Einhard The Sinner and The Saints

Einhard: The Sinner and the Saints
Author(s): Julia M. H. Smith

Source: Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, Sixth Series, Vol. 13 (2003), pp. 55-77
Published by: Royal Historical Society
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oftheRHS 13 (2003), pp. 55-7 ? 2003 Royal Historical Society
Transactions
DOI: 1o.IoI7/Soo80440oo3oooo33Printedin theUnitedKingdom
EINHARD: THE SINNER AND THE SAINTS*

ByJuliaM.H. Smith
READ 15 MARCH 2002
ABSTRACT. This essay offersa major reassessment of the career of Einhard,

biographerofCharlemagne, and an analysisofelitelaypietyin theCarolingian
era. Einhard'slife(c. 770-840)is discussedin termsofchildhood, youth,marriage
and old age, withemphasison the significance of his wife,Imma. His personal
withthe relicswhichhe had translated
relationship fromRome to Seligenstadt
and hisself-description as a 'sinner'offer
insightsintohisreligiosity.Einhardand
Imma are also situatedin a broaderdiscussionof thereligiousactivities ofother
elitemarriedcouplesoftheirday.Monasticfoundations, reliccollecting,Christian
householdmorality andcloseengagement withthePsaltercharacterise a distinctive
conjugalChristianity in theCarolingianperiod.
Imma laydying.Her husbandprayedfervently to themartyrs Marcellinus

and Peter to interveneand spare her life,but on 13 December 835 she
passed away,leavinghiminconsolable.'A fewmonthslater,he described
his griefin a letterto a young correspondent.Recollection of her final
moments constantlyoverwhelmed him: the wound which her death
createdwould not heal, flaringup anew timeand again. He felther loss
'everyday,in everyaction,in everyundertaking, in all theadministration
of the house and household,in everythingneeding to be decided upon
and sortedout in myreligiousand earthlyresponsibilities'. The pain was
all the greaterbecause the hope and trusthe had placed in his chosen
saintshad not been fulfilled.Their intercessionfailed: Christremained
unmoved,and let Imma die.2
*I dedicatethispaperwithaffection to thememoryofDonald Bullough,whosehelp

I am also grateful
withan earlyversionit is a pleasureto acknowledge. to PeterBrown,
JohnContreni, MaykedeJong,David Ganz, MatthewInnes,GuyHalsall,JintyNelson,
JannekeRaaijmakers, BarbaraRosenweinand SidneyTibbettsforcomments and advice.
Preliminaryversionsofthispaperweredeliveredat LoyolaUniversity, Chicago,and the
Davis Centerat Princeton University.
'The date is suppliedby the personalcommemorative calendar of Gozbald of
Wiurzburg.HansjirgWellmer, Memento
Personliches Mittelalter
imdeutschen 1973),
(Stuttgart,
15 at n. II.
2Einhard'sletterofApril836 to Lupus ofFerrieres survives
incorporated intoLupus's
lettercollection.Servati no. 3, ed. PeterK. Marshall(Leipzig,1984),4-6. In
Lupiepistolae,
interpreting I am muchindebtedtoDavid Ganz'sunpublished
thisletter, paper,'Einhard,
Griefand the Enigmasof Personality'. An extendedanalysisof theclassicaltropesand
Christianunderstanding ofdeathwhichEinhardbalancedin it is providedby Petervon
55

56 TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL HISTORICAL SOCIETY
Einhard, the grief-stricken husband, is renowned for his Life of

Charlemagne, a text read by every generationof studentsand scholars
from that day to this. To him we owe the compellingimage of the
emperor Charlemagne (768-814) as the mightywarriorking,the pious
Christianwho presided over a court of scholarswhere the learningof
the Roman world was revived,the ruleron whom imperialcoronation
was foisted on Christmas Day, 8oo. Einhard's fame rests upon his
abilityto conjure the emperor to life in a sophisticatedprose which
evokes classical norms of Latin style and imperial biography: his
importance as Charlemagne's courtieras well as his biographer has
oftenbeen rehearsed.3Instead of discussingthe familiarEinhard, the
man famed among his contemporariesforhis many talents- literary,
artistic,administrativeand political - this essay seeks out a more
intimate Einhard: male, Christian and married. By teasing out the
connections between his allegiance to the martyrswhose translation
from Rome he organised, his powerful sense of sinfulnessand his
marriage,it takes his political and literaryimportance for granted to
focus instead on his domesticand religiouslife.This explorationof his
career does not track a progressionto scholarlyeminence or political
wisdom,but framesit withinthe human lifecycle of childhood,youth,
marriage,maturityand old age, in a mannermore familiarto historians
of familythan of politicsor court culture.
Considerationof the intimaterelationshipbetweenEinhard, his wife
and his saints opens up a discussion of other contemporaryelite
households in order to situateEinhard and Imma in the contextof a
burgeoning aristocraticreligiosityduring the reigns of Charlemagne
and his successor,Louis the Pious (814-4o). In a reaction against the
common tendency to over-emphasisethe division between lay and
religiousways of livingin the Carolingian era, this essay puts the case
for recognisingboth the malleabilityof that distinctionand the ability
of the Carolingianaristocracyto createforthemselvesformsof devotion
which melded aspects of the contemplativeand active lives into a
Studien
Moos, Consolatio: iberdenTodundzumProblem
Trostliteratur
zurmittellateinischen der
christlichen Mtinstersche-Mittelalter
Trauer, Schriften3 (4 vols.,Munich,1971-2), I, 113-
18.
3Importantstudiesinclude SiegmundHellmann,'Einhardsliterarische Stellung',
Historische 27 (1932),40-110 (repr.in idem,Ausgewdhlte
Viertejlahrschrift, Abhandlungenzur
undGeistesgeschichte
Historiographie desMittelalters
(Weimar, 1961),159-229; ArthurKleinclausz,
Eginhard(Paris,1942);HelmutBeumann,Ideengeschichtliche Studienzu Einhardundanderen
desfriiheren
Geschichtsschreibern Mittelalters
(Darmstadt, 'Einhard,seine
1962);J. Fleckenstein,
Grtindung und sein Vermachtnis in Das Einhardkreuz,
in Seligenstadt', ed. Karl Hauck
(Gottingen,1974),96-121 (repr.inJ.Fleckenstein,
Ordnungenundformende desMittelalters
Krdfte
(Gottingen, 1989),84-I11; Einhard: Studienzu Lebenund Werk, ed. HermannSchefers
(Darmstadt,I997); Paul Edward Dutton, Charlemagne's Courtier:The CompleteEinhard
(Peterborough,Ont., 1998).

EINHARD:THE SINNERANDTHE SAINrs 57
coherent and practicable whole. In using one aristocraticmarried
couple as a focal point,it takes as its theme conjugal Christianity- the
shared religious attitudesand enterprisesof aristocraticmarriages in
Carolingian times.
We may begin with Imma. That we know verylittleabout her is no
surprise,for most lay women of the early Middle Ages are seldom
more than names to us.4 For all his evident love for her and reliance
upon her, Einhard himselfnever mentionsher in any of his writings-
until,that is, his griefbroke down his usual barriersof silence. We first
encounterher in a diploma by means of which Louis the Pious granted
two estates in eastern Francia, Michelstadt and Mulinheim,'to our
faithfulman Einhard and his wife Imma' on I iJanuary 815.5 It is
usually assumed that they had long since been married - but that is
improbable, as will be seen. Her own familybackgroundis unknown.
From the twelfthcenturyuntilthe nineteenth,she was widelybelieved
to have been a daughterof Charlemagne; ofvarious recentspeculations,
the most plausible is that she came froma local landowningfamilyin
the vicinityof these estates.6It could also be that she was the widow
or daughterof the formerholder of Mulinheim, Count Drogo, and that
she had rightsto propertyin the vicinity.7
We are equally ignorantabout her age at marriage,or whethershe
had been marriedpreviously.Extrapolationfromadmittedlyveryscanty
evidence suggeststhat elite women in the ninth and tenth centuries
usually contractedtheirfirstmarriage at or soon afterpuberty,occa-
sionallyas young as twelvebut more commonlybetween fourteenand
nineteen. If widowed, they might remarry;the intervalbetween first
and second marriage could be anythingfrom two to twentyyears.8
4 Cf.JuliaM.H. Smith,'Genderand Ideologyin theEarlyMiddleAges',in Gender and

Christian ed. RobertSwanson,Studiesin ChurchHistory,
Religion, 34 (1998),51-73-
5CodexLaureshamensis Ig, ed. Karl Gl6ckner(3 vols.,Darmstadt,1929-36),1, 299-300.
On the regionin whichtheselandslay,see now MatthewInnes,StateandSociety in the
EarlyMiddleAges:TheMiddleRhineValley, (Cambridge,
400-1000ooo 2000).
6 Wolfgang Hartmann, 'KlosterMachesbachundfriihmittelalterliche AdelimBachgau',
16 (1993), 137-237at 63-4, 219-27,cf.WilhelmSt6rmer,
AschaffenburgerJahrbuch, 'Einhards
Herkunft - Uberlegungen und Beobachtungen zu EinhardsErbebesitzund familiaren
Umfeld',in Einhard, ed. Schefers, 15-39,withcomments on Imma at 37-8.
7Codex Laureshamenszs19,I, 300.
8These statements are based upon information on aristocratic women'smarriage
patternsassembledfromKarl-Ferdinand Werner,'Die Nachkommen Karls des Grossen
bis zumJahreIooo', in KarlderGrosse: Lebenswerk undNachleben,ed. Wolfgang Braunfels (4
1965-7),IV,403-79.See also thecomments
vols.,Dtisseldorf, ofSuzanneFonayWemple,
Women in FrankishSociety:Marriage andtheCloister,
500-900 (Philadelphia, i981),99; and
RegineLe Jan,Famille etpouvoirdanslemonde sociale
fianc(VIIe-Xesilcle):essaid'anthropologie
(Paris,1995),346,365-6;JanetL. Nelson,'The WaryWidow',in Property andPower inthe
EarlyMiddleAges,ed. WendyDavies and Paul Fouracre(Cambridge,1995),82-113 esp.
88-9o.

WhetherImma was scarcelyout of her teens or around thirty, she was

certainlywithinher childbearingyears, for although the couple were
stillchildlessin 8ig, theycontemplatedthe possibilitythat theymight
have offspringin the future.9A fleetingreferenceindicates that they
may subsequentlyhave had a son, Vussin.'"
When we encounterImma in 819, she and her husband were making
theirwill together.In it, theytransferredtheirestate at Michelstadtto
the royalmonasteryof Lorsch, reservingthe usufructforthe remainder
of theirlives." That Imma was named both in the imperial grant of
815 and the donation to Lorsch fouryears later is noteworthy.Wives
only featureas co-donors in approximately20 per cent of Carolingian
charters;to be named as co-beneficiaryin an imperialdiploma is even
more unusual.'" Was Imma more centralto local networksof property
and patronage than her husband? Certainlyshe was his active partner.
Two shortlettersfromher survivein the same manuscriptas Einhard's
lettercollection. These not only reveal her to have been literate,but
also show her participatingin regulatingthe affairsof the church at
Mulinheim. In one, she intercedeswith a neighbouringlandlord and his
wife about one of their serfswho had contractedan illegal marriage
and thenfledforsanctuaryto the churchof Sts Marcellinusand Peter;
in the other, we find her hard at work negotiatingand dispensing
advice about a delicate but unknownissue withher son.'"
Other hints corroborate this picture of her as a woman of wide-
rangingcontactsand considerablereputation.When Bernharius,bishop
of Worms, lay dying in 825/6 he entrusteda final task to Einhard
which he was to performwith Imma's participation,and he referred
to her as his 'most beloved sister',words of affectionfor a woman he
knew and respected.To themjointlyhe commended his soul.'4 Bishop
Gozbald of Wtirzburg(842-55) kept notes of the deaths of important
people connectedwiththe royal court- rulers,bishops,a fewothers-
whom he wished to commemorate.His list is exclusivelymen, except
for Imma: this again suggestsan unusual status as well as personal
9Cf.thegrantofMichelstadt to Lorschin 819 (Cbdex 20, 1,301-2): 'Filios

Laureshamensis
unusex eis in eadem possessionenobisiureprecario
quoque si nos haberecontigerit,
succedat.'
o Einhard'sundatedletterto the youthVussinis usuallypresumedto have been
butthelocutionminatemayimplya son. Einhard,Epistolae,
addressedto a student, no.
57, ed. K. Hampe, Monumenta GermaniaeHistorica[hereafterMGH] Epistolae [hereafter
K. Hampe etal. (Berlin,1899),137-8. Ep. 38 (ibid.,128-9)is
Epp.],v, ed. E. Dtimmler,
addressedby Imma to a son or grandson(themanuscript readingis uncertain); if the
lattershe musthavebeen marriedpreviously.
" CodexLaureshamensis
20, I, 301-2.
"
Cf. Le Jan,Famille
etpouvoir,
351.
nos. 37,38, ed. Hampe, 128-9.
'3Einhard,Epistolae,
no. 3, ed. Hampe, Iio-II.
' Einhard,Epistolae,

EINHARD: THE SINNER AND THE SAINTS 59
contact and esteem.'5 For a slightlyfullerportraitof Imma, we are
indebted to Lupus of Ferrieres,to whom Einhard had poured out his
grief in 836. In his reply, Lupus praised Imma as 'a most nob-
le...[and]...memorable woman' with a man's spirit in a woman's
body, whose good sense, dignityand probity(prudentia, gravitas,
honestas)
surpassed many men's.'6 Imma was evidentlygreatlyrespected by all
who knew her, and we should perhaps read these tributesas an
indication that she was a woman of mature years. Certainlyshe was,
in Einhard's own words, hisfidissima coniunx,his 'most trustedwife'.'7
To Lupus, it seemed that theirmarriagewas 'a great love, strength-
ened by long experience'.'8 To what extent Imma shared Einhard's
devotionto Sts Marcellinusand Peter and participatedin his promotion
of their cult cannot readily be ascertained,however. But we know of
several other Carolingian aristocraticcouples where the acquisition of
relicswithwhich to endow a new familyreligiouscommunitywas one
in which the wifewas as active a participantas the husband. Early in
Charlemagne's reign, Roger, count of Poitiers,and his wife Eufrasia
established the monasteryof Charroux, accompanying theirproperty
donations with the gift of their very large relic collection.'9In the
central decades of the ninth century,we also meet wives negotiating
for Roman relics alongside theirhusbands. In 846, for example, Oda
travelled to Rome with her husband, Liudolf, count of Saxony, to
obtain relics for their new foundationat Gandersheim,while in 863
Bertha was prominentlyassociated withher husband Gerard of Vienne
in requesting Roman relics for V6zelay and Pothieres.20 The active
involvementofwivesin establishingmonasticrelicshrinesis particularly
strikingin the case of Imma's exact contemporary,Bilichild,the wife
of Count Rorigo of Le Mans. She seems to have been far more
energeticin restoringthe ruined monasteryof St Maur at Glanfeuilon
the Loire than her husband, winningfor herselfthe honorifictitleof
'abbess' (abbatissa)." Slightlylater,we also encounterAdelheid urging
on her husband, Conrad count of Argengau (and uncle of Charles the
Memento,20, on the very personal nature of Gozbald's com-

'SWellmer, Persiinliches
memorative notes.
'6Lupus,Epistolae, no. 4, ed. Marshall,6-12,but notethat,howeveroutstanding, she
couldnevermatchEinhardin Lupus'sestimation (8, lines4-11).
17Einhardto Lupus:Lupus,Epistolae, no. 3, ed. Marshall,4, lines8-9.
'8 Lupus,Epistolae,no. 4, ed. Marshall,Io, lines35-6.
'9 Charteset documents
pour serviri l'histoire
de l'abbayede Charroux,
ed. P. de Monsabert,
Archiveshistoriques
de Poitou,39 (Poitiers,
1910), 53-62 withrelicsat 6o.
'2JuliaM.H. Smith,'Old Saints,New Cults:Roman Relicsin CarolingianFrancia',
in EarlyMedievalRomeand theChristianWest,ed. eadem(Leiden, 2000), 317-39 at 329-30.
' Odo of Glanfeuil,Historiatranslationis
S. Mauri,praef., ch. 2, Actasanctorum toto
quotquot
orbecoluntur[hereafterAASS], ed. J. Bollandus et al. (Antwerp and Brussels, 1634-1940;
3rdedn,Paris,1863-70),Jan311,334,336-7.This accountwas written
in 868/9.

60o TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL HISTORICAL SOCIETY
Bald), in his enhancement of the shrineof St Germanus:she herself

travelled to Auxerreto superintend thework."ForImmato havebeen
as enthusiastic as Einhardabout the cultof Marcellinusand Peteris
notinherently implausible.
AfterthissketchofImma,letus turnnowto Einhard.He is someone
we thinkwe knowfromhisprefaceto theLifeofCharlemagne: eyewitness
to theeventsaboutwhichhe writes, nurturedbytheemperorto whom
he becamea friendand confidant, a Germanwho had thetemerity to
imagine that he 'could write something correct and even elegant in
Latin'." We shouldnot forgetthoughthatthe LifeofCharlemagne is,
formally speaking, an anonymous work.Surviving in overone hundred
itis
manuscripts, highly unlikely thattheauthor's name couldsomehow
have droppedout of all versionsof thetext.i4 Althoughcontemporary
readersevidently knewwho had written it,we nowrelyon eitherthe
dedicatory verseinscribed in Louis thePious'scourtcopybyGerward,
thepalace librarian, or on theprefacewhichWalahfrid Strabo(d. 848)
added when he editedthe workafterEinhard'sdeath."5Einhard's
anonymity in his mostfamousworkcontrastswithhis readinessto
name himselfin his otherextendedprose work,an accountof the
translation fromRome in 827 oftherelicsofStsMarcellinus and Peter
and ofthemiraclestheyworkedin Francia.Introducing himselfin the
he
superscription,styles himself Einhardus -
peccator Einhard, the sinner.'6
The phraseis characteristic of the man: it recursfrequently in his
letters,charters and otherworks,alwaysin contexts associatedwiththe
worshipor personnelof theChristianchurch;it is notconfinedto his
dealingswith Marcellinusand Peter.,7It also evokes sixth-century
'Heiric of Auxerre,MiraculaSanctiGermani, cursus

in., Patrologia series
comnpletus, Latina
[hereafter PL], ed.J.-P.Migne(221 vols.,Paris1844-64) 124,col. 1249B.
" VitaKaroli,praef.,ed. O. Holder-Egger, MGH Scriptores rerum Germanicarum in usum
scholarum separatimediti[hereafter
MGHSSRG6(Hanover,19g1;repr.1922), 2.
4 The modelof anonymity was followedby Thegan,the 'Astronomer', and Notker
theStammerer, subsequentninth-century writers ofroyalbiography. On themanuscript
dissemination ofthevitaKaroli, see MatthiasM. Tischler,Einharts 'VitaKaroli' Studien
zur
Entstehung,OberlieferungundRezeption,Schriftender MonumentaGermaniaeHistorica,48
(2 vols.,Stuttgart,2001).
' BothprefaceHolder-Egger's editionat xxviii-xxix.
etMiracula
26 Translatio SS Marcellini praef.,ed. G. XWaitz,
etPetri, MGH Scriptores [hereafter
MGH SS] (30 vols.,Hanover,1826-1934), xv, pt I, 239. I am muchindebtedto David
Ganz, forlettingme see his 'Einhardus Peccator',forthcoming in Lay Intelectualr
in the
Carolingian World,ed. P. Wormald,in advanceofpublication.
7The firstdatableuse oftheexpression occursin hiswillof 819: CodexLaureshamensis
20, I, 301-2.See also Einhard'scharter forSt Peter'sGent,inDiplomata beica anteannum
millesimum centum,ed. M. Gysseling and A.C.E Koch (2 vols.,Brussels,1950),I, 127;the
inscription on Einhard'sreliquary arch,reproduced in Dutton,Charlemagne's 63,
Courtier,
65; and hisletters, nos.4, Io, 16,30-2, 36, 39, 42-3,45, 49, ed. Hampe,IrI,
53-4, 63-4,
113-14,I18, 124-5, 127-8,129, 31, 132, 134,136-7,140o-.

EINHARD:THE SINNER
ANDTHE SAINTS 6I
precedents."8As he contemplated himselfin relationshipto God, his
saints and clergy,Einhard repeatedlyidentifiedand labelled himselfas
a sinner.In so doing, he was expressinga deeply Augustinianoutlook
which regarded the human condition as essentially sinful and in
enduringneed of redemption.
The frequencywith which Einhard insists on his own sinfulness
contrastssharplywith his reticenceabout other aspects of his life,not
merely Imma and their marriage. In particular,he tells us nothing
about his familybackground. For Einhard, self-fashioning was self-
effacing. In drawing attention to literaryself-fashioning during the
Renaissance, Stephen Greenblatt argued that it was especially char-
acteristicof authors of middlingoriginwho found themselvesrisingto
high places and rubbingshoulderswithmen of great power.29Einhard
fitsthis pattern.We learn fromWalahfridStrabo that he came from
the Maingau - the basin of the riverMain upstream fromFrankfurt
where Mulinheim lay - and that he had been sent as a child to the great
monastery of Fulda to be educated.3"We do not know for sure who
his parents were, although it is widely assumed that they were the
couple named Einhard and Engelfritwho gave Fulda a plot of land at
Euerdorf,50 km to the south-east,a grant documented in a charter
drawn up by the young Einhard, and that theirson was born c. 77o.3'
Walahfridwas bluntin notingthat Einhard was not froma particularly
noble family: Matthew Innes has interpretedthis as 'a well-to-do
background,but no better'- modest indeed in contrastwith the huge
wealth of the Carolingian imperial aristocracywhom he encountered
at court."3As we see him throughhis lettersin the last two decades of
his life, Einhard was an energetic networker,seeking or bestowing
patronage and lobbyingto get thingsdone. He certainlyexercised his
28 Most notablythe openingof Gregoryof Tours'sLiberdevirtutibus

S. Martini
episcopi,
wherehe styles
himself peccator'.MGH Scriptores
'Gregorius rerumMerovingicarum
[hereafter
MGH SSRM], ed. B. Krusch et al. (7 vols., Hanover, 1884-1920), I, pt 2, 585. For other
examples,see Ganz, 'Einhardus
sixth-century and fora uniquefemaleequivalent
peccator',
Gregory'sDecemlibrihistoriarum,
peccatrix),
(Radegundis Ix.42, MGH SSRM, I, pt I', 470.
29SJ. Greenblatt,
Renaissance FromMoretoShakespeare
Self-fashioning: (Chicago,I980), 7.
30
ed. Holder-Egger,
VitaKaroli, xxviii-xxix.
Maingauconnections and possiblefamilial
linkstomembers oftheregionalaristocracy
arediscussed
byStormer, 'EinhardsHerkunft'
(withthe suggestionat 21 thatEinhardmayhave ownedland adjacentto Michelstadt
before815)and,morecontentiously, byK. Brunner, Oppositionelle
Gruppen imKarolingerreich
(Vienna, 1979), 83-95.
3'Urkundenbuch desKlosters
Fulda,no. 240, ed. EdmundE. Stengel(2 vols.,Marburg,
1956), 11, 235-6.
32Walahfrid,'nobilitatisquod in eo munuserat insigne':praef.,ed. Holder-Egger,
xxviii;cf.MatthewInnes,'"A Place ofDiscipline":CarolingianCourtsand Aristocratic
Youth',in CourtCulture
in theEarlyMiddleAges,ed. C.R.E. Cubitt,YorkStudiesin the
EarlyMiddleAges,I (Turnhout, forthcoming).

patronage on behalf of a couple of his own young relatives,"3 but his

range of useful contacts included no influential
kinsmen in high places.
The survivingsources suggest an Einhard who floats detached from
any familialenvironment, in a mannermore reminiscentofecclesiastical
than secular courtiers.34
Although educated at Fulda, there is no evidence that his parents
gave him as an oblate, an infantgiftedto God to be raised in purity
as a monk. Fulda, as other major Carolingian monasteries,took into
its schools not just oblates and novice monks,but also pupils destined
forthe ranksof the elite secular clergyand some lay boys too.35" These
mightmove on to complete their trainingelsewhere,sent away into
the household of a bishop or secular lord. One such was Charlemagne's
grandsonBernard who, aftereducation at Fulda, returnedto the court
of his father,Pippin king of Italy?6Einhard, however,seems to have
remained at Fulda as a layman for a while, probably until his early
twenties.In the 780s-early790oswe know him to have draftedcharters
for the monastery,and to have startedexperimentingwritinga more
classicisingLatin." There is perhaps a physiologicalexplanation for
his failureto move on fromFulda. Einhard describedhimselfas a 'tiny
manlet' and thosewho knewhim confirmthathe was indeed 'despicable
in stature': as he grew to maturity,it may have become evident that
he lacked the physique to handle horses and weapons in the hunt or
on campaign.:8
Then, at some point between 791 and 796, Abbot Baugulf sent him
to court as a young man whose exceptionalintellectualgiftswere well
suited to royal service.39We hear nothingof the japes and mockery
11
nos. 43, 63, ed. Hampe, 131,140-1.For a discussion
Einhard,Epistolae, ofEinhard's
networks ofpatronage,see Innes,StateandSociety,
85-91.
. Cf. StuartAirlie,'Bondsof Powerand BondsofAssociation in theCourtCircleof
Louis the Pious',in Charlemagne'sHeir:NewPerspectives on theRegnofLouisthePious,ed.
PeterGodman and Roger Collins(Oxford,1990), 191-204esp. 200 on the substitute
networks ofintellectualconnections whichhad developedby the82os.
31Maykede Jong,In Samuel's Image:ChildOblation in theEarlyMedievalWest(Leiden,
1996),232-45-
Fuldensium
36Epistolarum fragmenta, no. I, MGH Epp.,v, 517.
37UrkundenbuchdesKlostersFulda,ed. Stengel,I, pt 2, lxiii-lxiv.
Einhardto Lupus:Lupus,Epistolae,
38c'Homuncio tantille': no. 3, ed. Marshall,4, lines
24-5; 'homuncio,nam staturadespicabilisvidebatur':Walahfrid, prefaceto the Vita
Karoli,ed. Holder-Egger, xxix. On his small size as a literarytrope,see Dutton,
xxxviii.Despitehis stature,
Courtier,
Charlemagne's Einhard'snormalmethodoftravelwas
on horseback, exceptwhenhe was so sickthathe had to travelby boat. Epistolae, nos.
13-14,ed. Hampe, 116-17.
S9Walahfrid, praef.,ed. Holder-Egger, xxviii.The exact date of Einhard'smove to
courtis uncertain.He was stilldrafting chartersat Fulda in 791(Urkundenbuch desIK?osters
Fulda,no. 189,ed. Stengel,I, pt 2, 284-6) but had enteredroyalserviceby the time
Theodulfcomposedhispoeticepistlead Carolum regem in 796, forthepoet mentions his
presence(see nextnote).

which surelyattended the arrival of his dwarfishfigure,but only that
this tinyman scurriedaround like a purposefulant, or a honey-laden
bee.4o Thereafter he remained in Charlemagne's entourage, rapidly
winningboth reputationand the ruler's trust,developing his mastery
of a varietyof culturalformsand honing his verbal and administrative
skills. Einhard arrived at court about the time when it firstsettled
regularlyat Aachen (794), no longer as widely itinerantas previous
years.At itscore, the royalhousehold compriseda fairlystable,compact
group of membersof the king'sfamilytogetherwith his officialsecular
and clerical personnel, but had an additional much wider and more
fluctuatingmembershipthat changed according to the annual rhythm
of warfare,hunting,political assemblies and major religiousfestivals
characteristicof any medieval court. It also included an important
group, permanently present but of changing membership: young,
unmarriedmale aristocratswhose parents had commended them into
the household of the kingor his queen, to be socialisedinto the manners
and lifestyleof the political elite. These pueri- the lads - were the
Carolingian equivalents of the twelfth-century knightlyyouths whose
contributionto chivalriccultureGeorges Duby evoked.4'In thissense,
'youth' formeda distinctphase in the aristocraticmale lifecycle,when
abundant physical(and sexual) energywas not yet accompanied by the
responsibilitesof marriage and fatherhood,propertyor office.These
men served Charlemagne directly:their reward would come in the
formof a countship,permissionto marryand set up theirown lordly
household.41
The controlwhich the Carolingian kingexercisedover his courtiers'
lives is particularlyapparent in the occasional instances of someone
wishingto leave royal service.William of Toulouse was one such: twice
marriedand aftera distinguishedcareer as a count, he desired to retire
and entera monastery.Beforehe could 'change his clothesinterwoven
with gold forthe robe of Christ',he needed to be released fromroyal
service. Finally, the licentiaconvertendi,
'permission to convert', was
forthcoming, and in 804 he retiredto the monasterywhich he founded
on his own propertyat Gellone.43 When such a desire surfacedin a
40Theodulf, Carmina 25, lines 155-8, ed. E. Dummler,MGH PoetaeLatiniaeviCarolini

[hereafterMGH PLAC],ed. E. Dimmleretal. (4 vols.,Berlin,1881-1923), I, 487; Alcuin,
Carmina 30.2, line4, ibid.,248.
41GeorgesDuby,'Youthin Aristocratic Society:Northwestern Francein theTwelfth
Century',in TheChivalrous trans.CynthiaPostan(London,1977),112-22.
Society,
42Innes, 'A Place ofDiscipline'.
43Ardo,VitaBenedicti 30,MGH SS, xv,pt I, 211-12; charterforGellone:Claude de Vic
andJosephVaissette, Histoire deLanguedoc
ginirale (5 vols.,Paris,1730-45), I,preuves,cols.
31-2; also Louis the Pious's diplomaat cols. 34-5. The formulary of Marculf,i.g9,
preservesthe formof wordsfora permitto leave courtand enterthe church:MGH
FormulaeMerowingici etKarolini aevi,ed. K. Zeumer(Hanover,1886),55-6. Royalcontrol

youngerman, imperialpermission mightbe rathermore reluctantly

granted, as was the case with Aldric,futurebishopof Le Mans (832-
57),to whomLouis the Pious offered a military retinueof his own to
inducehimto remainin royalserviceat courtratherthandepartfor
a newlifein thechurch.44
These and a handfulof otherinstancesfromCharlemagne'sreign
hintat an atmosphere of religiousanxietyamongthearistocratic elite
of thetime.And wellmighttheyworryabout theirown salvation:in
preciselytheseyearsnotonlywas a programme ofvigorousmoraland
religiousreform being enunciated but also bloody,protracted warfare
intheDanube valleyand especially SaxonywaspushingtheCarolingian
empireto itsfullestterritorialextent.The conjunction threwintohigh
reliefthe questionof how extremely wealthy and powerfulwarrior
aristocrats might exercise their ascendency in a Christian manner.
Severalofthemturnedto theAnglo-Saxoncourtier-scholar Alcuinfor
advice.He repliedwithlettersand, in one case, a fulltreatise, in the
process working out a practicalmorality.Re-interpreting late
the
antique literatureof Christian masculinity, he offered reassurance that
thelayconditionand theexerciseofpowerwerenotincompatible with
achievingsalvation.The correctuse of powerand wealthcombined
withappropriate self-control Here is howAlcuindistilled
sufficed.45 his
adviceto one correspondent: 'be agreeablein counsel,strongin action,
a peacemakerat home,prudentas an envoy,kindtowardsthe poor
justin giving
and afflicted, judgement, generousin alms-giving in order
that out of your temporalwealthyou may win eternalrichesin
heaven'.46To another,he spelledout the sexual implications of the
'He whohas a legitimate
code ofethicalself-restraint: wifeshouldhave
sexualrelationswithher legitimately and at the appropriatetimesso
thathe maydeserveto receivetheblessingofchildrenfromGod. Let
marriageswas nothingnew: see Gregoryof Tours,DecemLibriHistoriarum,

of courtiers'
Iv.46,MGH SSRM,x,pt i0, 181.
44GestaAldriciCenommanicae urbisepiscopii (MGH SS, xv, pt I, 308). For an outline of
Aldric's career, see Philippe Depreux, Prosopographie de Louis le Pieux (781-84o)
de l'entourage
(Sigmaringen, 1997), 97-9.
45Donald Bullough,'Alcuinand Lay Virtue',in Preaching in theMiddleAges:
andSociety
Proceedings of the Twelfth Medieval Sermon Studies
Ethics, Valuesand Social Behaviour,
Conference On Alcuin's
(Padua,forthcoming). seeLiutpold
sources, 'Alcuin
Wallach, on
Virtuesand Vices: A Manual fora CarolingianSoldier',HarvardTheological
Review, 48
of the classicalethicof
(1955),175-97.The importanceof the Christianreformulation
civicmasculinityis emphasisedby Kate Cooper and Conrad Leyser,'The Genderof
Grace:Impotence, and Manlinessin theFifth-Century
Servitude West',GtderandHistoay,
12 (2000), 536-51.
46'Estoinconsiliosuavisetinoperestrenuus; indomo,prudensinlegationibus;
pacificus
justusin judiciis,largusin eleemosynis;
pius in paupereset miseros, ut ex temporalibus
divitiistuisaeternastibimerearisin caelis.'Alcuin,Epistolae,
no. III (to Megenfrid),
ed.
E. Dummler,MGH Epp.,iv, ed. E. Dimmler(Berlin,1895),159-62,quotationat 161.

no man say he is unable to keep himselffrom fornicating.'47 The
layman who lived up to these exhortationswould be 'wise in heart,
albeit a soldierwith his hands'.48
Other moralistssounded the same note and, in the early part of the
ninthcentury,developed it into a fullcode of aristocraticethical self-
discipline and sexual restraint.49 This was the code of conduct into
which the pueriat court were to be socialised so that,once established
as counts and heads of household in theirown right,theyin theirturn
would act as models of good conduct. Through self-discipline,they
mightlearn wisdom, honestyand discretionin everyaspect of life,the
qualificationsforbecoming trustedand faithfulcourtiers.50
Into thisworld of power and its perils,Einhard arrived.He came to
know Alcuin - whose esteem forhim is well known5'- and had surely
met the courtierswho converted to the religiouslife. He must have
been roughlythe same age as many of thepueri,and he most certainly
enjoyed a similarlyclose relationshipto his royal 'lord and nurturer'as
they did.5' Yet his career trajectorydifferedin one crucial respect: he
neitherconvertedto the religiouslifenor was sent offto formhis own
domestic-cum-military household and administer a county. He was
evidentlytoo usefulto be returnedto the localities.In thiscontext,we
may consider the question of the date of marriage of this man who
had no powerful relatives to argue that he should be released and
endowed.
Charlemagne is famous - or notorious- forretaininghis daughters
at court,unmarriedbut freeto engage in informalsexual liaisons; the
rationale for this seems to be that they functionedas a collective
substitutefor the queen afterthe death of his fourthand last wife in
8oo.53 Like Charlemagne's daughters,Einhard probably had to wait
until middle age to escape the exceptionallyprolonged 'youth' which
imperial patronage brought in its wake: for Einhard, as for the new
emperor's sisters,the accession of Louis the Pious in January 814
brought great changes. Scarcely ten years older than Louis, Einhard
47Liberde VirtutibusetVitiis,
writtenat therequestofCountWido oftheBretonmarch,
PL IoI, col. 627:'Qui mulierem habetlegitimam,legitimeutaturea temporibus
opportunis,
ut benedictionem mereaturfilioruma Deo recipere.Nemo dicat a fornicatione se
custodirenon posse.'
4 Alcuin,Epistolae, no. 136,ed. Dummler,205.
49Smith,'Gender and Ideology';Katrien Heene, The Legacyof Paradise:Marriage,
Motherhood and Women in Carolingian Literature
Edifiing (Frankfurtam Main, 1997),68-113.
50Innes,'A Place ofDiscipline'.
5'Alcuin, Epistolae,no. 172, ed. Dammler, 284-5 at 285; Carmina,nos. 26, 30, ed.
Dammler, 245, 248.
5' VitaKaroli,
prologue,ed. Holder-Egger,
I.
53JanetL. Nelson, 'Womenat the Court of Charlemagne:A Case of Monstrous
Regiment?', in eadem,The FrankishWorld(London, 1996), 223-42.

66 OF THE ROYALHISTORICAL
TRANSACTIONS SOCIETY
was unusual in managing to remain influentialin the new regime,
whichrapidlyestablished itselfas verydifferent
in personnel, politics
and moraltonefromtheold emperor's court.54 himpersonally,
For 814
seems to have been a year of transition to both the role of 'elder
statesman'and fullsocialadulthood.Fromthismoment, clearevidence
of property,wealthand marriageaccumulates.In January815 came
the giftof the estatesof Michelstadtand Mulinheim, by whichdate
Einhardand Immaweremarried.Perhaps,even,withoutan imperial
giftofproperty,Einhardlackedadequatemeanswithwhichto givehis
bridea dowry- ifso, thiswouldexplainImma'sunusualprominence
in thedocumentary record.55From815onwards,severalrichabbeysto
administeron the emperor'sbehalfwerean additionalrecognition of
Einhard'sposition.He derivedfurther wealthand influencefromtheir
lands,and broughtto theseinstitutions the energyto reform themin
line withimperialexpectations.56 The tradition
of imperialcontrolof
courtiers'marriagescombineswiththe patternof the evidencefor
Einhard'scareerto suggestthathe was onlygivenpermission to marry
in 814.
Einhardmightthushavebeen aged aboutforty-five whenhe finally
married; Imma must have been anythingfrom ten to thirtyyears
younger.We should also note that the extantcorpusof Einhard's
writings,literaryand documentary, onlydatesfromafter814. Imme-
the
diately, burden ofsin is When
present. he draftedthewillbywhich
ownership of Michelstadt was givento Lorsch in 819,he openedwith
a comment thatChrist'smissionhad beento a 'humankind besmirched
by variousfilthy sins'.Declaringtheir'equal devotion',he and Imma
made the transaction together'forthe abolitionof our sins,and for
pursuing the rewards of the blessed,perpetuallife'; his autograph
signature on theengrossed copyread 'I, Einhard,sinnerand donor'.57
Notwithstanding the donationto Lorsch,Einhard- and Imma?-
setaboutdeveloping boththeirestates.To supplement thesimplepre-
churches,
existing new churches werebuilt at Michelstadt
andMulinheim,
while at the former, Einhardalso erecteda splendidlarge basilica,
designedin a mannerthatfullyreflected themostup-to-date imperial
ideas on liturgyand sacredspace. By 827, buildingworkmusthave
The courtpurgesand changesofpersonnel are summarisedbyEgon Boshof,Ludwig

derFromme (Darmstadt, 1996),92, 94, o105-
5.For the conventions governingdowryin the ninthcentury, see R6gineLe Jan-
Hennebicque,'Aux originesdu douairem6dieval(VIe-Xe siecles)',in Veuves et veuvage
danslehautmoyen dge,ed. MichelParisse(Paris,1993),107-22.
56F.J.Felten,AbteundLainenabteimFrankenreich
(Stuttgart,
1980),283-6.
1 CodexLaurehamensis2o, I, 301-2. Einhardsignedthus:'Ego Einharduspeccatoret
donatorrecognoviet manupropriasubscripsi.'

been effectively finished,forhe was ponderingwhich saint to select as
its dedicatee.
This is the openingpoint of the narrativeof his Translation
andMiracles
of theMartyrs Marcellinus and Peter.This tells how Einhard sent his
personal notary,Ratleic, to Rome where, with the connivance of one
of the city'sdeacons, he robbed a catacomb and returnedto Germany
with the relics of the third-century martyrsMarcellinus and Peter. In
November 827, Einhard installed them at Michelstadt,possession of
which would revertto Lorsch afterhis and Imma's deaths. But the
saintsmade it known that thiswas not theirchosen restingplace, so in
January 828 he yielded to theirinstructionsand moved them instead
to Mulinheim. He then returnedto court, only to learn that, en route
fromRome, Ratleic had been robbed of part of the relics by a cleric
of Hilduin, abbot of Saint-Denis (Paris) and Saint-M6dard (Soissons),
who had travelledwith him. Only afterconsiderable bargaining did
Einhard succeed in recovering the stolen portions of the bodies.
Restored to wholeness and installed at Mulinheim, the martyrstrans-
formed themselvesinto miracle-workers.Here, at Aachen, and else-
where, healings, reconciliationsand exorcismsoccurred. The purpose
of the Translation and Miracleswas to authenticatethe relics,proclaim
their shrine as a centre of exemplary Christianityin the midst of a
corruptempire and praise God's greatness.58
A strongassociation between the martyrs'relicsand Einhard's sense
of both his own sinfulnessand that of the empire at large runs
throughoutthe years after828. He declared thathe did not know why
these powerfulsaints had deigned to take up residence with him, the
'sinner', but he rose to the challenge wholeheartedly,determinedthat
theyshould receive 'fitting honour'.59In Marcellinusand Peter,Einhard
found both patrons and clients,forjust as he sought theirintercession
in heaven, so he fosteredtheircult and reputationon earth.In addition
to commemoratingin prose the saints'journey to theirnew, northern
home and publicisingtheirmiracles,he decided to build them another
new basilica, thistimeexactlymodelled on the mostrecentarchitectural
designs which Ratleic would have observed in Rome. The decision to
build the new churchwas made in principleby the springof 830, and
compositionof the Translation andMiraclescompletedthat autumn.6o By
j5 Cf.Julia M.H. Smith,"'EmendingEvil Waysand PraisingGod's Omnipotence":

Einhardand theUses ofRomanMartyrs', in Seeing
andBelieving: inLateAntiquity
Conversion
andtheEarlyMiddleAges,ed. KennethMillsand AnthonyGrafton(Rochester,NY, 2003),
189-223.
59BothquotationsfromEpistolae, no. Io, ed. Hampe, 113-14.
no. Io, dated by Hampe to April830, notesthe decisionto builda new
6o Epistolae,
church.On the date of the Translatio et miracula,
see MartinHeinzelmann,'Einhards
Marcellini
Translatio etPetri:eine hagiographische Reformschrift
von 830', in Einhard,
ed.
Schefers, 269-98 at 278 and n. 43.

then, however, Louis's empire was convulsed by political crisis and

his court riddled with corruption. In this environment,it proved
hard for Einhard to acquire the necessary resources, material and
political, necessary to get the church built. At the very least its east
end, with its apsidal relic crypt and founders' burial vault, must
have been completed by the time of Imma's death in December
835 and the visit the followingyear of Louis the Pious (perhaps to
attend the church'sconsecration).' Completion of the restpresumably
followed shortlythereafter,although interior decorations were still
being commissioned in 847.6,
The final decade of Einhard's life (830o-40) has sometimes been
construed either as a political retirementor a religiousconversion.63
Let us see what Einhard himselfsays. He opens the Translation and
Miracleslookingback to his days in permanentserviceat court: 'When
I was resident at the palace and occupied with the business of the
world, I used to give much thoughtto the leisure I would one day
enjoy.' His vocabulary here is the traditionalCiceronian juxtaposition
of negotium - otium,of business and responsibilityjuxtaposed with time
apart to cultivatecountry estates,friends and the mind.64 In reading
this,we should bear in mind that Louis the Pious's court included all
those in royal service and forwardingroyal interests,whetheror not
theywere in immediateattendanceon the emperor.6"Einhard certainly
remained a memberof thisbroad courtcircle,even ifno longerpresent
in person, for he kept in touch by messengersand letters.6"Also, the
transitionfromnegotium to otiumnever implied a one-way street,even
in the hands of fourth-century Christian writers.67This was not the
language of irrevocable change, let alone of monastic or clerical
a. 836, ed. F Kurze,MGH SSRG(Hanover,1891),27.

Fuldenses,
61Annales
62As Einhard'ssuccessorand abbot,Ratleicwas stillcommissioning in 847;
paintings
Lupus,Epistolae, no. 6o, ed. Marshall,66-7.
63Felten, Abte,285-6,forbriefsummary ofearlierinterpretations.
64 Translatio
etmiracula,I.I, ed. Waitz,239: 'Cum adhuc in palatiopositusac negotiis
saecularibusoccupatus,otium,quo aliquandoperfrui cupiebam,multimoda cogitatione
meditarer, quendamlocumsecretum atquea popularifrequentia remotum nanctusatque
illius,cui tuncmilitaveram Hludewiciliberalitate
principis consecutussum.'
65Airlie,'BondsofPower'.
"6Lettersshowhimrecusinghimself fromthesummonsto courtin theearlyweeksof
830 on thegroundsof severeillness(Epistolae, nos. 13-15,ed. Hampe, 116-18).He was
back at court,if onlybriefly, to writelettersforLouis the Pious in November832
(Epistolae,nos. 20-2, ed. Hampe, 120-1). The evidence does not reveal whether he
attendedin subsequent years,butdoes notallowus to assumethathe neverreturned.
6 Cf.Jean-MarieAndri,L'Otium dansla viemorale et intellectuelle
romaine a
desorigines
l'dpoque (Paris,1966);Jose Oroz Rota, 'L'Otium
augustinienne chez SaintAugustin', in Les
Loisirs de la culture
et l'tritage actesduXIIIe Congrls
classique: Guillaume
de l'Association Budi,
ed. J.-M. Andre, J. Dangel and P. Demont, Collection Latomus, 230 (Brussels, 1996),
433-40. I owe these referencesto Susanna Elm.

conversionssuch as those of William of Gellone or Aldric of Le Mans.
Rather, Einhard deployed this vocabulary for its resonances of public
service, landed property and educated reflectionupon the human
condition. It marked a lifein which secular and divine responsibilities
were complementarynot antithetical.
Einhard's actions after 830oevince neitherpolitical retirementnor
religious conversion. Instead, we can see most clearly firmdevotion
exercisedwithina domesticenvironment,combined with a continuing
concern for the welfare of the empire. He was the martyrs'political
spokesman, identifyingclosely with their cause, dedicating himselfto
theirservicein his old age and confidinghis privatethoughtsto them.68
In promoting them, he was doing his best to combat the sinful
corruptionwhich he believed pervaded the empire.69Although in a
letterto Louis the Pious in April 830, he had pleaded to be allowed to
serve his saints 'freed from secular responsibilities'and declared that
his intentionwas to spend his finalyears in the company of his saints,
praying, reading and meditating upon scripture,70he nevertheless
continuedtorunhisestates,
developingthemenergetically
yetperhaps
also applyingthatsame ethicaluse of powerwhichAlcuinhad
He alsomaintained
advocated.7' hisplaceinthewebofpatronagethat
spreadoutwards fromtheroyalcourt, in a goodwordforone
putting
man here,intercedingforanotherthere,garneringpoliticaland practical
supportfor his martyrs.The proximity of Mulinheim
to the newly
enlargedpalace complexat Frankfurtwillhave madeitextremelyeasy
forEinhardto retainhisplacein imperialnetworks
ofcommunication.72
Indeed, serving Marcellinus and Peter drew upon his accumulated
politicaland managerialskills,and led himto voice scathingcriticism
of the sinfulstate of the empire.73His last recorded contactwith Louis
the Pious came in 837,whenhe explainedto theagingemperorthat
the recentappearanceof Halley'scometportendeddisasterswhich
could only be avertedby turningto the remedyof penance and
beseechingdivinemercy.74All thiswas quitecompatiblewithhis own
nos. io, I8, forthelanguageof obsequium,

68Epistolae, servitium
to themartyrs;
Epistolae,
no. 16, invoking
themas knowingtrulyhisinnermost ed. Hampe, 113-I4,
thoughts; II8,
II9.
69Epistolae,nos. 10, 33, ed. Hampe, I13-14, 126.
70'A curis saecularibus absolutum': Epistolae,no. io, ed. Hampe, 114.
no. 50, on acquiringmanicipia
7'Epistolae, for the estates;nos. 37, 46, 47, 48, 49,
forclemencyforfugitives
interceding fromlordlyjurisdiction
who had soughtsanctuary
at the martyrs'shrine; ed. Hampe, 128,
133-4.
7' MatthewInnes,'People,Placesand Powerin Carolingian
Society',in Topographies
of
Powerin theEarlyMiddleAges,ed. Maykede Jongand FransTheuwswithCarinevan
Rhijn (Leiden, 2001), 397-437 at 422.
et miracula,II11.13-14, ed. Waitz, 252-4.
13 Translatio
74Einhard, Epistolae,no. 40, ed. Hampe, 129-30.

70 TRANSACTIONSOF THE ROYAL HISTORICALSOCIETY
in the yearbeforethe comet,we find
lifeof prayerand meditation:
him seekingconsolationafterImma's death by reading Cyprian,
Augustine inan effort
andJerome tounderstand andeternal
mortality
life.5When Einhardhimself died on 14/2IMarch 840,'76he was laid
to restin the same tombas Imma,in close proximity
to his beloved
The epitaphdisplayed
martyrs.77 praisedequallyhisservice
nearby to
theemperor andPeter.Hislifehadbeenspent
andto StsMarcellinus
in the serviceof patronsboth human and heavenly,in diuinum
uel
humanum
officium.78
In religiousdevotionsand managerialresponsibilities,Imma had
clearlybeen his partner:togethertheyregularly attendedmatinsand
the dailymass in the martyrs' church.79 When Einhardreturnedto
Aachen forthe winterpoliticalassembliesin 828-9-30, he travelled
withouther,presumably leavingtheadministration of thechurchand
itsproperty in hercapable hands." At precisely
thistime,Carolingian
bishopswere inveighing againstthe preposterousnessof womenwho
setthemselves up independentlyas themanagersand administratorsof
churches."8But to the bishopswho knewher,Imma was doubtless
exemplary: a marriedwoman,firmly in herhusband'sshadowbuthis
reliablepartnerin a sharedreligiousenterprise
(FigureI).
In thelastyearsof theirmarriage,however,itscharacterchanged.
Imma was no longerEinhard'ssexualpartner,becominginsteadhis
'dearest sister and companion'.8" Their marriage had given way to
75Einhardto Lupus:Lupus,Epistolae, no. 3, ed. Marshall,4-

76Einhard'sdate ofdeathgivenas 14Marchin a lateninth-/early tenth-centuryentry
to the Fulda Annales (MGH SS, xxmi,
Necrologici 166) and as 21 March by Gozbald of
Wurzburg(Wellmer, Personlisches
Memento, 15 n. ii). The former date was also recorded
in the Lorschnecrology(Kalndarium Necrologium ed. J.F. Bihmer,Fontes
Laureshamense,
Rerum Germanicarum 1843-68),mI,146).
(4 vols.,Stuttgart,
77For preciselocationoftheburialvault,see theexcavationreportofA. Schubert,'La
basilicadei SS. Marcellinoe Pietroa Mulinheim sul Meno secondoi recentiscavi',Rvista
diArcheologiaCristiana, 15(1938),141-6.
78HrabanusMaurus,Carmina, no. 85, ed. E. Diumler, MGH PLAC,11, 237-8.
7 Translatio et miracula,111.4,7,8, 9, 1o, ed. Waitz, 249, 250-1.I take Einhard'suse
of the plural noshere to mean 'we' not the formalsingularothertranslators have
assumed.
"Note the reversionto the singular,ego,each timehe leavesforcourt:Translatio et
miracula, 12, I9, ed. Waitz, 251, 252, 255. Similarly,Bernard of Septimania left
I.IIx.,
Dhuoda runninghis estateswhilsthe attendedcourt.Dhuoda, Libellus x.4, ed.
manualis,
and trans.P. Rich, Manuelpourmon fils,Sourceschrttiennes, 225bis,2nd edn (Paris,
1997),350-2.
8Council of Paris, 829, cl. 42. MGH Concilia[hereafter MGH Conc.],n, ed. A.
Werminghoff (Hanover,1906-8),638. On itsimport,see Nelson,'The WaryWidow',
92.
58'Olim fidissimaeconiugis,iam nunccarissimaesororisac sociae'; Einhardto Lupus:
no. 3, ed. Marshall,4. EinhardmusthavebeencruellyhurtwhenLupus
Lupus,Epistolae,
attempted to consolehimwiththesuggestion thatperhapsGod had takenImma from

i Einhard
Figure andImmaplantheir atMulinheim
foundation (nowSeligenstadt).
Mid-nineteenth-century
engraving,
reproducedfromJ. Schopp,DerName
Seligenstadt
(Speyer,1965).
him in punishment forhavingloved her physically too much. 'Affectum uestrumin

uxorisamore forsitansubdiuisumnon passus,putaripotestad se solum amandum
reuocauisseac, si quid eius corporiintemperanter diligendoplusiustoa uobisindultum
fuerat,eiusdemcorporissubtractione no. 4, ed. Marshall,9.
punisse.'Lupus,Epistolae,

completesexualabstinence in a mannerreminiscent ofthewell-attested

late antiquecustomamongpiousChristian couplessuchas Paulinusof
Nola and Therasiaor Melania the youngerand Pinianusas well as
othermembersoftheircircles.8" Carolingianmoralists also enjoinedan
ethicofsexualrestraint forthelaity.If Immawas by thistimebeyond
childbearing age, it would have been appropriateforthe couple to
heed the strictures againstintercourse exceptfor the sake of pro-
creation."8Evenweresherather younger, theymayhavebeenmindful
oftherequirements ofCarolingian churchcouncilsthatthelaityshould
abstainfromsex beforetakingthe sacraments:in thismanner,the
couple'sdailyattendance at massbecamepossible.85In theirlastyears
together, Imma and Einhardshareda lifeof chastity, prayerand the
management and promotion ofthemartyrs' church.
Similarpatternsof conjugalpietyare evidentin otheraristocratic
couplesof thisperiod.Rorigoand Bilichild,restorers of St-Maurde
Glanfeuil,were hailed as religiosi
coniuges, 'devout spouses'.86Such a
phrasemightequallybe appliedto Geraldand Adaltruda:they'held
modestyand religionas if it were some hereditary dowry'of which
sexualself-restraint
was but one aspect,acordingto thehagiographer
oftheirson,GeraldofAurillac(bornc. 855).87 Adelheidand
Similarly,
Conrad(thebenefactors of St-Germain at Auxerre)had suchpersonal
qualitiesthatHeiricof Auxerrecould scarcelydecide 'whichof them
was moreintenton devotion,morefervent in veneratingthe saints,
moregenerousin attentiveness towardsthepoor'.88Such ninth-century
'holyhouseholds'could survivethedeathof one of thespouses.89 For
example,Gisla, the widowof the Saxon countUnwan,was another
83Cf.Dyan Elliott,Spiritual SexualAbstinence

Marriage: in MedievalWedlock
(Princeton,
1993), chs. 2-3, esp. 51-5. On fifth-century
precedents for other aspects of Carolingian
see MartinHeinzelmann,
layreligiosity, 'Sanctitasund "Tugendadel":Zu Konzeptionen
von "Heiligkeit"
im 5. und io. Jahrhundert',
Francia,5 (1977),741-52.
84Heene,Legacy ofParadise,
79-89.
8574ox750 Council of Bavaria, cl. 6; 796/7 Council of Cividale, cl. 13; 813 Council of
Chalons-sur-Sione, cl. 46; 829 Council of Paris, cl. 69. MGH Conc.,I, 52, 194, 283, 669-
70.
U"Odo of Glanfeuil, Historia S. Mauri,ch. 2, AASSJan3n, 336. On religiosus
translationis
6tudesur le vocabulairede la vie
as applied to laymen,see R. Gr~goire,'Religiosus:
religieuse', StudiMedievali,3rd series, Io (1969), 415-30.
attributedto Odo of Cluny. VitaGeraldi,i.1, 2, PL 133, cols. 642-3. The
8' Vitaprolixior,
attribution
ofthevitaprolixior been contested
to Odo ofClunyhad recently by Matthew
to the
Kuefler,'Textand Contextin theCultofSt. GeraldofAurillac',paperpresented
MedievalAcademyofAmerica,March2001.
5"MiraculiS. Germani,n.1, PL 124, col. 1247D. See furtherJohn Contreni, '"By Lions,
Exegesis,and theCarolingianChurch
BishopsAre Meant;by Wolves,Priests":History,
in Haimo of Auxerre's Commentary on Ezechiel', Francia,29-I (2003), 1-25 esp. 19.
"9Cf.Lyndal Roper, The HolyHousehold: and Moralsin Reformation
Women Augsburg
(Oxford,1989).

contemporaryof Imma's. She devoted her widowhood to a 'religious
life', doing many good works, building churches, distributingalms,
giving generous hospitalityto pilgrims,offeringmoral advice to the
thepietyof hersurrogate
new count,herson Bernhard,and fostering
daughter,the housekeeper-cum-holy woman Liutberga.9? Hospitality
to pilgrims,almsgiving,reverenceto the clergy,domesticmoral integrity
and sexual self-discipline:these were the qualities which turned a
woman's house into a 'churchof Christ'.9'We mightalmost add Gerald
of Aurillac to this roll-call,forhis monasticfoundation,relic collecting
and almsgivingfitthe same pattern.What differentiates him is that he
took sexual abstinenceto the extremeof never marrying:his household
was holywithoutbeingconjugal.9'
We lose track of Einhard afterHalley's comet. By then, he was in
his late 6os and a widower, the male condition most invisiblein the
historical
record.93His literary
masterpieceshad been published,but
perhapsit was now thathe composed his most work.
private,heartfelt
So privatethatonlyone manuscript is extant,Einhard'sabbreviation
whichformtheprayersofa sinner
ofthePsalteris a catenaofexcerpts
meditatingon his need forsalvation and on the greatnessof God.94As
he explained in his preface, the complete Psalter is not suitable for
90 VitaLiutbirgae,
chs. 2, 7, ed. OttokarMenzel, Das LebenderLiutbirg, Deutsches
Mittelalter. KritischeStudiendes Reichsinstituts fuir
alteredeutscheGeschichtskunde, 3
(Leipzig,1937),Ii, 14-15.
9'The phraseis thatof the ninth-century hagiographer of the seventh-century saint,
Sadalberga.VitaSadalbergae II, ed. BrunoKrusch,MGH SSRM,v, 55-6.
92 Odo of
Cluny,VitaGeraldi, 11.5(foundsmonastery); PL 133,cols.673-4,
11.23 (relics),
683.
93Cf. Nelson,'The WaryWidow',84, and on thedocumentary ofwidowers
invisibility
at all periodssee the chaptersbyJuliaCrick,MargaretPellingand Pamela Sharpein
Widowhood inMedieval andEarlyModern ed. Sandra Cavallo and LyndanWarner
Europe,
(Harlow,1999).
94Extant in Vercelli,BibliothecaCapitolareMS 149ofS.ix 3-4,it is editedin fullby P.
Salmon underthe titlePsalterium in Testimonia
Vercellense
adbreviatum orationis
Christianae
ed. P. Salmon,C. Coeburghand P. du Puniet,Corpus
antiquioris, continuatio
Christianorum
medievalis,
47 (Turnhout, 1977),37-78.Salmonhas expressed doubtsabouttheattribution
to Einhard.See his 'Psautiersabr6g6sdu moyenige', in hisAnalecta extraits
liturgica: des
manuscrits dela Bibliothique
liturgiques Studie Testi,273 (VaticanCity,1974),67-
Vaticane,
119,esp. 72-4,forhisargument thatsincethetextusedis thePsalterium Romanum,no
one as closeto Charlemagne's liturgicalreformscouldhavemade it.This argument fails
to takeintoaccountthegreatdiversity ofBibletextsin circulation in thelateeighthand
ninthcenturies: fora conspectus, see Bonifatius
Fischer,'Bibeltext undBibelreform unter
Karl dem Grossen',in KarlderGrosse, ed. Braunfels,n, 156-216.Otherwitnesses to the
existenceof an abbreviatedpsalterbearingEinhard'sname are (i) the reference to a
'libellusEinardide psalmis'in the tenth-century Bobbio catalogue(G. Becker,Catalogi
bibliothecarumantiqui(Bonn,1885),1,72) and (ii) Sigebertof Gembloux,De virisillustribus
84 (ed. RobertWitte(Frankfurt, 1974),77),wherehe refers to Einhardas theauthorof
the vitaKaroliand an abbreviated- but Gallican- psalter.See also EligiusDekkers,
'Sigebertvan Gemblouxen zijn "De Virisillustribus"', SacrisErudiri,26 (1983),57-102.

74 OF THE ROYALHISTORICAL
TRANSACTIONS SOCIETY
thosewho wish'to invokeGod and beseechhimon accountof their

sins'. Rather,his selectionof excerptswas directedtowardsthat
purpose.95 Choosingnotto openwiththebeatus virofPsalmI butwith
theappeal to God fromthepsalmistbesetby his enemiesin Psalm3,
Einhardtakesa highlyselectiveand deeplypersonalcoursethrough
the Psalter,omittingsome psalmsentirelyand heavilyabbreviating
others.The endingis equallycarefully designed:afterfollowingthe
in
psalms sequencethrough to and Psalm
including 144,he endswith
in tone from
a second set of extractsfromPsalm I02, quite different
the first.These closingversesare the doxologyof a sinnerseeking
divine mercy.Here we encounterthe most authenticEinhard, stripped
the human face to face with
of all literarypretensionor self-fashioning:
his God.
Einhardsharedhisrelianceon thePsalteras an instrument ofprayer
withothersof theCarolingianlaity.Alcuinhad advisedCharlemagne
on how thelaymanleadingthe 'activelife'couldnevertheless use the
for at
psalms prayer regular intervals in
throughout day, a sim-
the
plificationof the monasticoffice.96 An anxiousnoblewomansuffering
from'variousmishaps'commissioned Prudentius, bishopof Troyes(c.
to
844-61) compile forher a seriesof briefand consolatoryprayers
baseduponthePsalter.In theprefaceto hisFlores psalmorum,Prudentius
wasexplicit thatitwasappropriate and anyonein difficulty
fortravellers
to recitea fewshortversesofthepsalmsinsteadoftheentirePsalter.97
If commissioning a personalsetof psalm-basedprayerswas a signof
membership of the highestaristocracy, otherelitelayfolkmightresort
to borrowing a psalter:threewomen- a wife,a widowand a lady
(domna)- availedthemselves of copieslentby themonasticlibraryat
Weissenburg.?" The handful of extantCarolingianwillsalso tellus of
of
layownership psalters and books containingbothpsalmsandprayers,
and thereis even some evidencethatthePsaltermay have been the
primerforteachinglayboysto read,justas itwasin monasticschools.99
Throughthe Psalterand prayersderivedfromit, pious Carolingian
laymenand womencould drawon the rhythm of monasticworship
95Psaltiumadbreviatum 55-
Vercellense,
6Alcuin,Epistolae 304,ed. Duimmler, 462-3. For theprayersofanotherninth-century
king,see Paul Kershaw,'Illness,Powerand Prayerin Asser'sLifeofKingAlfred', Early
MedievalEurope, Io (2001), 201-24.
97Ed. Salmon,'Psautiersabr6gesdu moyenage', 93-119, withfulltextof preface
availablein MGH Epp.,v, 323.
"9The tenth-century listof borrowerson the flyleafof Wolfenbattel,
HerzogAugust
BibliothekMS 4119 (= Codex Weissenburgensis 35), is editedand discussedby Otto
Lerche,'Die ailteste AusleihverzeichniseinerdeutschenBibliothek', Bibli-
Zentralblattfiir
othekswesen,
27 (1910),441-50.
99The evidenceis assembledbyRosamondMcKitterick, andtheWritten
TheCarolingians
Word (Cambridge, 1989),217-18,246-8.

yet tailor their own devotional life to suit individual needs. Einhard
shows how personal such usage was.
The account I have just sketchedinvitesus to consider how fluid the

early medieval boundaries between lay and religiouslife could be.'0o
Einhard was not only a courtier,but became a marriedlandownerand
probably a father.He promoted the cult of his chosen martyrrelics
even more vigorouslythan anyone else of his time and turned his
household into a 'church of Christ'.'o'He was also deeply religiousin
his reading, his thinkingand his perception of a world permeated by
sin. Much of this locates him securelywithinan emergingculture of
elite, conjugal Christianity,in which codes of moral conduct first
articulatedat court in the years around 8oo became domesticatedin
some magnates' households. This is not to argue that the sample of
pious households discussed here is representativeof the Carolingian
aristocracyas a whole, for that would be to ignore compaints about
wanton violence againstwomen and churchpropertyor about inappro-
priate uses of wealth.'0ONevertheless,there is enough evidence to
indicate thatwe do not have to wait untilthe high Middle Ages to find
expressionsof lay pietythatare activelypursued and distinctivein their
modalities. Andre Vauchez once declared that one of the 'novel
characteristics'of the eleventh-thirteenth centurieswas 'the abilityof
lay people to create autonomous formsof pietywhich...succeeded in
reshaping the religious message disseminatedby the clergy to meet
theirfeelingsand specificneeds'.'03He was, of course, talkingof large-
scale religiousmovementsand enthusiasmsbut neverthelesshis sense
of noveltywas misplaced. Mutatismutandis, the same comment holds
true for the conjugal endeavours among the Carolingian aristocray
which I have outlined. Ninth-centurylay initiativecreated articulate,
self-consciousforms of devotion which met the needs of personal
salvation and familialidentitywhilstremainingfullyorthodox.
There remains,though,somethingsingularabout Einhard. If he and
Imma seem to have had more refinedreligioussensibilitiesthan most
of theircontemporaries,it is in part because of the almost unparalleled
first-handevidence they have leftus. Rather than being reliantupon
the passing laudations of hagiographers,we have theirown writingsto
'??As pointedout by Eva Synek,"'Ex utroque

sexufidelium tresordines":the statusof
womenin earlymedievalcanonlaw', Gender
andHistory,12 (2000), 595-621.
'o0Cf. n. 91 above.
'' Smith,'Genderand ideology',6o, and eadem,
'Religionand Lay Society',in New
MedievalHistory, c. 700oo-c.
Cambridge 900, ed. Rosamond McKitterick(Cambridge, 1995),
n:
664-5,forfurther references.
'o03A.Vauchez,TheLaityin theMiddle
Ages:Religious andDevotional
Beliefs trans.
Practices,
J. Schneider(NotreDame, IN, 1993),265.

hand. No one else explainstheirpersonaldevotionto saintswithan

enthusiasm equal to Einhard's,and onlyin one otherinstancecan we
gainan equallyprivileged insightintothespirituality ofthelay elite-
Dhuoda,who nevertheless evincesno particular in thecultsof
interest
saints.Concernedforthespiritual and moralwelfareofherson,now
enrolledin theranksofthepueriat court,Dhuoda outlinedin 841-3 a
programme of penance,prayer,moralintegrity and chastityforher
fifteen-year-old son. In languagesuffused by the Psalms,her libellus
reproducedin lovingtermsthe aristocratic ethicwhichAlcuinhad
formulated halfa centuryearlier.'04 Einhardand Imma would have
wholeheartedly approved.'05
Of the couple, Imma is easier to locate in her social and his-
toriographical context.Poorlydocumented,like all lay women,but
probablythetransmitter ofimportant property she has muchin
rights,
commonwithotherdevout,capable womenof the Carolingianlay
elite.It is Einhardwho remainsdistinctive. Uniquely,hisprominence
was not based upon military a
distinction, successful careerin the
ecclesasticalhierarchyor large-scaleland ownership.Whetherby
marriageor birth,all theotherlay aristocrats mentioned belongedto
theranksoftheimperial'super-aristocracy', whosewealth,powerand
privilegefarexceededthatof Imma and her husband.Einhardhad
used his manyabilitiesand his commandof the Latin languageto
overcomethe disadvantages of his tinystature.Throughhis yearsat
court,thosetalentshad propelledhimfromtheranksof minor,local
landowners intothecircleoftheReichsaristokratie. Prolongedattendance
at courthad turnedEinhardinto the courtierpar excellence;his
aptitudesand closenessto twosuccessiveemperorscombinedto bring
himstatusand contactsquiteatypicalofthelocalelitesoftheMaingau.
Yet it seemsthatonlymarriage,whenit finally happened,gave him
hisownplace amongthelandedaristocracy.
Afterhis youthful, monasticyears,Einhardliveda lifeamongthe
powerful, amidst all the temptations and corruptions of thecourt.He
had marriedand been sexuallyactivewithinhis marriage.He had
been in attendance uponCharlemagne in exactlythoseyearswhenlay
courtiers weremostanxiousabouttheirchancesofsalvation, and upon
Louis thePiouswhenhisempireseemedon thepointofcollapsefrom
externalattackand internalmoralcorruption. Perhapsany or all of
thesecircumstances sharpenedhis persistent senseof beinga sinner;
perhapshis minuteframeseemedthelivingembodiment of Christian
beliefthat,despitebeingcreatedin theimageofGod, humankind was
104Manuel
pourmonfils,ed. Riche,27-37,fordiscussionofhersources.
'5Cf. thesimilarbutverybriefadviceaddressedby Imma to herson (or grandson).
no. 38, ed. Hampe,128-9 and n. io above.
Einhard,Epistolae,

deeplyflawed.His inner meditations
on hisown sinfulness
wentto the
grave with him: but he died as he wished,in the serviceof Sts
Marcellinusand Peter.'o6
io6 Cf. Epistolae,

no. 14, ed. Hampe, 117: 'timeome aliubiquam velimat aliutagentem,
quam sanctisChristimartyribus servientiem, esse moriturum'.


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