns sunt realizri punctuale i nu integrate ntr-un sistem global de
geomatic.
Exist de asemenea ncercri de predicie a variaiei proprietilor geologo-miniere ale
zcmntului i de utilizare a datelor georefereniate pentru optimizarea funcional i
energetic a echipamentelor.
n afar de volumul imens din punct de vedere cantitativ i tipologic al datelor necesar a fi
gestionate, care poate conduce la sub- sau supra-dimensionarea resurselor hardware i
software implicate, utilitatea folosirii eficiente acestui instrument modern este grevat de lipsa
unor cercetri integrative n domeniu.
n Romnia, deocamdat, principala zon de interes se localizeaz n exploatrile miniere de
lignit la zi i carierele de zcminte metalifere sau materiale de construcii. Din cele artate se
poate concluziona c tema propus este actual att ca domeniu de aplicabilitate ct i ca
pretext pentru avansarea cunoaterii n domeniu.
n acest context, cunoaterea stadiului actual pe plan mondial i n ar al utilizrii SIG n
minerit este esenial pentru direcionarea viitoare a cercetrilor.

6002
2.Stadiul actual privind evoluia Sistemelor Informatice Geografice

Reprezentrile actuale moderne cu caracter geografic sau adaptat cerinelor actuale n continu
diversificare i dinamicii performanelor instrumentelor hardware i software, oferind mijloace
moderne culegerii, stocrii, procesrii i valorificrii volumului imens de date i numrului mereu
crescut de utilizatori, diversificari att ca preocupri ct i ca cerine.
n acest context, etapa cea mai laborioas i costisioare a unui GIS, (cifrat la cca. 70 % din
costuri) l reprezint culegerea primar a datelor de pe teren. Tehnologiile spaiale sunt foarte
eficiente dar sunt costisitoare necesitnd investiiile mari dar informaiile culese din spaiu
trebuie confruntate i completate cu date culese de pe teren.
Toate aceste informaii sunt reunite i nchegate n Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
cunoscut i sub denumire Sistemele Informatice Geografice (SIG) i prescurtat SIG / GIS sau
mai nou Geomatic (Geomatics). Termenul generic Geographic Information Systems (GIS) este
tot mai frecvent folosit n lume i este considerat acrominul din limba englez a Sistemelor
Informatice Geografice a aprut n SUA (Geographic Information Systems), Marea Britanie,
Australia, Canada (Geographic Information Systems) i Geographic Information Science
(componenta fundamentului tiinific) (Svulescu i colab., 2000) termen care dateaz de mai
bine de 50 de ani al crui coninut ns a evoluat i s-a diversificat de-a lungul timpului.
O alt terminologie care are aproximativ aceeai semnificaie, utilizat preferenial n diferite
ri este urmtoarea: (Buku Ajar. 2009)
Geographical Information System, este terminologia utilizat n Europa;
Geomatique, terminologie folosit n Frana i Canada francofon;
Georelational Information System, terminologie referitoare la tehnologie;
Natural Resources Information System, terminologia utilizat n domeniul Managementului
resurselor naturale;
Spatial Information System, terminologia referitoare la culegerea datelor prin tehnologii
spaiale sau referitoare la localizare geografic;
Multipurpose Geographic Data System, terminologie comun sau general care subliniaz
diversitatea cmpului de aplicaii.
Sistemele Informatice geografice pot fi ncadrate ntr-o sfer mai larg, pe baza caracteristicii
lor principale determinat de modul privind tratarea informaiei innd cont de localizarea sau
amplasarea ei spaial, geografic, n teritoriu, prin coordonate.(Florin Petrescu 2007)
Desprindem din cele artate dou tendine constante cu accentuare continu a impactului lor:
impactul noilor tehnologii spaiale care au ieit din conul de umbr al secretomaniei, devenind
tehnologii de utilitate comun i diversificarea continu, aproape n avalan a domeniilor de
aplicaie.
Astfel, tehnologiile spaiale furnizeaz abordri integrative pentru ndeplinirea cerinei actuale
din toate domeniile pentru a face mai mult cu mai puin. Printre aplicaiile cele mai noi
amintim pe cele din domeniul Economiei spaiale (teoria localizrii) care servesc optimizarea
investiilor privind dezvoltarea forei de munc, a tehnologiie, a resurslor financiare, a
colaborrii, comunicrii, a analizei surselor de informaii (accesibilitate, securitate, persisten,
fiabilitate, confidenialitate). Putem spune n esen c tehnologia geospaial este privit ca o
component de baz n gestionarea informaiilor din dorina de a oferi soluii rapide cu resurse
financiare reduse. Acest domeniu al tehnologiilor geospaiale se afl la un punct de cotitur
n evoluia sa, prezentnd o oportunitate de a regndi implementarea i utilizarea acestor
resurse pentru a mbunti capacitatea noastr de a rezolva rapid i cu costuri reduse
probleme pe baza informaiilor geografice. (FGDC,2013)
Se remarc n cele artate n ultimele paragrafe c dei investiia iniial n sistemele
geospaiale este relativ ridicat, avantajul rapiditii i economiei de efort compenseaz aceasta,

6013
i n final beneficiul net total este semnificativ. Dei oarecum mercantiliste, referinele citate
sunt utile pentru orientarea viitoare a cercetrilor, ntruct se pare c n ultimul timp tiina ca
exerciiu euristic este umbrit de tiina care produce efecte financiare prin aplicaiile n
tehnologia care devine bun vandabil.
n prezent exist mai multe definiii ale Sistemelor Informatice Geografice, n continuare redm
cteva dintre cele mai relevante existente n literatura de specialitate de diveri autori :
- Borrough (1986) [ menionat n Svulescu i colb.,2000 fundamente GIS] consider GIS ca
un set de instrumente pentru culegerea, stocarea, transformarea, analiza i vizualizarea datelor
spaiale ale lumii reale.
- A.M. Imbroane i D. Moore definesc Sistemul Informatic Geografic ca fiind un sistem de
calcul (hardware), un sistem de programe (software), i date geografice, care permit captarea,
stocarea, integrarea, manipularea, analiza i vizualizarea datelor care au referin spaial. (A.
M. Imbroane, D. Moore, 1999)
-M. Bdu enun o definiie concret a Sistemul Informatic Geografic ca fiind un sistem
organizat pe baza tehnicii de calcul adic un ansamblu coerent constituit din echipamente de
calcul (hardware), programe (software), informaii, persoane, reguli i metode de lucru care
permit conceperea, definirea, construirea i exploatarea unei hri geo topografice asociate cu
informaii descriptive cu repartiie teritorial. (M.Bdu, 2007)
-G. Dumitru consider Sistemul Informatic Geografic ca fiind sistemul informatic care cupleaz
o baz de date care opereaz cu obiecte geometrice (spaial) cu o baz de date care opereaz
cu atribute ale informaiei coninut n prima baz de date.( G. Dumitru, 2007)
- Aranoff (1989:39) consider c GIS este definit ca un sistem bazat pe calculator, care ofer
urmtoarele patru seturi de capaciti pentru a folosi datele georefereniate: 1) deculegere; 2)
de gestionare a datelor (stocare i regsire); 3) manipulare i analiz i 4) de ieire -
vizualizare.
- Chrisman (1999) definete GIS ca activiti organizate care :
msoar aspecte ale fenomenelor i proceselor geografice;
reprezint msurtori, de obicei sub forma unei baze de datepe calculator, pentru a stoca
date spaiale, entiti, atribute ale acestora i relaii ntre ele;
opereaz asupra acestor reprezentri pentru a produce mai multe informaii i a descoperi
noi relaii, prin integrarea unor surse diferite;
i transform aceste reprezentri n mod adecvat utilizrii lor.
-Goodchild (2010) consider c GIS este o tiin i acest lucru este subliniat prin dou
definiii: o definiie relativ succint adoptat de Consoriul Universitar pentru Geographic
Information Science Dezvoltarea i utilizarea de teorii, metode, tehnologii, i date pentru a
nelege procesele geografice, relaii i modele, i definiia GIS ca tiin considerat a fi
Domeniu cercetrii de baz care urmrete s redefineasc conceptele geografice i utilizarea
lor n cadrul sistemelor informaionale geografice.
Analiznd perspectivele variate a numeroaselor definiii existente n literatura de specialitate
enumerate mai sus remarcm faptul c se regsesc importante elemente cheie cum ar fi : date,
informaii spaiale, geografic, sisteme de programe, sisteme de calcul, tehnologie, o
metodologie, profesie.
Din multitudinea i diversitatea definiiilor existente n literatura de specialitate, enumerate mai
sus privind Sistemul informatic geografic (SIG) sau Geografic Information Systems (GIS) se
observ c acest termen poate avea conotaii diferite i de aceea este considerat i neles de
diverii autori n moduri diferite:
prima diviziune este ntre cei care consider GIS ca un instrument, set de instrumente,
instrumente perfectibile i cei care l privesc ca fiind o tiin ( Bnic S i colab 2008,
Goodchild (2010), (Svulescu i colab., 2000));
6024
 o alt diviziune se refer la abordarea din perspectiva utilitii datelor-predictiv sau
explicativ;
i n cele din urm o diviziune din punct de vedere al nivelului sistematizrii (Chrisman 1999).
Disputa filozofic i epistemologic continu, literatura de specialitate este invadat de lucrri
sectare sau mpciuitoriste, dar certitudinea prezenei pe pia a sistemelor GIS cu aplicabilitate
n diverse domenii este o confirmare a faptului c necesitatea este imperioas, i ca in multe
alte domenii dezbaterile savante academice devin la un moment dat sterile i tehnologia
cucereste teren pn cnd va cere la rndul ei o cale de iesire tot de la mediul tiinific.
Disputa filozofic i epistemologic continu, literatura de specialitate este invadat de lucrri
sectare sau mpciuitoriste, dar certitudinea prezenei pe pia a sistemelor GIS cu aplicabilitate
n diverse domenii este o confirmare a faptului c necesitatea este imperioas, i ca in multe
alte domenii dezbaterile savante academice devin la un moment dat sterile i tehnologia
cucereste teren pn cnd va cere la rndul ei o cale de iesire tot de la mediul tiinific.

3. Dezvoltarea i Evoluia Tehnologiei Sistemelor Informatice Geografice

Utilizarea tehnologiilor informatice geografice a suferit numeroase transformri datorit

progresului, evoluiei i transformrilor pozitive ale tehnicii de calcul, cuantificat generic n
parametrii ca vitez de prelucrare, capacitate de stocare a datelor i informaiilor, costuri in
scdere ale echipamentelor i programelor care au permis n timp utilizarea informaiilor
geografice i n industria minier.
Epoca actual beneficiaz de realizri i progrese tehnologice deosebite n tehnologia spaial
ca instrumente de culegere a datelor, o deosebit importan n acest sens avnd i evoluia din
domeniul tehnicii de calcul. Progresele n aceste domenii sunt uriae i au oferit noi faciliti i
proceduri care au revoluionat n primul rnd activitatea de reprezentare i cunoatere a
datelor spaiale.
Pornind de la informaii geografice complexe sub diferite forme n coordonate tridimensionale
sistemele GIS colecteaz, prelucreaz, acumuleaz i pune la dispoziia celor interesai
informaii detaliate i exacte despre caracteristicile entitilor refereniate geografic.
Aceste informaii constituie suportul pentru proceduri i algoritmi de conducere operativ i de
optimizare a activitii n toate fazele lor de desfurare. Cunoaterea, descrierea obiectelor
geografice, a caracteristicile lor i mai ales a poziiilor lor au fost i sunt n permanen n
centrul de interes al oamenilor din cele mai vechi timpuri.
Aceste cunotine au fost i vor fi necesare n cunoaterea teritoriului, a formei i dimensiunilor,
a localizrii elementelor de relief i ulterior a construciilor i a suprafeelor amenajate. Metodele
de culegere a datelor i prelucrare i de reprezentare a lor au evoluat n timp n conformitate cu
posibilitile tehnologice ale momentului respectiv.
Bartelme face o incursiune privind evoluia GIS de la nceputuri pn n prezent i stabilete
dou mari etape : GIS clasic i GIS modern. (Bartleme 2012), sintetizate astfel:
un sistem informatic, n sensul clasic const dintr-o baz de date reprezentnd miezul interior
al sistemului, care este gestionat de un sistem de management de baze de date (DBMS),
precum i de un nveli exterior de instrumente care pot fi utilizate de ctre utilizator pentru
manipularea i analiza acestor date.
GIS modern care funcioneaz pe o structur client-sever permind lucru unui numr mare
de utilizatori (care cer i introduc informaii) Configurarea tradiional a unui GIS a fost
modificat n mai multe moduri, ca urmare a apariiei de noi tehnologii i concepte. Internetul,
oferind instrumente, i aplicaii WEB a influenat foarte mult i a modificat ntreaga aren a IT.
Al doilea impuls a fost iniiat de tehnologia mobil i miniaturizarea componentelor hardware.

6035
Prin urmare, paradigmele de GIS s-au schimbat, iar arhitectura unui GIS n zilele noastre este
destul de diferit de ceea ce a fost n urm cu civa ani.
Datele nu mai sunt limitate la domeniul principal de interes i de control al utilizatorulu, ele
pot fi n principiu, importate de pretutindeni, oricnd, precum i pe orice dispozitiv. Vorbim
despre informaii geografice /geospaiale omniprezente ca disponibilitate pe dispozitivele
mobile, cum ar fi telefoanele mobile, cum ar fi hri, imagini din satelit, informaii de
poziionare, servicii de rutare, i chiar simulri 3D care ctig un segment tot mai mare pe
piaa de consum.
De asemenea, spre deosebire de perioadele anterioare, cnd un GIS consta dintr-o combinaie
bine echilibrat de hardware, software, i surse de date, astzi frontierele ntre funcionalitatea
unui browser obinuit de Internet i funcionalitatea unui GIS profesional sunt din ce n ce mai
greu de trasat.
1
O alt abordare privind dezvoltarea tehnologiei GIS este cea a lui Barry care consider c
tehnologia GIS, n evoluie sa de-a lungul anilor a suferit numeroase transformri:
1. Cartografia asistat de calculator (Computer Mapping , anii 70);
2. Managementul bazelor de date spaiale (anii 80) ;
3. Analiza spaial a hrilor / modele (anii 90);
4. Cartografiere multimedia (Multimedia Mapping ,anii 2010);

3.1. Proiectarea sau cartografierea asistat pe calculator (Computer Mapping anii

70).

Dateaz de la nceputul anilor 1970, cnd utilizarea GIS este vzut ca un sistem de
proiectare/cartografiere asistat de calculator n vederea crerii de hri. Harta sau planul,
considerate ca element de reprezentare a datelor geografice constituie elementul de baz al
oricrui GIS. Harta este considerat ca fiind componenta cea mai important a entitii spaiale
geodezice, care se stocheaz n diferite moduri: ca puncte, linii, poligoane, reele (combinaie
de puncte i linii) sau suprafee (combinaie de reele i altitudini), transpuse pe un display ca
pixeli, i prezentate matematic printr-un set organizat de coordonate (X,Y). Aceste date
direcioneaz dispozitive de plotare sau printare care pot efectua rapid i repetat ntr-o varietate
de culori, scri, extensii i sisteme de proiecie hrile digitizate.
n aceast perioad considerat de pionierat a GIS s-au definit multe dintre conceptele i
procedurile instituite ale GIS-ul modern. Berry menioneaz c avantajul tehnologiei de
cartografiere asistat de calculator este capacitatea de a schimba o poriune a unei hri i
reformularea rapid a ntregii zone de interes. Actualizrile hrilor, care nainte ar fi putut dura
sptmni, acum se pot efectua n cteva ore.

3.2. Managementul bazelor de date spaiale (Spatial Database Management anii

80).

Deceniul 8-lea este considerat ca fiind etapa de adolescen a GIS i practic n acest perioad
dezvoltarea mijloacelor informatice de gestionare a bazelor de date a deschis noi posibiliti
pentru gestionarea elementelor de relief i a obiectelor asociate hrilor, oferind noi posibiliti
att pentru reprezentri grafice ct i pentru elementele descriptive mult mbogite n coninut
i atribute (cantitative i calitative).
Datorit progresul tehnologiilor spaiale i a sistemelor de gestiune a bazelor de date se
utilizeaz generalizarea utilizrii acestora i apar cerine att pentru date n format raster ct i

1
This chapter is based on http://www.innovativegis.com/basis/mapanalysis/Topic27/Topic27.htm

6046
vectorial. Aria de acoperire a GIS trece de la nivel local i naional la nivel global i se ntreprind
aciuni de unificare prin norme a formatului informaiei a procedurilor.
Creterea cererii pentru datele cartografiate a concentrat atenia asupra disponibilitii,
acurateei i standizrii datelor, precum i asupra aspectelor structuralee. Furnizorii de
hardware au continuat s-i mbunteasc echipamentele de digitalizare, permind trecerea
de la tabletele manuale de digitizare la scanere automate i multe alte faciliti orientate GIS.
O nou industrie pentru codarea hrior i proiectare a bazelor de date i-a fcut apariia, ca
i o pia pentru vnzrile de produse de hri digitale. Organizaiile regionale, naionale i
internaionale au nceput s abordeze standardele necesare pentru hile digitale pentru a
asigura compatibilitatea ntre sisteme.

3.3.Analiza spaial i modelare cartografic (Anii 90)

Evoluia GIS a continuat accentul punndu-se de la interogarea descriptiv la analiza

prescriptiv a hrilor. Odat cu apariia sa, tehnologia GIS a dus la nlocuirea mijloacelor
tradiionale care se foloseau n perioadele anterioare, constnd n tehnici manuale care trebuie
s fie efectuate n mod repetat, cu soluii matematice.
Dac elaborarea, corectarea i multiplicarea hrilor n format clasic lor pretindea un consum
mare de munc, iar stocarea i manipularea lor era dificil tehnologiile informatice au schimbat
radical situaia.
Apariia acestor noi procedee de cartografiere a dus n plan teoretic la apariia a dou noi
forme de studii spaiale: analiza spaial i statistica spaial.
Matematica spaial s-a dezvoltat i a evoluat, harta tematic spaial oferind noi posibiliti de
prelucrare i manipulare a valorilor din date spaiale prin crearea de noi concepte cum ar fi
distana efectiv, cile optime de rutare, vizualizarea altor atribute ale reliefului, n afar de
form i structur. Menionm c utilizarea acestor noi instrumente i abordri de modelare a
informailor spaiale combinat cu sisteme de nregistrare i de eviden i extins cu modele de
luare a deciziilor a revoluionat sistemele de adoptare a deciziilor eficiente.

3.4.Multimedia Mapping (2010s)

Epoca anilor 2010, n care GIS a evoluat n doar trei decenii de la simpla tiin emergent ntr-
o adevrat estur social care devine din ce n ce mai dependent de produsele sale,
nregistrnd o dezvoltare rapid de aplicaii care pot fii utilizate pe calculatoare, Smartphone,
PDA i tablete PC. O alt caracteristic a noului mediu de prelucrare este integrarea deplin a
sistemului de poziionare global i imagini de teledetectie cu GIS. GPS (GNSS) i harta digital
aduce poziionarea geografic la ndemna oricui. Este clar c tehnologia GIS a schimbat foarte
mult perspectiva noastr despre o hart. Acesta a trecut de la cartografiere de la un rol istoric
de furnizor de date de intrare, la un ingredient activ i esenial n procesul de luare a deciziilor.
Profesionitii de astzi sunt provocai s neleag acest nou mediu i s formuleze aplicaii
inovatoare care satisfac complexitatea nevoilor crescnde ale secolului al XXI-lea.
n plus fa de schimbrile din mediul de prelucrare, harta contemporan are noi forme radicale
de a prezenta informaii spaiale cum este imaginea 3D a terenului.
Realitatea virtual poate schimba informaia n funcie de modul n care se dorete a fi
prezentat obiectul, pn la un realism aproape fotografic.
Hyperlink-urile ncorporate pot accesa n timp real fotografii, clipuri video, audio, text i date
asociate cu harta. Imagistica permite utilizatorului n mod interactiv s ofer o imagine de
ansamblu a obiectivului studiat evideniind att aspectele de sub nivelul solului ct i cele de la
de la nlime i posibilitatea de mrirea la scar (zoom) n toate direciile pe display.

6057
4D GIS (XYZ i timp) este urmtoarea frontier major de dezvoltare viitoare. n prezent, timpul
este tratat ca o serie de straturi de hri stocate care pot fi efectiv animate pentru a vedea
modificrile asupra peisajului.

Figura 1. Ciclurile de inovare / dezvoltare ale GIS.

Figura 1 ilustreaz o evoluie a GIS mai degrab ciclic dect liniar, sugerat de
perspectiva de 30 de ani a evoluiei sale. n anii 1970 cercetarea i aplicaiile incipiente
erau centrate pe cartografierea computerizat, care au condus ulerior, n urmtorii
zece ani la managementul datelor spaiale i api la conectarea hrilor digitale cu
atributele din bazele de date apte pentru interogare. ncepnd cu 1990 GIS a fost
centrat pe de modelare (analiz), care a pus bazele unor modaliti cu totul noi de
evaluare a modelelor spaiale i a relaiilor dintre elemente, precum i la aplicaii n
domenii noi, cum ar fi agricultura i geografia economic. n zilele noastre, GIS este
centrat mai ales pe cartografia multimedia, evoluie carenchide cercul la un nivel
superior. (Barry)

Figura 2. Evoluia implicrii diverselor comuniti din domeniul tehnologiilor GIS

Impactul dezvoltrii tehnologiei GIS asupra comunitii de specialiti GIS, de la cteva sute la
milioane de utilizatori poate fi urmrit n fig. 3. Devine evident rolul de raionament spaial i
comunicare vizual al GIS. n trecut, modelele analitice s-au concentrat pe gestionarea unor

6068
opiuni optime din punct de vedere tehnic. ns n realitate, exist i un alt set de perspective
care trebuiesc considerate, i anume soluiile social-utile. Aceast perspectiv utilizeaz
indicatori vagi, ca valori umane, atitudini, convingeri, judecat, ncredere i nelegere. Acestea
nu sunt de obicei indicatori cantitativi care pot fi supui algoritmizrii de calculator i utilizai n
modelele tradiionale de luare a deciziilor. Pasul de la punctul de vedere al fezabilitii tehnice
spre opiunile social acceptabile nu este att de natur tiinific i economic ct de
comunicare.
Geomatica. Aplicaiile generate de tehnologia sistemelor informatice geografice a condus la
apariia unui nou concept sau putem spune disciplin geomatica. Disciplin nou aprut
numit geomatic ce formalizeaz i descrie aplicaiile tehnologice spaiale, domeniul sau de
cuprindere rezult din semnificaia cuvintelor ce o compun respectiv geosugereaz ideea de
pmnt i de date georefereniate iar matic reprezint prelucrarea automat datelor cu
ajutorul tehnici de calcul .(Badea Gh, Badea A 2013).

4. Aplicarea GIS/GPS diferite faze ale activitii miniere

Cu toate acestea, n ultimele dou decenii s-au schimbat nu numai paradigmele tehnologice
privind raportul intensiv/extensiv n procesul de dezvoltare, de tratare a constrngerilor induse
de caracterul limitat al resurselor, consumul de energie, criza forei de munc, nevoia de
securitate, restriciile de mediu i intensitatea de capital, competiie i costuri. S-a schimbat
mult i perspectiva privind tendinele de viitor, extrapolarea liniar a situaiei actuale nu mai
este util pentru elaborarea de strategii, nici pilonul exclusiv tehnologic nu mai este suficient.
Conform Thompson ( 2011), la nceputul secolului al 21-lea, mineritul a evoluat la ideea de
modern, pentru ca apoi s fie agreat sintagma n timp real, i n ultimul timp se
vehiculeaz atributul inteligent.
Vectorul de progres este reprezentat de variabila autonomie , care gradual, transform
mecanizarea simpl n operare autonom, ceea ce impune accentuarea aspectelor de
intercomunicare i de coordonare. Figura 3 arat sugestiv aceast evoluie, cu modificrile
calitative ale diferitelor atribute ale procesului. Realizrile actuale n domeniul cunoaterii
tiinifice i al tehnologiilor emergente aplicate n industria minier, au permis definirea i
materializarea conceptului de exploatare minier inteligent. Min inteligent care gndete,
execut i exploateaz conform noilor tehnologii cu aportul nsemnat al inteligenei adus
de nivelul actual al tiinei i tehnicii.
Aceasta trebuie s nglobeze o mare cantitate de inteligen, aplicat n toate fazele de via
ale sale: concepie, execuie, exploatare, nchidere i post-nchidere.
Tehnicile informatice actuale permit accesul rapid la informaii unui numr mare de utilizatori,
independent de distanele dintre ei i sursa de provenien a informaiei.
Conducerea inteligent pretinde un volum uria de informaii n prelucrarea i utilizarea lor ntr-
un timp real prin folosirea mijloacelor moderne prelucrare i vizualizare a datelor, modelare
care utilizeaz sisteme performante de comunicare, culegere, prelucrare i valorificare a
informaiilor pentru gestionarea eficient a activitilor i proceselor.

6079
 MINERIT AUTONOM

MINERIT INTELIGENT
Colaborare independent

< GRAD DE AUTONOMIE >

ntre sisteme
Planificare dinamic
Reconfigurarea prioritilor
Producie de tip proces

VEHICULE AUTONOME
Sistem informatic de incint

MINERIT TIMP REAL

Depozite de date
Sistem de navigaie local
Autonomie vezi i evit

TELE-OPERARE
Reea informatic parial
Sisteme de control a produciei
Percepia msurarea locaiei
MINERIT MODERN

Autonomie vezi i oprete

Planificare asistat de calculator

ASISTARE OPERATOR
Automatizare parial
Localizare
Amplificarea percepiei/
msurare
Autonomie oarb

MONITORIZARE
Monitorizare echipamente
Comunicare n reea
Mecanizare avansat
Planificare i mentenan
asistate de calculator TIMP

igura. 3. Tendinele de evoluie ale mineritului

Macfarlane figureaz unele perspective privind ct va dura i va influena nivelul de

dezvoltare a tehnologie care este adecvat acum, i n viitor, indicnd astfel o strategie pentru
cercetare i dezvoltare pentru mine n domeniul mecanizare i automatizare tabelul 1.
Problematica proiectrii unei Mine Inteligente n industria minier n care rezultatul cercetrii
conduce practic la un proces tehnologic definit pe trei trepte n funcie de gardul de
automatizare a industriei miniere i care are trebui dezvoltat, acest lucru este menionat n
Figura 4 care prezint aceast evoluie. Ca o remarc putem argumenta c se ncearc s ofere
o viziune asupra identificrii tehnologiei de exploatare adecvate aflate la momentul prezent sau
respectiv precum i obiectivele, cerinele, schimbrile tehnologice necesare care impun a fi
realizate n industria minier pentru dezvoltarea n viitor.

10
608
 Nivele de dezvoltare i automatizare

Nivel Timp perioada Etapa de dezvoltare Tehnologie

0 Curent Gata de folosire Sistem de control al proceselor

1 1- 3 ani Transfer tehnologiei Mijloace de mecanizare
2 3-5 ani Dezvoltare de proces Procese automate

Min nteligent
Reele inteligente de informaii
Procese automatizate
Sisteme de control al produciei
Sisteme de localizare
Producia controlat de la distan
Planificare asistat pe calculator 10 Ani
Nivel de automatizare

Min n timp real

Reele de informaii parial
Procese automatizate
Sisteme de control al produciei
Sisteme de localizare
Maini automate i control de la distan
5 Ani
Timp

Min Modern
Reele de comunicare voce
nalt mecanizare maini
Unele procese automatizate
Planificarea ntreinerii ajutat de caculator
Planificare asistat pe calculator
Acum

Figura. 4. Evoluia spre min inteligent

11
609
 3 5-7 ani Cercetare Telecomanda mainilor
4 7-10 ani Concepere Comand de la distan a produciei

Tabelul :1. Nivele de dezvoltare i automatizare

Utilizarea tehnologiei GPS n sectorul minier constituie suportul pentru aplicarea i generarea de
aplicaii utile i posibile n industria minier cum sunt: controlul i sincronizarea deplasrii
excavatoarelor i a mijloacelor de transport precum i de a monitoriza locaia echipamentelor,
identificarea zonelor ce urmeaz a fi excavate n adncime, posibilitatea evalurii n timp real a
volumelor excavate, elaborarea de prognoze privind producia viitoare, precum i determinarea
coordonatele precise care sunt utile n toate fazele unei cariere n lucrrile de proiectare,
deschidere i ulterior de exploatare sunt necesare lucrri topografice i foraj.
Un al doilea aspect este integrarea mai strns a operaiunilor de producie i prelucrare a
minereului.(Figura 5)

Figura 5Aplicaii TIC in ineri

Pornind de la informai geologice, geofizice i pe baza lor se pot face i evalua economice
finaciare i chiar contrului managementul costului. Datele cuprinse GIS pot fi extrase i utilizate
n toate instrumentele de analiz i eviden finaciar al resurselor, al utilajelor i activitilor.
Estimrile de rezerve, producia planificat anual, statistici sau costul pe tone pot fi legate de
sau corelate cu tehnologii geospaiale complementare, cum ar fi GPS. GIS poate fi aplicat att
pe termen scurt ct i programarea pe termen lung a ajuta la optimizarea produciei la
operaiuni.
GIS este utilizat de planificatorii de mine pentru a stabili care este locaia optim pentru galerii
de exploatare, tiere sub nivele, ventilaie puuri. Pentru serviciu i sisteme auxiliare, inginerii i
proiectanii utilizeaz GIS pentru a gsi calea cu cel mai mic costuri rute de livrare de bunuri la
zonele de lucru, i a gsi cea mai apropiat facilitate, care s stabileasc zonele care sunt n
raza de lucru, atribui proximitate, modelul inaccesibil n zone i modelul ventilaie reele miniere.
n planificarea producie, GIS poate ajuta la site i interogare citat locaia i amplasarea
infrastructurilor de serviciu n raport cu principale centre de producie.
Evaluarea coninutului de minerale utile dintr-o locaie i distribuia lor pe teren constituie o
etap important n activitatea minier. Pentru acesta exist programe specializate (Datamine
Studio, Vulcan, i altele) care folosesc algoritm matematic eficient de evaluare. Dar trebuie
menionat i faptul c aceste valori sunt valori estimative i apar diferene n procesul
exploatarii.

12
610
4.1 Aplicaii n minerit folosind tehnologia GIS/GPS

La nivel conceptual, sistemele de navigaie global sunt rodul unor viziuni fundamentale
capabile care s asigure raionalizri n contextele care definesc situaia. Aceste raionalizrii
sunt expresii tehnologice ale adaptrii umane n i la mediul lor. Tehnologia n sine a devenit o
ubicuitate. Acest domeniu al industriei minere n care introducerea n sectorul minier i aplicarea
de tehnici i tehnologii noi a fost considerat un pionier fa de alte domenii de activitate
industriale i un lider n rspndirea aplicrii tehnologiei GPS de poziionare prin satelit n care
GPS-ul asigur localizarea n timp real oferind precizii bune (centimetru n timp real) oriunde n
lume (n funcie de utilizator), i putem spune c este considerat un instrument valoros
(singurele diferene constnd numai n tipul receptorului i metoda de lucru utilizat), utilizat pe
scar larg n activitatea minier de producie i chiar n procesele din operaiunile minere au
scopul de a da un randament i disponibilitate de producie crescut de pn la 15-30% i o
scdere a costurilor 30-40% , util n toate fazele unei cariere n lucrrile de proiectare,
deschidere i ulterior de exploatare, oferind eficien, rapiditate i fiind un mijloc economic,
considerat ca o soluie ideal care este disponibil n orice moment indiferent de starea vremii
avnd contribuii n mod semnificativ privind introducerea, dezvoltarea n automatizarea de
operaiuni minere.

CONCLUZII

In lucrare am prezentat stadiul actual i posibilitile de extindere a utilizrii

SISTEMELE INFORMATICE GEOGRAFICE, n industria minier.
Am analizat evoluia, dezvoltarea i extinderea aplicaiilor industriale in general ale sistemelor
GIS i GPS. Am prezentat i exemplificat componentele aplicative ale acestora: sistem de
poziionare, sistem orientare i sistem de navigaie.
Am studiat utiliattea acestor sisteme n diferite domenii de activitate ca: energetica,
transporturile, ingineria mediului, aprare etc.
Capacitatea acestor sisteme de a colecta, stoca, prelucra i utiliza informaii de natur
deopotriv spaial i nespaial a fcut posibil n ultimii ani aplicarea lor i n domeniul
ingineriei resurselor minerale.
Din acest motiv, n ultimii ani s-a nregistrat un progres continuu de implementare n industria
extractiv a sistemelor informatice geografice.
Din acest punct de vedere am analizat aplicarea sistemelor GIS / GPS n toate fazele activitii
de extragere a substantelor minerale utile: explorarea, extragerea i inchiderea /reabilitarea
ecologic.
Identificarea, evaluarea, localizarea i referenierea acestor resurse n faza preliminar de
prospeciune i explorare, precum i n fazele ulterioare de extragere i valorificare precum i n
cea final de refacere a zonelor afectate necesit colectarea, stocarea, prelucrarea, gestionarea
i utilizarea unor cantiti i varieti enorme de date.
Majoritatea aplicaiilor existente i preconizate se refer n special la domeniul cadastrului
geologic i minier i mai puin la conducerea i gestionarea procesului propriu-zis de extragere
i la urmrirea funcionrii respectiv conducerea infrastructurii tehnologice.
Exist ncercri i realizri n domeniul controlului i supravegherii echipamentelor mari, al
urmririi n teren i a navigaiei vehiculelor de transport, al dispecerizrii i alocrii resurselor
tehnologice, acestea ns sunt realizri punctuale i nu integrate ntr-un sistem global de
geomatic.

13
611
Exist de asemenea ncercri de predicie a variaiei proprietilor geologo-miniere ale
zcmntului i de utilizare a datelor georefereniate pentru optimizarea funcional i
energetic a echipamentelor.
n afar de volumul imens din punct de vedere cantitativ i tipologic al datelor necesar a fi
gestionate, care poate conduce la sub- sau supra-dimensionarea resurselor hardware i
software implicate, utilitatea folosirii eficiente acestui instrument modern este grevat de lipsa
unor cercetri integrative n domeniu.
n Romnia, deocamdat, principala zon de interes se localizeaz n exploatrile miniere de
lignit la zi i carierele de zcminte metalifere sau materiale de construcii.
Din cele artate se poate concluziona c tema propus este actual att ca domeniu de
aplicabilitate ct i ca pretext pentru avansarea cunoaterii n domeniu.
n acest context, cunoaterea stadiului actual pe plan mondial i n ar al utilizrii SIG n
minerit este esenial pentru direcionarea viitoare a cercetrilor.
Am ilustrat cu exemple din literatura de specialitate diferitele aplicaii existente precum si
perspectivele de extindere i dezvoltare.
Se remarc dou moduri de abordare: pe de o parte cel comercial, promovat de firmele
productoare de componente hardware si software i al firmelor de consultan care le
utilizeaz, iar pe de alta parte cel academic (tiinific) care pe de o parte este focalizat pe
identificarea de noi domenii si subdomenii de aplicare ( punct de vedere al specialistilor mineri)
, iar pe de alta parte cel al tezvoltrii suportului informaional i al bazelor teoretice (specialistii
n GIS, GPS, comunicaii, geomatic, geografie spaial) etc.

REFERENCES

Badea Gh, Badea Ana-Cornelia Cadastru, Bnci de Date i Aplicaii GIS n Zone
[1]
Urbane,Ed.Conspress, Buc 2013
Bartelme, N., 2012. Sisteme Informatice Geografice. In: W. Kresse & D. Danko,
eds.Springer Manual de Geographic Information.Heidelberg : Springer, pp 145-174
[2]
http://www.springer.com/cda/content/document/cda_downloaddocument/978354
0726784-c1.pdf?SGWID=0-0-45-855952-p173740630
Berry, J. K.: GIS Evolution and Future Trends, Beyond Mapping III.Compilation of
[3] Beyond Mapping columns appearing in GeoWorld magazine 1996 to 2013.
http://www.innovativegis.com/basis/mapanalysis/Topic27/Topic27.htm
Bdu,M.,GIS-Sisteme Informatice Geografice.Fundamente practice, Editura Albastr
[4]
Cluj-Napoca 2007.
Bnic S, Benea I, Heriteanu Gh.- Sisteme informaionale geografice i prelucarea
[5]
datelor Geogarfice. Editura Fundaiei Romnia de Mine Bucureti 2008.
[6] Bo N, Iacobescu O. - Topografie Modern ,Ed. C.H.B,Buc. 2007.
Buku Ajar - SISTEM INFORMASI GEOGRAFIS TIM: LABORATORIUM PERENCANAAN
[7] DAN SISTEM INFORMASI KEHUTANAN, FAKULTAS KEHUTANAN UNIVERSITAS
HASANUDDIN OKTOBER 2009
Chrisman, N., 1999. What does 'GIS' mean?. In: Transaction in GIS. Oxford:
[8]
Blackwell Publishers, pp. 175-186
Dumitru G.- Sisteme Informatice Geografice (GIS). Editura Albastr, Cluj-Napoca
[9]
2007.
Dumitru S, Simota C, Dumitru M, Canarache A.,- Aplicaii privind managementul
[10]
resurselor de soluri i terenuri n agricultur utiliznd tehnologie SIG la diferite scri,

14
612
 Editura Sitech-Craiova 2010.
FGDC, 2013. National Spatial Data Infrastructure Strategic Plan 2014-2016.
[11] [Online] Available at: http://www.fgdc.gov/nsdi-plan/nsdi-strategic-plan-2014-2016-
FINAL.pdf [acesat 30.03.2015]
Goodchild, M. F., 2010. Twenty years of progress: GIScience in 2010. [Online]
[12]
Available at: http://www.josis.org/index.php/josis/article/viewArticle/32
Imbroane A.M., Moore D. Iniiere n GIS i Teledetecie, Presa Universitar Clujan,
[13]
Cluj-Napoca, 1999.
Jarosz, A., and Raleigh Finlayson. "GPS Guidance System and Reduction of Open Pit
[14] Mining Costs and Revenue Loss." Spatial Science, Inaugural Conference of Spatial
Sciences Institute, Canberra, ACT, Australia.2003.
Koeln, Gregory T., Lewis M. Cowardin, and Laurence L. Strong. 1994. Geographic
Information Systems. Pages 540-566 in T. A. Bookhout, ed. Research
[15]
and management techniques for wildlife. [Online]
http://www.npwrc.usgs.gov/resource/habitat/research/index.htm
Macfarlane, A. S. "The implementation of new technology in southern African mines:
[16] Pain or panacea." JOURNAL-SOUTH AFRICAN INSTITUTE OF MINING AND
METALLURGY 101.3 (2001): 115-126.
Petrescu,F.-Sisteme informatice geografice n urbanism i amenajarea teritoriului. Ed.
[17]
MatrixRom, Bucureti 2007.
Peterson D.J, Tom LaTourrette, James T. Bartis. New forces at work in mining:
[18] industry views of critical technologies. [Online].
http://www.rand.org/pubs/monograph_reports/MR1324.html
Svulescu, C., Srghiu, R., Abdulamit, A., Bugnariu, T., Turcu, L., Barbu, C.
[19]
- Fundamnete GIS , Ed.* H*G*A*, Bucureti 2000.
tefan Maria-Magdalena, tefan Dan, Cavruc Valeriu ArheGIS Arheologie digital i
[20] spaial Manual teoretic i exemple de aplicare, Editura Istros a Muzeului Brilei,
Brila 2012.
Thompson, R.J. 2011. Mine Road Design and Management In Autonomous Hauling
Operations: A Research Roadmap, in Saydam, S. (ed), Proceedings Second
[21]
International Future Mining Conference 2011, Nov 22-23 2011, pp. 95-102.
Melbourne: The Australasian Institute of Mining & Metallurgy.

15
613
 MINIMIZING TRANSPORTATION STARTING FROM
FORD'S ALGORITHM
Constantin P. Bogdan1, Nan Marin Silviu2
1
PhD. Professor, University of Petroani, Romania, [email protected]
2
PhD. Professor, University of Petroani, Romania, [email protected]

ABSTRACT
To determine the optimal length of a network of transportation use a strategy initiated by Ford
and optimized for this material where it was implemented and informatics algorithm.

KEYWORDS
transport

1. Introducere

1 Algoritmul lui Ford (drumuri ntr-un graf)- se utilizeaz n special pentru grafurile care admit
circuite.
Fie un graf G = (X , U ) unde X mulimea vrfurilor i U mulimea arcelor.
Pentru orice arc (xi , xj ) asociem un numr Lij = L(u)>0 numit lungimea sa.
Notm un drum de la nodul x0 la xn cu drum i fie Ldrum= L ulungimea
udrum
drumului sau

distana de la x0 la xn.
Pas1. Se asociaz oricrui nod xi o valoare Li ;
-atribuim fiecrui vrf o marc LI,care s reprezinte lungimea unui drum arbitrar de la vrful x0
la xn ;iniial L0 = 0 Li = + 1<= i<= n
Pas2. Pentru orice arc u = (xi,xj) se calculeaz diferena L(j)-L(i) dac are sens (nu are sens
pentru - ) ,obinnd o reducere de fiecare dat pentru marca vrfului xj
dac L(j)-L(i) <= a[i,j] (unde A-matricea de adiacen asociat grafului) pentru toate
arcele (xi , xj) care aparin lui U ,algoritmul s-a terminat i se trece la pasul 3
dac exist L(j)-L(i) > a[i,j] se nlocuiete L(j)=L(i)+ a[i,j] i se reia pasul2
Pas3. Cazul1 : Ln= ;n acest caz nu exist un drum de la x0 la xn ,cci un astfel de drum
plecnd dintr-un vrf x0(L0),cu marc finit L0 trebuie s aib un ultim vrf cu marc finit i
atunci marca vrfului urmtor s-ar putea reduce.
Cazul 2. Se consider mulimea arcelor (xi,xj) cu L(j)-L(i) = a[i,j] i plecnd de la L(n) putem
determina n aceast mulime un drum (pentru care Lj-Li=A[i,j] )

6141
 drum = (xn, xk1,..xkp,x0) care s uneasc x0 cu xn- iar acest drum este de valoare
minim
Dac se caut drumul de lungime maxim atunci :
Pas 1 se modific Li = - 1<= i<= n
Pas 2 condiia de optim L(j)-L(i)>= a[i,j] pentru toate arcele i dac exist
L(j)-L(i) < a[i,j] se nlocuiete L(j)=L(i)+ a[i,j]

Exemplul 1 : se consider urmtorul graf:

L1-L0 = -0>3 => L1=0+3=3

L1-L0 = -0>5 L2=0+5=5
L3-L0 = -0>1 L3=0+1=1
L3-L1 = 1-3 = -2
L2-L3 = 5-1 = 4>3 L2=1+3=4
L4-L1= -3>3 L4=3+3=6
L4-L3 = 6-1>4 L4=1+4=5
L5-L2= -4>2 L5=4+2=6
L6-L4= -5>8 L6=5+8=13
L6-L1=13-6>2 L6=6+2=8
-lungimea drumului minim este egal cu L6=8;n nodul final x6 se observ c
L6-L5=8-6=2 rezult c arcul (x5 x6) intr n drumul minim.n nodul x5 avem
L5-L3=6-1<8, L5-L2=6-4=2 atunci arcul (x5 x2) intr n drumul minim.
Drumul de lungime minim va fi (x0 x3 x2 x5 x6) =8
Observatia 1 In calcul se ia ntotdeauna ultima valoare Li determinat
2.Aplicaia informatica
const m=32000;
type mat=array[1..10,1..10]of byte;
vec=array[1..10]of word;
var a:mat;
l,dr,viz:vec;
i,j,n,k:byte;
f,g:text;
vb:boolean;
6152
procedure drum(nod:byte);
begin
viz[nod]:=1;
inc(k);
dr[k]:=nod;
i:=n-1;
if nod=1 then vb:=false
else vb:=true;
while (i>=1)and vb do
begin
if (l[nod]-l[i]=a[i,nod])and(viz[i]=0) then
begin
vb:=false;
drum(i);
end;
i:=i-1;
end;
end;
begin
assign(f,'ford.in');
assign(g,'ford.out');
reset(f);
rewrite(g);
readln(f,n);
for i:=1 to n do
begin
for j:=1 to n do
read(f,a[i,j]);
readln(f);
end;
l[1]:=0;
for i:=2 to n do l[i]:=m;
repeat
vb:=false;
for i:=1 to n do
for j:=1 to n do
if a[i,j]<>0 then
begin
if (l[j]>a[i,j]+l[i])and (l[i]<>m) then
begin
l[j]:=a[i,j]+l[i];
vb:=true;
end;

6163
 end;
until not(vb);
if l[n]=m then
writeln(g,'nu exista drum de la x1 la xn')
else
begin
drum(n);
for i:=k downto 1 do
write (g,dr[i],' ');

end;
close(f);close(g);end.

Varianta C
#include <iostream.h>
#include <fstream.h>
const int m = 32000;
int a[10][10],i,j,n,k,vb;
unsigned int l[10],dr[10],viz[10];
ifstream f("graf.in");
ofstream g("graf.out");
void drum(int nod) {
viz[nod]=1;
k++;
dr[k]=nod;
i=n-1;
if (nod==1) vb=0;
else vb=1;
while ((i>=1)&& vb)
{
if ((l[nod]-l[i]==a[i][nod])&&(viz[i]==0))
{
vb=0;
drum(i);
}
i=i-1;
}
}
int main() {
f >> n >>"\n";
for( i=1; i <= n; i ++)
{
for( j=1; j <= n; j ++)

6174
f >> a[i][j];
f >>"\n";
}
l[1]=0;
for( i=2; i <= n; i ++) l[i]=m;
do {
vb=0;
for( i=1; i <= n; i ++)
for( j=1; j <= n; j ++)
if (a[i][j]!=0)
{
if ((l[j]>a[i][j]+l[i])&& (l[i]!=m))
{
l[j]=a[i][j]+l[i];
vb=1;
}
}
} while (vb);
if (l[n]==m) g << "nu exista drum de la x1 la xn\n";
else
{
drum(n);
for( i=k; i >= 1; i --)
g << dr[i] << ' ';

}
f.close();
g.close();
return 0;
}

REFERENCES

Hand D., Mannila H., Smyth P., Principles of Data Mining, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA,
[1]
2001
Larose D., Discovering Knowledge in Data: An Introduction to Data Mining, John
[2]
Wiley, 2004.
Vapnik V., Golowich S.E., Smola A.J., Support Vector Method for Function
[3]
Approximation, Regression Estimation and Signal Processing, 2004

6185
 IMPORTANA INSTALAIILOR DE DESULFURARE N
TERMOCENTRALE PE CRBUNE DIN ROMNIA PENTRU
ASIGURAREA MENINERII UNEI PONDERI RAIONALE A
HUILEI N MIXUL ENERGETIC NAIONAL - EXPERIENA
S.E. PAROENI
IOSIF ANDRAS1, NICOLAE ILIAS2, SORIN MIHAI RADU3, DAN CONSTANTIN
MARINESCU4, EDUARD MIJA5, LUCIAN PREDA6
1
PhD. Professor, University of Petroani, Romania, [email protected]
2
PhD. Professor, University of Petroani, Romania, [email protected]
3
PhD. Professor, University of Petroani, Romania,
4
Drd.ing, University of Petroani, Romania,
5
Drd.ec, University of Petroani, Romania,
6
Drd.ing, University of Petroani, Romania,

ABSTRACT
Through the approval of the Kyoto Protocol, the ONU Convention held in Europe and has taken
to reduce the emissions of sulfurin large combustion installations through the development of
projects for desulphurization flue gas in coal burning power plants to improve the reports
relating to the impact on the environment. Desulphurization technology represents stations
through which combustion products are treatedinthe process of burning coal of fossil fuelsin
order to reduce the concentration of SO2 (sulfurdioxide). The case study refers the Paroeni
power plant, one of the consumers of Jiul Valley hard coal, which, in these circumstances may
remain a long run user of the local coal mines produced hardcoal. So, the presence of hardcoal
in the energy mix of National Energy System could be preserved, taking into account the
uncertain future of Mintia power plant, the second user of the mentioned above hardcoal.

KEYWORDS
desulfurare SE Paroeni, protocol, Kyoto, energie, crbune, emisii, lam dens, absorbie,
neutralizare, regenerare, oxidare , precipitaii , calcar.

1. Introducere:
Prin aprobarea Protocolului de la Kyoto organizat la convenia ONU, Europa i-a asumat
reducerea emisiilor de sulf n instalaiile mari de ardere prin elaborarea unor proiecte de
desulfurare a gazelor arse n termocentralele pe crbune pentru a mbunti rapoartele ce
privesc impactul asupra mediului nconjurtor.
6191
In urma asumrii Protocolului de la Kyoto, Uniunea Europeana a emis Directiva 2001/80/CE a
Parlamentului European i a Consiliului privind emisiile industriale prin limitarea emisiilor n
atmosfer a anumitor poluani provenind de la instalaii de ardere de dimensiuni mari (putere
egal sau mai mare de 50 MW ) pentru reducerea emisiilor de SO2 pn n 2012 sub 400
mg/Nm3, n urma creia a aprut i Directiva 2010/75/UE conform creia de la 1 Ianuarie 2016
emisiile industriale de dioxid de sulf vor fi reduse sub 200 mg/Nm3, dup care a aprut Decizia
2012/115/UE. Comisia Europeana a adoptat aceste directive i decizii innd cont de Tratatul
privind funcionarea Uniunii Europene.
Pentru a rspunde cererii globale mereu crescnde de energie, toate sursele de energie vor fi
necesare. Diferite surse de energie se vor potrivi diferitelor ri i diferitelor medii. n funcie de
disponibilitatea resurselor naturale, se poate lua o decizie ntre crbune i gaz, ca cea mai
viabil variant de alimentare de baz cu energie electric. n multe cazuri, ambele vor avea de
jucat un rol important.
In prezent, pe plan mondial, crbunele livreaz n jurul a 30% din energia primara i 41% din
generarea globala de electricitate. Utilizarea crbunelui este prognozat s creasc la peste
50% pentru 2030, pentru 97% din aceasta cretere fiind responsabile rile n curs de
dezvoltare.
mbuntirea eficienei include luarea, n cel mai scurt timp de msuri pentru reducerea
emisiilor provenite de la centralele pe crbune.
Prin urmare, toate termocentralele din statele membre UE, cu o capacitate egal sau mai mare
de 50 MW vor trebui prevzute cu staii de desulfurare pn n 2016, altfel vor intra n
procedura de infringement i vor fi nchise. Schema instalaiilor ar trebui s arate n felul
urmtor (Figura. 1):

Figura:1. Schema generala a unei termocentrale cu staie de desulfurare

Crbunele este cel mai larg disponibil combustibil fosil ca resurs energetic. Spre deosebire de
gaz i petrol, este larg distribuit, att geografic cat i n termeni de resurse de proprietate.
Abundena sa ofer securitate energetic pentru multe ri deoarece furnizarea sa va dura
semnificativ mai mult dect n cazul gazului sau petrolului. Se estimeaz c acesta va continua
s joace un rol foarte important n cadrul cererii de energie primar din lume i n viitor.
Crbunele joac un rol vital n generarea de electricitate din ntreaga lume. S-a estimat c
exist peste 860 miliarde tone rezerv de crbune dovedit n ntreaga lume. Aceasta nseamn
c exist suficient crbune pentru a fi utilizat cel puin 118 ani la rata curent a consumului.

2. Ponderea crbunelui n producia de energie electric

Centralele electrice pe baz de crbune furnizeaz n prezent 41% din electricitatea global. n
unele ri, crbunele are un procent chiar mai mare n producia de energie electric.

6202
Dup studiile IEA (International Energy Agency)consumul global de crbune a crescut de la
4762 de milioane de tone n anul 2000 pn la 7697 milioane de tone n 2012. Aceasta este o
cretere de 60%, reprezentnd o cretere medie anual de 4%.
rile n care crbunele are un procent ridicat n producerea de energie electric, dup IEA,
sunt: Africa de Sud- 93% ;Polonia- 92%; China- 79%; Australia -77%; Kazahstan - 70%; India
- 69%; Israel -63%; Republica Ceh- 60%; Maroc-55%; Grecia-52%; SUA-49%;
Germania - 46%.
Importana deosebit a crbunelui pentru producerea de electricitate se estimeaz a urma un
trend cresctor. n centrul Scenariilor Noilor Politici ale Ageniei Internaionale pentru Energie,
se estimeaz c, crbunele va oferi n jurul 33% din cererea global de electricitate n 2030. Cu
toate acestea, scenariul necesit punerea n aplicare a tuturor politicilor planificate n prezent de
guverne i de aceea vine cu mari incertitudini.
La ora actual i n Uniunea Europeana crbunele reprezint o pondere destul de ridicat n
producia de energie (Figura.2 i Figura.3).

Figura 3: Repartiia crbunelui n rile membre UE

Figura: 2. Puterea brut generata de crbune n Uniunea European

Romnia dispune de o gam diversificat de resurse de energie primara: iei, gaze
naturale, crbune, minereu de uraniu, precum i de un important potenial valorificabil de
resurse regenerabile. n ceea ce privete resursele de crbune din Romnia, conform datelor de
la ANRM (Agenia Naional de Resurse Minerale) acestea sunt dup cum urmeaz:
- Resursele de huil din Romnia cunoscute sunt de 755 milioane tone, din care
exploatabile 105 milioane tone;
- Resursele de lignit din Romnia sunt estimate la 1.490 milioane tone, din care
exploatabile 445 milioane tone;

In Romnia, puterea calorifica a lignitului este cuprins intre 6 15 MJ/kg n timp ce puterea
calorific a huilei este cuprinsa intre 16 29 MJ/kg.

6213
In funcie de tipul de crbune folosit difer i emisiile de SO2, deoarece puterea calorific a
lignitului este mai mic dect a huilei i prin urmare n funcie de calitatea crbunelui sunt i
valorile de SO2 emise de termocentrale n urma arderii crbunelui, ns valorile admise trebuie
s fie la fel conform directivei europene pentru toate termocentralele pe crbune (Tabel 1).

Tabel: 1. Valori emisii SO2 actuale i valori necesare impuse

Tipul de Termocentrala Valoare actuala a emisiilor Valoare limita admisa a
Combustibil solid de SO2 (mg/Nm3) emisiilor de SO2 (mg/Nm3)
Huila Paroeni 7400 200
Lignit Craiova II 6300 200

In Romnia s-a realizat un studiu referitor la evoluia participrii procentuale a principalilor

purttori de energie n producia total de energie n perioada 2003 2012 i prognoza pana n
2020 care arat n felul urmtor (Figura.4):

Figura: 4. Evoluia procentuala a principalilor purttori de energie

Datorit rezervelor mari de crbune existente n Romnia, o mare parte din energia produs aici
se bazeaz pe termocentralele cu crbune. Energia produs de aceste termocentrale prezint
un rol deosebit n Securitatea Sistemului Energetic Naional innd cont de faptul c energia
produs din resurse regenerabile (eoliene i fotovoltaice), n pofida creterii explozive din ultimii
ani a puterii lor instalate, nu asigur o stabilitate n SEN (Sistemul Energetic Naional).
In Romnia, energia produs pe baz de crbune n termocentrale reprezint aproximativ 30%
din energia total a rii dup cum se poate observa i n graficele de mai jos (conform situaiei
din primele luni ale anului 2015) (Figura.5).

622
 Figura.5. Graficele n timp real de la Transelectrica

3.Importana desulfurrii gazelor de ardere

Instalaiile de desulfurare reprezint tehnologia prin care sunt tratate gazele arse, n urma
procesului de ardere a crbunelui sau a combustibililor fosili, pentru a reduce concentraia de
SO2 (dioxid de sulf). De asemenea sunt mai multe tipuri de staii de desulfurare care pot fi
aplicate de la caz la caz precum desulfurare uscat, desulfurare cu ap de mare etc. dar cea
mai utilizat metod este desulfurarea de tip umed bazat pe utilizarea pietrei de calcar ca i
reactant.
innd cont de faptul c un combustibil fosil precum crbunele conine cantiti destul de
semnificative de sulf i c la ardere n jur de 95% din coninutul de sulf al crbunelui se
transform n dioxid de sulf care la rndul lui ajunge n atmosfer i interacioneaz cu
particulele de ap formnd aa numitele ploi acide cu efecte nocive asupra sntii oamenilor
i asupra plantelor, concluzionm ca foarte importanta instalarea staiilor de desulfurare la
termocentralele pe crbune pentru a reduce semnificativ impactul SO2 asupra mediului
nconjurtor.
Instalaiile de desulfurare sunt foarte eficiente avnd o rata de desulfurare cuprinsa intre 92% -
98%.
Rata de desulfurare reprezint raportul dintre cantitatea de sulf care nu mai este emis sub
forma de SO2 n atmosfer de ctre termocentral ntr-o anumit perioad de timp i
cantitatea de sulf coninut de combustibilul solid (in cazul nostru crbunele) introdus n cazanul
de ardere al termocentralei i care este utilizat n instalaie n aceeai perioada de timp
(Figura.6).

623
 Figura : 6. Schema de principiu a unei termocentrale conform normelor de mediu ale EU

4.Proiectul 142/2010 de la SE Paroeni-Instalaia de desulfurare i lam

dens

In Romnia directiva 2001/80/CE a fost adaptat pentru legislaia romn prin HG 541/2003
intrnd n vigoare n luna mai 2003.
Prin urmare, n Romnia au fost implementate mai multe proiecte de mediu n special proiecte
de desulfurare n mai multe termocentrale pe lignit precum cele de la Rovinari, Turceni i
Ialnia, iar n acest moment este n desfurare un proiect la Craiova II. n ceea ce privete
termocentralele pe huil n acest moment este n desfurare un proiect la termocentrala
Paroeni pentru o instalaie de desulfurare IDG (FGD n englez) i nlocuirea tehnologiei
instalaiei de transport zgur i cenu SSD (DSS n englez).

4.1.Descrierea general i situaia actual tehnico-economic

Prin studiul de prefezabilitate i ulterior prin cel de fezabilitate s-a stabilit c n cazul SE
Paroeni s se aplice sistemul de desulfurare umed a gazelor de ardere.
Astfel n 12.12.2012 a intrat n efectivitate (EDOC) contractul 142/2010 Instalaia de
desulfurare a gazelor de ardere de la grupul nr.4 de 150 MW i CAF de 103,2 Gcal/h
(IDG) i nlocuirea actualei tehnologii de colectare, transport i depozitare a zgurii
i cenuii (SSD) la Sucursala Electrocentrale Paroeni. La momentul EDOC s-a pltit ctre
contractorul principal 10% din valoarea total a contractului, 6.530.000 Euro.
Proiectul din cadrul Contractului 142/2010 este n valoare de 65.300.000,00 Euro, fr TVA, i
este impartit n dou:
FGD 49.070.000,00 Euro care reprezint 75,15% din valoarea proiectului;
DSS 16.230.000,00 Euro care reprezint 24,85% din valoarea proiectului;
Plata TVA n valoare de 15.672.000,00 Euro se plateste esalonat din surse proprii n funcie de
defalcarea preului contractului.
In conformitate cu HG nr.549/2009 privind aprobarea indicatorilor tehnico-economici ai
investiiilor s-au obinut banii de la BEI iar Contractorul CNIM a participat la licitaia deschis
(conform OUG nr.34/2006) organizata de ctre Beneficiar pentru achiziia la cheie a celor
dou investiii menionate i a fost declarat ctigtor.

624
Fondurile pentru acest proiect au fost obtinute printr-un contract de finanare ncheiat ntre
statul romn i Banca Europeana de Investiii (BEI), n valoare de 32.650.000 de euro, adic
jumtate din valoarea total a proiectului iar Ministerul Finanelor Publice (MFP) a contribuit cu
cealalt jumtate, obinut prin contractarea de instrumente de datorie publica de la bncile
BRD i BCR.
Instalaia de desulfurare a gazelor arse (IDG) va colecta i desulfura gazele de ardere de la
cazanul nr. 4 i CAF(cazan apa fierbinte). lamul de ghips rezultat din desulfurare, va fi trimis n
totalitate la sistemul de lam dens (SSD) care este o instalaie de evacuare a zgurii i cenuii
ntr-un amestec foarte dens care se ntrete foarte repede i previne mprtierea cenuii de
ctre vnt.
Scopul acestui proiect la cheie de la SE Paroeni, este reducerea emisiilor de oxizi de sulf n
vederea respectrii Directivei UE privind cerinele de mediu pentru instalaiile mari de ardere.
Pentru aceast activitate (desulfurarea umed a gazelor de ardere) exist recomandri B.A.T.
(Best AvailableTehniques - Cele mai bune Tehnici Disponibile) cu indicarea soluiei tehnice
optime pentru rezolvarea problemei i care trebuie s fie respectat.
Scopul lucrrii conine proiectarea, furnizarea i montarea instalaiei de desulfurare umed a
gazelor de ardere, mpreun cu instalaiile conexe de procesare a reactivului i de prelucrare i
depozitare a produsului secundar obinut.
Lucrrile pe antier au nceput n data de 13.06.2013 i au evoluat destul de bine urmnd
graficul de realizare al proiectului din punct de vedere al lucrrilor pe antier cat i defalcarea
preului contractului n ceea ce privete livrarea de echipamente.
La data de 16.03.2015, stadiul de realizare al proiectului era dup cum urmeaz: IDG fizic -
86,66 %, valoric -87,99 %, respectiv SSD fizic-37,38 %, valoric 43,64 %, iar n total 74,41 %
fizic i 76,97 % valoric.

4.2.Planificarea lucrrilor de proiectare i Graficele de Execuie

Contractorul a ntocmit programul de lucrri i graficele de Execuie i l-a naintat Beneficiarului

spre aprobare la 30 de zile de la intrarea n efectivitate a Contractului.
Aceste programe i grafice vor respecta obligatoriu perioada de timp impus prin Contract pn
la Punerea n Funciune a IDG.
Termenele de mai jos au fost maxim acceptate la ofertare i se raporteaz la data de intrare n
efectivitate a Contractului (EDOC):
Ingineria de Baz -3 luni;
Documentaia Tehnic pentru Autorizaia de Construcie - -2 luni;
Proiectarea de Detaliu - 8 luni;
nceperea lucrrilor n antier -6 luni;
Terminarea lucrrilor n antier -36 luni;
Finalizare Probe de Punere n Funciune - 39luni;
Finalizare Teste de Performan - - 45 luni.
Contractorul va garanta emisia de 200 mg/Nm3 SO2 (la un coninut de 6 % O2 n gaze uscate)
pentru un debit de gaze de ardere de 607.900 Nm3/h uscat (100 % din sarcina nominala a
cazanului 4) cu o concentraie de SO2 de maxim 7400 mg/Nm3 (la un coninut de 6 % O2 n
gaze uscate).
Rata de desulfurare de minim de 94 % pentru tot domeniul de variaie al debitului de gaze de
ardere cuprins ntre 206.536 Nm3/h uscat (80 % din sarcina nominala a CAF_ului) i 607.900
Nm3/h uscat (100 % din sarcina nominala a cazanului 4) i pentru ntreaga gama de crbune
utilizat, fr aport de gaze naturale (Tabel 2).

625
IDG realizeaz un consum de energie electric la sarcina nominal, pentru ntreaga gam de
crbune utilizat i realizeaz un consum de calcar (cu concentraia de CaCO3 de 92 %) la
sarcina nominal, pentru ntreaga gam de crbune utilizat.
Tabel: 2. Performanele funcionale garantate

Valoarea Penalizri
Performana garantat UM
garantat UM Valoare

Emisii SO2 mg/Nm3 200

Emisia de particule mg/Nm3 50
EUR /0.1
Rata de desulfurare % 94 % 150.000
EUR /(50
Consumul de energie electrica kWh 2800 kWh) 200.000
EUR/(100
Consumul de calcar t/h 8,046 kg/h) 120.000
Consumul de metal bila raportat la EUR/(10
cantitate calcar mcinata Kg/t 0,1 g/t) 30.000

Disponibilitatea de timp % 96 EUR / 1% 300.000

4.3.Descrierea tehnico-funcional a instalaiei de desulfurare IDG

Principiul de funcionare al instalaiei de desulfurare umed bazat pe utilizarea pietrei de calcar

ca i reactant este oarecum simplu. Practic se folosete o soluie apoas de calcar
(H2O+CaCO3) ca i reactiv intr-un reactor absorbant numit i absorber sau scruber, care este
un recipient vertical de dimensiuni mari n care gazele arse intr n contact cu soluia de calcar.
Desulfurarea gazelor de ardere prin metoda umed se realizeaz prin sprayerea gazului
cu suspensie de calcar. Instalaia de desulfurare este compus din urmtoarele:
- Zona de desulfurare a gazelor arse ;
- Zona de preparare a suspensiei de calcar.

4.3.1 Zona de desulfurare a gazelor arse

Aceast zon este compus din urmtoarele:

Canal de gaze arse
Ventilator de gaze
Suflante de oxidare 3 buc.
Absorber : - Ramuri de sprayere 5 buc
- Eliminator de picturi 2 zone
- Agitatori 3 buc
Pompe de recirculare 5 buc
Pompe de lam de ghips 2 buc
Hidrociclon 1 buc.
Rezervor de ap de urgen
Lnci de sprayere
Sistemul de monitorizare continu a emisiilor (CEMS)
In aceast zon gazele arse de la grupul nr. 4 ajung n absorber printr-un nou canal de
gaze, iar viteza necesar gazelor pentru a ajunge n absorber este asigurat cu ajutorul unui
ventilator montat pe canalul de gaze.

626
Gazele odat ajunse n absorber sunt sprayate cu suspensie de calcar prin cele 5 ramuri de
sprayere montate n partea superioara a abosorber-ului.Sprayereasoluiei de calcar se face n
contracurent cu gazele de ardere avnd loc o reacie chimic care formeaz un produs de
reacie ce se depune n partea de jos a absorberului.
Suspensia de calcar este preluat din absorber de cele 5 pompe de recirculare care asigura
alimentarea bancurilor de sprayere cu suspensie de calcar. Prin dou dintre cele 5 ramuri de
sprayere se introduce suspensie de calcar proaspt din rezervoarele de lam de calcar pentru a
menine pH-ul la valoarea setat.
n urma reaciei de desulfurare rezult sulfit de calciu (CaSO3) care este apoi oxidat intrnd n
contact cu oxigenul, prin introducerea de aer n lamul din absorber cu ajutorul celor 3 suflante
de oxidare, obinnd sulfat de calciu (CaSO4) care se mai numete i gips, iar acest proces va fi
urmat de cristalizarea gipsului n soluia suprasaturat.
Toate reaciile chimice din procesul de desulfurare au loc n Absorber (reactor sau scruber).
Reaciile chimice care au loc ntr-un sistem de purificare prin calcar umed, pot fi caracterizate
printr-o serie de etape, iar principalele etape care pot aprea simultan sunt: de absorbie, de
neutralizare, de regenerare, de oxidare i de precipitaii.

Figura: 7. Schema proces chimic n Absorber

Absorbie: Acesta este primul pas n procesul de ndeprtare. Este absorbia dioxidului de sulf
n lichidul de splare. Absorbia este operaia de transfer de mas, care are vapori solubili ntr-
un lichid.
Neutralizare: n acest pas, SO2 absorbit reacioneaz cu calcarul dizolvat i alte specii alcaline
prezente. Acest proces are loc n principal n turnul de pulverizare al absorberului. Dioxidul de
carbon se formeaz n timpul acestei etape, i este eliberat sub forma de gaz.
Regenerarea: este dizolvarea calcarului care ofer reactivul ce reacioneaz cu SO2 pentru a
forma sulfat de calciu, CaSO4. Calcarul este o baz i ajuta la echilibrarea pH-ului n amestecul
de lam pentru a nu deveni prea acid.
Oxidarea: este procesul de combinare a unei substane cu oxigenul. Prin procesul de oxidare,
sulfitul de calciu CaSO3 este transformat n sulfat de caliciu CaSO4, n gips.
oxidarea(2Ca2+2HSO3+O2=2CaSO4+2H) i cristalizare(CaSO4+2H2O=CaSO4 x 2H2O).
Precipitaii: este procesul prin care o substana se separ din soluie prin modificri chimice. n
rezervorul de recirculare Absorber, atunci cnd soluia devine saturat, sulfatul de calciu
precipit pe cristale de nsmnare.
Deoarece gazele rezultate n urma procesului de desulfurare sunt saturate cu ap, deasupra
celor 5 ramuri de sprayere este montat un sistem de eliminare a picturilor de ap din gaze
(mast eliminator). Cei trei agitatori montai la partea inferioara a absorber-ului au rolul de a
menine calcarul i gipsul n suspensie.
627
Pentru a evita creterea densitii lamului din absorber acesta este preluat cu ajutorul celor
dou pompe de lam de gips i introdus intr-un hidrociclon unde are loc separarea gipsului din
lamul din absorber, partea grosiera(gipsul) este descrcat n mixerul de la SSD, iar partea mai
subire este reintrodusa n lamul din absorber.
La partea superioar a absorberului este montat un rezervor de ap de urgen. Acesta are
rolul de a reduce temperatura gazelor arse provenite de la grupul 4 n cazul unei avarii.
Reducerea temperaturii gazelor este necesar pentru a nu deteriora cauciucul cu care este
acoperit absorberul i se realizeaz prin pulverizare ap, pulverizare realizat de lncile de
sprayere care sunt montate pe canalul de gaze nainte de intrarea acestuia n absorber.

Figura.8. Schema interior Absorber

Dup ce gazele trec i de separatorul de picturi (Mist eliminator) acestea se ndreapt spre
coul absorberului i intra n contact cu mediul nconjurtor.
Pe coul de fum de pe absorber sunt montai mai muli senzori legai de CEMS, un sistem de
monitorizare continua a concentraiilor de SO2, O2 , pulberi, NOx, CO2 i CO n gaze arse
precum i a debitului de gaze de ardere, la ieirea din IDG.

4.4.Descriere tehnico funcional a instalaiei de preparare a lamului dens (SSD)

lamul dens se realizeaz prin amestecul cenuii cu ap, zgur i lam de ghips. Densitatea
lamului dens obinut este 1,3~1,5 t/m3
Instalaia de lam dens este compus din urmtoarele:
- Instalaia de colectare si transport cenu;
- Instalaia de colectare si transport zgur;

4.3.2 Zona de preparare suspensie de calcar

Aceast zon este compus din urmtoarele:

Plnie de descrcare calcar 1 buc.
Transportor cu raclete 1 buc.
Transportor cu banda 1 buc.
Elevator cu cupe - 1 buc.
Transportor cu lan i bare 1 buc.
Siloz de calcar 1 buc.
Transportoare cu banda i cantar 2 buc.
Concasor 2 buc.
1
628
 Moara de calcar cu bile 2 buc.
Pompa lam de la moara 2 buc.
Hidrociclon 2 buc.
Rezervor de lam de calcar - 2 buc.
Pompa de lam de calcar - 2 buc.
Rezervor de ap de proces 1 buc.
Pompa de ap de proces 2 buc.
Prepararea lamului de calcar necesar realizrii desulfurrii gazelor de ardere se
realizeaz n zona de preparare lam de calcar astfel:
Calcarul este adus de la carier cu autocamionul i este descrcat n plnia de
descrcare calcar. De acolo este preluat de transportorul cu raclete i descrcat pe transportorul
cu band unde se realizeaz o extragere a materialelor feroase i neferoase din calcarul
transportat cu ajutorul separatorului de metale. De pe acest transportor calcarul ajunge la
elevatorul cu cupe care l transport pn deasupra silozului, de acolo fiind preluat pe un
transportor cu bare i lan i descrcat n silozul de calcar.
Silozul de calcar asigur depozitarea calcarului necesar pentru cinci zile de funcionare a
gospodriei de calcar la capacitate maxim. Pentru a asigura redundana sistemului de la gurile
de descrcare ale silozului sunt montate doua linii paralele i identice pentru prepararea
lamului.
Fiecare linie este compus dintr-un transportor cu band i cntar care realizeaz dozajul de
calcar introdus n procesul de realizare a lamului de calcar, calcarul de pe acest transportor cu
band ajunge n concasor unde se realizeaz reducerea granulaiei calcarului pana la 15 mm,
calcarul mcinat este apoi introdus n moara cu bile unde se realizeaz mcinarea umed a
acestuia.
Din mori, suspensia de calcar obinut este golit ntr-un jomp de unde este preluat cu
ajutorul unei pompe de lam de moar i pompat la hidrociclon unde are loc separarea prii
fine a suspensiei de calcar i golirea acesteia n rezervorul de lam de calcar aferent liniei care
se afl n funcie. Partea grosier a lamului de calcar separat de hidrociclon se ntoarce n
moara cu bile. Din rezervorul de lam de calcar acesta este preluat cu ajutorul unei pompe i
transportat spre cele 2 ramuri din absorber care permit introducerea lamului de calcar
proaspt.
Rezervorul de ap de proces asigur necesarul de ap pentru ntreaga instalaie, avnd
montate 2 pompe care realizeaz alimentarea cu ap de proces a ntregii instalaii.
Dup execuia lucrrilor i punerea n funciune a IDG, instalaia mare de ardere va trebui s
funcioneze la parametrii iniiali fr limitri sau restricii datorate funcionarii IDG (Tabel 5).
Caracteristici ale calcarului
CaCO3 ntre 92 - 99,2 %
SiO2 ntre 2,24 - 0,52 %
Fe2O3 ntre 0,41 - 0,17 %
Al2O3 ntre 1,01 - 0,45 %
MgO ntre 0,79 - 0,54 %
Dimensiuni ntre 0-30 mm (80 %) i 30-70mm (pn la 20 %).

1
629
 Tabel 5: Parametrii debitelor de gaze i noxe nainte i dup IDG

IGD este proiectat pentru toate regimurile de operare care pot aprea, inclusiv
pornire, oprire planificat, oprire accidental i funcionare normal. Centrala este dotat cu 1
cazan de abur C4 de 540 t/h i Cazanul de Ap Fierbinte de 103,2 Gcal/h. Grupul 4 de la
Paroeni a fost reabilitat n perioada 2004 2007 i are o putere instalat de 150 MW
(Figura.9).

Figura. 9. Diagrama flux de proces a IDG

4.4.Descriere tehnico funcional a instalaiei de preparare a lamului dens

(SSD)

lamul dens se realizeaz prin amestecul cenuii cu ap, zgur i lam de ghips. Densitatea
lamului dens obinut este 1,3~1,5 t/m3
Instalaia de lam dens este compus din urmtoarele:
- Instalaia de colectare si transport cenu;
- Instalaia de colectare si transport zgur;

4.4.1 Instalaie de colectare i transport cenu

Aceasta este compus din urmtoarele:

Vase NuvaFeeder 36 buc. (volum 552 l); Compresor transport cenu 2 buc.; Siloz de
cenu 2 buc. (ar trebui s aib volumul de 290m); Instalaie de descrcare cenu n
camion 1 buc.; Tobogan de transport cenu 3 buc.; Ventilator de aerare 3 buc. (debit de
1
630
aer 330m/h, putere motor 4,0 kW); Suflante de aerare 2 buc. (debit de aer 139,0 m/h,
putere motor 5,5 kW)
Cenua de la electrofiltre, prenclzitorul de aer i economizor este preluat de vasele
NuvaFeeder i transportat pneumatic n cele dou silozuri de cenu. Pentru realizarea
transportului pneumatic sunt utilizate cele dou compresoare de aer. Prin intermediul celor trei
tobogane se realizeaz descrcarea cenuii din cele 2 silozuri spre cele dou mixere sau spre
instalaia de descrcare cenu n camion.
Cele trei ventilatoare de aerare realizeaz fluidizarea cenuii n tobogane iar cele 2 suflante de
aerare realizeaz fluidizarea cenuii n siloz.

4.4.2. Instalaie de colectare si transport zgur

Aceasta este compus din urmtoarele:

Concasor 3 buc.; Pompa de zgura 2 buc. (debit: 113.0 m/h, vitez 1569 rpm); Sistem
continuu de recirculare si deshidratare zgur acionat hidraulic 1 buc.; Rezervor de ap de
serviciu 1 buc.; Pompa de ap de serviciu 2 buc. (debit: 120.0 m/h, vitez 2451 rpm);
Transportor cu band reversibil 1 buc. (capacitate 9 t/h, )
Zgura provenit de la blocul 4 i CAF (Cazan Apa Fierbinte) este transportat prin
sistemul existent ctre cele trei concasoare, astfel fiind redus granulaia acesteia. Dup
concasare, zgura ajunge n canalele existente de transport zgur si cenu, aceasta fiind
transportat n hidroamestec spre cele trei bazine din cldirea pompelor Wedag. De acolo este
preluat cu cele dou pompe de zgur si transportat la sistemul coninut de recirculare si
deshidratare zgur.
Acest sistem realizeaz deshidratarea zgurii, supra plinul de ap de serviciu rezultat este
acumulat n rezervorul de ap de serviciu. Aceast ap de serviciu este apoi reutilizat la
transportul zgurii i n mixere la obinerea lamului dens. Preluarea apei din rezervorul de ap
de serviciu se face cu cele dou pompe de ap de serviciu. Dup ce zgura este deshidratat,
este transportat cu un transportor cu raclete spre o band reversibil care descarc zgura n
unul dintre cele dou mixere aferente instalaiei de realizare a lamului dens.
1) Instalaie de preparare a lamului dens:
Aceasta este compus din urmtoarele:
Mixer 2 buc. (volum 1 m , debit vehiculat 20 100m/h); Jumbotrough 2 buc. (volum 10
m, vitez 25 rpm); Pompa cu piston acionat hidraulic 2 buc. (debitul vehiculat 54m/h-
105m/h presiune maxima 80,00 bari ).
lamul dens se obine prin amestecarea apei cu cenua, acestea fiind componentele
principale ale lamului dens, iar zgura i lamul de ghips sunt componente secundare. Toate
cele 4 elemente sunt amestecate in mixer. De acolo curg n Jumbotrough care are rolul de a
menine componentele in amestec (mpiedic sedimentarea particulelor) i de a asigura volumul
de lam dens necesar pentru funcionarea pompei cu piston. Din Jumbotrough lamul dens
ajunge n pompa cu piston i este pompat la depozitul de zgur i cenu.

1
631
 Figura. 10. Diagrama flux de proce a SSD

5.CONCLUZII

Necesitatea crbunelui n sistemul energetic global, european i nu in ultimul rnd naional este
absolut necesar pentru asigurarea siguranei sistemelor energetice.
Instalaiile de desulfurare n termocentralele pe crbune sunt absolut necesare i importante
pentru asigurarea dezvoltrii durabile a sectorului energetic naional si european pentru
ndeplinirea normelor de mediu.
Pentru meninerea n funciune a SE Paroeni, al crui singur grup funcional de 150
MW este, din punct de vedere al performanei i eficienei la nivel mondial, s-a impus
conformarea la normele europene prin realizarea instalaiei de desulfurare a gazelor de ardere
i nlocuirea actualei tehnologii de colectare, transport i depozitare a zgurii i cenuii.
Prin acesta se va asigura viabilitatea funcionrii SE Paroeni, i prin aceasta cantitatea
de huil aferent produs de minele CEH va avea asigurat utilizarea.

REFERENCES

Maria-Teresa Calvete, ANPM JASPERS Ghiduri sectoriale pentru Evaluarea

[1] Impactului asupra Mediului, Proiecte pentru instalaii de desulfurare a gazelor de
ardere aplicate instalaiilor mari de ardere; pag.6, pag.9, pag.14
[2] Strategia de dezvoltare energetic a Romniei pe termen lung 2002 2015, 2002;
ANPM,Directiva 2001/80/CE privind limitarea emisiilor de anumii poluani in aer din
[3]
instalaiile mari de ardere (Directiva LCP); pag.1
Klaus-Dieter Warnatz, Modernizarea instalatiilo rexistente in Romania:
[4] Implementarea Directivei 2001/80/CE prinplanuri de reducerea emisiilor specifice
instalatiilor; pag. 2
www.anpm.ro, Directiva 2001/80/CE privind limitarea emisiilor de anumii poluani in
[5]
aer din instalaiile mari de ardere (Directiva LCP); pag.1.
[6] Dr. Ing. Tiberiu Trotea Europa redescopera carbunele;
[7] Alstom Power Environmental Control System;
[8] IEA(International Energy Agency) - (International Energy Agency);

1
632
 Transelectrica - http://www.transelectrica.ro. Proiecttehnic Contract 142/2010 SE
[9]
Paroseni.
Gaf Deac I.I., A new View on Technologies Based on Natural Resources
Complementary to Technologies Based on Informatics and Informational Resources,-
International interdisciplinary Conference, Ministry Of Education and Research,
[10] North University of Baia Mare, College of Nyiregyhaza, Hungary, 6th Edition, Baia
Mare- Romnia, Scientific Bulletin,Serie C, Volume XIX, Fascicle: Mechanics,
Tribology, Machine Manufacturing Technology, 1st Volume, May 27-28,
2005,pp.221-226, (ISSN 1224-3264, ISBN 973-87237-1-x);
Chiril,G., Ilia,N., Radu,S.M., Gruneanu, I., - Environmental protection and
opportunities for harnessing jiu Valley's hard coal energetic potential. First
[11]
International Conference on MOLDAVIAN RISKS - FROM GLOBAL TO LOCAL SCALE
16-19 May 2012, Bacau, Romnia
Irimie I. S., Petrilean D. C.,Environmental Impact Assessment for Dismantling an
Energetic Complex Using Thermodynamic Concepts, "International Conference on
[12]
ENERGY, ENVIRONMENT, ECOSYSTEMS and SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT" (EEESD
'13), Lemesos, Cyprus, March 21-23, ISBN: 978-1-61804-167-8, pp.76-81, 2013;
Petrilean D. C,Irimie S. I., Bleanu V., Stnil S. - Multicriterial analysis of
[13] environmental impacts in thermoelectric power station areas, Environmental
Engineering and Management Journal. June 2014, Vol.13, No. 6, 1383-1388;
Pasculescu V.M., Suvar M., Pasculescu D. The necessity of implementing modern
protection systems into the National Energetic System, Scientific Bulletin of the
POLITEHNICA University of Timioara, Transactions on MECHANICS, XIII th
[14]
International Symposium Young People and Multidisciplinary Research, Timisoara,
9-10 Noiembrie 2011, Vol. 56(70), Special ISSUE S1, 2011,pag. 55-58, Editura
POLITEHNICA, ISSN 1224 6077

1
633
 ABC-UL IDENTIFICRII MSURILOR OPTIME de
PREVENIRE i PROTECIE n CEEA CE PRIVETE LUCRUL
la NLIME
Nicoleta CRCIUN1
1
Ph. DSt. INCDPM Bucuresti, Romania, [email protected]

ABSTRACT
innd cont de faptul c activitile desfurate la nlime sunt prezente n majoritatea
sectoarelor de activitate, identificarea msurilor optime care s ofere un un compromis
rezonabil ntre siguran i confort depinde de o serie de factori cum ar fi frecvena activitilor
la acel post de lucru, durata interveniei, numrul lucrtorilor care i desfoar activitatea la
acel post de lucru, configuraia locului de munc i nu n ultimul rnd analiza cost-beneficiu.

KEYWORDS
evaluare risc, analiza cost-beneficiu, lucru la nlime.

Definit ca activitatea desfurat la minim 2 m msurai de la tlpile picioarelor lucrtorului

pn la baza de referin natural (solul) sau orice alt baz de referin artificial, baz fa de
care nu exist pericolul cderii n gol (1), lucrul la nlime este prezent n majoritatea
sectoarelor de activitate la lucrri de ridicare a cofrajelor, la demolri, la lucrri de ntreinere i
reabilitare a cldirilor, a instalaiilor, la lucrri n cabine de macarale amplasate la mare nlime,
la activiti efectuate la nivelul solului lng un an /o groap neacoperit/; la lucrri n puuri
i canalizri, etc.
Fie c este vorba de lucrri efectuate pe o schel, structur, acoperi, sau la nivelul solului
lng un an /o groap neacoperit/, luctorii se confrunt adesea cu pericolul de cdere,
ntruct n timpul desfurrii activitii pot pierde contactul cu suprafaa pe care se sprijin i
pot cdea i suferi diferite leziuni. n timpul desfurrii activitilor la nlime, riscul de cdere
poate fi datorat att diferenei de nivel ntre postul de lucru i sol, ct i sarcinii de lucru
specifice ce urmeaz a fi efectuat i poate conduce fie la deces, fie la leziuni sau afeciuni ale
strii de sntate. Gravitatea leziunilor fiind determinat de viteza de impact a persoanei,
depinde att de nlimea de cdere, ct i de natura suprafeei de impact i partea corpului
care lovete suprafaa.
Msura n care este compromis securitatea lucrtorilor care i desfoar activitatea la
nlime este determinat de aciunea factorilor de risc existeni la postul de lucru, care poate fi
amplificat de o serie de influene (cum ar fi planificarea i pregtirea, materialele i
echipamentele, supravegherea, managementul proiectului, cultura privind securitatea la locul de
munc). Alocarea unei singure cauze specifice pentru un accident sau incident este rareori
exact i este considerat adesea o abordare eronat, deoarece nu reuete s identifice
cauzele reale. n general, identificarea factorilor care genereaz cderile de la nlime se
634
realizeaz n timpul unui proces de evaluare a riscurilor i este considerat cea mai important
etap n identificarea msurilor de prevenire i protecie.
Totui, investiiile n activitile de prevenire i protecie nu contribuie numai la reducerea
pagubelor posibile ci i la mbuntirea proceselor de producie n cadrul ntreprinderii. Datorit
complexitii msurilor care stau n spatele existenei unui "loc de munc sntos" i
"productivitii" aceste concepte devin dificil de definit i de msurat. Mai mult dect att,
nelegerea relaiei dintre sntatea i bunstarea lucrtorilor, a condiiilor organizatorice care
susin acest lucru, i a productivitii la nivel de ntreprindere necesit o perspectiv
interdisciplinar. (2)
Deoarece conceptul de productivitate este legat de calitatea forei de munc, de gestionarea i
condiiile de lucru, pentru a avea o influen efectiv asupra performanei ntreprinderii,
programul de sntate i securitate la locul de munc ar trebui s fie aliniat cu obiectivele
acesteia. O astfel de abordare ar trebui s fac parte din strategia de afaceri i din cercul de
mbuntire continu care duc o companie spre excelen.

1. Metodologia de evaluare a riscurilor

n ceea ce privete activitile desfurate la nlime, n fiecare moment al lucrului, angajatorii

trebuie s se asigure c expunerea la risc a fost redus la minimum, n special pentru acele
riscuri care pot provoca decesul sau vtmarea permanent.
Punctul de plecare n optimizarea activitii de prevenire a accidentelor de munc i
mbolnvirilor profesionale datorate cderilor de la nlime l constituie evaluarea riscurilor
existente la locul de munc. Pentru a minimiza riscurile la care sunt expui lucrtorii care i
desfoar activitatea la nlime fiecare pericol trebuie s fie tratat ntr-o manier prin care s
fie eliminat, sau, n cazul n care nu este posibil, s se reduc la un nivel acceptabil.
Msurile necesare pentru protecia securitii i sntii lucrtorilor se bazeaz pe urmtoarele
principii generale de prevenire:
a) evitarea riscurilor de cdere care pot aprea n timpul accesului la sau de la postul de
lucru sau n timpul lucrului prin:
- utilizarea msurilor de prevenire intrinsec (msuri care se refer la caracteristici
constructive); dispozitive de protecie (echipamente de lucru - ex. utilizarea unor platforme de
lucru, balustrade; dispozitive de protecie a marginilor, sisteme de restricionare a accesului,
etc.);
- utilizarea echipamentelor de lucru sau a altor msuri pentru a reduce nlimea de
cdere i implicit consecinele unei eventuale cderi, dac riscul nu se poate elimina (ex. s se
foloseasc plase de protecie, perne pneumatice sau umplute cu granule PVC, sau sisteme de
oprire a cderii);
b) evaluarea riscurilor care nu pot fi evitate prin examinarea atent a situaiilor n care
lucrtorii sunt expui la diferite pericole n timpul deplasrii la sau de la posturile lor de lucru
sau n timpul desfurrii activitii. Evaluarea riscurilor este de fapt un proces de examinare
sistematic a tuturor aspectelor muncii, care ia n considerare: ce anume ar putea cauza rnirea
sau vtmarea lucrtorilor, dac pericolele identificate ar putea fi sau nu eliminate, iar dac nu,
ce msuri preventive sau de protecie ar trebui s fie adoptate pentru a diminua riscurile.
Evaluarea riscurilor este de fapt un instrument utilizat pentru identificarea msurilor preventive,
permind att angajatorilor, ct i angajailor s neleag aciunile pe care trebuie s le
ntreprind pentru a mbunti sntatea i securitatea la locul de munc.
Indiferent de metoda utilizat, evaluarea cantitativ a riscurilor presupune parcurgerea
urmtoarelor etape:

635
I. Identificarea factorilor de risc (pericolelor) etap n care se constituie echipa de evaluare,
se delimiteaz posturile de lucru i se identific pericolele (existena surselor care pot afecta
starea de sntate, precum i modul n care aceste pericole acioneaz asupra lucrtorilor);
II. Evaluarea riscurilor etapa n care se stabilesc consecinele maxime previzibile asupra
organismului uman, se stabilete clasa de gravitate, frecvena i nivelurile de risc parial i
global pentru fiecare post de lucru. Dintre elementele care trebuie luate n considerare la
evaluarea riscului n vederea definirii msurilor de prevenire, se menioneaz:
- configuraia locului de munc (localizare, utilaje, echipamente, materiale, mediu, etc.);
- sursa de risc (nlimea de lucru, apropierea de gol, alte lucrri efectuate n apropiere etc.);
- activitatea lucrtorului (sarcin, durat, frecven, postur, etc.);
- lucrtorul (competena, experien, vrst, aptitudini fizice, absena vertijului, etc.).
De asemenea, importana agrii n stare de incontien nu ar trebui s fie subestimat,
deoarece aceasta poate duce la complicaii, care ar putea afecta funciile vitale: n astfel de
condiii, atrnarea lucrtorului mai mult de 30 min., poate provoca boli grave,ca urmare a
aciunii exercitate de chingi.
Documentul de evaluare a riscurilor trebuie s prevad riscul care apare n urma atrnrii i
msurile de urgen i procedurile necesare reducerii timpului de atrnare la cteva minute.
III. Ierarhizarea riscurilor i stabilirea msurilor de prevenire i protecie;
IV. Implementarea msurilor (decizii luate n Comitetul de Securitate i Sntate n Munc
pentru elaborarea planului de prevenire i protecie);
V. Monitorizarea aplicrii msurilor i reevaluarea (control intern).
Rezultatele evalurii riscurilor la posturile de lucru stau la baza elaborrii planurilor de prevenire
i protecie, precum i la realizarea instruciunilor proprii de securitate i sntate n munc.
Dac n urma evalurii riscurilor, la un loc de munc se constat existena posturilor de lucru la
nlime - unde exist pericolul/riscul de cdere n gol i dac lucrul la nlime nu poate fi
evitat, distana potenial de cdere trebuie s fie redus prin toate mijloacele disponibile.
Exist o ierarhie a msurilor care se iau atunci cnd se planific activiti la nlime. Alturi de
msurile organizatorice de prevenire a accidentelor (selecia personalului, instruirea, informare-
documentare i organizarea activitii i a locului de munc), msurile tehnice intrinseci, i
msurile de proteciecolective (3) au prioritate fa de msurile individuale de protecie.

636
 Tabelul: 1 este prezentat ierarhia msurilor de protecie n cazul lucrului la nlime.
Selectarea prioritilor Categorii de echipament Msuri colective Msuri individuale

Echipament de lucru care Platforme de protecie Sisteme de limitare i

NALT previne o cdere Balustrade prevenire a cderii,
Bariere Platforme mobile elevatoare
Platforme mobile pentru un singur utilizator
elevatoare pentru mai muli
utilizatori
Echipament de lucru care Plase cu nivel nalt Alte echipamente individuale
reduce nlimea de siguran i sisteme de de protecie mpotriva cderii
consecinele unei cderi aterizare moi aranjaten i sisteme de oprire a cderii
apropierealocurilor de
munc)
Echipamentele de lucru care Plase cu nivel sczut de Alte sisteme de prevenire a
minimizeaz consecinele siguran i sisteme de rnirii (veste de salvare
unei cderi aterizare moi gonflabile i veste de salvare)

SCZUT Alte categorii care nu sunt Instruirea, supravegherea i instruirea utilizatorilor pentru a
considerate echipamente de minimiza riscul suferit n cazul unei cderi
lucru (cum ar fi scri cu
trepte, capre, schel)
Sursa:http://www.aber.ac.uk/en/media/departmental/healthsafetyenvironment/bs_8437_2005_fallarrestselec
tion.pdf
Identificarea unor msuri de prevenire corespunztoare care s ofere un un compromis
rezonabil ntre siguran, confort i profitabilitate nu se poate realiza dect prin coroborarea
rezultatelor obinute n urma unei evaluri a riscului cu cele rezultate n urma unei analize cost-
beneficiu.
In case of two authors: (Roger, Youth, 2012)
In case of three or more authors: (Smith et al., 2010).

2. Analiza Cost-beneficiu

n general, o analiz cost-beneficiu prezint un real avantaj pentru angajatori, n luarea unei
decizii n ceea ce privete alocarea de fonduri pentru msurile de protecie.
Majoritatea studiilor existente n literatura de specialitate au demonstrat n mod clar c alocarea
de fonduri n msuri de prevenire i protecie la nivel de ntreprindere conduce la indicatori
economici pozitivi, iar o perioad de recuperare mai mic de trei ani indic n mod clar faptul c
securitatea i sntatea la locul de munc nu este necesar doar din punct de vedere legal ci i
din punct de vedere economic.
La nivel de ntreprindere, utilizarea indicatorilor economici poate ajuta la adoptarea deciziei cu
privire la investiiile cele mai atractive, realiznd posibilitatea comparrii ntre mai multe
alternative, n cadrul crora alternativa nici o aciune este ntotdeauna inclus. De fapt,
majoritatea analizelor cost-beneficiu n cazul msurilor de prevenire i protecie se bazeaz pe
diferena dintre rezultatele aciunii de prevenire i o estimare a costurilor atunci cnd nu are loc
nici o aciune de prevenire.

637
Prin analiza datelor existente n literatura de specialitate (4), (5), s-a observat c utilizarea
cazurilor de afaceri prezint un real avantaj pentru angajatori, n luarea unei decizii n ceea ce
privete alocarea de fonduri pentru msurile de protecie. n general, un caz de afaceri poate
examina o intervenie propus (ex ante) sau o intervenie care a fost deja pus n aplicare (ex
post). Principalul avantaj al studiilor ex ante este marea disponibilitate n a face estimri
financiare vis-a-vis de o intervenie, fra ca aceasta s fie de fapt efectuat. Totui, n multe
studii, interveniile n domeniul sntii i securitii la locul de munc sunt anticipate i se
bazeaz pe estimarea n valori monetare a tuturor costurilor i beneficiilor unui proiect propus,
utiliznd ca i indicatori economici:
- valoarea actualizat net, calculat ca diferen ntre suma tuturor beneficiilor i
cheltuielile de judecat; este utilizat frecvent n afaceri pentru a compara diferite intervenii,
sau pentru a se obine valoarea curent a fluxurilor viitoare de numerar nete; ct i
- raportul cost-beneficiu, calculat ca raport dintre beneficii i costurile totale.
Studiile efectuate de Jos Verbeek (4) au artat c un proiect ex ante se dovedea benefic din
punct de vedere financiar i putea fi implementat dac valoarea actualizat net calculat era
mai mare dect 0 sau raportul beneficiu-cost a fost mai mare dect1.
n ceea ce privete cderile de la nlime un alt scenariu s-a bazat pe analiza costbeneficiu,
prin gruparea categoriilor de costuri n categorii HEEPO (6): umane (H), echipamente (E),
mediu (E), produse (P) i organizare (O), a unui caz severitate medie, cu 16 zile de absenteism,
n care un lucrtor n vrst de cca. 40 ani ce a czut de la aproape 2 m nlime ntr-un an i
i-a luxat glezna dreapt. Pentru a facilita utilizarea practic a metodei, a fost proiectat o list
de verificare, care a reunit 40 de elemente de cost legate de accidente de munc sau legate de
problemele de sntate de la locul de munc subdivizate n cele cinci clustere HEEPO.
innd cont de salariu, de timpul de lucru i de costurile pe or s-au calculat costurile pentru
fiecare element de cost. Pentru acest accident au fost identificate doar consecine umane i de
organizare legate de:
- absena victimei;
- o productivitate redus atunci cnd lucrtorul a revenit la locul de munc;
- ore suplimentare pentru colegi;
- timp alocat pentru primul ajutor;
- timp pentru a reorganiza activitatea.
Msurile de prevenire, investiiile iniiale i costurile anuale recurente au fost nscrise ntr-o foaie
de lucru i reprezint combinaii de msuri tehnice, organizatorice i individuale. De asemenea,
prin prezentarea diferitelor msuri i a costurilor lor i rezultatele diferite pot fi comparate.
n cazul prezentat msurile de prevenire au constat n:
- achiziionarea unui echipament nou/auxiliar - balustrade, centuri de siguran, instruciuni
aferente;
- msuri organizatorice - Producerea de filme, mpreun cu angajaii, n care s se prezinte att
aciunile incorecte care au dus la determinarea accidentului ct i comportamentul corect n
timpul lucrului; urmat de analiza acestora;
- acordarea echipamentului individual de protecie, iar costurile i beneficiile sunt prezentate n
tabelul 2.

638
 Tabelul 2: Analiza cost beneficiu

Sursa: http://www.internationalsosfoundation.org/?wpfb_dl=21

Prin interpretarea datelor nscrise n tabelul 2 al analizei cost beneficiu a rezultat c:

- Investiia se amortizeaz n 2,2 ani
- rata intern de rentabilitate este de 35,1% ;
- suma beneficiilor actualizate este cu 4.277,48 mai mare dect suma investit;
- Indicele de profitabilitate este de 1,60- pentru fiecare euro investit n proiect;
- randamentul este de 1,6 ;
- raportul beneficiu-cost este de 7,60.
Activitile de prevenire i protecie determin nu numai reducerea pagubelor posibile dar
poate determina i mbuntirea proceselor de producie n cadrul ntreprinderii. La fel ca toate
investiiile, interveniile n msurile de prevenire a accidentelor detorate cderilor de la nlime,
includ att costurile de intervenie (cheltuielile necesare pentru implementarea interveniei), ct
i beneficii legate de rezultatul interveniei (inclusiv mbuntirea sntii).
Costurile activitii de prevenire pot fi estimate prin calcularea costului i a investiiilor de timp
ale personalului. Astfel, la nivelul ntreprinderii costurile activitilor de prevenire (investiii
iniiale) depind de urmtoarele variabile:
- investiii determinate de costuri ale echipamentelor de prevenire sau costuri suplimentare n
materie de sntate i securitate n munc (abreviat n continuare SSM), expimate n costuri
prin preuri de pia, cotaii de costuri, facturi;
- investiii suplimentare reprezentate de modificri ale bunurilor capitale necorelate cu
activitatea de SSM i realizate pentru permite funcionarea echipamentelor n condiii optime
(de ex. reconstruirea cldirilor) exprimate prin preuri de pia, cotaii de costuri, facturi;
- costuri de inginerie, consultan i planificarea costurilor n legtur cu investiiile, determinate
de cheltuielile pentru proiectarea i punerea n funciune a echipamentelor noi sau
implementarea procedurilor de lucru noi, exprimate prin preuri de pia, cotaii de costuri,
facturi, salarii totale pentru timpul petrecut la locul de munc;
639
- costuri suplimentare pentru produse de substituire (costuri recurente) datorate diferenelor de
pre, exprimate prin preuri de pia, cotaii de costuri, facturi;
- achiziionarea de echipamente individuale de protecie (costuri recurente), exprimat prin
preuri de pia, cotaii de costuri, facturi;
- costurile suplimentare pentru proceduri de lucru i ntreinere modificate (costuri recurente)
cauzate de diferena de pre ntre modurile anterioare de lucru i cele noi, n mod direct sau
indirect legate de activitatea de prevenire; de reinut c modalitile noi conduc, de asemenea,
la economii de costuri (de ex. costuri suplimentare pentru lucrul n conformitate cu normele de
securitate), exprimate prin preuri de pia, cotaii de costuri, facturi;
- program de lucru suplimentar al personalului direct implicat (costuri de recuperare) - ore
petrecute n edine, instruire, inspecii n materie de securitate, dezvoltare participativ-
exprimate prin salarii totale pentru timpul petrecut la locul de munc;
- costuri ale serviciilor interne sau externe n materie de SSM, alte servicii de prevenire (costuri
de recuperare), exprimate prin preuri de pia, cotaii de costuri, facturi;
- activiti interne ale ntreprinderii (managementul resurselor umane, promovarea sntii,
politica n materie de SSM i management), exprimate prin salarii;
- alte costuri ale locului de munc generate de orice aspect care nu este inclus n capitolele
anterioare, sunt exprimate prin preuri de pia, cotaii de costuri, facturi, salarii totale pentru
timpul petrecut la locul de munc.

3.Concluzii

Astfel, dac la nivel organizaional, adoptarea unor msuri n ceea ce privete sntatea i
securitatea la locul de munc pot conduce la crearea unor condiii mai bune de lucru, la
mbuntirea climatului social i a procesului de organizare; la nivel individual, un program de
msuri privind securitatea i sntatea la locul de munc pot duce la o motivaie mai bun i la
un angajament pe termen lung. Acest cadru teoretic subliniaz c att angajatorii, ct i
angajaii ar trebui s aib interese egale n mbuntirea condiiilor de munc i n realizarea de
investiii n domeniul securitii i sntii la locul de munc. De asemenea, alturi de
considerentele umanitare i obligaiile legale, investiiile n SSM pot genera beneficii cum ar fi:
- reducerea ratelor de boal i absenteism;
- creterea productivitii;
- mbuntirea imaginii fa de potenialii clieni;
- pstrarea personalului calificat pe termen lung.
Demonstrarea unor astfel de beneficii n afaceri este esenial pentru a arta impactul pe care l
au investiiile n domeniul securitii i sntii n munc asupra rezultatelor financiare
cuantificabile.

REFERENCES

H.G. 355/2007 privind supravegherea sntii lucrtorilor modificat i completat

[1]
prin H.G. nr.1.169/2011.
Lowe, Graham S. Healthy Workplaces and Productivity: A Discussion Paper .
[2]
http://www.cprn.org/documents/20183_en.pdf. [Interactiv] april 2003.
http://www.aber.ac.uk/en/media/departmental/healthsafetyenvironment/bs_8437_8
437_2005_fallarrestselection.pdf. Code of practice for selection, use and
[3]
maintenance of personal fall protection systems and equipment for use in the
workplace. [Interactiv] 2005.
640
 A systematic review of occupational safety and health business cases. Jos Verbeek,
[4] MD, PhD,1 Marjo Pulliainen, MSc,1 Eila Kankaanp, MSc. s.l. : Scand J Work
Environ Health 2009;35(6):403412, 2009.
Dr. Antonis Targoutzidis, Dr. Theoni Koukoulaki - ELINYAE, Greece, Dr. Ellen
Schmitz-Felten, Klaus Kuhl - Kooperationsstelle Hamburg, Karen M. Oude Hengel,
Evelien Rijken - TNO, the Netherlands, Prevent: Karla Van den Broek - Prevent,
Belgium, Dr. Ruth. The business case for safety and health at work: Cost-benefit
[5]
analyses of interventions in small and medium-sized enterprises.
https://osha.europa.eu/en/tools-and-publications/publications/reports/the-business-
case-for-safety-and-health-cost-benefit-analyses-of-interventions-in-small-and-
medium-sized-enterprises. [Interactiv] 2014.
Karla Van den Broek, Marc De Greef, Sebastiaan Van Der Heyden , Klaus Kuhl , Ellen
[6] Schmitz-Felten. Socio-economic costs of accidents at work and work-related ill
health. http://www.internationalsosfoundation.org/?wpfb_dl=21. [Interactiv] 2011
Nicoleta Crciun, Impactul accidentelor de munc datorate cderilor de la nlime
asupra dezvoltrii economice a ntreprinderilor, lucrare realizat n cadrul proiectului
[7] POSDRU/159/1.5/S/140106 - Studii doctorale i postdoctorale Orizont 2020:
promovarea interesului naional prin excelen, competitivitate i responsabilitate n
cercetarea tiinific fundamental i aplicat romneasc, 2015

641
 ENERGIA REGENERABIL, SOLUIA UNUI MEDIU CURAT
Luminia DURU1, Nicolae DIACONU1
1
Ph. DSt. University of Petroani, Romania

ABSTRACT
Articolul trateaz viziunea unui susintor al mediului curat, susintor ce reprezint marea
categorie a nespecialitilor tehnici, dar utilizatori ai energiei care, dorete s se implice n
grupuri de lucru de combatere a polurii generate de industria clasic energetic activ, prin
cutarea de soluii bazate pe informare i educaie. Punctul de vedere al unui astfel de
susintor poate oferi teme de gndire i chiar contribui la redirecionarea strategiei energetice
locale n sensul atingerii unui scop concret: producerea de energie curat la preuri competitive,
accesibile consumatorilor.

KEYWORDS
energie

Factorul energie este fr doar i poate cel mai important motor al industriei pentru c fr
energie nu pot exista economie, locuri de munc, investiii i, implicit, nici dezvoltare
economic. Energia este indispensabil la fel ca i aerul pe care l respirm sau apa pe care o
consumm.
n ziua de astzi nu mai este de ajuns s ne bazm pe energia produs din combustibilii fosili
(crbune) care a fost ani de-a rndul principala sursa de producere a energiei la noi n ar. Pe
lng faptul c aceasta a venit cu dezvoltare economic i locuri de munc, a venit i cu un
pre: poluarea aerului prin poluanii gazoi, pulberile metalice i cenua purtat de vnt care
rezult de la termocentralele pe crbune, poluarea solului cu plumb, nichel, sulf, cenu care
fac solul mai neroditor, ct i afectarea incontestabil a sntii celor ce beneficiaz de locurile
de munc ale industriei extractive.
Practic exist o alternativ: energia produs din surse regenerabile: vnt, soare, ap, biomas,
etc). Este energia inepuizabil, energia verde care ne poate ajuta s asigurm un procent
important din necesarul de energie la nivelul rii, s respirm aer curat i s trim ntr-un
mediu curat.
Noua politic energetic a UE prevede printre obiectivele sale: reducerea emisiilor de gaze cu
efect de ser cu 20% pn n 2020, ct i creterea utilizrii resurselor de energie regenerabil
de la mai puin de 7% ct era estimat pentru 2006 la 20% din totalul consumului de energie al
UE pn n 2020.
Conform Directivei UE cu privire la energia regenerabil 2009/28/EC, RES Directive publicat n
Jurnalul Oficial al UE i care a intrat n vigoare la 25 iunie 2009 susine producerea energiei din
surse regenerabile utiliznd panourile fotovoltaice, turbinele eoliene, microcentralele pe baz de
biomas, aceasta fiind singura form de energie care poate contribui la reducerea nclzirii
globale i a temperaturilor care au ca efect dezghearea ghearilor, la creterea nivelului mrilor
642
i oceanelor, la dispariia multor specii de psri i peti datorit modificrii habitatului lor
efecte generate de poluare, iar pentru poluare este responsabil ntr-un procent considerabil i
industria energetic!
Soluia pentru a stopa toate aceste efecte const n utilizarea unui mix energetic al tuturor
resurselor de producere a acesteia, singura viabil care s ne permit s avem energie n orice
moment al zilei i pentru toate tipurile de procese, inclusiv cele industriale avansate, bazate pe
control prin sisteme de automatizri de ultim generaie - fr poluare a aerului i solului.
Este adevrat c, pentru a beneficia de aceste surse de energie regenerabil, trebuie s avem
n vedere anumite zone din ar precum: zona Dobrogea, unde o mare parte dintre fermele
eoliene sunt deja instalate, zonele de cmpie pentru instalarea panourilor fotovoltaice i nu
numai, acestea putnd fi instalate i pe acoperiurile caselor de locuit. Microcentralele pe baz
de biomas (arderea lemnului mpreun cu gunoiul menajer) sunt cele care se preteaz cel mai
bine la micile comuniti sau gospodarii.
Factorul determinant al realizrii acestor obiective sunt capitalurile de investiii, iar pentru a face
aceste investiii este nevoie de o informare i ncurajare a publicului ct i o susinere financiar
a acestuia prin care amintim acordarea de mprumuturi cu dobnzi mici.
n ceea ce privete impactul instalarii de centrale eoliene asupra faunei, specialistii de mediu
recomanda ca trebuie avut n vedere traseul psrilor pentru a se evita ciocnirile acestora n
anumite perioade din an de turbinele eoliene. Instalarea unor senzori pe aceste turbine care s
detecteze de la mare distan apariia psrilor i s determine oprirea acestora, ar putea fi una
dintre soluii care ar putea evita moartea acestora.
Nevoia de susinere a dezvoltrii sistemelor de producere a energiei din resurse noi i
regenerabile vine din importana susinerii schimbrii, iar aceast schimbare nu este posibil
fr contribuia tuturor utilizatorilor de energie. Este necesar adaptarea la noi condiii de a
produce i utiliza energia, la noi obinuine i ateptri din partea noastr a tuturor.
Doar dndu-ne mna n angajamentul pentru o Romnie curat, putem obine acest deziderat.
Schimbarea este desigur dificil i nseamn determinare, cutarea, gsirea i punerea n
aplicare a soluiilor optime pentru a avea energie la costuri competitive. Schimbarea implic de
asemenea, parteneriate ntre mediul public i cel privat, solicit implicarea instituional ce
deine expertiza tehnic i autoritatea decizional, implic planuri clare i corecte pe termen
mediu i lung pentru atragerea investitorilor (att a celor strini dar i a celor locali, chiar dac
sunt valori mai mici i chiar a publicului larg ce poate contribui la dezvoltarea de microsisteme
de generare a energiei).
Practic este un ntreg ciclu n care fiecare sector economic reprezint o verig iar
disfuncionalitatea parial duce la disfuncionalitatea ntregului.
Romnia nu este a noastr, este a copiilor notrii i a generaiilor viitoare. Depinde de fiecare
dintre noi s le lsm o Romnie curat, competitiv i propice dezvoltrii.

1 REFERENCES

[1] Dumitru Fodor: Minerit i mediu, Editura Corvin Deva, 2015

Raport de mediu- Strategia Energetic a Romniei pentru perioada 2007-2020
[2] actualizat pentru perioada 2011-2020, Ministerul Economiei, Comerului i Mediului
de Afaceri
Clean Energy Solutions, Economic Perspectives, US Department of State/July
[3]
2006/Volume 11/ Number 2, eJournal USA
E-library- biblioteca virtual a Departamentului de Stat al Statelor Unite accesibil de
[4]
la American Corner Craiova
643
 Climate Change Perspectives/ US Department of State/ Bureau of International
[5]
Information Programs, eJournal USA
Dr. Ing. Emil Huidu : Monografia mineritului n Oltenia, Editura Fundaiei
[6]
Constantin Brancusi, Trgu-Jiu, 2000

644
PRACTICA PROCESULUI COMUNICRII I PARTICIPRII
N MANAGEMENTUL FIRMEI MINIERE/

PRACTICE OF PARTICIPATION OF PROCESS

COMMUNICATION TO MINING COMPANY MANAGEMENT
Andreea WAGNER1 , Andrei LECA2
1Ph. 1
DSt. UMF University of Bucharest, Romania
2 GEROM ITERNATIONAL, Petrosani

ABSTRACT
Pentru a-i atinge obiectivele, managerul trebuie s participe la definirea obiectivelor, s
transmit informaiile ctre personal, s cunoasc i s neleag obiectivele individuale ale
angajailor, s creeze un mediu propice compatibilitii dintre obiectivele organizaionale i cele
personale. Personalul angajat trebuie s cunoasc misiunea i obiectivele firmei productiv-
economic minier, s neleag i s accepte rolul lui n atingerea obiectivelor, s i apropie
aceste obiective pentru a putea participa proactiv la ndeplinirea lor, s identifice calea de
armonizare a obiectivelor firmei cu cele personale. n practica firmelor productiv-economice
miniere se ntlnesc forme specifice de comunicare managerial pentru fiecare etap a
evoluiei productiv-economice. Managerii dezvolta i promoveaz politicile firmei productiv-
economice miniere bazate pe sisteme de comunicare ce permit ajustarea structurii i a
procesului organizaional. Comunicarea managerial este o form a comunicrii interumane, un
instrument al conducerii care pune n circulaie informaii despre rezultatul deciziilor productiv-
economice miniere.

KEYWORDS
comunicarea managerial, comunicarea productiv-economic minier, management, firma
minier.

1. Terminologie general n transmisia informaiilor productiv-economice

miniere

Informaia fiind un mesaj, o comunicare sau o tire se refer la producerea unor evenimente
din mediul productiv-economic minier, la situaiile, condiiile i dimensiunile manifestrii
acestora.
Natura evenimentelor este divers: economic, social, ecologic .a.
Informaiile productiv-economice miniere trebuie s ndeplineasc diferite condiii pentru a fi
eficiente i operative n procesul decizional: 1) s fie veridice; 2) s fie exacte; 3) s fie
necesare; 4) s fie complete; 5) s fie oportune; 6) s aib o vrst ct mai redus; 7) s fie
transmise celor interesai cu frecven raional; 8) s aib fiabilitate corespunztoare; 9) s

645
aib dublu caracter: obiectiv (coninut intrinsec) i subiectiv (exprimat prin valoarea lor pentru
factorii de decizie din domeniul diplomaiei). [7]
Informaiile analitice productiv-economice miniere semnaleaz fapte i evenimente culese direct
de la surse, fr nicio intervenie.
Informaiile sintetice productiv-economice miniere exprim situaii rezultate din confruntri cu
alte informaii, generalizri, interpretri .a.
Semnalul productiv-economic minier, ntr-o accepie larg, este o manifestare fizic propagat
prin mediul productiv-economic dat.
De regul, noiunea de semnal se utilizeaz ntr-un sens mai restrns, excluznd manifestrile
care afecteaz procesul de transmisiune i care se numesc perturbaii.
Mesajul productiv-economic minier este un semnal ce corespunde unei reineri particulare din
ansamblul de idei, imagini. Datele care trebuie transmise (secvene) dintr-un mesaj constituie,
la rndul lor, prin compunere, un mesaj.
Interpretarea mesajelor productiv-economice miniere este legat de raionamentul logic i se
bazeaz pe: a) deducie (extragerea de judeci particulare din judeci generale) i b) inducie
(ajungerea la judeci de valoare pornind de la judeci, fapte particulare). [7]
ntre surs (partenerii din mediul local) i utilizare (firma productiv-economic minier), mesajul
sufer, n general, transformri al cror rezultat constituie un semnal n sens restrns.
Sursa productiv-economic minier este reprezentat de mecanismul prin care, din mulimea
mesajelor posibile, se alege ntr-un mod imprevizibil un mesaj particular, destinat a fi transmis
etajelor superioare de conducere a firmei. [7]
Utilizatorul este constituit din destinaia final la care trebuie s ajung mesajul respectiv.
Canalul (sau calea) este reprezentat de totalitatea mijloacelor destinate transmisiunii
semnalului.
Prin mijloace se nelege att aparatura, ct i mediul prin care se efectueaz transmisiunea. n
general, prin mediu se pot transmite semnale aparinnd mai multor ci.
Modularea nseamn transformarea unui mesaj productiv-economic minier ntr-un semnal, cu
scopul de a facilita transmisiunea prin mediul dat sau de a realiza transmisiuni multiple cu
coninut extins prin acelai mediu.
Scopul secundar al modulaiei este de a spori eficiena transmisiunii prin micorarea erorilor
(reducerea frecvenei aducerii la cunotin n firm a coninutului unor evenimente productiv-
economice miniere, percepute nerelevant de ctre conductorii delegai).
Demodularea este transformarea invers modulrii. n firm, semnalele productiv-economice
miniere primite din exterior sunt transformate n mesaje, care se supun prelucrrii n sistemul
informaional-decizional. [7]
Codarea (codificarea) nseamn transformarea unui mesaj productiv-economic minier ntr-un
semnal discret, efectuat cu scopul de a mri eficiena transmisiunii.
Decodarea constituie operaia invers codrii, respectiv revenirea de la semnalul discret la
mesajul continuu sau discret corespunztor.
Informaia productiv-economic minier se obine printr-un mecanism de alegere a unui
eveniment dintr-un numr de evenimente posibile, egal probabile. Sursele, prin mecanismul de
alegere din mulimea mesajelor posibile a unui mesaj oarecare, genereaz informaia (adic
sunt surse de informaie productiv-economice). [7]
Perturbarea informaional productiv-economic minier este reprezentat de un semnal care
modific semnalul productiv-economic aleator util, purttor de informaie, micornd cantitatea
de informaie transmis.

646
2. Comunicarea managerial productiv-economic minier [7]

Comunicarea managerial productiv-economic minier se regsete n coninutul

managementului.
Comunicarea productiv-economic minier este un proces bidirecional ntre oameni aflai la
diferite niveluri ierarhice, n cadrul tuturor funciunilor care au loc n sus, n jos sau pe
orizontal.
Comunicarea productiv-economic minier se analizeaz din perspectiva mediului extern firmei
(clieni, parteneri, autoriti i instituii publice), ct i din perspectiva mediului intern ntre
resursele umane ale entitii.
Comunicarea productiv-economic minier intern ajut la realizarea circulaiei optime a
informaiei n interiorul firmei, operaionalizarea funciilor manageriale, monitorizarea, evaluarea
i motivarea angajailor, respectiv la dezvoltarea i pstrarea competitivitii.
Comunicarea productiv-economic minier este un proces care din unghiul tiinei comunicrii
dispune de patru componente fundamentale: un emitor, un canal, informaie i un receptor
(J.J. Van Cuileburg, O. Scholten, G.W. Noomen). [7]
Pentru a-i atinge obiectivele, managerul trebuie s participe la definirea obiectivelor, s
transmit informaiile ctre personal, s cunoasc i s neleag obiectivele individuale ale
angajailor, s creeze un mediu propice compatibilitii dintre obiectivele organizaionale i cele
personale.
Personalul angajat trebuie s cunoasc misiunea i obiectivele firmei productiv-economic
minier, s neleag i s accepte rolul lui n atingerea obiectivelor, s i apropie aceste
obiective pentru a putea participa proactiv la ndeplinirea lor, s identifice calea de armonizare a
obiectivelor firmei cu cele personale.
n practica firmelor productiv-economice miniere se ntlnesc forme specifice de comunicare
managerial pentru fiecare etap a evoluiei productiv-economice.
Managerii dezvolta i promoveaz politicile firmei productiv-economice miniere bazate pe
sisteme de comunicare ce permit ajustarea structurii i a procesului organizaional.
Comunicarea managerial este o form a comunicrii interumane, un instrument al
conducerii care pune n circulaie informaii despre rezultatul deciziilor productiv-economice
miniere.
n corpul organizaional al firmei productiv-economice miniere se ntlnesc reele i canale de
comunicaii ce au configuraii specifice.
Sub-sistemul comunicaional reprezint ansamblul de date i informaii ce circul pe
canale de comunicare formale sau neformale, prin circuite i fluxuri informaionale n cadrul
unei firme productiv-economice miniere. [7]
Reelele de comunicare productiv-economice miniere pot fi: a) centralizate (informaia
avanseaz spre centru) i b) descentralizate (schimbul de informaii nu are o matrice).
Comunicarea intern productiv-economic minier este: a) bipolar; b) n reea (n
form de stea sau centrate; de Y; de cerc; multiple).
ntr-o firm, comunicarea intern productiv-economic minier este influenat de factori,
precum: structura organizaional, tipul de comunicare realizat, barierele comunicaionale,
importana comunicrii informale, relaia ef - subordonat i climatul comunicrii.
n sens larg, comunicarea productiv-economic minier reprezint procesul de
transmitere de informaii, idei, opinii, preri fie de la un individ la altul, fie de la un grup la altul.
Exist comunicare atunci cnd o surs influeneaz strile unui sistem, receptorul
alegnd dintre semnale pe acelea care conecteaz sursa cu receptorul.
Elementele structurale caracteristice ale procesului de comunicare productiv-economic
minier sunt [7]:
647
 existena a cel puin doi parteneri (emitor i receptor);
capacitatea de a emite i recepta semnale;
existena unui canal de transmitere a mesajului.
ntr-o firm comunicarea productiv-economic minier reprezint o component esenial, n
egal msur o stare de spirit i instrument operaional n organizare i conducere.
Prin coninutul mesajelor, n procesul de comunicare se urmrete realizarea anumitor
scopuri i transmiterea diferitelor semnificaii.
Un proces de comunicare productiv-economic minier are o tripl dimensiune: a)
comunicarea exteriorizat (aciunile verbale i nonverbale vizibile), b) meta-comunicarea (ceea
ce se nelege dincolo de cuvinte) i c) intra-comunicarea (la nivelul sinelui).
Procesul de comunicare productiv-economic minier are un caracter dinamic i se
deruleaz ntr-un context, n interdependen. [7]
Procesul de comunicare productiv-economic minier are un caracter ireversibil (odat
transmis un mesaj, el nu mai poate fi oprit).
Un prim criteriu luat n clasificarea formelor comunicrii l constituie modalitatea sau
tehnica de transmitere a mesajului.
Exist: a) comunicarea direct (mesajul este transmis uzitndu-se mijloace primare
cuvnt, gest, mimic) i b) comunicarea indirect (se folosesc tehnici secundare scriere,
tipritur, semnale transmise prin unde hertziene, cabluri, sisteme grafice .a.) (I. Drgan,
1991). [7]
Se identific urmtoarele forme ale comunicrii:
intrapersonal (sau comunicarea cu sinele)
interpersonal (sau comunicare de grup);
de mas (pentru publicul larg).
Dup modul de realizare a procesului de comunicare se identific:
ascendent (de la nivelurile inferioare ctre cele superioare);
descendent (realizeaz de la nivelurile superioare ctre cele inferioare);
orizontal (ntre indivizi aflai pe poziii ierarhice similare).
ntr-o firm comunicarea productiv-economic minier reprezint o component esenial, n
egal msur o stare de spirit i instrument operaional n organizare i conducere.
Elementele componente ale procesului de comunicare productiv-economic minier sunt
[7]:
feed-back-ul (este un mesaj prin care emitentul primete un rspuns de la destinatar);
canalele de comunicare (sunt cile urmate de mesaje);
mediul comunicrii (exist mediu oral i scris).
Barierele sunt perturbaiile ce pot interveni n procesul de comunicare productiv-
economic minier.
Se ntlnesc bariere de limbaj, de mediu, datorate poziiei emitorului i receptorului, de
concepie.
ntr-o firm, barierele de mediu sunt cele mai cunoscute, fiind reprezentate de climatul
de munc necorespunztor i folosirea de infrastructur informaionala necorespunztoare.
Dup modalitatea de transmitere a mesajului, comunicarea productiv-economic
minier este a) direct i b) indirect.
Dup modul n care managerii i angajaii particip la comunicare, aceasta poate fi: a)
intrapersonal (comunicarea cu sinele); b) interpersonal (de grup); c) de mas (pentru
publicul larg).

648
 Dup modul de realizare a relaionrii comunicarea productiv-economic minier n firm
este: a) ascendent b) descendent i c) orizontal. [7]
Prin comunicarea productiv-economic minier se nfieaz performanele, sensul,
semnificaia i conotaia legturilor n cadrul firmei pentru formalizarea stabilitii unor
comportamente individuale sau de grup.
Scopul comunicrii manageriale productiv-economice miniere este de a derula informri
corecte, eficiente i eficace, n concordan cu obiectivele manageriale i organizaionale
stabilite.
Comunicarea productiv-economic minier ocup un loc fundamental n procesul de
management, evoluia acesteia fiind de la comunicarea autoritar, prescriptiv ctre cea
relaional, democratic.
Relaia dintre participanii la control reprezint un alt aspect al funciei de control-
evaluare ce se realizeaz prin comunicare productiv-economic minier.
n exercitarea controlului sunt implicate trei persoane: a) decidentul; b) controlorul; c)
controlatul.
Comunicarea scris productiv-economic minier cuprinde rapoarte, memorii, scrisori,
note i alte documente bazate pe cuvntul scris. Are un grad ridicat de exactitate n raport cu
comunicarea verbal, avnd avantajul pstrrii facile a informaiilor.

3. Concluzii

Prin comunicarea productiv-economic minier se nfieaz performanele, sensul,

semnificaia i conotaia legturilor n cadrul firmei pentru formalizarea stabilitii unor
comportamente individuale sau de grup.
Scopul comunicrii manageriale productiv-economice miniere este de a derula informri
corecte, eficiente i eficace, n concordan cu obiectivele manageriale i organizaionale
stabilite.
Comunicarea productiv-economic minier ocup un loc fundamental n procesul de
management, evoluia acesteia fiind de la comunicarea autoritar, prescriptiv ctre cea
relaional, democratic.
ntr-o firm, comunicarea intern productiv-economic minier este influenat de factori,
precum: structura organizaional, tipul de comunicare realizat, barierele comunicaionale,
importana comunicrii informale, relaia ef - subordonat i climatul comunicrii.
n sens larg, comunicarea productiv-economic minier reprezint procesul de
transmitere de informaii, idei, opinii, preri fie de la un individ la altul, fie de la un grup la altul.
Exist comunicare atunci cnd o surs influeneaz strile unui sistem, receptorul
alegnd dintre semnale pe acelea care conecteaz sursa cu receptorul.

This paper was cofinaced from the European Social Fund through Sectoral Operational
Programme- Human Resources Development 2007-2013, project number POSDRU/ 1871.5/S/
155631, entitled Doctoral programs at the forefront of research excellence in prioritary
domains: health, materials, products and innovative processes, Beneficiary Carol Davila
University of Medicine and Pharmacy Bucharest.

649
 RISCURILE NON-INDUSTRIALE N CADRUL NOII
ECONOMII A RESURSELOR NATURALE/

NON-INDUSTRIAL RISK IN THE NEW ECONOMY OF

NATURAL RESOURCES
Irina VERNICEANU1
1
Ph. DSt. UMF University of Bucharest, Romania

ABSTRACT
n noua economie ciclurile de afaceri, structura informaiilor i tehnologiilor de comunicare,
precum i productivitile, - asociate cu globalizarea -, vor fi afectate n privina formelor,
coninuturilor i timpului de operaionalizare. Efectele reelistice i externalitile devin
multifactori principali de influen a productivitii i creterii. Elementele conceptuale relatate
mai sus conduc la propunerea de redifinire -, n sensul convenional al nelegerii la timpul
prezent -, a globalizrii, noii economii i a proteciei sociale pentru asigurarea cadrului de
identificare a riscurilor societale. n contextul prezent, se identific i sunt cunoscute riscurile
societii/economiei industriale. Se avanseaz propunerea de a se trece la analize situaionale
previzioniste, pentru identificarea i sistematizarea riscurilor societii/ economiei non-
industriale.
KEYWORDS
multifactori principali de influen, globalizare, riscurile societii/ economiei non-industriale,
noua economie, resurse naturale.

1. Riscurile societii/ economiei non-industriale

ntruct noua economie este dominat operaional de pia, cei ce se afl pe arealul
concurenial al acesteia, n mod individual devin responsabili pentru asigurarea veniturilor
oamenilor, inclusiv pentru protecia sau asigurarea bunstrii lor. [16]
Se consider c statul ar trebui s devin ultimul intervenionist n acest proces asiguratoriu,
n msura n care pentru diferite momente sau segmente de timp nu se ndeplinesc parametrii
minimi de protecie social.
n prezent (2015), filosofia comportamental general, fa de srcie de exemplu, se
manifest prin ajutor i solidaritate mutual, cnd sunt vizibile tangenele cu evenimentele
convenional neacceptabile/nefavorabile, n msura n care non-contribuitorii se regsesc n
ineria social, pseudo-asiguratorie pentru bunstare. [16]
Democraia politic ar trebui s fie nsoit de responsabilitate social i, n egal msur, de
justiie social.

650
Statul manifest rol non-invaziv n esena asiguratorie social, ntruct se constat tendina sa
de intervenie indirect, prin sprijinul pieelor i a celor ce produc/furnizeaz utiliti pentru
supravieuire pe aliniamentul activ contribuitor de protecie social.
Aceast tendin de distanare survine din mulimea difereniat de politici guvernamentale ce
au rolul de punere n practic a managementului public, aferent riscurilor sociale.
n fapt, rolul statului n protecia social este frecvent dictat de condiionalitile politice.
Noile tehnologii, globalizarea, dereglementrile i competiia de pe pia arat apariia de noi
incertitudini i riscuri, asociate noii economii, cu reflexii n privina securitii sociale [16].
Rezult c n teoria i practica proteciei sociale, cu att mai mult pentru situaia manifestrii
noii economii, nu se ntlnete un model universal n domeniu.
Este probabil instituirea ideii de asigurare social universal, care s soluioneze dobndirea
unui minim de securitate social pentru fiecare membru al colectivitii umane.
O astfel de abordare, datorit insuficienei generale i a raritii resurselor, presupune consens
n privina redistribuirii lor, aspect relativ improbabil de soluionat.
De aceea, se constat frecvent manifestarea sistemului mixt de protecie social. De
exemplu, n SUA, sistemul de protecie social se remarc prin deservirea grupurilor sociale de
margine, aflate la limitele subzistenei. Statul european incipient (aferent UE), manifest
comportament universalist, cu asumri de responsabiliti pentru o larg gam de probleme
sociale, n timp ce statul scandinav aspir la inducerea egalitii pentru standarde nalte (nu
pentru standarde limit, minime). [16]
n toate situaiile, manifestarea statal n privina proteciei sociale este i trebuie s fie
continu.
Presiunea competiiei n noua economie se ridic la rang de cerin natural. Este posibil ca
statul s nu mai aib potenialul, prghiile, instrumentele, metodele, tehnicile i resursele
pentru asigurarea proteciei sociale. Mai degrab, rolul su ar putea fi de administrator
delegat al problematicii i soluiilor de securitate social general. [16]
Informaiile i tehnologiile de comunicare (ITC), mpreun cu economia bazat pe cunoatere
(EBC) genereaz paradigma tehnico-economic a noii economii {TE(NE)} [16]:
{ TE(NE)} = (ITC) * (EBC) (1)
Situaia paradigmatic enunat, ofer oportuniti pentru crearea/apariia unei noi clase de
elite, profesionalizate n cunoatere, care poate favoriza instituirea de noi tipuri de piee libere
n societatea post-industrial, caracterizate prin: 1) dereglementare, 2) privatizare, 3)
descentralizare i 4) globalizare.
n aprecierea noastr[ aceast evoluie conduce la apariia riscului de difereniere, inclusiv n
sfera proteciei sociale. [16]
Este necesar formalizarea unei ideologii pentru protecie social, avnd n vedere riscul
manifestrii erodrii sociale a diferitelor categorii de ceteni, prin neasimilarea instantanee a
cunoaterii echipoteniale.
Ca atare, vor avea loc, n continuare i n noua economie aciuni de prioritizare, de
ierarhizare i direcionare/redirecionare a resurselor cu scop social, n contextul n care
competiia general foarte accentuat/ nalt vizeaz, n primul rnd, costurile, inclusiv cele
sociale.
Grupurile minoritare vulnerabile vor fi o realitate i n noua economie, ntruct
digitalizarea societii produce divizri, prin diferenieri date de nivelul de educaie al fiecrei
persoane.
Dac n economia prezent (2015) se acumuleaz/ stocheaz resurse, n noua
economie se va acumula/depozita cunoatere. [16]

651
 ntre actuala i noua economie este previzibil apariia de divergene, urmare a
diferenelor existente deja ntre capitalul uman obinuit (convenional, din prezent) i capitalul
intelectual, care va fi predominant.
Nendoielnic, n noua economie ciclurile de afaceri, structura informaiilor i tehnologiilor
de comunicare, precum i productivitile, - asociate cu globalizarea -, vor fi afectate n privina
formelor, coninuturilor i timpului de operaionalizare.
Efectele reelistice i externalitile devin multifactori principali de influen a
productivitii i creterii.
Elementele conceptuale relatate mai sus conduc la propunerea de redifinire -, n sensul
convenional al nelegerii la timpul prezent -, a globalizrii, noii economii i a proteciei sociale
pentru asigurarea cadrului de identificare a riscurilor societale.
n contextul prezent, se identific i sunt cunoscute riscurile societii/economiei industriale.
Se avanseaz propunerea de a se trece la analize situaionale previzioniste, pentru
identificarea i sistematizarea riscurilor societii/economiei non-industriale. [16]
Economia bazat pe cunoatere (Knowledge Based Economy-KBE) este caracterizat
prin volatilitatea manifestrii, ns, prin similitudine cu economia industrial/post-industrial se
dovedete a avea ferestre economice structurale, prin care s se ntrevad, s se neleag i
s se interpreteze consecinele transformrilor radicale/radicalizante n producie/reproducie i
distribuie/consum. [16]
Incertitudinea manufacturrii, sesizat n economia obinuit, este similarizat cu incertitudinea
cunoaterii/recunoaterii.
Riscurile aferente incertitudinilor, i ntr-un caz i n altul trebuie controlate i minimizate, iar
pentru sfera social, n noua economie, din perspectiv asiguratorie este necesar efort tiinific
i politic.
Actualmente, n mediul economic strategic este adjudecat concepia apariiei/formalizrii noii
economii prin varianta sa atotcuprinztoare, cunoscut sub denumirea de economie bazat pe
cunoatere. Sub marcajul strategic, vizionar mulumitor ca alternativ a acestei concepii, se
nregistreaz o linite conceptual n privina riscurilor i a proteciei sociale ce acapareaz
transformarea n sine. [16]
De exemplu, actuala economie este nsoit de un nivel/volum al srciei, care afecteaz
pri din colectivitile umane.
Dimensiunea economico-social actual, cuantificabil cu ajutorul indicatorilor statistici
convenionali, trebuie extrapolat i virtual cuantificat cu dimensiunea economico-social
viitoare, aferent noii economii, pentru care problema srciei nu este focalizat analitic i
evolutiv cu grad suficient de reprezentativitate [16].
ntr-o astfel de situaie poate s se menin o anume iresponsabilitate/lips de responsabilitate
organizat, atta timp ct instituiile i factorii politici accept statutul ce confirm confruntarea
cvasi-continu cu riscurile, recunoscute ca realiti imuabile, intangibile i definitiv/obiectiv date.
n fapt, ar fi util procesarea incertitudinii, respectiv a riscurilor, iar prin schimbri cu
dinamism mai accentuat s se identifice arealul riscurilor sistemice, asupra crora s se
acioneze cu raionalitate. [16]
O variant metodic pentru facilitarea abordrii rezolvrii problematicii sociale, respectiv
controlului i dinamicii riscurilor n noua economie poate surveni din propunerea de
instituionalizare a reelelor sociale.
Securitatea social i bunstarea pot deveni bunuri/servicii mai publice, pentru sustenabilizare
colectiv.
O sistematizare original, exemplificativ pentru economia Romniei, n perspectiva
urmtoarelor 3-4 decenii de evoluie productiv/consum sub incidena noii economii, se refer

652
la sistemele de: a) securitate social, b) beneficiu social universal, c) structuri private de
beneficii sociale.
n noua economie nu este vorba de instaurarea egalitarismului social, ns adecvarea
subzistenei se impune din raiuni fundamentale etice, legate de existena i manifestarea
condiiei umane concureniale. [16]
Politicile sociale transnaionale, evolund ctre cele globale, sunt caracterizate de dificulti
ridicate n privina formulrii lor ca operaionalitate, coninut i sustenabilitate, n raport cu
politicele n domeniu, deja funcionale n planurile locale, naionale.

2. Tendine pentru identificarea riscurilor economice [16]

Firmele se afl sub incidena riscului care trebuie stpnit managerial spre a proteja viziunile
referitoare la avansul operaional fezabil n mediul economic ambiant.
Metrica performanei poate fi cunoscut sau aplicat, folosind n mod pro-activ ciclurile
posibile de tendine.
Obinnd informaii cu privire la cretere/descretere este posibil s se formuleze modaliti de
reacie (reactive) la fiecare ciclu, marcnd situaional fiecare faz, care este neleas i
raportat contextual spre folisin decizimal.
Se apreciaz c toate etapele i fazele de afaceri conin riscuri operaionale.
De exemplu, realizarea corect a eficienei, deficitul de securitate n telecomunicarea economic
(pe internet), amploarea deciziilor strategice, soluiile tehnice posibile ca variante proiectate .a.
se nscriu n rndul riscurilor operaionale moderne.
Acestora li se adaug riscurile deschise de tip soft (soft fact risk) care se regsesc n imaginea
firmei, brand, reputaie, consecven i constan operaional .a.
n cadrul unei firme sau a unui grup de firme este posibil sistematizarea tipurilor de
evenimente care conin riscuri operaionale .
Riscul n concepia tradiional nu a fost perceput ntotdeauna n relaie permanent cu
entitatea productiv-economic, ci doar ca element de influen n sine ceea ce determin
caracterizarea sa subiectiv n procesul de apariie i combatere (reducere sau eliminare).
n perioada modern se observ preocupri pentru identificarea de noi metode de cuantificare
permanent a riscurilor, respectiv pentru creterea obiectivitii n procesul de msurare a
acestorai evitarea camuflrii lor. [16]
Riscul a devenit parametru/factor n sistemul de management general economic, fiind
considerat indicator cheie pentru performan.
n procesul competitiv entitile productiv-economice sunt caracterizate de abilitatea i
capacitatea lor de a alege (nsui) obiective care s suporte riscurile.
Vizualizarea contextului manifestrii a riscurilor se bazeaz pe [16]:
1) corelarea evenimentelor firmei;
2) predicii bazate pe extrapolare din elementele aferente unor evenimente trecute;
3) msurarea indicatorilor cheie afereni performanei, i
4) abordarea excepiilor n privina regulilor urmate de firm n dezvoltarea sa.
n acest cadru, indicatorii impui (obiectivele finale) se afl sub incidena manifestrii riscurilor,
respectiv a controlului/monitorizrii lor [16].
n sistemele productiv-economice se formalizeaz lanul logic al aciunilor, viznd dezvoltarea
entitii (organizaiei) sau mediului economic, fiind enumerate activitile aferente.
Pe aceast baz se identific excepiile, pentru care se enumer riscurile, posibilitile de
apariie i impactul acestora.

653
ntotdeauna se folosesc elementele de mediu ambiant existente i cunoscute, care devin
refereniale pentru reunirea aciunilor, activitilor i a riscurilor n mulimi distincte, ce se
supun analizei i procesrilor pentru optimizri.
n practic se ntlnete combinarea riscurilor manageriale, respectiv a managementului
riscurilor cu performanele operaionale ale activitilor.
Pe acest fond se pot derula operaionalizrile productiv-economice bazate pe niveluri impuse de
performan.
Obiectivele firmelor, riscurile, procesul de control i cutarea aliniamentelor de normalitate
pentru avans convenional productiv-economic spre eficien se regsesc n ciclurile nchise de
tendine.
n prezena riscului entitile productiv-economice au operaionalizate conceptualitatea acional
n trei zone dup cum urmeaz [16]:
1) zona A - Reducerea i prevenia riscului. n acest caz riscul sesizat este mare, iar hazardul
mai redus. Incertitudinea este ridicat ns se poate aciona preventiv asupra acesteia;
2) zona B Obinerea performanelor operaionale. n acest cadru riscul ncepe s scad i n
mod corespunztor hazardul nregistreaz scdere.
3) zona C Iniiative strategice. Entitile productiv-economice beneficiaz n aceast zon de
strategii sau iniiative strategice, care sunt caracterizate de riscuri foarte reduse (chiar nule),
ns hazardul aferent coninutului acestora este ridicat.
Se concluzioneaz c, n fapt ciclurile de tendine pot oferi imagini i date de interes practic
pentru dezvoltarea entitilor productiv-economice lund n considerare mrimea riscurilor, a
incertitudinilor i hazardului, spre a cantona evoluiile pe arealul de oportuniti contravenional
dorite/impuse.

3. Prevenirea riscului i diminuarea efectelor apariiei sale [16]

Direciile importante pentru opiunile decidenilor n a preveni riscul n entitile economice au

expresii n obiectivele strategice, din rndul crora se enumer:
a) Reducerea cheltuielilor. Este examinat situaia costului unitar i a rezultatului din exploatare,
urmare a creterii cantitii fabricate, respectiv a reducerii cantitii fabricate, cu anumite
niveluri procentuale (5%; 10%; 15%,.).
Se constat c modificarea volumului fizic al produciei obinute antreneaz modificri n sens
invers a costului unitar, ntruct suma cheltuielilor fixe va fi absorbit de un numr mai mare
sau mai mic de produse.
Influena se resimte la nivelul rezultatului din exploatare.
Creterea costului unitar determin reducerea rezultatului, iar reducerea costului unitar
antreneaz creterea profitului.
Realitatea economic este sensibil diferit de suma influenelor date de ipotezele teoretice din
tiina economic.
n economia real evaluarea ct mai corect a riscului este legal de evoluia cheltuielilor
variabile, considerate indicator de efort.
Cifra de afaceri este un indicator de efort. Att cheltuielile variabile ct i cifra de afaceri nu au
caracter liniar.
Se impune determinarea cifrei de afaceri optime, aceasta fiind nregistrat cnd costul marginal
(Cm) este egal cu venitul marginal (Vm) [16]:
Cm = Vm profit max (2)
Punctele critice rezult tocmai din variaiile neliniare ale costurilor i vnzrilor.

654
 b) Creterea cifrei de afaceri. Cifra de afaceri este influenat de: 1) cantitatea vndut i 2)
preul de vnzare.
Creterea cifrei de afaceri se obine prin creterea factorilor cantitativi, ct i a celor
calitativi.
Principalii factori cantitativi se refer la folosirea de tehnici moderne de marketing,
ocuparea de noi piee, dezvoltarea desfacerii .a..
Factorii calitativi se refer la ridicarea nivelului calitativ al produselor finite, pre de
vnzare care coreleaz condiiile interne cu cele externe, promovarea de noi produse .a.
Strategiile de prevenire a riscului n economie, n esen ncorporeaz obiectivele
strategice.
Managerii au astfel la dispoziie posibiliti acionale pentru a preveni i diminua riscul
operaional din exploatarecu ajutorul strategiilor.
ntreprinderile care nregistreaz niveluri ridicate ale cheltuielilor fixe necesit modelri
ale propriilor strategii, ntruct devin mai riscante i mai puin flexibile la modificrile mediului
economic.
Riscul n noua economie, ntr-o alt ordine de idei, i poate avea originea n maniera n
care se iau deciziile, respectiv n natura politic a procesului de decizie care determin
(formalizeaz) o politic economic n termeni economici convenional impui/ programai/
cerui. [16]
ntr-un astfel de context, se dovedete util identificarea arealelor de minimizare a
riscurilor n noua economie.

4. Concluzii

Considerm c, n noua economie urmeaz s se modifice mecanismele politice cunoscute de

luare a deciziilor colective economice.
Astfel, democraia economic direct, [16] n forma sa perfect, n context clasic semnific
votul direct al unui corp electoral economic asupra unei politici economice, care s contracareze
riscurile.
Este posibil s se manifeste urmtoarele reguli de vot (alegere):
- regula sinceritii;
- regula agendei (care conine materiale la care se manifest expresiile de interes economic
majoritar);
- regula adaptrii la circumstane;
- regula pronunrii pe baza informaiei transmise, care este purttoare de semnificaii,
legalitate i coninut de interes.
n noua economie, preferinele - ca satisfacere -, se vor baza preponderant pe ultima regul
(respectiv pe pronunarea derivat din informaia transmis).
n democraia economic reprezentativ distribuia de politici economice ocazioneaz
creterea intuiiei pentru alegerea convenional adecvat.
Este posibil ca n noua economie s se manifeste procesul decizional operaionalizat sub fora
grupurilor de presiune din reelele de clusterizare.
Modelele de influen devin instrumente de mediere multi-principial a deciziilor economice.
De aceea pronunarea pe baza informaiei transmise, operat de ctre grupurile economice
contributive din reelele clusterizate ofer diferite corelaii ntre riscuri i profituri n noua
economie dominat de fluxuri informaionale tehnologice cu pante maximizate.
Panta fluxului informaional tehnologic este cu att mai mare cu ct riscurile sunt mai mari, iar
profiturile mai reduse.

655
This paper was cofinaced from the European Social Fund through Sectoral Operational
Programme- Human Resources Development 2007-2013, project number POSDRU/ 1871.5/S/
155631, entitled Doctoral programs at the forefront of research excellence in prioritary
domains: health, materials, products and innovative processes, Beneficiary Carol Davila
University of Medicine and Pharmacy Bucharest.

REFERENCES

Burdu, E., Cprrescu, G., - Fundamentele managementului organizaiei, Editura

[1]
Economic, Bucureti, 1999
Burdu, E., Cprrescu, G., Androniceanu, A., Miles, M.,- Managementul schimbrii
[2]
organizaionale, Editura Economic, Bucureti, 2003
Ceauu, I., - Dicionar Enciclopedic Managerial, vol. I-II, Editura Academiei de
[3]
Management, Bucureti, 2000
[4] Cooke, S., Slack, N., - Making Management Decision, Prentice Hall, London, 1991
GfDeac M. Reformularea managerial a economiei prin aplicaii ale
managementului corporativ / Economy Management Reformulation through
Corporate Management Applications. n: Material Intl. Conf. Knowledge Economy
[5]
Challenges of the 21st Century -, Perspectives on 2020. Europe, Where To?,
Seciunea: Politici financiare, contabile i guvernan corporativ. Piteti: Constantin
Brancoveanu University, 6-7 November 2014, p.36-45
Gf-Deac M. Dimensionarea i difuzarea cognitiv a managementului general n
condiiile globalizrii. n: Revista pentru Dezvoltare Bazat pe Cunoatere RDBC.
[6] Bucureti: Nr. 2/ 2015. ISSN 2393-2112 / ISSN-L 2393-2112. (col. I.I. Gf-Deac, Th.
Damian, A. Condurache, S. Pavl, B. Oprescu, A. Bucur) (www.e-editura.ro/rdbc). p.
79-82.
Ioan Gf-Deac, Ioan I. Gf-Deac, Nicolae Bulz, - Relaii doxastice ntre creterea
[7] economic i centralizare, Revista pentru Dezvoltare Bazat pe Cunoatere RDBC,
Nr. 1/ 2015, Bucureti, ISSN 2393-2112 / ISSN-L 2393-2112, p. 9-15
Gf-Deac M., Management general pentru economia bazat pe cunoatere, Ed.
[8]
FRM, Bucureti, 2011
Gf-Deac M ., - Managementul modelrii structurilor tehnologice, Editura Infomin,
[9]
Deva, 2002
Gf-Deac I., - Bazele managementului doxastic, (in Romanian), Ed. Free Mind
[10]
Publishing, Bucureti, 2013, (ISBN 978-606-93321-5-3)
Gf-Deac I.I., -Microeconomie,- Ed. FMP, Bucureti, 2013, (ISBN 978-606-93432-4-
[11]
1)
Gf-Deac I.I., -Macroeconomie, - Ed. FMP, Bucureti, 2013, (ISBN 978-606-93432-5-
[12]
8)
Gf-Deac I., (col.), - Management i marketing pentru tehnologii moderne Ed.
[13]
FRM, Bucureti, 2000
Gf-Deac I., - Dezvoltarea structural a tehnologiilor moderne Ed. All-Beck,
[14]
Bucureti, 2001
Gf-Deac I.I., - Bazele juridice i economice ale sistemelor de resurse n noua
[15]
economie, - Ed. Infomin, Deva, 2007, (ISBN 978-973-7646-04-0)
Gf-Deac I.I., - Noua Economie ntre cunoatere i risc, - Ed. Infomin, Deva, 2010,
[16]
(ISBN 978-973-7646-11-8)
[17] Date C.J., - An introduction to database systems, Eight ed., Pearson Education, 2004

656
 Gf-Deac I.I., - Administrarea modern i clusterizarea industrial n noua economie,
- Revista Minelor, (Index Baza de date Internaional EBSCO Publishing U.S.A.,
[18]
ISSN-L 1220-2053; ISSN 2247-8590), Bucureti, nr. 11/2010, pp. 22-24, (autor
unic), (CNCSIS B+; /BD-ISI), (ISSN 1220-2053)
Gf-Deac I.I., - Analiza multicriterial la utilizarea raional a resurselor naturale, -
Revista Minelor, (Index Baza de date Internaional EBSCO Publishing U.S.A., ISSN-L
[19]
1220-2053; ISSN 2247-8590) Bucureti, nr. 11-12 (185-186)/2008, p.42-44, (cu Ilia
N.), (CNCSIS B+; /BD-ISI) (ISSN 1220-2053)
Gf-Deac I.I., - Issue Related to Security and Environment for Ensuring the
Consumption of Energy within the New Economy, - Revista Minelor, (Index Baza de
[20] date Internaional EBSCO Publishing U.S.A., ISSN-L 1220-2053; ISSN 2247-8590),
Bucureti, no.8/2010, p.37-40, (autor unic), (CNCSIS B+; /BD-ISI), (ISSN 1220-
2053)
Gf-Deac I.I., - Formalizarea statisticilor pentru selectia exploatrii i valorificrii
resurselor naturale, - n vo. Energiile regenerabile. Eficien economic, social i
[21] ecologic., (autor unic a contribuiei de 20 pag, cu Dobrescu E. coord.), Acad.
Romn, Ed. Sigma, Euroloby, 2009, p.137-156, (ISBN 978-973-649-501-4; ISBN
978-973-88736-7-4)

657
 METODE SI SURSE SUSTENABILE DE FINANTARE
STRATEGICA A REFACERII TERENURILOR MINIERE DIN
BAZINUL CARBONIFER AL OLTENIEI
Mihai Marius D. NEDELEA1
1
PhD. St., University of Petrosani, Romania, [email protected]

ABSTRACT
n articol se arat necesitatea proceselor de restructurare a activitilor de exploatare a
lignitului care a fost determinat de cerine ale reducerii costurilor prin creterea eficienei
tehnico-economice n activitatea de exploatare minier; derularea operaiunilor miniere prin
luarea msurilor stringente de protejare a mediului nconjurtor. La acestea se adaug situaii
contextuale/ conjuncturale precum: reducerea cererii de energie electric i termic la nivel
naional i implicit reducerea consumului de combustibili solizi; necesitatea asigurrii
competitivitii energetice n centralele termoelectrice pe baz de crbune cu alte surse
purttoare de energie. Strategia de finanare pe termen lung adoptat de complexele
energetice din zon este de a asigura continuarea procesului de funcionare a unitilor fezabile,
viabile, eficiente economic, aa nct preul crbunelui energetic produs s fie competitiv cu
preul combustibililor alternativi existeni pe pia.

KEYWORDS
strategia de finanare, activiti de exploatare a lignitului, terenuri miniere, protejarea mediului
nconjurtor

1. Introducere

Combustibilii fosili solizi sunt o surs primar semnificativ de energie n structura energetic a
Romniei, reprezentnd o pondere de 39-42%.
Producia de crbune energetic a SNL Oltenia SA Tg-Jiu asigur necesarul pentru producerea a
36-40% energie electric i termic.
Dinamica produciei de lignit obinut de Societatea naional a Lignitului Oltenia din Tg-Jiu
este influenat de msurile de retehnologizare i restructurare parcurse i de strategia de
tranziie pe piaa energetic din Romnia.
Se nregistreaz variaii continue ale cererii de crbune energetic ceea ce presupune i impune
elaborareade programe i modele de finanare flexibile a activitilor de extracie.
ntreprinderile miniere de exploatare a lignitului din bazinul carbonifer al Olteniei sunt
amplasate pe un areal/aliniament desfurat pe cca 120 km, din Valea Dunrii pn n Valea
Bistriei-Vlcea (Figura.1.). [5]

658
 Figura.1. Perimetrele miniere carbonifere principale n zona Olteniei
Geologia zonei evideniaz faptul c zcmintele de lignit din bazinul carbonifer al Olteniei
aparin perioadelor Neogen i Cuaternar, respectiv sistemului geomorfologic Getic-Piemont.
Zona depresionar local ndeplinete funcia de bazin de sedimentare.
Stratele sunt n numr de 21 i au distribuie neuniform.
Tectonica stratelor este variabil i sunt situate la adncimi reduse de exploatare, la cca. 50-
150 m n raport cu suprafaa. Situaiile hidrogeologice sunt diferite, existnd condiii pentru
exploatarea la zi ct i n subteran.
Lignitul este un crbune inferior, fiind combustibil preponderent pentru ardere n
teermocentrale pentru producerea energiei electrice i termice i n mai redus msur pentru
consumul casnic.
Caracteristicile combustibilului de tip lignit sunt: putere calorific cuprins ntre 1650-1950
kcal/kg, coninutul de sulf ncadrndu-se n intervalul 1%-1,5%, umiditate Wt=42% i cenu
36,5%. [6].
Din perspectiv analitic economico-financiar obsevm c, n fapt, cu ct poziia de extracie a
lignitului este mai apropiat de locul de producere a energiei electrice i termice, cu att preul
de cost al acestui combustibil este mai redus.
Baza material este reprezentat din rezervele de lignit cantonate n perimetrele miniere
concesionate, de cca. 178 milioane tone lignit energetic, din care 4 milioane tone rezerve
dovedite i 174 milioane tone rezerve probabile.
Capacitatea de producie este de 18 milioane tone/an lignit energetic, din care 96% n
exploatri la zi i 4% n exploatri subterane.
Activitatea de extracie a lignitului se realizeaz pe o suprafa de cca. 100 km2 prin 9
exploatri miniere la zi.
n acest caz se folosesc tehnologii de extracie n flux continuu cu excavatoare cu rotor,
transportoare cu band de mare capacitate i maini de haldat.
Sunt n funciune i 3 exploatri miniere subterane n care extracia lignitului se realizeaz cu
abataje cu front lung echipate cu complexe mecanizate.
Activitatea de exploatare a lignitului n zon se desfoar pe teritoriul a 3 judee: Gorj,
Mehedini i Vlcea, n 12 perimetre miniere grupate n 5 uniti de producie, baze de
aprovizionare tehnico-material, transport i prestri servicii, o unitate de valorificare a activelor
i un centru de recuperare i perfecionare a forei de munc.
Strategia de dezvoltare a activitii miniere n zon s-a bazat n primul rnd pe reorganizarea
unitilor i pe de modernizarea mijloacelor de producie, respectiv perfecionarea continu a
forei de munc.
659
2. Elemente ale strategiei de finanare n Bazinul Carbonifer al Olteniei

O constatare general referitoare la coninutul strategiei de finanare este aceea c

problematica de mediu/de refacere a mediului este acut n zon.
Necesitatea proceselor de restructurare a activitilor de exploatare a lignitului a fost
determinat de cerine ale reducerii costurilor prin:
- creterea eficienei tehnico-economice n activitatea de exploatare minier;
- derularea operaiunilor miniere prin luarea msurilor stringente de protejare a mediului
nconjurtor.
La acestea se adaug situaii contextuale/ conjuncturale precum :
- reducerea cererii de energie electric i termic la nivel naional i implicit reducerea
consumului de combustibili solizi;
- necesitatea asigurrii competitivitii energetice n centralele termoelectrice pe baz de
crbune cu alte surse purttoare de energie;
Strategia de finanare pe termen lung adoptat de complexele energetice din zon este de a
asigura continuarea procesului de funcionare a unitilor fezabile, viabile, eficiente economic,
aa nct preul crbunelui energetic produs s fie competitiv cu preul combustibililor alternativi
existeni pe pia.
Bilanul contabil anual i contul de profit i pierderi se supun spre aprobare Ministerului
Finanelor i se public n Monitorul Oficial al Romniei, Partea a IV-a.
Strategia de finanare trebuie s in seama de faptul c untitile productiv-economice din
zona minier Oltenia au, n principal, urmtorul obiect complex de activitate [5]: gestionarea i
protecia zcmintelor de lignit din perimetrele ncredinate spre exploatare; extracia prin
subteran i cariere a crbunelui, prepararea i comercializarea lignitului din zcmintele i
cmpurile miniere aferente entitilor componentelor; executarea de lucrri miniere de
deschidere i pregtire n subteran i descoperit n cariere; executarea de lucrri de cercetare
geologic i tehnologic pentru extinderea perimetrelor n exploatare i pentru creterea
gradului de cunoatere a celor existente; meninerea i dezvoltarea capacitilor existente de
producie, precum i deschiderea de noi cmpuri miniere; elaborarea de studii, proiecte i
documentaii proprii n vederea mbuntirii activitii tehnologice; lucrri privind ntreinerea,
repararea, confecionarea pieselor de schimb i utilajelor proprii necesare obiectului de
activitate; construcii-montaje miniere n subteran i la suprafa; aciuni de import-export i de
cooperare economic internaional; servicii informatice proprii; perfecionarea personalului
pentru activitatea proprie, mbuntit, performant.
n conformitate cu contractele ncheiate pentru producia programat, complexele energetice
determin anual volumul de venituri de realizat, cheltuielile totale de efectuat i cota de impozit
pe profit datorat bugetului de stat, conform legii
ntreprinderile din zona extractiv minier al Olteniei ntocmesc anual bilanuri contabile i
conturile de profit i pierderi dup modelele stabilite de Ministerul Finanelor, aspect realizat i
n concordan cu asumrile din strategia de finanare.
Se constat c veniturile cuprind i subveniile pe produse, precum i cheltuielile, i se stabilesc
prin bugetul de venituri i cheltuieli pentru fiecare exerciiu financiar.
Bugetul de venituri i cheltuieli se aprob de Guvern cu avizul Ministerului Finanelor i al
Ministerului Economiei.
Analizele evideniaz faptul c din veniturile realizate, n zon se acoper cheltuielile
evideniate n costuri, precum i cheltuielile i plile prevzute a fi suportate direct din venituri,
potrivit legii.
Totodat, din veniturile realizate dup acoperirea cheltuielilor se constituie fondul de rezerv i
fondul de dezvoltare, precum i fondurile necesare pentru pregtirea, perfecionarea i
660
recalificarea personalului angajat, pentru cointeresarea prin premiere a acestuia, pltete
impozitele, taxele, cotele de asigurri i securitate social i celelalte vrsminte prevzute de
lege.
Preurile de livrare la produsele, lucrrile i serviciile executate de societile miniere se stabilesc
n condiiile legii.
Preurile i tarifele la bunurile i serviciile de interes public care fac obiectul propriu-zis al
activitii, pentru care concurena este exclus sau substanial restrns datorit existenei unui
monopol, sunt supuse controlului instituit de Guvern.
Strategia i modelul de finanare evideniaz, deasemenea c Societile pot beneficia, dup
caz, de subvenii care se aprob prin Legea bugetului de stat.
Subveniile pot fi utilizate numai potrivit scopurilor pentru care au fost acordate. Programul de
livrri avut n vedere la fundamentarea subveniilor constituie limita maxim de determinare a
alocaiilor respective.
Se remarc faptul c, n prezent SNL Oltenia Trgu-Jiu nu beneficiaz de subvenii.
n cazul n care n cursul exerciiului financiar veniturile nu sunt suficiente pentru acoperirea
cheltuielilor, n contextul strategic financiar amintit, pe baza calculelor de fundamentare, se
determin volumul creditelor necesare activitii de producie n valoare de cel mult 20% din
veniturile brute realizate n anul precedent.
Pentru acoperirea eventualelor deficite, contractarea de credite peste nivelul stabilit se
nfptuiete cu sprijinul i aprobarea Ministerului Finanelor.
Unitile miniere din zon hotrsc cu privire la investiiile ce urmeaz a fi realizate, n limita
competenelor ce le sunt acordate, stabilesc nivelul surselor proprii de finanare i determin
volumul creditelor bancare pentru obiectivele de dezvoltare.
n cazul investiiilor finanate integral sau parial de la bugetul de stat, entitile n cauz au
obligaia ca n executarea bugetului de venituri i cheltuieli s se ncadreze n alocaiile bugetare
aprobate.
Raportat la cererea prognozat prin Strategia Energetic a Romniei, n perioada 2007-2020
rezult un deficit din producia intern de cca. 1,3 milioane tone/an lignit ncepnd cu anul
2008, diferen care crete progresiv, ajungnd la 3,1 milioane tone n anul 2012, n condiiile n
care aceast cerere se menine la nivelul prognozat.
Scderea cererii de crbune impune reducerea inclusiv a capacitii de producie, care corelat
cu potenialul economic al perimetrelor concesionate i presupune msuri organizatorice i
tehnologice pentru redimensionarea activitii extractive.
Reducerea activitii de exploatare i analiza personalului angrenat n exploatri implic msuri
adecvate pentru dimensionarea costurilor de exploatare i sociale.
Exploatarea lignitului are o influen semnificativ asupra mediului, aspect pentru care n
programul de investiii sunt prevzute cheltuieli pentru refacerea mediului prin lucrri de redare
n circuitul economic a suprafeelor afectate n conformitate cu legislaia n vigoare.
Ponderea acestor lucrri n programul de investiii este de aproximativ 4% din valoarea total.
Din rndul msurilor specifice de finanare, cu valene de nscriere n metodele si sursele
sustenabile de finantare strategic a refacerii terenurilor miniere din Bazinul Carbonifer al
Olteniei se rein:
- redarea n circuitul economic prin predarea de ctre comunitatea local a unor suprafee de
30-354 ha/an;
- surse financiare pentru elaborarea documentaiilor de mediu;
- susinere financiar pentru reducerea emisiilor de particule n suspensie sau sedimentabile
pentru ncadrarea n condiiile de mediu impuse de legislaia european n domeniul proteciei
aerului;

661
- sprijin financiar pentru mbuntirea indicatorilor de calitate ai apelor evacuate, prevzui n
autorizaiile de funcionare;
- sume din buget pentru protecia terenurilor mpotriva polurilor accidentale, asigurarea
stabilitii acestora;
- surse financiare pentru monitorizarea factorilor de mediu, ap, aer, zgomot n vederea
ncadrrii n condiiile impuse de legislaia european n aceste domenii;
Aceste opiuni /msuri strategice financiare pot asigura transpunerea n practic a msurilor de
protecie a mediului n zonele critice ale instalaiilor i utilajelor precum i protejarea mpotriva
agenilor poluani a zonelor limitrofe activitii miniere.

3. Aspecte concluzive

Raportat la cererea prognozat prin Strategia Energetic a Romniei, n intervalul 2007-2020

se identific un deficit din producia intern de 1,3 milioane tone lignit ceea ce impune
adaptarea starategic i tactic la noua situaie a formulelor de finanare.
Considerm c infrastructura geo-minier zonal reprezint factor de fundamentare strategic
afiecrui scenariu de finanare a domeniului industrial-extractiv n sistemul productiv-economic
zonal.
Ca atare, afectrile de mediu, n particular cele asupra terenurilor miniere, nu pot fi eliminate
prin alternativa abandonrii activitii miniere, ceea ce impune redirecionarea conceptual a
finanrii strategice n zon.
n acest cadru sunt necesare variante de eficientizare economic i de imprimare a tendinelor
i perspectivelor financiare favorabile n activitatea de exploatare, n strns legtur, cu
refacerea terenurilor miniere.

REFERENCES

Apostol, T., - Strategia i Legislaia Romniei de protecie a mediului, Editura AGIR,

[1]
Bucureti, 2000
Bbu, G., Moraru, R., - Environmental risk characterisation principles.
[2] Proceedings of the 6th Conference on Environment and Mineral Processing, part. I,
VSB-TU, Ostrava, Republica Ceh, 27-29 iunie 2002
Berca, M.- Teoria gestiunii mediului i a resurselor naturale, Ed. Grand, Bucureti,
[3]
1998
Florea, M.N.,- Degradarea, protecia i ameliorarea solurilor i terenurilor, Editura
[4]
Tehnic, Bucureti, 2003
Gf-Deac, I.I., - Abordarea multicriterial la utilizarea raional a resurselor naturale
Lucrrile tiinifice Internaional Interdisciplinary Scientific Symposium
[5]
UNIVERSITARIA SIMPRO 2005, Integrare n aria european a cercetrii, Vol.
Ingineria Mediului, Editura Universitas, Petroani, 2005
Gf-Deac, I.I., - Analitcal Measurement Techniques in the Natural Resources Field,
[6] Buletinul Universitii Petrol-Gaze din Ploieti, Volum LVII, Seria tiine Economice,
Ploieti, Nr. 1A/2005
[7] Gf-Deac, M., - Tehnologii moderne, Ed. a II-a, Editura FRM, Bucureti, 2005
Godeanu, S. - Elemente de monitoring ecologic/integrat, Ed.Bucura Mond, Bucureti,
[8]
1997
Ilia, N., - Tendine de reconsiderare n Romnia a perfecionrii Tehnologiilor de
[9]
exploatare n condiiile noii clasificri a resurselor/rezervelor, Universitaria Ropet
662
 2003, Inginerie Minier, Ed. Universitas, Petroani. 2003
Lzrescu, I.- Impactul antropic asupra mediului, Editura Universitas, Petroani,
[10]
2006
Onica, I.; Cozma, E.; Goldan, T.,- Degradarea terenului la suprafa sub influena
[11]
exploatrii subterane, Buletinul AGIR, nr.3, iulie-septembrie 2006
Tomescu, I.,- Tehnici de redare a terenurilor degradate, Editura Academica Brncui,
[12]
Tg.Jiu, 2008
Vlad, V.,- Evoluia evalurii terenurilor spre sisteme suport de decizii pentru
[13]
managementul terenurilor, SNRSS, Bucureti, nr.29 D/1997

663
 SUFICIENA RESURSELOR I MODELUL DE
OPERAIONALIZARE A EXPLOATRII I VALORIFICRII
LOR SUSTENABILE
Ioan I. GF-DEAC1
1
Senior Lecturer PhD. Law, Ec./Technical Science, S.Haret University of Bucharest, INCE, Romanian
Academy, Bucharest, Romania, [email protected]

ABSTRACT
n articol sunt redate aspecte privind valorile modelistice ale resurselor minerale sub restricii de
suficien economic a mediului. Se precizeaz c, n fapt, condiiile suficienei valorificrii
substanelor minerale utile sunt absolute i relative, ns acestea nu induc neaprat limitarea
cantitativ i calitativ a resurselor. Se observ c progresul tehnic, tehnologic i noua
cunoatere n noua economie bazat pe cunoatere extind categoriile de resurse, prin
introducerea de noi tipuri i sortimente de rezerve n circuitele de producie i reproducie. Se
ajunge la concluzia c suficiena efectiv a resurselor minerale determin cutarea de variante,
alternative i soluii pentru asigurarea sortimentelor cerute de consum, din punct de vedere
cantitativ i calitativ.

KEYWORDS
suficiena resurselor, suficiena economic a mediului, model de suficien, exploatare,
valorificare, sustenabilitate.

1. Introducere

Concepia referitoare la suficienei resurselor minerale este caracterizat de relativitate

aplicativ, operaional deoarece aceasta este legat de costuri.
Resursele minerale se ntlnesc cvasi-complet n volum fizic finit, care variaz de la zcmnt la
zcmnt.
Se constat c starea de exploatare i valorificare total a resurselor minerale complet finite nu
se nregistreaz ideal, ns diferite tipuri de resurse ating epuizarea.
Recurgerea la folosirea resurselor minerale se face prin decizii echilibrate sau dezechilibrate,
respectiv prin alocri simetrice sau asimetrice de perimetre pentru exploatare, n baza datelor
referitoare la suficiena volumului i calitii substanelor utile.
Se ntlnete suficiena fundamental, de baz, iar n unele cazuri procesul de alocare,
distribuire a exploatrii este strict controlat, impus administrativ.
De multe ori, viznd perspectiva, eficiena i productivitatea, problemele de mediu se regsesc
n plan secundar.

664
n mediul economic descentralizat, bazat pe competiie i competitivitate, suficiena resurselor
minerale este caracterizat de alocri la exploatare prin cutare, n funcie de auto-suficiena
zonal a economiilor din areale regionale.
n esen, capitalul aferent exploatrii i valorificrii resurselor minerale circul i se amplaseaz
aplicativ doar pe zone/zcminte cu eficien.
Condiiile suficienei valorificrii substanelor minerale utile sunt absolute i relative, ns
acestea nu induc neaprat limitarea cantitativ i calitativ a resurselor.
Se observ c progresul tehnic, tehnologic i noua cunoatere n noua economie bazat pe
cunoatere extind categoriile de resurse, prin introducerea de noi tipuri i sortimente de
rezerve n circuitele de producie i reproducie.

2. Un model al suficienei resurselor minerale

Suficiena efectiv a resurselor minerale determin cutarea de variante, alternative i soluii

pentru asigurarea sortimentelor cerute de consum, din punct de vedere cantitativ i calitativ.
Un model preluat din [7] exprim faptul c ntr-un sistem de valori se manifest cerine
economice (de producie) i cerine comerciale (de pia) (Figura.1).

Figure 1: Figura: 1. Valori modelistice ale resurselor minerale sub restricii de suficien
economic a mediului
r1, r2, ,rn = restricii ale sistemului de valori
Datele efective ale modelului arat alocrile influenate de restricii tehnice, tehnologice, de
eficien, .a (r1, r2, , rn).
innd seama de existena complet finit, fizic absolut a resurselor minerale, n raport cu
elementele considerate resurse, lund n calcule suprafaa de distribuire a acestora, costul de
exploatare i preul de vnzare, suficiena optim (Soptim) [7] se poate exprima prin modelul
urmtor:
M (Er ) = { Eri }
S D Soptim
(C P (1)

Vf [M E ] +
i
r

Se observ c dac cvasi-totatlitatea elementelor considerate resurse complet finite n volum

fizic absolut este ridicat cantitativ costul final de exploatare-valorificare poate fi, de regul, mai
redus dect preul posibil de practicat la valorificare.

665
 Suficiena resurselor minerale rezult din realitatea fizic geologic i ecosistemic fiid,
aadar, caracterizat de relativitate operaional.
Ca atare, este util elaborarea conceptual a modelului suficienei resurselor minerale,
ntruct poate fi examinat raportul dintre costul total de exploatare-valorificare i mrimea
resurselor complet-finite n zcmnt.
Se pot ntlni i variantele de suficiena maxim, respectiv de suficiena minim asimilat
cu insuficien, raportate ns la preurile i costurile din procesele de producie i reproducie,
care antreneaz resursele minerale n transformri materiale i energetice.
Resursele minerale supuse exploatrii i valorificrii au efectele fizice cele mai semnificative
asupra mediului. Suficiena lor, arat c, prin exploatare, consum conduc la insuficien,
influennd calitatea mediului nconjurtor.
De aceea, este important solutionarea: 1) cerinelor fizice de resurse mineralet intrate sub
procesul optimizrii i 2) cerinelor restrictive fa de afectrile ce se produc asupra mediului pe
msura exploatrii i valorificrii acestora.
Totodat, trebuie avut n vedere capacitatea mediului, pentru a fi reactiv la exploatarea
categoriilor de resurse menionate.
Resursele naturale sigure, absolute sunt din ce n ce mai rare i inevitabil are loc reducerea
natural cantitativ a celor existente n zcminte convenionale.
n concordan cu tendina de mai sus, se simte nevoia practicrii unui management specific
tipurilor de resurse i transformri.
Se observ i tendina ca resursele ne-regenerabile s intre sub incidena reducerii volumului i
intensitii de exploatare.
n principal, tendina de reducere a volumului de resurse ne-regenerabile se bazeaz: 1)
pe folosirea eficient a acestora, respectiv; 2) pe accentuarea reciclrii lor.
n privina managementului resurselor naturale, n literatur i n coninutul cercetrilor n
domeniu [7] se constat manifestarea formalizrilor de tip 1) diferit, 2) diversificat, 3)
neconvergent i 4) tangente tendinelor practice pe termen scurt i mediu.

3. Concluzii

Predicia suficienei asigurrii cu resurse minerale nu este ntotdeauna complet fundamentat,

n cazul resurselor neregenerabile.
Cu toate c se asist la decuplarea cantitativ a consumului de materiale (care rmne constant
sau n scdere), n raport cu cvasi-continua creterea economic se poate concluziona c n
sfera impacturilor asupra mediului curbele de afectare sunt n cretere.
Totui, ntre curbele de impact i curba creterii economice se nregistreaz decuplri sau
decalaje.
Scenariile practice pe plan mondial n domeniul resurselor naturale arat, c n medie este
posibil creterea eficienei economice a folosirii energiei cu cel puin 1% pe an.
Continu degradarea, respectiv scderea bio-productivitii solurilor, iar afectarea sntii
umane nu nregistreaz scderile scontate de impact.
Asigurarea securitii resurselor n contextul suficienei lor induce cerina consolidrii ciclurilor
naturale n care sunt nglobate resursele naturale.
Toate aseriunile de mai sus, este necesar s se regseasc articulate i interconectate n
management, respectiv n strategiile manageriale din domeniu.

666
REFERENCES

Baldwin , R., - The Economics of Sustenable Development, - Cambridge University

[1]
Press, 1995.
Billings, S.A.; Chen, S. - Extended Model Set, Global Data and Threshold Model
[2] Identification of Severely Nonlinear Systems, - International Journal of Control, no
50(5), 1989
Bosseti, V., - Stochastic Programming and Decision Theory in the Management of
[3]
National Resources,-Universita Statale degli Studi Milano, Italy, 2002.
[4] Gf -Deac, M., - Tehnologii moderne, - Ed.a II-a, Editura FRM, Bucureti, 2005;
Gf-Deac, I.I., - A new View on Technologies Based on Natural Resources
Complementary to Technologies Based on Informatics and Informational Resources,-
International Interdisciplinary Conference, Ministry Of Education and Research ,
[5] North University of Baia Mare, College of Nyiregyhaza, Hungary, 6th Edition, Baia
Mare- Romnia, Scientific Bulletin, Serie C, Volume XIX, Fascicle: Mechanics,
Tribology, Machine Manufacturing Technology, 1st Volume, May 27-28,
2005,pp.221-226,(ISBN 973-87237-1-x); (ISSN 1224-3264)
Gf-Deac, I.I., -Abordarea multicriterial la utilizarea raional a resurselor naturale-
Lucrrile tiinifice International Interdisciplinary Scientific Symposium
[6] UNIVERSITARIA SIMPRO 2005, Integrare n aria european a cercetrii,
Vol.Ingineria Mediului, Ed. Universitas, Petroani, 2005, pp. 46-48, (ISBN 973-
8260-91-4)
Gf-Deac, I.I., -Model de cretere a suprafeei clusteriene de performanta in termeni
competitivi comparabili in economia Romniei-Lucrrile tiinifice International
[7] Interdisciplinary Scientific Symposium UNIVERSITARIA SIMPRO 2005, Integrare n
aria european a cercetrii, Vol. tiine Economice, Ed. Universitas, Petroani, 2005,
pp. 63-65,(ISBN 973-8260-91-4)
Gf-Deac, I.I., -Present Elements of Regulating Physical and Legal Recognition of
Natural Resource Accumulation in Romania,-First Balkan Mining Congress
[8] Balkanmine, Answer to the Challanges of United Europe, Varna, Bulgaria, Edited by
Scientific and Technical Union of Mining, Geology and Metallurgy,September 13-17,
2005, pp. 428-434, (ISBN 954-91547-2-6)
Gf-Deac, I.I., -Research on the Use of Military Techonologies of Dual Character for
the Exploitation and Use of Mineral Resources in the Continental Plateau of Romnia
and Bulgaria in the Black Sea, Along with the Establishing of American Bases in the
[9]
Area,-Open Pit and Underwater Mining and Minerals High Efficiency, Ecological
Production, - VIIIth Open Pit and Underwater Mining Conference, 31st May-4th June,
2005, Sunny Beach Resort, Bulgaria, Proceedings I,
Gf-Deac, I.I., - Bazele juriduce i economice ale sistemelor de resurse n noua
[10]
economie, Ed. Infomin, Deva, 2007, (ISBN 978-973-7646-04-0)
Lujala, P., - Classification of Natural Resources, - Department of Economics,
[11] Norwegian University of Science and Tehnology, Dragvall, Trondheim, Norway,
March 2003;
Voet, Ester van der (col.), -Policy Review on Decompling: Development of Indicators
[12] to Assess Decoupling of Economic Developement and Enviroumental Pressure in the
EU-25 and AC-3 Countries, - European Community, 2005
***, - The Concept of Environmental Injustice; -Environmental Quality and Social
[13]
Deprivation, R&D Tehnical Report E2-067/1/TR, 2000

667
 EVALUAREA RISCURILOR DE ACCIDENTARE I
MBOLNVIRE PROFESIONAL
Vg Drago-Vasile

1 Consideratii generale

Exista o mare diversitate de metode de evaluare a riscurilor profesionale. Ansamblul

metodelor se caracterizeaza prin varietate, atat din punct de vedere al abordarii generale, cat si
al domeniului de aplicabilitate. Conform definitiei , riscul reprezinta combinatia dintre
probabilitatea de producere a unui eveniment nedorit si gravitatea consecintelor rezultate.
riscul poate fi definit simplu ca dauna probabila, avand asadar doua dimensiuni:
probabilitatea, prin care se prognozeaza producerea in viitor a evenimentului;
dauna, care de regula poate fi indicata in functie de contextul producerii evenimentului
respectiv.
Perceptia riscului ca un element subiectiv este o problema fundamentalain stabilirea
riscului acceptabil.
In principiu exista doua posibilitati de evaluare a nivelului de risc/ securitatea
munciiintr-un sistem:
evaluarea postaccident/ boala profesionala(a posteriorii); se bazeaza pe analiza
accidentelor de muncasi a bolilor profesionaleproduse intr-un sistem de munca, intr-o anumita
perioada de timp, criteriile de evaluare folosite sunt ratele de morbiditate prin accident de
munca sau boala profesionala, respectiv indicii de frecventa si de gravitate:
evaluarea preaccident/ boala profesionala (a priorii) se bazeaza pe analiza riscurilor,
inainte de a se materializa in accidente sau boli profesionale, criteriile de evaluare se bazeaza
pe estimarea calitativa a riscului.

1.1 Categorii de metode

Pentru a raspunde obiectivului acestui capitol, nu se pot aplica criteriile clasice de

clasificare a metodelor de analiza a riscurilor, care corespund:
- metodelor inductive, bazate pe observarea cauzelor si a consecintelor (HAZOP, APR,
AMDEC si arborele de evenimente;
- metodelor deductive, care constau din a porni de la consecinte spre cauzele primare
ale acestora, de exemplu prin stabilirea pentru un eveniment final a evenimentelor
care il genereaza(arborele defectarilor).
In scopul descrierii tipurilor de metode se vor utiliza urmatoarele patru criterii de baaza:
- metode care permit o abordare calitativa;
- metode care permit o abordare cantitativa;
- metode deterministe;
- metode probabilistice.
Aplicand criteriile deterministe si probabilistice se pot evidentia urmatoarele trei clase
de metode de analiza a riscurilor:
- exclusiv deterministe se bazeaza pe luarea in considerare a echipamentelor
concomitent cu evaluarea consecintelor, exprimate prin efecte asupra oamenilor;
668
 - exclusiv probabilistice, se bazeaza pe estimarea probabilitatii sau a frecventei de
aparitie a unei situatii periculoase sau pe materializarea consecintelor unui accident
potential. Metodele probabilistice se focalizeaza pe probabilitatea de defectare a
echipamentelor sau a elementelor componente ale acestora;
- combinate, in acest caz campul de actiune permite efectuareaunei analize globale a
amplasamentului industrial, respectiv a sistemului de munca.

2 Prezentarea unei metode pentru evaluarea riscurilor de accidentare si

imbolnavire profesionala (metoda elaborata de I.N.C.D.P.M. Bucuresti)

2.1 Relaia risc securitate

n terminologia de specialitate, securitatea omului n procesul de munc este considerat ca

acea stare a sistemului de munc n care este exclus posibilitatea de accidentare i mbolnvire
profesional.
n limbajul uzual, securitatea este definit ca faptul de a fi la adpost de orice pericol, iar
riscul posibilitatea de a ajunge ntr-o primejdie, pericol potenial 1.
Dac lum n considerare sensurile uzuale ale acestor termeni, se poate defini securitatea ca
starea sistemului de munc n care riscul de accidentare i mbolnvire este zero.
Prin urmare, securitatea i riscul sunt dou noiuni abstracte, contrare, care se exclud
reciproc.
n realitate, datorit trsturilor oricrui sistem de munc, nu se pot atinge asemenea stri cu
caracter de absolut. Nu exist sistem n care s fie exclus complet pericolul potenial de
accidentare sau mbolnvire; apare ntotdeauna un risc rezidual", fie i numai datorit
imprevizibilitii aciunii omului. Dac nu se fac intervenii corectoare pe parcurs, acest risc
rezidual crete, pe msur ce elementele sistemului de munc se degradeaz prin
mbtrnire".
n consecin, sistemele pot fi caracterizate prin niveluri de securitate", respectiv niveluri de
risc", ca indicatori cantitativi ai strilor de securitate, respectiv de risc. Definind securitatea ca o
1
funcie de risc y = f(x), unde y = , se poate afirma c un sistem va fi cu att mai sigur, cu
x
ct nivelul de risc va fi mai mic i reciproc. Astfel, dac riscul este zero, din relaia dintre cele
dou variabile rezult c securitatea tinde ctre infinit, iar dac riscul tinde ctre infinit,
securitatea tinde ctre zero (figura nr.6):
1 1
y= +; y= 0.
0 +

Fig. nr.6 Relaia risc securitate

669
 n acest context, n practic trebuie admise o limit de risc minim, respectiv un nivel al riscului
diferit de zero, dar suficient de mic pentru a se considera c sistemul este sigur, ca i o limit
de risc maxim, care s fie echivalent cu un nivel att de sczut de securitate, nct s nu mai
fie permis funcionarea sistemului.

2.2 Noiunea de risc acceptabil

Riscul a fost definit n literatura de specialitate n domeniul securitii muncii prin

probabilitatea cu care, ntr-un proces de munc, intervine un accident sau o mbolnvire
profesional, cu o anumit frecven i gravitate a consecinelor.
ntr-adevr, dac admitem un anumit risc, putem s-l reprezentm, n funcie de gravitatea i
probabilitatea de producere a consecinelor, prin suprafaa unui dreptunghi F 1 , dezvoltat pe
vertical; rezult c aceeai suprafa poate fi exprimat i printr-un ptrat F 2 sau printr-un
dreptunghi F 3 extins pe orizontal (figura nr.7).
n toate cele trei cazuri riscul este la fel de mare. n consecin, putem atribui unor cupluri
gravitate probabilitate diferite, acelai nivel de risc.
Dac unim cele trei dreptunghiuri printr-o linie trasat prin vrfurile care nu sunt pe axele de
coordonate, obinem o curb cu alur de hiperbol, care descrie legtura dintre cele dou
variabile: gravitate probabilitate. Pentru reprezentarea riscului funcie de gravitate i
probabilitate, standardul CEN-812/85 definete o astfel de curb drept curb de acceptabilitate
a riscului" (figura nr.8).

Fig. nr.7 Reprezentarea grafic a echivalenei riscurilor

caracterizate prin cupluri diferite de gravitate probabilitate

Fig. nr.8 Curba de acceptabilitate a riscului

670
 Aceast curb permite diferenierea ntre riscul acceptabil i cel inacceptabil. Astfel, riscul de
producere a unui eveniment A, cu consecine grave, dar frecven foarte mic, situat sub curba
de acceptabilitate, este considerat acceptabil, iar riscul evenimentului B, cu consecine mai puin
grave, dar cu o probabilitate mai mare de apariie, ale crui coordonate se situeaz deasupra
curbei, este inacceptabil.
De exemplu, n cazul unei centrale atomice se iau astfel de msuri nct riscul unui eveniment
nuclear fie el riscul evenimentului A este caracterizat printr-o gravitate extrem a
consecinelor, dar de o probabilitate de producere extrem de mic. Din cauza frecvenei foarte
reduse de apariie, activitatea este considerat sigur i riscul acceptat de societate.
n schimb, dac pentru riscul evenimentului B lum ca exemplu accidentul rutier din
activitatea unui conductor auto, dei acest tip de eveniment provoac consecine mai puin
grave dect un accident nuclear, probabilitatea de producere este att de mare (frecven
foarte ridicat), nct locul de munc al oferului este considerat nesigur (risc inacceptabil).
Orice studiu de securitate are drept obiectiv stabilirea riscurilor acceptabile. O asemenea
tratare a riscului ridic dou probleme:
cum se stabilesc coordonatele riscului: cuplul gravitate probabilitate;
ce coordonate ale riscului se vor alege pentru a delimita zonele de acceptabilitate de cele
de inacceptabilitate.
Pentru a le rezolva, premisa de la care s-a pornit n elaborarea metodei de evaluare a fost
relaia risc factor de risc.

2.3 Determinarea coordonatelor riscului

Existena riscului ntr-un sistem de munc este datorat prezenei factorilor de risc de
accidentare i mbolnvire profesional. Prin urmare, elementele cu ajutorul crora poate fi
caracterizat riscul, deci pot fi determinate coordonatele sale, sunt de fapt probabilitatea cu care
aciunea unui factor de risc poate conduce la accident i gravitatea consecinei aciunii
factorului de risc asupra victimei.
n consecint, pentru evaluarea riscului, respectiv a securitii, este necesar parcurgerea
urmtoarelor etape:
- identificarea factorilor de risc din sistemul analizat;
- stabilirea consecinelor aciunii asupra victimei, ceea ce nseamn determinarea
gravitii lor;
- stabilirea probabilitii de aciune a lor asupra executantului;
- atribuirea nivelurilor de risc funcie de gravitatea i probabilitatea consecinelor aciunii
factorilor de risc.
Modelul teoretic al genezei accidentelor de munc i bolilor profesionale elaborat n
cadrul I.N.C.D.P.M. Bucureti, abordnd sistematic cauzalitatea acestor evenimente, permite
elaborarea unui instrument pragmatic pentru identificarea tuturor factorilor de risc dintr-un
sistem.
n condiiile unui sistem de munc real, aflat n funciune, nu exist suficiente resurse (de
timp, financiare, tehnice etc.) pentru ca s se poat interveni simultan asupra tuturor factorilor
de risc de accidentare i mbolnvire profesional. Chiar dac ar exista, criteriul eficienei (att
n sensul restrns, al eficienei economice, ct i al celei sociale) interzice o astfel de aciune.
Din acest motiv, nici n cadrul analizelor de securitate nu se justific luarea lor integral n
considerare. Din multitudinea factorilor de risc a cror nlnuire se finalizeaz potenial cu un
accident sau o mbolnvire, factorii care pot reprezenta cauze finale, directe, sunt cei a cror
eliminare garanteaz imposibilitatea producerii evenimentului, deci devine obligatorie orientarea
studiului asupra acestora.
Diferenierea riscurilor n raport cu gravitatea consecinei este uor de realizat.
Indiferent de factorul de risc i de evenimentul pe care-l poate genera, consecinele asupra
executantului pot fi grupate dup categoriile definite prin lege: incapacitate temporar de
munc, invaliditate i deces. Mai mult, pentru fiecare factor de risc se poate afirma cu
certitudine care este consecina sa maxim posibil. De exemplu, consecina maxim posibil a
electrocutrii va fi ntotdeauna decesul, n timp ce consecina maxim a depirii nivelului
normat de zgomot va fi surditatea profesional invaliditate. Cunoscnd tipurile de leziuni i
671
vtmri, ca i localizarea potenial a acestora, n cazul accidentelor i bolilor profesionale, aa
cum sunt ele precizate de criteriile medicale de diagnostic clinic, funcional i de evaluare a
capacitii de munc elaborate de Ministerul Sntii i Ministerul Muncii i Solidaritii Sociale ,
se poate aprecia pentru fiecare factor de risc n parte la ce leziune va conduce in extremis, ce
organ va fi afectat i, n final, ce tip de consecin va produce: incapacitate, invaliditate sau
deces. La rndul lor, aceste consecine se pot diferenia n mai multe clase de gravitate. De
exemplu, invaliditatea poate fi de gradul I, II sau III, iar incapacitatea: mai mic de 3 zile
(limita minim stabilit prin lege pentru definirea accidentului de munc), ntre 3 45 zile i
ntre 45 180 zile. Ca i n cazul probabilitii de producere a accidentelor sau mbolnvirilor,
putem stabili i pentru gravitatea consecinelor mai multe clase, dup cum urmeaz:
clasa 1: consecine neglijabile (incapacitate de munc mai mic de 3 zile);
clasa 2: consecine mici (incapacitate cuprins ntre 3 45 zile, care necesit
tratament medical);
clasa 3: consecine medii (incapacitate 45 180 zile, tratament medical i
spitalizare);
clasa 4: consecine mari (invaliditate gradul III):
clasa 5: consecine grave (invaliditate gradul II);
clasa 6: consecine foarte grave (invaliditate gradul I);
clasa 7: consecine maxime (deces).
Referitor la frecven, este cunoscut c accidentul sau boala sunt evenimente aleatorii.
Prin urmare, factorii de risc se vor diferenia ntre ei prin faptul c fiecare conduce cu o alt
probabilitate la producerea unui accident sau a unei mbolnviri. De exemplu, probabilitatea de
producere a unui accident datorit micrii periculoase a organelor n micare ale unei foreze
este diferit fa de cea a producerii, la acelai loc de munc, a unui accident datorit trsnetului.
De asemenea, acelai factor va putea fi caracterizat printr-o alt frecven de aciune asupra
executantului, n diverse momente ale funcionrii unui sistem de munc sau n sisteme
analoge, n funcie de natura i de starea elementului generator. Astfel, probabilitatea de
electrocutare prin atingere direct la manevrarea unui aparat acionat electric este mai mare
dac acesta este vechi i are uzat izolarea de protecie a conductorilor, dect dac aparatul
este nou.
Din punct de vedere al operativitii, nu se poate lucra ns cu probabiliti determinate strict
pentru fiecare factor de risc. n unele cazuri, ele nici nu pot fi calculate, cum se ntmpl cu
factorii proprii executantului.
Probabilitatea de a aciona ntr-o anumit manier generatoare de accident nu poate fi dect
aproximat. n alte situaii, calculul necesitat de determinarea riguroas a probabilitii de
producere a consecinei este att de elaborios, nct ar fi mai costisitor i mai ndelungat dect
aplicarea efectiv a msurilor de prevenire. De aceea ar fi mai indicat s se stabileasc
probabilitile, de regul, prin apreciere i s se grupeze pe intervale. Este mai uor i mai
eficient pentru scopul urmrit s se aproximeze c un anumit accident este probabil s fie
generat de aciunea unui factor de risc cu o frecven mai mic de o dat la 100 de ore.
Diferena fa de nite valori riguroase de 1 la 85 ore sau 1 la 79 ore este nesemnificativ,
evenimentul putnd fi caracterizat n toate trei cazurile ca fiind foarte frecvent.
Din acest motiv, dac utilizm intervalele precizate n CEI 812/1985, obinem 5 grupe de
evenimente, pe care le putem ordona astfel:
extrem de rare: P < 10-7/h;
foarte rare: 10-7 < P < 10-5/h;
rare: 10-5 < P < 10-4/h;
puin frecvente: 10-4 < P < 10-3/h;
frecvente: 10-3 < P < 10-2/h;
foarte frecvente: P > 10-2/h.
Vom atribui acum fiecrei grupe o clas de probabilitate, de la 1 la 6, aa nct vom spune c
evenimentul E1, a crui frecven probabil de producere este de P1 < 10-7/h, este de clasa 1 de
probabilitate, iar evenimentul E 6 , cu frecvena P 6 >10-2/h, este de clasa a 6-a de probabilitate.
Obinem o scal de cotare a probabilitii.
Avnd la dispoziie aceste dou scale de cotare a probabilitii i a gravitii consecinelor
aciunii factorilor de risc putem s asociem fiecrui factor de risc dintr-un sistem un cuplu de

672
elemente caracteristice, gravitate probabilitate, pentru fiecare cuplu stabilindu-se un nivel de
risc.
Pentru atribuirea nivelurilor de risc, respectiv de securitate s-a utilizat curba de acceptabilitate
a riscului.
Mai nti, deoarece gravitatea este un element mai important din punct de vedere al finalitii
proteciei muncii, s-a admis ipoteza c are o inciden mult mai mare asupra nivelului de risc
dect frecvena. n consecin, corespunztor celor 7 clase de gravitate s-au stabilit 7 niveluri
de risc, n ordine cresctoare, respectiv 7 niveluri de securitate, dat fiind relaia invers
proporional ntre cele dou stri (risc securitate):
N 1 nivel minim de risc S 7 nivel maxim de securitate;
N 2 nivel foarte mic de risc S 6 nivel foarte mare de securitate;
N 3 nivel mic de risc S 5 nivel mare de securitate;
N 4 nivel mediu de risc S 4 nivel mediu de securitate;
N 5 nivel mare de risc S 3 nivel mic de securitate;
N 6 nivel foarte mare de risc S 2 nivel foarte mic de securitate;
N 7 nivel maxim de risc S 1 nivel minim de securitate.
Dac lum n considerare toate combinaiile posibile ale variabilelor specificate, cte
dou, obinem o matrice M g,p cu 7 linii g, care vor reprezenta clasele de gravitate, i 6
coloane p clasele de probabilitate:
(1,1) (1,2) (1,3) (1,4) (1,5) (1,6)
(2,1) (2,2) (2,3) (2,4) (2,5) (2,6)
(3,1) (3,2) (3,3) (3,4) (3,5) (3,6)
M g,p = ( 4,1) ( 4,2) ( 4,3) ( 4,4) ( 4,5) ( 4,6)
(5,1) (5,2) (5,3) (5,4) (5,5) (5,6)
(6,1) (6,2) (6,3) (6,4) (6,5) (6,6)
(7,1) (7,2) (7,3) (7,4) (7,5) (7,6)
Reprezentnd grafic (figura nr.9) matricea n cadrul unui sistem de coordonate
rectangulare obinem un dreptunghi a crui baz (abscisa) o constituie mulimea claselor de
probabilitate, nlimea (ordonata) clasele de gravitate, iar suprafaa sa: mulimea nivelurilor
de risc posibile:
7

N
R =1
R

De asemenea, cu ajutorul fiecruia dintre cupluri descriem un dreptunghi care

considerm c figureaz un risc; fiecrei microsuprafee i vom atribui un nivel de risc, astfel
nct prin reuniune s obinem:
7

N
R =1
R

Fig. nr.9 Reprezentarea grafic a matricei cuplurilor de variabile

gravitate probabilitate (mulimea nivelurilor de risc):
g clas de gravitate; p clas de probabilitate

673
 Observaie:
Din considerente practice, la construirea graficului s-au acceptat urmtoarele convenii:
att pe axa Og, ct i pe axa Op, clasele corespunztoare au fost figurate prin
segmente egale, dei diferenele ntre gravitile evenimentelor de la o clas la alta,
ct i intervalele de timp n cazul claselor de probabilitate, pe baza crora s-au
determinat, nu sunt egale;
pentru intervalele care reprezint clasele de gravitate s-au folosit segmente cu
lungime mai mare dect pentru cele care delimiteaz clasele de frecven (11/2 - 1),
tocmai datorit premisei c gravitatea are o pondere mult mai mare n dimensiunea
riscului.
Prin suprapunerea succesiv, n anumite condiii, a curbei de acceptabilitate a riscului asupra
reprezentrii obinute a mulimii nivelurilor de risc s-a stabilit ncadrarea cuplurilor pe niveluri de
risc, aa cum se expliciteaz n continuare.
Meninnd logica reprezentrii prin segmente egale a claselor, rezult c i curbele care
delimiteaz nivelurile de risc trebuie s fie echidistante. n consecin, mprim diagonala mare
a dreptunghiului care semnific suma mulimilor nivelurilor de risc n 7 segmente egale, prin
care se vor trasa curbele.
Nivelul 1 nivel minim de risc acceptabil
Limita din dreapta a primului segment este unul dintre punctele prin care se va trasa curba
nivelului 1. Lum acum n considerare toate cuplurile n care gravitatea intr cu valoarea 1 (linia
1 a matricei M g,p ).
ntr-adevr, toi factorii de risc a cror consecin posibil este incapacitate de munc mai
mic de 3 zile pot fi considerai ca fiind de nivel minim de risc acceptabil, evenimentele produse
neconstituind subiect al prevenirii (nu sunt accidente de munc; de regul, sunt tratate ca
incidente i eliminarea lor face obiectul aciunii de mrire a confortului n munc, nu a
securitii). Cuplul limit este cel n care gravitatea are valoarea 1 i probabilitatea valoarea 6.
Trasm prin cele dou puncte astfel stabilite o curb avnd alura curbei de acceptabilitate
stabilit prin CEN-815/85 (figura nr. 10).

Fig. nr. 10 Trasarea curbelor nivelurilor de risc.

Stabilirea punctelor prin care se traseaz curbele de nivel;
curba de nivel 1 (risc minim acceptabil
674
 Suprafaa care este delimitat de laturile dreptunghiului i de curba trasat va reprezenta
grafic nivelul 1 de risc. Toi factorii de risc ce pot fi caracterizai prin cupluri ale cror
coordonate genereaz puncte situate n interiorul suprafeei astfel delimitate sau pe curb vor fi
considerai de nivel 1 de risc, respectiv 7 de securitate.
Din reprezentarea grafic, rezult c din matricea M g,p , nivelului 1 de risc i corespunde
submatricea:
6
M1, p = (1,1) (1,2) (1,3) (1,4) (1,5) (1,6) i elementul (2,1).

Nivelul 2 7
Trasm curbele pentru nivelurile 2 - 6 paralel la curba de nivel de risc minim acceptabil prin
punctele care delimiteaz segmentele stabilite pe diagonala dreptunghiului mulimii nivelurilor de
risc (figura nr. 11).

Fig. nr. 11 Trasarea curbelor nivelurilor de risc.

Trasarea curbelor pentru nivelurile 2 7;
nivel de risc maxim acceptabil i critic.
Nivelul de risc 1 cuplurile g-p: (1,1) (1,2) (1,3) (1,4) (1,5) (1,6) (2,1);
Nivelul de risc 2 cuplurile g-p: (2,2) (2,3) (2,4) (3,1) (3,2) (4,1);
Nivelul de risc 3 cuplurile g-p: (2,5) (2,6) (3,3) (3,4) (4,2) (5,1) (6,1) (7,1);
Nivelul de risc 4 cuplurile g-p: (3,5) (3,6) (4,3) (4,4) (5,2) (5,3) (6,2) (7,2);
Nivelul de risc 5 cuplurile g-p: (4,5) (4,6) (5,4) (5,5) (6,3) (7,3);
Nivelul de risc 6 cuplurile g-p: (5,6) (6,4) (6,5) (7,4);
Nivelul de risc 7 cuplurile g-p: (6,6) (7,5) (7,6).
Ca i mai sus, seciunea delimitat de curba nivelului 1 i de curba imediat superioar va
reprezenta grafic nivelul 2; tuturor factorilor de risc pentru care cuplurile gravitate
probabilitate genereaz puncte situate n interiorul acestei suprafee sau pe limita sa superioar
li se aloc nivelul 2 de risc.
Similar se atribuie nivelurile 3, 4, ..., 6.
Suprafaei delimitate de curba nivelului 6 i de cele dou laturi superioare ale dreptunghiului i
se aloc nivelul 7.

675
 Interpretnd reprezentarea din figura, rezult c fiecrui nivel de risc i corespunde cel puin o
submatrice din matricea M g,p :
4
M 2, p = (2,2) (2,3) (2,4)
p=2
- nivelul 2: 2 i elementul (4,1);
M 3, p = (3,1) (3,2)
p =1


6
M 2, p = (2,5) (2,6)
p =5
4
- nivelul 3: M 3, p = (3,3) (3,4) i elementul (4,2);
p =3
(5,1)
7
M g,1 = (6,1)
g =6 (7,1)

6
M 3, p = (3,5) (3,6)
p =5
4
M 4 , p = (4,3) (4,4)
p=3
- nivelul 4: 3 ;
M 5, g = (5,2) (5,3)
g=2
7
M = (6,2)
g =g6,2 (7,2)
6
M 4, p = (4,5) (4,6)
p =5
5
- nivelul 5: M 5, p = (5,4) (5,5) ;
p=4
7 (6,3)
M g,3 =
g = 6 (7,3)
5
- nivelul 6: M 6, p = (6,4) (6,5) i elementele (5,6), (7,4);
p=4
6
- nivelul 7: elementul (6,6) i submatricea: M 7, p = (7,5) (7,6) .
p =5

Din relaia risc securitate definit se deduce imediat c nivelul 7 de risc reprezint un nivel critic,
la care securitatea sistemului este minim. Dincolo de aceast limit, securitatea tinde ctre
zero, deci desfurarea procesului de munc nu mai poate avea loc, deoarece ea ar fi
echivalent cu producerea accidentului sau mbolnvirii. Despre factorii de risc caracterizai prin
cuplurile (6,6), (7,5), (7,6) se poate afirma c ei vor conduce rapid i cu certitudine la
producerea evenimentului extrem decesul (pericol iminent).
Reglementrile normative din majoritatea rilor nu permit ns atingerea stadiului critic.
Pentru aceasta, n general, se stabilesc pentru fiecare factor de risc fie limite maxime sub form
de valori, n cazul factorilor a cror form de manifestare poate fi caracterizat prin elemente
msurabile, fie interdicii factorii la care msurtorile nu sunt posibile. Normele respective
corespund unui nivel de risc maxim acceptabil, care difer de la o ar la alta, n funcie de
condiiile economice i sociale.

676
 Autorii metodei elaborate n cadrul I.N.C.D.P.M. Bucureti consider c pentru ara noastr ar
fi indicat ca nivelul de risc maxim acceptabil s corespund nivelului 3,5. Aceasta ar nsemna n
primul rnd ca autorizarea de funcionare a agenilor economici din punct de vedere al
proteciei muncii s se acorde numai dac evaluarea riscurilor la locurile de munc confirm
nedepirea acestui nivel.
Plecnd de la premisele teoretice prezentate anterior, a fost elaborat metoda de evaluare a
riscurilor de accidentare i mbolnvire profesional la locurile de munc, metod care va fi
prezentat n continuare.
Un avantaj al metodei elaborate n cadrul I.N.C.D.P.M. Bucureti l constituie faptul c
aplicarea ei nu este limitat de condiia existenei fizice a sistemului de evaluat. Ea poate fi
utilizat n toate etapele legate de viaa unui sistem de munc sau a unui element al acestuia:
concepia i proiectarea, realizarea fizic, constituirea i intrarea n funciune, desfurarea
procesului de munc.
Deoarece formele concrete de manifestare a factorilor de risc, chiar i pentru un sistem relativ
simplu, sunt multiple, procedura de lucru n cadrul acestei metode este relativ laborioas.
Aplicarea ei i gestionarea riscurilor la locurile de munc pe baza rezultatelor obinute necesit
personal specializat i tehnic de calcul.

3 Realizarea unui program de calcul pentru evaluarea riscurilor

profesionale generale

Tehnica de calcul poate servi la modelarea unor diversitati de probleme, printre care raspund
si necesitati de evaluare a riscurilor profesionale in timp real. Pentru fisele de evaluare a
nivelului de securitate si respectiv a nivelului de risc rezidual, se doreste elaborarea unui
program a carui principala functie este de a efectua automat operatiile de calcul (calcularea
nivelului de securitate si respectiv a nivelului de risc rezidual) si de a furniza o serie de rapoarte
cu rezultatele evaluarii si de documente de sinteza.
Programul de evaluare se realizeaza in Excel, iar pentru preluarea rationala a continutului fiselor
este necesara realizarea unor baze de date relationale. Realizarea legaturilor intre bazele de
date se face prin atribuirea de coduri numerice pentru fiecare fisa, capitol, subcapitol, indicator
si raport. Stabilirea acestor legaturi se realizeaza automat prin codul programului cu ajutorul
unei comenzi.
Utilizatorul introduce datele in meniul principal al aplicatiei (datele de identificare ale sistemului
analizat, sectia, tipul de activitate, data evaluarii), date legate de coordonatorul evaluarii,
categoriile de personal participante la procesul de munca si numarul acestora, alte date specific
sistemului. Printr-o simpla comanda se deschid pe rand fisele de evaluare a nivelului de
securitate pentru domeniile fiecarei componente umane(executants, respectiv sarcina de
munca) a sistemului de munca.
Dupa ce se parcurg toate fisele de evaluare a nivelului de securitate in cadrul programului, sunt
prezentate rezultatele analizei nivelului de securitate indus de executant, de componenta
sarcinii de munca care vizeaza reducerea gravitatii consecintelor si respectiv a componentei
care vizeaza reducerea probabilitatii de producere. Tot aici se afiseaza si coeficientul de corectie
determinat de nivelul global de securitate. Pasul urmator este trecerea la fisele de evaluare a
riscurilor profesionale. Si in acest caz utilizatorul programului de calcul are sarcina de a aprecia
conformitatea sistemului fata de cerintele fiecarui indicator (cerinta esentiala de securitate).
Scala de cotare este cuprinsa intre 0 si 5.in mod automat programul va afisa probabilitatea de
producere (functie invers proportionala cu nivelul de securitate).
In mod automat programul va calcula gravitatea corectata si respectiv probabilitatea corectata
pentru fiecare categorie de participant la procesul de munca. Tot in mod automat programul
transpune pe grila de apreciere a riscului rezidual un punct (pentru fiecare participant la
procesul de munca) determinat de valoarea gravitatii corectate si respectiv a probabilitatii
corectate.

677
Pe baza datelor primare introduce in fisele de evaluare a nivelului de securitate si respective a
nivelului de risc, programul elaboreaza si o serie de rapoarte analitice si sintetice a nivelului de
risc prezentat de sistemul analizat.
In final programul prezinta rapoarte de sinteza privind nivelul global de securitate si nivelul
global al riscului rezidual.

4 CONCLUZII

Aplicarea practic a metodei de evaluare a riscurilor n sistemul de munc este suficient de

laborioas, ca numr de informaii care trebuie luate n considerare n cazul urmririi mai multor
locuri de munc, pentru a justifica folosirea tehnicilor moderne de prelucrare autonat a
datelor.
Utilizarea calculatorului este posibil datorit anumitor caracteristici ale metodei, respectiv:
procedura de lucru etapizat;
existena unui algoritm de calcul al nivelului de risc;
tipul de legturi dintre variabilele luate n considerare la determinarea nivelului de
risc.
Tehnica automat de calcul poate fi aplicat att la evaluarea propriu-zis a riscurilor, ct i la
gestiunea computerizat a acestora n cadrul unitii.
n timpul evalurii propriu-zise utilizarea computerului este recomandabil n dou
modaliti:
constituirea unor bnci de date privind:
durata de via a echipamentelor tehnice;
timpul de funcionare;
numrul de persoane expuse;
timpul de expunere;
statistica accidentelor de munc i bolilor profesionale produse i utilizarea lor
pentru a determina cu mai mare acuratee clasele de probabilitate;
calculul automat al nivelurilor de risc pariale i al nivelului de risc global pe loc de
munc, sector de activitate, ntreprindere.
Gestiunea computerizat a riscurilor presupune realizarea unor bnci de date complete
i actualizabile permanent, cuprinznd datele din fiele de risc i de msuri pentru toate locurile
de munc evaluate din unitate.
n acest mod, n fiecare moment se poate cunoate i corecta conform ultimei evaluri situaia
exact a riscurilor existente, a dimensiunii acestora (nivelurile de risc), a msurilor care trebuie
luate, a celor care s-au luat, a rspunderilor i competenelor pentru respectivele msuri.

BIBLIOGRAFIE

1. Bbu, G., Moraru, R., Protecia muncii, Editura Universitas, Petroani, 1999.
2. Bbu, G., Moraru, R., Evaluarea riscurilor: transpunerea cerinelor Directivei
89/391/CEE n legislaiile statelor membre ale Uniunii Europene, Editura Universitas,
Petroani, 2009.
3. Darabont, Al., Pece, t., Protecia muncii, Editura Didactic i Pedagogic,
Bucureti, 1996.
4. Darabont, Al., Pece, t., Dsclescu, A., Managementul securitii i sntii n
munc (vol. I i II), Editura AGIR, Bucureti, 2001.
5. Darabont, Al., Darabont, D., Constantin, G., Darabont, D., Evaluarea calitii
de securitate a echipamentelor tehnice, Editura AGIR, Bucureti, 2001.
6. Moraru, R., Bbu, G., Analiz de risc, Editura Universitas, Petroani, 2000.
7. Moraru, R., Bbu, G., Matei, I., Ghid pentru evaluarea riscurilor profesionale,
Editura Focus, Petroani, 2002.
678
8. Moraru, R., Bbu, G., Managementul riscurilor: abordare global - concepte,
principii i structur, Editura Universitas, Petroani, 2009.
9. Moraru, R., Bbu, G., Evaluarea i managementul participativ al riscurilor: ghid
practic, Editura Universitas, Petroani, 2010.
10. Moraru, R., Securitate i sntate n m unc. Tratat universitar, Ed. FOCUS
Petroani, 2013
11. Pece, t., Metode de analiz aprioric a riscurilor profesionale, I.N.I.D., Bucureti,
1993.
12. Pece, t., Metod de evaluare a securitii muncii la nivelul microsistemelor (loc de
munc), Risc i securitate n munc, I.C.S.P.M. Bucureti, nr. 3-4/1994.
13. Pece, t., Dsclescu, A., Metod de evaluare a riscurilor de accidentare i
mbolnvire profesional la locurile de munc, M.M.P.S.-I.C.S.P.M. Bucureti, 1998.
14. Pece, t., Dsclescu, A. .a., Securitate i sntate n munc - Dicionar
explicativ, Editura GENICOD, Bucureti, 2001.
15. Pece, t., Evaluarea riscurilor n sistemul om-main, Editura Atlas Press, Bucureti,
2003.
16. Pece, t., Metode europene de evaluare a riscurilor de accidentare i mbolnvire
profesional, Ministerul Muncii, Familiei i Egalitii de anse - Revista Obiectiv,
Bucureti, 2009.
17. * * *, Legea securitii i sntii n munc nr. 319/2006, Monitorul Oficial al
Romniei, Partea I, nr. 646/26.07.2006.
18. * * *, H.G. nr. 1425/2006 pentru aprobarea Normelor metodologice de aplicare a
prevederilor Legii securitii i sntii n munc nr. 319/2006, Monitorul Oficial al
Romniei, Partea I, nr. 882/30.10.2006.
19. * * *, H.G. nr. 955/2010 pentru modificarea i completarea Normelor metodologice
de aplicare a prevederilor Legii securitii i sntii n munc nr. 319/2006,
aprobate H.G. nr. 1425/2006, Monitorul Oficial al Romniei, Partea I, nr.
661/27.09.2010.

679
 ELEMENTS of ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE in MINING
EQUIPMENT STUDY

Eng. Andrei TOPOR , M.Sc. Student

Ph.D. Eng. Andrei ANDRAS, lecturer
University of Petrosani

ABSTRACT

Mining production systems used in both underground and open pit mining consist of serially connected
elements (winning, hauling, main conveying equipment, transfer devices and stock pile/bunker feeding
equipment). The whole production system is characterized by the throughput, which depends on the
functioning state of each element and it is also strongly influenced by randomness and variability of the
involved processes. In order to correctly simulate and model such systems, probabilistic methods and
Artificial Intelligence approaches are used - involving unit operations and equipment as well as the
system as a whole - such as Neural Networks, Fuzzy Systems, Monte Carlo simulation and the Load
Strength Interference method. The obtained results are convergent with real data and offer the
opportunity for further developments of the wider application of mentioned methods in the study of
mining production systems. The actual approach in mining equipment design is focused on split design of
different parts, such as mechanical, electrical, hydraulic and steering subsystems. The lesson learnt from
the mechatronics philosophy of design, can provide guidelines of innovative design of any mining
equipment, including open pit mining equipment, which consist in many multi-domain subsystems,
making the design difficult and amended by over considering some aspects in relation with other ones.
The paper deals with theoretical and conceptual aspects derived from this idea, trying to synthesize of
the main ideas converging towards the application of the results of the engineering design based on
Mechatronics philosophy, illustrating both the aspects of connected domains which can be translated in
the sphere of mining equipment, and achievements which are currently working tools in the leading
mining equipment companies.

1 INTRODUCTION

The continuous mining production systems consist mainly in a string of equipment starting with
winning equipment (shearer loader, in case of underground longwall mining or bucket wheel
excavator in case of open pit mining), hauling equipment (armored face conveyor in longwall
mining or the on-board belt conveyor in case of excavators), main conveying equipment (belt
conveyor in both cases), transfer devices, stock pile or bunker feeding equipment [1].
This system of mainly serially connected elements is characterized by the throughput (overall
amount of bulk coal respectively overburden rock), which is dependent on the functioning state

680
of each involved equipment, and is affected also by the process inherent variability due to the
randomness of the cutting properties of the rock.
In order to model and simulate such production systems, some probabilistic methods are
applied arising from the artificial intelligence approach, involving unit operations and
equipment, as the overall system as a whole, namely the Monte Carlo simulation, and for unit
operations and equipment the neural network, fuzzy systems, and the Load Strength
Interference methods.
The constructive complexity, variety and the operating environment aggressiveness lead to a
sinuous and conjectural evolution of the equipment for mineral industry, the implementation of
new techniques and technology achievements vas performed with a large delay in comparison
to other industrial fields.
On the other hand, a systemic methodology for design, development and manufacturing of this
equipment is not yet realized. However, the mining equipment experienced in the past two
decades, due to the general evolution of the technology, a degree of sophistication and a
complexity without precedent. The new achievements in the field of Information technology, of
sensors, actuators and other elements determined an advance of steering and monitoring
systems overcoming the technological level of the mechanical and driving systems.

2 PERFORMANCE OPTIMIZATION MODEL FOR WINNING MACHINE

USING NEURAL NETWORKS

Operational parameters of winning machines are strongly influenced by the random variations
of strength and energetic characteristics of coal, respectively the specific resistance to cutting
and specific energetic consumption at breaking.
Due to the variation of these parameters, rate of feed, torque of the drum axle and the
advancement force vary randomly around an average value, which can be suddenly modified by
rapid change, for example when crossing a hard
rock intrusion.
Using special transducers and processing
equipment, it is possible to record the
instantaneous values of torque, of the hauling
(advancement) force and of the rate of feed.
Based on the above mentioned parameters, it is
useful and possible to derive the values of the
specific cutting resistance, (A) and of the specific
energy consumption, (E s ) in order to forecast,
for other conditions, expected values of the feed
rate, (v a ), which influence the cutting capacity,
of the torque on the axle, (M t ), which is limited
by the power of the engine and of the
advancement force, (F a ), which is also limited by
the power of the hauling system.
Starting from simultaneously recorded values of
the above mentioned, using a perceptron neural
network (Fig.1.), the values F a , M t and v a have
Figure 1: Inputs and outputs of
been used, regarded as inputs for instructing the
the neural network
network, with the calculated values of E s and A,
using dependency relations known in the technical literature.

681
According to the resulting structure of the neural network, the values for M t , F a and v a have
been determined for discrete values of E s and A. According to these values the dependencies
between the mentioned parameters have been mapped out, as in fig. 2.
In the mentioned diagram, the hauling force F a has been considered as an independent
parameter. It could be possible to embed such a processing unit in the control loop of a shearer
loader, in order to adaptively optimize the feed rate and/or the energy consumption.

3.5
3.5-4
3 3-3.5
2.5-3
2.5 2-2.5
1.5-2
Ws kJ/m 3 2
1-1.5
0.5-1
1.5
0-0.5

0.5
25

0 20
Mt kNm
1 15
2
3
4 10
Va m /m in 5

Figure 2: Dependency of Es (Mt, va) for F a = 700

kN

3 LONGWALL SUPPORT EFFECTIVENESS ASSESSMENT USING FUZZY SETS

The adaptation of powered roof support, from constructive and functional point of view to the
variation and specificity of geologic mining conditions, is a very actual and important research
subject.
In past decades, the coal extraction technology evolved dramatically. However, the problem of
the interdependence between geo/mining conditions and constructive and functional features of
powered support represents a challenge which faces the specialists with huge problems to be
solved and engineering sciences offer new tools for an interdisciplinary approach in this work, in
order to provide to manufacturers, designers and users scientifically founded solutions.
It is difficult to obtain closed form solutions from deterministic models, historical statistical data
presents a large variability, so deriving support-surrounding rocks systems behavior is very
difficult to be described using classical approaches.
In the present section we try to use FUZZY modeling to obtain some qualitative results.
The support characteristics are not fix (crisp) values, they belongs to a value range. The
parameters describing geo mining conditions also are difficult to be quantified, their
approximation being expressed by non digital attributes.
Hence, the decision to select a shield in order to test its compliance to given working
conditions and technological factors can be made using FUZZY rules.
Starting from the idea presented in [6], we have delivered an IT system based on FUZZY logic
using the FUZZY module of MATLAB, using the idea of ground response curves.
This system allows the establishment of the main parameters, the resistance and the stiffness
and also setting pressure for an appropriate selection of the shield.
In Fig. 13, the ground response curves for supports with the four combination of the stiffness
and yield load, with roofs of different stability are depicted.
The curves 1 to 4 in Fig. 3 represent the dependence between the roof convergence and the
support load, for decreasing roof stabilities.

682
The shape of curves are determined by the empiric observation stating that at constant
support load the convergence increases, when stability decreases and to maintain a given
allowable convergence the support load must be higher.
The slope lines continued by horizontal lines represents the supports loading characteristic, as

Figure 3: Ground response curves

conceptual model

the stiffness is greater, as the line is more vertical.

The elevation of the horizontal segment represents the value of the yield load of the support.
The setting load is represented by the start point of slope line on the vertical axis.
The intersection between the support characteristic line and the roof characteristic curve gives
the functioning point of the support-roof system at the equilibrium. The target for a proper
support of the roof is to maintain this point on the inclined line segment, for this reason the
external control parameters are the setting load, the yield load and the stiffness of the support
shield.
The main finding of previous research is the fact that the characteristic curve of the roof is
changing in time during a working cycle, and the combination of the above mentioned
parameters of the support must be selected in such a way, that the convergence be maintained
under an imposed limit and the stability preserved during the entire cycle.
The roof stability, described by [7] is another metric which can be used as output for the
devised FUZZY model. For illustration, this concept of stability in ground response curves is
presented in the Fig. 4.
In this approach, the curves represent the load-convergence dependence of the whole support-
roof system. Different curves represent the systems behavior in different operating stages of
the face.

Figure 4: Ground response curves conceptual

model according to [7].

683
Between these three input parameters, i.e. the setting pressure (resistance), the yield pressure
(resistance) and stiffness and the output parameters, i.e. stability and convergence, the field
observations and the above common sense findings allow to derive inferences for FUZZY rules.
Based on the above considerations, we developed two FUZZY models. The FUZZY models has
been developed using MATLABs FUZZY toolbox

Figure 5 Load-convergence curve of the support Figure 6 Load-convergence curve of the roof

In the first model developed, we used inference rules for deriving the support load-convergence
curve respectively the roof load-convergence curve. The output graphs are presented in Figs. 5
and 6.

Figure 7 Setting load as a function of stiffness and yield load

Figure 8 Setting load as a function of stability andyield load

684
 Figure 9 Setting load as a function of stability and stiffness

In the second model, more sophisticated, we used stiffness, stability, yield and setting load
as input variables and convergence as output variable.
We obtained the spatial graphs presented in Figs. 7-9.
Interpreting the results starting from these spatial graphs may offer some practical rules
about prior selection of supports, using statements from historical data and simple factual
reasoning. It is possible to adjust and refine the model, comparing field data with those
obtained from the model, with crisp values if applicable.
We can use the defuzzyfication module of the model as an interactive tool to simulate
different situations by modifying some input parameters and derive crisp values for outputs, as
in Fig. 10.

Figure 10 .Defuzzification module as an

interactive tool

4 CONCLUSION

In order to find out new methods for the quick assessment of large production systems used in
coal mining, we presented and tested by real world examples two alternativecomplementary
methods of reliability analysis, namely the Monte Carlo simulation and the Load Strength
Interference methods.
The application of neural nets to derive the dependencies between the working parameters of a
shearer-loader and the cuttability metrics of the rock has been also treated .
The use of FUZZY sets to describe the operation of the roof support, starting from a qualitative
conceptual model of ground response curves is presented.

685
 The results obtained are convergent and offer the opportunity for further developments of their
application.
Mechatronics the new emerging border science is able to offer new availability and
performance to mining equipment, influencing also the thinking of designers. The steering,
control, monitoring and regulation systems are not only added, they are embedded parts of
the entire system. The equipment is designed and conceived as a whole in which the
mechanical, hydraulic, electrical and IT systems are integrated elements, and not separate
functional blocks.

5 References:

[1] Kovacs I., Ilia N, Nan Marin-Silviu (2000). Regimul de lucru al combinelor miniere, Editura
Universitas, ISBN Petrosani
[2] Nan Marin-Silviu (2007) Parametrii procesului de excavare la excavatoarele cu rotor, Editura
Universitas, ISBN Petrosani
[3] Singiresu S. Rao, (1992) Reliability-Based Design, McGraw-Hill,
[4]Andras, I., Nan, M., Kovacs, I. , Research Regarding The OEE (Overall Equipment
Effectiveness) Assessment Of The Coal Open Pit Mines Production System, Annals of the University
of Petroani, Mechanical Engineering, 8 (2006), 139-146 , ISSN 1454-9166
[5] Andras, I., Dinescu, S., Andras ,A., Comparative Analysis Of Different Methods Of Reliability
Assessment For Continuous Mining Technological Systems Scientific Bulletin Series C: Fascicle
Mechanics, Tribology, Machine Manufacturing Technology, Volume XXII, 2008, ISSN 1224-3264
[6] Esterhuizen, G.S. and Barczak, T.M., Development of Ground Response Curves for Longwall
Tailgate Support Design , Proceedings of the 41st U.S. Rock Mechanics Symposium, Golden,
Colorado, June 17-21, 2006. Alexandria, VA: American Rock Mechanics Association, 2006 Jun; :1-
10
[7] Barczak, T. M., A Retrospective Assessment of Longwall Roof Support With a Focus on
Challenging Accepted Roof Support Concepts and Design Premises. 25th International Conference
on Ground Control in Mining, 2006 232,244
[8]. Andras I., Nan M. S., Kovacs J., Study on the Random Phenomena occuring in the process of
Lignite and Overburden Rocks Extraction with Bucket Wheel Excavators, 40 th Mining Equipment
International Conference, 27-28 sept. 2007, Balatongyrk, Hungary.
[9]. Kovacs I., Ilia N., Nan M. S. , Regimul de lucru al combinelor miniere, Editura Universitas,
Petroani 2000.
[10]. Nan M. S. Parametrii procesului de excavare la excavatoarele cu rotor, Editura Universitas,
Petroani 2007.
11. Andras, A. Study related to the improvement of mining equipment design methods, Ph.D.
Thesis, University of Petrosani, 2006
12. Mrozek,Z., Computer Aided Design Of Mechatronic Systems Int. J. Appl. Math. Comput. Sci.,
2003, Vol. 13, No. 2, 255267
13. Joshua Alexander Marshall, Towards Autonomous Excavation of Fragmented Rock:
Experiments, Modelling, Identification and Control , M.Sc. thesis , Queen's University, 2001
14. Jrgen Gausemeier From Mechatronics to Self-Optimization 20th International Congress CAD-
FEM Users Meeting 2002 October 9-11, 2002

686
DEFORMAREA TERENULUI SUB INFLUENTA EXPLOATARII
SUBTERANE DIN MINELE DIN VALEA JIULUI
Larisa Iacoboni1
1
MSc student University of Petrosani

ABSTRACT
In aceasta lucrare se analizeaza efectele negative asupta echilibrului ecologic si se examineaza
tehnicile de prevenire ,refacere si protectie , care pot si trebuie luate in raport cu legislatia in
vigoare . Sunt analizate si diferite moduri de comportament al terenului de la suprafata sub
influenta exploatarii subterane si sunt prezentate diferite procedee de reducere a impoactului
negative asupra terenurilor si constructiilor.

KEYWORDS
Keyword1, Keyword2, Keyword

1. INTRODUCERE

Mineritul produce multiple si variate efecte negative asupra mediului, cum ar fii :
degradarea terenului, prin deplasri pe vertical i orizontal ale suprafeei i alunecarea
haldelor i iazurilor de decantare, cu provocarea unor grave accidente;
modificri ale reliefului, manifestate prin degradarea peisajului i strmutri ale gospodriilor
i obiectivelor industriale din zonele de exploatare;
influene negative asupra atmosferei, florei i faunei din zon;
poluarea chimic a solului, care poate afecta pentru muli ani proprietile fertile ale acestuia;
zgomote, vibraii i radiaii rspndite n mediul nconjurtor, cu o puternic aciune
nefavorabil.
impurificarea apelor curgtoare de la suprafa i a apelor freatice;
distrugerea stabilitatii rocilor inconjuratoare , provocate in urma extragerii unui volum de
substante minerale utile dintr-un zacamant;

2. INFLUENTA ACTIVITATILOR DE EXPLOATARE SUBTERANA

Majoritatea zcmintelor existente n subsolul din Valea Jiului , datorit formei, dimensiunilor i
mai ales adncimii mari la care se gsesc n scoara terestr, se exploateaz prin lucrri miniere
subterane, aplicnd diferite metode i tehnologii de lucru.
Cnd abatajele depesc dimensiunile critice din punct de vedere al stabilitii rocilor
nconjurtoare i nu s-au luat msuri adecvate de susinere i de lichidare a golurilor formate,
se produce surparea
687
rocilor acoperitoare, ceea ce d natere unui complex de fenomene, cunoscute sub denumirea
de efecte de subsiden, care se pot extinde pe toat grosimea rocilor acoperitoare, pn la
suprafa.
Trebuie fcut distincie ntre efectele dinamice care se produc pe timpul exploatrii i efectele
care se manifest un timp ndelungat dup ncetarea exploatrii, adic atunci cnd s-au atins
noile condiii de echilibru ale formaiilor de roci acoperitoare.
n primul caz, afectarea structurilor de la suprafa (autostrzi, ci ferate, poduri, construcii
industriale i civile etc.) este cauzat de deformaiile de mare anvergur, att orizontale ct i
verticale ale suprafeei terenului.
Structurile mai sus-amintite sunt supuse eforturilor de traciunesau de compresiune care, dup
caz, pot s le produc stricciuni.
n anumite situaii se pot lua msuri de prevenire a inconvenientelor, cum ar fi, de exemplu,
cazul exploatrii stratelor apropiate de crbune, unde se poate aplica exploatarea armonic,
ce urmrete compensarea efectelor de la suprafa date de exploatarea diferitelor strate din
suit.
Dar, n orice caz, chiar la echilibrul de lung durat, subsidena de la suprafa poate avea o
inciden negativ asupra mediului nconjurtor i, ca urmare, programarea lucrrilor miniere
trebuie s in seama de aceste posibiliti.
n Valea Jiului au avut loc fenomene de subsiden la multe exploatri subterane, att din
domeniul exploatrii zcmintelor de crbuni ct i din domeniul exploatrii zcmintelor
de minereuri.
Terenurile fracturate i afectate de exploatarea subteran cuprind, la nivelul bazinului Petroani,
peste 20 ha i acestea nu mai pot fi utilizate pentru construcii sau activiti agricole, ntruct
prin prbuirea suprafeei s-a realizat o coborre a nivelului hidrostatic al pnzei freatice,
aprnd i fenomenul de deertizare prin dispariia florei i faunei locului.
Terenurile fracturate i instabile au afectat aproape 70 de gospodrii individuale rneti, iar n
anumite cazuri, au necesitat evacuarea i demolarea unor blocuri de locuit n oraul
Petrila, sau chiar demolarea unui ntreg microcartier de case particulare, din oraul Lupeni.

2. ANALIZA IMPACTULUI PRODUS ASUPRA TERENULUI DE LA SUPRAFA

N URMA EXPLOATRII SUBTERANE A UNOR ZCMINTE DIN VALEA
JIULUI

Cazul stratelor groase de huil cu nclinare medie i mare. Bazinul Petroani este
constituit dintr-un fundament cristalin i depozite sedimentare molasice de cuvertur, atribuite
Cretacicului superior, Paleogenului i Neogenului.
Acest zcmnt este puternic tectonizat i conine 20-22 de strate de crbune superior, cu
extindere, grosime i calitate variabile, n funcie de zon. Principalele strate explotabile sunt
nr.3 i nr.5. Stratul 3, cu o pondere de 48% din totalul rezervelor, prezint grosimi i nclinri
variabile, de la civa metri la peste 40-50 m. Stratul 5 reprezint 12%, cu nclinri variabile i
grosimi de 1,5-5,5 m. Rocile sedimentare nconjurtoare sunt argile, marne, isturi i gresii, cu
rezistene la compresiune foarte diferite, cuprinse ntre 2 MPa i peste 30 MPa. Exploatarea
stratelor de crbune are la baz procedeul de dirijare a presiunii prin surparea rocilor
nconjurtoare (i, ocazional, cu rambleerea spaiului exploatat), iar n ultimul timp, i pe cel cu
surparea crbunelui i a rocilor nconjurtoare.
Ortelecan M., n lucrarea [Studiul deplasrii suprafeei sub influena exploatrii subterane a
zcmintelor din Valea Jiului, zona estic, Tez de doctorat, Petroani, 1997.], se ocup de
studiul deformaiei terenului sub influena exploatrii stratelor 3 i 5, n zonele cu nclinare
medie i mare, prin organizarea a numeroase staii de observaie n perimetrele din estul
688
bazinului (Dlja, Livezeni, Petrila, Lonea). n urma analizei datelor obinute din msurtori
topografice i fotogrammetrice s-au tras urmtoarele concluzii: albiile i fenomenele de
scufundare s-au dezvoltat asimetric (fig. 11); deplasrile verticale maxime au fost de ordinul
zecilor de metri 16,4 m n cazul exploatrii stratului 3 Lonea, prin surparea rocilor
nconjurtoare (fig. 12), i mult mai mici, de cca. 1,823 m, n cazul exploatrii cu rambleere a
str.3 Petrila; deformaiile specifice nregistrate (de +77,88 mm/m i 51,85 mm/m) au produs
la suprafaa terenului fisuri, rupturi i chiar surpri, iar cldirilor situate n zonele de influen,
fisuri i crpturi;
Scufundarea maxim este direct proporional cu grosimea zcmntului, factorul de
scufundare i cu dimensiunea zonei exploatate, iar parametrii de scufundare sunt influenai de
adncimea de exploatare, unghiul de nclinare a stratului i de dinamica exploatrii.

Figura 11: Aria exploatat i zonele de influen a exploatrii n cazul stratelor groase cu
nclinare mare extrase n felii orizontale .

Figura 12: Reprezentarea n timp a profilelor scufundrilor (profil transversal stratul 3Dlja)[1]
(1) X.75;(2)-V.76;(3)-IV.77; (4) X.77;(5)- IV.78; (6)- X.78; (7)- IV.79; (8)- X.79; (9)- IV.80;
(10)- curb de regresie polinimial

4. METODE DE REDUCERE A DEFORMAIILOR TERENULUI DE LA SUPRAFA

Pilierii de siguran. Cea mai sigur metod de protecie a terenului de la suprafa (cu
obiectivele amplasate pe acesta) i a lucrrilor miniere subterane este lsarea n zona acestora
a unor poriuni de zcmnt neextrase, astfel nct s le situeze n afara ariei de influen a
exploatrii, numite pilieri de siguran.
689
Criteriul cel mai frecvent utilizat n proiectarea pilierilor de siguran este criteriul unghiului
critic, bazat pe relaia dintre unghiul de nclinare a pilierului i deformaia specific admisibil
a, reprezentat n tabelul 4 pentru patru categorii de obiective .
Dac deformaia este mai mare de 12 mm/m, cldirile devin practic neutilizabile, deoarece
acestea au suferit cderi de perei i alte distrugeri importante.
Metoda grafic de trasare a pilierilor de siguran are la baz unghiurile de scufundare obinute
prin msurtori topografice, la nivelul albiilor de scufundare din fiecare bazin minier, i sunt
specifice doar acestora. De asemenea, n jurul construciilor de la suprafa se las o poriune
de teren, numit berm sau marj de siguran. Aceast berm de siguran are valoarea n
funcie de gradul de importan al cldirii i se ia de 10-15 m pentru prima categorie de
protecie a cldirilor, de 5-10 m pentru cele din a doua i de 5 m pentru cele din a treia i a
patra categorie .
Tabelul 4 : Criteriu privind proiectarea pilierilor de siguran

Rambleerea compact. Datele obinute dintr-un numr mare de observaii au artat faptul c
scufundarea maxim a terenului de la suprafa este strns legat de grosimea zcmntului i
de metoda de dirijare a presiunii. Scufundarea maxim este de aproximativ 60-80% din
grosimea extras a zcmntului, atunci cnd este folosit dirijarea presiunii miniere prin
surparea integral a rocilor din acoperi. Pentru rambleerea compact, cum ar fi cea hidraulic
cu nisip, scufundarea maxim este de doar 6-10% din grosimea extras a stratului. Extinderea
rambleerii compacte depinde de procedeul tehnologic de rambleere aplicat i de tipul de
material folosit la umplere . n urma observaiilor efectuate, Whittaker a ajuns la concluzia c
pentru dirijarea presiunii cu stive i surparea rocilor din acoperi, scufundarea maxim poate
atinge 90% din nlimea extras a stratului, adic pentru rapoarte w/h egale cu 1,4 sau mai
mari (unde: w reprezint limea zonei exploatate, iar h, adncimea medie de situare a
zcmntului). De asemenea, pentru cazul rambleerii pneumatice, scufundarea maxim este n
jur de 45%, iar pentru cea hidraulic, de aproximativ 15-20%. Experiena utilizrii rambleerii
arat c pentru a avea o reducere semnificativ a scufundrii suprafeei, raportul w/h trebuie s
fie mai mare dect 0,6.
Exploatarea parial. Exploatarea parial sau cu pilieri abandonai este folosit cu succes n
minele de crbuni i de minereuri i n vederea reducerii deformrii terenului de la suprafa. n
acest caz, gradul de recuperare a zcmntului variaz ntre 50 i 60%. Dac exploatarea
parial este combinat cu rambleerea hidraulic, scufundarea maxim posibil este de 2% din
grosimea extras a stratului, iar dac este combinat cu surparea rocilor nconjurtoare,
scufundarea maxim este n jur de 3-10%. Exploatarea parial este utilizat, n special, atunci
cnd la suprafa sunt situate anumite obiective importante [26, 4].
Exploatarea n felii. Exploatarea n felii este specific stratelor groase. n acest caz se
consider c extragerea urmtoarei felii trebuie s se realizeze dup un timp suficient de lung
pentru ca deformarea terenului s se stabilizeze sau s se reduc la un nivel acceptabil [8].
Exploatarea simultan a feliilor, cu un decalaj bine stabilit ntre abataje, poate conduce la
reducerea influenei asupra terenului de la suprafa, efect specific abatajelor armonice [26].
690
Exploatarea la intervale de timp. Este important n cazul exploatrii pariale. Dup
exploatarea unei poriuni de zcmnt este necesar ca scufundarea s nceteze sau s se
diminueze; poriunile de zcmnt rmase sunt exploatate ulterior, astfel nct micarea total
a terenului se reamorseaz la anumite intervale de timp. Aceasta este o metod foarte eficient
de protecie a cldirilor situate la suprafa. Aceast metod i cea n felii sunt cele mai bune
metode de reducere a cumulrii diferitelor efecte generate de influena excavaii miniere
subterane.
Exploatarea armonic. Este una dintre cele mai eficiente metode de protecie a obiectivelor
situate la suprafa mpotriva efectelor distructive ale exploatrii subterane. Metoda este
practicabil atunci cnd sunt exploatate simultan mai multe strate apropiate. Ideea este de a
conduce exploatarea n aa fel nct deformaiile de traciune, din zona de influen a unui
abataj, s se suprapun peste cele de compresiune ale altui abataj. Acestea echilibrndu-se,
efectul distructiv al suprafeei se reduce la minimum . Metoda abatajelor armonice a primit o
larg aplicabilitate la exploatarea pachetelor de strate din pilierii de siguran ai puurilor sau a
unor construcii situate la suprafa. Exploatarea se concentreaz fie pe un strat fie, n cazul
mai multor strate, prin atacarea concomitent a acestora, ns cu extragerea decalat a
abatajelor.
Decalajul dintre fronturile de abataj, de pe stratele apropiate, trebuie s in seama de faptul c
deformaiile, a cror mrime depete limitele admisibile, trebuie s fie compensate de
deformaiile de semn contrar, ce iau natere n masivul de roci nconjurtoare. Compunerea
tensiunilor de semn contrar se poate obine i n urma exploatrii a dou cmpuri de abataj
adiacente, respectiv situate pe acelai strat i exploatate cu decalaj. Decalajul dintre cele dou
fronturi trebuie s fie astfel ales nct tensiunile de traciune dezvoltate n masivul de roci din
acoperi s le compenseze pe cele de compresiune .
Creterea vitezei de exploatare. Mrind viteza de exploatare se creeaz condiii favorabile
pentru protejarea suprafeei, n timpul perioadei de exploatare. n mod normal, reducerea
relativ a deformaiei suprafeei, prin creterea vitezei de exploatare, va fi mare pentru roci mai
dure sau o adncime de exploatare redus i efectul va fi redus pentru roci mai moi i o
adncime de extracie important . Deci,timpul este un factor principal n degradarea rocilor
supuse unei anumite stri de tensiuni. Astfel c, deformaia maxim la traciune t, care
urmrete un front n exploatare, este n general mai redus dect deformaia final de
traciune max i, cu ct exploatarea este mai rapid, cu att deformaiile t sunt mai reduse.
Mai mult dect att, deformaiile maxime de compresiune, ce nsoesc frontul, sunt ntotdeauna
mai mici dect deformaiile corespunztoare de traciune.

5. REFERENCES

Ortelecan, M. Studiul deplasrii suprafeei sub influena exploatrii subterane a

[1]
zcmintelor din Valea Jiului, zona estic, Tez de doctorat, Petroani, 1997.
Kalcov, A. Scufundarea terenului i protejarea structurilor de la suprafa (n
[2]
iugoslav), Arhit. ptr. Tehnologie, No.3,1965
[3] Covaci, . Exploatri miniere (vol. I), E.D.P., Bucureti, 1961
Covaci, . Exploatarea zcmintelor de substane minerale utile nsubteran (vol. I),
[4]
Editura Tehnic, Bucureti, 1972.
[5] Covaci, . Exploatri miniere subterane (vol. I), E.D.P., Bucureti,1983.
Buletinul AGIR nr. 3/2006 iulie-septembrie Influenta industriei miniere asupra
[6]
mediului

691
692
AUTHOR'S INDEX

Ioan Moise ACHIM

Goran ALEKSOVSKI , 2 , 3
Dimitar ANASTASOV
Yordanka ANASTASOVA
Iosif ANDRAS , 2
Andrei ANDRAS
Adriana ANDRI
AnaMaria ANGHEL (REETAR)
Daniel ANTONIE
Dan ARON , 2

Lazr AVRAM , 2, 3
George BALAN
Ilie BANU
Anne-Marie BARTALIS
Adrian BRBULESCU
Cristina BTUARU
Krsto BLAZEV
Corneliu BOANT
Alexandru Nicolae BOCIU
Constantin P. BOGDAN
Ilie BOGDAN
ukasz BOOZ
Ioan-Lucian BOLUNDU
Sorin BORDO
Marjan BOSHKOV , 2
Mioara BRUJAN (PREDOIU)
Eliza-Cristina BULZ
Nicolae BULZ
Sorin BURIAN , 2
Stelian Valentin CASAVELA
Angelica CLMAR , 2
Larisa Cristina CHINDRI , 2
Alexandru CHIOTOROIU
Emeric CHIUZAN, 2, 3 , 4
Viorica CIOCAN , 2
Doru CIOCLEA ,2 , 3 , 4 , 5
Ilie Ionel CIUCLEA
Maria CIUREA
Ciprian COANDRE
Cosmin COLDA
Eugen COZMA
P. CRAI
Nicoleta CRCIUN
Nicolae CRISTEA
Tiberiu CSASZAR
Ioan CUCU
Andrzej CZAJKOWSKI
Georgi DACHEV
Marius DARIE
Alina Adela DAVIDOIU (TECAN)
Blagoj DELIPETREV , 2
Marjan DELIPETREV
Todor DELIPETROV
Krastu DERMENDJIEV
Nicolae DIACONU
Cristian Alexandru DOBRE
Adriana Ioana DONEA
Marin DOROBANU
Luminia DURU
Dumitru FODOR
Drago FOTU
Martin FRIEDMANN
Ionel Cosm in GAGIU
Aurelian GANEA
Alireza GANJI
Artur George GMAN , 2 , 3
George Artur GMAN
Ioan I. GF-DEAC , 2 , 3 , 4, 5 , 6 , 7 , 8
Maria GF-DEAC ,2 , 3 , 4 , 5, 6 ,7
Edward GHEORGHIOSU , 2
Ion GHERGHE , 2 ,3 , 4
Androo Paul GHERGHELA ,2
Emilian GHICIOI , 2 , 3
Andrei-Lucian GIREADA
Edmond GOSKOLLI
Lucian GRIGORESCU
Nicolae HANES
Ileana Dana HANTULIE (OPRISESCU)
St. HRISTOV
Larisa IACOBONI
Nicolae ILIAS , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7
Cosmin ILIE
Jeana IONESCU
Ventsislav IVANOV
Alina JIANU DUMITRU
Ciprian JITEA
Thanas JORGAQ
Sase JOVCEVSKI
Adrian JURCA
Ramona-Elena KISS
Attila KOVACS , 2
Marius KOVACS
Sanda KRAUSZ , 2
Kiril KUTSAROV
Adrian Constantin LSCONI
Andrei LECA
Laureniu LEICA
Sergiu LUCA
Constantin LUPU ,2 , 3 , 4, 5
Leonard LUPU
Mihai MAGYARI
Straso MANEVSKI
Vladimir MANEVSKI , 2
Diana MARCHI
Dan Constantin MARINESCU , 2
Dan MARTIN
Moise MATYAS
Oresti MICHELIS
Eduard MIJA , 2
Lucian MOLDOVAN , 2
Roland Iosif MORARU
Florin MUNTEANU
Marin Silviu NAN , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5
Laureniu NANCU
Mihai Marius D. NEDELEA
Mariana NEGRU
Andrei NICOLAE , 2, 3, 4, 5
Marian NICOLAE
D. NIKOLOV
Delcho NIKOLOV
I. OFFENBERG
Alexandra OTETEA
Vlad Mihai PSCULESCU ,2 , 3 , 4 , 5
Gabriel PUN
Mircea Constantin PETRINI
Valeriu PLEEA
Madalina POMANA (CARAUS)
Ioan Alexandru POP
Ion Florin POPA
Rzvan POPESCU , 2
Mihai POPESCU STELEA
Lucian PREDA , 2
Ionu PREDOIU ,2
Sorin PRICOPE
Luminia Doina PRICOPE(MUNTEAN)
Maria PRODAN
Daniel PUPZAN ,2
Marcel Daniel RAD , 2
Andrei Cristian RADA

Sorin Mihai RADU , 2 , 3 , 4

Ileana -Sorina RAKOS
Florin RDOI , 2 ,3 , 4 , 5 , 6

Janusz RE
Inga ROIORUCIOARA
Ilie ROTUNJANU
Murat RRESHKA
Daniela RUS
Ioan RUS
Romulus SRBU
Trajan SHOLDOV , 2
Bardhyl SHUSHKU
Goran SLAVKOVSKI , 2, 3
Mirela SOGLU (CALUGAREANU)
Peter SOLOZHENKIN
I. STAMIN PURCARU
Marius STAN , 2
Aurora STANCI , 2
Andreea Cristina STANCI (TATARU)
Constantin Alexandru STOICA
George STOYANCHEV
Marius UVAR
Claudiu TANASA ,2

Dorin TATARU , 2
Andreea Cristina TATARU
Mihai-Nicolae TIBA
Dumitru Filip TIVIG
Cristian TOMESCU , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5
Ovidiu-Bogdan TOMU ,2
Andrei TOPOR
Zoran TOSHIC , 2
Zoran TOSHIK
Camelia TRAISTA
Eugen TRAIST
Vasile TUDOR
Andreea UNGUR , 2
Mihai Aristotel UNGUREANU ,2
Cristina Monica VALECA ,2 , 3 , 4, 5 , 6 , 7 , 8

Gabriel VASILESCU , 2
Irina VERNICEANU
Nicolae-Ioan VLASIN , 2
Drago-Vasile VG
Haralambie VOCHIOIU
Ctlin VRNCEANU
Andreea WAGNER
Nikolay YANEV
Ioana ZACHIU ALEXA
Dorel ZUGRAVESCU
M. Ilie
M. Radu