Running head: CAREER SATISFACTION

The Effects of Learning Goal Orientation, Transformational Leadership, and Psychological

Empowerment on Career Satisfaction

Baek-Kyoo (Brian) Joo

Winona State University

Kyoung-Ah Nam

American University

Copyright 2015 Baek-Kyoo (Brian) Joo & Kyoung-Ah Nam

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Abstract

This paper examined the influence of learning goal orientation, transformational leadership, and

psychological empowerment on career satisfaction. Based on the results from ANOVA, the mean

differences between the workers in private and public sector were found to be statistically

significant. The results of structural models analyses indicated that the role of psychological

empowerment as a mediator was greater for workers in the private sector than for those in the

public sector. In public sector transformational leadership turned out to be positively associated

with psychological empowerment and career satisfaction, whereas in private sector

psychological empowerment fully mediated the relationship between transformational leadership

and career satisfaction. With regards to the role of learning goal orientation, while learning goal

orientation was a strong predictor for psychological empowerment, the relationship between

learning goal orientation and career satisfaction was negative for both public and private groups.

Keywords: transformational leadership, psychological empowerment, career satisfaction

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The Effects of Learning Goal Orientation, Transformational Leadership, and Psychological

Empowerment on Career Satisfaction

For an organization to have a sustained competitive advantage in its product and labor

markets, it needs employees who are not only highly engaged with their job, but also highly

satisfied with their career. Many firms, today, strive for the title of employer of choice, which

signifies that the organization outperforms its competitors in attracting, developing, and retaining

people with talent (Joo & McLean, 2006). Career satisfaction is one of the major factors that

drives the attraction and retention of talented workforce in an organization. It is commonly

assessed as a subjective measure of the individuals satisfaction with his or her career

accomplishments. Significant predictors of career satisfaction include environmental resources

that provide social and material support for the employees personal goals (Barnett & Bradley,

2007).

Personality factors such as learning goal orientation could be a predictor for career

satisfaction (Egan, 2005; Godshalk & Sosik, 2003; Joo & Park, 2010; Park & Holloway, 2003).

Goal orientation is an important individual factor relevant to learning, motivation, and

performance (Joo, Park, & Oh, 2013; Kozlowski et al., 2001). It could be explored through an

integrated approach that considers factors such as goal setting, performance feedback, and work

role innovation (Farr, Hofmann, & Ringenbach, 1993). In their recent study, Joo and Park (2010)

concluded that employees exhibited the highest career satisfaction when they had higher

performance goal orientation and when they perceived that their organization provided a better

learning culture. Performance goal-oriented employees are likely to be satisfied with tasks that

are comparable to that of others or that do not require additional effort. This result reflects

similar findings in previous studies (Button, Mathieu & Zajac, 1996; Dweck & Leggett, 1988;
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Fisher & Ford, 1998). Contrary to the results of Egan (2005) and Godshalk and Sosik (2003),

learning goal orientation was not significantly associated with career satisfaction in this study. In

a study of civil servants in Korea, Joo, Park, and Oh (2013) found that although employees who

were learning goal-orientated tended to be more aware of opportunities for self-development and

self-learning, the correlation between their learning goal-orientation and career satisfaction was

significant but mediocre.

Another focus of this paper is the influence of leadership aspects on followers career

satisfaction. In order to increase individuals contribution to organizations, not only formal

organizational practices such as job design, but also contextual factors such as input from

superiors should be considered (Thomas & Velthouse, 1990). Leadership has been recognized as

one of the driving forces for changing employees behavior (Bass, 1985). In particular,

transformational leaders are considered to have a positive effect on improving performance of

followers (Avolio, 1999; Howell & Hall-Merenda, 1999) as they strategically envision the future,

motivate their teams, and create commitment towards the vision (Bass & Avolio, 1994). The

level of psychological empowerment of employees by transformational leaders is a central

mechanism for building commitment to the organizations objectives (Avolio, 1999; Yukl, 1999).

Transformational leadership was also found to have an indirect impact on the creativity of

employees through career satisfaction (Kim & Lee, 2011). They found career satisfaction and

work motivation to play a mediating role in the relationship between transformational leadership

and employee creativity. To our knowledge, however, little attempt has been made to empirically

investigate the effect of transformational leadership on the level of career satisfaction.

The notion of psychological empowerment at work emerged in the 1980s as jobs became

more complex and work design included more autonomy (Oldham & Cummings, 1996), and as
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organizations increasingly required employees who were flexible and could quickly adapt to

rapidly changing business environments (Drucker, 1988).Business practitioners and

organizational researchers have begun to embrace this, and a great deal of effort has been made

to increase the psychological empowerment of employees by focusing both on management

practices (Blau & Alba, 1982; Mainiero, 1986) and on the psychological aspect of empowerment

(Conger & Kanungo, 1988; Thomas & Velthous, 1990). As an important construct positively

influencing outcomes beneficial to employees and organizations, Conger and Kanungo (1988)

described empowerment as the process of enhancing feelings of self-efficacy among

organizational members through the identification of conditions that foster powerlessness and

through their removal by both formal organizational practices and informal techniques of

providing efficacy information (p. 474). Positive organizational outcomes such as employee

health (e.g., Zimmerman, Ramirez-Valles, Suarez, de la Rosa, & Castro, 1997), satisfaction, and

loyalty (e.g., Spreitzer, 1996) have also been intensively studied, and psychological

empowerment has been emphasized as a key factor for achieving those outcomes. Although a

few scholars have pointed out the potential relationship between psychological empowerment

and career satisfaction (e.g., Joo & Lim, 2013; Kraimer, Seibert, & Liden, 1999; Seibert,

Kraimer, & Liden, 2001), most of the extant relevant literature is disparate in terms of nature and

size of samples, and needs a more comprehensive approach for adequate theorization.

Problem Statement

Whereas goal orientation is a variable specific to a person or personality,

transformational leadership is an organizational factor and a source of extrinsic motivation for

employees. Psychological empowerment, on the other hand, is an individual/job-specific

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characteristic and acts as a fundamental source of intrinsic motivation for the employee to

perform better.

Although there are diverse studies exploring the effect of learning goal orientation (e.g.,

Egan, 2005; Godshalk & Sosik, 2003; Joo et al., 2013; Joo & Park, 2010; Park & Holloway,

2003), transformational leadership (e.g., Avolio, Zhu, Koh, & Bhatia, 2004; Bono & Judge, 2004;

Richardson & Vandenberg, 2005; Joo & Lim, 2013), and psychological empowerment (e.g., Joo

& Lim, 2013; Spreitzer, Kizilos, & Nason, 1997; Thomas & Velthouse, 1990; Zimmerman,

Israel, Schulz, & Checkoway, 1992), little research has been conducted focusing on the

comprehensive relationships of these topics simultaneously to reflect the dynamics in

organizations.

Research Purpose and Questions

The purpose of this research is to investigate the impact of learning goal orientation,

transformational leadership, and psychological empowerment on career satisfaction. This study

makes a theoretical contribution by linking personality research with leadership and

psychological empowerment research. Another goal of this study is to compare these linkages in

the public and private sector in Korea. It is possible that the uniqueness of the work environment

affects the relationship between psychological empowerment and career satisfaction in the two

groups. The research questions of this study are: (1) What is the relationship between the

predictors (learning goal orientation, transformational leadership, and psychological

empowerment) and career satisfaction? (2) Is there any significant difference between the

employees in the public and private sectors?

In the following sections, based on a comprehensive literature review, we first provide a

conceptual framework and hypotheses, followed by research methods, including data collection
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and measures. In the subsequent section, we present and summarize our research findings based

on a hierarchical multiple regression. Finally, the implications, limitations, and future research

areas are discussed.

A Conceptual Framework and Hypotheses

Based on a comprehensive literature review, a set of independent variables was selected:

learning goal orientation, transformational leadership, and psychological empowerment. These

constructs are considered necessary for influencing career satisfaction.

Learning Goal Orientation

Goal orientation is a motivational variable specific to an individual, and influences the

effort that an individual allocates to achieving a goal (Fisher & Ford, 1998). Goal orientation can

be categorized as learning (task or mastery) goal orientation, and performance (ego/social) goal

orientation (Farr, Hofmann, & Ringenbach, 1993).

Learning goal orientation refers to an individuals desire to increase his/her competence

by developing new skills and mastering new situations. Individuals with high learning goal

orientations focus on increasing their learning and/or task competence, seeking challenges, and

persisting in the case of failure (Dweck & Leggett, 1988). Individuals with learning orientations

display adaptive response patterns leading to positive outcomes. They are also strongly

motivated towards competence development and challenging tasks that foster learning (Dweck,

1986). Learning goal orientation has been linked to increased use of obstacles as learning cues

that allow the individual to analyze and vary strategies (Godshalk & Sosik, 2003). Such learning

cues result in higher levels of expectations for success in the face of obstacles.

Performance goal orientation refers to a desire to demonstrate ones competence to others

and receive positive evaluations. Individuals with high performance goal orientation are
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interested in demonstrating task competence through gaining positive and avoiding negative

judgments. They tend to avoid challenges, decrease their effort and persistence following failure,

and fear negative evaluation by others (Button et al., 1996). Joo and Ready (2012) reported the

positive relationship between performance goal orientation and career satisfaction in Korean

employees in the private sector. It is to be noted, however, that performance goal orientation is

excluded as a factor for the purpose of this study since the focus of this study is to examine the

effects of learning-related factors (i.e., career opportunities and self-directed learning) on career

satisfaction.

More recently, Dweck (2006) has developed the concept of learning goal orientation to

what she calls a growth mindset (people who have the belief that their basic qualities can be

developed through their efforts). Similarly, performance goal orientation can be typified as a

fixed mindset (those who believe their qualities are set and have an urgency to prove themselves

over and over).

Transformational Leadership

Burns (1978) identified two types of political leadership: transactional and

transformational. While the more traditional transactional leadership involves a relationship

based on exchange between leaders and followers, transformational leadership is based more on

the leaders transforming the values, beliefs, and needs of their followers. Transformational

leadership can be defined as a set of behaviors including (a) idealized influence, (b) inspirational

motivation, (c) intellectual stimulation, and (d) individualized consideration that can transform

followers aspirations, identities, needs, preferences, and values to a higher level (Bass & Avolio,

1994). Transformational leadership is considered to be specific to leaders and independent of

situations, such as behaviors associated with the implementation of a particular change (Herold,
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Fedor, Caldwell, & Liu, 2008). According to Avolio (2005), transformational leaders represent a

cluster of interrelated styles: (a) changing situations for the better; (b) developing followers into

leaders; (c) overhauling organizations to provide them with new strategic directions; and (d)

inspiring people by providing an energizing vision and higher ideal for moral and ethical conduct.

Thus, fostering transformational leadership through policies of recruitment, selection,

promotion, training and development will yield returns in the form of the health, well-being, and

effective performance of todays organizations (Bass, 1990). In a meta-analysis of 39 studies,

transformational behaviors were found to be related to leadership effectiveness (Lowe, Kroeck,

& Sivasubramaniam, 1996). A meta-analysis of 87 studies found transformational leadership was

related (r = .44) to a composite of desired outcomes (follower job satisfaction, follower leader

satisfaction, follower motivation, leader job performance, group or organizational performance

and rated leader effectiveness) (Judge & Piccolo, 2004). In a study done among employees of a

Korean conglomerate, Joo and Lim (2013) found that employees showed greater career

satisfaction when they perceived idealized influence (one of the dimensions of

transformational leadership) from their leaders. They, however, found the relationship between

transformational leadership and career satisfaction to be fully mediated by psychological

empowerment (Joo & Lim, 2013).

Psychological Empowerment

Widespread interest in psychological empowerment has come at a time when trends in

global competition and change call for more initiative and innovation from employees (Drucker,

1988). By definition, psychological empowerment refers to intrinsic task motivation manifested

in a set of four cognitions reflecting an individuals orientation to his or her work role:

competence, impact, meaning, and self-determination (Spreitzer, 1995, p. 1443). Many efforts
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have been made to increase individuals psychological empowerment by focusing on

empowering management practices (Blau & Alba, 1982; Mainiero, 1986). However, some

researchers (i.e., Conger & Kanungo, 1988; Thomas & Velthous, 1990) argue that these

management practices are not enough to increase psychological empowerment of individuals.,

and that more attention needs to be paid to the psychological aspect. For instance, Tomas and

Velthous (1990) define psychological empowerment as intrinsic motivation manifested in four

cognitions reflecting an individuals orientation to his or her work: impact, competence,

meaning, and self-determination. These four dimensions reflect a proactive rather than passive

orientation to ones work role (Spreitzer et al., 1997).

Spreitzer et al. (1997) posit that the three relevant outcomes of empowerment are:

satisfaction at work, effectiveness, and the ability to handle job-related strain. First, they argue

that the quality of work/life balance, which focuses on enhancing employee satisfaction, intrinsic

motivation and employees feelings about their own work, results in job satisfaction as the first

outcome of employee empowerment. Second, for an organization to survive and thrive in a

competitive business environment, effectiveness on the job is essential. Thus, effectiveness is the

second anticipated key outcome of employee empowerment. Third, the changing external

environment requires employees who can handle ambiguity, complexity, and change. The ability

to better cope with job-related strain is, hence, suggested as the last outcome of employee

empowerment (Thomas & Velthouse, 1990).

Meaning is the mechanism through which individuals become energized about their

work; it serves as the engine that drives empowerment (Spreitzer et al., 1997). Second,

competence is a sense of confidence of the employees in their abilities, without which,

individuals will feel inadequate, and, hence, will lack a sense of empowerment (Conger &
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Kanungo, 1988). Third, self-determination reflects the extent of autonomy or freedom that is

indispensible for a sense of empowerment to develop (Wagner, 1995). Lastly, impact refers to a

belief that their actions are influencing the system (Thomas & Velthouse, 1990). Thus, rather

than being antecedents or consequences of one another, the four dimensions represent unique

facets of the overall construct of empowerment (Spreitzer et al., 1997).

Learning Goal Orientation and Psychological Empowerment

Although conventional wisdom would suggest that performance goal orientation is more

important than learning goal orientation, considerable recent research in the field of OB over the

past decade indicates otherwise (Button et al., 1995; Van Yperen & Janssen, 2002; Walle, 2001;

Walle, Brown, Cron, & Slocum, 1999). A recent study concluded that learning goal orientation

has a positive impact on work-related behaviors and performance (Walle, 2001). In their recent

study, Joo and Park (2010) reported that learning goal orientation was a strong predictor for

organizational commitment, but not significantly associated with career satisfaction. No previous

research has investigated the relationship between learning goal orientation and psychological

empowerment. We propose that employees with higher learning goal orientation have a higher

level of expectation for success, have a strong motivation for competence development, seek

challenges, and master new situations (Dweck, 1986). They are likely to have a higher level of

intrinsic motivation, and perceive higher degree of meaning, competence, self-determination, and

impact in their jobs.

Hypothesis 1: Learning goal orientation will be positively related to psychological

empowerment.

Transformational Leadership and Psychological Empowerment

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Transformational leadership theory emphasizes the role of empowerment as a central

mechanism for building commitment to the organizations objectives (Avolio, 1999; Yukl, 1999).

Lowe et al. (1996) argued that transformational leaders transform their followers aspirations,

identities, needs, preferences, and values such that followers are able to reach their full potential.

Followers of transformational leaders are expected to identify with their leaders and, therefore,

have a higher expectation of being able to have an impact on their organization (Laschinger,

Finegan, Shamian & Wilk, 2001). Transformational leaders enhance the level of self-efficacy,

confidence, meaning, and self-determination of the followers. Transformational leaders use

intellectual stimulation to challenge their followers thoughts, imagination, and beliefs, thereby

encouraging creativity and recognition of their values. Leaders motivate the followers to re-

examine traditional ways of doing things, while encouraging them to try novel and creative

approaches to solving problems and performing work (Bass & Avolio, 1994,1997). Such leaders

focus on coaching and mentoring followers in order to prepare them to assume more

responsibility, and ultimately to develop followers into leaders (Bass, 1985; Yukl, 1999).

Through the use of feedback, encouragement, and support, a followers belief in his or her

capability to perform activities is likely to be enhanced (Hughes, Ginnett, & Curphy, 1999).

Providing followers with greater opportunities for decision latitude, challenges, responsibility,

and self-determination is expected to result in followers who are more likely to reciprocate with

higher levels of commitment to their organizations (Liden, Wayne, & Sparrowe, 2000).

We have argued that empowered employees will see themselves as more capable and will

be able to influence their job and organizations in a more meaningful way. If so, they would also

be expected to invest additional effort, act independently, and have a higher commitment to their

organization (Spreitzer, 1995). Thomas and Velthouse (1990) suggested that empowered
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employees have higher levels of concentration, initiative, and resilience, which in turn, enhance

their level of organizational commitment. Based on the above arguments, we hypothesize that:

Hypothesis 2: Transformational leadership will be positively related to psychological

empowerment.

Career Satisfaction

Career satisfaction has been considered as a subjective factor for career success, and an

important criterion for evaluating an individuals career as a whole. Gattiker and Larwood (1988)

defined career satisfaction as a reflection of individuals values and preferences for the level of

pay, challenge, or security that may affect their assessment of their career accomplishments.

Career outcome has traditionally been examined objectively and subjectively. Objective

assessment of career outcome is done by an organization, thereby providing an external

perspective, whereas subjective assessment is done by an employee who relies on an internal

perspective (Schein, 1978). Due to the recognition of subjective career outcome as an index of

ones well-being or perceived quality of life, however, there has been a growing focus on the

dimension of subjective career outcome (Gattiker & Larwood, 1988; Poole, Langan-Fox, &

Omodei, 1993).

Learning Goal Orientation and Career Satisfaction

In a study conducted among knowledge workers in the private sector in Korea, Joo and

Park (2010) reported that while performance goal orientation was positively related to career

satisfaction, learning goal orientation turned out to have no significant effect. However, a couple

of studies have examined the positive relationship between learning goal orientation and career

satisfaction (Egan, 2005; Godshalk & Sosik, 2003; Park & Holloway, 2003). Godshalk and Sosik
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(2003) also emphasized that high learning goal-oriented employees exhibited higher managerial

aspirations and career satisfaction in the mentoring.

Hypothesis 3: Learning goal orientation will be positively related to career satisfaction.

Transformational Leadership and Career Satisfaction

Research on transformational leadership has been rigorous. It has been found that the

qualities of transformational leadership led to exceptional performance in organizational settings

(Bass, 1985). Various aspects that have been investigated include: the positive relationship

between transformational leadership and organizational effectiveness (Lowe et al., 1996), direct

effect of transformational leadership on followers motivation, morality and empowerment (Dvir,

Eden, Avolio, & Shamir , 2002),and effects of transformational leadership training on

subordinates organizational commitment and financial performance (Barling, Weber, &

Kelloway, 1996). Emerging meta-analytic studies (e.g., Dumdum, Lowe, & Avolio, 2002; Fuller,

Patterson, Hester, & Stringer, 1996) suggest that a positive correlation exists between

transformational leadership and work-related outcomes such as satisfaction, commitment, and

performance.

Hypothesis 4: Transformational leadership will be positively related to career satisfaction.

Psychological Empowerment and Career Satisfaction

Empowering individuals could result in higher levels of work satisfaction, organizational

commitment, and job performance (Liden et al., 2000). There is a preponderance of evidence that

empowerment may be more than a passing fad (Abrahamson, 1996). Several researchers also

suggest that empowered employees have higher level of organizational commitment, as

empowered employees tend to be highly concentrated, self-motivated and resilient (Avolio et al.,

2004; Kanter, 1983; Kraimer et al., 1999; Spreitzer, 1995, Thomas & Velthouse, 1990).
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Empowering conditions, such as opportunities for decision latitude, challenge, and responsibility

make employees appreciate what they have. In turn, such appreciation results in feelings of

meaning, competence, self-determination, and impact (Liden et al., 2000). Consequently, they

are likely to reciprocate by being more committed to an organization (Avolio et al., 2004;

Ensenberger, Fasolo, & Davis-LaMastro, 1990).

Hypothesis 5: Psychological empowerment will be positively related to career satisfaction.

Although these previous studies have examined antecedents and consequences of career

satisfaction, the full range of predictors is not yet known. Based on the review of previous

research, this study examines the influence of learning goal orientation, transformational

leadership, and psychological empowerment on career satisfaction to narrow the research gap.

Figure 1 illustrates the conceptual model of this study.

H4
Transformational
Leadership

H2

Psychological H5 Career
Empowerment Satisfaction

H1

Learning Goal H3
Orientation

Figure 1. Conceptual Model

Methods
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The sample and data collection procedure will be described in this section. Information

about the four measures will be elaborated below.

Sample and Data Collection Procedure

This study includes two groups of workers from the private and public sector in Korea.

From the private sector, 500 employees in a Fortune 100 company headquartered in Korea were

solicited for this study, out of which 427 participated (The response rate: 85%). Three

organizations in the public sector participated in this study; one metropolitan government and

two district governments. Questionnaires were distributed to 350 civil servants, out of which304

were usable (The response rate: 87%). Detailed demographic information is in Table 1.

Table 1

Demographic Information

Public sector (N = 304) Private sector (N = 427)

Gender Male (53%) Female (47%) Male (86%) Female (14%)

Age 20s 30s 40s 50s (5%) 20s 30s 40s 50s (9%)
(15%) (53%) (27%) (5%) (55%) (31%)

Education High 2-year 4-year Graduate High 2-year 4-year Graduate

School College College School School College College School
(12%) (14%) (72%) (2%) (3%) (3%) (60%) (34%)

Hierarchical Senior Manager Assist. Assoc. Manage Manager Assist. Assoc.

level Manager (30%) Mgr. (24%) ment (39%) Mgr. (9%)
(19%) (27%) (0%) (52%)

The length of < 1 year 1-3 year 3-5 > 5 year < 1 year 1-3 year 3-5 > 5 year
relationship (51%) (32%) year (4%) (47%) (23%) year (13%)
(13%) (17%)

Measures

All constructs used multi-item scales that have been developed and used in the United

States. The instruments were prepared for use in Korea using appropriate translation-back-
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translation procedures. We used a survey questionnaire with a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging

from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).

Learning goal orientation. Learning goal orientation was assessed with eight-item

scales developed and validated by Button et al. (1996). In this study, the reliability of learning

goal orientation was .92. A sample item from the learning orientation is: I prefer to work on

tasks that force me to learn new things.

Transformational leadership. The Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ)

developed by Bass and Avolio (1994) was used to measure the leadership characteristics of the

current supervisors of the participants. We extracted 12 items to assess four sub-dimensions of

transformational leadership aspects: idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual

stimulation, and individualized consideration, three items for each. The reliabilities for the

subscales were .90, .88, .89, and .83 respectively, and .95 overall. Sample questions are I re-

examine critical assumptions to question whether they are appropriate (intellectual stimulation)

and I help others to develop their strengths (individualized consideration).

Psychological empowerment. The twelve items of the psychological empowerment

scale (Spreitzer, 1995) were used for this study. The overall reliability of the measurement in this

study was .88 and the reliabilities of sub-dimension were .90, .84, .88, and .92. Participants

indicated the extent to which they agreed with the 12 statements of the four cognitive dimensions

of psychological empowerment. A sample item was I have considerable opportunity for

independence and freedom in how I do my job.

Career satisfaction. The five-item career satisfaction scale developed by Greenhaus,

Parasuraman, and Wormley (1990) was used to measure subjective career success. The reliability
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of five items was .89 in this study. A sample item was I am satisfied with the success I have

achieved in my career.

In order to analyze the collected data, several statistical analyses were conducted. First,

Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) was performed to assess the construct validity of the

measurement model. Based on CFA, the quality of the factor structure and designated factor

loadings can be estimated by statistically testing the fit between the proposed measurement

model and the collected data (Kline, 2005; Pett, Lackey, & Sullivan, 2003; Yang, 2005). In this

study, CFA was used to estimate the convergent and discriminate validity of indicators of three

constructs: psychological empowerment, transformational leadership, and career satisfaction.

In addition, descriptive statistics, Cronbachs alpha coefficient estimates, and correlation

coefficients were calculated. Cronbachs alpha values represent the internal consistency of the

items, and correlation coefficients show general description about the relationships across the

constructs and sub-constructs among the proposed variables (Howell, 2007; Siegel, 2003).

Lastly, we used ANOVA and structural equation modeling (SEM) to compare the two

groups: employees in the private and public sectors. ANOVA analysis was used to test the mean

difference between the two groups, and a separate SEM analysis was conducted to examine the

difference in structural model.

Results

In this section, the results from CFA, reliability and correlation, and SEM analyses were

reported. For all statistical analyses, SPSS 18.0 and LISREL 8.8 were used.

Measurement Model Assessment

An overall CFA was conducted to estimate the quality of the factor structure and

designated factor loadings by statistically testing the fit between a proposed measurement model
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and the data (Yang, 2005). CFA was used to estimate the convergent and discriminate validity of

the indicators of the three constructs: organizational commitment, psychological empowerment,

and organizational learning culture. The goodness-of-fit indices used in this study include: Chi-

square (2), the Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA), the Non-Normed Fit

Index (NNFI or TLI), and the Comparative Fit Index (CFI). As a result of an overall CFA, the

measurement model indicated a marginally acceptable fit to the data (2 [183] = 850.50; p = .00;

RMSEA = .071; NNFI = .98; CFI = .98; SRMR = .051). All of the factor loadings were

above .65.

Idealized
Influence
.87
Inspirational
Motivation .91 Transformational
.82 Leadership
Intellectual
Stimulation Meaning Competence CS-1
.84
Individualized .74 .76 .83
Consideration CS-2
Career .86
Psychological
Empowerment Satisfaction .75 CS-3
LGO-1
.73
LGO-2 .80
.73 .66 .79 CS-4
.81
LGO-3
.78 Self-Determination Impact CS-5
LGO-4 .80 Learning Goal
LGO-5 .78 Orientation
.78
LGO-6
.79
LGO-7 .68

LGO-8

Figure 2. Research Model and Factor Loadings based on the CFA (n = 731)
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Descriptive Statistics, Correlations, and Reliabilities

Table 2 presents correlations among the four constructs and reliabilities. All of the

correlation coefficients were significant, supporting all of the hypotheses. There was no evidence

of multi-collinearity among the four constructs (.20< r < .58). All measures demonstrated

adequate levels of reliability (.81 - .92).

Table 2

Descriptive Statistics, Correlations, and Reliabilities

Mean S.D. 1 2 3 4 Mean S.D.

1. Learning goal 4.33 .54 (.92) .42 .52 .20 3.25 .64
orientation

2. Transformational 3.65 .77 .39 (.92) .43 .37 3.77 .58

leadership

3. Psychological 3.92 .60 .54 .58 (.81) .45 3.39 .54

empowerment

4. Career satisfaction 3.65 .68 .45 .32 .58 (.89) 3.10 .69

Note, Pearson correlations; all correlations are p < .01; the correlations in public sector (n = 304)
is above the diagonal and the correlations in private sector (n = 427) below the diagonal; Alpha
reliability estimates are presented in the diagonal.

Comparison of the Two Groups: Public and Private Sector

This study controlled for working environment (public versus private sector). According

to a series of ANOVA, the mean difference between the public and the private sector employees

was significant for all the constructs in this study (p < .01). To examine the difference in the

structural model, we conducted separate structural equation model analyses for the two groups.

For public sector workers (see Figure 3), the structural model indicated an acceptable fit to the

data (2 [183] = 460.75; p = .00; RMSEA = .071; NNFI = .97; CFI = .97; SRMR = .063). As the
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overall structural model in Figure 2, it indicated that all the relationships were statistically

significant (t > 1.96). Psychological empowerment partially mediated the relationship between

learning goal orientation and transformational leadership. Learning goal orientation and

transformational leadership explained 46% of the variance in psychological empowerment. In

terms of effect size, learning goal orientation was greater than transformational leadership.

Learning goal orientation, transformational leadership, and psychological empowerment

accounted for 35% of the variance in employees career satisfaction in public sector. Contrary to

our expectations, learning goal orientation had a significantly negative relationship to career

satisfaction in terms of direct effect, while the indirect effect via psychological empowerment

was positive.

.24
Transformational
Leadership (t = 3.38)

.28
(t = 4.03)
Psychological .57 Career
Empowerment Satisfaction
(t = 5.41)
.50
(t = 6.64)

Learning Goal -.25

Orientation
(t = -2.93)

Figure 3. Structural Model for Public Sector

As shown in Figure 4, the structural model for the employees in the private sector also

indicated a good fit to the data (2 [183] = 602.87; p = .00; RMSEA = .073; NNFI = .97; CFI =

.97; SRMR = .060). However, the direct relationship between transformational leadership and

career satisfaction turned out to be non-significant. Thus, psychological empowerment fully

CAREER SATISFACTION 22

mediated the relationship between transformational leadership and career satisfaction. Learning

goal orientation and transformational leadership explained 63% of the variance in psychological

empowerment, which, in turn, had a greater effect on career satisfaction than in the public sector.

With regard to the effect size, learning goal orientation was greater than transformational

leadership. Learning goal orientation, transformational leadership, and psychological

empowerment directly and indirectly accounted for 28% of the variance in employees career

satisfaction in the private sector.

.08
Transformational
Leadership (t = 1.24)

.39
(t = 7.47)
Psychological .83 Career
Empowerment Satisfaction
(t = 7.24)
.55
(t = 9.71)

Learning Goal -.25

Orientation
(t = -3.14)

Figure 4. Structural Model for Private Sector

Discussion

The findings of this study are discussed in the light of previous research. The

implications of this study for research and practice in the field of HRD are also discussed. The

limitations and recommendations for future research are explored.

Findings of this Study

Based on the results from ANOVA, it was found that the mean differences between

workers in the private and public sectors were statistically significant. Through structural
CAREER SATISFACTION 23

equation model analyses, we found that the role of psychological empowerment as a mediator

was greater for workers in the private sector (SMC = .63) than for those in the public sector

(SMC = .46). Regarding the role of learning goal orientation, however, this study showed mixed

results. While learning goal orientation is a strong predictor for psychological empowerment, the

relationship between learning goal orientation and career satisfaction was negative for both

groups. That is, those who have high learning goal orientations tend to have higher career goals,

which could lead to lower satisfaction with their current career. More research on this is needed.

Implications

With regard to theoretical contributions, this study linked personality, leadership,

psychological empowerment, and career research. There has been little research integrating the

four areas, and this is the first study that examines the relationship between them. Moreover,

there is no research comprising a comparative analysis of the public and the private sector

employees in Korea. Since the work environment in public organizations tends to be more stable,

employees in the public sector have demonstrated higher job security in Korea. On the other

hand, the more volatile environment in the private sector requires more transformational

leadership that can facilitate effective change management.

Managers can psychologically empower their subordinates by providing them with

coaching and feedback. HRD professionals can help managers by developing and fostering better

transformational leadership. The practical implications for HRD professionals who develop

relevant practices for the purpose of enhancing career satisfaction are suggested below.

One of the important roles of HRD professionals is to develop managers and supervisors

(McLean, 2006). HRD professionals can help managers adopt new roles as coaches, mentors,

and facilitators by providing relevant training programs and supporting developmental

CAREER SATISFACTION 24

relationships. Manager-as-coach can be defined as a leadership approach based on providing

constructive feedback designed to encourage people towards excellence by showing that they are

respected and valued (Goodstone & Diamante, 1998; Hargrove, 1995; Hudson, 1999). Manager-

as-coach refers to a process of improving problematic work performance (Fournies, 1987),

helping employees recognize opportunities to improve their performance and capabilities (Orth,

Wilkinson, & Benfari, 1987), empowering employees to exceed prior levels of performance

(Burdett, 1998; Hargrove 1995), and giving guidance, encouragement and support to the learner

(Redshaw, 2000).

In addition, goal orientation could be used to recruit and select the right people for

organizations. As goal orientation tends to be stable over time, organizations need to identify

what kinds of employees in terms of goal orientation best fit with their organizational culture as

well as with specific jobs. In addition, HRD practitioners could best use goal orientation for

employee development and retention by developing and implementing career management

programs according to individual characteristics.

Limitations and Future Research

In terms of methodology, this study has several potential limitations. First, it relies on

self-reported and reflective recollections of the indicators by employees who volunteered their

participation. Because of the perceptual nature of the data, there is a possibility of percept-

percept bias. Second, this empirical study confines itself to the cross-sectional survey method,

which leaves room for speculation with regard to causality among the variables. In addition, the

sample of this study was restricted to a certain group with similar demographic characteristics:

employees in the public sector in Korea.

CAREER SATISFACTION 25

To address these limitations, further research needs to be based on multiple sources

because the cross-sectional survey method restricts research to its target group. In addition, to

increase the generalizability of the present study, more data collection from various locations and

from more diverse demographic samples is recommended.

CAREER SATISFACTION 26

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