Philosophy of Medicine and Bioethics

1
Thomas Schramme

Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
The Definition of Philosophy of Medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Edmund Pellegrino . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Tristram Engelhardt and Edmund Erde . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
The Need for Philosophy of Medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Values and Norms in Medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Definition of Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Summary Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Abstract
The chapter discusses ways to understand the notion of philosophy of medicine,
with a special focus on the relation between philosophy of medicine and bioethics.
Philosophy of medicine has been distinguished from other associations between
philosophy and medicine. These conceptual distinctions lead to an account that
delineates bioethics from the realm of philosophy of medicine. It has often been
argued that medicine itself is a normative practice in that it aims at the good of
patients. This undermines a simple account of medicine as a purely empirical,
natural science. Yet such a normative account of medicine does not show that
philosophy of medicine needs to aim at normative guidance like bioethics.

T. Schramme (*)
Department of Philosophy, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
e-mail: [email protected]

# Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2017 3

T. Schramme, S. Edwards (eds.), Handbook of the Philosophy of Medicine,
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8688-1_58
4 T. Schramme

Introduction

Philosophy of medicine is now an established field of study. Whether it could also

be called a discipline or at least a subdiscipline in its own right is a contested matter,
depending on a particular understanding of what constitutes an academic discipline.
In any case, philosophy of medicine has not always been acknowledged as a distinct
field of study, and important debates about its status and, indeed, whether it exists at
all took place in the fairly recent past. It is important to get some grasp of these
debates and the issues surrounding it to appreciate the tasks and the scope of
philosophy of medicine. So the main aspect of this chapter is to clarify the notion
of philosophy of medicine.
Another central problem is the relation of philosophy of medicine and bioethics.
Although ethics is a part of philosophy, it is sometimes equated with moral
philosophy and although bioethics is obviously closely related to medicine,
bioethics is arguably not a part of philosophy of medicine. Philosophy of medicine
is distinctive in focusing on conceptual, methodological, axiological, epistemolog-
ical, metaphysical, and other philosophical issues regarding medicine from a
theoretical point of view, i.e., in order to analyze, understand, or explain aspects
of the theory and practice of medicine. Bioethics, in contrast, discusses normative
problems in medicine from a practical point of view, i.e., in order to provide
guidance as to how people should act. Philosophy of medicine and bioethics are
here delineated by distinguishing between a theoretical and a practical perspective
or stance, not by their scope. Both might focus on theoretical and practical issues in
medicine, for instance, they might address medical research aimed at gaining
knowledge about the functioning of organisms (an issue regarding the theory of
medicine), or they might be concerned with the clinical encounter between patient
and doctor (an issue regarding the practice of medicine), but they do this with
different aims. Put briefly and somewhat crudely, philosophy of medicine aims at
analysis, whereas bioethics aims at guidance.
Bioethics could also be described as a field of inquiry that does not aim at the
specific and peculiar characteristics of medicine. It consists rather in an application
of the instruments provided by ethics to a specific area, namely, to biomedicine. To
be sure, there can be genuine normative issues in philosophy of medicine, but here
the impetus is to understand the specific evaluative and normative aspects of
medicine, for instance, the notion of suffering. Also, for a topic to belong to
philosophy of medicine, the direct object of understanding must be an aspect of
medicine, not a general issue that is pursued by merely using examples from
medicine, for instance, when discussing the philosophy of scientific experiments
or of causality.
To say that philosophy of medicine and bioethics are different fields of study
obviously does not mean that there is no connection between them. For instance,
in order to discuss the ethics of organ transplantation, one needs a clear understanding
of the concept of death. To analyze this concept is a task for philosophy of medicine.
To distinguish between bioethics and philosophy of medicine also does not imply
that there are no issues regarding value or morality in philosophy of medicine.
1 Philosophy of Medicine and Bioethics 5

Yet, these issues are discussed within philosophy of medicine from a theoretical
point of view, i.e., not in order to solve practical problems but in order to
understand and explain evaluative and normative aspects of medicine. To do
bioethics properly, one needs some acquaintance with philosophy of medicine,
and to do philosophy of medicine properly, one needs some knowledge of ethical
problems in medicine. After all, theories to explain aspects of medicine should
serve specific purposes, and these are usually determined by the need to solve
normative problems. The latter connection also speaks against reducing philoso-
phy of medicine to a mere subfield of philosophy of science. Although philosophy
of medicine obviously is part of the philosophy of science, it is also not restricted
to explaining medicine as a science (Pellegrino 1998, 326). Medicine is both a
science and an art; it has theoretical as well as practical aspects. It is different
from many other sciences in its interpersonal aspects, the encounter between
patient and clinical personnel. Hence, there are accordingly philosophical aspects
of medicine that are not usually found in other areas of philosophy of science. To
be sure, whether philosophy of medicine can be fully subordinated to the philos-
ophy of science obviously depends on the interpretation of the scope and
perspectives of philosophy of science itself, a topic that falls out of the remit of
this chapter.
It should be noted that the distinction between bioethics and philosophy of
medicine, as it has just been introduced, is itself contested. There are certainly
philosophers who would see bioethics, or medical ethics for that matter, as one
element of philosophy of medicine. Yet the rationale for such subordination seems
to be based on a myopic, if not entirely incorrect, vision on ethics as a subfield of
philosophy. It is true, of course, that bioethics can be aligned with the philosoph-
ical subdiscipline called ethics. Hence, bioethics is a field of study, in this
perspective, that is itself part of philosophy as applied to medicine. Yet, this
does not preclude other important differences between philosophy of medicine
and bioethics, as has been stressed before, especially regarding their aims and
purposes. It is also important to be clear about the relation of philosophy and
medicine when speaking of the philosophy of medicine. As will be seen shortly,
not every application of philosophical methods to medicine is an instance of
philosophy of medicine.
Whether philosophy of medicine exists then depends on our understanding of
it. The question can further be separated into two aspects. First, we might ask
whether philosophy of medicine exists as a separate genuine discipline or field of
study. We have already touched upon this issue and replied affirmatively. It should
be noted, though, that for philosophy of medicine to exist in this way, there need not
be any person doing it. It means an existence as a theoretical entity, as an idea.
Second, it could be asked whether philosophy of medicine exists as an institution.
This would require certain real entities such as persons doing philosophy of
medicine, learned societies, academic journals, a canon of key book, textbooks,
and possibly degrees in the field, etc. (Caplan 1992). Although philosophy of
medicine in this respect is still a nascent endeavor, an answer can be given in the
affirmative.
6 T. Schramme

The Definition of Philosophy of Medicine

Philosophy and medicine are both academic disciplines as well as practices. They
can be put in many different relations to each other. For instance, philosophical
methods or approaches, such as conceptual analysis, phenomenology, or herme-
neutics, may be applied to medical notions or medical practices. This alone does not
make it an instance of philosophy of medicine. The genuine interest in understand-
ing must focus on medicine. So to do philosophy of medicine, the philosophical
methods and approaches are mere instruments in gaining knowledge about aspects
of medicine, rather than gaining knowledge about methods and approaches in
philosophy by using medicine as an area of application. Surely, this distinction
lays out an ideal type that will not always be visible in real publications. Yet, to use
two books as examples, there is a difference between a scholar using medical
examples in order to philosophically discuss pain (Hardcastle 2001) obviously a
phenomenon that is common in medical settings and a scholar analyzing the
notion of suffering in relation to the goals of medicine (Cassell 1991). The first
relation could be called, following the distinctions drawn by Edmund Pellegrino
(Pellegrino 1976, 1986), philosophy in medicine, whereas the latter would be
genuine philosophy of medicine. As with other philosophy of relations, the
purpose of study here is to gain knowledge about the nature of medicine, about
the specific aspects of that particular theory and practice. A similar difference can
be seen between a study discussing autism in order to explore a theoretical issue in
the philosophy of mind, namely, how we gain access to another persons mind,
(Gordon and Barker 1994) and a philosophical investigation into what it means to
live with chronic illness (Toombs 1992). Admittedly, these delineations are some-
what stipulative and probably contested. They are also, as has been said before, hard
to draw in reality. Yet they should also help us in thinking about the proper domain
of philosophy of medicine.
In antiquity, the relationship between philosophy and medicine was strong
(Frede 1986). This of course applied to other disciplines as well, which have
today become separated from their philosophical origins. Many philosophers,
such as Pythagoras, Empedocles, and Democritus, were medical experts and
some of them had advanced theories regarding the nature of disease. This was
usually described as an imbalance of important elements of bodies, called humors.
The attention of philosophers at the time revolved around a general theory of
nature, especially human nature; hence, medical phenomena were of particular
interest. These anthropological and ontological issues were complemented by a
practical interest in giving advice for a good life, of which mental and somatic
health was deemed part and parcel. Doctors developed a theoretical interest in
medicine, roughly from the fifth century BC, because disease more and more came
to be acknowledged as a condition that could be altered and possibly healed. Hence,
the task of medical experts was to gain access to the necessary related knowledge.
To be sure, the search for a systematic approach to study medicine was not so much
caused by a theoretical attraction but by social pressure, which threatened the role
and status of physicians. Doctors accordingly started to explore issues that were
1 Philosophy of Medicine and Bioethics 7

oriented toward the practice of medicine, for instance, the way theoretical knowl-
edge could be applied to individual cases and what were the inherent limitations of
the art of healing. From this emerged different accounts of the role of philosophical
methods in medicine and, roughly from the fourth century BC, competing theories
regarding methods of treatment. Another topic of interest was ethical problems,
especially regarding the relation of medical experts to patients. One aim was to
defend their social status by drawing a rigid demarcation to quacks.
In many other countries and cultures, there were occasional strong links between
philosophy and medicine, and also in later modernity, there were quite a few
academic outputs that are in the field of philosophy of medicine (Temkin 1956;
King 1977). Yet, the current more concerted and institutionalized debate regarding
the philosophy of medicine within the Western civilization began in May 1974
(Potter 1991). It was then that the first interdisciplinary symposium on philosophy
and medicine took place at Galveston, Texas. From this annual meeting, the
important book series in philosophy and medicine (now published by Springer)
emerged, which was originally edited by Tristram Engelhardt and Stuart Spicker. In
1976 the first issue of the Journal of Medicine and Philosophy was published. Its
founding editor was Edmund Pellegrino. In the same year, a meeting of the
American Philosophy of Science Association focused on epistemological issues
in medicine. Other important journals in the fields were released later, for instance,
Theoretical Medicine and Bioethics (originally called MetaMed, founded in 1977
by Kazem Sadegh-Zadeh) and Medicine, Health Care and Philosophy (founded
1998, official journal of the European Society for Philosophy of Medicine and
Health Care). There are also numerous journals that publish in the field of philos-
ophy of medicine, as well as specialized journals with an interdisciplinary bend, for
instance, Philosophy, Psychiatry and Psychology (founded 1994, official journal of
the Association for the Advancement of Philosophy and Psychiatry). Finally, there
are a couple of learned societies and an important email distribution list, run by
Jeremy Rosenbaum Simon.
Not surprisingly, maybe, there was a lot of optimism in the 1970s regarding the
potentials of the discipline called philosophy of medicine. This can be clearly seen
in a quote from Edmund Pellegrino, who wrote in 1976: We are entering a new era
of dialogue perhaps one as promising as that between Greek medicine and
philosophy (Pellegrino 1976, 12 f.). Yet, this positive prognosis was later put
into doubt, for instance, by Arthur Caplan in 1992, who claimed that philosophy of
medicine does not exist, and by Heinrich Loewy, when he announced a new journal
section on Philosophy and its Role in Medicine: Surprisingly little has been
written in English about the philosophy of medicine: Physicians often see medicine
as a purely technical occupation and can make little of the term philosophy of
medicine. Philosophers, likewise often feel that medicine is a merely technical
discipline and that its philosophy is somehow not worthy of serious attention
(Loewy 1994, 201 f.).
Altogether, both the very optimistic and the bleak outlook seem wrong from
todays point of view. There is now a genuine discipline philosophy of medicine.
Still, there is scope for discussing what exactly it is or what it should be. The way
8 T. Schramme

we conceive of philosophy of medicine obviously has repercussions on how it is

faring in terms of its disciplinary viability. In the following, two influential accounts
of the philosophy of medicine will be scrutinized more closely.

Edmund Pellegrino

In his important contribution Philosophy of Medicine: Problematic and Potential,

Edmund Pellegrino thoroughly discusses the possible relationships between med-
icine and philosophy. He categorizes these relations into three different types:
Philosophy and medicine, philosophy in medicine, and philosophy of medicine.

Philosophy and medicine comprises the mutual considerations by medicine and philosophy
of problems common to both (. . .). Some of the recurrent problems of philosophy the
mind-body debate; the meanings of perception, consciousness, language; the special or
nonspecial character of chemical and physical laws in living things are susceptible to this
type of collaborative attack. (. . .) Philosophy in medicine refers to the application of the
traditional tools of philosophy critical reflection, dialectical reasoning, uncovering of
value and purpose, or asking first-order questions to some medically defined problem.
The problems can range from the logic of medical thought to the epistemology of medical
science as science, the problem of causality, the limitations of observation and experiment,
and of course, the whole range of vexing issues in the active field of biomedical ethics. (. . .)
When philosophy turns to the meaning of medicine as clinical practice and examines its
conceptual foundations, its ideologies, its ethos, and the philosophical bases for medical
ethics, then it becomes the philosophy of medicine. The questions examined by philosophy
in medicine are then carried to the unique realm of the clinical encounter with a human
being experiencing health, illness, neurosis, or psychosis, in a setting which involves
intervention into his existence. The philosophy of medicine seeks explanations for what
medicine is and ought to be (. . .) These three types of engagement are rarely separable in
actual fact, and philosophers can, and do, engage in all three. We have dissected them free
to underscore the central importance of the philosophy of medicine: the philosophical
issues imbedded in the theory of medicine as a practical human activity. Ultimately, the
more proximate issues dealt with by philosophy and medicine, and philosophy in medicine,
must rest on the philosophy of medicine. (Pellegrino 1976, 19 ff.)

Pellegrino explicitly excludes biomedical ethics from philosophy of medicine.

He also describes as an essential part of the philosophy of medicine a practical
component, the clinical encounter. This practical element is especially important,
according to Pellegrino, because it is its unique feature, in contrast to, say, biology.
Medicine here has a set aim, in contrast to natural sciences, namely, health or
healing of living beings. The personal relationship between doctor and patient in
pursuing this aim turns medicine into a value-laden, a moral, activity. Hence,
medicine cannot be reduced to other sciences, for instance, to a mix of biology
and psychology (cf. Shaffer 1975). Pellegrino claims: Medicine, then, is an
activity whose essence appears to lie in the clinical event which demands that
scientific and other knowledge be particularized in the lived reality of a particular
human, for the purpose of attaining health or curing illness, through the direct
manipulation of the body, and in a value-laden matrix. It is in this sense that medical
1 Philosophy of Medicine and Bioethics 9

theory is a theory of practical reality and not just the theory of the sciences which
contribute to it (Pellegrino 1976, 17).
There are several issues that can be queried in this account of the philosophy of
medicine. For instance, it can be queried whether cure of illness and promotion of
health are really the essential or only goals of medicine. Relatedly, there is also a
worry that Pellegrino has resolved an issue by stipulation that should be first
clarified by a debate within philosophy of medicine: to determine the nature of
medicine. It seems wrong to restrict philosophy of medicine to the practical realm
of medicine by claiming the clinical encounter as the essence of medicine. To
clarify what role the practice of medicine has in relation to the theory of medicine is
a genuine task of the philosophy of medicine itself and should not be excluded by
restricting the scope of the nature of medicine to the clinical setting.
Ten years later, Pellegrino revisited his three-partite distinction of the relation-
ships between medicine and philosophy. Here, he advances a definition of the
philosophy of medicine that does not rely on a particular interpretation of the
essence of medicine from the outset, but sees a determination of such an interpre-
tation as the outcome of doing philosophy of medicine. The third mode of
relationship, philosophy of medicine, concentrates on a philosophical inquiry into
medicine-qua-medicine. It seeks to define the nature of medicine as medicine, to
elaborate some general theory of medicine and medical activities. (Pellegrino
1986, 10)
Later in the chapter, he gives a more substantial account of the distinctive
problems discussed in philosophy of medicine:

Philosophy of medicine is more than philosophizing about the phenomena peculiar to

medicine, i.e., philosophy in medicine. It seeks to understand and define the conceptual
substrata of medical phenomena. Its agenda is a broad ranging one it deals with such
crucial notions as the ideas of health, illness, normality and abnormality, healing cure, care,
suffering, and pain. What do these concepts embrace? What is the nature of medical
diagnosis, clinical judgment and discovery? (. . .) Does the end of medicine modify the
logic and the epistemology of clinical judgments? (. . .) What are the values that structure
medicine? (. . .) Is health a value and in what sense? (. . .) Questions of this sort provide the
agenda for the philosophy of medicine as a discipline. (Pellegrino 1986, 14 f.)

When reading this list of topics for the philosophy of medicine, it becomes less
clear in what way it differs from philosophy in medicine. After all, philosophy in
medicine has just been described as philosophizing about the phenomena peculiar
to medicine. The key to Pellegrinos understanding of the philosophy of medicine
is that he believes in a distinctive nature of medicine, medicine-qua-medicine,
that determines its agenda. This distinctive nature of medicine, for Pellegrino, is its
practical focus with the related telos of health.

Philosophy of medicine makes the specific method and matter of medicine the subject of
study by the method of philosophy. Philosophy of medicine seeks philosophical knowledge
of medicine itself. It seeks to understand what medicine is and what sets it apart from other
disciplines, and from philosophy, itself. (. . .) Medicine qua medicine comes into existence
in the clinical encounter or in public health when the knowledge of the sciences basic to
10 T. Schramme

medicine is employed for a specific end, i.e., for the cure, containment, amelioration, or
prevention of human illness in individuals or in human societies. (. . .) Philosophy of
medicine seeks to understand the nature and phenomena of the clinical encounter, i.e.,
the interaction between persons needing help of a specific kind relative to health and other
persons who offer to help and are designated by society to help. (Pellegrino 1998, 326 f.)

In summary, for Pellegrino, philosophy of medicine is to be distinguished from

other relationships between philosophy and medicine. For him, its focus is medi-
cine as a distinctive discipline. On the one hand, he says that determining such
nature of medicine is itself a task of philosophy of medicine; on the other hand, he
repeatedly claims that indeed the distinctive feature of medicine is its practical
nature, more specifically in the clinical encounter.

Tristram Engelhardt and Edmund Erde

Tristram Engelhardt and Edmund Erde coauthored an entry on Philosophy of

Medicine for the 1978 edition of the influential Encyclopedia of Bioethics
and later published another substantial article on the subject (Engelhardt and Erde
1980). Similarly to Pellegrino, they also distinguish between different types of
relationships between philosophy and medicine:

Philosophical activity concerning medicine can be focused through four major themes:
Philosophy for medicine, philosophy in medicine, philosophy about medicine, and philos-
ophy of medicine. (. . .) The first uses concepts speculatively to generate medical explana-
tions. (. . .) The second theme can be styled philosophy in medicine. Here, philosophy is a
formal analytical tool, not in the direct service of medical theory or therapy, but rather
employed to display logical structures in medicine. (. . .) The third theme (. . .) involves
reflection on traditional philosophical issues (not logical issues in the strict sense) arising
from the domain of medicine. (. . .) The fourth theme, philosophy of medicine, can be
used to identify those epistemological and conceptual issues peculiar to medicine in a way
analogous to the philosophy of any science (. . .). (Engelhardt and Erde 1978, 1049 f.)

Surely, this classification of various relations between medicine and philosophy

cannot simply be taken to be descriptive. Engelhardt and Erde hence regard their
definition of the philosophy of medicine to be the proper one. Here, they endorse a
fairly narrow understanding of philosophy of medicine that they later gave up,
because they appreciated that the field of medicine cannot easily be delineated.
Still, in the quoted definition, they exclude bioethics from the realm of philosophy
of medicine, like Pellegrino. Bioethics belongs to the category of philosophy about
medicine, because its problems are traditional ones, not specific to medicine, if
raised here in a new way. Other problems of philosophy about medicine have also
been introduced in other domains, such as philosophy of mind and philosophy of
science, and then been applied to medicine. In contrast to such transfer of philo-
sophical issues to medicine, philosophy of medicine deals with problems specific to
medicine, according to Engelhardt and Erde. Examples are the analysis of basic
medical concepts, such as disease, pathology, or health. Engelhardt, at
1 Philosophy of Medicine and Bioethics 11

another occasion, calls this subject area of study philosophy of medicine in a strong
sense (Engelhardt (1977), 98 ff.). According to this understanding, philosophy
about medicine would be equal to philosophy of medicine in a weak sense.

The Need for Philosophy of Medicine

Although one should surely be careful not to take these distinctions as carved in
stone or to see no connections when pursuing either area, such a classification of
different relations between philosophy and medicine serves an analytic purpose of
sorting out a diverse field of study. Another, if contested, benefit of such a
demarcation is to keep medical ethics and bioethics separate from philosophy of
medicine. This is helpful because it becomes obvious that conceptual, metaphysi-
cal, epistemological, and value theoretical aspects underlie moral problems in
medicine. For instance, in medical ethics the notion of quality of life is often
used without analyzing the strongly related concept of health. Also, when justifying
the often painful treatment of children with spina bifida by referring to the goal of
healing, one implicitly assumes an ideal of health (Hare 1986, 174). But how can
such treatment be justified without first having clarified the notion of health?
Another example is the question whether enteral nutrition and hydration are or
ought to be part of basic medical care that cannot be rejected. An answer to this
question obviously depends on an understanding of the notion of care.
Keeping philosophy of medicine and bioethics distinct might therefore advance the
sense that bioethics, a highly professionalized discipline, actually needs the discussion
of foundational philosophical questions (Thomasma 1985, 239; Lindahl 1990). It might
also boost the number of publications in the philosophy of medicine, as a dearth in this
area can easily be diagnosed, in contrast to the volume of publications in bioethics.
In summary, there is a viable discipline philosophy of medicine in its own right,
and there is a need for academic contributions in this area. Surely, there are still
open questions regarding its contours, especially when we consider medicines
distinctive entanglement of theoretical and practical issues. Here, issues of norma-
tive significance are raised and hence the relation between ethics and philosophy of
medicine becomes the subject of inquiry on another level. Is medicine and its
foundations intermingled with values and norms in a way that turns it into a
moral science? Such an interpretation has already been mentioned in the case
of Pellegrinos account. It is an important problem of philosophy of medicine itself,
whether medicine is diffused by values and norms, and if so, of what kind they are.

Values and Norms in Medicine

Medicine can be interpreted as a value-laden practice insofar as every science is

charged with values and norms. Marx Wartofsky, for instance, identified two norms
that are presumed in natural sciences (Wartofsky 1977, 111). First, the norm of
mathematical rationality, second the norm of empirical testability to scrutinize the
12 T. Schramme

truth of statements. These norms determine what is accepted as proper and good
methodology in science. Such a methodology at the same time delineates the area of
science. Only those issues that can be discussed by using the methodology of
hypothesis and deduction and that can be checked against empirical facts are then
supposed to be matters of science. A well-known corollary of such thinking is the
distinction between facts and values, including the scientific ideal of staying value-
free. In contrast, Wartofsky claims that science is, despite its plea for neutrality,
normative in its pursuit and content.

Since methodology is normative and prescriptive (indeed proscriptive) in the way just
described, the very choice of methodological canons, and their elaboration over the past
century, certainly marks the enterprise as normative; and normative in the sense that a
particular historically evolved norm serves to exclude or replace others. (ibid. 112)

According to Wartofsky, there are numerous limitations and shortcomings of a

value-free model that become obvious on different levels. First, the vicinity of
science is too restricted. Many scientific issues in, for instance, thermodynamics or
quantum physics cannot be neatly subsumed under this model. Similar consider-
ations apply to human sciences and psychology. Second, possible ways of scientific
judgment, argumentation, and deduction actually break open the borders of the
prescribed methodology. Third, the model obscures the relation between scientific
theory and practice. Fourth, the historical and social context of science is ampu-
tated. Fifth, by presuming the objectivity of science, there is an unhelpful
distinction implied between pursuing truth and considering the use of such truth.
Many, if not all, of Wartofskys claims are admittedly discussed by many other
scholars within philosophy of science, and several of his theses are contested. The
value of his contribution for philosophy of medicine lies mainly in the fact that he
goes on to assign a characteristic of medicine to each of the listed problems in the
traditional scientific model, to show how the philosophy of science might be put on
a new basis by scrutinizing medicine from a philosophical point of view. First,
health and disease phenomena on which medicine is based do not only allow for
a description as biological conditions. Rather, they necessarily imply social con-
texts and subjective states, as disease never occurs isolated but in a system of
relationships. Health and disease are therefore normative ideas that transcend the
contours of the model of scientificity portrayed earlier. Here, it is important to stress
that Wartofsky does not want to claim that only those conditions are instances of
disease, which have been identified such by medicine or affected persons. He wants
to point out that the identification of diseases is itself done within a social practice.
This transcends the area of medicine over and above the realm of, say, biology and
grounds it in a historically developed life form.
Second, clinical judgment, especially diagnosis, is far too complex to be put
under the rubric of experimental and theoretical deduction. Third, the relation
between theory and practice is special in medicine, as scientific research here is
determined by the practical possibilities of knowledge. Although medical science
and medical art of healing can be distinguished, the former is still oriented toward
1 Philosophy of Medicine and Bioethics 13

the latter, as medicine aims at the advancement of human well-being. Fourth, as

already stressed in the first point, basic medical notions are influenced by social and
historical dimensions. It would destroy the complexity of such a relation if issues of
scientific quality and non-scientificity would be separated. Fifth, the application of
medical knowledge in the encounter between doctor and patient is a central element
of medicine. Diagnosis and therapy in medical practice alter the standpoint of the
examiners; they themselves become an element of the system to be explored.
Hence, the idea of objectivity, which is common in the natural sciences, is here
undermined. Moral issues become pertinent: Indeed, moral questions, and the
social facts of life and death, weal and woe, are not peripheral to medicine but
central to it (ibid. 120).
For Wartofsky it follows that there ought to be a radical revision of what is
considered scientific in order to arrive at a richer notion of science. Now, it seems
that if we follow his considerations we would have to say that moral issues are
after all part and parcel of philosophy of medicine, in contrast to what has been
established before. This would be due to the fact that medicine is first and foremost
a morally determined practice. Yet, the fact that a certain practice is normatively
charged, maybe in a moral way, does not make the philosophical analysis of this
normative practice itself an endeavor in ethics. Whether and in what way medicine
is infused by values is an important issue for philosophy of medicine. But such a
question is not itself a normative question it does not lead to statements about how
to act or evaluations what is a good practice, for example. It rather concerns
epistemological and metaphysical aspects of elements of medicine that can indeed
be normatively charged.

There need not be a strict divide between values and facts in understanding epistemological
questions about medicine. On the contrary, I believe that fact and value blur in important
and unavoidable ways in the realm of medicine. But the recognition that fact and value,
morality and methodology are inextricably wed when the subject is medicine does not
obviate the claim that the philosophy of medicine is and ought to address different
questions than those pursued by those doing bioethics. Bioethics tries to answer questions
that are normative. The philosophy of medicine concerns itself with questions that are
primarily either epistemological or metaphysical. (Caplan 1992, 69)

Conclusion

There is some disagreement within philosophy of medicine about its proper defi-
nition. This also affects the delineation between bioethics and philosophy of
medicine. The point of view developed here states that philosophy of medicine
deals with meta-medical problems from a theoretical perspective that aims at
explanation or analysis. Bioethics, in contrast, aims at guidance or recommenda-
tion. Philosophy of medicine analyzes concepts such as health, disease, or
care, and it tries to identify the values and norms underlying medicine.
In addition, it deals with epistemological questions, for instance, regarding the
14 T. Schramme

status of clinical judgment and the methods of gaining medical knowledge. Genuine
ethical topics play an important role in the public debate regarding medicine. It
therefore seems especially important for philosophers to discuss the foundations of
such discussions.

Definition of Key Terms

Philosophy of medicine A field of study that aims at analyses of metaphysical,

epistemological, methodological, conceptual, and
other philosophical issues regarding medicine.
Philosophy and medicine A perspective on problems common to both philoso-
phy and medicine.
Philosophy in medicine The application of philosophical methods or theories
to the realm of medicine.
Medicine Medicine consists of a theoretical (science) as well as a
practical aspect (art). It predominantly aims at restor-
ing or improving the health of patients. It is a contested
matter itself a topic of philosophy of medicine
whether medicine has a specific nature or essence.
Discipline An established field of study fulfilling certain formal
requirements, such as the existence of learned socie-
ties, textbooks, and journals.
Bioethics An area of applied ethics that focuses on normative
issues in biomedicine and aims at guiding decisions
how to act.

Summary Points

Medicine is both an art and a science; medicine is diffused with values.

This makes medicine a normative discipline though it does not necessarily
include a certain aim or telos.
Philosophy of medicine can be delineated from other relations between these
disciplines.
Philosophy of medicine is a field of study that aims at analyses of metaphysical,
epistemological, methodological, conceptual, and other philosophical issues
regarding medicine.
Philosophy of medicine has become an established discipline in its own right.
Philosophy of medicine is different from bioethics or medical ethics in that the
former aims at analysis, the latter at guidance.
1 Philosophy of Medicine and Bioethics 15

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