Chapter 8

8.1 Ohms Law

You know about three important electrical quantities: voltage, current, and resistance. Of the three,
current is the one that carries energy through a circuit. How does the current depend on the voltage and
resistance? In this section you will learn the fundamental relationship for circuits known as Ohms law.

What is Ohms law?

The relationship If you have been working with circuits, you probably have an idea of how voltage,
between amps, current, and resistance are related. You know that if you increase the voltage, the
volts, and ohms current goes up. You know that if you increase the resistance by adding a second
light bulb, the current goes down.
Ohms law German physicist Georg S. Ohm (1787-1854) experimented with circuits to find
the exact mathematical relationship present in most circuits. The relationship that
he discovered is called Ohms law.

Equation Gives you... If you know...

I = V/R current (I) voltage and resistance
V = IR voltage (V) current and resistance
R = V/I resistance (R) voltage and current Figure 8.1: Ohms law in a circuit.

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Using Ohms law to analyze circuits

Ohms law can be used to predict any of the three variables given the other two. Sometimes you want to
know the current in the circuit. Sometimes you want to know voltage or resistance. Use the problem-
solving steps to help set up and work through problems.

Example A light bulb with a resistance of 2 ohms is connected Example A light bulb requires 3 amps to produce light. The
to a 1.5 volt battery as shown. Calculate the current resistance of the bulb is 1.5 ohms. How many batteries
that will flow. do you need if each battery is 1.5 volts?
(1) We are asked for the number of batteries, which means
we need to know the voltage since each battery is 1.5
volts.
(2) We know current and resistance.
(3) Use the formula V = IR.
(4) Plug in numbers.
V = 3 A 1.5 = 4.5 V
Answer: Each battery can produce 1.5 volts so we need three
Solution: batteries to get the required 4.5 volts.
(1) We are asked for the current, I.
(2) We know V and R.
(3) Use the formula V = I R.
(4) Plug in numbers.
I = 1.5 V 2 = 0.75 A

Answer: 0.75 amps will flow in the circuit.

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Graphing and Ohms law

Devices and Ohms law tells us how much current flows for different amounts of voltage. If a
Ohms law device has the same resistance under different conditions we say that it obeys
Ohms law. We can predict current flow at different voltages. Not all electrical
devices obey Ohms law! If resistance changes, a device does not obey Ohms law.
For example, a light bulbs resistance increases when voltage and current increase.
The current vs. A current vs. voltage graph shows us if resistance changes. Often, these graphs
voltage graph have both positive and negative values of current and voltage. These positive and
negative values are just a way to refer to the direction of current in a wire. You can
apply voltage two ways across a wire (figure 8.2). How you apply voltage
determines current direction. One direction is positive and the other negative.
I vs. V for a diode A simple resistor obeys Ohms lawits current vs. voltage graph is a straight line.
Resistance is the same at all values of voltage and current. For a diode, the graph
is not a straight line. A diode only allows charge to flow in one direction! This is
why current is zero when voltage is negative. Diodes do not obey Ohms law.
Diodes, like computer chips, are made from semiconductors.

Figure 8.2: How to interpret

positive and negative voltage. You
have to choose which direction to call
positive. After you choose, the other
direction is negative!

Finding resistance You can find resistance from a current vs. voltage graph. If the graph is a straight
from a graph line (obeying Ohms law), pick a point on the line. Read voltage and current
(figure 8.3) from the graph. Calculate resistance using the R = V/I form of Ohms Figure 8.3: Using a graph of
current vs. voltage to determine
law. resistance.

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Temperature and Ohms law

Superconductivity
The cause of Resistance happens because the charges bounce into
resistance and around atoms as they weave their way through a What happens to the resistance
material. If the voltage goes up, the charges move a of a material as its temperature
little faster between atoms and we get more current. is lowered? This question
Think about a highway. On a stretch of road there may intrigued Dutch physicist
be the same number of cars whether they are going 30 Heike Kamerlingh Onnes
or 60 miles per hour. But, at 60 mph, twice as many (1853-1926). In 1911, he
cars flow past you per minute compared with 30 mph. discovered that when mercury
Materials obey Ohms law because the speed of is cooled to 269 degrees below
moving charges increases proportionally with voltage. zero (-269C), its resistance
suddenly drops to zero. He
called this property
The LDX experiment at MIT
superconductivity. A
uses a superconducting coil superconductor allows current
to explore fusion energy. to flow without losing any
energy as heat or light.
Until the 1960s, superconductivity remained of little
practical value because it was very hard and expensive to
cool wires down to such extremely low temperatures. A
few practical uses were invented, such as the magnetic
resonance imaging machines found in many hospitals. In
Resistance of Even if a material obeys Ohms law, its resistance can the 1980s, scientists made another big discovery. They
metals increases change when it is cooler or warmer. Atoms gain discovered special ceramic materials that become
with temperature energy when they are heated up. With extra energy, the superconductors at higher temperatures. Although they
atoms move around more. They collide more often still must be cooled to -70C, the new superconductors
with moving charges that make up the current. The work at temperatures 200 degrees warmer than mercury.
extra collisions mean that hot metal has more Engineers are working with these high temperature
resistance than cold metal. superconductors to see if they can be used to make more
efficient motors, generators, power cables, and
magnetically levitated trains.

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Resistors
Example:
What is a resistor? Using Ohms law, if the voltage is prescribed, then the only way we can change
Figure out the value of this resistor.
the current is by changing the resistance. Components called resistors are used to
control current in many circuits. Resistors are made from materials that keep the
same resistance over a wide range of temperatures and currents.
Fixed and variable There are many kinds of resistors. The two basic kinds are fixed and variable. A
resistors fixed resistor always has the same value. An application of fixed resistors is a (1) The first two stripes are a number.
three-way light switch. Each setting connects the circuit to a different resistor. The Red (2) and green (5) make 25.
three values of resistance determine three levels of current. The three levels of (2) The third stripe is the multiplier.
current control the brightness of the bulb. Orange is 1,000.
(3) The fourth stripe is the accuracy
tolerance. Silver is +/- 10%.
The example resistor is 25,000 ohms.

 Resistor Color Codes

Color Digit Multiplier
Black 0 1
Brown 1 10
Red 2 100
Orange 3 1,000
Yellow 4 10,000
Green 5 100,000
Blue 6 1,000,000
If you look inside a stereo or telephone you will find a circuit board. The circuit Violet 7 10,000,000
board has wires printed on it and is covered with little parts. The little parts are not a
called electronic components and are soldered to the circuit board. Many of the Gray 8
multiplier
components are resistors, which look like small skinny cylinders with colored
not a
stripes on them. Because they are so tiny, it is impossible to write how much White 9
multiplier
resistance each one has. The colored stripes are a code that tells you the resistance.

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Electrical controls

What are controls? Every time you turn a knob or push a switch you are using an electrical control.
We use controls for lights, motors, air conditioners, and almost every electrical
device you can think of. Many controls use variable resistors.
Making a dimmer An application of variable resistors is a dimmer switch. As you turn the dimmer
switch switch from low to high, it changes the resistance, which also changes the current.
Current is increased as the resistance goes down, and the bulb glows brighter in
response.
The potentiometer A potentiometer is a variable resistor. Inside the potentiometer is a circular
resistor and a little sliding contact called a wiper. As shown in the diagram below,
the wiper moves when you turn the knob and is connected to a wire (B). You
choose the resistance by turning the knob.

How the Potentiometers (or pots for short) have three wires. The resistance between A and
potentiometer C always stays the same. As you turn the knob the resistance between A and B
works changes. The resistance between B and C also changes. With the wiper rotated like
the diagram above, the resistance between A and B is 2 ohms. The resistance
between B and C is 8 ohms (10 minus 2).
You can choose how to connect a potentiometer into your circuit to change the
resistance from zero to the maximum value of the potentiometer. For the
potentiometer in the diagram the resistance can vary between zero and 10 ohms.

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