Lecture1:EnergyandEnvironment

Energyisaprimemoverofeconomicgrowthandisvitaltosustaintheeconomy.
Energyconsumptionisanindicatorofeconomicgrowthofanation
Economicgrowthdepends,amongotherfactors,onthelongtermavailabilityof
resourcesthatareaffordable,accessibleandtheirusedonotpollutethe
environment.
Industrializationcontributestoeconomicgrowthandrequiresenergy.Major
energyintensiveindustriesconsumed68%ofthetotalenergyavailablein2005.A
similartrendcontinuesinthesubsequentyearsalso.
Energyconsumptionisstronglyrelatedtoenvironmentcleanliness,whenfossil
fuelisthemainsourceofenergy
Fossilfuelaccountsformorethan70%ofthetotalenergyrequirementofIndia
andothercountries

Energyresources:Classificationofenergyresourcesisgiveninthefollowingflowsheet:

EnergyResources

Secondary(Synthetic)
Primary(Natural)

NonRenewable(FossilFuel) Renewable Coke FuelGas Oil

(Producer Gas)

Coal Petroleum NaturalGas

Solar
Geothermal
Wind
Biomass

Hydrothermal


Itmustbenotedthatallfossilfuelreservesareplantoriginandittakesmillionsofyearsto
formadepositbelowtheearthcrustthroughphysicochemicalreactions

TypesofNonRenewablesourcesofenergy
Coal:
Coalisformedbytheprolongedactionofgeologicalforcesontheplantandvegetal
matteraccumulatedbelowtheearthcrust.TheprocessiscalledCOALIFICATION.
Coalificationisbothtimeandforcedependent.Coalificationbringsfollowing
changestotheaccumulatedplant:

WoodPeatLigniteBituminousAnthraciteGraphite
Increaseintimeandmagnitudeofforces

Both,physicalchangelikecolour,strength,densityandstructure;andchemical
changeoccur.

Chemicalchangesareimportant:

Oxygendecreasesfrom40%forwoodto305forpeat,20%forlignite,5%for
bituminousand2%foranthracitecoal.
Volatilematterdecreasesfromabout70%forwoodto5%orlessforanthracitecoal.
Increaseincarbonfromabout30%forwoodandpeatto9095%foranthracitecoal.

Petroleum:
Petroleumisformedintheearthscrustfromtheaccumulatedvegetalandanimalmatter
metamorphicprocessessimilartocoalification.

Fromcrudepetroleumgasoline,lubricatingoil,fueloilsetc.areobtained.

Naturalgas:
Itisuseddirectly


Renewablesourcesofenergy
Geothermal:energyobtainedbytappingtheheatoftheearthbelowitssurface.
Hotundergroundwaterorsteamisusedtoproduceelectricity.

Biogas:producedfromwastesofpaperandsugarindustries,animalandsoon.CH4
istheproduct.

Biofuel:Biodiesel,ethanoletc.arederivedfromplants.

SolidBiomass:Woodfuel,biogenicportionofmunicipalwaste,certainplants.
Biomassmassmaybeusedinanumberofwaystoproduceenergy.Thecommon
methodsaregasification,combustion,fermentationandanaerobicdigestion.Indiais
veryrichinbiomass

Hydrothermal:EnergyinwaterintheformofKE,temperaturedifference
.
SolarEnergy:Energycollectedfromsunlight.Itcanbeusedinmanyways:
Generateelectricityusingphotovoltaiccells.
Generateelectricityusingconcentratingsolarpower.
Photovoltaiccellshavealowefficiencyfactor

EnergyScenariounderIndianCondition
Indiaranks6thintheworldintotalenergyconsumptionandneedstoacceleratethe
developmentofenergysectortomeet89%economicgrowthinthecountry.
Indiathoughrichincoalandabundantlyendowedwithrenewableenergyhasvery
smallhydrocarbonreserves(0.4%oftheworldsreserve).
Indiaisanetimporterofenergy,morethan25%ofprimaryenergyneedsbeingmet
throughimportsintheformofcrudeoilandnaturalgas.
Inenergyproduction,coalandoilaccountfor54%and34%respectivelywithnatural
gas,hydroandnuclearcontributingtotherest.IndustrialsectorinIndiaconsumes
52%energy.ConsumptionofprimaryenergyinIndiais530Kgofoil
equivalent/personin2004comparesto1240Kgoilequivalent/personinChinaand
theworldaverageof1770Kgofoilequivalent/person.
 Primaryenergyconsumptionperpersonwillgrowwiththegrowthineconomy
becauseenergyconsumptionisanindexofcountryseconomicgrowthand
prosperity.

IssuesrelatedtoFossilFuelUsage
Fossilfuelcontainspotentialenergy/chemicalenergyandisobtainedbycombustion.The
figureshows:

Potentialenergyoffuel

Combustion

SensibleheatinPOC
atflametemperature

HeatTransferbetweenPOCandthesink
(sink:furnacewalls/product)toraisethe
sinktemperature

DischargeofPOCatTTsink(IfTsinkis1200oC
thenTPOC1200oC)

IncreaseinCofenvironmentis Lossofhighqualitythermalenergy

proportionaltofossilfuelinput (qualityofenergytemperatureofPOC)

Thususageoffossilfuelenergysourcerelatestoenvironmentsustainability
(increaseduseoffossilfuelincreasestheCemission)andenergysecurity
(limitedfossilfuelreserves).

Whatshouldbedone????
Energyconsumptionisanindicatoroftheeconomicgrowthofanation.Adevelopingnation
likeourshastheneedsofenergyforindustrialgrowth.Unlessrenewablesourcesofenergy
areexploitedonamassivescale,fossilfuelistheonlysourceofenergy.Limitedreservesof
fossilfuels andthewayinwhichfossilfuelenergyisavailable(combustionand unutilized
energy in Products of combustion) need ways to search means to optimize energy
consumption.Energysavingwillautomaticallyreducethecarbonemission.

Weshouldthinkintermsofthefollowingconcept

Switch:Canweswitchovertorenewableenergysource?Ifyes,towhat
extent?
Reduce:Canwereducethepresentlevelofenergyconsumption?Ifyes,
thenhow?
Capture:CanwecapturetheheatofPOCwhichisexitingtheindustrial
furnace?Ifyes,how?

Keywords:Energyresources,Environment,furnaces,energyefficiency
 Lecture2CharacterisationofFuels
Fuelisasourceofenergy.Industrialgrowth,amongotherfactors,islargelydependentonconsumption
of energy. Large amount of energy requirement can only be met by fossil fuel reserves, though
renewablesourceofenergycandecreasetosomeextentthedependenceonfossilfuel.Optimizationof
energy consumption is necessary. Characterization of fuel is important to search ways and means to
optimisetheenergyconsumption.

2.1 FuelClassification:
Type Natural/Primary Secondary
Solid Wood, Charcoal,
Peat, Coke
Lignite,
BituminousCoal,
AnthraciteCoal.
Liquid Petroleum Oil,
Tar
Alcoholsetc.
Gas NaturalGas ProducerGas
WaterGas
BlastFurnaceGas
CokeOvenGas

2.2 WhatismeantbyFuelCharacterization?
Fuelcharacterizationconcernswiththeanalysisandenergycontentoffuel(alsoknownascalorific
value).Fuelanalysiscomprisesofproximateandultimate.

(A)Proximateanalysis:

Intheproximateanalysis,moisture(M),Ash(A)andvolatilematter(VM)aredetermined.Fixedcarbon
(FC)isobtainedfromthefollowingequation:

FC= 100 (%M + %A + %VM)

(1)

There are standard tests to determine proximate analysis. Moisture is determined by drying 1gm of
sampleat105oCfor1hr.Weightlossisexpressedin%ofinitialweightofsample;i.e.

%M = (weight loss/weight of sample) 100

(2)

Ashisweightofresidueobtainedaftercompletecombustionof1gofcoalat700750oC.Ashin%is

%A=(weightofresidue/weightofsample)100 (3)

Volatilematteristheweightlossobtainedonheating1gmsampleofcoalat950oCfor7minutesinthe
absenceofair.

Totalweightlossofamoistcoal=WeightlossduetoVolatilematter+Moisture

WeightlossduetoVM=Totalweightlossmoisture

IfcoalsampleisdrythenweightlossisduetoVMonly.

%VM=(weightlossduetoVM/weightofsample)100. (5)

Fixedcarboncanbecalculatedbyeq.1.

(B)UltimateAnalysis

The main chemical elements in coal (apart from associated mineral matter) are C, O, H, N and S. The
chemicalanalysisisveryimportanttocalculatematerialbalanceaccuratelyandcalorificvalueofcoal.
FortheultimateanalysisC,H,SandNaredeterminedbychemicalanalysisandexpressedonamoisture
freebasis.Ashisdeterminedasinproximateanalysisandiscalculatedonmoisturefreebasis.Then,

%O=100 (%C+%H+%N+%S+%ash) (6)

(C)NoteonAshandVolatileMatter
Infactcoalcontainsmineralmatter(MM)likeCaCO3,MgCO3,SiO2,Al2O3,Na2CO3etc.butnotash.Ashis
residueobtainedaftercompletecombustionofcoalandconsistsofCaO,MgO,SiO2,Al2O3etc.Ashand
mineralmatterarenotidentical.

Ashcontentofcoalisimportant.Inhightemperatureapplicationswherecoalistheprinciplesourceof
chemicalandthermalenergy,removalofashisanimportantissue.Ingeneralashcontentofcoalshould
below.Inaddition, meltingpointofashisalsoimportant.Infurnaceswhere coalisusedtoheat the
material below its melting point, melting point of ash should preferably be higher than the furnace
temperaturebecauseofeasydisposal

Whereasinapplicationswherecoaliscarbonizedandthecarbonizedproductisusedtoderivethermal
andchemicalenergyforexampleinblastfurnaceironmaking,bothamountofashanditsmeltingpoint
isofconsiderableimportance.Inthiscaseashshouldbeeasilyfusibleanditsmelting pointshouldbe
lowerthanfurnacetemperature.Largeramountofashwillincreasetheamountofslag.

Totalmineralmatter(MM)canbecalculatedbyParrformula1)

MM=1.08A+0.55%S (7)

WhilecalculatingFConmineralmatterbasis,Parrsubtracts0.15%Sfrommeasuredfixedcarbon.

VolatileMatter

Itconsistsofvolatilesubstancesformedduringheatingofcoaloutofcontactofair.Essentiallytheseare
gaseoussubstanceslikeCO,H2,H2O,CO2,CH4,N2,,O2andotherhydrocarbons.Volatilematterdoesnot
include moisture of coal but includes water formed during reaction between hydrogen and oxygen of
coal

2.3Howtoreportanalysis?
Thedifferentwaystoreportanalysisofcoalcanbeillustratedbyanexample.Considersubbituminous
coal.

(A) ProximateAnalysis

Dry mineral
Asreceived DryBasis* Dryashfree**
matterfree***
 %M 6.8
%A 12.3 13.2
%VM 36.2 38.84 44.7 44.6
%FC 44.2 47.42 54.7 55.4
%S 0.5 0.54 0.6
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

*Analysisondrybasis={%Aor%VM/(100%M)}100

%FCondrybasis=100(%M+%A)

**Analysisondryashfreebasis(daf)={%VM/{100(%M+%A)}100

%FCondafbasis=100%VM

***DrymineralmatterfreeFC=(FC0.15%S)/{100(%M+1.08A+0.55%S)}

DrymineralmatterfreeVM=100DrymineralmatterfreeFC

(B)UltimateAnalysis:

Compn(%) Asreceived Asreceived* Drybasis*

(Moistbasis) (Moistbasis)
C 69.8 69.8 73.1
H 4.6 5.1 4.8
O 8.5 12.5 8.9
N 1.4 1.4 1.5
S 2.5 2.5 2.6
A 8.7 8.7 9.1
M 4.5
Total 100 100 100

*%H(Moist)=(%H+2/18%M) and %O(Moist)=(%O+16/18%M)

**%ondrybasis=(100%element)/(100%M)

2.4FuelOil:
FueloilconsistsofelementssuchasC,H,O,NandS.ItiseasytohandleandstoreandpossessesCV
(CalorificValue)greaterthanotherfuels.Itisobtainedfromcrudepetroleumanditsultimateanalysis
doesnotvarymuch(C8388%,H1013%,O1%andS1%).

Fueloilisbroughtandsoldonavolumebasis.ThespecificgravityisdeterminedindegreesAPIwitha
speciallymarkedhydrometer.Theunitisdefinedasfollows1):
o
API={141.5/(sp.gr.60o/60oF)}131.5 (8)

ForFueloil:oAPI=10oto50oAPI

NCVvariesfrom9000to10000Kcal/kg

2.5GaseousFuels:
Naturalgasisafossilfuel.Allgaseousfuelshave

Combustible Incombustible
CO N2
H2 CO2
Hydrocarbon(CH4,C6H6,C2H4etc.) H2O

Advantages:

1 Easytohandle

2 Ashless

3 GoodCombustion

CVofgaseousfuelcanbecalculatedfromtheheatofformationvalues.

2.6CalorificValue(hereafterCV):
Calorific value (CV) is the amount of heat released on complete combustion of 1 kg of coal at the
referencestateofproductsofcombustion(POChereafter).

ForahydrocarbonfuelcontainingC,HandS,productsofcompletecombustionareCO2,H2OandSO2.
ReferencestateofPOCis

25oC CO2(g),SO2(g)andH2O(l)=GrossCalorificValue(GCV)

100oC CO2(g),SO2(g)andH2O(v)=NetCalorificValue(NCV)


SoGCV>NCVbyanamountequaltolatentheatofcondensation.

CVcanbeexpressedascal/g,kcal/kg,kJ/kg,Btu/lborcal/gmol,kcal/kgmol,kJ/kgmol,Btu/lbmol

Someconversionfactors:

1cu.ft.=0.02832m3; 1kcal=3.968Btu=4186Joules=0.00116kWh

1kWh=1.34hPh=3.6108J=860kcal=3412.14Btu

1hPh=0.746kWh

Atomicweightsofsomeelements: H=1,O=16,S=32,N=14

Dryair= 79%N2+21%O2(vol%) and 77%O2+23%N2(wt%)

(A) DeterminationofCVofSolidFuel

CV can be determined experimentally or from theoretical considerations. In laboratory Bomb

calorimeter is used where 1 g coal is combusted at constant volume and rise in temperature is
noted1,2).

Theoretically, CV of coal can be determined from the heat of formation of products of complete
combustionat298Kand1atm.pressure.

Intermsof%ofelements:

GCV=81%C+341(%H%O/8)+22%S kcal/kgor (9)

GCV=339%C+1427(%H%O/8)+92%S kJ/kg (10)

NCV=GCVHeatofvaporizationofwater

NCV=GCV5.84(9%H+%M) kcal/kg (11)

 NCV=GCV24.44(9%H+%M) kJ/kg (12)

Equations9to12areDulongsformula

Assumptions:

1 Heatofformationofcoaliszero.

2 CoalcontainsHandO.Therefore,availableHforcombustionwithgaseousoxygen=(%H
%O/8).

3 CVofcoalissumofCVofheatofformationofcompletecombustionproducts.

4 Heatofvaporizationofwaterat100oC=542kcal/kg(975Btu/lb);whereasat25oCitis584
kcal/kg(1050Btu/lb).

(B)DeterminationofCVofGaseousFuel

In determination of gaseous fuel, combustible components are : CO, H2, Hydrocarbons, NH3 etc.,
whereasO2,CO2,N2arediluents.

Heatsofformationofsomeoxidesare1):

Oxides Hof(1atm,298K) inkcal/kgmol

CO 29.6103(CAmorphous)
CO 26.4103
CO2 97.2103 (CAmorphous)
CO2 94.05103
 H2O(l) 68.32103
H2O(v) 57.80103
SO2(g) 70.96103
SO3(g) 94.45103

Heatsofformationofsomehydrocarbonsare1):

Hydrocarbons Hof(1atm,298K) inkcal/kgmol

CH4 17.89103
C2H2 54.19103
C2H4 12.5103
C2H6 20.24103
C3H8 24.82103

Tonote

1kgmol=22.4m3(1atm,0oC)

1kgmol=24.45m3(1atm,25oC)

Consideranexampleofgaseousfuelofthefollowingcomposition:
CH4=4%

C2H6=3%

C3H8=0.5%

N2andCO2=Rest

LetuscalculateCVofthisfuel

In1kgmoleofgaseousfuel:
 Kgmoles

CH4 = 0.94

C2H6= 0.03

C3H8= 0.005

Heatofcombustionofmethane

CH4(g)+2O2(g) = CO2(g)+2H2O(v) (13)

CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g) = CO2 (g) + 2H2O (l)

(14)

Heatofcombustion=(Heatofformationofproducts)(Heatofformationofreactants)

Bysubstitutingthevaluesofheatsoformation,oneobtains heatofcombustionequals194.91
103kcal/kgmolforeq.13and215.95103kcal/kgmolforeq.14respectively.

Similarly,combustionequationsforC2H6andC3H8canbewrittenandheatofcombustionvaluecan
becalculated.

HeatofcombustionofC2H6=350.56103kcal/kgmolandofC3H8is498.18103 kcal/kgmol
whenreferencestateofPOCisvapour.Thusnetcalorificvalueofnaturalgasis

|NCV|=0.94194.91103+0.03350.56103+0.005498.18103

=196.22103kcal/kgmolofnaturalgas

=8.76103kcal/m3(1atmand273K)

References:

1)R.Schuhmann:MetallurgicalEngineering,Vol.1EngineeringPrinciples

2)O.P.Gupta:elementsoffuels,furnacesandRefractories,KhannaPublishers

Keywords:Proximateanalysis,Ultimateanalysis,Materialsbalance,fueloil,coal,naturalgas.

 Lecture3Exercisesofanalysisandcalorificvalue)

1. Calculatethegrossandnetcalorificvalueofacoalwhichanalyses:C74%,H6%,N1%,O9%,
S0.8%,moisture2.2%andash8%.
2. Theultimateanalysisofacoal(moistbasisin%):C69.8,H4.6,N1.4,O8.5,S2.5,H2O4.5
andash8.7.Thegrosscalorificvalue,moistbasis,is29920KJ/Kg.Calculate,bymeansofthe
Dulongformula,thegrosscalorificvalue,moistbasis,ofthecoal.
3. Theproximateanalysisofcoalis:Moisture2.4%,VolatileMatter29.4%,FixedCarbon58%,
Ash9.7%andSulphur0.5%.Itsgrosscalorificvalueis7650Kcal/Kg.Calculateproximate
analysisandcalorificvalueon
a) Moisturefreebasis
b) Dryashfreebasis
4. Aproducergasanalyses50%N2,25%CO,18%H2,6%CO2and1%O2.Calculatenetcalorific
power(Kcal/m3).
5. Theultimateanalysisofbituminouscoal(drybasis%)is:C77,H5.8,N1.7,O4.8,S2.5and
ash9.Themoisturecontentis5%.Thegrosscalorificpoweris7650Kcal/Kgondrybasis.
Calculate
a) Grosscalorificvalue,moistbasis
b) Netcalorificvalue,drybasis
c) Netcalorificvalue,moistbasis
d) Grosscalorificvalue,drybasisusingDulongformula.
6. Comparethegrossandnetcalorificvalueonmoistanddrybasisof(a)bituminouscoaland
(b)anthracitecoal.Thecompositionsare
Bituminouscoal(wt%) Anthracitecoal(wt%)
Carbon 78 84
Hydrogen 5 1.9
Oxygen 4.5 4
Nitrogen 1.2 0.6
Ash 7 6.7
Moisture 4.3 2.8












 Solutionstoselectedproblems



1. GCV=339%C+1427(%H%O/8)+22%S
=32060.2KJ/Kg
NCV=GCV24.44(9%H+%M)
=30630.26KJ/Kg
ThusNCV=0.955timesGCVinthiscase.

3.
Moist Moistfreebasis Dryashfreebasis
M 2.4
VM 29.4 30.12 33.45
FC 58 59.42 65.98
A 9.7 9.93
S 0.5 0.51 0.57
Calorificvalue(KJ/Kg) 32023 32810 36431

Note:ChangeinbasisincreasesCV.Onactualheatingheattakenbymoistureandashwillnot
beavailable.
5.

Drybasis Moistbasis
C 77 73.2
H 5.8 5.5
N 1 0.95
O 4.8 4.55
S 2.4 2.30

A 9 8.50
M 5

GCVMoistbasis=33873.2+1422(5.54.55/8)+222.3
=31804.2KJ/Kg
NCVMoistbasis=GCV24.44(5.59+5)
=30472.2KJ/Kg
NCVDrybasis=NCVmoistbasis100/(100%M)
=32076KJ/Kg
GCVDrybasisDulongformula=77338+1422(5.84.8/8)+222.4
=33473.2KJ/Kg

Thereportedvalueis0.95timessmallerthancalculatedbyDulongformula.

Answersforotherquestions:

2)GCV=28765.2KJ/Kg

4)NCV=5210KJ/m3

6)GCV(Bituminous)=7831Kcal/Kg

GCV(Anthracite)=7281.4Kcal/Kg
 Lecture4

Productionofsecondaryfuel

Cokemaking
Secondaryfuelsarethosewhichdonotoccurinnaturebuttheyareproducedfromprimary(natural
reserves) reserves to meets certain specific requirements. It must be clearly noted that coke does
notoccurinnature.

Oneoftheimportantsecondaryfuelsiscoke.Cokeisanimportantrawmaterialintheblastfurnace
ironmaking. It is a source of chemical and thermal energy in the blast furnace. Coke also helps
maintainingpermeabilityoftheburdenwhichisrequiredforflowofgasesascendingupwardsinthe
blastfurnace.Itmustbeclearlynotedthatcokedoesnotoccurinnature.

Howcokeisproduced

Cokeisproducedbyheatingcoaltohightemperature(T10001100oC)outofcontactofairuntilall
volatile matters are removed. The process is called carbonization or Destructive distillation of
coal.

CoalconsistsofcomplexorganiccompoundsinwhichC,H,N,O,andSatomsarebondedtogether.
As a result of heating these bonds are broken and new bonds are formed between atoms of
elementslikeCO,H2S,NH3,CO2,H2,CH4andothercomplexhydrocarbonslikeC6H6,C2H4etc.

The mass of coal during heating fuses and becomes plastic. It swells during coking and then
resolidifies.Thestructureofcokedependsmuchonfusion,swellingandresolidification.Difference
inbehaviourofdifferenttypesofcoalaccountforthedifferenceinstructureofcoke.Forexample
non coking coal may decompose without becoming plastic at any stage. Mixing of two different
varietiesofcoali.e.noncokingcoalwithcokingcoalresultincontrolovercokeproperties.

ByProductcokeoven

Metallurgicalcoke(cokeusedinblastfurnaceironmaking)isproducedinbyproductcokeovens.By
productcokeovensareflexibleintreatingdifferenttypesofcoalandtocontrolthecokeproperties.

Cokeischargedbatchwiseintosilicalinedorrefractorylinedretortsandtheseretortsareheated
externally by burning gaseous fuels. Note that retorts are heated indirectly and coal is heated
through heat transferred from the walls of the retort. Coal near the wall of the retort is heated
fasterthancoalnearthecentre.Asaresult,cokenearthewallswellsmuchearlierthancoalatthe
centre.Therefore,properdistributionofcoalintheretortwouldbedesirable.

Thevolatilematterfromthecoaliscollectedinthebyproductrecoveryplantwherebyproductare
separatedfromeachother.Ittakesaround18hourstoconvertonebatchofcoalintocoke.Cokeis
discharge from the other end of the retort by mechanical hopper into a car, where it is wet
quenched.

Notethathotcokesoproducedcannotbeuseddirectlyintoblastfurnacehencecokeiscooledto
roomtemperature.Duringwetquenchingofcoalconsiderableamountofsensibleheatislostand
pollutants are discharged in atmosphere. This aspect of coke making is dealt separately in next
lecturewithaquantitativeillustration.

Thequalityofcoke dependsbothontemperature andrateof heating.Metallurgical gradecokeis

producedattemperaturehigherthan1000oC.

Among the byproducts, coke oven gas possesses both sensible heat and potential energy. Coke
oven gas is used as a fuel to heat the furnace and also in heating the coke oven. The leakage of
atmospheric air into coke oven must be avoided as the air causes oxidation of C and results in
decreaseinyield.

Materialbalanceincokemaking

Incokemakingcoalofcertaincompositioniscarbonizedinabyproductcokeoven.Asaresultof
carbonization,productsandbyproductsareproduced.Mainproductiscoke,whereasbyproducts
arecokeovengasandtar.Thefollowingblockdiagramrepresentsmaterialbalance:coalofcertain
compositionischargedandcoke,cokeovengasandtarofcertaincompositionisproduced

Coal(wt%)Coke TarCokeoven

C(analysis,wt%)(analysis,wt%)gas(vol%)
HC C CO
CokeOven
OH H CO2
o
N 1200 C O O CH4
S N N NH3
Ash(A2) S S N2
M Ash(A2) Ash(A3) H2O
H2
C6H6etc.
Basisofcalculation:onemaytake1Kgcoal,100Kgcoalor1000Kgcoal.

Amountofcokeisdeterminedbyashbalance,namelyIfWKgisamountofcokethenashbalanceis

A11000/100=A2W/100+A3wt.oftar/100

Byknowingweightoftar,Wcanbecalculated.

Amountofcokeovengascanbecalculatedbycarbonbalance:

Cfromcoal=Cincoke+Cintar+Cincokeovengas

Inthepresentillustration,ifYKgmoleistheamountofproducergas
%C1000/(12100)=%CW/12100+%Cwt.oftar/12100+Y(%CO/100+%CO2/100
+%CH4/100+6%C6H6/100)

HeatBalance:
Forheatbalancecalculations,referencetemperatureof298Kisnormallyselected.
Heatbalanceatsteadystateis
HeatInput=Heatoutput+Heatlosses

IncokemakingheatinputisthecalorificvalueofcoalandCVofcokeovengasburnt.CVofcoalcan
bedeterminedbyDulongformulaasillustratedinLecture2.
Heatoutputconsistsof

(i)Sensibleheatincoke:
Itcanbedeterminedby
WCpc(Tcoke298)inKcalorKJ,
whereXismassofcoke,CpisspecificheatofcokeandTcokeistemperatureofcoke
dischargedfromcokeoven.Cpcis0.359Kcal/KgoC.

(ii)Sensibleheatincokeovengas:
Itmaybecalculatedby
YCpg(Tg298)inKcalorKJ,
whereCpgisspecificheatofcokeovengas.Itsvaluemaybetakenas0.44Kcal/m3oC.

(iii)CVofcokeandtarcanbecalculatedbyDulongformula.

(iv)CVofcokeovengasisthesummationofheatofcombustionvaluesofall
combustiblecomponentsincokeovengasasillustratedinLecture2.

Heatbalancecalculationscandisclose
a. Distributionofheatenergyinproductsandbyproducts.
b. Sensibleheatavailableinproductsandbyproducts.
c. Heatlossescanbedeterminedfromdifferencebetweenheatoutputandheatinputvalues.

Next lecture illustrates material balance calculations. The reader must revise the concept of
calorificvalueandmustalsopracticetocalculatecalorificvalueofsolidandgaseousfuels

References:
O.P.Gupta:elementsoffuels,furnacesandrefractories
Keywords:Cokemaking,cokeoven,blastfurnace
 Lecture5

MaterialbalanceinCokemaking
Incokemaking,itisoftenrequiredtocalculatetheamountofcoke,cokeovengasandtarproduced
pertonofcoal.Thiscanbedonebyperformingelementalbalance.Forthispurposeash,C,N,Hand
Obalancecanbedonetoobtaintherequireinformation.Thisisillustratedbythefollowingproblem

1. By product coke ovens are surrounded by air. There may occur leakage of air in the oven.
Consider a coke oven surrounded by moist air, (The air is at 750 mm Hg pressure and 26
temperature).Therelativehumidityofairis40%.Itcarbonizescoalofthecomposition(Wt%)
C76.1,H4.6,N2.3,S1.9,O2.5,H O6.3andash6.3.Thefollowingproductandbyproductsare
produced:

Product:Coke(Wt%)C85.2,H1.9,O2.2,N0.8,S1.2andAsh8.7

Byproduct:(a)Cokeovengas(vol%drybasis)

andC6H61.1,C2H42.7,CH44.4,CO1.7,CO21.3,H236.5,N26.9,O22,H2S2.1andNH31.3

(b)Tar(40kg/tonofcoal)analysis(Wt%)

C=89.4,H4.5,N1.1.andincombustiblesRest.

RequiredpertonofCoal

i. Amountofcoke/tonofcoal
ii. Amountofcokeovengas
iii. fractionofSincokeandcokeovengas
iv. Amountofairleakage:Thevaporpressureofmoistureinairatsaturationis25.21mmHg.
v. CalorificvalueincokeandcokeovengasintermsoffractionofcalorificvalueofCoal.

Solution:Basisofcalculation:1000kgcoal

i.Amountofcoke/tonofcoal

Ashbalanceisusedtodeterminetheamountofcoke.Letxkgisamountofcoke.
. .

x 724.1 kg cokeAnswer.





ii. AmountofcokeovengascanbecalculatedbyperformingCbalance
Cfromcoal=Cintar+Cincoke+CinCokesovengas

LetykgistheamountofCokesovengas

. . .
y 6 0.01 2 0.027 0.344 0.117 0.013

Bysolvingwegety=15.357kgmole


iii. Sulphurdistribution


S
a) f fractionofSincoke 0.457 Ans.
S

. .
b) fractionofSincokeovengas 0.543 Ans.
.

iV.Tocalculateamountofairleakedintocokeoven.N balanceistobedone.N isinsert.

LetZkgmoleisamountofairleaked.

Inthisproblemairismoist.Wehavetofindcompositionofmoistair.ItfollowsdromDaltonslaw;

pN pO pH O 750 mm

Wherepispartialpressure.

H O V H O
RH Relative humanitiy
H O V H O

PN2+pO2+RHxpSH2O=750

SubstitutingthevalueofRHandpSH2O,wegetaftersimplification

pN 584.533, pO2 155.382 and p H2O 10.084

.
moles of N from moist air 0.7794

N2fromcoal+N2fromair=Nincoke+Nintar+N2incokeovengas
. . . .
0.7794 Z 0.069 0.0065 15.357.
Solving:Z=20.84kgairleakedAns.

V. Calorificvaluecalculation
I Coal. First we have to convert ultimate analysis of moist coal to dry coal. (This is
illustratedinLecture3).

UsingDulongsformula:

.
GCV of coal 81 81.22 341 4.91 22 2.03

=8183.98kcal/kg.

SimilarlyCVofcokeandtarcouldbecalculated.

GCVofcoke=7481.72kcal/kg.

GCVoftar=8775.9kcal/kg.

Calorific Value of Coke oven gas: It can be determined by adding calorific values of all combustible
componentsofCokeovengas.

Combustible HeatofCombustion Combustible Calorificvaluekcal.

components (kcal/kgmole) components(kgmole).
Ofcokeovengas
C H 736 10 0.1689 124.3 10

C H 297.5 10 0.4146 123.4 10

CH 194.91 10 5.2830 1029.67 10

CO 67.6 10 1.796 121.4 10

H 57.8 10 5.605 323.97 10

H s 123.96 10 0.3225 39.98 10

NH 75.8 10 0.199 15.13 10 .

Total1778.85 10

 .
fractionofcalorificvalueofcoalinCoke f1 0.6618
.

.
fractionofcalorificvalueofcoalintar f2 0.0429
.

.
fractionofcalorificvalueofcoalincokeovengas f3 0.2172
.

unaccountedcalorificvalueofcoal=1(0.6618+0.0429+0.2172)=0.0781.

Thisshowsthat7.81%ofcalorificvalueofcoalisbeingutilizedinraisingtemperaturesofcokeovengas
andtartothedischargetemperature.

Abyproductcokeovencarbonizescoalofthecomposition Wt % C 75.2, H 3.4, 0 5.8, N 3.5, H O 4.6

andash7.5.TheCokeproducedcontainsC88.2%,H0.2%andash11.6%.Tarcontains52kgcarbon.The
Cokeovengasproducedanalysed
vol % dry CH 28.2, H , 56.4, C H 2.2, C H 0.8, CO 1.7, CO 6.0, O 0.7andN 4

Calculate pertonofcoal.

i. Amountofcoke
ii. Amountofcokeovengas.
iii. Fractionofcalorificvalueofcoal(a)incokeand(b)Cokeovengas.

Answer:

i. 647kg
ii. 536m3(1atm,273K)
iii. (a)0.63(b)0.34

Thoseinterestedtosolvemoreproblems,seethefollowingbook.

1. A.ButtsMetallurgicalproblems.

 Lecture6:

HeatbalanceinCokeovenandcleanDevelopmentMechanism
CleanDevelopmentMechanism(CDM)
Concerns with development of technologies those relate to emission reduction. CDM stimulates
sustainabledevelopmentandemissionreduction.Fordevelopmentofcleantechnologiesintheexisting
processing route, energy balance of a route or a process could provide useful information to evolve
strategyforanewtechnology.Someofthebenefitsofenergybalance.

Itcanidentifytheflowofenergy.
Itcandetermineenergylossesandidentifythelocations(s)oflosses.
Assigningtemperaturestoflowofenergycandisclosethequalityofenergy.Qualityofenergyis
directly proportional to its temperature. We may have low quality, medium quality or high
qualityenergy.
Informationsonqualityandquantityofenergycanbeusedtoplandevicesforenergyrecovery
anditsreuse.

IllustrationofCDM
To illustrate the CDM byproduct coke oven is selected as an example. Coke oven is employed to
producecoke.Cokeisaveryimportantrawmaterialtoproducehotmetalinblastfurnaceinintegrated
steelplants.Cokeovens,infact,areanintegralpartofintegratedsteelplants.

Itiswellknownthatcokeovensproducelargeemissions.ConsiderheatbalanceofaCokeoven.

(Materialbalanceisgiveninlecture5,problem1).

Thefollowingblockdiagramillustratesvariousheatinputsandoutputs.

Figure 6.1: Block diagram to illustrate the input and output of heat.

 Heatbalance
Heatinput real Heatoutput real
Calorificvalueofcoal Calorificvalueofcoke
Calorificvalueofcoke Calorificvalueoftar
ovengas
Calorificvalueofcoke
ovengas
Sensibleheatincoke
Sensibleheatincoke
ovengas
Sensibleheatintar
Losses*

* Lossesareobtainedfrom(HeatinputHeatoutput).

Heatbalancedisclosesmanyimportantinformationonqualityandquantityofenergy.Cokeoven
operatesat ,outputtemperatureisassumedtobe .Theheatoutputintar,cokeand
cokeovengasisofhighqualityastheyaredischargedat andmustbeexploredintermsof
reuse.

Alsooutputconsistsofpotentialenergy,i.e.calorificvalueletusconsidereachheatoutputandanalyze
intermsofreuse.

1. Coke:itcarriesbothsensibleheatandpotentialenergy.Potentialenergycanbeobtainedby
combustions.Sensibleheatcannotbeusedbecausecokecannotbeuseddirectlyinblast
furnace.Itistoquenchedandthenstoredforfutureuse.
Wetquenchingisemployedtocoolcokefrom to .Inthewetquenchingwateris
vaporizedandreleasedintotheatmosphere.Hearthesensibleheatofredhotcokeis
convertedintosensibleheatofwatervaporandislostunutilized.Airbornecokedustisalso
produced.


2. Cokeovengas:italsocontainspotentialenergyandsensibleheat.Oneshouldconsiderusageof
sensibleheatandpotentialenergyofcokeovengas.Gasexistingfromcokeovencontains,
amonggaseousconstituents,dust.Hence,cleaningisrequiredwhichmayleadtolossof
sensibleheat.
3. Losses:athightemperature,lossesareunavoidablemoreover,coalinthecokeovensisheated
indirectly.Designofcokeovenwithhighqualitythermallyconductingmaterialmayreduceheat
losses.

Theaboveenergyanalysisshowsthatsensibleheatofcoke,whichislostinwetquenching,shouldbe
reused.itshouldalsobenotedthatcokeisthemainsourceofthermalandchemicalenergyintheblast
furnaceironmaking.Lossofsensibleheatduetoquenchingis ofcoke.Inanearlier
calculationitisshownthatapproximately ofcokewouldberequiredtoproduce10,000tons
ofsteel.Lossofsensibleheattoproduce ofcokewouldbeoftheorderof
.Thereiseveryreasontoreusethisamountofheat.

Reuseofsensibleheatneedstodevelopatechnologywhichcancapturetheheatandtransferthe
capturedheatforsameusefulwork.Dryquenchingisthetechnologywhichcancapturetheheatand
thisheatcanbemadetoreuse.

Indryquenching,insertgasisusedtocapturetheheat.Thetechnologyofdryquenchinghasessentially
twocomponents.

i. Captureofsensibleheatofcokeisgasflowingcountercurrenttocoke
ii. Useofheatedgastoproducesuperheatedsteaminaboiler.
iii. Integrationsofuseofsuperheatwithe.q.torunaboiler

Figure6.2:Technologytorecoversensibleheatincoke

Technologytorecoversensibleheatofcokeininertgasflowingcountercurrenttocoke.Theheated
gasaftercleaningproducessuperheatedsteaminaboiler.

SourceCokedryquenchingwww.Jase.w.eccj.orjp/technologies/pdf/ironsteel/57.

Inthedryquenchingredhotcokeisfedtothechamberandwhileitdescendsthroughthechamber,is
cooledwithcirculatinggasblownfromthebottomofthechamber.Afterithascooledto200oC,the
cokeisejectedfromthebottom.Theheatedcirculatinggasisthenusedtoproducehightemperature
andhighpressuresteamintheboiler.Aftercleaningthegasbyadustcollectorthegasissentbackto
thechamberforrecycling.

Advantages

i. Superheatedsteamcanbeusedtogenerateelectricpower.ItisclaimedtheoneCDQunitof
capacitycangenerate18MWpower.
ii. InCDQthereisnopuffofwhilesmoke,thusworkingenvironmentisclean
 iii. Ingeneratingelectricpower,CDQdoesnotproducethegreenhouse gas.Itisclaimed
thataroundreductionof byCDQisnearlyequivalentto thatanoilburning
boilerproduceswhenitgenerates electricpower.
iv. Cokequalityisconsiderablyimprovedwhichresultsindecreaseincokerateinblastfurnace.

Newpotentialsfortreatingandutilizationofcokeovengas.

Figure6.3:Potentialfortreatingandutilizationofcokeovengas

Source:P.DiemerPotentialsforutilizationofcokeovengasinintegratedironandsteelplant,
www.stahlonline.de/

Keywords:Cleandevelopmentmechanism,Carboncredit,Heatbalance,Cokeoven

 Lecture7
ProductionofGaseousfuel

Gaseousfuelisproducedbygasifyingcoalorcokeinareactorcalledgasproducer.Gaseousfuels
haveseveraladvantageslike

Itiseasytohandle.
Combustionisrapidincomparisontocoalorfueloil.
Lessexcessairforcombustionisrequiredthanforcombustionoffueloilandcoke.

ThermodynamicsofGasification:

I. EquilibriumconversionofCoffuelintogaseousfuel
(i) Aironly

Considergasificationof1moleofcarbon.Stoichiometricallymoleofoxygenisrequiredto
produce 1 mole of CO. One mole of oxygen is obtained from 4.76 moles of air, which means that
everymoleofoxygencarries3.76molesofN withit.ThusiftheinitialstateofreactantsisC, O
and N and final state is CO and N the following gasification reaction can be written:
C O2 3.76 N CO 1.88 N (1) H CO 29.6 10 Kcal/Kg mol

GaseousfuelconsistsofCOandN inwhich

%CO 34.7% and % N 65.3%

Volume of gaseous fuel 5.38 m /Kg mole of carbon at 273K and 1

(ii) Withair+steam

Nowsupposewegasifycarbonwithamixtureofair+steam.Notethatreaction1generates
29.6 10 /12 2467 Kcal of heat per Kg of carbon. This excessive amount of heat can
generate a very high temperature in the gasifier, if the excessive amount of heat is not properly
managed.Inlargesizedgasproducersheatlossesareverysmallandthereoccurssubstantialrisein
temperature. Steam is utilized to use the heat produced by reaction 1. Steam usage brings the
followingadvantages:

Decompositionofsteamproduceshydrogenandtherebyproducergasisenriched
incalorificvalue.

GaseousfuelisenrichedperunitvolumesincevolumeofH volumeofN

Excessive heat in the producer is utilized since decomposition of steam is
endothermic.

Considerthefollowinggasificationreaction

C H O CO H

Heat of reaction HR 29.6 10 57.8 10 28.2 10 Kcal

In the gasification of coal or coke with a mixture of air and steam, it is important to know how
muchamountofsteamcanbefedwithoutsupplyinganyheatfromoutside.Heatbalancecanyield
theamountofsteamwhichcanbefed.

Considergasificationof1KgmoleofCwithamixtureairandsteamunderadiabaticconditions:
LetXKgmoleofCreactswithair.AssumingthatallsteamdecomposestoH2andcarbonformsCO.

X C X/2 O 3.76 N X CO 1.88X N (2)

1 X C 1 X H O 1 X CO 1 X H (3)

Heatproducedbyeq.2=Heatconsumedbyeq.3

29.6 10 X 1 X 10 28.2 X 0.488 Kg mole

Thereforefinalequationsforgasificationbecomes
.
C O 3.76 N 0.512 H O CO 0.917 N 0.512 H (4)

Fuel gas analysis is CO 41.1%, N 37.8% and 21.1%

Amount of fuel gas 1 0.917 0.512 22.4/12 4.53 m /Kg Carbon at 273 K and 1 atm

Amountofsteamis0.768Kg/kgofcarbon

IiiWithoxygen+steam

Considerthegasificationofamoleofcarbonbyamixtureofpureoxygen+steam

AssumingthatallsteamdecomposestoH andcarbonformsCO.

X C X/2O X CO(5)

1 X C 1 X H O 1 X CO 1 X H (6)

Heatproducedbyeq.5=Heatconsumedbyeq.6

29.6 10 X 1 X 10 28.2

X 0.488 Kg mole

Thereforefinalequationsforgasificationbecomes


C 0.488/2 O2 0.512 H O CO 0.512 H (7)

Fuel gas analysis is CO 66.14%, and H 33.86%

Amount of fuel gas 2.82 m /Kg Carbon at 273 K and 1 atm

Amountofsteamis0.768Kg/kgofcarbon

II.CalorificValueofproducergasiscalculatedonthebasisof1kgcarbon

Thecalorificvalueofgaseousfuelwhenairisusedforgasification

Amount of CO in producer gas 0.083 kgmole

Calorific Value 5633 kcal

Calorific Value of C 8100 Kcal calculated by Dulongs formula usinf pure C

Therefore % CV of 1 Kg ofCavailableinproducergasis69.5%

Thatmeans30.5 %ofcalorificvalueofCrepresentssensibleheatandheatlosses.

Calorificvalueofproducergaswhenproducedbygasifyingcarbonwithamixtureofair+steamis

Calorificvalueofproducergasconsideringgaseousstateisthestandardstate 8077 kcal

Calorificvalueofproducergasasexpressedin % ofcalorificvalueof1 kg of C 98.8%

WeobservethatthegasificationofCwithamixtureofairandsteamincreasesthecalorificvalueof
producergaswhichismainlyduetoadditionofhydrogen.

Calorificvalueofproducergaswhenproducedbygasifyingcarbonwithamixtureof
oxygen+steam

Thecalorificvalueisalmostsimilartothatofair+steam.Butthevolumeofproducergasisonly
62% thatofair+steamand48%thatofaironly.Benefitofusingsteamisselfevident.

IsitpossibletodecomposeallsteamtohydrogenandCtoCO?

Typically, gas producer, operates in a countercurrent mode i.e. coal is charged from top and a
mixtureofairandsteamisblownthroughthecoalbedsimultaneouslyandcontinuouslyfromthe
bottom.TheflowratesofairandsteamareadjustedsothattheheatevolutioninthereactionofO
withCofcoke/coalbalancestheheatabsorptionduetoendothermicreactionofdecompositionof
steam.Thus

NotallsteamdecomposestoH ;i.e.someamountofsteamremainsundecomposedand
NotallCisconvertedtoCO.

The extent of decomposition of steam to hydrogen and conversion of C to CO depends on

temperature, residence time of the reactants in the reactor, reactivity of carbon of coal, reaction
surfaceareaandetc.Thegaseousfuelproducedaftergasificationwithamoistureofair+steamand
carbonwillalwayscontainundecomposedsteamandcarbondioxidebesidesothercomponents.

Forfurtherreading
1. A.ButtsMetallurgicalproblems.
2.O.P.Gupta:elementsoffuels,furnacesandrefractories

 Lecture8
Gasification:MaterialandHeatBalance
Thefollowingdiagramshowstheinputofmaterialslikecoal,airandsteaminagasifierandthe
outputsareproducergas,ashes,tarandsoot.

Coal Air ProducerGas

(wt%)(Moist) (vol%)
C CO2
H CO
O CH4
N N2
H2O H2
A H2O
+ C6H6
Steam Ashes Tar(wt%) Soot(wt%) H2S
Ash C C C2H4
+S A
Carbon N
O
H A=Ash
A

Basis:1000Kgcoal

a) Amountofproducergas

Carbonbalance
Cfromcoal=Cinashes+Cintar+Cinsoot+Cinproducergas

b) Tocalculateamountofsteamdecomposed
DecompositionofsteamproducesH2.
MoistureofcoaldirectlyentersintoPGwithoutbeingdecomposed.
MoistureofairandsteamdecomposetoH2andisincludedinCH4,H2andother
hydrocarbons.

Hbalance
Hfromcoal+HfromMoistureofcoal+Hfromsteam+Hfrommoistair=Hintar+HinPG
(producergas)

c) Waterinproducergas=Moisturefromcoal+undecomposedsteam

d) Nitrogenbalanceforamountofair

Oxygenbalanceifrequiredtochecktheresultsofcalculation.

e) Ashbalancetoknowamountofashes,ifnotgiven.


Therawhotgasfromproducercanbedeliveredthroughinsulatedmainsassuchtothefurnacesand
plantsnearby.

Insulatedpipe
Gas
tosupplyhotgas
Producer Furnace

Advantages:Bothpotentialenergyofgas(CV)andsensibleheat,canbeutilized.AlsoPE+sensible
heatoftarandsootwillalsobeavailable.

Amoreprevalentpractiseistocoolthegasandpurifyittoremovedeleteriousconstituents.E.g.H2S
andthendistributetoplants.

Coldgasefficiency=PotentialEnergy(CV)ofgasmade100
(Totalheatinput=CVofcoal+sensibleheatofcoal,air,steam)

Hotgasefficiency=(PEofgas+sensibleheatofgas+sensibleheatofwatervapour+PEoftar+
PEofsoot+sensibleheatoftar+sensibleheatofsoot)100

Totalheatinput

Thermalefficiency=(Potentialenergyofgas+enthalpyofsteamproduced)100
Totalheatinput

Coldgasefficiency6080%
Hotgasefficiency90%
Losses9%

DetermineMaterialandheatbalanceofagasifierandcalculateefficiencies.Theanalysisofvarious
inputsandoutputsaregiven.Temperaturesofinputandoutputsarealsogiven.

Gas(vol%)
C79.1 CO27
H5.0 CO21
O6.4 T=25oC CH4 2.5
N1.7 H214
H2O1.7 Ashes=9%wtofcoal N253
A6.1 (180oC) H2O2.5
(627oC)

Air:RH=80%
PSH2O=26mmHg(25oC,740mmHg)
Steamisblowninat30.8psigpressurewithblast.
Meanspecificheatofashes=0.21Kcal/KgK(25180oCrange)

Basis1Kgcoal.

Volumeofproducergas(fuelgas)

LetYKgmoleproducergas
Cincoal=Cinproducergas+Cinashes
0.791/12=(0.07+0.21+0.025)Y+(0.090.061)
Y=0.208Kgmoleor=4.66m3/Kgcoal(1atm,273K)

Volumeofair(moist)

LetXKgmolemoistair
Sincetheairismoist,wehavetocalculatecompositionofair.
PN2+PO2+PH2O=740mmHg
PN2+PO2=7400.826
PN2+PO2=719.2mmHg
PN2=568.168mm
PO2=151.032mm
PH2O=20.800mm

Compositionof1Kgmoleofmoistair

N2=0.7677
O2=0.2041
H2O=0.0281

N2balance

Nincoal+N2frommoistair=N2inProducergas
0.017/28+0.7677X=0.530.208
X=0.14279Kgmoleor=3.601m3(26oCand740mmHg)

Weightofsteam:Hydrogenbalance

ConsiderZKgmolesteam.
0.025+0.00094+Z+0.00401=0.004472
Z=0.015Kgmole
=0.266Kgsteam/Kgcoal

%H2Oblownin,thatwasdecomposed

WatervapourinPG=WaterfromevaporationofMofcoal+Waterofundecomposedsteam
0.0250.208=0.017/18+W
W=0.004255Kgmoleundecomposedsteam
Steamdecomposed={0.266(0.00425518)}
=0.1895Kg
%steamblown,thatisdecomposedinproducergas=0.1895100/0.266
=71.2%
NCVofproducergas

Kgmoles Kcal/Kgmole
CO 0.04368 67.6103 NCV=5.64103Kcal
CH4 0.0052 194.91103
H2 0.02912 57.8103

NCVofcoal

=81%C+341[%H%O/8]5.84(9%H+M)
=8179.1+341[56.4/8]5.84(95+1.7)
=7566.32Kcal

Enthalpyofwatervapourinmoistair

H2O(l)=H2O(g)

Heatabsorbed=584Kcal/KgH2O
=5841.7/100
=9.93Kcal

Enthalpyofsaturatedsteam:

Gaugepressure=30.8psi
Pressure740mm=14.3psi
Absolutepressure=45.1psi

Enthalpyofsaturatedsteamat45psireferredtowaterat0oC=651Kcal/Kg
Enthalpydifferencebetweenwaterat25oCandwaterat0oC=24.94Kcal/Kg
Enthalpyofsteamreferredtowaterat25oC=626Kcal/Kg
Enthalpyofsteamused=6260.266
=166Kcal

Enthalpyofwatervapourinhotgasat900K

H2O(l)=H2O(g)Ho298=10.5Kcal/gmoleH2O

H2O(g),298K=H2O(g),900KHo5.2Kcal/gmoleH2O

EnthalpyofwatervapourreferredtoH2O(l)=15.7Kcal/gmoleH2O

Enthalpyofwatervapourinhotgas=15.70.20810002.5/100

=81.64Kcal

Sensibleheatofdryproducergasat900K

H900H298|CO2=6708Kcal/Kgmole
H900H298|CO=4400Kcal/Kgmole
H900H298|CH4=7522Kcal/Kgmole
H900H298|H2=4224Kcal/Kgmole
H900H298|N2=4358Kcal/Kgmole

HeatBalance

HeatInput:

Input Kcal
CVofcoal 7566.32
Sensibleheatincoal,air 0
Enthalpyofwatervapourinair 9.93
Enthalpyofsteam 166
Total 7742.25

HeatOutput:

Output Kcal
CVofdryPG 5640
SensibleheatofdryPG 932.8
Enthalpyofwater 81.6
vapourinhotgas
Heatlosses 1087.85
Total 7742.25

Coldgasefficiency=5640100/7742.25
=72.85%

HotGasefficiency=6653.6100/7742.25
=85.9%

Thermalefficiency=5721.6100/7742.25
=73.9%

Sourceforthermodynamicvalues:

H.AlanFineandG.H.Geiger:Handbookofmaterialandenergybalancecalculationsinmetallurgical
processes

A.ButtsMetallurgicalproblems(formoreproblems)

Keywords:Materialsandheatbalance,Gasproducer,Efficiency
 Lecture9Principlesofcombustion
Contentsofthelecture

Whatiscombustion

Objectivesofcombustion

Stoichiometricamountofair

Air/fuelratioandrelationwithPOC

Combustionefficiency

WhatisCombustion?
Allfossilfuelscontaincombustibleandincombustiblecomponents(alsoknownasdiluents)

Fossilfuel

Combustiblecomponents Incombustibleordiluents

Solidfuels:C,S,H N,O,ashandmoisture

LiquidfuelsC,H,S N,O

Gaseous fuels H2, CO, N2,CO2,O2,SO2

hydrocarbons,NH3andH2S

InthetableCiscarbon,Sissulphur,Hishydrogen,Nisnitrogen,Oisoxygen.Notethatinthesolidfuels
theyarepresentintheelementalform.

Combustion is a fast chemical reaction between combustible component(s) and an oxidizing agent.
Mostlyairisusedforcombustion.Dryaircontains21%O2and79%N2andso1moleofO2carrieswithit
3.76molesofN2.Combustionequationswithair,whencompletecombustiontakesplaceare

C+(O2+3.76N2)=CO2+3.76N2(1)

S+(O2+3.76N2)=SO2+3.76N2(2)

H2+ (O2+3.76N2)=H2O+1.88N2(3)

CH4+2(O2+3.76N2)=CO2+2H2O+7.52N2(4)
Similarly,forotherhydrocarbonscombustionreactionscanbewritten.Notethatcompletecombustion
referstoconversionofC,S,H2orCH4intoCO2,SO2andH2O.

Objectiveofcombustion
Allfuelswhethernaturallyoccurringorsyntheticallypreparedcontainpotentialenergy.Potentialenergy
ofthefuel,oncombustionwithairisreleasedinproductsofcombustion(hereaftertermedPOC)atthe
temperaturewhichistermedflametemperature.POCtransfertheirheattosink(sinkcouldbefurnace
chamber,chargematerialsetc)andthenexitthesystem.Belowaregiventheproductsofcombustion
whichcanbeobtainedwhenairisusedforcombustionoffossilfuels:

Completecombustion Incompletecombustion
POC CO2 CO
H2O H2O
SO2 H2
O2 SO2
N2 O2
N2
Unburntcarbon
Soot
Release of Maximum Lower than that of complete combustion due
potential toCO,H2,unburntCandsootinPOC.
energy

Objectiveofcombustionistoattaincompletecombustionwithstoichiometricamountofairasrequired
inequations1to4.Completecombustionisalsotermedasperfectcombustion.

Stoichiometricamountofair:

Theoretically complete combustion can be obtained when stoichiometric amount of air is used.
Stoichiometric amount (also termed theoretical air or air for complete combustion) of air can be
calculatedbyconsideringtheproductsofcombustionobtainedoncompletecombustion.Ingeneralany
balancedchemicalequation(moleinput=molesoutput)canbeusedtocalculatestoichiometricamount
ofair.

Incombustionequations1to4,wenotethat1moleofCrequires1moleofO2or4.76molesofairto
give1moleofCO2and3.76molesofN2.Similarly1moleofH2requires moleofO2or2.38molesofair
togive1moleH2Oand1.88moleofN2.

Inseveralothermetallurgicalprocesseslikeroasting(conversionofmetalsulphidetooxide,reductionof
oxides,oxidationofimpuritiesetc,)airorpureoxygenisused.Inallthesecasesitisoftenrequiredto
calculatestoichiometricamountofair.Forexampleconsiderroastingofsulphide;
 ZnS+1.5O2=ZnO+SO25)

PbS+1.5O2=PbO+SO2oringeneral 6)

MS+1.5O2=MO+SO27)

M stands for metal. In all the above equations the amount of air can be easily calculated
followingthestoichiometryofthereactions.

Letuscalculatestoichiometricamountofairforcombustionofsolidfuelofcomposition84%C,
5%H,5%moistureand6%ash,perkgofcoal.Followingthestoichiometryofcombustion,theamout
ofairwouldbe

=10.12m3(1atm,273K)/kgcoal.

Note1kgmole=22.4m3(1atm,273K).

Intheaboveexampleifactualamountofairis0.5molesthen

Wecanalsocallthat110.62%theoreticalairisusedforcombustion.

Note: Complete combustion can occur only when amount of air is equal to or greater than
stoichiometric air. When excess air is used, POC will contain O2 in addition to CO2, H2O, N2 and
SO2.

ImportanceofAir/fuelratio

Foragiventypeoffuel,air/fuelratiocontrolsthecombustionandamountofPOC.

Considercombustionoffuelofamount withair whichproducesPOC

Let
 when isconstant.

Stoichiometricamountofair

Theoreticallyif

i. K<1 which means or this situation leads to incomplete

combustion.POCwillcontainCO,smokedustbesidesCO2N2.etc.
ii.
Thissituationsleadstocompletecombustion.
iii.
CompletecombustionbutPOCwillcontainexcessO2inadditiontoCO2H2O,SO2andN2
etc.TheoreticallyCOwillbeabsent.

AmountofPOCdependsonvalueofK.IncreaseinKbeyond1increasetheamountofPOC

Combustionefficiency

TheoreticallycompletecombustionisobtainedbystoichiometricamountofairandPOCshould
not contain CO. But in actual, combustion of any fuel does not occur with just stoichiometric
amountofair.Excessairisrequired.Excessairdependsontypeoffuel.Normallysolidfuelsrequire
moreexcessairthanliquidfuelsandgaseousfuels.Gaseousfuelsrequireleastamountofexcess
air.

Mixing of fuel and air is important simply because 1 mole of oxygen is accompanied by 3.76
moles of N2. In an air + fuel mixture, statistically the probability of finding nitrogen in the
neighborhoodofcarbonismorethanoxygen.

Thus mixing determines combustion efficiency, i.e. the ability of a device (used for mixing of
fuelandair)toconvertpotentialenergyoffuelintothermalenergy.

Ideally =100%whenthermalenergy=Potentialenergyofthefuel.Inefficiencyincombustion
isduetopoormixingwhichmayleadtoformationofCO.Poorcombustionefficiencyleadsto

Wastageoffuel
Environmentalpollution.
Expensivetorun.
Foranygiventypeoffuel,someamountofCOisalwaysobservedinPOCevenatstoichiometricamount
ofairinallpracticalcombustionsystems.PresenceofCOinPOCdenotesincompletecombustionand
combustion efficiency will be low. So,excess air has to be used to increase combustion efficiency.
IncreaseinexcessairdecreasesdrasticallyCOinPOCbutatthesametimeincreasesamountofPOCdue
to increase in nitrogen and oxygen (at stoichiometric air no oxygen is present in POC). The additional
nitrogenandoxygeninPOCduetoexcessairwillcarryheatofcombustionwiththem.Thus,controlof
excessairisimportant.ThefollowingplotillustratestherelationshipbetweenexcessO2,COandheat
losses.

Figure:PlotofvariationofCOandheatlosseswithexcessoxygeninPOC.Notezerovalueofoxygenin
POCdenotesstoichiometricoxygenusedforcombustion

X axis on the figure is % O2 in POC. Theoretically percent oxygen in POC is zero at theoretically
amountofair.IncreaseinexcessairincreasespercentoxygeninPOC(seeblacklineinthefigure).Itcan
beseeninthefigurethatamountofCO(seegreenline)decreasesdrasticallybyusingslightamountof
excessair.Beyondaround1to2%O2COinPOCdisappearscompletely.Butincreaseinexcessairatthe
sametimeincreasesO2inPOCasshownby(blueline).

Heat losses are shown by the blue line. Heat losses decrease drastically with the excess air and
becomeminimalataround1%O2whichisduetodecreaseinCO.Beyond1%O2heatlossesincreases
furtherbecausenownitrogenandoxygeninPOCincreases.

Ref.:O.P.Gupta:elementsoffuels.furnacesandrefractories.

Keywords:Combustion,materialbalance,furnace,stoichiometry
 Lecture10

Materialbalanceincombustion

Contents

Objectives

HowcompositionofPOCisdetermined?Orsatanalysis

ReportingofOrsatanalysis

Orstanalysisandmaterialbalance

Exercise

Keywords:Materialbalance,combustion,furnaces

Objectives:

Tocalculateamountofairrequiredforagivencompositionandamountoffuel
TocalculateamountofPOCproducedanditscomposition.
TocalculateexcessairwhencompositionofPOCisknown.
Todetermineairleakage.

Oneoftheimportantrequirementsofmaterialbalanceistoknowcompositionofproductsof
combustion(alsocalledfluegas;inthefollowingfluegasandPOCareusedinterchangeably).

HowcompositionofPOCisdetermined?Orsatanalysis

CompositionofPOCisdeterminedbyOrsatAnalysis.TheOrsatapparatusconsistsessentiallyofa
calibratedwaterjacketedgasburetteconnectedbyglasscapillarytubingtotwoorthreeabsorption
pipettescontainingchemicalsolutionsthatabsorbsthegases.Theabsorbentsarepotassiumhydroxide
forCO ,alkalinepyrogallolforO andammoniacalcuprouschlorideforCOmeasurement.

Bymeansofrubbertubingarrangement,thegastobeanalyzedisdrawnintotheburetteandflushed
throughseveraltimes.Typically,100mliswithdrawnforeaseofcalculation.Usingthestopcocksthat
isolatetheabsorptionburettes,thelevelofgasinthelevelingbottleandtheburetteisadjustedtothe
zeropointoftheburette.

Thegasisthenpassedintothecausticpotashburette,lefttostandforabouttwominutesandthen
withdrawn,isolatingtheremaininggasviathestopcockarrangements.Theprocessisrepeatedto
ensurefullabsorption.Afterlevelingtheliquidinthebottleandburette,theremainingvolumeofgasin
theburetteindicatesthepercentageofcarbondioxideabsorbed.
Thesametechniqueisrepeatedforoxygen,usingthepyrogallolsolution,andcarbonmonoxideusing
theammoniacalcuprouschloridesolution.

ImportanttonotethatOrsat%giveactualanalysisonadrybasis.ThecommonOrsalgives% O % CO
and% CO . N isfoundby% N 100 % O % CO % CO .

SinceKOHsolutionabsorbsbothCO &SO % CO containstheamountofSO aswell.

ReportingofOrsatanalysis

Considercombustionofcoalwithdryair.Theultimateanalysisofcoal % dry basis is

C 7 6, H 5, O 6, N 2, S 2andAsh9.Assumecompletecombustion.Determinea)Stoichiometricamount
ofair,b)AmountofPOC.C)%POCanalysis(wetbasis),d)%POCanalysis(drybasis)ande)%POC
analysis(Orsat).

Basis100Kgcoal.Inthefollowingthebalanceontheelementsisdoneinkgmole.

Amountofstoichiometricair

O required strichiometric 6.33 1.25 0.0625

7.6425 kg moles.

O from air O for combustion O present in coal

7.6425 0.1675

7.475 kg mole

Amount of air 35.581 kg moles.

Amountand%compositionofPOC:


POC Kgmoles %analysis(wet %analysis*(dry Orsatanalysis
basis) basis)
CO2 6.33 17.67 18.31 18.49$
H2O 1.25 3.49
N2 28.18 78.67 81.51 81.51
SO2 0.0625 0.7 0.18

Total 35.82 100.00 100.00 100

analysis dry basis % POC wet
.

$OrsatanalysisdoesnotreportSO separately,therefore% CO contains% SO2aswell
CO 18.49

Note:OrsatanalysiswouldhaveresultedintoPOCanalysisasgivenincolumn5oftheabove
table.OrsatanalysisofthePOCwillreportCO andN only.Orsatanalysisisalsoondrybasis.
Thisaspectmustbeunderstoodwhilesolvingmaterialbalanceproblemsoncombustion

Nowsuppose20%excessairisused

Amount of air 35.581 1.2 42.70kg moles

POC Kgmoles AnalysisofPOC %analysis(dry Orsatanalysis

in% basis)
Wetbasis
CO2 6.33 14.74 15.18 15.34
H2O 4.25 2.91
N2 33.80 78.73 81.09 81.09
SO2 0.0625 0.15 0.16
O2 1.49 3.47 3.57 3.57
Total 42.93 100.00 100.00 100.00

Orsatanalysisandmaterialbalance

Forthispurposecoalofthesamecompositionasgivenaboveiscombustedwithstoichiometric
air.TheorsatanalysisofPOCisCO 18.49%and N 81.51%.FindamountofPOC.

Noworsatanalysisisondrybasis.Basisofselectionofcoalshouldalsobedrybasis.

Basis1kgcoaldry

LetxkgmoledryPOC.
Performingcarbonbalance:

Cin CO ofPOC C from coal S from coal kg moles

0.1849 x 6.33 0.0625

X 34.57 kg moles dry POC

POCwillcontains H OalsobutOrsatanalysisdoesnotincludeH O

 Amount of POC dry POC amount water due to reaction between H& O

Amount pf POC 35.82 kg moles.Thisanswerissameascalculatedabove.

Nowconsiderthatthecoalcontains4 % moisturewhenfired,&combustedwithstoichiometricair,find
amountofPOC.

Amount of POC dry POC amount water due to reaction between H and O moisture of coal

34.57 1.25

36.04 kg moles

Exercise

OrsatanalysisofPOCisCO 15.34, % N 81.09 %andO 3.57 %obtainedoncombustion

ofcoal %, dry basis C 76, H 5, O 6, N2, S2andash9.FindamountofPOCand%excessair.

Ans:42.93kgmolesand2%.

Assignment:

1)OrsatanalysisofPOCisCO 15.34, % N 81.09 %andO 3.57 %obtainedon

combustionofcoal %, dry basis C 76, H 5, O 6, N2, S2andash9.FindamountofPOCand%
excessair.

2)ExplaintheproceduretodeterminepercentcompositionofPOCobtainedoncomplete
combustionofafuelcomprisingofCandhydrogenwithair

3)Theultimateanalysisofcoal % dry basis isC 80, H 5, O 7, N 2, S2andAsh4.Assume

completecombustion.Determinea)Stoichiometricamountofair,b)AmountofPOC.C)%POC
analysis(wetbasis),d)%POCanalysis(drybasis)ande)%POCanalysis(Orsat).
 LECTURE11PrinciplesofcombustionIII

Exercise1

Exercise2

Exercise3

Keywords:Combustion,Excessair,Stoichiometricair,Furnace,Blastfurnace

Exercise1

1)Afurnaceisheatedbycombustingagaseousfuelofcomposition29% CO, 9% CO , 16% H and

46% N withdryair.TheOrsatanalysisofproductsofcombustion(POC)is15% CO , 7% O and
78 %N .Calculatethefollowingonthebasisof1m ofgaseousfuel

a) volumeofPOCatNTP,STPandat1000
b) VolumeofairatNTP
c) Percentexcessair
d) % H OinPOC

SOLUTION:

a)VolumeofPOC(NotethatPOCandfluegasarethesame)

Consider1 m ofgaseousfuelatNTP(1atm.And273K).LetY m isPOC(1atm,273K)

PerformingCarbonbalance:

Carbon in CO Carbon in CO Carbon in POC;itfollowsthat

0.29 0.09 0.15Y,hence

Y 2.53 m atNTP(1atmand273K)

Y 2.53 298/273 2.765m atSTP(1atmand298K)

Y 2.53 1273/273 m at(1atmand1273K)

NotetheincreaseinvolumeofPOCat1273Kwhichisaround5timesthanat273K.Thisknowledgeis
importantindesigningcombustionchamber.

b)Volumeofair

LetZ m isthevolumeofairrequiredatNTP.Performingnitrogenbalanceweget

Nitrogen from air Nitrogen in gaseous fuel Nitrogen in POC,weget

0.79Z 0.46 0.78 x 2.53,hence

Z 1.916 m atNTP

c)Percentexcessair

Inordertocalculatepercentexcessair,firstwehavetocalculatetheoreticalair.Theoreticalairistheair
requiredforcompletecombustionofthefollowingreactions:

CO 0.5 O CO and(1)

H 0.5O H O(2)

WenotethatbothCOandH require0.5moleofoxygen.Hence

Theoreticalamountofair1.071 m atNTP

Excess air in % 100 Actual air Theoretical air / Theoretical air 78.89%.

AlternativelyexcessaircanalsobecalculatedfromexcessoxygeninPOC,sincetheoreticallyoxygenin
POCwillappearonlywhenitisexcessthantheoreticalinthisproblem

Excess air in % 100 0.07 1.916 / 0.21 1.071 78.74%.

Theslightdifferenceinexcessairmaybeduetoroundingoff.

d)% inPOC

Fromthereaction2wegetstraightwaythatamoleofhydrogengives1moleofwater,hence

Percent H in POC 100 0.16 / 2.53 0.16 5.95%

Exercise2
2)Afurnaceheatsthebillet.Thefurnaceisheatedbycombustingcoalwithair.Theultimateanalysisof
coalis; C 72.5%, H 7.5%, O 6.7%, N 1.3%, S 2.5%andash 9.5%.Themoisturecontentofcoal,when
firedis3%.Theairismoistwiththerelativehumidity(RH)of45%.Thebarometershows735mmHg
pressureand20 temperature.Thewatervapouratsaturationis17.54mmHg.TheOrsatanalysisof
productsofcombustion(POC)is10.3% CO , 6.2% O , 2% COand81.5% N .Calculatethefollowingon
thebasisof1kgofcoal

Percentexcessair
VolumeofairatNTP
TotalvolumeofPOC

SOLUTION:i)Percentexcessair

LetVisvolumeofPOCatNTP(1atmand273K).Performingcarbonbalanceasdoneinproblem1gives
thevolumeofPOC.Notethatcoalcontainssulphur.Orsatanalysisasexplainedinlecture10
reportsbothCO andSO .Thereforecarbonbalancehereis

Carbon from coal Sulphur from coal Carbon in POC

ThevolumeofPOCis .

Nowwecancalculateactualamountofairthatisusedinthecombustionprocessbyperforming
nitrogenbalance;LetZkgmoleistheamountofnitrogenderivedfromair

Nitrogen in coal Nitrogen in air Nitrogen in POC

SubstitutingthevalueswegetZ 0.405 kg mole,henceoxygenwouldbe0.108kgmole

Nowcalculatetheoretical(stoichiometric)amountofair.Remembertheoreticalamountofairis
calculatedonthebasisofcompletecombustion;forthefollowingcombustionreactions;

C 0.5 O CO and
2H 0.5 O H O
S O SO

Theoretical amount of oxygen 0.07785 kg moles

Percent excess air 100 Actual oxygen theoretical oxygen / theoretical oxygen
Substitutingthevaluesweget

Percentexcessair . %.

ii)VolumeofairatNTP:

NotethattheairismositsowehavetofindthecompositionofmoistairbyusingDaltonslawwhichis

but

Volume of air 0.405 x 760 / 574.41 0.536 kg mole

. .

iii)TotalvolumeofPOC

Total volume of POC Dry volume of POC H O formed by reaction 2 Moisture of coal
Moisture in air

Onsubstitutingthevaluesweget

. and and . and

Exercise3

3)Inacontinuousheatingfurnace750 kg/hr coalisburntwith3%moistureandthefollowingultimate

analysis(drybasis);C 77, H 7%, O 4%, N 1%, S 2% andash9%.Innormaloperation,theOrsatanalysis
ofproductsofcombustion(POC)is13% CO , 6% O , 0.5% CO and80.5%N .Theoperatorhasopened
thefurnacedoorforcharging.Heclosesthedoorandoperatesthefurnacewiththesamefiringrateand
burneradjustmentaswasinthenormaloperationHedoesagainOrsatanalysisofPOC.TheOrsat
analysisnowis11.5% CO , 8.2% O ,and80.3%N2.HeissurprisedtoseechangeinOrsatanalysis.

Theoperatorwantsanexplanationbothqualitativelyandquantitatively.


SOLUTION:

Explanation:Theoperatorhasneitherchangedthefiringratenoradjustedtheburner.Whenthedoor
wasopened,atmosphericairisleakedintothecombustionchamberandCOofPOCwascombusted.
ThishasresultedinchangeinPOC.Wehavetocalculateexcessair

Basis of calculation is 1 kg / hr.

PerformingCarbonbalancewegetamountofPOC 0.4802molesfornormaloperation.

Againweperformcarbonbalancewhenthedoorwasopened.NowwegetamountofPOC 0.564
moles

Air leakage 0.564 0.803 0.4802 0.805 4.76 / 3.76 0.084 kg mols

Amountofairleakageforcombustionof750 kg / hr coal 23m3/min

Calculationsonexcessairhasbeendoneinproblem1and2.

Percent excess air 21.46%

Forfurtherproblemsrefer

A.Butts:Metallurgicalproblems

Assignments:

1) Inacontinuousheatingfurnace750kg/hrcoalisburntwith3%moistureandthefollowing
ultimateanalysis(drybasis);77, H 7%, O 4%, N 1%, S 2%andash9%.Innormaloperation,the
Orsatanalysisofproductsofcombustion(POC)is13% CO , 6% O , 0.5% COand80.5% N .
Theoperatorhasopenedthefurnacedoorforcharging.Heclosesthedoorandoperatesthe
furnacewithsamefiringrateandburneradjustmentaswasinthenormaloperationHedoes
againOrsatanalysisofPOC.TheOrsatanalysisnowis11.5% CO , 8.2% O and80.3% N .Heis
surprisedtoseechangeinOrsatanalysis.
 2) Anaturalgasanalyzing85% CH , 5% C H and10% N isburnedwithairsuchthatpercent
oxygeninPOCremainsat2%ondrybasis.Assumecompletecombustion,calculate(a)analysis
ofPOC(drybasis),and(b)%excessair.
3) Afurnaceisheatedbycombustingagaseousfuelofcomposition29% CO, 9% CO , 16% H
and46% N withdryair.TheOrsatanalysisofproductsofcombustion(POC)is
15% CO , 7% O and78% N .Calculatethefollowingonthebasisof1m ofgaseousfuel

e)VolumeofPOCatNTP,STPandat1000
f)VolumeofairatNTP
g)Percentexcessair
h)% H OinPOC

4) Afurnaceheatsthebillet.Thefurnaceisheatedbycombustingcoalwithair.Theultimate
analysisofcoalis;C 72.5%, H 7.5%, O 6.7 %, N 1.3%, S 2.5%and9.5%.Themoisturecontent
analysisofcoal,whenfiredis3%.Theairismoistwiththerelativehumidity(RH)of45%the
barometershows735mmHgpressureand20 temprature.Thewatervapouratsaturationis
17.54mmHg.TheOrsatanalysisofproductsofcombustion(POC)is
10.3% CO , 6.2% O , 2% COand81.5% N .Calculatethefollowingonthebasisof1kgofcoal

iv)Percentexcessair
v)VolumeofairatNTP
vi)TotalvolumeofPOC

 Lecture12

Flametemperature

Contents

Whatisaflametemperature?

Methodofcalculation

Specificheatvalues

Proceduretocalculateflametemperature

Importanceofflametemperature

Keywords:Flametemperature,furnace,blastfurnace

Whatisaflametemperature?

It is the temperature attained by the products of combustion, when fuel is burnt with air or oxygen.
Flametemperatureisdifficulttomeasurewhencombustionofamixtureoffuel+airoccursinsidethe
furnace.

Butflametemperaturemaybecalculated

Methodofcalculation

Heatbalanceisdonetocalculatetheflametemperature

[Sensible heat in air + fuel] + [Heat of combustion][Heat absorbed due to dissociation of products of
combustion]=(SensibleheatinPOC)+[Heatlossesfromflametosurrounding]
(1)

Assumptions

1) Combustionisadiabatic,i.e.nolossofheat.
2) Thereoccurscompletecombustioni.e.productsofcombustionareCO2,H2O,SO2etc.
3) DissociationofPOCisneglected.
4) CombustionoccursatconstantpressuresothatH CP dT
Under the above conditions, flame temperature is called Theoretical maximum adiabatic flame
temperature(TMAFT)

WhendissociationofPOCisconsidered,flametemperatureisAdiabaticflametemperature.

ThusTMAFTorAFTis>Actualflametemperature.

ForadiabaticcombustionandwithoutdissociationofPOCandfromassumptions2and4onecanwrite
eq.1as:

HT H for fuel and air H for all combustion reaction = HT H for all
combustionproducts. (2)
T
HT H CP .
dT(3)

Tistemperatureatwhichreactantsareheated.IfT=298Ktensensibleheatofreactantsiszero.
T
POC HT H POC CP POC dT(4)

WhereTfistheflametemperatureand

CP n CP (5)

n1=molesofspecieofspecificheatCP

i=No.ofspecieinamixture,forexampleinairwehaveO2andN2andinPOCwehaveCO2,H2OandN2
etc.

Specificheatvalues

MostlyPOCconsistofCO2,CO,H2O,N2andO2,H2.BelowaregivenCPvaluesincal/mol

.
CP CO 10.55 2.16 10 T (6)
T

.
CP CO 6.79 0.98 10 T (7)
T

.
CP H O v 7.17 2.56 10 T (8)
T

CP N 6.66 1.02 10 T(9)

.
CP O 7.16 1 10 T (10)
T

.
CP H 6.52 0.78 10 T (11)
T

ForquickestimationofAFTonemayusetheoverageCPvaluesofPOC.Someofthevaluesare

CP CO 12.5 CP O 7.61

CP CO 7.67 CP H O 7.73

CP N 7.12 CP H 6.72

However,thecalculatedvalueofflametemperatureusingaveragespecificheatvalueswillbegreater
thanwhenequations611areused.

Proceduretocalculateflametemperature

i) FirstcalculateamountsofairandPOCforgivenquantityoffuel.
ii) Ifairandfuelarepreheated,calculatesensibleheatofairandfuel.
iii) Determine heat of combustion from heat of formations of POC. Assume complete
combustion.
iv) IfCOintheproductsofcombustionisknown,thansubtracttheheatofcombustionofCO
fromheatofcombustionvalue.
v) Performheatbalance,asshowninequation2.

Flametemperatureimportance

Flametemperaturecanbeusedto

i. Characterizethequalityoffuel.HigherisTMAFT/AFThigheristhequalityoffuel.
ii. Determinesuitabilityoffuelforanapplication.
For a given fuel and amount of air TMAFT/AFT must be greater than furnace temperature so
thatheattransferbetweenPOCandfurnacecanoccur.
iii. Determineextentofsubstitutionofalowerqualityfueltoconservehighqualityfuel.
Forexample,what%ofproducergascanbesubstitutedfornaturalgasfiredfurnace.
iv) In other processes the reaction temperature is important. In this case we may call adiabatic
reactiontemperature.(ART).Inthermitweldingofsteelsections,theARTofamixtureofsteelshot.
Fe2O3andaluminumpowdergovernstheextentofheatingandsizeandlocationofheataffected
zone.Thereaction2Al+Fe2O3=2Fe+Al2O3isexothermicandgenerateshightemperaturerapidly.

Intheoperationsofblastfurnaceandshaftfurnacewithairorair+fuelinjection,thereaction
temperatureorAFTisimportant

References:
O.P.Gupta:elementsoffuels,furnacesandrefractories


 Lecture13

FlameTemperature

Content

Exercise1Flametemperaturewiththeoreticalair

Exercise2EffectofexcessaironAFT

Exercise3

Keywords:Flametemperature,Combustion,furnaces

Exercise1Flametemperaturewiththeoreticalair

Calculatetheoreticalmaximumadiabaticflametemperatureoffuelgasofcomposition96%CH4,0.8%
CO2and3.2%N2whenburntwiththeoreticalair.Assumefuelandairaremixedat25OC

Consider1moleoffuelgas

CH4+2(O2+3.76N2)=CO2+2H2O(g)+7.52N2

POC Amount(kgmole)
CO2 0.968
H2O 1.920
N2 7.52

Heatbalance:ReferenceTemperature25OCOr298k.

Sensibleheatinair&fuel+Heatofcombustion=Heatinproductsofcombustion1)

Sensibleheatofreactants=0sincetheyareSupplied25O C.

H C .
0.968 94.05 103 1.920 57.80 103 0.96 17.89 103 184
103kcal.(2)

ThisheatofcombustionraisesthetemperatureofPOCtotheflametemperature.

TheheatcapacityofPOCi.e.Cp

Cp nCO CP CO nH OCP H O nN CP N
WherenCO2,nN2andnH2OaremolesofCO2N2H2Orespectively.

. .
C 0.968 10.55 2.16 10 3 T 1.92 7.17 2.56 10 T
T T
.
7.25 6.66 1.02 10 3T 72.27 14.41 10 3T (3)
T .

By1and3
T T
184 10 c P (4)

By3and4

T .
184 10 72.27 14.41 10 T dT
T

SolutiongivesTf=2300K.

ConsidertheuseofexpressionCP=a+bTandrecalculatingflametemperatureCalculatingC and
makingheatbalancegives

0.0072T 72.27Tf 206157 0.

Thisisaquadraticequationwhosesolutiongives

Tf 2319K.

LetuscalculateflametemperaturebyusingaverageCPvaluesofPOC.AverageCPvaluesofPOCare
giveninlecture12.

184000 0.96 12.5 Tf 25 1.92 7.73 Tf 25 7.12 7.25 Tf 25

SolutiongivesT=2643K.

WenotethattheaccuracyofcalculationdependsonCPvalues.ForaccuratecalculationsCP a
bT c/T mustbeused.HoweverusingCP a bT,thoughsimplifiescalculationbutflame
temperatureisslightlygreater(adifferenceof20Kinthisexample).UseofaverageCPvaluesthough
simplifiestheflametemperaturecalculationbutcalculatedflametemperatureisgreaterthanearlier
ones

Exercise2.EffectofexcessaironAFT
Considerthefuelin1.Nowitisburntwitha)20%excessairandb50%excessaircalculateAFTineach
case.

Inthefollowingcalculationswewillbeusing

CP a bT

However,readersmayperformcalculationusing

CP a bT C/T 2

Take20%excessair

AmountofPOC:CO2=0.968

H2O=1.92

O2=0.40

N2=9.056

Wecancalculate

C 87.18 16.11T kcal|kgmol

Heatofcombustion 184 103 kcal.

Heatbalance
T
184000 87.18 16.11T dT

Integrationyields

184000 87.18Tf 25979.6 8.05x10 3 T 715.3

Rearrangement.

8.05 10 3 T 87.18Tf 210695 0

Tf=2034K.

Similarlyfor50%excess

POC:CO2=0.968

H2O=1.92

O2=1.0
N2=11.31

Heatbalanceyields.

9.18x10 T 102.88Tf 215474 0

Tf 1819K

Wenotethatincreaseinexcessairdecreasesflametemperature.ThisisduetoincreaseinN2andO2in
thePOC.

SimilarcalculationscanbedonebyenrichingairwithO2.

Exercise3:
CalculateAFTwhenproducergasofcomposition22.4%CO12.6%CO2and65%N2isburnedwith
theoreticalair.Theairandproducergasenterat250C.

HintHeatbalancewouldbe

Sensibleheatinair+sensibleheatinproducergas+heatofcombustion=sensibleheatinPOC.

Steps:

1.CalculatecompositionofPOC

2.CalculatesensibleheatsinairandPOC

3.Calculateheatofcombustion

4.DoheatbalanceandfindAFT.

AnsTf 1472. 5O CwhenCp a bTisused

Assignment

1)CalculateAFTwhenproducergasofcomposition22.4%CO12.6%CO2and65%N2isburnedwith
theoreticalair.Theairandproducergasenterat250C.
2)Calculatetheadiabaticflametemperatureforcombustionofblastfurnacegasanalyzing24%CO12%
CO2,4%H2and60%N2underthefollowingconditions

Whentheoreticalairisused

Whenairis30%excessthantheoretical

When30%excessairispreheatedto227OCand327Oc

3)Calculatetheoreticalmaximumadiabaticflametemperatureoffuelgasofcomposition96%CH4,0.8
%CO2and3.2%N2whenburntwiththeoreticalair.Assumefuelandairaremixedat25OC

 Lecture14:RefractoryMaterials

Contents:

Whatisarefractory?

Whatarethephases?

Propertiesrequiredinarefractory

Selectionofrefractory

Keywords:Refractory,steelmaking,furnaces,smelting,blastfurnace,soakingpits,annealingfurnaces

Whatisarefractoryandwhyisitrequired?

Refractoryisamaterialwhichcanwithstandhightemperatureanddoesnotfuse.Examplesare:fireclay,
alumina,magnesite,chromemagnesite,dolomiteetc.

RefractorymaterialsareproducedtomeetthediversifiedRequirementsofhightemperatureprocesses
carriedoutinmetalextraction,cement,glassmaking,manufacturing,ceramicetc.industries.The
refractoryisrequired

Toallowthermalenergydependentconversionsofreactantsintoproductsbecausemetallic
vesselsareneithersuitablenoreconomical
Sourceofenergyinhightemperatureprocessingismostlyfossilfuelseitherdirectlyorindirectly
i.e.electricityderivedfromfossilfuels.Thusrefractoryshouldminimizeheatlossestoconserve
energyresources.
Becausethereactionchamberisconstructedofrefractorymaterial,refractoryisrequiredto
sustainthephysicochemicalattackofdifferentphasesatdifferentintervalsoftimedoing
processing.

Whatarethephases?

Thefollowingphasesareimportantinhightemperatureprocessingtodesigntherefractoryfora
givenrequirement

a) Slag:Itisamixturemostlymoltenoxidesandsulphides,insomeprocessesphosphateisalsoa
constituentofslag.Oxidesareeitheracidicsuchassilica,fireclayorbasiclikeMgO,MgOC,
alumina,FeO.

AmongsulphidesCaS,MnS,FeS,PbSetc,areprominentphases.Theslagismoltenandits
temperatureindifferentprocessinglaywithintherange12001600C.

 b) Liquidmetal

Inmetalextractionfromores,metalisextractedintheliquidstage.Compositionofmetal,andits
temperatureareimportant.Forexampleinironandsteelindustry,hotmetalisamixtureofiron,
carbon,silicon,manganeseandphosphorus.Thetemperaturevariesinbetween1300Cto1600C.
Incoppermakingthetemperaturesarewithintherange11001200C.Moltenaluminumis
producedat700750C,andlikewiseothernonferrousmetals.

c) Matte:itisahightemperaturesmoltenphaseandconsistsofamixtureofmoltensulphideslike
Cu2S,FeS,Ni3S2etc.Thetemperaturesvarywithintherange1100Cto1250C.

d) Gases:SeveraldifferenttypesofgaseslikeCO,CO2,N2H2O(vapor),argon,O2areusedathigh
temperaturesinseveralunitprocesseslikeroasting,calcination,smelting,refining,converting
etc.Thetemperaturesmayvaryinbetween600OCto1500C.ThegaseslikeCO2,H2O,andO2
areoxidizing,wherasthegaseslikeCO,andH2arereducing.N2andargonareinert.

e) Speissesaremoltensolutionsofarsenides,orarsenidesandantimonideswhenthematerials
beingtreatedcontainlargequantitiesofAsandSb.

f) Drosssesareheterogeneousproductsskimmedordrivenformthesurfaceofmoltenmetal
duringrefining.Theyaremixturesofprecipitatedsolidandliquidcompoundswithsubstantial
proportionofmechanicallytrappedmoltenmetal.

Propertiesrequiredinarefractory

The diversified applications of refractory materials in several different types of industries require
diversifiedpropertiestomeetthephysicochemicalandthermalrequirementsofdifferentphases.
Insomeindustrialunitsmorethanonephasearepresente.g.insteelmakingvesselsslag/metal
/gasesaresimultaneouslypresentinthevesselathightemperatures.Intheheattreatingfurnaces
solid/reducing or oxidizing gases are simultaneously present. Below are briefly described the
propertiesoftherefractorymaterials:

Refractoriness

Refractorinessisapropertyatwhicharefractorywilldeformunderitownload.Therefractoriness
is indicated by PCE (Pyrometric cone equivalent). It should be higher than the application
temperatures.

Refractorinessdecreaseswhenrefractoryisunderload.Thereforemoreimportantisrefractoriness
underload(RUL)ratherthanrefractoriness.

PorosityandSlagpermeability

Porosity affects chemical attack by molten slag, metal and gases. Decrease in porosity increases
strengthandthermalConductivity.

 Strength

Itistheresistanceoftherefractorytocompressiveloads,tensionandshearstresses.

Intallerfurnaces,therefractoryhastosupportaheavyload;hencestrengthunderthecombined
effectoftemperatureandload,i.e.refractorinessunderloadisimportant.

Specificgravity

Specific gravity of the refractory is important to consider the weight of a brick. Cost of bricks of
higherspecificgravityismorethatoflowerspecificgravity.Butstrengthofbricksofhigherspecific
gravityisgreaterthanonewithlowerspecificgravity.

Spalling

Spallingrelatestofractureofrefractorybrickwhichmayoccurduetothe

Temperaturegradientcausedbysuddenheatingorcooling
Compressioninastructureofrefractorinessduetoexpansion
Variationincoefficientofthermalexpansionbetweenthesurfacelayerandthebodyofthe
brickduetoslagpenetrationortoastructuralchange.

Onsuddenheating

coeff. of thermal expansion

Spalling tendency
maxm shearing strain thermal diffusivity

Onsuddencooling

coeff. of thermal expansion

Spalling tendency
maxm tensile strength thermal diffusivity

PermanentLinearchange(PLC)onreheating

Inmaterialscertainpermanentchangesoccurduringheatingandthesechangesmaybedueto

Changeintheallotropicform

Chemicalreaction

Liquidphaseformative

Sinteringreactions
I |
PLC % linear 100

I |
PLC% volume 100
volume

Thesechangesdeterminethevolumestabilityandexpansionandshrinkageof

therefractoryathightemperatures.

Thermalconductivity
 Thermal conductivity of the bricks determine heat losses. Increase in porosity decreases
thermalconductivitybutatthesametimedecreasesstrengthalso.

Bulkdensity:

Decreaseinbulkdensityincreasesvolumestability,heatcapacity.

Selectionofrefractory

Selectionofarefractoryiscomplicated.Amongphysicchemicalthermalproperties,costisthe
mostimportant.Broadlyspeakingselectionmaydependon

1) FurnaceDesign

a)Howthefurnaceistobeheated;whetherdirectlyorindirectly.Inindirectheatinge.gcoke
oven, Pidgeons process for Mg production, Krolls process (production of Ti by reduction of
TiCl2 with Mg), walls of the furnace are heated and heat is transferred from the walls to the
charge.Amongotherproperties,thermalconductivityoftherefractoryisimportant.Whereas
indirectheatingfuelandairmixtureissuppliedtothefurnaceandherewalloftherefractory
facingthereactionchambermusthavehighrefractorynessbesidesotherproperties.

b)Conditionofheating:

Therearefurnaceswhichoperatecontinuouslyandothersbatchwise.Forexamplecokeovenis
keptcontinuouslyathightemperatureformonthsbutacupolaoperatesintermittently.

c)Loading

Loadingandunloadingrequired/unittime

2)OperatingFactor

a.Chemistryofphases:

Thedifferentphasesarepresentatdifferentintervalsoftimeduringprocessing.The
combinationofdifferentphasesisshowninthefiguregivenbelow:

Figure..

Therefractoryfacingthesephasesneedscarefulselection.

b.Temperature:

Hightemperaturesareinvolvedinindustrialfurnace.Thereactionchambertemperaturesmayvary
from 12001600C in liquid stale processing and 7001200C in various solid stale processing
operations.



C.Abrasionduetomovement

 Molten metal and slag are turbulent in nature. Gases are flowing at high speeds inside the
reactors.Therefractorychambershouldbeabletowithstandtheerosionandcorrosioncausedby
themovementofthephases

d)Lininglife

Lininglife,i.e.timeforcompletereliningofthefurnaceisanimportantconsiderationanddepends
onseveralfactorslike,maintenanceandrepairtechnologies,conditionofthephases,temperature,
qualityoftherefractoryetc.

References:

O.P.Gupta:elementsoffuels.furnacesandrefractories.

P.MullingerandB.Jenkins:Industrialandprocessfurnaces

 Lecture15:ApplicationofRefractoryMaterials

CONTENTS

WhataretheavailableRefractoryMaterials?

Descriptionofsomerefractory

Manufactureofarefractory

Emergingtrends

Monolithicrefractory

Furnacerefractorymaintenance

FutureissuesofRefractorytechnology

Keywords:Refractory,furnaces,Insulation

WhataretheavailableRefractorymaterials

Theavailablerefractorymaterialsareclassified

(a) Oxidictypeand(b)specialtype

Oxidicrefractory
Acid Basic Neutral

(SiO2isthemainconstituent) Magnesite Chromite

Examplefireclay MgOC Carbon
Quartz Alumina Mullite
Silica Dolomite
AluminaC

UsesUnderacidicconditions Underbasicconditions Canbeeitherinacidicorin
basicconditions.

(b) Specialtype

Siliconcarbide,cermetsandSIALONaresomeexamplesofspecialrefractory.Theyareusedfor
specialapplications


Descriptionofsomerefractory

Fireclays

Commonfireclayscontain25to45%Al2O3and5080%SiO2.ClayswithhigherAl2O3arehigheralumina
refractories.

Properties

Porosityvariesfrom8to24%dependingonthefiringtemperature.
Athightemperaturesfireclayrefractorycombinewithalkalissuchassodaandpotash.
Coldcrushingstrengthis950kg/cm2at20 anddecreasesdrasticallyat800 to555 .

Al2O3(%) Refractoriness

Mediumduty 3032 1665

Highduty 3840 17001717

Superduty 4245 17431763

Uses:Furnaces,regenerators,ovens,andkilns.

Highaluminarefractories:

Al2O3variesfrom45to95%.Commonlyusedrefractoryaresillimanite(Al2O361%)andmullite(70
85%Al2O3).Someofthepropertiesare

Highrefractoriness
Betterresistancetoslagandspalling
Higherloadbearingcapacity.
Fusionpoint>1850 .

Uses:BFstoves,cementandlimerotarykilns,electricarefurnaceroofs,ladle,glassmakingfurnaces,
etc.

ChromiteMagnesite:Amountofchromeoreis>magnesite.Somepropertiesare

Usedupto1700 .
Resistanttothermalshocks
Basicinnature

Usesin:Innerliningofbasicoxygensteelmakingvessel,Sidewallsofsoakingpitsetc

Magnesite:Theserefractoryarebasicinnature.Somepropertiesare

Highrefractorinessandthermalconductivity

Greatresistancetobasicslag

Siliconcarbide

SiCcontentexceeds85%inthesetypeofrefractories.Someoftheimportantpropertiesare

Properties:

Highthermalconductivityandhighrefractoriness
Resistancetothermalspallingandtemperatureloadbearingcapacityishigh
Inerttoacidslagsand
Lightweight

SIALON:

Thisclassofrefractoryispreparedbyusingaluminaandsiliconnitride.Powderedmixtureofalumina
andsiliconnitrideishotpressedat1830MPaand17001760 ingraphitemouldsinorderto
producealowporositydenseproduct.SIALONrefractoryshows

i. goodresistancetooxidation,andactionofmoltenmetalslikeAl,Zn,Cd,Feandsteeland
ii. resistancetoH2SO4,Hcl,boraxandalkalis.

Manufactureofarefractory

Notethatrefractoryusedinhightemperaturefurnacesdoesnotoccurasnaturalreserves.But
refractoryisproducedbyusingnaturallyoccurringmaterialslikequartz,magnesite,dolomite,chromite,
bauxiteetc.

Ageneralflowsheetisgiveninthefollowingtoillustratethevariousstepsandtheirfunctions.

Figure:Flowsheetillustratingthemanufactureoftherefractory

Emergingtrends

Refractory has undergone many changes to meet the diversified requirements of the industry
particularlysteelindustry.Themainobjectiveistoincreasethelininglifeatreducedcostbydeveloping

a) High quality refractory for critical applications in steel making at e.g. slag line, impact area of
molten steel stream, bottom tuyere refractory in hybrid blowing, immersion nozzles in
continuouscostingetc.InthisconnectionmentionmaybemadeofsomerefractorylikeMgOC,
Al2O3SiCC,MgOCaOC,Al,MgandAlSialloystabilizedMgOCbrick,zirconbased
refractory,andAl2O3C
b) Repairing methods like slag splashing, slag coating, hot patching, gunning (flame gunning
involvesmeltingandsprayingonhotsurface).
c) Monolithicrefractory

Monolithicrefractory

Monolithic linings are a relatively recent development and consist of unshaped refractory products.
Thesearematerialswhichareinstalledinsomeformofsuspensionthatultimatelyhardenstoforma
solid mass. There are two basic types of monolithic lining, namely castable refractory and plastic
refractory

Castable refractory consists of mixtures of coarse and fine refractory grains together with a bonding
agentwhichisnormallybasedonhighaluminacement.Installationoftherefractoryisimportant.Due
torelativelypoorstrength,durabilityofmonolithicliningdependsonthedesignandinstallationofthe
anchors.

Monolithic linings are installed by casting the refractory in a mould or by spraying the furnace shell.
Largestproblemwithuseofmonolithicrefractoriesare:

Longdryingtime
Steamexplosion.

Furnacerefractorymaintenance:Thefollowingmethodsarecommonlypracticed.

Slagsplashing

Slag splashing is done in steelmaking vessels. After steel tapping, some amount of slag is retained.
CompositionofslagwithrespecttoFeOandMgOisadjusted.FeOmakestheslagadhesiveonthelining
andMgOmakesthelininghightemperatureresistant.Nitrogenisblownfromtoptosplashtheslag.The
splashedslaggetscoatedonthelining.Toreduceexcessiveslagbuildupinthebottom,excessslagis
thenpouredbeforecharging.

In case of hybrid blowing practice formation of skull may result in a failure of the bottom stirring
elements.

Slagcoatingandslagwashing

Thesmallamountofliquidslagisretainedinthevesselaftertapping.Slagisenrichedwithdolomiteor
rawdolomitetocooltheslagandtoincreaseitsadhesiveproperties.Vesselisrockedseveraltimesto
coatthebottomandbottomjointwithaslag.

Hotpatching

Selfflowingrefractorymixturesenableprecisemaintenanceofthescrapimpactzone,tappingpadand
bottomjoint.

Gunning

Bygunning,i.e.maintenanceofprewornareaswithspecialgunningmixtures,vessellininglifecanbe
extended.

Flame gunning involves simultaneous melting of a refractory powder and gunning at the hot surface.
Sincethegunnedrepairmaterialisdenseandfuseddirectlyonthehotsurfaceexcellentresultsonlife
ofliningisobtainedinLDconverter.

FutureissuesofRefractorytechnology

1. Durabilityofrefractoryforpairingnozzlesandsidedamsdeterminesthesuccessofstripcasting.

2. Technologyofmassmeltingofscrapinconverterbyusingpostcombustionrequiressuperhigh
temperaturerefractories.

3. Superfinepowderprocessingtechnologytoproducerefractory.

4. Use of monolithic refractory in steel making and refining furnaces require to automate brick
layingandintelligentrepair.

5. Nano tech refractory is thermal shock and corrosion resistant The nanoparticles act in two
ways
Theyconsistofmonospheresandimprovepropertieslikeelasticityandstrength
Controlofmolecularstructureastheparticleshavemanysmallporesofseveralhundred
nanometers.

Reference:P.MullingerandB.Jenkins:Industrialandprocessfurnaces

O.P.Gupta:elementsoffuels.furnacesandrefractories.

Assignments:

1) Whatdoyouunderstandbythespallingtendencyofarefractorybrick?Givereasons.

2) Whatismeantbyrefractorinessunderload?Whatisitsimportance?

3) Explaintheterminversionsinrelationtothebehaviorofsilicabrickonheatingandcooling.

4) Silicabricksaremanufacturedfromanaturallyoccurringquartzite,whichcontains98%SiO2.Isit
possibletousethesebrickswithoutanythermaltreatment?

5) Highaluminabricksarebetterthanfireclay.Why?

6) Highmagnesiterefractoryshowgoodresistancetoattackbyironoxide.Why?

7) Why is it necessary to add antishrinkage material for the manufacture of fireclay briskc from
naturallyoccurringclayores?

8) Howareinsulatingbricksmanufactured?

 Lecture16

Furnace:Typeandclassification

Contentoflecture

Whatisafurnace?

Whatarethecomponentsofafurnace?

Furnacesandtheirapplicationsinhightemperatureindustries

IssuesinFurnacedesign

Keywords:Mattesmelter,blastfurnace,heattreatment,fossilfuel

Whatisafurnace?

A furnace is essentially a thermal enclosure and is employed to process raw materials at high
temperatures both in solid state and liquid state. Several industries like iron and steel making, non
ferrous metals production, glass making, manufacturing, ceramic processing, calcination in cement
productionetc.employfurnace.Theprincipleobjectivesare

a) To utilize heat efficiently so that losses are minimum, and

b) To handle the different phases (solid, liquid or gaseous) moving at different velocities for different
times and temperatures such that erosion and corrosion of the refractory are minimum.

Whatarethecomponentsofafurnace?

Theprinciplecomponentsare

i. Source of energy
 a) Fossil fuel: For fossil fuel one requires burner for efficient mixing of fuel and air.
Arrangement of burner is important.
b) Electric energy: Resistance heating, induction heating or arc heating.
c) Chemical energy: Exothermic reactions

ii. Suitable refractory material: Refractory design is important. Thermal enclosure of the
furnace is designed and constructed keeping in view the requirements. For example refractory
facing the thermal enclosure must have high refractoriness, chemically inert etc. Whereas
refractory facing the surrounding must have low thermal conductivity to minimize heat
losses.
iii. Heat exchanger: Heat exchanger is becoming now as part of the fossil fuel fired furnaces
in order to recover and reuse the heat of POC. Heat of POC can be used either external to
furnace by installing a heat exchanger or internally by recirculation the POC within the
furnace.
iv. Instrumentation and control: Furnaces are equipped with POC analyzer and temperature
control.

Furnacesandtheirapplicationsinhightemperatureindustries:

Furnaces are used for wide variety of processing of raw materials to finished products in several
industries. Broadly they are used either for physical processing or for chemical processing of raw
materials. In the physical processing the state of the reactants remains unchanged, whereas in the
chemicalprocessingstateofthereactantschangeseithertoliquidofgas.Inthetablegivenbelowsome
applications of furnaces for physical and chemical processing are given ( the reader may go through
detailed description in order to appreciate the requirement of the design of thermal enclosure, i.e.
furnace):

PHYSICALPROCESSING

Unit process Purpose Energy source Temperature Type of furnace

in oC
Carbonization Conversion of coal to Indirect heating 1000 to 1200 Coke oven
coke by burning fuel
Calcination Removal of CO2 from Fossil fuel 1200 Rotary kiln
CaCO3 for cement
production

Production of anhydrous Fossil fuel 1300 Rotary kiln

alumina for electrolysis

Roasting To convert sulphide into Chemical + 900 Multiple hearth

oxide partially or Fossil fuel furnace,
completely Fluid bed roaster, etc
Heating To eliminate segregation Mostly oil and Below the Batch type or
To perform hot working gas fired melting points of continuous type
To perform heat materials
treatment
Sintering To produce compacts of Fossil or electric Below the Sintering furnaces
particles melting point

CHEMICALPROCESSING

Unit process Purpose Energy source Temperature Type of furnace

in oC
Electrolysis of To produce Al,Mg and Electric energy 700 to 900 Hall-Heroult cell,
molten salt Na
Refining To produce steel Chemical and 1600 LD Converter
electric Electric furnace
Melting To produce castings of Electric and Above the Induction furnace,
metals and alloys fossil fuel melting points of reverberatory furnace
respective metal and melting furnace
and alloy
Matte smelting To produce matte Chemical and 1200 Flash smelter,
fossil fuel Reverberatory
smelter
Reduction i) To produce hot metal Chemical and 1700 to 1800at Iron blast furnace
smelting ii) To produce lead and fossil fuel the tuyere in all Lead blast furnace
iii) To produce Zinc the cases and
Chemical and Zn blast furnace
fossil fuel
Converting To produce copper from Chemical energy 1100 to 1200 Side blown converter
matte

IssuesinFurnacedesign

1)Sourceofenergyinprocessingofrawmaterialsisfossilfuelinmostcases.Evenifelectricenergyis
used,itisalsoderivedfromfossilfuels.Thusenergyefficientdesignofthermalenclosureisimportant;
particularlyheatlossesshouldbeasminimalaspossible.

2)Inchemicalprocessing,fluidflowisimportant.Liquidandgasesareflowingathightemperatureso
erosionandcorrosionoftherefractoryisimportant.Inaddition,fluidflowalsoinfluencestheratesof
heatandmasstransfer.Thedeadzones(deadzonesarethoseareasinwhichnomovementofsolidand
liquidtakesplace)shouldbeavoidedwhiledesigningthefurnacechamber

3)Atmosphereinthefurnaceisalsoimportanttoavoidoxidationofthematerialbeingheated

4) Control of furnace temperature is also an important issue. Overheating and underheating lead to
inefficient utilization of fuel and also overheating or underheating of material. Furnace should be
equippedwithhetemperaturemeasurementandcontroldevices

5) Furnaces are both batch and continuous type. In the continuous type for example in heating of
ferrous material for hot working, the furnace chamber consists of preheating, heating and soaking
zones.Thematerialentersthroughthepreheatingzoneandexitsthesoakingzoneforrolling.Butthe
flowofproductsofcombustionisinthereversedirection.Furnacedesignisrecuperativetypeinthat
material exits at the desired temperature from the soaking zone and the products of combustion
discharge the preheating zone at the lowest possible temperature. Different types of continuous
furnacesareinuse,likewalkingbeamtype,pushertype,rollerhearthtype,screwconveyortypeetc.

6)Inthebatchfurnaces,theloadisheatedforthefixedtimeandthendischargedfromthefurnace.
Therearedifferenttypesofbatchfurnaceslikeboxtype,integralquenchtype,pittypeandcarbottom
type

6)Inmanycasesthefurnaceisequippedwitheitherexternalheatrecoverysystemorinternalheat
recoverysystem.Intheexternalheatrecoverysystemaheatexchangerlikerecuperatorisinstalled
outsidethefurnace.Hereheatexchangermustbeintegratedwiththefurnaceoperation.Intheinternal
heatrecoverytheproductsofcombustionarerecirculatedinthefurnaceitselfsothatflame
temperatureissomewhatlowered.TheobjectiveistoreducetheNOxformation.

7)Theproductsofcombustionaremovingathighspeedsinthefurnace.Theflowofproductsof
combustionisimportanttoobtainrapidheattransferandminimumthermalgradient.

Source:GeorgeE.TottenandM.A.H.Howes:Steelheattreatmenthandbook

P.MullingerandB.Jenkins:Industrialandprocessfurnaces

 Lecture17:HeatUtilizationinFurnaces

Contents:

Heatbalance
Fuelutilization
TemperatureofPOC
Availableheat
Variablesaffectingheatutilization

Keywords:Availableheat,furnace,fueleconomy,oxygenenrichment

HeatBalance

Complete heat balance of a furnace shows the flow of heat in a furnace. Heat balance contains the
information regarding the sources of heat input like sensible heat of reactants, calorific value of fuel,
heatofexothermicreactionsetc.Heatbalancealsoshowstheheatoutputlikewalllosses,sensibleheat
inPOC,openinglosses,heatcarriedbythechargeetc.

We have to differentiate between the quantities of heat directly related to combustion from the
quantities of heat that relate to the process in order to control combustion or to study the factors
affecting the fuel utilization. Sensible heats of air and fuel and amount of air relate to the quantities
affectingcombustion,whereasheatcarriedbythechargerelatetotheprocess,thatisifitisrequiredto
heat the material at 900oC, the heat carriedaway by the charge would be corresponding to 900oC.
Lossescouldalsobeconsideredastheparametersrelatingtotheprocess.

FuelUtilization

In analyzing utilization of heat from fuel combustion, both amount of heat and the temperature are
importantsincefurnaceisheatedbytheheattransferfromPOC.Heattransferrateisproportionalto
thetemperaturedifferencebetweentemperatureofPOCandthefurnace.Inthisconnectionadiabatic
flametemperatureisaveryimportantparameterforfuelutilization(Fuelutilizationandheatutilization
areessentiallysimilarsinceheatisderivedfromcombustionoffuel.

An obvious requirement is that the flame temperature must be greater than furnace temperature so
that POC is able to transfer heat for heating. Rapid heating of the furnace is achieved by greater
temperaturedifference,whichmeanshigherflametemperature.Higherflametemperature,though
increasestheheattransferratebutatthesametimeitmaycauseoverheatinganddestroythelining.
Wehaveseeninlecture13thatadiabaticflametemperature(AFT)decreaseswithincreaseinexcessair.
Controlofexcessairisimportanttoutilizefueleffectively.

TemperatureofPOC

Inheatutilization,itmustbeborninmindthatheatcarriedbyPOCisnotavailable.HeatcarriedbyPOC,
i.e.HPOC

HPOC=massofPOCxspecificheatofPOCx(TPOC298),

whereTPOCisthetemperatureofPOCleavingthefurnace.ThetemperatureofPOCcanberelatedwith
theprocesscriticaltemperature.Theprocesscriticaltemperatureisthetemperatureatwhichaprocess
can be carried out. POC must exit at the critical process temperature. A POC temperature lower than
critical process temperature means that some portion of the furnace is cooler than the rest, whereas
POCtemperaturegreaterthancriticalprocesstemperaturemeansoverheatingofsomeportioninthe
furnace.Overheatingwillcauseincreaseinfuelconsumption.

Availableheat

ThesensibleheatinPOCatthecriticalprocesstemperatureisnotavailabletothefurnace.Thehigher
theprocesscriticaltemperaturehigherwouldbethesensibleheatinPOC.ThissensibleheatinPOCis
veryimportantfromthepointofviewoffuelutilization.Wedefinegrossavailableheat(GAH)as

GAH=Calorificvalueoffuel+sensibleheatofreactantsHeatcarriedbyPOC 1)

GAH may also be considered as the heat given by POC in cooling from its flame temperature (flame
temperatureisAFTinthefollowingwhichisTAFT)totheprocesscriticaltemperature(TCRIT).Ifweassume
thatspecificheatcapacityofPOCdoesnotvarysignificantlywithtemperatureandthen

GAHisproportionalto(TAFTTCRIT) 2)

GAH,%oftotalheatinput100(TAFTTCRIT)/TAFT 3)

IfforexampleTCRITis1200oC

AcombustionprocessgeneratingTAFT=1200oCcannotbeused.AcombustionprocessgeneratingTAFT
=1600oCwouldbe25%andthatgeneratingTAFT=1800oCwouldbe33%efficientaccordingtoeq.3
 GAHrepresentstheheatavailableatthecriticalprocesstemperature;itmaynotrepresentheat
available to perform a given function due to the various types of losses. GAH may be used as a
criterionforcomparingdifferentfuelcombustionsystems.

Oncethefurnaceisdesignedandbuilt,theheatlossesarenotwithinthecontroloftheoperator;itis
governedbytheprocesscriticaltemperature,refractoryliningthicknessandthermalconductivityofthe
refractory.Definingnetavailableheat(NAH)as

NAH=GAHHeatlosses 4)

NAH can be used as a criterion for comparing the smelting/melting/heating efficieny of different
furnaces.

Variablesaffectingheatutilization

Foragivenfurnacedesignandthedailyheatrequirements,GAHisfixedanditisrequiredtosupplythis
muchofheatonperdaybasis,wecancalculate

R GAH
Fuel consumption 5)
GAH

IfheatsupplyisthecriticalfactorindeterminingtheprocessthroughputthenGAHcannotdetermine
thethroughput,wehavetoconsidertheNAH

NAH
Furnace throughput 6)
R NAH

Heatutilizationorfuelutilizationaccordingtoequation5isinverselyproportionaltoGAH/kgoffuel.We
canderivethefactorsaffectingheatutilizationbyconsideringeq.1

Airadjustment:Calorificvalue(CV)offuelistheenergyobtainedoncompletecombustionoffuelwith
theoretical amount of air. Excess air, air leakage, furnace draft, fuel/air ratio will control the fuel
consumption

Sensibleheatofreactant;thisheatdirectlyaddstothefurnace,fuelconsumptionwilldecrease.

POCtemperature:anincreaseinPOCtemperaturewillincreasefuelconsumption

Incompletecombustionorunburntfuel;correspondingtoincompletecombustionpartoftheCVoffuel
islostinPOC.

 Lecture18;Energyflowdiagramandfuelconsumption

Whatisenergyflowdiagram

Exercise

Keywords:sankeydiagram,energyflow,furnaces

Whatisenergyflowdiagram?

EnergyflowdiagramalsoknownasSankeydiagramisaspecifictypeofflowdiagraminwhichthewidth
of the arrows is proportional to the quantity of energy. Length of arrows has no bearings with the
quantity of energy. These diagrams indicate the flow of energy in a process and help identifying the
qualityandquantityofenergy.Qualityofenergyisindicatedbythetemperaturesofinputsandoutputs
ofenergy.Theinputofenergybeginsfromtheleftofthediagram.Theoutputsofenergyareshownon
therightsideofthediagramasillustratedinthefollowingfigure:

Figure1:Constructionofanenergyflowdiagram

Exercise1

Afurnacemelts305tonsofcopperandraisesitstemperatureto1600Kin6hrs.Thefurnaceconsumes
4.2 tons/hr oil. Fuel oil analyses 85% C, 12% H and 3% O and its net calorific value is 9446 kcal/kg.
Combustionairis20%excessthantheoreticallyrequired.Heatlossfromthefurnacetothesurrounding
is 50% of the heat that is required to melt copper and raise its temperature to 1600K. Calculate the
inputsandoutputsofenergyandshowthemontheenergydiagram
FirstwehavetodothematerialbalancetofindouttheamountsofPOCandthenenergycarriedbyPOC
byusingthesensibleheatvalues.

SensibleheatinPOCiscalculatedtobe2.54x107kcal/hr

Sensibleheatincopperiscalculatedtobe0.95x107kcal/hr

Heatlossesare50%ofthesensibleheatincopper=0.48x107kcal/hr

Heatbalance:

Heatinput(kcal/hr) %oftotal

Calorificvalueoffuel3.97x107 100

Heatoutput(kcal/hr) %oftotal

HeattoPOC 2.54x107 64

Heattocopper0.95x107 24

Heatlosses0.48x107 12

Theabovevaluesareshowninthefigure

Figure2:Energyflowdiagram
Nowconsidertheuseofheatrecoverydevicesuchaswasteheatboiler.ThePOCentersthewasteheat
boiler and exit the boiler at 600K, Fifteen percent (15%) of the heat of POCis lost to the surrounding
fromtheboiler.Showtheflowofenergy

Figure3:Energyflowdiagramshowingthefurnaceandheatrecoverysystem

Assignment:

1)A furnace melts 305 tons of copper and raises its temperature to 1600K in 6 hrs. The furnace
consumes 4.2 tons/hr oil. Fuel oil analyses 85% C, 12% H and 3% O and its net calorific value is 9446
kcal/kg. Combustion air is 20% excess than theoretically required. Heat loss from the furnace to the
surrounding is 50% of the heat that is required to melt copper and raise its temperature to 1600K.
Calculatetheinputsandoutputsofenergyandshowthemontheenergydiagram.

Lecture19;Heatrecovery

Contents

ThermodynamicprinciplesofcaptureandreuseofheatofPOC:

Efficiencyofheatexchangers

ExerciseI

ExerciseII

Keywords:Heatrecovery,fueleconomy.Heatexchanger,regenerator,recuperator

Concepts

Efficientutilizationoffossilfuelreservesrequires,inadditiontootherfactors,utilizationofheatofPOCexitingthe
furnace.Itiswellknownthatpotentialenergyoffuelat25OConcombustionisconvertedintothesensibleheatpf
products of combustion at the flame temperature. Products of combustion after transferring their heat to the
furnace chamber exit the furnace. Heat carried by products of combustion depends on the temperature of the
furnace;higheristhefurnacetemperaturehigheristheamountofheatcarriedbyPOC.Itmayrangesomewherein
between40 to60%ofthecalorificvalueoffuel.HeatofPOC canberecoveredeither external tothefurnaceby
installingaheatexchangerorinternallybyrecirculatingthePOCintotheflameinthefurnaceitself.Theformeris
calledexternalheatrecoveryandthelaterisinternalheatrecovery.

InthefollowingwediscusstheprinciplesofexternalheatrecoveryofPOC.Normallyaheatexchangerisintegrated
withthefurnacewhichcapturesandreusestheheatofPOCsimultaneously.

ThermodynamicprinciplesofcaptureandreuseofheatofPOC:

CaptureandreuseofheatofPOCmustbeintegrated.Aheatexchangerintegratescaptureandreuseofheat.In
the heat exchanger hot fluid (POC) flows cocurrent or countercurrent to cold fluid, say air. Both fluids are
separatedbyawall.HotfluidenterstheheatexchangerattemperatureTh1andexitsattemperatureTh2(Th2<Th1).
WallisheatedbytheheattransferredfromthehotPOC.ColdfluidenterstheheatexchangerattemperatureTc1
andleavesatTc2suchthatTc2>Tc1.

Heatbalanceoveraninfinitesimallysmallelementoflengthdxcanbewrittenatsteadystate

Heatlostbyhotfluid=HeatgainedbythecoldfluidHeatlossfromtheelementtothesurrounding1)

Letmh,andmcaremassofhotfluidandcoldfluid,CPhandCPcarethespecificheatofhotandcoldfluidthenwecan
write

m x CP x dT m x CP x dT dQ 2)

In eq. 2 dTh and dTc are the change in temperatures of hot andcold fluid at any position along the length of the
exchanger.

Inanidealadiabaticreversibleheatexchangebetweenhotandcoldfluid,dQ=zeroandtheprocessisreversible
whentemperaturedifference betweenhotand coldfluidatanypositionalongthelengthofthe heatexchanger,
i.e.Ti=(dThidTci)=0provided

mhxCPh=mcxCPc.

Thisispossiblewhenbothfluidshaveinfinitecontacttime,andseparatingwallhaszerothermalresistance.Inthis
situation the temperature difference between hot and cold fluid at any position will be very small and constant
alongthelengthoftheheatexchanger.

Finitethermalresistanceoftheseparatingwallandflowratesofbothfluidsmaketheheatexchangeirreversible.
Finiteflowratesofbothfluidswillhavefiniteresidencetimedependingonflowratesandasaresultalltheheatis
not transferred from hot to cold fluid. Similarly finite thermal resistance of the wall will also limit the transfer of
heattothecoldfluid.Insuchasituationforanadiabaticprocess .Ti=(dThidTci)willbenonzero,butwillhave
constantvaluewhenmhxCPh=mcxCPc.

The practicalresultof theirreversibilityisthatthe heatexchangeisnotcompleteand thereisalwayssomeheat

whichisleftwiththePOConleavingtheheatexchanger.

Differenceinheatcapacitiesoffluidwillinfluencetheheatexchangeprocess.ForexampleifCPh>CPc,coldfluidcan
beheatednearlytotheenteringtemperatureofhotfluidprovidedmh=mc.

Efficiencyofheatexchangers

Thermodynamically thermal resistance of the wall, heat leaving the exchanger with POC influences the thermal
efficiencyoftheheatexchanger.

S
Overall thermal efficiency
S f

According to the definition of overall thermal efficiency, it appears that the air can be preheated to the
temperature above the flue gas temperature since no upper limit is assigned to the temperature of the
preheatedairtemperature.Thermodynamically,inheatexchangebetweenhotfluegasandcoldair,aircan
notbepreheatedtothetemperatureabovethefluegastemperature.

S f
Efficiency limit
S f

O f
Relative efficiency
f

S
Relative efficiency
S f

 Lecture20:Exercisesonheatrecovery

Exercise1Grossavailableheat(GAH)

Exercise2EffectofexcessaironGAH(selfstudy)

Exercise3Heatrecovery,fuelconsumptionandoxygenenrichment

Exercise4

Keywords:Combustion,hightemperaturefurnaces,blastfurnace,roasting,smelting

ExerciseI

Consider combustion of fuel oil with air to heat the furnace to a temperature at T C Fuel oil
analyses 84% C 5% H 2% S and 9% incombustibles. Gross calorific value of fuel oil is 9500
kcal/kg.DetermineGAHineachcasewhenthefurnacetemperatureTisa)727 Cb)827 C
c)927 C andd1127 CAssumecompletecombustionwiththetheoreticalamountofair

Solution

GAH in kcal calorific value of fuel Heat to POC

Basis of calculation is 1 kg fuel. Reference state of H O in POC is liquid and the reference
temperatureis298K

Sensible heat in POC m CO x CpCO dT mH O x CpH O dT mN x CpN dT

FirstwehavetocalculatetheamountofPOC.Combustioniscompletewiththeoreticalamount
ofair,POCconsistsof CO H OandN WecancalculatetheamountofeachconstituentofPOC
bytheStoichiometryofthereactionasillustratedinthelecturesoncombustion(Lecture911).
We can calculate heat carried by each constituent of POC at each temperature by using
mxCpxdT.Thecalculatedvaluesaregiveninthetable

POC Sensible heat (kcal) at T Sensible heat Sensible heat (kcal) T Sensible heat (kcal)T
=1000K (kcal) T=1100K = 1200k = 1400K
CO2 560 652 746 937
H2O 209 222 235 261
N2 1452 1675 1903 2346
Total 2161 2549 2884 3544
GAH 7339 6951 6616 5956

Increase in temperature from 1000K to 1400K decreases GAH by 19%. Decrease in GAH is
followedbyincreaseinfuelconsumptioninthesameproportion

ExerciseIIEffectofexcessair(selfstudy)

Now consider that the above fuel is combusted with excess air to arrive at a furnace
temperatureof1100K.CalculateGAHwhena)excessairis20%andb)whenexcessairis50%

Calculations can be performed in a way similar to the above. The readers may do these
calculations.ThecalculationsshowthatincreaseinexcessairdecreasesGAHfrom7339kcalat
theoreticalairto6284kcalat20%excessairand5561kcalat50%excessair.Thisdecreasein
14%at20%and24%at50%excessair.DecreaseinGAHwillincreaseinfuelconsumption

Calculationsshowfurtherthatpreheatingoftheoreticalamountofairto500Kwilladd510kcal
sensibleheatinair.AsaresultGAHwillincreaseatallfurnacetemperatures.

Exercise3
Theheatrequirementofaprocessis1.5 10 kW.Thefurnaceisfiredwithcoalwhichhas70%
C.TheNCVofcoalis27900kJ/kg.Theprocessiscarriedoutat1600K.Productsofcombustion
analyse76% N 7 % O 5% H Oand12 %CO Calculatefuelconsumption

Solution:

Solutionispresentedinbrief.Thereadersshouldcalculatethevaluesgiven

SincethePOCtemperatureisnotgiven.ItisassumedthatPOCexitthefurnaceattheprocess
temperature,i.e.1600K.

Basisofcalculationis298Kand1kgcoal

Bycarbonbalance,theamountofPOCis0.486kgmolwiththefollowingcomposition

CO 0.05832 kg mol

H O 0.0243 kg mol

O 0.034 kg mol

N 0.3694 kg mol

HeattoPOCcannowbecalculatedbyusingCpvalues.ThecalculatedvalueofheattoPOCis
22063kJ.

GAH/kg of coal 27900 22063 5837 kJ

Fuel consumption in kg/hr 1500 x 3600 / 5837 925kg/hr

Suppose the combustion air is preheated with the heat recovered from the POC in a heat
exchangerwhichishaving50%relativeefficiency.Calculatethefuelconsumption

First we have to find amount of air. In this problem note that composition of coal is not
completelygiven.AmountofairhastobecalculatedfromtheamountofPOC:

Nitrogen in POC is nitrogen from air 0.3694 kg mole

Oxygen from air 0.0982 kg mole

Sensible heat in preheated air relative efficiency x sensible heat in air at 1600K

0.5 x 0.3694 x 41620 0.0982 x 43710

9833 kJ

GAH 27900 9833 22063 15670 kJ

OnenotesthatGAHincreaseswiththeadditionofsensibleheatinair.

Fuel consumption 344 kg/hr

Fuel saving = 580 kg/hr; if the furnace operates for 20 hrs/day then coal saving is 11140
kg/day. Carbon saving is 8127 kg/day. This saving means that now less carbon will be
discharged in the environment. This illustrates that preheating of air not only save fuel but
alsoreducescarbonemissionintotheenvironment.

Now assume that the heat exchanger is not used. Coal is burned with a mixture of cold air
25O C and oxygen. Excess of oxygen (air + pure oxygen combined) over theoretical for
combustion will be kept same as with preheater. Calculate the amount of oxygen required in
kg/hrtoobtainthesamefuelconsumptionasobtainedwiththeheatexchanger

Preheateradds9833 kJsensibleheatintofurnace.Whenpreheaterisnotused,nitrogenofair
mustbereducedsothatheattakenoutbynitrogenequalto9833kJ

LetYkgmoloxygenisrequired,thiscorrespondsto3.76Yofnitrogen

Thus 3.76Y x 41620 9833

Y 0.0628 kg mole which gives 691 kg/hr of oxygen.

This problem illustrates the method of reduction of fuel by adopting technologies like
preheatingofairandoxygenenrichmentofair.Boththetechnologiesareinusetoreducethe
fuel consumption in industrial practice. Which technology suits has to be evaluated locally
keepinginviewtheavailableresourcesandexpertise.

Exercise4

Aheatbalanceforacontinuousmetallurgicalprocessgivesthefollowingdata:

Heatinput %oftotal

Combustionoffuel 100

Heatoutput %oftotal

Processrequirements 25
Sensibleheatinfluegases 50

Heatloss 25

The installation of air preheater is being considered. It is estimated that the proposed
preheaterwouldrecoveronehalfofthesensibleheatinthefluegasesandwouldreturntothe
furnace.Drawenergyflowdiagramineachofthefollowingcasesalso

a)Ifthedailyprocessrequirementsanddailyheatlossarekeptsame,whatpercentsavingin
fuelcouldbeachievedbythepreheaterinstallation?Whatwouldbethenewheatbalance(in
percent)?

b)Ifthedailyfuelconsumptionanddailyheatlossarekeptsame,whatpercentincreasecould
bemadeinheatfurnishedtotheprocessasaresultofthepreheaterinstallation?Whatwould
bethenewheatbalance(inpercent)?

Assignment

1a)ConsidercombustionoffueloilwithairtoheatthefurnacetoatemperatureatToC.Fueloil
analyses 84% C, 5% H, 2% S, and 9% incombustibles. Gross calorific value of fuel oil is 9500
kcal/kg.DetermineGAHineachcasewhenthefurnacetemperatureTisa)727oC,b)827oC,c)
927oCandd)1127oC.Assumecompletecombustionwiththetheoreticalamountofair

1b)Repeatcalculationsforproblem1whentheexcessairis20%and50%thantheoreticalone.
2)Theheatrequirementofaprocessis1.5x103kW.Thefurnaceisfiredwithcoalwhichhas
70% C. The NCV of coal is 27900 kJ/kg. The process is carried out at 1600K. Products of
combustionanalyse76%N2,7%O2,5%H2Oand12%CO2.Calculatefuelconsumption

Aheatbalanceforacontinuousmetallurgicalprocessgivesthefollowingdata:

Heatinput %oftotal

Combustionoffuel 100

Heatoutput %oftotal

Processrequirements 25

Sensibleheatinfluegases 50

Heatloss 25

The installation of air preheater is being considered. It is estimated that the proposed
preheaterwouldrecoveronehalfofthesensibleheatinthefluegasesandwouldreturntothe
furnace.Drawenergyflowdiagramineachofthefollowingcasesalso

a)Ifthedailyprocessrequirementsanddailyheatlossarekeptsame,whatpercentsavingin
fuelcouldbeachievedbythepreheaterinstallation?Whatwouldbethenewheatbalance(in
percent)?

b)Ifthedailyfuelconsumptionanddailyheatlossarekeptsame,whatpercentincreasecould
bemadeinheatfurnishedtotheprocessasaresultofthepreheaterinstallation?Whatwould
bethenewheatbalance(inpercent)?

 Lecture21

TransportPhenomenainFurnaces:FluidFlow

Contents

Fluidflowinfurnaces

MacroscopicEnergyBalance

Frictionallosses

EnlargementandContraction

Flowthroughvalvesandfittings

KeyWords:Fluidflow,MacroscopicBalance,FrictionalLosses,TurbulentFlow

Fluidflowinfurnaces

Afurnaceisathermalenclosureandisemployedtocarryoutphysicalandchemicalprocessingofraw
materialsathightemperatures.Eachoftheunitprocessesinvolveseithermovementofgasaloneorgas
and liquid at high temperatures. Air is the bulkiest raw material used in several unit processes like
combustion,gasification,roasting,matteandreductionsmeltingandoxidationetc.Incombustionlarge
quantityofairisusedandlargequantitiesoffluegasesareproduced.Fluidflowstudieswouldbeuseful
inthefollowing:

9 Themotionoffluegaseswithinthefurnacechambercontrolstherateofheattransferand
thermalgradientsinthefurnace

9 Measurementsofflowratesoffluide.g.airandotherliquidsarerequiredtocontrolthe
process

9 In certain physical processing like heat treatment, a gaseous atmosphere is maintained.

Uniformityinthecompositionoftheatmosphererequirestodesigntheflowratesandrate
ofmovementoftheatmosphere.

MacroscopicEnergyBalance

The engineers chief objective is to design and operate the equipment. Fluid movement consumes
power which must be available either through a fan, blower or a compressor. Measurements and
estimationsofflowquantitiesareoftennecessary.Controlofflowratesisimportant.Inthisconnection
macroscopicenergybalanceisveryuseful.Inthemacroscopicenergybalance,theinitialandfinalstates
ofthethermophysicalpropertiesofinputsandoutputsareconsidered.
For gas flowing substantially at atmospheric pressures in furnaces, flues and ordinary metallurgical
equipments,andforliquidflowsystemmechanicalenergybalanceisveryuseful.Itis

[Mechanicalenergyinput+otherenergyconvertedintomechanicalenergy=mechanicalenergyoutput
+mechanicalenergyconvertedintoheat](1)

Considerflowoffluidfrompoint1to2atsteadystateasshowninthefigure:

Figure1:Systemunderconsiderationformacroscopicbalance

The fluid enters at the plane 1 at pressure P , velocity V and exits at pressure P and velocity V .
Mechanicalenergyisaddedtothesystembyafanasshowninthefigure.Themassandenergybalance
atthesteadystateis:

Rate of mass in Rate of mass out and

Total energy input Total energy output(2)

Many different kinds of energy and energy changes are to be considered when the fluid flows from
plane1toplane2.Inthefollowingallenergytermsareexpressedin Per Kg ofmassoffluid

Potential energy: It is the energy possessed by the fluid by virtue of its mass, position and gravity.
PotentialenergyisnumericallyequaltogZ andgZ atpositions1and2respectively

Change in potential energy g z(3)

Kineticenergy(KE):itistheenergyoffluidbyvirtueofitsmotionandis

KE m v (4)

Inequation4Visthevelocityoffluid.IncreaseinKE/unitmassasthefluidflowsfromposition1to2is

V V
K E (5)
Pressureenergy:Itistheenergypossessedbythefluidbecauseitentersandexitsatsomepressure.

P P
Increase in pressure energy /unit mass (6)

Mechanicalenergy(M):Thisenergymaybeaddedto theflowfromtheoutsidebymeansofapumpor
fan.

Selfexpansionworkisthemechanicalworkthat1kgoffluiddoesonthefluidsurroundingasitexpands
inpassingthroughthesystem.

Self expansion work P d 1

Friction: F Itistheconversionofmechanicalenergyintoheatduetothemovementofthefluid.

Puttingallenergiestogether

P V P V
gz Pd 1 M gz F(7)

P P
Since Pd 1 dP (8)

By7and8andafterrearrangementweget

V V
g z z dP F M 0 (9)

Forincompressiblefluid

V V P P
g z z F M 0(10)

ThisequationisalsocalledBernoullisequation.Notethatthisequationisintermsofunitmassoffluid
flowing.

Frictionallosses

Applicationofequation10requirestheevaluationoffrictionalforcesinvariousflowsystems.Frictional
lossesfortheflowoffluidincirculartubescanbeevaluatedbytheFanningequation

L
F 2f V (11)
D

fisfrictionfactor,LislengthandDisdiameterofthepipe.Notethat isthevelocityoffluidinthe
pipe.Itisdifferentthanvelocityof fluidatplane1.Thevelocityinequation11isequaltoV2whenthe
plane2isatjustattheexitofthesystem.Iftheplane2isdownstreamtheexitthanV2isnotequalto
thefluidvelocityinthepipe.Frictionfactordependsontypeofflow:Laminarorturbulentflow.Forthe
laminarflowoffluidinapipe
f for Re 2.1 10 (12)
R

WhereReisReynoldsnumberandisdefinedas

DV
Re (13)

HereVisthevelocityoffluid,isdensityandisviscosity.

Intheturbulentregionfrictionfactorinasmoothpipe
.
f 0.0791 Re (14)

The equation 14 is valid for2.1 10 10 . For the rough tube, friction factor is higher than
calculatedbyequation14.Forroughtubes,fdependsonsurfaceroughnessandReynoldsnumber.For
agivenroughness,fcanbedeterminedfromchartsgiveninreferencesattheendofthislecture.

FornoncircularconduitsanequivalentdiameterDereplacesDintheReynoldsnumber

f
De (15)

Forarectangularductofcrosssection &
Z Z
De (16)
Z Z .

EnlargementandContraction

Whenthefluidentersfrom thereservoirtothenozzle,thereisasuddencontraction.Similarlythereis
suddenexpansionwhenthefluidexitsthenozzletotheenvironment.Frictionallossesinbothsudden
contractionandsuddenexpansioncanbeevaluatedfrom

F e V ,(17)

whereV isthefluidvelocityinthesmallercrosssection,ef isfrictionfactorduetosuddencontraction

and ef isfrictionfactorduetosuddenexpansion.Thevaluesofef andef dependonarearatioand
Reynoldsnumber.

Flowthroughvalvesandfittings

Thefrictionallossesassociatedwiththefluidflowingviavalvesandfittingsareevaluatedbyassigningan
equivalentlengthtothefixturesuchthattheL/Dineq.11isgivenby

L L L L
(18)
D D D D f
The fixture could be gate valve, tee joint etc. For example a network consisting of 8 m pipe with an
insidediameter25mm,3elbows(900standardradiuses)andagatevalve1/4closed,andthenequation
18is

L L L L
3
D D D D

WesubstitutevaluesofLe/D
L
3 31 40.
D .

L
453andthisvalueistobesubstitutedinequation11tocalculatefrictionallosses
D

References:

D.R.PoirierandG.H.Geiger:Transport:TransportPhenomenaismaterialsprocessing1994.

R.Schuhmann:metallurgicalEngineering,vol.1Engineeringprinciples

 Lecture22

MechanicalEnergyBalance

Contents

Exercise1

Exercise2

Exercise3
KeyWords:Fluidflow,MacroscopicBalance,FrictionalLosses,TurbulentFlow

Exercise1

Itisproposedtoinstallafantodrawairatrestinahorizontalstraightductof250mm 350mmcross
section.Theductis60mlong.

Figure1:Horizontalstraightduct

Theairenterstheductat30 m minmeasuredat298 Kand755 mm Hg.Calculatethehorsepower

ofthefan,ifthefandischargesairat755 mm Hgpressure.

1mmHg 133.2 Nm .Frictionlossduetocontractionandexpansionare0.4and1respectively.

K
Viscosityof air 1.78 10

SOLUTION

Applyingmechanicalenergybalancebetweenplane1and2andnotingthatZ Z (ductishorizontal),
P P (inletpressureat1=exitpressureatplane2andV V (velocityatplane1=velocityat
plane2),weget.

F M 0(1)
 L
F 2f V ef V ef V (2)
D

By1and2weget

L
M V 2f ef ef (3)
D

FisfrictionfactorandisafunctionofReynoldsnumber.

D V
Re (4)

. . K
De 0.292 m and 1.18
. . RT

InsertingthevaluesofDe, , andV(Visvelocityofairinduct),ineq.4,weget

Re 1.105 10
.
Flowisturbulentandweusef 0.0791 Re

Intheequation3substitutethevaluesofe , e , L, De, f , V,toget.

M 80.94 per kg offluid.

Power 80 .94 0.5 1.18 0.048 kw

Now1 kw 1.341 hP horse power

Horse power of fan 0.064 hP.

Exercise2

Afandrawsexhaustgasesat800 fromthehoodofafurnaceasshownbelow

Figure2:Arrangementofhoodtodischargeexhaustgases


Theexhaustgasflowrateis at 1 atm and 298 k

Theductisrectangularcrosssection0.2m 0.3mandisjoinedbyanelbowasshowninthefigure.
Totallengthoftheductis90m.Calculatehorsepowerofthefanfromthefollowingdata

Frictionlossesduetocontractionandexpansionare0.4and1respectively.

1.77 10 m s at 1073 K. Use f 0.0791 Re tocalculatefrictionfactor.
L
Equivalentlengthforelbow 20.
D

Hint:Applymechanicalenergybalancebetweenplane1and2andgetthefollowingexpression

gZ F M(5)

L L
gZ V 2f ef ef (6)
D D

Substitutingthevalues.

Power=8.8hP.

Exercise3

Applymechanicalenergybalanceequationtocalculatevelocityofgasflowinginapipe

Velocityofgasflowinginapipeiscalculatedbymeasuringthedifferencebetweenthestaticpressure
andtheimpactpressurebythepitottubeatagivenpointintheflow.Thepitottubeconsistsoftwo
openings:impactandstatic.Impactopeningisdirectedtoreceivetheimpactoftheflowandthestatic
openingremainsatparalleltothedirectionofflow.

Mechanicalenergycanbeappliedatplane1whichisupstreamfromtheimpactpointandplane2just
attheimpactpointtofindtherelationshipbetweenpressuredifferenceandvelocity.Kineticenergyof
thegasisconvertedtopressureatplane2.Atpoint1velocityisknownandthepressureisthat
determinedbystaticopeningofpitottube.Atpoint2velocityiszeroandpressureisthatdetectedby
impactopening.

Mechanicalenergybalancesimplifiesto

P P V
0 (7)

P P
V V (8)
Thefrictionallossesaretakenintoaccountbythedischargecoefficient CP whichdependsonthe
designofimpactandstaticopeningsofthepitottube.Thuseq.8is

P P
V CP (9)

Notethatthepitottubemeasuresthepressureataparticularpointintheflowandthevelocitywillalso
correspondtothatpoint.Inordertoobtainthecompletevelocityprofile,itisnecessarytotraversethe
pitottuberadiallyinordertobeabletomeasurethepressureandthentocalculatethevelocity.The
followingrelationscanbeusedtocalculatetheaveragevelocity:

Forlaminarflow
V
0.5 0 Re 2100 (10)
V

andinturbulentflowregion10 10 .
V DV
0.62 0.04 log (11)
V

Forgasesatlowspeeds 60 / andisothermalconditionswemayuseeq.8aswell.Athigher
velocityofgases,densityofthegasisnotconstantandBernouliequationistobewrittenina
differentialformi.e.

P P V
P
(12)

Forthecompressiblefluidflowingunderadiabaticconditionsandassumingidealgaslaw,therelation
betweenPand is

P constant (13)

Whereistheisentropicexponentofthegas.Itsvalueis1.3formonoatomic,1.4fordiatomicand
1.669forHeandargon.

By12and13weget.

P P
V V CP 1 (14)
P

Assignment:

1)Itisproposedtoinstallafantodrawairatrestinahorizontalstraightductof250mm 350mm
crosssection.Theductis60mlong.Theairenterstheductat30 m minmeasuredat298Kand755
mmHg.Calculatethehorsepowerofthefan,ifthefandischargesairat755mmHgpressure.
 1mmHg 133.2 Nm .Frictionlossduetocontractionandexpansionare0.4and1respectively.
K
Viscosity air 1.78 10

Figure1:Horizontalstraightduct

2)Afandrawsexhaustgasesat8000Cfromthehoodofafurnaceasshownbelow

Figure2:Arrangementofhoodtodischargeexhaustgases

Theexhaustgasflowrateis at 1 atm and 98 k

Theductisrectangularcrosssection0.2m 0.3mandisjoinedbyasselbowasShowninthefigure.
Totallengthoftheductis90m.Calculatehorsepowerofthefanfromthefollowingdata

Frictionlossesduetocontractionandexpansionare0.4and1respectively.

1.77 10 m s at 1073 K. Use f 0.0791 Re tocalculatefrictionfactor.
L
Equivalentlengthforelbow 20.
D
 Lecture23

FlowmeterDesign.
Contentsoflecture

Designofflowmeter

Principlesofflowmeasurement;i)Venturiandii)Orificemeterandnozzle

Relationshipbetweenflowrateandpressuredrop

Relationbetweenpressuredropandmassflowrate

KeyWords:Fluidflow,MacroscopicBalance,FrictionalLosses,TurbulentFlow,Venturimeter,Orifice
Meter,PitotTube

Designofflowmeters

Efficient handling, utilization and disposal of fluids in engineering processes require knowledge of
quantitiesoffluidsflowing.Indirectly,thisinformationcanbeobtainedbystoichiometric calculations.
However, precise and accurate measurements of flow quantities become essential to efficient
operation. Most of the flow measuring devices for engineering purposes can be designed by using
mechanicalenergybalanceforthedevice.

Principlesofflowmeasurement

It is known that pressure energy can be converted into kinetic energy and vice versa. Thus, if a
restrictionisplacedintheflowpassage,thefluidwouldbeacceleratedwiththecorrespondingdecrease
inpressurehead.Therearethreedifferentwaysinwhichthiscanbepracticed.

Venturi
Intheventuri,thecrosssectionalareaofaflowpassagedecreasesgraduallyinthedirectionofflowand
attains a minimum cross section area at the throat and thereafter gradually increases further in the
directionofflow.Figureshowsaventurimeter.


Figure1:Designofaventurimeter

Pressure taps are installed upstream the throat and at the throat, and the difference in pressure at
thesetwolocationsisusedtocalculatevelocityandthetotalrateoffluidflowingthroughaventuri.

Duetothegradualdecreaseandincreaseinthecrosssectionoftheflowpassage,theeffectoffrictional
forcesondeceleratingthefluidvelocitycanbeconsideredtobenegligiblysmall.

ii)Orificemeterandnozzle

Anorificemeterisofsimpleconstruction.Athinplatewithacentrallylocatedholeisinsertedintothe
flowpassage.Themainpathofflowthroughtheorificeissameasthatofventuri,buttheflowcontacts
suddenlyasfluidpassesthroughthehole.Theflowcontinuestocontractashortdistancedownstream
the hole as shown in the figure. Figure also shows the flow lines. It can be seen that the region of
smallest cross section, known as vena contracta, is developed downstream the orifice. In the vena
contractathekinetic energyismaximum.Notethatthe minimumcrosssectionintheorificemeteris
notorificediameter,butitiscrosssectionatvenacontracta.Accordinglypressuretapistobeinstalled
atvenacontractaasshowninthefigure.


Figure2: Designoforificemeter andflowlines.Note thatthesmallestcrosssectionisdownstream

theorificediameter.

Nozzlesaresimilartoorificesingeneralbutthedecreaseincrosssectionareainthedirectionofflowis
gradualwhencomparedwithanorificeinwhichitisabrupt.Sothatthelossesduetofrictionarelower
innozzlethanintheorifice.

Relationshipbetweenflowrateandpressuredrop

Wecanconsiderflowofanincompressiblefluidandapplymechanicalenergybalanceatplane1and2
andneglectingfrictionallosses.Weget

P P
0(1)

Equationofcontinuityforincompressiblefluid,gives

V V (2)

HereV andV isaveragevelocityatplane1and2,andd andd arediameteratplane1and2.

By1and2weget,

/
P P
V (3)
Note that velocity V according to eq. 3 corresponds to maximum velocity when effect of friction on
flow is ignored. Pressure difference corresponding to V in eq.3 is the one which one would read at
plane2inventuriandinorificeatvenacontracta.Itmustbenotedthattheequation3isnotspecific
toanyflowmeasuringdevice;itisapplicabletoorifice,venturimeter,nozzleoranyother.Theequation
relatesvelocityofthefluidtothepressuredifferenceanddiameterratio.

Nowthecrosssectionareaatvenacontractaisnotknownandhenced2atvenacontractaisnotknown.
Venacontractaiscreatedduetotheabruptcontractionasthefluidpassesthroughanorifice.Thecross
sectionalareaatvenacontractawoulddepend,amongotherfactors,onshapeoftheorifice(circular,
rectangularorsquare,etc.)andfluiddynamics.Itcanbedeterminedexperimentally.However,diameter
d oftheorificeisknown.WeintroducecoefficientofdischargeCD andreplaced ineq.3bydoweget.

P P / /
V CD , V K P P (4)

.
Here andK flow coefficient CD 1

NoteV ineq.4isV incaseofventuri.Equations3and4canbeappliedtoventuri,andnozzlesaswell

onceweknowthevalueofCD .Thedischargecoefficientvalueisspecifictotheflowmeasuringdevice.

Relationbetweenpressuredropandmassflowrate

Forincompressiblefluid,themassflowrateis
.
m K A. 2 P P ,(5)

where A is the minimum cross section area of the flow passage. A A in case of orifice meter and
A A incaseofventuri.

ForflowofgasesonehastotakeintoaccountthecompressibilityfactororexpansionfactorYsothat
.
m K Y A 2 P P (6)

/
P
P
whereY P P / (7)
P P

Orificeplatesaresimplestandcheapesttypesofflowmetersbuttheycausepermanentpressuredrop
inthesystems.Thepermanentpressuredropcanbecalculatedfrom

P 1 P P

In the venturi the flow passage is designed so that the friction is minimum. Permanent pressure drop
canbetakentobeequalto10%ofthemeasuredpressuredifferential.


 Lecture24

Designofflowmeters
Contents

Exercise1

Exercise2

Exercise3

KeyWords:Fluidflow,MacroscopicBalance,FrictionalLosses,TurbulentFlow,Venturimeter,Orifice
Meter,PitotTube

Exercise1

Apitottubeisinstalledatthecentreofapipeofdiameter0.3m.Thepipecarriesairat70 .Airis
flowingat745 mm Hggaugepressure.Pitottubemeasuresapressuredifferenceof50mmwater.
Calculateflowrateofairinpipe.Assumepitotcoefficientunity.

SOLUTION

Equation9oflecture22statesthat

P
V V CP

Notethatthepitottubeisinstalledatthecentreofthepipe.Atthecentreonewouldmeasure
maximumvelocityofgas.andhencePwouldalsobemaximum.HenceV V .InsertingPand
inappropriateunits.

V 31.2m/s

Flow rate 31.2x d 2.20 m /s,whenmaximumvelocityisused.

However,thereisaradialvelocitydistribution.Thevelocityofthefluidwillbemaximumatthecentre
andminimumatthepipesurface.Therewouldbeaparabolicprofile.Flowratemustbecalculatedby
usingaveragevelocity.Fortheturbulentflowweuseequation11ofthelecture22
V DV
0.62 0.04 log
V

0.098

Flow rate 2.16 m /s.



Exercise2

Inacircularductofdiameter0.5m,pitotstatictubeisinstalledtomeasurepressureofair.Theairat
restisdrawnbyafan.Theairtemperatureis298 Kandat1atmosphericpressure.Theairdischargesat
1.15atmosphereabsolutepressure.Ifthepitottubemeasuresapressuredifference30mmwater,
calculatethepowerrequiredofthefan.
K
1 mm water 9.806N/m , 1.85x 10
.

.
CP 1, ef 0.4andef 2,lengthoftheductis160 m.usetheequationf 0.0791 Re

P .
V CP
.

20.8 m/s
V D
0.62 0.04 log
V

V 17.8 m/s.

Applyingmechanicalenergybalancebetweenplane1and2.

FigureHorizontalductshowingplane1andplane2

Z 0. V V . and V V in the pipe

P
F M 0

P L
V 2f ef ef M 0.
D

P . L
V 2 0.00791 Re ef ef M.
D

Substitutingthevalues.
M 11925

11925 1.364 0. 5 17.8

56.82 kw.

Exercise3

3i)inanairductofcircularcrosssection(0.5mindiameter),aventurimeterofthroatdiameter0.25m
isinstalled.Theductcarries1.28 m / secofgasmeasuredat298Kand1atmosphericpressure.
Determinethemaximumpressuredropthatamanometercanhandle.Takethedischargecoefficientas
0.98.

Solution

Equation6

/
m KYA 2 P P

V A V
P P (1)
Y A Y A Y

Inthisequation1P P andYbothareunknowns.OnewayistoassumesamevalueofYandthen
showthatourassumptioniscorrect.LetusassumeY 1.
. . .
P P (2)
. .

CO
Kinequation1isdeterminedby .

P P 424.67 Nm 43.3 mm H O,maximumpressuredrop.

NowwehavetoshowthatY 1.Weuseequation7.

P 1.1 10 Nm andP 1.095 10 nm

1.4sincegasisdiatomic

CalculationyieldsY 1.HenceourassumptionofYisOK.

3ii)youareproposingnowanorificeinsteadofaventurimetertomeasure50mmofwaterasthe
maximumpressuredrop.Calculatethediameterofsharpedgedorificetomeasurethefullreadingat
maximumflow.Takecoefficientofdischarge0.62fortheorifice.

Solution

Weknowthat
.
m KYA 2 P P

Nowm VA QwhereQisvolumeflowrate

A . 3
KY P P

Q
A . 4
KY P P

P
P
Y 5
P P
P P

CO .
WhereK / / 6

By4and6,andsubstitutingtheknownvaluesweget
. /
A 1 7
. Y

. /
1 8
Y.

.
d 1 16 d
Y

AssumingY 1,Wegetd 0.3 m.

ReadershouldcalculateYbyeq.5andverifythatY 1.

3iii)usethedataof3(i)andcalculatetheorificediameterforthefollowingconditions:

a) Whenmaximumpressuredropmeasuredbypitottubeis60mmwater.
b) Whenmaximumpressuredropis70mmwaterand
c) Whenmaximumpressuredropis55mmwater.

PlotpressuredropVsorificediameteranddiscussthevariationofpressuredropVsdiametercurve.

Assignment

Apitottubeisinstalledatthecentreofapipeofdiameter0.3m.Thepipecarriesairat70 .Airis
flowingat745 mm Hg gaugepressure.Pitottubemeasuresapressuredifferenceof50mmwater.
Calculateflowrateofairinpipe.Assumepitotcoefficientunity.
2i)inanairductofcircularcrosssection(0.5mindiameter),aventurimeterofthroatdiameter0.25m
isinstalled.Theductcarries1.28 m / secofgasmeasuredat298K and1atmosphericpressure.
Determinethemaximumpressuredropthatamanometercanhandle.Takethedischargecoefficientas
0.98.

2ii)youareproposingnowanorificeinsteadofaventurimetertomeasure50mmofwaterasthe
maximumpressuredrop.Calculatethediameterofsharpedgedorificetomeasurethefullreadingat
maximumflow.Takecoefficientofdischarge0.62fortheorifice.

2iii)usethedataof3(i)andcalculatetheorificediameterforthefollowingcondition:

d) Whenmaximumpressuredropmeasuredbypitottubeis60mmwater.
e) Whenmaximumpressuredropis70mmwaterand
f) Whenmaximumpressuredropis55mmwater.

PlotpressuredropVsorificediameteranddiscussthevariationofpressuredropVsdiametercurve

 Lecture25

Designofstack
Contents:

Whatisstackeffect

Whatisdraft?

Naturaldraft

Keywords:stack,chimney,draft,naturaldraft

Whatisstackeffect

Thephenomenoninducedbythedensitydifferencebetweenahotandcoldaircolumnthatcreatesa
naturalflowthroughachimneyiscalledstackeffectorchimneyeffect.

Thefunctionofthestackistodispersethehotgases,emissionsandparticlesthatleavethefurnace.The
gastemperatureinsidethestackisgreaterthantheoutsideambientairtemperature.Ifthesetwoair
columnsareconnectedatthebottom,denseairwillpushthelightgasesupthechimney.Higheristhe
temperaturedifference,greaterwillbethebuoyancyforcecausingthelightergasestomoveup.

Flowofgasesinfurnaces,stacksandotherequipmentsoperatingatatmosphericpressuresinvolvesmall
differenceinpressuresP1 P thatshouldbeusedinmechanicalenergybalanceequation(lecture21,
equation7).Thissmallpressuredifferencecanbeconvenientlyhandledintermsofdraft.

Whatisdraft

Draft d atanypointinthegasflowsystemis

d
Absolute pressure in the systems absolute pressure of the surrounding atmosphere at the same level

FigureshowsthechimneyorstackinwhichhotgasesareflowingattemperatureT.Wemounttwo
watermanometersatpositionsZ Z and Z Z .Onelegofthemanometerisfixedwiththe
chimneywhereastheotherlegisopentotheatmosphereasshowninthefigure


Figure1:Acolumnofthechimneywiththemanometerpositionedat and .

Atpoint1and2inthegascolumn

d1 P P andd2 P P (1)

Whered andd representdraftatpoint1and2inthegascolumn.P and.P aretheatmospheric

pressuresandP andP absolutepressuresatpoints1and2respectively.

Variationsofpressurewithheightinagascolumnareimportant.Inastaticcolumnoffluidatconstant
temperaturethepressuredecreaseswithheightduetogravity:

dP dZ(2)

NeglectingtheeffectofdensitywithZ,itfollowsforstaticsystems

P P Z (3)

Pispressureatheight ZandP ispressureatarbitrarydatumplaneofzeroheight.isthegasdensity.

Naturaldraft

Itisthedraftproducedbydensitydifferencebetweenthetwofluids.Considerthehotgascolumn
showninthefigure.Thehotgascolumnissurroundedbyatmosphericcoldair.Amonometermounted
atpoint1and2readsthedraftd1 andd2 .Therelationbetweendraftanddensitydifferencecanbe
obtainedasfollows:
P P Z (4)

P P Z (5)

Byequation1and4andweget.(6)

d d Z Z

isdensityofairand isdensityofhotgas.Eq6isthedraftproducedinastaticcolumnofgas.Ifthe
chimneyisopentoatmospherethend2 0sothatdraftorsuctionatthebottomsis

d Z Z (7)

Duetoflowofgases,thedraftisreducedbyfrictionallosses,sothatthestaticdraftisthemaximum
draftwhichthestackofagivenheightcanproduceunderlimitingcondition.

Byusingmechanicalenergybalanceequation(equation7oflecture21)andusingequation7
(expressP P inequation7intermsofd andd )wegetthemechanicalenergybalanceequation
expressedintermsanddraft:

V V
g Z Z 1 F M 0.(8)

Reference

R.Schuhmann:MetallurgicalEngineering,Volume1EngineeringPrinciples
 Lecture26

Contents:

Exercise1

Exercise2

Exercise3

KeyWords:Fluidflow,MacroscopicBalance,FrictionalLosses,TurbulentFlow,Venturimeter,Orifice
Meter,PitotTube,Stack,Chimney,Draft,Naturaldraft

Exercise1

Calculatevelocityandflowrateofairleakingthroughanopeningofrectangularcrosssectionina
furnacewall(asshownbelowinthefigure)fromthefollowingdata:

Figure1:Airleakagethroughfurnaceopening

Crosssectionoftheopening0.10 m 0.15 m

Draftacrosstheopening1.5 mm water

Wallthickness 0.52 m

Assumeturbulentflowandf 0.0064
Frictionlossesduetocontractionandexpansionare0.5and1respectively.

Airisat1.0133 10 N/m pressureand298 Ktemperature

SOLUTION:

Applyingenergybalanceatplane1and2

P P (Atmosphericpressure)

z 0Sinceopeningishorizontal

M 0Nofan

V V 0 Velocityatbothplanes1and2 0.

F(1)

d 0 d F(2)

L
Or V 2f ef ef (3)
D

Visvelocityofairinduct.Deisequivalentdiameter
. .
De 0.12
.

d 1.5 9.860 10 air 1.19 kg /m

Substitutingthevaluesineq3

12.43 0.805 V

V 3.93 m/s .

Air flow rate 0.0 5 9 m /s.

Nowwecanshowthattheflowisturbulent.

D V
Re 0.3 10 ;theflowisturbulent.

Exercise2

Abrickchimney3.5minsidediameter(round)and45mhighistohandlefluegases(averagemolecular
weight30)at603K.Theatmosphericpressureoutsidethechimneyis734mmHgandoutsideairisat
300K.Itmaybeassumedthatthegasesdonotcoolastheyriseinthechimney.Makethenecessary
calculationsandpreparethefollowinggraphs:
 a) Draftatthebottomofthechimneyvs.flowrateofwastegasesand

b) Horsepowerequivalentoftheflowenergyavailablefordraftatthebottomofthestackvs.flow
rateoffluegases,Ignorethelossesduetocontractionandexpansesofgases.

Forboththeplotsanaandb,thegraphshouldcovertheentirerangeofchimneyflowratesfrom0
totheflowrateatwhichtheavailabledraftatthebottomofthechimneyisnil
. .
Usef 0.0455 Re andViscosityofgas 19.3 10 T g cm s whereTisinK.

Solution

a)Mechanicalenergybalanceforflowofgases

D
g z z z z g F 0.

0.586 kg m and air 1.178 kg m

Substitutingvaluesandaftersimplification

Draft 261.33 F

L VD . L
F 2f V 2 0.0455 V
D D

Q
PuttingV and 3.23 10 kg m s andothervaluesofvariablesweget.
D

.
Draft 261.33 1.27 10 Q

WenoteatQ 0,draft 261.33.

AndatQ 895 m s draft 0

.
b)Flowenergyin W 261.33Q 1.27 10 Q

Thisequationshowsthatflowenergywillbemaximumat Q 505.95 m /s.andzeroatQ

895.119
.

Exercise3

Abrickfluemustbedesignedtodischarge425 m /min(300Kand1atm)offluegasfromfurnaceto
stack.Theflueishorizontalwithatotallengthof100mandthefoursharp90degreebends(L/Dforone
sharpbensis20).Theflueisrectangularincrosssectionwitha2:1ratioofheighttowidth.Theaverage
temperatureofthefluegasis350degreeC.

Calculatethefollowing:
 a Pressuredropinmmwatertobeexpectediftheinternalcrosssectionofthefluewere
120cm 60 cm,
b) Energyconsumedbyfrictionintheflue(watts)
c) Whatwouldbetheminimumcrosssectionaldimensionaloftheflueifthepressuredropis
limitedto2.5mmofwastegases.

Usethefollowingvalues:

Molecularweightoffluegas29,e 0.4ande 1.0

.
Universalgasconstant8314kJ/kg mol K and f 0.0455 Re
.
Viscosity19.3x 10 T g cm sec ,whereTisinK, 1 N/m 0.102 mmofwater

SOLUTION:

a) Mechanicalenergybalancegives

V L
P P ef 4f e
D

L L L
4 D 80 cm.
D D D

80 205
.

V 20.4 2 and f 0.00371

0.563 kg m

Substitutingthevaluesweget

P P 521.42 Nm 53.18 mm H O

b) Energy consumed by friction W F.

V L
WhereF ef 4f ef .
D

. .
Energy 0.563 4.4422

7670W.

c) Lettheheightoftherectangularcrosssectionish
Width h/2.
De

Mechanicalenergybalance
P P L .
2f V
D

Substitutingthevalues
.
. . .
2 0.0455 0.7
.

Solving,weget,

h 2.46 m

width 1.23 m

Cross section of flue 2.46 1.23m

ASSIGNMENT:

1)Calculatevelocityandflowrateofairleakingthroughanopeningofrectangularcrosssectionina
furnacewall(asshownbelowinthefigure)fromthefollowingdata:

Figure1:Airleakagethroughfurnaceopening

Cross section of the opening 0.10 m x 0.15, Draft across the opening 1.5 mm water

Wall thickness 0.52 m,Assumeturbulentflowandf 0.0064

Frictionlossesduetocontractionandexpansionare0.5and1respectively.

Airisat1.0133 10 N/m pressureand298 Ktemperature

2)Abrickfluemustbedesignedtodischarge425 m /min(300Kand1atm)offluegasfromfurnaceto
stack.Theflueishorizontalwithatotallengthof100mandthefoursharp90degreebends(L/Dforone
sharpbensis20).Theflueisrectangularincrosssectionwitha2:1ratioofheighttowidth.Theaverage
temperatureofthefluegasis350degreeC.

Calculatethefollowing:

d Pressuredropinmmwatertobeexpectediftheinternalcrosssectionofthefluewere
120cm 60 cm,
e) Energyconsumedbyfrictionintheflue(watts)
f) Whatwouldbetheminimumcrosssectionaldimensionaloftheflueifthepressuredropis
limitedto2.5 mmofwastegases.

Usethefollowingvalues:Molecularweightoffluegas29, e 0.4ande 1.0,Universalgas

J . .
constant mol K and f 0.0455 Re , Viscosity 19.3x 10 T g cm sec ,whereTis
inkelwin,1 N/m 0.102 mmofwater.
 Lecture27:

PrinciplesofBurnerDesign

Contents:

Howdoescombustionoccur?

Whatisaburner?

Mixingofairandgaseousfuel

Characteristicfeaturesofjet

Behavioroffree(unconfined)andconfinedjet

Roleofprimaryair

Degreeofrecirculation

Selectionofburner

KeyWords:Combustion,Burnerdesign,Recirculatoryflow,Primaryair,Secondaryair

Howdoescombustionoccur?

Thereleaseofpotentialenergyoffuelbycombustionwithairrequiresseveralstages,namely.

Mixingofairandfuel
Ignitionofthemixture
Chemicalreaction
Disposalofproductsofcombustionfromthereactionsitesothatfreshreactantsareavailable.

Exceptmixingofairandfuel,allotherstagesareextremelyfastsuchthatitissaidthatiffueland
airaremixed,fuelisburnt.Accordinglymixingisthesloweststepintheprocessofcombustion

Thiscan beunderstoodbyconsidering thateach moleofcarbon theoretically requires1moleof

oxygen for complete combustion. But 1 mole of oxygen is obtained from 4.76 moles of air. That
means3.76 molesofnitrogenarepresentwith1 moleofoxygen.Nitrogen isinertanddoesnot
takepartincombustionthereforemixingofair+fuelisimportant.

Whatisaburner?

Aburnerisamechanicaldevicethat.

suppliesrequiredamountoffuelandair
createsconditionforrapidmixingoffuelandair
producesaflamewhichtransfersthermalenergytofurnaceandcharge
Inoilburners,oilisatomizedintoafinespraybyaspraynozzleandairissuppliedforcombustioninthe
spray chamber. Alternatively oil may be atomized by high speed air to produce a fine dispersion of
dropletsintoair.

Thereareliquidfuelandgaseousfuelburners.Inliquidfuelburner,oilisheatedandatomisedeither
mechanicallyorbyhighspeedgaseousjet.Inmechanicalmethodsoilisatomisedbymeansofarotating
discorcuporbyswirlerasshowninthefigure27.1aandb

Figure1:Spreadingofanaxissymmetricjetinthesurrounding

Mechanicalatomizationproduceswidersprayofoilandwideflameareawithuniformdropletsize.

In atomization, compressed air or steam is the atomizing fluid. Air atomization produces higher flame
temperaturethansteamatomization.Steamatomizationispreferredforviscousoil.Somewaysofair
atomizationareshowninthefigure27.2

Figure2:Entrainmentofthesurroundinginthefreejet.

Forfurtherdetails,seethereferencesgivenattheendofthelecture.

Agaseousfuelburnercouldeitherbeofpremixedtypeordiffusiontype.Inapremixedtypegasandair
aremixedpriortopassingthrough thenozzle.In diffusiontypefuelandsomeamountof airismixed
and the mixture is passed through the burner. Rest air for combustion is supplied in the furnace
chamber.Combustionoffueliscontrolledbytherateofmixingofairandfuel.Intheseburnerssmall
portionofairismixedwithfuelasprimaryairandtherestamount,knownassecondaryairissupplied
inthefurnace.

Industrialburnersforgaseousfuelarediffusivetype.

Mixingofairandgaseousfuel

In diffusion burner air and gaseous fuel are supplied separately in the furnace. In modt combustion
systems mass of air is at least 8 to9 times than fuel. When air and fuel pass through the burner, the
momentumfluxofairisseveraltimesgreaterthanfuel.Somefractionoftotalairismixedwiththefuel
and this air is known as primary air. Rest amount of air, known as secondary air is supplied in the
furnacethroughappropriatelocations.Mixingandcombustiontakeplacesimultaneously.

Whenamixtureofairandgaseousfuelpassesthroughtheburner,afreejetisproduceddownstream
theburner.Iftheairfuelmixtureisdischargedinthefurnacethenaconfinedjetisproducedbecauseof
thefurnacewalls.Thedifferencebetweenthefreejetandconfinedjetisthatintheformertheamount
ofsurroundingisunlimitedwhereasinthelatertheamountislimited.Mixingofsecondaryairinthejet
is important for complete and efficient combustion. In the absence of mixing the chances of CO
formationcannotberuledout.

Characteristicfeaturesofjet

A jet is produced when a fluid is discharged through the nozzle. In the jet the velocity of the fluid is
accelerated.Freejetisproducedwhenthefluidisdischargedinthesurroundingwithnoconfinement.A
jetissaidtobeconfinedwhenthefluidisdischargedinthecontainer.Thecharacteristicfeatureofthe
jet(whetherfreeofconfined)isthatitspreadsduetothedifferenceinthedensityofthejetandthe
surrounding.Ahotjetinthecoldsurroundingspreadsfasterthanacoldjetinthesamesurrounding.
Spreadingofthejetisduetoentrainmentofthesurrounding.Duetoentrainmentofthesurrounding,
theaxialvelocityof thejetdecreases. Foranydownstreamaxialdistance,themaximum velocityisat
the centre and minimum at the periphery such that a parabolic profile is developed as shown in the
figure27.3


Figure27.3:Spreadingofanaxissymmetricjetinthesurrounding

Inaddition,jetcarrieswithitmomentumflux.Themomentumfluxwithinthejetis

Momentum flux Mass of the jet X velocity of jet

Mass of jet Mass of air at the exit of the nozzle Mass of surrounding

Mass of the air at the exit of the nozzle is constant. The entrainment of the surrounding in the jet
increases the mass of the jet but decreases the velocity of the jet. The cumulative effect is that
momentumfluxwithinthejetremainsconstant.Entrainmentofthesurroundingandhenceincreasein
mass of jet depends on the difference in the momentum flux within the jet and that of surrounding
(note that as the jet is discharged into a still surrounding, the surrounding sets in motion). The
entrainmentofthesurroundingwillcontinueaslongasthedifferenceinthemomentumfluxexists.

Behavioroffree(unconfined)andconfinedjet

Afreejethasnoconfinementandhencecanspreadtillthedifferencebetweenthemomentumfluxof
thejetandthesurroundingbecomeszero.Figure2showstheentrainmentinthefreejet

Figure27.4:Entrainmentofthesurroundinginthefreejet.

Wenoteinthefigurethat

1. Afreeunconfinedgetspreadsinthesurrounding
2. Spreadingofthegetisduetoentrainmentofthesurrounding
3. Entrainmentofthesurroundingisduetothedifferenceinmomentumflowratewithinthejet
and that within the surrounding. Entrainment of surrounding continues till the difference
becomeszero.
4. Entrainmentofsurroundingdependsonmassflowrateandjetvelocity

Infurnacesjetisconfinedbyfurnacewalls.Duetoconfinement,massofthesurroundingislimitedto
the amount equal to secondary air. The primary air mixes rapidly with the fuel at the nozzle but the
remainingairmustbeentrainedandforthispurposeexcessmomentumfluxinthejetisrequired.Ifthe
confined jet has momentum flux in excess of that required for the complete entrainment of the
secondary air, products of combustion will entrain and a circulatory jet is produced. Figure3 shows
recirculationofproductsofcombustioninthejet

Figure 5: Entrainment of products of combustion in the jet. At point secondary air is entrained.
BeyondpointAtheproductsofcombustionentrainduetotheexcessmomentuminthejet.

Roleofprimaryair

Thusinthedesignofburnerforgaseousfuelitisimportanttodesigntheprimaryairdependingonthe
requirement.Sincetheamountofairismanytimesgreaterthanthefuel,momentumfluxwithinthejet
iscontrolledbytheprimaryair.Theprimaryair

controlsthefuel/airmixingrate
assistsinstabilizingthejetandtocontrolrecirculation.

Indesigningagaseousfuelburnertotalmassflowratofairissubdividedintoprimary,secondaryand
tertiaryair.Whereasprimaryairismixedwithfuel,secondaryandtertiaryamountsofairareintroduced
throughthepotsinthefurnace.

Degreeofrecirculation

Recirculationsetsinwhenthesecondaryairismixedcompletelywiththefuel.Degreeofrecirculation
indicatescompletemixingoffuelwithair.
Inconfinedgets,absenceofrecirculationresultsinatendencyfortheflametoexpanduntilitimpinges
into the furnace walls of load. Hot gases will be in direct contact with the refractory brick which may
result in failure. The recirculating gases provide a cushion of cooler inert flue gases which prevents
direct impingement of flame. A high momentum recirculartory jet will also produce a stable flame
whichiscomfortable.

Selectionofburner

Combustionvolume

The space occupied by the fuel and the products of combustion varies considerably with the burner
design,upstreampressuresandflowrates.Gaseousfuelburnerscanbedesignedtoreleaseheatashigh
as110 10 K cal hr m ofcombustionvolume.

Stability

Turndown ratio is defined as the ratio of minimum heat input rate to maximum heat input rate.
Minimumheatinputrateiscontrolledbythephenomenonbackfirewhereasmaximumheatinputis
controlledbytheextinguishingoftheflame.Itthevelocityofmixtureoffuel+airisgreaterthanflame
velocity,flamewillextinguish.Thebackfirewilloccurwhenthevelocityofmixtureoffuel+airislower
thanflamevelocity,

Combustionsystemsandburnercomponents

Gaseous fuel supply, air supply and control valves form the essential components of a gaseous fuel
burner.Furtheraburnerdesignedforoneparticularfuelisnotsuitableforother

Liquid fuel burners are two types: Oil is vaporized before ignition, and atomization followed by
combustion.

Atomizedtypeburnersarecommonlyused.Mechanismofatomizationofoildifferentiatestheburners.
Oilmaybeatomizedmechanicallybyarotationdiscorcuporswirled.Highpressureairisalsousedto
atomizethefuel.Fordetailsthereadermayseethefollowingreferences.

References:

O.P.Gupta:elementsoffuels,furnacesandrefractories

P.MullingerandB.Jenkins:IndustrialandProcessfurnaces
 Lecture28

Contents

Heattransferimportance

Conduction

Convection

FreeConvection

Forcedconvection

Radiation

Radiationcoefficient

Illustrationonheattransfercoefficient1

Illustrationonheattransfercoefficient2

Exercise

Keywords:Heattransfer,conduction,convection,radiation,furnace,heattransfercoefficient

Heattransferimportance

Thereareseveralunitoperationsandunitprocesseswhichoperateathightemperatures.Flowofheat
isimportanttoattainuniformtemperatureinthefurnacechamber.Ideallytheavailableheatmustbe
utilizedtoraisethetemperatureofthereactantsandproductstothedesiredvalue,butsomeamount
ofheatisalwayslosttothesurrounding.Lossofheattothesurroundingislossofenergyandoneofthe
main objectives of an engineer is to minimize the heat losses. Fundamentals of heat transfer
mechanisms are important to calculate the flow of heat and to design the most efficient flow path
conformingtotheprocess.Transferofheattakesplacebyconduction,convectionandradiation.Inthe
followingabriefaccountofthesemechanismsisgiven.Forthedetaileddescription,numberofbookson
heattransferisavailable.Somereferencesaregivenattheendofthislecture

Conduction

Conduction is the flow of heat through a body occurring without displacement of the particles which
makeupthebody.Fourierslawofheatconductionisthebasiclawwhichsaysthattherateofheatflow
acrossaunitarea Q atsteadystaleisproportionaltothetemperaturegradientperpendiculartothe
area.Heatflowinonedimension,i.e.inXis

T
Q KA 1)
 T
isthetemperaturegradientandA istheareawhichisassumedtobeinvariantalongtheheatflow
path.TheconstantKisthermalconductivityofthematerialthroughwhichheatisflowing.Thethermal
conductivityofthematerialindicatestherelativeeaseordifficultyofthetransferofheatthroughthe
W W
material. Kcanvaryfromabout 0.01 forgasesto1000 forpuremetals.Thermalconductivity
K K
depends, on temperature, bonding and structure of the material. Thermal conductivity for ceramic
materialsislowerthanmetals.PorosityinthematerialdecreaseK.Thermalconductivityofthematerial
varieswiththetemperature.Thevariationofthermalconductivitywithtemperaturecanbedescribed
by

K KO 1 T , 2)

whereisthetemperaturecoefficientofthermalconductivitywiththedimensions ,andK O is
thethermalconductivityat0 .

Itmust benotedthatconductionofheatthroughgasesisusuallynegligiblysmallcomparedwith heat

flowbyconvectionandradiation.

Thegeneralequationforheatconductionissolidsatsteadystatewithoutanyheatsourceis

T T T
T 3)

Equation 3 applies to steadystate conduction in systems without heat source. It is also termed as
Laplaceequation.

Convection

Heattransferbyconvectionresultsduetofluidmotion.Fluidmotioncanbecausedeitherbybuoyancy
force(duetodensitygradient)orbyinertialforce.Theformeriscalledfreeornaturalconvection
andthelaterisforcedconvectionheattransfer.Inbothmodesofheattransfervelocityofthefluid
governstherateofheatflow.Toquantifytheheattransferratebyconvection,itisnecessarytoknow
the velocity of fluid. Differential approach can be used to determine the fluid velocity and the reader
may refer to any text book on transport phenomena as given in the reference. However, in most
engineering calculations involving heat flow between fluids and their confining surfaces, the following
empiricalrelationhasbeenfoundtobeveryuseful:

Q hA T T 4)

The relation is known as Newtons low of cooling and can be used to express the overall effect of
convection. In the equation 4 h is heat transfer coefficient and T T is the temperature
difference.T isthewalltemperatureandT istemperatureofthesurrounding.Formanyengineering
applicationsequation4isveryuseful.Equation4isconsistentwithequation1inwhichQisshowntobe
proportionaltosurfaceareaandtemperaturegradient.Whentheheattransferbetweenthefluidand
thesurfacecomposedofaseriesheatpath,wemaydefinethermalresistance(R)duetoconvection
R 5)
A

h is an empirically derived value from the heat transfer experiments. It is to be noted that the heat
transfer coefficient is an empirically derived quantity and its numeral value depends in addition to
physicochemicalthermalvariablesonthedesignofexperiments.

FreeConvection

The experiments to determine heat transfer coefficient for natural heat transfer consists of heating a
flat plate or a cylinder to a particular temperature and then cooling in air. In some experiments the
orientation of plate or cylinder with reference to air cooling is also varied; the plate/cylinder is kept
horizontal or vertical. In all these experiments heat transfer coefficient is shown to be a function of
Prandtl (Pr) number and Grashof number (Gr). Heat transfer coefficient is related to Nusselt number
(Nu).

Nu f Pr Gr 6)

D
Nu Nusseltnumber
K

C
Pr Prandtlnumber
K

D T
Gr Grashofnumber.

Disacharacteristiclineardimension,Cpspecificheat, isdensity,andgisaccelerationduetogravity.
Thefollowingrelationisproposedtocalculateheattransfercoefficientfornaturalconvection
.
Nu Pr Gr 7)

The numeral value of alpha depends on the orientation of the plate/cylinder with reference to the
coolingair.Thiswillbeillustratedintheexercises.

Forcedconvection

Inforcedconvectionheattransfer,heattransfercoefficientdependsonReynoldssandPrandtlnumber.
Thecorrelationsareoftheform

D DG C
8)
K K

G is mass flux kgm s , m and n are exponents The following correlation is useful for turbulent flow
throughthepipes,

D DG . C . .
0.023 9)
K K
Alternatively

D DV . C .
0.026 10)
K K

Incorrelation9,Reynoldssnumberiscalculatedbymassflux.Intheabsenceofarelationbetweena
physical property of the fluid and temperature, the fluid properties may be evaluated at the average
temperatureofthefluid.

Itistobenotedthatthereareseveralempiricalcorrelationsavailableforthe convectiveheattransfer
coefficients. Thereader must makesurethat the experimentalconditionsofacorrelationmatchwith
theconditionsoftheproblembeforeuseofacorrelation.

Radiation

Heattransferbyradiationoccursintheformofelectromagneticwavesofvariouswavelengths.We
are concerned primarily with flow of heat through gas filled spaces, and specifically with rate of heat
exchangebetweentwosurfaces.

StefansBoltzmannlawstatesthatrateofradiationofheatfromasurfaceisproportionaltothefourth
power of the absolute temperature. Radiation is the principle mechanisms of heat transfer in high
temperaturefuelfiredfurnaces.

Theemissivepowerofablackbody E isaccordingtoStefanBoltzmann

E T 11)
B
Here is StefanBoltzmann constant and its value is 0.173 10 . in FPS systems and
. R
5.67 10 . inSIsystem.TisexpressedinRankin 460 inFPSandinKelvin
K

273 inCGSsystems.

Mostrealbodiesarenotblack,buttheyareselectiveabsorbersandemitters.Wedefineemissivity

E
12)
E

Thusemissivepowerofanybody

E T 13)

Non black surfaces do not absorb the entire radiant energy incident on them. At thermal equilibrium
absorptivity ofanysurfaceequalsemissivity .

Surfaces with emissivities nearly unity are good absorbers and hence poor reflectors of incident
radiation. Thus, most highly polished, unoxidized metal surfaces are good reflectors of thermal
radiations withtotalemissivitieslessthan0.1.Aroughenedoranoxidizedsurfacehascorrespondingly
higheremissivitiesforthermalradiation.Nonmetallicsurfaceshaveemissivitiesandabsorptivitiesabove
0.8. An emissivity value of about 0.85 can be taken for furnace refractory and bricks at high
temperatures.Theslaggingreducestheemissivityvalueto0.6to0.7.

Consider rate of heat exchange between any two surfaces A and A at temperature T and T
respectively. The surface A is emitting radiation at the rate 0.01T and a certain fraction of this
radiation is absorbed by the surface A . After a while the surface A is heated and begins to emit
radiationattherateof 0.01T ;thefractionofwhichisabsorbedbyA .Netheatexchangebetween
A andA canbeexpressedasheatlossofA toA as

T T
Q 5.67 FA 14)

Fisaviewfactorwhichtakesintoaccount

I. Geometricrelationshipofthetwosurfaces.PhysicallyFcanbevisualizedasthefraction
oftotalradiationthatisinterceptedbytheother,
II. Theemissivityandabsorptivityofsurface
III. Geometric relationship between two surface and or third surface e.q. a refractory
surface.
Thecalculationofradiantheatexchangebetweenanytwosurfacesinvolvesthedeterminationofview
factorF.ThefollowingproceduremaybeofhelptoevaluateF.

FirstF iscalculatedbyconsideringthegeometricalrelationshipbetweentwosurfaces.F isthe

value of F in equation 14 when the two surfaces A and A are black and are in direct heat
exchange

Nexttheeffectofthethirdreflectingsurfaceforexamplerefractoryonheatexchangemaybe
considered and FC can be determined. FC is a view factor which takes into account both
radiationandreflection,butassumesA andA areblacksurfaces

NexttheemissivityvalueofthesurfacecanbeincludedtodetermineF

RadiationCoefficient

Foranumberofpurposeswhereheattransferoccursbyacombinationofmechanismssuchasradiation
+convection,itisconvenienttodealwithheattransfercoefficientforradiation.Anexampleistheheat
lossfromthewallsofthefurnace.Inthiscaseheatlossesoccurbothbyconvectionandradiationtothe
surrounding. It is convenient to define a radiation heat transfer coefficient similar to convective heat
transfer.Radiationheattransfercoefficient h isdefinedas

QO h A T T 15)

Byequations14and15wegetforsmalltemperaturedifferencebetweenT andT ,
 T
h 0.2268 10 F 16)

When both convection and radiation are involved in transfer of heat, for example heat loss from the
externalwallofthefurnace.Totalheatlosscanbeevaluatedfrom

Q h h T.17)

Thermal resistance by radiation R . If heat flow path involves the circuit of conduction to a
surfaceandconvectionandradiationfromthesurface,withtheoveralltemperaturedifferenceT
T
Q S 18)
KA A

Illustrationonheattransfercoefficient1

Aroundduct0.6mdiametercarries 25 & 1 atm ,ofpreheatedairatabout600 Ktheinside

surfacetempoftheductis500 K.Estimatetheaheatloss/runningm

(b)Estimatesthedropinairtemp/30runningm.

Thermalpropertiesofair

500 K 600 K mean

kgm 0.696 0.58 0.638
W 40.76 10 46.9 10 43.8 10
K
m
m 38.8 10 52.7 10 46 10

s
Prandtl number 0.74

h 4.39
K

Useof10givenh 5.07
K.

4.39 D 327 227 . Heat loss/ meter

827 Wm

Theheatloss827Wislossofsensibleheatofair

m CP T 827

T 0.45 m

For30mtempdropwouldbe14
Illustration2

Alargeverticalplate4mhighismaintainedat130 andexposedtoatmosphericairat25 .Calculate

theittransfercoefficientiftheplateis10mwide.

First we find average temperature 350K.

Propertiesare

2.857 10 ,K 0.03003

20 .76 10 Pr 0.0697

Gr Pr 4.36 10 usingequation7inwhich 0.59andDasheightofplate.

Nu 812.59
W
h 6.1
.

Anotherequationforheattransfercoefficientis

Nu 0.1 G . P 19

Thedifferencebetweenequation7and19isinthevalueofpreexponentandexponentvalue.

Nu 758

FromthisvalueofNusseltnumber
W
h 5.7

his0.93timessmallerthancalculatedbyequation7.

References
1)J.P.Holman.HeatTransfer,P346.
2)R.Schuhmann:MetallurgicalEngineering,Volume1EngineeringPrinciples

3)D.R.PoirierandG.H.Geiger:Transportphenomenainmaterialsprocessing

 LECUTRE29:RefractoryDesigninfurnaces

Contents

Designofrefractorylining

Flatwall

Cylindricalwall

Criticalthicknessofinsulation

Keywords:Refractorydesign,Heatflow,Conduction,Convection,Radiation,Liningthickness

Designofrefractorylining

Inhightemperaturefurnaces,itisoftenrequiredtodesigntherefractoryliningwhichiscompatiblewith
thephysicochemicalthermalrequirementsononesideandenergysavingontheotherhand.Mostly,
furnaces are multilayered lining with refractory materials of different thicknesses and thermal
conductivities. Whereas the refractory lining facing the reaction chamber should meet different
physical,chemicalandthermalrequirements,likehighrefractoriness,lowporosity,chemicallyinertness
etc.;refractoryliningfacingthemetallicshellmusthaveinsulatingpropertiespreferablymaterialoflow
thermal conductivity. In the design of the multilayered lining, the thickness of each layer is an
important issue. Optimum thickness would not only save cost of the refractory but also control the
weightofthevessel.

Severalreactorsinhightemperaturefurnaceslikemattesmelters,converters,rotarykilnetc.carryout
processesathightemperaturesandhencearelinedwiththerefractorymaterials.Anoptimumthickness
oftheliningwouldbedesirableforminimumlossesandoptimalcost.Inmostofthereactorsthewalls
are either rectangular or cylindrical. In the following one dimensional heat flow through flat and
cylindrical walls of refractory material is considered at steady state. It is considered that the
temperature gradients are across the thickness of the wall whereas the other faces are at uniform
temperatures.

Flatwall

Considerheatflowthroughaflatwallofthicknessxasshowninthefigure.

eatflowthroughaflatwallofthicknessasshowninthefigure.

Figure29.1:Heatflowthroughaflatwall

Foraconstantareaalongtheheatflowpathandconstantthermalconductivityofthematerial,theheat
flowcanbewrittenatsteadystateas
KA
Q T T .(1)

HereK isassumedtobeconstant. T andT aresurfacetemperatures.Thethermalconductivityvaries

withtemperatureaccordingtotherelationK K 1 T ,then

K A
Q T T T T (2)

In equation 2, is constant. The relations 1 and 2 are valid only for temperatures and temperature
differenceswithintheconductingbody.Whenconductionacrossabodyisconsidered,T andT arethe
surfacetemperaturesjustwithinthesurfaceofthebody.Largetemperaturedropsmay occurbetween
thesurfacesoftherefractoryfacingthecombustionchamberofthefurnaceorenvironment.Newtons
lawofcoolingmustbeusedtodeterminethesurfacetemperatureoftherefractory.

ConsiderasimpleserieswallconstructedofmaterialofdifferentthermalconductivitiesK , K andK
having thicknesses x , x andx . T is the furnace temperature and T is the surrounding
temperature. T , T ,T andT aretheinterfacetemperaturesasshowninthefigure:

Figure29.2:Onedimensionalheatflowacrossamultilayeredwall

AsseeninthefigurefurnacetemperatureT ishigherthantemperatureoftherefractorysurfacefacing
thecombustionchamberoffurnacewhichisT .Insuchasituationwehavetoconsidertheheatflow
from the combustion chamber furnace to the refractory surface. Similar is the case with the exterior
walloftherefractory.HeretemperatureT isgreatertheenvironmenttemperatureT .Inbothcases
heatflowsbyconvectionandheattransfercoefficientshouldbeusedtodeterminerespectivesurface
temperatures. In the fuel fired furnaces the reaction chamber is heated by the transfer of heat of
products of combustion. As such T can be determined using heat transfer coefficient for forced
convection heat transfer. Similarly metallic shell of the furnace is exposed to the environment and
transferofheatfromshelltoenvironmentoccursbyfreeconvectionandassuchfreeconvectiveheat
transfercoefficientshouldbeused.

Sincenoheatisproducedinthecompositewall,theunidirectionalheatflow Q isconstantatsteady
state
K A K A K A
Q h A T T T T T T T T h A T T .(3)

In equation 3, h and h are heat transfer coefficients. Note that T , T , T and T are interface
temperaturesandthere is noairgapbetweenwall1ofthicknessx andwall 2ofthicknessx and
between x and x . We may say contact thermal resistance is zero. Since heat flow is constant,
temperature of the refractory becomes a function of x and K. The solid continuous line shows the
temperaturegradientinthecompositewall.

Bysolvingequations3simultaneouslyweget.
T T
Q (4)

A A K A

Note is thermal resistance due to convection. The equation 4 describes the heat flow through a
A
compositewalllinedwiththerefractorymaterialofdifferentthicknessesandthermalconductivities.

Cylindricalwall
Heatconductionthroughthewallofahollowcylindricalfurnacecanbemathematicallydescribedbythe
followingequationatsteadystate

T T T
r 0. (5)
Q Z

Consideralongcylinderofinsideradiusr andoutsideradiusr ,andlengthLasshowninthefigure.

Figure29.3:Onedimensionalheatflowthroughahollowcylinder

The temperature inside the surface of the cylinder is T and outside the surface of the cylinder is T
such that temperature difference T T drives the heat. If the length of the cylinder is very long
compared to its diameter, it can be considered for an axissymmetric cylinder that heat flows in the
radialdirection.Foronedimensionalflowofheatatsteadystate,equation5reducesto

T
r 0.(6)

Boundaryconditionsare

At r r , T T and at r r , T T (7)
Integrationofequation6andwithboundaryconditionexpressedinequation7,thetemperatureprofile
isgivenby

T T

(8)
T T

Heatflow Q is
L T
Q K
.

Forsomepurposes,heatflowthroughthethicknessofthepipewallortheinsulationisrequiredwith
theinsideandoutsideareas,A d LandA d L.Intermsofareaequation9becomes

A A T
Q K A
.
A

Theexpression A A 2.3 log A /A isknownaslogarithmicmeanarea.Considerathinwalled

pipeoraductwithawallthicknesslessthaninsidediameter r is less than d ,thearearatioA /A
is less than 2 and the logarithmic mean area is substantially equal to the arithmetic mean area
0.5 A A . However, if A /A is greater than 2 which could be a thickwalled pipe or thick
insulationofsmallpipesortubefurnaces,useofarithmeticmeanareawouldpredicthigherheatlosses
thanthelogarithmicmeanarea.

Figure4istheconstructionofacompositecylindricalwallhavingradiusr andr measuredfromthe

centre of the cylinder of radius r such that r r r and r r r . The thermal
conductivityoftherefractorymaterialofthicknessesr andr isK andK respectively.Thelength
ofthecylinderisL.Asinthecaseofflatwallh andh aretheheattransfercoefficientsthatdetermine
surfacetemperaturesT andT .Thecompositewall isplacedinbetweenfurnacetemperatureT and
environmenttemperatureT .

Figure29.4:Temperaturedistributioninacompositecylindricalwallofdifferentdiametersatsteady
state.

Asnoheatisproducedinthecompositewall,steadystateheatflowforthelengthofthecylinderLis
K L K L
Q h 2 r T T
T T
T T h 2 r T T (9)

Addingthermalresistanceinseries
T T
Q (10)
L LK LK L

Theequation10determinestheheatflowinacompositewall.Thetemperatureprofileisasshownin
thefigurebythesolidline.

Criticalthicknessofinsulation

Consider a single layer of insulation which is put around a cylindrical pipe of length L. The inner
temperature of the insulation is fixed at temperature T and the outer surface is exposed to an
environmenttemperatureT

Equation10forasinglelayerofinsulationis

L T T
Q (11)
K

As r increases increases which means there is an increasing resistance to radial conduction.
K

Increaseinr increasesouterfurnaceareaaswellwhichmeans decreases.Thisdualeffectsuggests

that thereexistsaparticularvalueofr forwhichheatlossismaximum.Foragivenr ,theparticular
Q
valueofr canbedeterminedbyputting 0

Q L T T
K
0. (12)
K

Solvingequation12,weget
K
r ,

wherer iscriticalradiusofinsulationatwhichheatlossismaximum.Thissuggeststhatheatlossdoes
notdecreasealwayswiththeincreaseininsulationthickness.Heatlosscouldincreasebyincreasingthe
thicknessoftheinsulationbeyondr becauseoutersurfaceareaincreasesandhenceheatlossesdue
toconvectionincreases.

References:

1)J.P.Holman.HeatTransfer,P346.
2)R.Schuhmann:MetallurgicalEngineering,Volume1EngineeringPrinciples

3)D.R.PoirierandG.H.Geiger:Transportphenomenainmaterialsprocessing

 LECTURE30:Refractorydesigncalculations

Contents

Exercise1

Exercise2

Exercise3

Exercise4

Exercise5

Exercise1

Considerthedesignofacylindricalelectricresistancefurnace.Theheatingcoilshouldhave1250
maximumtemperatureatsteadystatewhenthepowersupplyis750watts.Theouterdiameterofa
ceramictubeonwhichheatingcoilistobewoundis0.08m.Theinsulationisfireclayinsideandasbestos
magnesiaoutside.Asbestosmagnesiacansustainamaximumtemperatureof900 .Determinethe
thicknessofthetwoinsulationlayerswhenthetotalinsulationthicknessisminimum.Lengthoffurnace
is0.7m.
W W
Given:outershelltemperature45 , Kf 0.72 andK M 0.12 .Assume25%of
K K
totalpowerislostfrombothends.

Sincecoiltemperatureandshelltemperaturesaregiven

T T
(1)
Q L Kf LK

Alsofireclay/asbestosmagnesiainterfacecanhavemaximumtemperature900 .T istemperature
atfireclay/asbestosinterface

T T
(2)
Q L Kf

Intheequation2 r radius of furnace with fireclayand

r r r thickness of fireclay insulation
.
(3).
. . .

r 0.286m.
r 0.246m. thickness of fireclay

Insertingvalueofr inequation1wegetr 0.638m.

r thickness of asbestos. mag 0.352m.

Exercise2

i) Alongelectricityheatedcylinder3cmindiameteriscoveredwith8cmofinsulation.
W
Thermalconductivityofinsulationis0.08 .Thetemperatureistheinsulationvariesfrom
K
45 attheinsidesurfaceto100 atoutsidesurface.CalculateheatlossinW/m.

Q K T T
Heatloss
L

. . W
. 95.24
.
.

ii) Varytheinsulationthicknessfrom5to8cmattheintervalof1cmandcalculateineach
casetheoutsidesurfacetemperature.latthesurfacetemperaturewiththeinsulation
thickness.

Exercise3(Selfstudy)

B
Inlayingrefractorybricksinafurnaceitisobservesthattwocoursesoffirebricks K 1.5 are
poorlyjoinedsothattheyareseparatedbyacrackofairspaceaveraging2mminwidth.Thebrick
temperatureinthevicinityofthejointis1000 .

Estimatetheadditionalbrickthicknessininchestowhichthethermalresistanceofthejointis
equivalent.
B
K 0.018

Exercise4

W
Apipeisinsulatedbyasbestoscement K 0.74 .Thepipeisexposedtoroomtemperatureat
W
25 withh 4

Calculatethecriticalradiusofinsulationforasbestoscement.
K .
r 0.185 m 18.5 cm.

DecreaseinKwilldecreasethecriticalthicknessofinsulation.

Calculatetheheatlossfroma25 6 cmdiapipewhen
 i) coveredwiththecriticalradiusofinsulation
ii) andwithoutinsulation.

W
. 371
L .
. .

Withoutinsulationtheconvectionfromtheoutersurfaceofthepipeis

h 2 r T T
L

4 2 0.03 225

169.56 w/m

Soadditionofinsulationincreasestheheattransfer

Supposeweusenowasbestos K 0.04

.
r 0.01m. 1cm

Thecriticalradiusoftheinsulationislessthantheradiusofthepipe,soadditionoffiberglasswill
decreasetheheattransfer.

Exercise5

Findtherelationshipbetweenh forfreeconvectionheattransferandT fluid temperature

surface temperature andcharacteristiclength.

Select film temperature 400K, 450 K and 600 K

.
T
h 0.53 NP

Propertiesofair

FilmtemperatureK Pr kg/m 10 kgm s K Wm

400 0.689 0.8826 2.286 0.03365

450 0.683 0.7833 2.484 0.03707

600 0.680 0.5879 3.018 0.04659

T .
h 1.26 for film temp 400 K
D
 T .
h 1.22 for film temp 450 K
D

T .
h 1.10 for film temp 600 K
D

T .
Average h 1.19 can be used
D

 LECUTRE31:Refractoryandgasradiation

Keywords:Radiation,Viewfactor,Gasradiation,Convection

Thermalroleofrefractorysurface:

Refractorysurfacesplayanimportantroleinkeepingthefurnacetemperatureconstantbyminimizing
the heat loss to the surrounding. Consider a furnace which is at an average temperature TF and is
TF
enclosedbytherefractory.Theintensityofradiationstrikingarefractorysurfaceis5.67

TF TS
Of this incident radiation, 5.67 R is absorbed and 5.67 1 R is reflected. Here

R isreflectivity.DuetoincidentfluxtherefractorysurfaceisheatedtoatemperatureTRandrefractory
TR
surfacewillalsoemitenergyattherateof5.67 R W/m .Atsteadystate,heatbalanceis:

[Heatloss/unitareathroughthefurnacewalltothesurroundings=rateofabsorptionofheatfromthe
furnaceRateofemissionofradiationbackintothefurnace]

Q TF TR
5.67 R W/m (1)
A

Accordingtoequation1heatlosstothesurroundingdependsontheinsidesurfacetemperatureofthe
refractory,furnaceandsurroundingtemperaturesandthethermalresistanceofferedbytherefractory
wall. Consider a 0.23m firebrick wall of thermal conductivity 1.731 Wm K at 1273K inner surface
temperature of the refractory. Heat loss per unit area from this wall to the surrounding is calculated to be
7338W/m for the surrounding temperature of 298K. Assuming reflectively of the refractory R 0.8
and heat loss as 7338W/m , furnace temperature can be calculated to be 1292K which is only 19
higher than the inner surface temperature of the refractory. The difference between the inner surface
temperature of the refractory and the furnace temperature can be reduced further by increasing the
thickness of the wall and using refractory of lower thermal conductivity. This calculation suggests that the
inner surface temperature of the refractory wall is close to the average temperature of the furnace.

The role of refractory surface can be illustrated. For the firebrick wall the total incident flux is
126390 W/m . Of this incident flux, 25728 W/m is reflected back into the furnace and 7338 W/m is
lost to the surrounding through the wall of the refractory. The balance 93776 W/m is absorbed and re-
readiated by the refractory back into the furnace. Thus refractory surface is an efficient reflector 75%
but the mechanism of reflection is absorption and re-radiation.

Effectofrefractorysurfaceontheheatflowbetweensourceandsink:

Consider a system in which three surfaces A , A and AR forms an enclosure as shown in the figure.
EachsurfaceischaracterizedbyitsownuniformtemperatureT , T andTR respectively.AlsoA andA
surfacesareshapedsuchthateachcannotuseitself.Thefollowingassumptionsaremade:

Figure31.1:Asystemformedbythreesurfaces,sourcesinkandrefractory.Thearrowshowsheatflow
path.

1. Enclosureisadiabatic:Refractorysurface AR doesnotallowanyheatwhichmeansallincident
fluxisreradiatedorreflected.
2. SurfacesA andA areblack.

Heat flows directly from A to A and to AR . As a result of incident radiation, A is heated and also
beginstoradiate.OfthetotalenergyleavingfromA toA fractionisabsorbedbyA andiscontrolled
by F . F is view factor and corresponds to faction of total energy leaving A which is absorbed by
surface2.Theremainingfraction 1 F isinterceptedbysurfaceAR .

After a while surface A is heated up. Of the total energy leaving the surface A , F is absorbed by
surfaceA and 1 F isinterceptedbyAR .F andF arerelatedby

F A F A (2)
A
F F (3)
A
DirectheatexchangebetweenA andA

T T
Q 5.67 A F (4)

HeatexchangebetweenA toAR andA toAR is

T TR
Q R 5.67 1 F A (5)

F A T TR
Q R 5.67 1 A (6)
A

Sincethereisnoheatflowtotherefractoryq R q R 0.(7)

Equations4to7canbesolvedtogive
.
A F A T A F A T
TR (8)
A A F A

A F A A F A T T
Q R Q R 5.67 (9)
A A F A

Equation9istheadditionalindirectheatexchangebetweenA andA asobtainedbyreflectionandre

radiationfromsurfaceAR .

Total heat flow Q Q Q R (10)

Byequation4,9and10

T T
Q 5.67 FC A (11)

WhereF isacompositegeometricalfactorfortheclosedsystemoftwoblacksurfacesA ,A andAR .

A
F
A
FC A (12)
F
A

Itistobenotedthatintheabovederivationwehaveidentifiedfurnacetoconsistofsource,sinkand
refractory as independent entities and each one is at uniform temperature. However, in practical
situations,itisnotveryofteneasytoseparatethesource,sinkandrefractoryandthetemperaturesmay
befarfromuniform.Thusacarefulengineeringjudgmentisnecessaryforaccuratecalculations.

Effectofemissivityofsurfaces

Formostgeneralcalculations,itisnecessarytotakeintoaccounttheeffectofemissivitiesofthesource
andsinksurfaces.IfA andA arenotblackbutgraysurfaceswithemissivities and

T T
Q 5.67 FA (13)
Where

F A (14)
FC A

Equation14reducestoF F when 1

The following procedure may be adopted to calculate the rate of heat transfer between two surfaces
withinafurnace:

DetermineorestimatethetemperaturesofsurfacesA andA andemissivities and

Find F which is the fraction of energy from A intercepted by A

Calculate F by equation 12 and then determine F by equation 14

Calculate Q by equation 11

Gasradiation

Ingasradiation,onehastodistinguishbetweenthegaseswhicharetransparenttoradiationandwhich
emitandabsorbradiations.Alldiatomicgaseslikenitrogenandoxygenaretransparenttoradiationthat
means they neither emit nor absorb radiation at low temperatures. Whereas, triatomic gases like
CO , H O, SO absorb and emit radiation to a considerable degree so that they are important in heat
exchange

Absorptionandemissionofgasesdifferfromliquidsandsolidsinthefollowingways.

i. Gasesemitandabsorbradiationwithinanarrowbandofwavelengthand
ii. Emissionandabsorptiontakeplacethroughthebodyofthegas.No.ofmodulesofagasis
important for radiation. No. of molecules of gas at a given temperature is proportional to
partialpressureofgasandsizeofthebody L ofthegas,where.

L 3.5 (15)
.

Heattransferbetweengasandenclosurecanbegivenby

. TG TS
Q AG Wm (16)
G S

AG isareaofenclosure, TG and TS aretemperaturesofgasandsurfacesrespectively. S isemissivityof

surfaceand G isemissivityofgas.
IfthegasisamixtureofsayCO andH Othen

G CO H O.

CO or H O. canbedeterminedasfollows.

1. DeterminethepartialpressureofCO orH Ointhegaseousmixture

2. DeterminethevalueofLbyusingequation15.
3. MaketheP Leitherinatm moratm ft.
4. Use thestandard chartforemissivityof CO and H Ovs.temperature.In thesechart CO or
H O isplottedagainsttemperaturefordifferentP Lvalue.
5. Determine G byaddingtheemissivitiesoftheindividualgas.

Flameradiation:

In fuel fired furnaces and other furnaces like reverberatory furnace, the principle mechanism of heat
transfer is from the flame to the charge. The flame consists of the products of combustion. By
consideringsinkasthesurfaceareaofthechargeAC andsourceastheflameofareaAFL andassigning
totheflameanequivalentbodyofgrayemissivity G ,therateofheatflowfromtheflametothecharge
canbewrittenas:

TG TS
Q 5.67AC AC
(17)
C AFL G

Note G isgasemissivitywithoutsolidparticleswhereas G isemissivityofgaswithsolidparticles.Also

G G .

Heatflowfromflametochargeforagivenareaofsourceandsink,andtemperaturesofthesourceand
sink depends on emissivity of the flame. In a nonluminous flame such as pale blue or visually
transparentflamesobtainedbyburninghydrogenandothergaseousfuels,theradiationandconvection
are the principle mechanisms of heat transfer. In combustion of oil and pulverized coal, the flame
contains clouds of fine particles of ash and carbon in addition to the products of combustion. These
particles increases the emissivity of the flame and as a result heat transfer is enhanced. The furnace
operator tries to make the flame luminous over as much length of the furnace as possible. For large
pulverized coal flames, the emissivity could approach to unity which results in maximum rate of heat
flow from the flame to the charge. By putting G 1 in the equation 17, we get the expression for
maximumheatflow:

TF TS
Q 5.67 AC C (18)

According to equation 18, the maximum heat transfer from the flame requires a knowledge of actual
flametemperatureinthefurnaces.
Reference:

1. D.R.PoirierandG.H.Geiger:transportphenomenainmaterial;processing.
2. R.Schumann:MetallurgicalEngineering,volume1engineeringPrinciples

 LECUTRE32:Steadystateheatflowinfurnacesandheatexchangers

Contents

Estimationofheatlossesinfurnaces

Heatexchanger

Performanceofaheatexchanger

Regenerator

Keywords:Heatexchanger,Regenerator,Recuperator,Heatrecovery,Furnaces

Estimationofheatlossesinfurnaces

Infurnacesoperatingathightemperatures,heatlossesfromtheouterwalloftheshellareimportantto
estimate,whenthefurnaceoperatesatsteadystate.Theselossescorrespondtolossinenergy.Inorder
to estimate the heat losses, wall temperature should be known. Shell temperature can either be
calculated or measured. In the following lecture a method is discussed to calculate the shell
temperatureofthefurnace.

ConsiderwallofthefurnaceattemperatureT whichislinedwithrefractorymaterialofthickness x,
thermalconductivityK asshowninthefigure.

Figure32.1:Furnacewallshowingheatbalance

SurroundingtemperatureisT .LettheshelltemperaturefacingthesurroundingisT .T isunknown.

Heatbalanceofthefurnaceis

[Heatflowbyconductiontotheoutershell=Heatlossfromtheshelltothesurroundingbyconvection
andradiation](1)

QC QC Q R .(2)
KAV A T T T T
h A T T 5.67 F A (3)

h isheattransfercoefficientfornaturalconvection.Fisviewfactor, isemissivityoftheshellandAis
theareaofthefurnace.Heattransfercoefficienth canbeevaluatedby

T
h C 0.25 (4)
D

Heatexchanger

Heat exchanger, as the name indicates is an equipment used to capture the heat of products of
combustionandtopreheattheairsimultaneously.Recuperatorsandregeneratorsarecommonlyused
tocaptureandreusetheheat.

A recuperator is a continuous type of heat exchanger in which both hot and cold streams flow
continuously.Bothstreamsareseparatedbyawall.Transferofheatfromhotstreamtocoldstreamis
through the separating wall. Both streams may flow parallel flow as shown in figure (a) or counter
current(asshowninb)orcrossflow(asinc).Metallicheatexchangersareusedatlowtemperatures
whereasceramicheatexchangerscanbeusedathightemperatures

Figure32.2:Typesofrecuperator(a)parallelflow,(b)countercurrentand(c)crossflow

Another type of heat exchanger for high temperature purposes is the regenerator. A regenerator
contains heat storage elements which alternately absorb heat from hot products of combustion and
preheattheincomingair.Twotypesofregeneratorsareinuse:

(a)Continuousgasflow,movingelementforheatstorageand

(b)Intermittentgasflow,stationaryheatstorageelement.
Inthecontinuousgasflowtypethetwogasstreamsflowcontinuouslythroughowncompartmentsand
the heat storage elements move from hot stream to cold stream. They are normally constructed of
metalandareprimarilyusedforlowtemperaturelikeboiler.

For high temperature applications, the regenerator contains stationary heat storage elements. It
consists of a chamber filled with brick chequework to give a multiple vertical gas passage. The hot
productsofcombustionandcoldairflowalternatelythroughthesamechamberandsamepassageina
cyclicfashion.

Inalltheabovetypesofheatexchangers,theresidenceofthestreamisimportantfortheheattransfer
efficiencywhichisturncontrolledbytheflowrateofthestream,crosssectionareaofthevesseland
thermalconductivityofthematerial

Performanceofaheatexchanger

A heat exchanger captures and uses the heat of flue gases simultaneously. Performance of a heat
exchanger can be evaluated in terms of its ability to capture and to preheat the air to the maximum
possibletemperature.

ConsideracoaxialtypeheatexchangerinwhichhotstreamentersatT andexitsatT .Coldstream

sayairentersattemperatureT andpreheatedstreamexistsatT asshowninthefigure.

Figure32.3:Heatexchangerunderconsiderationformacroscopicheatbalance

LengthoftheheatexchangerisL.Macroscopicheatbalancecanbeusedtoevaluatetheperformance.
Inthemacroscopicbalance,weareconcernedwiththeinitialandfinalstatesofthefluegasandairi.e.
atplane1and2.

Assumptions:

i) Flowoffluegasesandairareatsteadystate.
 ii) Flowisadiabaticwhichmeansnolossofheat,whichmeansheatlostbyfluegasis
completelyabsorbedbyair

Q Q , i. e.(5)

HeatlostbyfluegasQ m H H (6)

HeattakenbyairQ m H H (7)

Q andQ areheatcontentinhotandcoldstream,m andm massflowrateofhotandcoldstream

and istheenthalpy.

Thereisnoheatlosstosurrounding,so

Q Q .

ForidealgasesandincompressiblefluidsH CP T

m C T T Q (8)

m C T T Q Q (9)

Heatbalanceoveralengthdlofheatexchanger

m CP dT U 2 r T T dl.(10)

r outside radius of the inner tube.

U over all heat tranfer coefficient

U isanoverallcoefficientforheatflowpathconsistingofaseriesofthermalresistancessuchthat

U (11)
K

Here and areconvectivethermalresistanceand isthermalresistanceofthewallofthicknessx

K
andofthermalconductivityKduetoconduction.Rearrangementofequations9and10gives

T
U (12)
T T M CP

And

T
U (13)
T T M C

Addingequations12and3
 T T
U 2 r dl(14)
T T C C

ByassumingU asindependentoflandintegratingoverthelengthlweget.

T T
ln U 2 r l (15)
T T C C

Expression relates terminal temperatures of the heat exchanger to stream rates and heat exchanger
dimensions.

ItcanbeusedtodescribetheperformanceoftheexchangerByequation8,9and15

T T T T
Q U 2r L T T
(16)
T T

U A T T ln(17)

Theequations16and17describetherateofheatflowasafunctionoftheterminaltemperaturesofthe
heatexchangeranddonotcontainthemannerinwhichstreamsareflowing.Therefore,theequations
16or17aregeneralequationstoevaluatetheperformanceoftheheatexchanger

Applicationtoregenerator

Regeneratorsareunsteadyheatflowsystemtowhichsteadystateheat,flowisnotstrictlyapplicable.
Formostengineeringapplications,aregeneratorcanbeconsideredintermsofheatflowanalogoustoa
continuousrecuperatoras

hot flue gas brick surface conduction through brick brick air

and to deal with average temperature to eliminate time. By this analogy brick surfaces are at higher
temperatureduringfluegascyclethanduringcoldgascycleandtemperaturedifferencecorrespondsto
that across the separating wall in a recuperator. Also heat flow in and out from brick is equivalent to
resistancetoheatflowacrosstheseparatingwallinarecuperator.Withthisanalogywecandefinethe
overallheattransfercoefficientasapplicabletoregeneratoras

U S (18)
f K

Intheequation18
hf andh areheattransfercoefficientfromfluegastobricksurfaceandfrombricksurfacetoair
S
respectively. isthethermalresistanceoftheseparatingwallwhichisanalogoustothatofbrickin
K

theregenerator.

S
Estimationof isrelativelydifficulttoestimateinunsteadystateflow.Theequivalentthermal
K

resistancevarieswiththethicknessofthebrickandthetimeofcontact.Itscontributionis15to20%of
thetotalresistance toflowofheatfromhottocoldstream.Equation17canbeusedforregenerators
keepinginmindtheabovelimitations.

 Lecture33:

Heatflowinfurnaces

Contents:

Exercise1

Exercise2

Exercise3

Exercise4

Exercise5

Keywords:conduction,convection,radiation,viewfactor

Exercise1

CalculatethecompositefactorfortheclosedsystemoftwoblacksurfacesA andA underthe

followingconditions:
A A A
a)whenA isverylargeorA isverysmall(b) 1 c 1, F 0, d 0, F 0
A A A

SOLUTION:

a) WhereA isverylargeorA issmall

A

A
A
F
A
F A
F
A

F 1

b) A A 1

F F
F
F

c) F 0.5
F 0 means A isnotbeingviewedby A andInthiscaseincidentradiantflux A isnot
fallingonA

A
F
A
d) A
F
A

A
F
A A
A
A islargeascomparedtoA F
A

Exercise2

In a 90 cm square flue, hot flue gas is flowing at the volumetric flow rate of
1.5 m s 25 , iatm .Theinsidesurfacetemperatureoftheflueis 100 coolerthanthehot
gastemperature.Calculatetherateofheatflowfromhotgastothewall/mlengthwhen

a) Hotgasindryairandat1200
b) Hotgasinmoistairas1200 andcontains2%moisture
c) Hot gas is flue gas at 1200 and whose composition is 12 % CO , 8 % H O. 4% O and
76 % N

CP K
Data: K
ofair 0.724 , 53.5 10
.

Kair 9.15 10 , 1.27
K

SOLUTION

a) gas as dry air , and contains O and N . There gases do not radiate. Heat transfer
occursbyforcedconvectiononly.
q h A T

D DG . CP . .
0.023
K K

h 8.268
K.

Heatlosspermeter 8.268 4 0.9 100 2976 wm.

b)Heattransferwouldoccurbothbyconvectionandradiation.Oxygenandnitrogenare
transparent to radiation but H O vapor of air will radiate heat. Emissivity of hot gas
=0.016
. AG TG TS
q m
G

Substitutingthevaluesweget

q m 3819 W.

Totalheattransferwouldconsistofconvectionandradiationandisequalto 3819 2976

6795 wm

C)Inthiscaseheattransferwilloccurbothbyconvectionandradiation

CO 0.075, H O 0.053 G CO H O 0.128

q m 29722 wm

q 29722 2976 32698 wattm

WenotethatheattransferingasesbecomesveryhighwhenthegascontainsCO andH O.The

roleofradiationisverylarge incomparisontoconvection.Weseethatifthegascontains CO
andH O,heattransferisaround90 92%morethanifgasesdonotcontainH OandCO .

Exercise3

In this and some other problems, the dimensions of physical constants are expressed in FPS
system,sothatthereadershaveafeelabouttheorderofmagnitudeofthevaluesintheabove
system.

a) A vertical furnace wall is constructed of silica brick, with a total area of 400 sq ft and
thicknessof15inches.Thefurnacetemperatureis 3000Fandthatofsurrounding80 .
Calculate(i)heatlossthroughthiswall,Btu/hr,(ii)fueloilconsumptionequivalentto
heatloss,liters/day,forafueloilwhichfurnishes11360Btu/literofavailableheattothe
furnace chamber, and (iii) the thickness of silica brick exposed to temperature
2800F. Here K 1. Btu lb & 0 .8
b) Addition of a 3inch layer of insulating material (K=0.12) to the furnace wall is being
considered.Calculate(i)thepercentagereductioninheatlosswhichshouldbeattained
byaddingtheinsulation,(ii)thedailyfuelsaving,ifthefueloilcostsRs.50/litre,and(iii)
thethicknessofsilicabrickexposedto2800 afteraddinginsulation.

 SOLUTION
Assumptions
1. Thermalconductivityisassumedtobeindependentoftemperature.
2. Insidewalltemperatureofthefurnaceisequaltofurnacetemperature.
3. Oil price can change. Oil price is taken just to appreciate the fuel economy
concept.

a)
Heatlossthroughthewall

Q . Q . Q .

T . . T
0.2 400 Tw 80 0.173 0.8 400 5.4
.

BysolvingwegetT 575

i) Heatloss 7, 76000 btuhr

B
ii)Fueloilconsumption B
68.3 litreshr. 2049 litresday, when furnace
operatesfor24hrs.

iii)Thicknessofthebrickexposedto2800
776000 1 400.

x 1.24 inches.

b)(i)Furnaceislinedwithaninsulatingbrickinadditiontosilicabrick.Asaresult
T willchangetoT .Heatbalance

T . T
. . 0.2 T 80 0.13 8 5.4
.

T 372 .

Nottheadvantageofinsulatingbrick;thereisareductioninwalltemperature.
Heatloss 315 360 btuhr
%reductioninhealloss 59.36%

(ii)Fuelconsumption 663.3litres/day
 Fuelsaving Rs 70,000/ perday

(iii)Thicknessofbrick3.04inches

It is important to understand that addition of insulating brick will increase the

thicknessofthebrickisexposedto2800 .

Exercise4

A furnace is losing heat into surrounding. The outside shell of a furnace has surface
temperature 327 . The surrounding temperature is 27 . The emissivity of surface is 0.8.
Compareheatlossbyradiationwiththatofconvection.

SOLUTION
q 5.67 0.8 6 3 5511
T
hr=radiationcoefficient 0.2268 0.2268 0.8

16.53

.
h 1.25 T 5.25 .
Heatlossbyconvection h T 1560

Exercise5

Asteelplate3m3m3mmisheatedtoatemperatureof600Kandhunghorizontallyina
laboratoryat300K.Calculatetheinitialhealloss(w)fromthesteelplate.

SOLUTION

Foraplatewithasurfacewarmerthanfluidfacingupward

NuL 0.54 Gr Pr when Gr 10 to 10

NuL 0.14 Gr Pr ; valid in turbulent flow range 10 10

Atfilmtemperature 450K ;

0.7833 , 2.484 10 k 0.03703 , and Pr 0.683

L T T
Gr

10 10 ;henceflowisturbulent
 L
10 10 0.683 0.14.
K

h 8.5
K.

Ifwarmfacefacesdownward
L
0.27 GrL Pr
K

h 2.04
K.

Iftheplateishungvertically

NuL 0.13 GrL Pr P 0.6 10.

h 7.89
K.
 LECUTRE34:Heatflowinfurnacesandexchangers
Contents

Exercise1

Exercise2

Exercise3

Exercise4

Exercise1

a) Regeneratorreceiveshotfluegasesat1400 andcoldairat25 ,thefluegasesleaveat

750 andtheairispreheatedto1100 .Asestimated15% oftheheatgivenupbytheflue
gasesisheatlosttotheregeneratorsurroundings,andtherest 85% isrecoveredinthe
preheatedair.ItmaybeassumedforestimatingpurposesthatCP 0.3forfluegasesand
CP 0.25forair,independentoftemperature.Estimateoverallthermalefficiency,efficiency
limit,andrelativeefficiencyforthisheatexchangeoperation.

b) Supposenowthatthedepthoftheregeneratorisincreasedto2.5timesinsuchawaytodouble
theheatexchangeareawhilekeepingconstanttheoverallheattransfercoefficient
B
U .Thequantitiesandenteringtemperaturesofthefluegasesandairwillbekeptthe
same.Heatlossesaresameasthatina).Estimatefortheenlargedregenerator(a)airpreheat
temperature,(b)overallthermalefficiencyandrelativethermalefficiency

Solution:

a) Heatbalance:referencetemperature25
m CP 1100 25 0.85 m CP 1400 750
CP
0.514
CP

Overall thermal efficiency 40.18%.

Efficiency limit 51.4%.

Relative efficiency 79.4%.

b) Airpreheattemperatureandexittemperatureoffluegasarenotknown.Sincequantitiesand
enteringtemperaturesoffluegasandairaresame.Wecanwrite

T
ln 2.5 ln
T
T 25 12698 9.07T (1)

Heatbalancefortheenlargedregenerator:

m CP T 25 0.85 m CP 1400 T (2)

Inequation2,T andT areairandfluegastemperatureattheexitoftheregenerator.

Or0.605 T 15.11 1400 T (3)

Bysolving1and3

WegetT 1335.8 andT 557 .

Overall thermal efficiency 49 %.

Relative efficiency 96 %.

Exercise2

Hotexhaustgasesat1250 kg/ hareflowingat480 throughaheatexchangerandarecooledto180

bywaterflowinginitiallyat20 .Thespecificheatofwateris1 kcal/kg andthatofexhaustgasis
0.27 kcal/kg .Theoverallheattransfercoefficientis125 kcal/hr m andtheflowrateof
wateris1550 kg/hr.Calculatesurfacearearequiredwhen

a) Exhaustgasandwaterflowcountercurrent
b) Exhaustgasandwaterflowcocurrent.

Solution:

Figure34.1:A)CounterCurrentandB)CoCurrentflowofwaterandgas

Wehavetofindtemperatureofwateratexit.

Heatgivenbyexhaustgas=heattakenbywater

1250 0.27 300 1500 1 T 20

T 85 .

T T T T
q UAO T T

T T

Forcountercurrent

1250 0.27 300 125 A

A 3.11 m

Forcocurrent,onecancalculate

A 3.51 m

Wenotethatinacountercurrentheatexchanger,arearequiredforheattransferislowerthanthat
requiredforcocurrentheatexchanger.Inthisexampleheatexchangeareaforcountercurrentheat
exchangeris10%lowerthanthatrequiredforcocurrentone.Itisduetotheefficientcontactbetween
heatexchangingfluids,exchangingheatincountercurrent.

Exercise3

Afurnaceistobedesignedtocarryoutanexothermicgassolidreactiononacontinuousbasis.Both
gaseousandsolidreactantsaretobefedcontinuouslyatauniformtotalrateof9.7lb/hrandat70 .
Thereactionproductsaretobedischargedcontinuouslyat1200 .Theheatofreactionoftotal
reactantsis1050 Btu/lb.Theaveragespecificheatofthereactionproductsis0.2 Btu/lb .

ThereactionchamberisaverticalInconelcylinder,1/3ftindiameterand3fthigh,withsuitableauxiliary
facilitiesforcontinuousfeedanddischarge.Assumethatthewholelnconelcylinderismaintainedat
1200 .

TheInconelcylinderwillbeinsulatedontheoutsidewitharefractorymaterialforwhichK 0.3and
0.8.Willa / layerofinsulation(makingtotalfurnacediameter / allowtooperate
furnaceautogenously?Makeotherreasonableassumptionifnecessary.

Enviroment temperature 70

Useh 0.28 T T 0.25

Solution:

Heat input 1050 9.7 10185 Btuhr.

Heat taken by POC 2192 Btuhr.

Gross available heat 7993 Btuhr.

Thisheatmustbedissipatedinordertomaintain1200 furnacetemperature.

Heatbalanceis

q q q

T . . T
0.28 T T D L 0.173 0.8 DL 5.3 .

SolutiongivesT 400 .

Heatlosswouldbe 6523Bhu/hrwhichislowerthan7993 Bhu/hr.

Hence 1 6feetlayerisnotsufficient.

Exercise4

Airat2kg/sispassinginaductof0.08mdiameterat300K.Thewalltemperatureoftheductis900K.If
theairisheatedtoatemperatureof800K,whatisthelengthoftheduct?

Solution:

Averagepropertiesofairat 550K.

,
0.6423 2.84 10
.

K 0.04360 , Pr 0.68

J
CP 1039

Heatbalanceinthesmallductlengthdx.

T
dx
T T CP

WhereT wall temperature, diinternaldiameterofduct,hisheattransfercoefficient CP

K,

specificheat,mmanflowrate
.

T T
Integrationln L.
T CP

T is initial temperature 300K. at x 0

T is final temperature of air 800K. at x L.

.
. .
N 0.023 NP

 .
. .
0.023 0.68
K . . .

h 741
K.

.
ln L

L 20m.


Lecture35:AtmosphereinFurnaces

Contents:

Selectionofatmosphere:

Gasesandtheirbehavior:

Preparedatmospheres

Protectiveatmospheresapplications

Atmospherevolumerequirements

Atmospheresensors

Keywords:Heattreatment,furnaces,atmosphere,annealing,sintering,heating

Selectionofatmosphere:

Thesurroundinginthethermalenclosure(furnace)istermedatmosphere.Theatmosphereconsistsof
gasesandisusuallyair.However,insomeheattreatment,thermomechanicalprocessing,sinteringetc
specialtypeofatmosphereisrequiredto

Preventoxideformation,iftheheatingmaterialispronetooxidation.

Decarburizesteel.

Controlthesurfacechemistryofsteelwhichmeanstheelementsmustnotbeoxidizedor
reducedduringheating.

Produceblueingeffectinsteel.Theblueingeffectimpartsawearresistantandoxidation
resistantsurfacefinish.

reduceoxidesformedonthesurface.

Makethesurfacehardbyallowingcarburizingornitriding.

Gasesandtheirbehavior:

1. Nitrogenistheprimarycomponentofatmosphericair(78.1%).Oxygenis20.9%.Rest1%could
beothergases,whichisofverylittlesignificance.Nitrogenisconsideredtobechemicallyinert
andisusedasacarriergasforreactivefurnaceatmosphere,forpurgingetc.Athigh
temperatures,nitrogenmayshowreactionwithMo,Ti,CrandCo.

2. Hydrogenisareducinggasandisusedwherereducingatmosphereisrequired.Itmaybeused
topreventoxidationofiron

FeO+H2=Fe+H2O
Fe3O4+H2=H2O+3FeO

Hydrogencanalsobeusedtodecarburizethesteelforcertainapplications.Atthematerial
temperatureisgreaterthan973K,thefollowingreactionoccurs:

C+2H2=CH4

Hydrogenmaybeabsorbedbythemetalatelevatedtemperaturesandcausehydrogen
embrittlement.

3. Carbonmonoxide:itisalsoareducinggasandisusedtocreateareducingatmosphere

4. Carbondioxide:itisamildoxidizinggas.Itformsoxideswithironatelevatedtemperatures.At
temperaturesgreaterthan540 ,thefollowingreactionmayoccur

Fe+CO2 FeO+CO

andattemperatureslowerthan540 ,thefollowingreactionmayoccur
3FeO+CO2 Fe3O4+3CO

Decarburizationmayalsoresultbythereactionlike
Fe3C+CO2 3Fe+2COand
C+CO2 2CO

5. ArgonandHelium:Bothareinertgasesandareusedtomaintaininertatmosphere.Insome
applicationsargonisusedforpurging.

 6. Steam:itisusedtoprovideblueingeffectinsteelbetween573Kand923K.Blueingeffectisdue
totheformationofeitherFe2O3,Fe3O4,orFeO.Theformationofoxideofirondependson
temperature,andratiobypartialpressureofH2OtopartialpressureofH2intheatmosphere.

DewpointsquantifiestheconcentrationofH2Ovaporintheatmosphere.Dewpointisa
temperatureatwhichgasissaturatedwithwatervapour(100%relativehumidity).Inafurnace,
watergasreactioncontrolstheconcentrationofH2,H2O,COandCO2accordingtothefollowing
reaction:

CO+H2O=CO2+H2.

Preparedatmospheres
Forhealtreatmentandotherpurposesatmospherecomprisingofgasesispreparedaccordingtothe
requirement.AmericanGasAssociation(AGA)hasclassifiedatmospheresin6groups,onthebasisof
methodofpreparation

a) Exothermicbase(AGA100):Preparedeitherbypartialorbycompletecombustionofgaseous
fuelwithair.Watervapourmayberemovedtoproduceadesireddewpoint.Theatmosphereis
amixtureofCO+CO2+H2+H2O+N2.InaleanexothermicatmospheretheratioofCO2/COis
greaterthanarichexothermicone.
Thisatmosphereispreparedbyburningamixtureofhydrocarbonfuelandair.Thecombustion
productsarepassedtoacondensertoremovewater.Thecombustionproductsarefurther
driedbyusinganabsorbentsuchasactivatedaluminaoractivatedsilica.Thedriedatmosphere
isthentransferredtothefurnace.
Typicalapplicationsincludebrightannealingofsteel,copper,sinteringofnonferrousmetal
powders,andironpowders

b) Preparednitrogenbase(AGA200)

Theyareexothermicatmospheresandproducedbycombustionofamixtureofairandfuelgas.

CarbondioxideandH2Oareremovedfromproductsofcombustion.

Theyareusedtoheattreatlowcarbon,mediumcarbonandhighcarbonsteels.N2atmosphere
cannotbeusedfordecarburization.

c) Endothermicbaseatmospheres(AGA300).
Endothermicbaseatmospheresarepreparedbyusingaleanmixtureofhydrocarbonfuelwith
air,i.e.massofairislessthanstoichiometric(theoretical)amountrequiredforcomplete
combustion.TheobjectiveistoproduceCOandH2.
Asamountofairislessthanstoichiometeric,acatalystandextraamountheatarerequiredtofacilitate
combustion.Theendogasiscooledimmediatelytopreventthefollowingreaction:

2CO CO C

Typicalapplicationsincludebrightannealingofsteelofanycarboncontentwithoutdecarburizationor
carburization,heattreatmentofsteelofanycarboncontent,brightcopperbrazing,andcarriergasfor
gascarburizingorcarbonitriding.

Considercompletecombustionofmethane

CH4+2(O2+3.76N2)=CO2+7.52N2+2H2O

Fortheratioof 9.52,theatmosphereconsistsofCO2,N2andH2.Howeverifthesaidratio
islessthan9.52e.g.1.88,thenaccordingtofollowing,reaction,

2CH4+(O2+3.76N2)=2CO+4H2+3.76N2

theatmospherecomprisesofCO,H2andN2.Thevolumeofatmospherewouldincreaseby3mole
volumes.Theatmospherewouldcompriseof20.4%CO,40.8%H2and38.8%N2.

d)Charcoalbaseatmospheres(AGA400)

Itisproducedbyfollowingreaction

2C+O2+3.76N2=2CO+3.76N2.

Theoreticallyatmospherewouldconsistof34%COand66%N2.Duetomoistureandvolatilesin
charcoalandincompletecombustionofcarbon,thereactionwouldproduceCO2,CO,H2,CH4andN2.

Normallytheatmosphereisneutraltohighercarbonsteelsbutthecarbonpotentialmaybeincreased
byaddingnaturalgas.

Thecharcoalbasedatmosphereisusedforhardening,annealingandnormalizinghighcarbonsteels
withoutscaleformationordecarburization.

e)ExothermicEndothermicbaseatmospheres(AGA500)

Theyarepreparedbycombustingamixtureofairandfuel.POCisdehydrated,andapredetermined
quantityofhydrocarbonfuelisadded.Themixtureismadetoreactinpresenceofacatalyst.

Typicalapplicationincludescarburizingandcarbonitriding.Duetothecostofproduction,these
atmospheresarenotveryoftenused.

f)Ammoniabaseatmospheres(AGA600)

Ammoniadissociationisusedtopreparehighestpuritynitrogenwhichisfreefromoxygen.

Liquidammoniaisvaporizedintoaheatexchangerandisfedtodissociateinareactorcalledas
dissociater.Thedecompositionofammoniatonitrogenandhydrogenbeginsataround3003200C.Rate
ofdecompositionincreasesastemperatureincreases..

Itsprimaryuseisforbrightannealingmetalssuchassilicontoobtainelectricalproperties.Ferrousand
nonferrousmetalsarebrightannealedinammoniaatmosphere.

Brightsilverbrazingandcopperbrazingofsteelareotherapplications.

Protectiveatmospheresapplications
Composition(vol%)

Atmosphere N2 CO2 CO H2 CH4 Dewpoint Applications.

Lean 86.8 10.5 1.5 1.2 4.5 Bright
exothermic annealingof
Cu,sintering
offerrites
Rich 71.5 5.0 10.5 12.5 5 10 Bright
exothermic annealing
lowCsteel,
silicon
steels/Cu
brazing,
sintering
Dissociated 25 75 50to+60 Brazing
NH3 sintering
bright
annealing
Endothermic 4045 00.5 20 3440 0.51 10to+10 Hardening,
carburizing
withCH4,
sintering
brazing
Nitrogen 99.9 99.9 60 Naturalfor
annealing

H2 68 Reducing,
sintering
ArorHe:Thesearepureandinertgasesandareusedtopreventoxidationduringweldingof
stainlesssteel,aluminumetc.andheattreatmentofspecialsteels.

Atmospherevolumerequirements
Itdependson

i) Typeandsizeoffurnace
ii) Environmentandpresenceofdraft.
iii) Thenatureandsizeofworkpieces.
iv) Metallurgicalprocessinvolved.
v) Presenceorabsenceofcurtainsatentranceandexit.

Atmosphericsensors
Itisimportanttomeasuretheconcentrationofvariouscomponentsoftheatmosphereduringthe
treatmentinthefurnace.TheconstituentsofatmosphereareCO,CO2,H2,H2O,N2andhydrocarbon
gasessuchasCH4.Themainobjectiveoffurnaceatmosphereistopreventdecarburization,hydrogen
embrittlement,oxidation,surfaceblueingandsootformation.

ORSATanalysiscanbeusedtodeterminethecompositionofO2,COandCO2.ORSATanalysisis
describedinlecture10.

Amongothertechniquesgaschromatography,thermalconductivity,oxygensensors,dewpointarealso
used.Detailsaboutthesensorscanbeobtainedinreferencesgivenattheendofthelecture.

References:

Y.V.Deshmukh:industrialheating.2004.

Furnaceatmospheresandcarboncontrol:ASMCommitteeonfurnaceatmospheres

 Lecture36:TemperatueMeasurements

Contents

Principleofthermocouples

Materialsforthemocouples

Coldjunctioncompensation

Compensatingwires

Selectionofthermocouples

Illustrationofgastemperaturecorrection

KeyWords:Thermocouple,SeebackEffect,Furnace,emf

PrincipleofThermocouples

Whentwodissimilarmetalssuchaironandcopperaregainedtoformaclosedcircuit,currentflow
whenonejunctionisathighertemperatureandtheotheroneisatlowertemperatureasshowninthe
figure.

Figure36.1:Principleofmeasurementoftemperaturebyathermocouple

Theemfdrivingthecurrentiscalledathermoelectricemfandthephenomenonisknownas
thermoelectriceffectorSeebackeffect.

Usuallyathermoelectricemfisverysmall.Apairofdissimilarmetalsweldedtogetherattheirjunction
formswhatiscalledathermocouple.Whenseveralthermocouplesarearrangedinseries,theemfis
addedtogethertogiveanappreciableoutput,thisarrangementiscalledthermopileasshowninthe
figure.

Figure36.2:Arrangementofthermocoupletoformathermopile

Whentwodissimilarmetalsarejoinedtogether,thefreeelectronsmoverandomlyacrossthejunction.
Becauseofthedifferentatomicstructureofeachmetal,electronspassmorereadilyacrossthe
boundaryinonedirectionthaninother.Thisresultsindisplacementofcharges,makingonemetal
positiveandothernegative.

Materialsforthermocouple:

1. Meltingpointofthermocouplematerialsmustbehigherthanthemeasuringtemperature.
2. Thedissimilarmaterialsonjoiningshouldbeabletoproducelargeemfforaccuracyof
measurements.
3. Temperatureisdeterminedindirectlyi.e.throughcalibrationsofemfwithtemperature.As
foraspossible,thelinearvariationofemfwithtemperatureisdesired.
4. Thermocouplematerialsshouldberesistanttoatmospheresinfurnaces.
Availablethermocouples.
Type Positivewire Negativewire Maximum Suitable
(+ve) (ve) temperature( ) under
T C Ni Cu 370 . Oxidizing&
reducing
S Pt Rh Pt 1700 . Oxidizing&
inert
N Ni Cr Si . Ni . Si . Mn . 1260 . Oxidizing&
inert
 K Ni Cr Ni Mn At Si 1260 . Oxidizing
&inert
J Fe Ni Cu 760 . Oxidizingand
reducing
B Pr Rh Pt Rh 1750 . Oxidizing,
inert&
vacuum

Coldjunctioncompensation

Applicationofseebackeffecttothermocouplerequiresthatoneendofthejunction(cold)mustbeat
constanttemperature.

The standard calibration data for all thermocouples are based on O cold junction temperature. In
practiceitmaynotbepossibletokeepcoldjunctionatzerodegreetemperature.Hencestandarddata
needtobecorrected. Onewayistoaddtheenvironmental temperaturetothevalueoftemperature
determinedbythermocouplemeasurement.

In another method, thermistor may be put in the thermocouple circuit. The voltage drop across
thermistordependsonenvironmentaltemperaturewhichthencompensatesfortheerror.

Compensatingwires

Compensatingwiresare thosewireswhichare connectedfrom the thermocoupleto the temperature

indicator.Compensatingwiresshouldhavesameemfasthatofthermocouples.

Compensatingwiresarecolorcoded.

Positivewire Color Thermocouple

Fe White Feconstantan
NiCr Yellow Chromelalumel
Cu Blue CuNIbase
NiCr Purple Chromelconstantan
NiCrSi Orange Nicrosil/Nisil

Thenegativewiresinallthermocouplesarered.

Selectionofthermocouples

1)Typeoffurnace;whetherbatchorcontinuousandthefrequencyofmeasurement.

2)Furnaceatmosphere:Thefurnaceatmospheremaybeoxidizingorreducing,inertorvacuum.
Accordingly thermocouples are selected. For example Pt, PtRh can be used in oxidizing and
inert atmospheres up to 1480 . Chromel alumel thermocouples may be used in reducing
atmospherebutatlowtemperatures.

3)Responseofthermocoupletotemperaturedifferenceisimportant.Normallythermocouples
are inserted in a ceramic sheath. During temperature measurement, The hot junction of the
thermocouple is heated by the transfer of heat from sheath. Also large diameter of wire
requiressufficienttimeforheating.


Illustrationofgastemperaturecorrection

Consider the measurement of temperature of gas by a thermocouple. When a thermocouple in a
protection tube is inserted in gas or liquid, the outer surface of the tube receives heat either by
convectionorbyconvection+radiation.
Consider a thermocouple with an emissivity 0.75 measures the temperature of gas flowing in a duct
whosewalltemperatureis593K.Athermocoupleindicates833K.Theforcedconvectiveheattransfer
coefficient between the gas and the thermocouple is 120 Wm K . What would be the actual
temperatureofgas?

Solution
The temperature measured by the thermocouple is lower than that of gas because thermocouple
radiatestothewall.Energybalanceatsteadystateis
Radiantheatflowfromthethermocoupletothewall=Convectiveheatflowformgastothermocouple

A F T T hA T T

A surfaceareaofthermocouple

emissivity, StefansBoltzmannconstant.

T Temperature of thermocouple, and T Temperature of duct wall

and T temperatureoffluid.

F T T
T T

Substitutingthevalues

. .
T T

. .



125.5 K

T 958.5 K

One notes that there is an appreciable error and this must be taken into account. It should be
recognized that in an oven or furnace gas temperature may not be equal to the temperature of the
majorsourceofradiation.Thismayleadtooverheatingofmaterials.Propershieldingofthermocouple
wouldbenecessary.

 LECTURE37

TemperatureMeasurement:RadiationPyrometry

Contents
BlackBodyRadiation

Radiationfromrealsurfaces

Principlesofradiationpyrometer

Totalradiationpyrometer

LimitationsofRadiationPyrometer

DisappearingFilamentPyrometer

KeyWords:furnaces,radiation,pyrometer

Blackbodyradiation

Abodyathighertemperaturesemitselectromagneticradiation.Therateatwhichenergyisemitted
dependsonsurfacetemperatureandsurfaceconditions.Thethermalradiationfromabodyis
composedofwavelengthsforminganenergydistribution.Thetotalemissivepowerofablackbody e
ataparticulartemperatureis

e e d(1)

Inwhich iswavelengthande ismonochromaticemissivepower.Plancksdistributionlawrelatese

tothewavelengthandtemperature:

e (2)
KB T

Inwhich isPlancksconstant,aisvelocityoflight, iswavelength. isabsolutetemperatureandK B is

Boltzmannconstant.

Totalemissivepowerofablackbodyis

e T .(3)

Inwhich isStefansBoltzmannconstantanditsvalueis5.67 10 Wm K .

Radiationfromrealsurfaces
Blackbodyisanidealizedconceptinradiation.Ablackbodyabsorbsallincomingradiationand
transmitsnone.Blackbodyisalsoaperfectemitter,sinceitemitsradiationofallwavelengths.Itstotal
emissivepoweristheoreticallythehighestthatcanbeachievedatanygiventemperature.

Thus,allrealsurfacesemitthermalradiationslowerthanblacksurfaceatanytemperaturesuchthat

e e (4)

Inwhich isemissivityand istotalradiationfromarealsurface.Obviously 1forablackbodyand

1forallarealsurfaces.Thus,monochromaticemissivepowerofarealsurfaceis

e (5)
KB T

InviewoftheStefanBoltzmannequation,thetotalemissivepowerofarealsurfaceis

e T (6)

Qualitativelythespectralemissivityofmetalsdecreaseswithincreasingwavelength.Forthebaremetal
surface,theemissivitydecreaseswithincreasingwavelength.Roughnessincreasesemissivity.

Principlesofradiationpyrometer

Temperaturemeasurementisbasedonthemeasurementofradiationeitherdirectlybyasensororby
comparingwiththeradiationofabodyofknowntemperature.Theradiationpyrometerisanoncontact
typeoftemperaturemeasurement.

Thewavelengthregionhavinghighintensityisbetween0.1toabout10m.Inthisregion,01. to 0.4m
istheultravioletregion,0.4to0.7isthevisibleregionand0.7onwardsistheinfraredregion.Withthe
increase in temperature, radiation intensity is stronger toward shorter wavelengths. The temperature
measurementbyradiationpyrometerislimitedwithin0.5to8mwavelengthregion.

Totalradiationpyrometer

A radiation pyrometer consists of optical component to collect the radiation energy emitted by the
object, a radiation detector that converts radiant energy into an electrical signal, and an indicator to
readthemeasurements.

 Figure37.1:TotalRadiationPyrometer

The optical pyrometer is designed to respond narrow band of wavelengths that fall within the visible
rangeoftheelectromagneticspectrum.

Thermaldetectorsareusedassensors.Theirhotjunctionistheradiationsensingsurface.Thermopiles
candetectradiationofallwavelengths.

A number of semiconductors are developed to sense the radiation. These are materials of Si, PbS,
indiumantimonidesetc.Theirresponseisthoughinstantaneousbutitisselectivetowavelength.

Siliconissuitableonlyaround0.8 0.9 mandleadsulphidearound1to2m.

It is important that gases like CO , H O and dust should not obstruct the path of radiation. The dust
particlesscattertheradiation,whereasCO andwatervaporselectivityabsorbsradiation.

Any instrument built to sense the radiation has to be in an enclosure to avoid dirt, dust and gases
presentinindustrialenvironment.Normallyawindowisprovidedwithsomeopticalmaterialstoseethe
radiatingbody.Thematerialsshouldhavegoodtransmissivity.Allopticalmaterialsallowonlyparticular
wavelengthtopassthroughitwithsufficientintensity.Forotherwavelengthstheyareopaque.

Materialforwindows Transmissivity

Glasseslikequartz,Pyrex,rubyetc. Goodinultravioletandvisibleregionofwavelengthbutareopaqueto
infrared.Glasswindowsareusefulforwavelengthslowerthan2.5m.
Beyondwavelengthof2.5m,transmissivitydecreasesdrastically.

Bariumfluorideandzincsulphide Theyhave60 80%transmissivityintheinfraredandvisibleregion.


Calciumfluoride Ithasaverygoodtransmissivityinvisibleandinfraredregion.

LimitationsofRadiationPyrometer

1. Availabilityofopticalmaterialslimitonthewavelengthsthatcanbemeasured.
2. Thesurfaceofthehotobjectshouldbeclean.Itshouldnotbeoxidized.Scaleformationdoesnot
allowtomeasureradiationaccurately.
3. Emissivitycorrectionisrequired.Changeinemissivitywithtemperatureneedtobeconsidered.

DisappearingFilamentPyrometer
Inthistypeofpyrometer,thetungstenfilamentofanelectricbulbisusedasaradiator.Theintensityof
radiation of filament is compared with the intensity of the radiation of the hot surface. When both
intensitymatch,thefilamentdisappearsagainstthebackground.

The intensity of the filament can be controlled by the current flowing through it. The maximum
temperatureofthefilamentis2800 3000 attheratedvoltage.Theminimumvisibleradiationisat
600 .Hencewecanmeasurethetemperatureinbetween 600 2800 .

Theamperemeterinthelampcircuitiscalibratedisdegreecentigrade

Figure37.2:DisappearingFilamentPyrometer

Figureshowsanopticalpyrometer.Theradiationsfromthesourcearefocusedontothefilamentofthe
referencetemperatureusinganobjectivelens.Nowtheeyepieceisadjustedtofocustheimagesthe
hotsourceandthefilament.Nowthelampcurrentiscontrolledsuchthatfilamentappearsdarkifitis
coolerthanthesource,thefilamentwillappearbrightifitishotterthansourceandfilamentwillnotbe
seenifthefilamentandthetemperaturesourceareatsametemperature.

 LECTURE38

ElectricResistanceHeating

Contents
Principlesofelectricheating

Requirementsforaheatingelement

AvailableMaterials

Lifeoftheelements

KeyWords:electricheating,heatingelements,power,refractorymaterials

Principlesofelectricheating

Whenacurrent I flowsthroughaconductorofresistance R ,heatisproducedandthereis

temperatureriseofconductorsinelectricalcircuits.Temperatureriseisundesirableandmustbelimited
bydesigntoavoidoverheatingoftheconductororitselectricalinsulation.Thisisoftentermedas
permissiblesurfaceloadingofaconductor.Theconductorcouldbeintheformofwire,stripsorany
othershape.

Permissiblesurfaceloadingisoftenaprimeconsiderationinchoosingthebestsizeoftheconductoror
heatingelement.Therelationshipis

q in watt I R UA T(1)

Inwhich iscurrent, isresistance, isoverallheattransfercoefficient, issurfaceareaofthe

conductorandTistemperaturedifferenceresultingduetoflowofcurrent.

Considerawireofcircularcrosssection.Theresistance R is

R K ,(2)
D

InwhichKisresistivityin. m, lislengthofconductorinm and isdiameterin .Thesurfacearea

ofthewire

A lD(3)

Combining1,2and3weget,

I K
D 0.74 (4)
U T
Thisrelationshipgivesminimumdiameterin ofaconductorofspecificresistivityK whichcanbeused
tocarrycurrent I withoutincreasingthetemperatureoftheconductortoavaluemoretheT above
thesurrounding.

Requirementsforaheatingelement

Itshouldhavemeltingpointgreaterthanfurnacetemperature.
Itshouldnotreactwiththeatmosphereofthefurnace.Commonlyfurnaceatmospheresare
oxidizing,reducingandmaycontainwatervapour.
Itshouldberesistanttothermalandmechanicalshock.
Itshouldhaveenoughresistivity.Resistivityistheabilityofamaterialtoinhibitflowofcurrent
inpresenceofappliedvoltage.

AvailableMaterials

Broadlyspeakingthreedifferenttypesofmaterialsareavailablenamelymetallic,refractorymetalsand
nonmetallicones.

Metallic:Amongmetallicmaterials,NickelchromeandironchromeAlarecommonlyused.Nickel
chromecanbeusedupto1200 .IronchromeAlcommonlyknownasKanthalcanbeusedat
temperatures1200 to1400 .Pureplatinumcouldbeuseduptown1400 whereasalloysplatinum
andrhodiumcanbeusedupto1700 .PtRhalloyscanbeusedinreducingatmospheres.

Refractorymetals:

Molybdenumandtungstenareused.Mocanbeusedupto2500 and upto3000 .Tungsten

heatingelementscanbeusedindryhydrogenatmosphereandundervacuum.

Nonmetallic

Molybdenumdisilicidealsoknownassuperkanthalcanbeusedupto1750 .Thesafetemperature
dependsontemperature.Inair,molybdenumdisilicideheatingelementscanbeusedupto1700 ,in
reducingatmosphereupto1400 .

Siliconcarbideheatingelementsareusedinhydrogenandreducingatmospheresupto1200oC.Inair,
thetemperatureis1500oC.

Siliconandgraphiteareusedeitherinreducingorinaninertatmosphere.Maximumtemperatureis
2200 .

Elementtype Advantages Disadvantages

Metallic i) Available in strip and wire form so i)Relativelylowmaximumelement

 thatfabricationiseasy temperature

ii) Less expensive than SiC and MoSiO2 ii)Needsupportingmechanism

elementsforthesamepowerinput
iii) Resistance increases with time
iii)Linevoltagecanbeused due to reduction in cross section
caused by oxidation and creep,
these results in decreased power
outputandfailure.

SiliconCarbide i)Elements are self supportive. They i) Costly power control equipment
can be used in furnaces that are too is required than metallic elements
wideortoolong (multitap transformers are
needed)
ii) Available in wide range of shapes
andsizes. ii) Brittle in nature and hence
breakseasily
iii) Capable to operate at higher watt
loading than metallic elements and iii) Electrical resistance increases
hence higher temperature can be withtime,maintenanceisrequired
obtained

iv)Elements can be changed while the

furnaceishot

Molybdneum i) Available in a variety of shapes and i) More costly power control

disilicide sizes equipmentthanmetallicelements

ii) Without material degradation fast ii)Elementsareexpensive

thermalcyclingispossible
iii)Riskoffracture.
iii) Relatively easy to change while the
furnaceishot

iv) Stable resistance, that means new

andoldelementscanbeconnected.

v) Can operate at higher watt loading

and temperature than metallic
elements.

Thelifeoftheelementsdependson

1.Fluctuationinsupplyvoltage:Forevery1%increaseinvoltage,therewillbea2%increaseinpower.

2.Wattdensityoftheheatingelements.

3.Ifmorepowerisneeded,increasethediameteroftheelementwireorreducethelengthofthe
element.

4.Theelementsmustbeoperatedatthedesignvoltage.

5.Forthecyclicnatureapplicationselementsneedadequatespacetomoveontheirhangersor
supports.Elementsshouldnotbelocatedclosetothebottomortoarefractoryshelfbecauseexpansion
maycausethemtorestontherefractorywhereheatwillnotdissipatefromtheelement,allowingahot
spottodevelop.

.
SourceDaniel H.Herring [email protected]

 Lecture39:Furnaceefficiencyandcarboncredit

Contents:

Furnaceefficiency

Installationofpreheaterandefficiency

Carbonoffset

Conservationofenergyresources

Keywords:furnaceefficiency,carboncredit,carbonoffset,fueleconomy,energyconservation

Furnaceefficiency

ConsiderafuelfiredfurnaceusedtoheatthechargeatthetemperatureTu.Thefurnaceattainsasteady
statetemperatureatcertainratioofmassoffuel/massofair.Atsteadystateoperationofthefurnace,a
certainamountofheatHinisgeneratedattheadiabaticflametemperaturebycombustionoffuel.Heat
isbeingcarriedoutbytheproductsofcombustion(HPOC)attemperatureTP .Theheatedchargecarries
heat(Hu)attemperatureTu.SomeamountofheatH islostattemperatureT throughthewallsofthe
lining.Theinputsandoutputofheatareshowninthefigure

Figure39.1:Heatbalanceofafurnaceatsteadystate

SteadystaleheatbalanceattheconstantfurnacetemperatureT andconstantfuelinputrateis

H HP H H H (1)

Other heat losses are due to opening of furnace door for charging and discharging of the products,
cooling of water etc. which are included in Hother. It is important to note that at the constant furnace
temperature, temperature of products of combustion leaving the furnace and the wall heat loss
temperaturearealsofixed.

Thermalefficiencyofthefurnaceisdefinedas
 E HP H H
T 1 (2)
E H H H

Efficiencyofthefurnacecanalsobemeasuredbytheeffectivenessoftheinsulation. F

H H
F 100.(3)
H

H H H
(4)
H

H H
F 1 (5)
H H

nF nT

Furnaceefficiencyindicatestheamountoffuelrequiredduringtheunsteadystateheatingperiodofthe
furnace.Duringtheunsteadystateperiodacertainquantityoffuelisrequiredtoraisethetemperature
of the furnace to the temperature of the charge Tu. Higher furnace efficiency as attained by better
insulatingrefractorywillrequirelessamountoffuelduringtheunsteadyperiod.

Installationofpreheaterandefficiency

We install a preheater to preheat air from the heat captured by incoming products of combustion as
showninthefigure:

Figure39.2:Installationofapreheater

Theefficiencyofthepreheaterisdefinedas

Preheating of air brings sensible heat into the furnace in addition to the heat of combustion. Two
possibilitiesareconsideredtousetheadditionalamountofsensibleheatofair.Inone,thefuelinput
rateisnotchangedwhichmeansHinisunchanged.RevisedHeatbalanceofthefurnace:
H HPOC H HPOC H H

It must be noted that the furnace has to operate at temperature T which means that TPOC and Tl
remainsalsounchanged.Asaconsequence,extraamountofchargeistobeaddedtoutilizethesensible
heatinair.NowtheheatoutputbythechargewillbeH suchthat

H H HPOC .

H HPOC HPOC
T T
H H

Thermalefficiencyofthefurnaceincreasesinproportiontoamountofsensibleheatinair.

Inanother,wekeeptheamountofloadconstantsothatheatcarriedbytheloadisHu.Sensibleheatin
airwillincreasethetemperatureofthefurnace,ifthefurnaceisoperatedatthesamefuelinput(Hi)as
was without preheating air. Since the temperature of the furnace should remain at Tu, thus fuel input
H hastobereducedsuchthat

H H HPOC

H H isfuelsavingandcanbeexpressedinpercentofHin

HPOC
Fuelsaving(%)=
H

Carbonoffset

Carbonoffsetisafinancialinstrumentaimedatreductioningreenhousegasemissions.Thisconceptis
introduced to motivate and encourage the entrepreneurs to reduce carbon emissions from their
furnaces.CarbonoffsetismeasuredintermsofmetrictonofCO equivalent.

Onecarbonoffset=Reductionof1metrictonofCO oritsequivalentinothergreenhousegases.

OnemetrictonofCO reductionisequivalenttoreductionofaround270KgCarbon.

Thereareseveralwaystogeneratecarbonoffset;someofthewaysaregivenbelow:

I)Useofrenewablesourceofenergy:

Thebasisofgeneratingcarbonoffsetistoreducethecarbonconsumption.Anysourceofenergywhich
isfreefromcarbon,forexamplesolarenergyetc.willgeneratecarbonoffset.Inthisconnection,useof
hydrogenandtoreplacecarbontotheextentpossibleisanotherwaytoreducecarbonemissions.

II)Fossilfuelreduction

Most of the thermal energy in high temperature processes is derived directly from consumption of
carbonaceousfuels.Inprocesseswhereelectricenergyisused,thereisindirectconsumptionofcarbon
(inthermalpowerplants,potentialenergyofthefossilfuelisconvertedtoelectricenergy).Itistobe
notedthataround70%oftheelectricenergyrequirementsaremetthroughthermalpowerplants.

Intheabovescenario,reductioninthefossilfuelconsumptionwillleadtoreductionincarbonemission.
Oneofthewaystoreducethecarboncontentistocapturethesensibleheatofproductsofcombustion
andreusetopreheattheair.Thismethodhasdualbenefits;utilizationofsensibleheatofproductsof
combustionandreductionincarbonconsumption.Thefuelsavingresultingduetopreheatingofairis

HPOC
FS % 100
H
HPOC
If 0.5 at 1240 & 0.3.
H

Fuelsaving=15 %.

Thisfuelsavingintermsofcarbonoffsetcorrespondsto

% %C
Carbonoffset=

Conservationofenergyresources:

Natural energy resources are limited and every attempt must be made to conserve them. One of the
wayscouldbetosubstitutethelowerqualityfuel.Thequalityofthefuelcanbejudgedbyitscapability
togenerateflametemperature.Qualityofthefuelistherelativeterm.Thefuelwhichproduceshigher
adiabatic flame temperature on complete combustion with stoichiometric amount of air is of higher
quality than a fuel which produces lower flame temperature. The following table gives the adiabatic
flame temperature for some fuels (the readers can calculate the flame temperature as illustrated in
lectures 12 and 13 of this course. Also you may consult the video lectures of the fuel,furnace and
refractorycourse)

Typeoffuel Adiabaticflametemperature(K)

Fueloil 2300

Naturalgas 2275
 Blastfurnacegas 1667

Producergas 1550

According to the above table it can be said that fuel oil is high quality fuel than producer gas. If it is
possibletosubstitutethelowerqualityfueltoperformahightemperatureoperation,highqualityfuel
canbeconserved.Thequestionistowhatextentthissubstitutionispossible.

In combustion of fuel, flame temperature of the products of combustion controls the furnace
temperature. Whereas heat requirement of a process can be met by increasing the amount of fuel
temperaturerequirementneedsfuelofaparticularqualityforgivencombustionconditions.Thisisthe
basisofcalculationthepercentsubstitutionoflowerqualityfuel.

Considerafurnaceoriginallyoperatingwithnaturalgas.Wewanttosubstituteitbyblastfurnacegas.
Thefollowingproceduremaybeadopted:

Firstcalculatetheflametemperatureofthenaturalgas.Atthisflametemperaturethefurnace
wasoperating.
Makeamixture90%naturalgasand10%blastfurnacegasandcalculatethecompositionofthe
mixtureanditscalorificvalue.
Recalculatetheflametemperatureandanalyze.Iftheflametemperatureofthemixtureislower
thanthatofnaturalgas,preheatingofthefuelisrequiredtoattainthesameflametemperature
as that with natural gas. The following table illustrates the effect of preheating efficiency of
substitutionofblastfurnacegasinanaturalgasfiredfurnace

BF gas (AFT)BF+NG/AFTNG Preheating

(%) efficiency(%)

0 1 0

0.2 0.990 4

0.4 0.975 9

0.6 0.950 17

0.8 0.895 34

1.0 0.706 84

InthetableBF=blastfurnacegas,NG=naturalgas.(AFT)BF+NG/AFTNG=1means%BFiszero
The table indicates that a mixture of 40%BF+60%NG would have adiabatic flame temperature lower
than natural gas. A preheater efficiency of 9% would make the adiabatic flame temperature of the
mixturetothatofnaturalgas.

Ref:HAfineandG.H.Geiger:HandbookonmaterialandenergybalanceinMetallurgicalProcesses
 Lecture40:Illustrationoncarboncreditandefficiency

Contents
Exercise1

Exercise2

KeyWords:Carboncredit,carbonoffset,fuelsavings

Exercise1

Anoilfiredreheatingfurnaceconsumes100Kg/hroiltoheat1tonbilletto1400K.Oilanalyses86 % C
and14 % Handisburntwith25% excessair.Grosscalorificvalueofoilis45000kJ/kg.ThePOCexits
thefurnaceat1500K.Whataretheheatlosses&thermalefficiency?

Solution:

Heatbalance:

Heatinput=HeatcarriedbyPOC+Heatcarriedbysteel+Heatlosses.

WecancalculateamountofPOC/100kgfuelandheattoPOC.Allthesensibleheatvaluesaretaken
fromthereferencegivenblow.

HeattoPOC 3.11 10 kJhr.

Heattosteel 0.7 10 kJhr.

Heatinput 4.5 10 kJhr.

Heatlosses 0.63 10 kJhr.

Thermalefficiency 16.8 %whichmeansthat16.8 %ofthecalorificvalueoffuelisusedinheating

billet.

Forthisfurnaceletusinstallapreheaterwhichcanrecover50%ofheattopreheatair.Heatlossesand
heattosteelareunchanged.Calculatethecarbonoffsetduetopreheater.

Preheaterinstallationresultsinfuelsaving.Let F kghrisnowfuelrequired.Heatbalance

F 0.5 31144 45000F 0.63 10 0.76 10 31144F.

F 47 kghr.

Savinginfuel 53 kghr.
For20 hrdayand25daysinmonth

Fuelsaving 26500 kgmonth

Carboncredit 84month.

Exercise2

30 m hr ofnaturalgasisburnedinaremeltingfurnace,whichoperates24hours/day,300daysina
year.Thenaturalgasanalyses70% CH and30% C H .Drycombustionairis20%excessthan
theoreticalrequirements.Fluegasentersthestackat1200K.Volumesaregivenat25 and1
atmosphericpressure.

Itisproposedtoinstallapreheaterwhichwillcoolthefluegasesfrom1200Kto800K.Itmaybe
assumedthat90%oftheheatrecoveredfromfluegasesistransferredtoair.Calculateannualfuel
savingresultingduetopreheaterinstallation.Alsocalculatecarbonaffectgeneration.

Theheatofcombustionvaluesare:

H CO 97.2 10 k cal kg mole

H H O V 57.8 10 k cal kg mole

H CH 17.89 10 k cal kg mole

H C H 20.24 10 k cal kg mole

AndsensibleheatinPOCis

POC H1200H298{kcal(kgmole)1} H800H298{kcal(kgmole)1}

CO2 10650 5458

H2O(V) 8217 4403

O2 7040 3786

N2 6728 3600

Solution:solutionisgiveninbrief.

Heatofcombustionforthereaction

CH 2O CO 2H O .
C H 3.52O 2 CO 3H O .

HC , 296434 k cal.

Heat transferred to air 0.9 H H POC H 298 POC .

Heat transferred to air 0.9 8281 10763 1956 42425

57082 k cal.

Fuel saving 0.236 kg molehr.

1kg mole 24.45 m 1 atmosphere and 298K

Fuel savingYear 41550 m 19%.

Nowfuelsaving/Yearwillleadtoreductionin CO whichisequalto2208 kg moles.

Itisknownthat1carbonoffsetisequivalenttoreductionin1000kg CO

Carbon offset 100