1.

What is the main principle related to the wind load distribution to the
particular walls in?
Wind load is distributed to particular walls according to their stiffness. The main
formula:
Ii
w=w c L
I
L dimension of the building [m],
Ii moment of inertia defined according to main axis of the gravity [m 4],

I total moment of inertia calculated according to main axis of the gravity

[m4],
wc characteristic value of the wind load [kN/m2].

1. The main principle is to identify which walls are responsible of receiving the
wind load. DEFINE THE STRUCTURAL AGREEMENT. Wall parts perpendicular to
the wind are also involved in the structural capacity for wind activity. It is
important how much part of the wall we have to consider.
2. Localize local axes of inertia to determine their stiffness of each element.
3. It is necessary to localize the global axis of inertia of the building. GLOBAL
moment of inertia of the whole system. Translate the local axis.
4. Redistribution the horizontal load (wind load) according to their stiffness.
2. What are the main parameters which, according to Wind Eurocode,
influence values of the wind load acting on high multi-storey buildings?
- dimensions of the building,
- ratio of height to the width of building distribution of wind load,

- horizontal load resulting from not vertical erection of walls,

- coefficient of wind blast (?).
3. What are the main design errors influencing quality of Polish
prefabricated large panel systems?
DESIGN
- Thermal bridges inside structural joints, as a result of loads of the thermal
insulation continuity,
- complicated system of sealing structural joints,
- complicated shape of the outer contour of the wall corners, many difficulties during
production of precast elements and many damages during transport phase,
- too rigid fixed system for external layer of wall panels generating many cracks and
other type of defect,
EXECUTION
- not proper performance of the thermal insulation of the walls,
- bad quality of mineral wool (not enough rigid),
- not good curing of the concrete,
- lack of thermal insulation inside structural joints,
- permanent lack of proper external sealing of structural joints,
- application of not proper quality of flexible putties,
- damages during transport
4. Please specify the basic technical parameters characterizing W-70 large
panel system.
Its basic solution was transverse load-bearing walls system.
Modular sheet of 60x60 cm.
Elements:
- hollow roof slab reinforced in one direction, thickness 22 cm,
- internal walls, thickness 15 cm (occupied floors),
- basement walls, thickness 20 cm,
- multilayered external walls, thickness 27 cm or 40 cm with gravelite concrete,
Typical spans of floor: 240, 360, 480, 600 cm.
Height of floor: 280 cm.
5. Please specify and describe the main formwork solutions typical for PERI
system.
MULTIFLEX slab formwork with girders
Vario GT24 versatile system of wall formwork

TRIO panel formwork

SKYDECK panelized slab formwork

RUNDFLEX continuously adjustable circular formwork,

System GRV circular formwork without tie-beams for circular waterproof containers
System ACS automatic self-climbing system

6. What we have to check if we like to verify structural rigidity of high

scrape building?
ROTATION OF THE FOUNDATION affects MAXIMUM DEFLECTION (SERVICEABILITY
STATE)
- rotation resulting for statically calculation (for huge building we only consider the
moment component, neglect the axial component),
- rotation of foundation plate that affects the deflection (consider WIND LOAD),
7. Explain shortly the idea of the design tools called influence line and
envelope of static value
Envelope of static values We can determine what are the extreme values of
internal forces
of the structure. Therefore, we are able to establish what cross-section or how many
re-bars should
be chosen.
Influence line we can determine distribution of specific forces acting on structure.
8. What is the main difference in distribution of normal stresses in the
cross-section of reinforced concrete beam and prestressed concrete beam?
Traditional reinforced element have tensile and compressive stresses
In precast elements we introduce compression in cross-section to eliminate any
tensile stresses that may occur in designed case. (Using superposition)
9. Describe shortly technology of longitudinal launching and technology
of cantilever assembly used in erection of engineering structures.
Longitudinal launching
In this construction method, the span is built in segments over a rigid prefabricated
formwork, which geometry can be adapted into the section.
The formwork has one span length and it is pushed from one span to the next one,
once the construction cycle is finished.
The deck is built in successive segments on one of the banks of the area to be
spanned, and then pushed into place.
During the launching operation, the bridge superstructure is supported by a series of
roller or sliding bearings. These rollers are removed following the launching and the
bridge is lowered to rest on permanent bearings identical to those used for a
conventionally constructed bridge.
The thrust required to launch the bridge forward can be provided by a variety of
jacking systems, including hydraulic pistons or hollow-core strand jacks more
commonly used for posttensioning.
In order to reduce the cantilever moments and the amount of deflection that occurs
during launching operations, one of two systems (and sometimes both) may
typically be employed.
The contractor can construct a steel nose installed in front of the first span, which
permits the reduction of the deck cantilever length prior to it reaching a pier. The
launching nose reduces the dead load of the cantilever span an utilizes its tapered
profile to assist in lifting the mass of the girders as they are launched forward onto
the landing pier. Each pier is filled with sliding saddles and guiding devices.
In other cases, the contractor may elect to use temporary supports in order to
reduce the deflection of the leading end of the girders during launching.
Advantages and disadvantages of this method
The advantages of the launching method are presented below.
Suppression of falseworks and scaffolding. Therefore reduction and
optimization of formworks.
Minimal disturbance to the environment.
Smaller assembly zone required. Possible pre-assembly the reinforcement.
Higher quality finish and performance due to its easier working conditions and
repeatability of tasks.
Ease of access to restricted or limited sites (rivers, deep valleys, roads or train
lines, in poor soil conditions or environmentally protected areas)
The disadvantages of the launching method are listed below.
The main problem for this method is its high cost. Huge risk for the
owner/client and contractor.
Large space behind the abutments.
Special equipment: prefabricated bed and fixed or mobile formworks,
launching beams, hydraulic jacks, rollers, jacks, sliding saddles, etc.
Geometrical restrictions
A bridge can be incrementally launched only when the deck can be reproduced by
longitudinal displacement along the axis (straight bridges or curved bridges with a
constant radius of curvature).
The constant depth box-girder is the best suited section for this type of construction
(section with good torsional rigidity) or a transverse structure made up of a slab and
two large ribs.
The optimal span length without need of temporary supports ranges from 40 to
60m. For this method, similar length of the spans is essential.
Equipment required
Complex equipment is necessary to carry out this method. The main parts of this
technique are indicated below.
 Fixed and mobile formworks
Launching beam
Steel nose
Sliding saddles and guiding devices
Hydraulic or pneumatic jacks to launch forward the entire formwork.
Three different kinds of jacks are needed according to their movement
Up & down direction
Inward & outward direction
Forward & backward direction
Prestressing
During the launching phase, the prestressing is centered, except at the deck
extremity. It can be achieved using two types of tendons:
a) Permanent tendons, internal or external
b) Anti-symmetrical tendons in opposition to the permanent, external tendons
balancing the variations of bending moments during the launching phases.
Cantilever method
Idea of the cantilever method
This method of construction is used in cast-in-situ cantilever bridges and
prefabricated bridges.
This method consists of the assembly of several segments, cast and loaded at
different times. Deformation and working out the cambers must be surveyed
accurately
These deformations must be controlled in the different phases of the erection, taking
into account the concrete creep, shrinkage effect and the relaxation of prestressing
tendons.
Type of longitudinal prestressing using in cantilever method
The longitudinal prestressing is achieved by two types of tendons:
1. Cantilever prestressing on the top fiber, withstanding the cantilever weight.
This prestressing is generally inside the concrete.
2. Continuity prestressing on the bottom fiber, withstanding the weight of
superstructures, the live loads, the temperature gradients and the
redistribution of cantilever forces due to creep. This prestressing can be
installed inside or outside the concrete.
The process of concreting is mostly undertaken in situ. In these cases, steel carriage
structures supporting the formworks are launched symmetrically towards each side
of the supports. Inner formworks are supported by a mobile frame moving within the
deck.
1. Pier segment. The pier segment is concreted overs scaffolding and it will be
the launching base for the carriage.
2. Construction of end spans. The length of the end spans is equal to between
0.55 and 0.65 times the length of the typical spans.
3. Stability during construction. The stability of cantilever is secured at each
step by pre-stressing cables provided in the upper fiber. In order to avoid
asymmetric overturning moments, the construction is done symmetrically on
the pier on both sides.
The advantages and disadvantages of using this method:
The advantages of the cantilever method are presented below.
Little disruption to the traffic below.
Optimization of falseworks and scaffolding.
Optimization of formworks reduced to the length of a segment.
Construction several spans at the same time
Improve efficiency due to a repetitive cycle.
Cantilever arms are very rigid, because of their depth.
The disadvantages of the cantilever method technique are listed below.
Large tensile, compressive and shear forces during construction
Very expensive (higher section, more materials, prestressing reinforcement,
etc.) and special equipment
Geometrical restrictions
A box girder section provides the best suited cross section due to its good behavior
against torsional strength, high efficiency factor and excellent elastic and dynamic
stability.
Spans in the range of 60 to 170 m length are typical for this construction method.
10. Please specify basic static systems of bridge main girders.
- beam (single span, multi span, continuous, truss),
- cantilever (with one suspended span),
- arch (arch with one hinge, without hinges, three hinges, two hinges),
- frame (without hinges, with two hinges cantilevered with support, without hinges,
two hinges, three hinges),
- suspension bridge,
- cable stayed bridge.
11. Please specify the basic groups of bridge loads.
- dead (main girders, waterproofing, pavement, sidewalks, barrier, railing, cross-
beam, technological),
- live load (vehicle, uniformly distributed load, crowd),
- environmental loads (temperature, wind, earthquake, ice),
- other loads (collision, emergency braking, settlement, seismic action, accidental
action).
12. Please specify main types of bridge bearing.
- sliding,
- rocker,
- knuckle,
- elastomeric,
- pot,
- roller,
- spherical.
13. Describe differences between hydrostatics and hydrodynamics.
Hydrostatics is the study of water (incompressible fluids) at rest. It is the simplest
aspect of hydraulics. Various types of forces may be exerted on a body of water at
rest:
- gravity,
- inertia,
- elasticity,
- pressure,
- surface tension.
Forces:
- body forces,
- surface forces,
- line forces.
Pressure is not constant everywhere in a body of water. The pressure reading
increases with increasing depth. The column of water is at rest it means that all
forces acting on the column of water are in equilibrium.
If this statement is to be true for any point on the boundary surfaces of the column,
the action and reaction forces must be perpendicular to the boundary surface.
If any forces were not perpendicular to the boundary, then a shear force component
would exist, the condition arises only for water in motion (hydrodynamics).
Hydrodynamics fluid flows hydrodynamics equations for ideal fluid.
Ideal fluid no viscosity, has no surface tension, is incompressible.
Type of flows: steady and unsteady
- steady parameters describing that flow do not vary with time,
- unsteady parameters vary with time.
* uniform parameters do not vary with distance along the flow path
* non-uniform parameters vary with distance
Fundamental equations of fluid dynamics:
- conservation of matter (mass) or continuity equation,
- conservation of energy,
- conservation of momentum.
14. Explain shortly the theoretical concepts in analysis of flow under
pressure and free surface flow.

15. Explain the physical meaning of Re and Fr.

Re Reynolds number
Re is a dimensionless quantity that is used to help predict similar flow patterns in
different fluid flow situation.
Reynolds found that the transition from laminar to turbulent flow in a pipe actually
depends not only on the velocity but also on the pipe diameter and the viscosity of
the fluid.
D v m
=


=

absolute viscosity,
fluid density,
kinematic viscosity,
Critical Reynolds number is 2320. At this point the laminar pipe flows changes to a
turbulent one. The transition from laminar to turbulent flow f 2320 4000
Fr Froude number
Fr is a dimensionless number defined as the ratio of the flow inertia to the external
field. Fr is based on the speed-length ratio and is defined as
u0
Fr=
0 l0
u0 characteristic flow velocity,
g0 characteristic external field,
l0 length
Hydraulic jump is a phenomenon in the science of hydraulic which is frequently
observed in open channel flow. When liquid is at high velocity it discharges into a
zone of lower velocity, a rather abrupt rise occurs in the liquid surface. The rapidly
flowing liquid is abruptly slowed and increases in height, converting some of the
flows initial kinetic energy into an increase in potential energy.
Fr<1.0 subcritical flow,
Fr=1.0 critical flow,
Fr>1.0 supercritical flow.
Subcritical flow produces a low energy state.
Critical flow perfect balance between gravitation and inertial forces.
Supercritical flow is a shallow and fast, the river is in a high energy state.
When flow conditions are subcritical, disturbances in the flow can generate waves,
and because the downstream flow is so slow, those waves can travel in an upstream
direction.
When flow conditions are supercritical, waves generated by downstream
disturbances cannot travel upstream.
16. Describe basic differences between physical and numerical models in
hydro-engineering.
Numerical models have limitations including turbulence representation, aeration and
bulking, grid resolution, run times, and numerical instabilities.
Many areas where current numerical methods may offer increased accuracy over
design monographs and be sufficiently accurate for required application.
Numerical models can provide more detail about velocity and pressure distribution
than can a physical model and may be more economical in some cases.
For uncontrolled spillways with a relatively simple geometry that operate without
flow separation around piers, numerical model may be sufficient to rapidly obtain
information necessary to complete a stability analysis.
17. Define the soil strength parameters and describe methods of their
evaluation.
Material
Density
Internal friction angle
Poisson ratio
Cohesion
Elastic modulus
Plasticity index
Geotechnical profile (layers, height, etc.)
Water level (drained or undrained conditions)

Coulomb Mohr. Ultimate earth pressure theory.

o For a soil with non-cohesion, > 0, > 0.
o It is possible to determine the ultimate state of stresses 1, 2, 3
o = tg

18. Explain methods of bearing capacity assessment of a shallow

foundation evaluation both in drained and undrained conditions.
Undrained conditions:
Drained conditions:
19. Specify at least one method of bearing capacity evaluation of a shallow
foundation on layered subsoil.
Eurocode 7 do not specify model of calculations in case of layered soil, that is why
method taken from PN/83-B/03020 has been listed.
By layered soil we understand case when soil with weaker geotechnical
parameters ( and c ) is placed under depth lower then 2B under the
foundation.

strong
soil layer

Weak
soil layer

Calculation procedure ('substitutive foundation' concept)

1. Foundation base (B and L dimensions), extended as shown on the figure
above, is moved on the top of the weaker layer
L=L+b B=B+b

Type of the stronger soil hB h> B

Cohesive soil b=h/4 b=h/ 3

Non-cohesive soil b=h/3 b=2 h/3

2. To external loads, acting on foundation, we add soil mass weight (soil mass
between real foundation and weak soil layer)
3. Hence chances of vertical loads and moments (horizontal force arm is rising)
we have to calculate new eccentricity value and inclination of resultant force
for a new 'substitutive foundation
4. Assuming new value of D min =Dmin +h
 5. We have to check bearing capacity conditions for the new 'substitutive
foundation'

20. Describe at least one method of settlement evaluation of a shallow

foundation.

21. Characterize the Winkler model.

Elastic springs are independent, discrete as well as linear. As a result, there is no

settlement on springs beyond foundation.
Winklers idealization represents the soil medium as a system of identical, but
mutually independent, closely spared, discrete as well as linearly elastic springs.
According to this idealization, deformation of foundation due to applied load is
confined to loaded regions only.
The pressure deflection relation at any point is given by p=t w , where t is a
modulus of subgrade reaction.
The fundamental problem with the use of this model is to determine the stiffness of
elastic springs used to replace the soil below foundation.
IDENTIFICATION ratio of depth (h) till rigid subsoil (rock) to width of foundation

h
< 0.5 1.0 It is ok to use Winkler model
b

h
<1.5 2.0 Still ok, however its risky
b

h
>5.0 Elastic half-space
b
The smaller h is, the smaller impact of q.
22. Characterize the model of elastic half-space.
Elastic half-space model is an equivalent of a layered elastic half-space with modulus
Es , i of each layer, where there is a homogenous elastic half-space with overall

modulus Es . Modulus is obtained by the formula

z z

w avg=q B
avg ( BL , B ) =q B ( LB , B ) ( BL , B )
n avg
i
avg
i1

E s i=1 E si

L,B length and width of foundation, respectively,

q load acting on foundation,
avg coefficient of settlement,

w avg average settlement,

zi depth of specific layer.

Parameters E0 and are grouped and appear as one elastic coefficient

Es =Eo / ( 1 )2 .

23. What kind of ultimate limit state condition have to be checked in the
case of retaining wall?
Checking of stability (Rankin method)
V =Gretaining wall+ Gsoil +V ep and M 0=

The eccentricity:

M B
e= <
V 6

Checking for sliding

H d R Hd =R Hk /1,10

R Hk =Vtg+( cA)

Checking for soil capacity (EC-7)

V d Rd Rd =R K /1,40
Brinch Hansen (Drained conditions)

' 1
c N c S c i c bc +q N q Sq i q bq + BN S i b
2 )
' '
R K =B L

L' =L2 e L =L=1 m( I only study one meter of the retaining wall)

'
B =B2 e b

Capacity factors
Shape factors
Factors of the inclination of the load
Inclination of the foundation base

24. Explain what is the active soil pressure, passive soil pressure and the
soil pressure at rest.

Active soil pressure K a= ' 2 c K a

Passive soil pressure K p= ' + 2c K p

Lateral earth pressure is the pressure that soil exerts in the horizontal direction.
n horizontal effective stress

'v - vertical effective stress

K coefficient of lateral earth pressure

Ka minimum stable value of K, the active earth pressure coefficient, for
example when a retaining wall moves away from the soil,
Kp the maximum stable value of K, passive earth pressure coefficient. The
passive earth pressure would develop, for example, against a vertical plow that is
pushing soil horizontally.
Ko the at rest coefficient of lateral earth pressure.
At rest pressure is the in situ lateral pressure. It can be measured directly by a
dilatometer test or a borehole pressure meter test.
Passive earth pressure is the highest limiting lateral pressure developed at the onset
of shear failure by wall moving in the direction opposite to the direction of acting
earth pressure.
Active earth pressure is the smallest limiting lateral pressure developed at the onset
of shear failure by wall moving away from the soil in the direction of the acting earth
pressure.
25. Characterize the most important parameters of deformations due to
mining exploitation.
Mining deformations:
- Continuous deformations:
o Extensive subsidence basins.
- Discontinuous deformations
o Local collapses,
o Cones,
o Thresholds,
o Crevices.
- Surface deformation
o Cavity,
o Landslide,
o Fold.
- Linear deformations:
o Cracks,
o Crevice,
o Thresholds
Discontinuous deformations
Length/diam width height EFFECT
eter
Small d 3.0 s 0.05 h 0.05 Not dangerous for
buildings, dangerous for
roads, railways
Mediu 3.0<d 9.0 0.05< s 0.15 0.05<h 0.10 Dangerous for not
m protected buildings
Big 9.0< d 18.0 0.15< s 0.25 0.10<h 0.25 Dangerous for not
protected buildings
Very d >18.0 s >0.25 h>0.25 Dangerous for all
big buildings