EXP MN SE060 en R0 Electrical Power Generation

ELECTRICAL MAINTENANCE
ELECTRICAL POWER GENERATION
TRAINING MANUAL
Course EXP-MN-SE060-EN
Revision 0
Field Operations Training
Electrical Maintenance
Electrical Power Generation
ELECTRICAL MAINTENANCE
ELECTRICAL POWER GENERATION
SUMMARY
1. OBJECTIVES ..................................................................................................................6
2. INTRODUCTION - ELECTRICAL GENERATION ...........................................................7
2.1. ALTERNATING CURRENT GENERATORS, THE ALTERNATOR...........................7
2.2. DIRECT CURRENT GENERATORS, ROTATING MACHINES ................................9
2.3. DIRECT CURRENT GENERATORS, BATTERIES...................................................9
3. GENERATION OF ELECTRICAL CURRENT................................................................10
3.1. GENERATION OF DIRECT CURRENT..................................................................10
3.1.1. Batteries ..........................................................................................................10
3.1.2. Photovoltaic cells.............................................................................................11
3.1.3. T.E.G. Thermo Electric Generator ...................................................................12
3.1.4. Rotating generators .........................................................................................13
3.1.4.1. Energy conversion .....................................................................................13
3.1.4.2. Symbol .......................................................................................................13
3.1.4.3. Construction ...............................................................................................13
3.1.4.4. Principle of a DC generator ........................................................................14
3.1.4.5. Different DC machine types: ......................................................................17
3.2. GENERATION OF ALTERNATING CURRENT ......................................................19
3.2.1. Principle of an AC generator ...........................................................................19
3.2.2. Permanent magnet generator..........................................................................20
3.2.3. Principle of a basic alternator ..........................................................................22
3.2.3.1. Alternator with 2 pairs of poles ...................................................................22
3.2.3.2. Alternator with 'x' pairs of poles..................................................................23
3.2.4. Battery Chargers / Inverters ............................................................................24
4. SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES ALTERNATORS .........................................................25
4.1. PRINCIPLE AND FUNCTION OF POWER ALTERNATORS .................................25
4.2. MAIN COMPONENTS.............................................................................................27
4.2.1. Stator...............................................................................................................27
4.2.2. Rotor................................................................................................................28
4.2.3. Exciter .............................................................................................................28
4.2.4. Bearings ..........................................................................................................29
4.2.5. Resistance Temperature Detectors .................................................................30
4.2.6. Space Heater ..................................................................................................30
4.2.7. Supporting Frame............................................................................................30
4.3. ALTERNATOR CONSTRUCTION ..........................................................................31
4.3.1. The single phase synchronous generator........................................................31
4.3.2. The three phases synchronous generator ......................................................32
4.3.3. AC generator in general ..................................................................................33
4.3.4. Rotor construction ...........................................................................................35
4.3.5. Insulation .........................................................................................................36
4.3.6. Cooling ............................................................................................................37
4.3.7. Neutral Earthing Resistor ................................................................................38
Training manual EXP-MN-SE060-EN

Last Revision: 29/09/2008 Page 2 of 3
4.3.8. Insulated Bearings...........................................................................................38

4.4. GENERATOR EXCITATION ...................................................................................40
4.4.1. Conventional excitation ...................................................................................40
4.4.2. Static excitation ...............................................................................................40
4.4.3. Brushless excitation (general case).................................................................41
4.4.4. Brushless excitation (without pilot exciter).......................................................42
4.4.5. Brushless excitation (with pilot exciter)............................................................42
4.4.6. Diode bridge ....................................................................................................43
4.4.7. Alternator parts................................................................................................45
5. ALTERNATOR CONNECTIONS AND PROTECTIONS ................................................47
5.1. GENERATOR CONNECTIONS ..............................................................................47
5.1.1. The Delta system ............................................................................................47
5.1.2. Delta connected generator ..............................................................................48
5.1.3. The wye (star) system .....................................................................................50
5.1.4. Wye (star) connected generator ......................................................................51
5.2. GENERATOR PROTECTIONS...............................................................................52
5.2.1. ANSI codes for Protections .............................................................................53
5.2.2. Typical one line diagram generator protection.................................................54
5.2.3. Details for generator protections .....................................................................56
5.2.3.1. Protection functions connected to generator neutral current transformers.56
5.2.3.2. Protection functions connected to voltage transformers.............................56
5.2.3.3. Protection functions connected to line-side current transformers (for parallel
operation only) ........................................................................................................56
5.2.3.4. Generator mechanical protection functions connected to sensors .............57
5.2.4. Practical checks by operators and maintenance technicians ..........................57
5.2.4.1. Review .......................................................................................................57
5.2.4.2. Active reverse power protection .................................................................58
5.2.4.3. Reactive reverse power protection (Loss of excitation) ..............................59
6. ALTERNATOR OPERATION AND CONTROL..............................................................61
6.1. LOAD ADJUSTMENT OF A GENERATOR (OR ALTERNATOR)...........................61
6.2. AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE REGULATORS (AVR) .....................................................63
6.2.1. AVR set-point ..................................................................................................63
6.2.2. AC Generator voltage regulation .....................................................................63
7. GENERATORS PARALLELING AND SYNCHRONISING.............................................65
7.1. CONDITIONS FOR PARALLELING........................................................................65
7.1.1. Condition 1: same phase operation .................................................................66
7.1.2. Condition 2: same frequency...........................................................................68
7.1.3. Condition 3: same voltage ...............................................................................70
7.1.4. Condition 4: Synchronising or phasing ............................................................70
7.2. SYNCHRONISATION / PARALLELING ..................................................................74
7.2.1. Ready for coupling ..........................................................................................74
7.2.2. Coupling operations of a one phase alternator with lamps ..............................74
7.2.3. Coupling operations with a three-phase alternator lamp .................................76
7.2.4. Coupling operations with a synchronoscope ...................................................77
7.2.5. Tolerances for coupling / synchronising ..........................................................78
7.3. PARALLEL CONTROL OPERATION......................................................................79
7.3.1. Taking the load................................................................................................79
7.3.2. Load sharing....................................................................................................79

7.3.3. Droop and Isochronous mode of control..........................................................81

7.3.4. Load Shedding ................................................................................................83
8. MAINTENANCE OF ALTERNATORS ...........................................................................85
8.1. DIODE REPLACEMENT .........................................................................................85
8.2. VARISTOR REPLACEMENT ..................................................................................89
8.3. DRYING WINDINGS ...............................................................................................90
8.3.1. Space Heaters.................................................................................................90
8.3.2. Forced Air........................................................................................................90
8.4. OPERATIONAL DIFFICULTIES..............................................................................91
8.4.1. Troubleshooting table ......................................................................................91
8.4.2. Insulation Resistance ......................................................................................91
9. ELECTRICAL GENERATION ON SITE.........................................................................93
9.1. TYPES OF ENGINE GENERATOR SETS..............................................................93
9.2. RATED POWER FOR GENERATOR SET APPLICATIONS ..................................94
9.3. TYPICAL APPLICATIONS ......................................................................................96
9.3.1. Stand-by generator sets ..................................................................................96
9.3.2. Production generator sets ...............................................................................99
9.4. OPERATION OF GENERATOR SETS .................................................................101
9.4.1. Starting and stopping of generator sets.........................................................101
9.4.2. Stand alone operation ...................................................................................102
9.4.3. Parallel operation with utility supply...............................................................103
9.4.4. Parallel operation with other generator sets ..................................................103
9.5. TRANSFER SCHEMES AND SYNCHRONISATION ............................................105
9.5.1. Automatic transfer on loss of supply..............................................................105
9.5.1.1. Residual voltage transfer..........................................................................105
9.5.1.2. Fast transfer .............................................................................................105
9.5.2. Maintenance transfer back to normal supply ..............................................106
9.5.3. Synchronization of generator circuit-breaker .................................................106
9.5.4. Synchronization of bus-tie, bus-coupler, or utility incoming circuit-breakers..107
9.6. GENERATOR SET PROTECTION .......................................................................108
9.6.1. General protection philosophy.......................................................................108
9.6.2. Electrical protection .......................................................................................109
9.6.2.1. Particularities of generator short-circuit currents ......................................111
9.6.2.2. Possible delaying of circuit-breakers........................................................111
9.6.3. Machine protection ........................................................................................112
9.7. CONNECTION OF GENERATORS TO ELECTRICAL NETWORK ......................113
9.7.1. Connection to generator circuit-breaker ........................................................113
9.7.2. Connection of generator neutral point ...........................................................113
9.7.2.1. Stand-alone generator set........................................................................113
9.7.2.2. Operation in parallel with utility or other sets............................................113
9.8. LOAD SHEDDING.................................................................................................114
9.8.1. Gradual increase in load................................................................................115
9.8.2. Loss of a generator .......................................................................................115
9.8.3. Electrical faults ..............................................................................................115
9.9. INTERFACING GENERATOR WITH ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM ...116
9.9.1. Typical split of supply between generator set manufacturer and switchgear
manufacturer ...........................................................................................................116
9.9.2. Information to be exchanged .........................................................................117

9.9.3. Integration of generator set into electrical distribution supervisory system....118

9.10. INSTALLATION AND MAINTENANCE OF GENERATORS SETS .....................118
9.10.1. Location.......................................................................................................118
9.10.2. Air intake and exhaust .................................................................................119
9.10.3. Compliance with local regulations ...............................................................119
9.10.4. Special tools and spare parts ......................................................................120
9.11. CONCLUSION ....................................................................................................120
10. GLOSSARY ...............................................................................................................121
11. FIGURES...................................................................................................................122
12. TABLES .....................................................................................................................125

1. OBJECTIVES
At the end of this course, the participant should be able to:
Define the generation principle for alternating current
Define the generation principle for direct current
List the different types of generators and/or alternators
Explain the use and operation of alternators
Determine the regulation factors for an alternator
Couple an alternator to a network
Define the principles and use of electric protection for an alternator
Be familiar with the basic maintenance of a power alternator on a site
Differentiate Loading, Load Sharing, Load Shedding,

2. INTRODUCTION - ELECTRICAL GENERATION

This can be: an external source, a self-contained electricity plant, turbo-generators,
generators with gas/diesel engines, generator sets, wind turbines, solar panels, etc. but
not forgetting direct current generation with the battery sets and rectified current supplies
(UPS).
On-site, you will mainly encounter turbo-generators or generators driven by gas or diesel
engines.
Whatever the size of the generator, it is

always represented in the same manner
in the diagrams.
Figure 1: Electricity generation
However, for the alternator, the number of wires is not systematically represented (three-
phase, single-phase).
2.1. ALTERNATING CURRENT GENERATORS, THE ALTERNATOR
The three-phase generator is the "indispensable" source on site.
The one-line diagram representation can be as shown here and by specifying the power
and the voltage, e.g. 600kVA, 3x400V, windings in star (or Y) configuration.
The power diagram specifies 3

distributed phases, neutral not
distributed with a voltage of 400V
between the phases.
"Three-pole" protection by circuit

breaker at the LV switchboard.
Figure 2: One-line and power

diagram representation for the
alternator' neutral to ground

This is the same representation

but for a 10MVA three-phase
generator with 3x5.5kV and
neutral earthed through an
impedance
The voltage between phases is

5.5 kV.
The protection (and/or the

disconnect components) is of
course in the HV switchboard.
Figure 3: One-line and power

diagram of alternator neutral to
ground with impedance
Here, the generator operates at a

low voltage of 3x400V but with
distributed neutral.
The protection (or the disconnect

components) at the LV
switchboard must be on the 4
poles of a circuit breaker.
In this distribution with 400V

between phases, what is the
voltage between phase and
neutral?
Figure 4: Generator with neutral

distributed
Three-phase distribution, voltage between phases and between phase and neutral:
V=1
U/2 =
0.866
30
U
U/2 =
0.866
Figure 5: Vector representation of a star shape three-phase distribution system

It depends on the relationships in a right-angled triangle and on the vector diagram above.
"Imagine" the 3 phases in star (or Y) configuration, V is the voltage across the terminals
of a winding and U is the voltage between phases. Form 2 right-angled triangles on one
of the 3 segments.
U/2 = V x sine 30 = V x 3 /2 and U = 2 U/2 = 2 V x 3 /2 = V x 3 =U
Thus when U = 400 V between phases, between phase and neutral V = 230 V
(rounded).
For U = 380V, V= 220V
For the delta configuration, there is no distributed neutral and there are just the voltages
between phases.
Figure 6: The Delta shape 3 phase distribution system
2.2. DIRECT CURRENT GENERATORS, ROTATING MACHINES
See in other paragraph and here in the following chapter(s).
Direct current generators are very rare on a production site. However, direct current
motors (machines strictly identical to the generators) are associated with the turbo-
generators' auxiliaries (oil pump, cooling fan,etc powered by batteries when no other
sources are available).
2.3. DIRECT CURRENT GENERATORS, BATTERIES
See the specific "batteries" course.
You will systematically find battery packs with inverters supplying alternating current from
batteries and also associated with the rectifier cubicles to supply the instrumentation
circuits, fire safety circuits, electrical safety circuits, etc.

3. GENERATION OF ELECTRICAL CURRENT
3.1. GENERATION OF DIRECT CURRENT
Of course, an alternator is not producing Direct Current , but without this D.C. there
would be no Alternative Current produced by the A.C generator !......(think and debate
about this..)
Several sources of direct current are present on the site - batteries, photovoltaic cells,
rectifiers, rotating generators. This is the subject of the following paragraphs.
3.1.1. Batteries
See the "Batteries" course.
The term "battery" in languages

other than French also refers to all
cells used in everyday items
(radios, mobile telephones,
torches, etc.).
Figure 7: Examples of batteries
These cells are also used in instrument cabinets and computers as "back up" devices.
The alternative French term pile, or cells is open to confusion as they are referred to as
rechargeable and non-rechargeable. In theory, a cell cannot be recharged. The term
"accumulator" should be used for rechargeable cells (note: this paragraph refers
specifically to the French term "pile").
The term accumulator refers to car batteries, which is correct. The word accumulator
should be used for any source of direct current in static form which may be discharged and
recharged.
Figure 8: Examples of accumulators

The conventional lead acid battery (accumulator) is present on site in vehicles (onshore,
obviously.), to start combustion engines for fire pumps and emergency generators.
The set of batteries is present in UPS, incorporated in cabinets or in a battery room.
Figure 9: Examples of UPS
And if the EDG battery is flat, if the UPS batteries do not have the capacity to last for the
duration of the shut-down, it will not be easy to restart the main alternator.
3.1.2. Photovoltaic cells
These are "sun panels" for platforms supplying indicator lights and/or remote transmission,
instruments, etc.
Photovoltaic cells take their energy from any light source and "light" in general. Solar
energy is an inappropriate term, "light energy" would be more accurate.
A photovoltaic cell is an electronic component which, when exposed

to light (photons), generates electric voltage (this effect is known as
the photovoltaic effect). Direct current is obtained at approximately
0.5V.
Figure 10: Photovoltaic cell
Photovoltaic cells consist of semi-conductors with a silicon (Si),

cadmium sulphide (CdS) or cadmium tellurium (CdTe) base.
They are also known as "photo-galvanic
They exist in the form of two thin plates in

close contact. They are also known as
photo-galvanic
Figure 11: Structure dune cellule

photovoltaque
This semi-conductor is sandwiched between two metal electrodes and the entire unit is
protected by glass.
Photovoltaic cells are mounted on the panels in series and in parallel.
The set of cells is connected to a set of batteries (with regulator).
3.1.3. T.E.G. Thermo Electric Generator
Figure 12: TEG sets installed on a Total platform (Peciko)
Figure 13: TEG principle

A TEG unit consists of cells which have the particular characteristic of producing voltage
and current when subject to a certain temperature.
On a platform, natural gas is burned in each TEG, the heat emitted in combustion is
transformed into electric energy in each cell.
As is the case for photovoltaic cells, the TEG cells are mounted in series and in parallel
and are connected to a set of batteries and a voltage regulator.
3.1.4. Rotating generators
3.1.4.1. Energy conversion
The term direct current (DC) machine would be more accurate, as a DC generator (or a
dynamo, exciter or rotary convertor) is the same machine as the DC motor.
Let's take a look at DC generators and then we can forget about motors..
Electric energy supplied = Motor = Useful mechanical energy
Mechanical energy supplied = Generator = Useful electric energy
3.1.4.2. Symbol
Figure 14: Rotating D.C. generator symbols
3.1.4.3. Construction
The machine includes:
A magnetic circuit including a stationary part, the stator, a rotating part, the
rotor, and the air gap, the space between the two components.
A magnetic field source known as the field system (mounted on the stator) is
created using coils or permanent magnets. Field coils for both motors and
generators are always supplied with a secondary and direct source of energy.

An induced electric circuit (the rotor), is subject to the effects of this

magnetic field; the collector and the brushes allow for access to the electric
circuit of the rotor.
Figure 15: Magnetic circuit of a two-pole machine
3.1.4.4. Principle of a DC generator
Suppose a one turn coil rotating in a magnetic field (field systems). The current generated
in the turn is "collected" via the 2 sections of a slip ring with brushes (in graphite) on the
stationary part (stator) consisting of 2 commutator (or switch) segments (in copper,
attached to the rotor) which "switch" with each rotation.
The switching function is essential. Each side of a turn rotating on its axis passes near to a
north pole, and subsequently a south pole, and so on.
Therefore, the magnetic induction intercepted by the turn regularly changes direction due
to the angular position of the rotor.
To avoid the torque produced by the electromagnetic force (emf) reversing at the same
rate, the current in the turn must be regularly inverted. This is the task of the collector.
Figure 16: Simple DC generator
Figure 17: EMF (e) pulses produced by a DC generator
The torque produced by the passage of the current in a turn would be approximately
sinusoidal without the presence of the collector. This resembles a rectified sinusoid
thanks to the collector.
Pulses are not however desirable.

Therefore DC machines are equipped with
several turns, each connected to a pair of
segments on the collector. The figure
opposite shows the torque smoothing effect
obtained by using 2 turns rather than 1 turn
at the rotor, and therefore 4 rather than 2
segments at the collector.
Figure 18: Smoothing effect

This assembly shows the magnetic

field of the stator created by an
electromagnet, with 6 turns (or coils) +
on the rotor. +
+
Consequently, the current and the +
voltage generated are 6 times more
regular with the same quantity of +
collector segment pairs (split-ring +
commutator or switch) as coils
Figure 19: Six turn assembly
e
For a smoother electromagnetic torque, DC machines
are created with a large number of turns and
segments.
t Figure 20: The smoothing effect
Current and voltage are thus "smoothed" out. Only sinusoid peaks are switched.
Figure 21: DC machine

3.1.4.5. Different DC machine types:
Question: why is the term "machine" used in the above paragraph instead of "generator"?
Permanent magnet machine:
DC generators with permanent magnets exist (coil-free field system) as a low power three-
phase alternator exciter.
Other machines:
3 types exist corresponding to the type of wiring between the rotor and stator
The general advantage of the DC machine is its flexibility to speed.
A DC generator can provide the same voltage over a range of speeds, simply by
modulating the current in the "field systems or inductors" of the stator.
A DC motor can achieve a wide range of speeds by varying the current either in the
armature or in the inductors (or the field systems) or in both.
"Shunt" machine:
The stator and rotor are connected in

parallel.
N S
S The shunt motor produces a constant
torque, independently to speed.
Figure 22: Shunt machine
Figure 23: Shunt motor

"Series" machine:
Armature The stator and rotor are connected in

series.
The series motor produces high torque,

particularly at low speed
N S
Field windings
Figure 24: Series machine
Figure 25: Series motor

"Compound" machine:
Combination of Shunt and Series, the field

systems are partially connected in series and
partially in parallel with the armature..
This leads to combined advantages for the

motor, which is the most used of the 3. It drives
the oil pumps, and the cooling water for a
generator.
Figure 26: :"Compound" machine

3.2. GENERATION OF ALTERNATING CURRENT
3.2.1. Principle of an AC generator
Figure 27: Principle of the generation of alternating current
If a turn is rotated in a magnetic field, voltage is induced at the terminals. This varies the
angle between the turn plane and the magnetic induction.
The faster the rotation, the less time required

for cos to pass from 1 to -1 and vice versa.
The amplitude of the induced voltage created
is proportional to magnetic induction and the
rotation speed of the turn.
Figure 28: Turn in a magnetic field
This is the principle behind an alternator. The following diagrams demonstrate the
sinusoidal form.

Figure 29: Production of AC
The coil is moving (rotating) anti-clockwise.
From (a) to (b) at 90
From (b) to (c) at 90
From (c) to (d) at 90
From (d) to (a) at 90
3.2.2. Permanent magnet generator
This is an AC generator, with a sinusoidal form, with a (permanent) magnet creating an

"emf" in a "peripheral" coil.

This generator can be used for a bike. In this case the term "bike dynamo" is used,
however the term "dynamo" does, in principle, apply to a DC generator and this term is
therefore incorrect when referring to an alternator installed on a "bike".
In the figure below, 2 coils are shown (in series), however one single coil would be
enough.
Axis Sin V
V N
Cos
V = e = emf =
Figure 30: bike dynamo
The voltage produced can be called e or equally U, V, v, u, E, etc Standards exist

in this domain (regarding the representation abbreviation) but they are not consistent at an
international scale and are often criticised.
Figure 31: Voltage induced by a magnet rotating in a coil
By rotating the magnet, the value of U at time t represents exactly the value of the sinus
of the positioning angle () of the magnet. A sinusoid curve is created for each complete
rotation of 360 deg. This is known as an "alternation".
U (at time t) = U sin

Questions/Exercises: and without the use of formulas, please!
With "bike dynamos", 1 full 360 rotation for 1 second produces an induced voltage at a
frequency of 1 hertz.
1) How many revolutions per second are required to achieve 50Hz?
2) The speed of rotating machines is expressed in RPM (Revolution Per Minute). At what
speed must the machine rotate in rpm to reach 50Hz?
3) At what speed must the machine rotate in rpm to reach 60Hz?
4) Is the central rotating magnet known as the "rotor" or the "stator"?
5) Are the coils capturing the induced energy (peripheral) in the "stator" or the "rotor"?
As you have answered these questions easily, you are aware that, with a bit of logic
(without using formulae), you can understand the relation between speed and
frequency. This is the basis of "synchronism".
3.2.3. Principle of a basic alternator
The "bike dynamo" mentioned in the above paragraph is in fact a single-phase alternator.
The permanent magnet rotating at 1 revolution per second produces a voltage (and a
current) induced at the frequency of 1Hz at the terminals of the alternator. By rotating the
magnet at 50 revolutions per second, a frequency of 50Hz is produced, corresponding to a
synchronism speed of 50 revolutions per second, i.e. 3000 rpm and this for a "magnet"
with one pair of poles (one North and one South pole).
3.2.3.1. Alternator with 2 pairs of poles
+V
Sin V
V S
N

N S
-V
1 Hertz V = e = emf
1 tour
Figure 32: Alternator with 2 pairs of poles

This is the "same" alternator as in the previous paragraph with a second permanent
magnet added to the rotor. There are now 2 pairs of poles.
With one complete revolution, the passage of the stator coil next to the poles will be
increased, it will pass twice by a maximum and minimum.
One revolution produces 2 Hz. For a frequency of 50 Hz, a speed of 25 revolutions per
second will be required, i.e. 1500 rpm which is the synchronism speed (the speed
producing 50hz) for an alternator with 2 pairs of poles.
Question:
In view of the relation between frequency and speed (still no formulae), at what speed
(rpm) must an alternator with 2 pairs of 'North American' poles rotate to produce a
frequency of 60Hz?
3.2.3.2. Alternator with 'x' pairs of poles
Questions:
This is obvious, and you will easily work out the different configurations of
frequency/speed/pairs of poles for all types of alternators (note: the same logic applies for
single and three-phase alternators).
What is the synchronism speed (rpm) for:
An alternator with 1 pair of poles and a frequency of 60Hz?
An alternator with 3 pairs of poles and a frequency of 50Hz?
All these types of alternators exist.
This is simply the basic principle behind the alternator. The following chapter will consider
"true" alternators, those producing electrical power on sites.
Simply replace the permanent magnet on the rotor with coiled field systems supplied with
secondary direct current and make the unit "a bit bigger" to create the 'synchronous
machine'

3.2.4. Battery Chargers / Inverters
This refers to UPS, battery chargers which produce "rectified" current from AC (generated
by an alternator).
This is not true direct current, which can be generated only by a battery.
+V
Figure 33: One phase rectified voltage/current with smoothed signal (rectifier or dynamo
The power alternator or the 'synchronous machine' requires rectified current within the
rotor to produce electromagnetic induction, generally in the form of one phase rectified
current.
The alternator generally uses an exciter (at the end of the shaft) to produce the energy
required for the magnetic field. If this exciter is a DC machine, the armature (the rotor) is
directly powered (with a set of rings/brushes).
The exciters are now (small) alternators producing rectified AC. The exciter/bridge rectifier
unit is mounted on the main shaft.
The technology will be considered in more detail later in the course.
Figure 34: One phase bridge rectifier and three-phase Graetz bridge
Rotor "field systems" do not require "smoothed" rectified current. The average value of a
one-phase rectified current is adequate (get your instructor to explain this to you if you do
not grasp it).

4. SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES ALTERNATORS

This machine is both the industrial alternator for our sites and the synchronous motor
which is rarely found on "our" sites.
A Synchronous machine, known as an ALTERNATOR; it supplies AC when it acts as a

generator. When operating as a MOTOR, its rotation speed is imposed by the frequency of
the alternating current which supplies the stator windings.
4.1. PRINCIPLE AND FUNCTION OF POWER ALTERNATORS
A synchronous generator transforms electric energy (T, ) into electric energy (V, I at
frequency f).
Introduction/reminder
The alternator is the key to energy for a facility, a site.
The AC generator converts the mechanical energy produced by the turbine (or heat engine
or any type of prime mover) into electric energy via electromagnetic induction.
Two types of "core" and "field" windings are required to achieve this.
The "main" current or operating current comes from the core (generally the stator).
DC (or rectified current) is injected in the field windings in order to create a magnetic field
of fixed direction (or polarity).
Figure 35: Alternator windings

Relative movement between the core and field windings is required to produce voltage.
Relative movement' means movement of the magnetic field through the conductors of the
core or movement of the conductors through the magnetic field.
The stator and the rotor are used to produce this relative movement. The latter will rotate
in the stator windings, thus creating induced voltage.
According to standards and the country, the relation between frequency and voltage is as
follows for standard alternators:
Frequency 60 Hz 50 Hz
480 380 / 400
600 440
Voltage 2400 3300
4160 5500 / 6000
13800 11000
Table 1: Relation between frequency and voltage

4.2. MAIN COMPONENTS
Alternators have six main components: stator, rotor, bearings, space heater, temperature
detection and the supporting frame. We will now consider each of these components in
detail.
4.2.1. Stator
The stator is built with high-grade silicon steel laminations, precision punched, and
individually insulated. Low voltage windings are random-wound coils in lined, semi-closed
slots. High-voltage windings are form-wound in lined slots.
Wound cores are repeatedly impregnated with thermosetting synthetic varnish, and baked
for maximum moisture resistance, high dielectric strength, and high bonding qualities.
Windings are braced to withstand shock loads such as motor starting and short circuits.
Space heaters are available to minimise condensation during long shutdowns
A space heater in the interior of the generator prevents the formation of condensate in the
generator windings after shutdown. The space heater is automatically switched on and off
by the turbine control system during the start-up and shutdown sequence unless the
systems select switch is in the off position. The only operator action necessary is the
verification of the heaters operation upon generator shutdown.
Optional RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector) sensors may be installed to monitor

generator winding temperatures.
Figure 36: Stator assembly

4.2.2. Rotor
At the centre of the rotor assembly is a high grade steel shaft that has four metal pieces
extending outward, two sets of cooling fan blades and a brushless exciter armature
mounted an the forward end. The flour metal "poles" are used to form the magnetic poles.
Coils of wire are wrapped around each metal pole to form a magnetic field opposite from
the one next to it (Figure under).
All four metal poles of the rotor form the second type of winding, the field winding.
During generator operation, dc current is passed through each pole winding to form
alternate north and south poles, which makes up the rotating magnetic field.
Figure 37: Rotor assembly
When a load is connected to the generator, current flows in the system. As this current
passes through the armature windings, heat is created that must be dissipated to prevent
damage. On some generators air is drawn in from both ends by the fan blades on the rotor
and circulated around the rotor and stator windings to remove the heat. The cooling air
usually exits through the top of the generator.
4.2.3. Exciter
A second, smaller generator is mounted inside the main generator. This smaller generator
is mounted on the forward end of the rotor shaft and is referred to as the brushless exciter
armature. In this exciter the armature rotates inside the stationary field windings mounted
on the frame.
The brushless exciter produces three-phase ac voltage for use in the four magnetic poles
of the rotor. To use this ac voltage, it must be rectified to dc by the six diodes located at
the forward end of the rotor shaft. The six diodes furnish three-phase, full-wave
rectification for a very smooth pulsating dc current, which is fed directly to the main field
windings on the projecting poles.
The brushless exciter eliminates commutator, collector rings, brushes, and brush holders
making the generator a low maintenance machine.
The exciter consists of a 3-phase rotating armature type ac generator and a 3- phase full
wave rectifier. Excitation is available when the generator is carrying 150 percent rated
current for one minute.
The rotating armature and the rotating rectifier assembly are mounted on the generator
rotor shaft and are electrically interconnected with each other and with the generator field
windings.
The stator for the exciter consists of a wound-laminated core installed in a flange ring,
which forms an integral part of the generator front bearing bracket.
The complete exciter is enclosed and protected by a removable cover.
Figure 38: Assembly of main parts stator/rotor/exciter
4.2.4. Bearings
The bearings in the typical mid-range generator are either the self-lubricated anti-friction
type or the sleeve bearing type. If the sleeve bearing type is used, the generator cooling
air effectively cools the oil passing through the bearings and oil reservoirs. A sight gage
located below the bearings is used to check the oil level in the reservoir.

4.2.5. Resistance Temperature Detectors
Resistance temperature detectors (RTD) monitor the temperature of the generator

windings and bearings. The RTDs are connected to remote sensors that have warning
and shutdown set points to protect the components against high temperatures. The RTDs
have a positive coefficient of resistivity.
That is, the elements resistance increases as the temperature applied to the detector
increases.
Six detectors, two per phase, are installed in the stator slots between the top and bottom
stator coils. An RTD is also located on each of two bearings in the generator
A signal is sent to remote sensing devices that monitor the temperature of the stator and
bearings. The winding and/or bearing temperature monitors have warning and shutdown
set points, which are, initiated it the temperature problem persists.
4.2.6. Space Heater
A space heater in the interior of the generator prevents the formation of condensate in the
generator windings after shutdown. The space heater is automatically switched on and off
by the turbine control system during the start-up and shutdown sequence unless the
systems select switch is in the off position. The only operator action necessary is the
verification of the heaters operation upon generator shutdown.
4.2.7. Supporting Frame
The generator frame supports the rotating and stationary components and serves as an
enclosure to protect the internal components.
The generator nameplate contains a host of valuable information including rpm, amperage,
insulation rating, power factor, voltage, KVA, and maintenance information.
The operator and the maintenance technician should know the location of the generator
nameplate and become familiar with the information on it.

4.3. ALTERNATOR CONSTRUCTION
4.3.1. The single phase synchronous generator
(Compared with a 3-phase).
Faradays induction law states that a conductor which rotates in a magnetic field will
induce an electromotive force (emf).
In a generator the magnetic field is created by the electromagnets; in other words the
poles of the generator.
An exciter (generator) is used to obtain this direct-exciter current. The exciter mounted
onto the alternating-current generator will be of the internal-pole type. The stationary part,
in which a single-phase winding is fitted, is located on the outside. The moving part used
to generate the magnetic field, is located on the inside (see fig. under).
The main advantage of the internal-pole type is that the alternating current from the stator
can be fed through stationary connections.
Figure 39: Construction principle of the internal pole of a single phase alternator
The emf induced in the stator winding will have a sine wave form relative to the time.
The direct current is fed to the rotor by means of carbon-brushes and two slip rings.
The relationship between the speed (n), the frequency (f) and the pole pair (p):

nxp 60 xf
f = or n = n = rpm
60 p
It is time now to have a minimum of formulae even if you do not need it. You know already
the relation between frequency, speed, and pair of poles, seen in the previous chapter.
4.3.2. The three phases synchronous generator
In a three-phase or alternating-current machine the stator has three windings instead of

the one winding as on a single-phase machine. These windings are located and axed at
120 between them.
Figure 40: Generator with three stator windings: U-X, V-Y and W-Z.
The rotor excited by direct current has a north and a south pole. The rotor has therefore
one pair of poles; p = 1.
The rotating (changing) main field generates, or induces, voltage in the three-stator
windings.
The three emf's have the same frequency and are 120 out of phase relative to each
other.

By one revolution of the rotor (R= 1) in t seconds the stator coils embrace the maximum
rotational field at intervals of 1/3 x t seconds relative to each other. In t seconds the field
rotates 3000 times (for 50 Hz and one pair of poles), which means that each stator emf's
reach its maximum value 120 in rotation or 1/3 T = 6.66 milliseconds in time after the next
one.
Figure 41: Electromotive force for each stator winding
Question:
Rewrite the phrase in italic above for a frequency of 60 Hz
And why not for 2 pairs of poles and 50 Hz?
No problem, you are able to find it, logically without formulae
4.3.3. AC generator in general
Figure under shows, in cutaway form, a typical A.C. generator in the 15-megawatt (20 000
hp) size range. The generator itself is enclosed in a box or hood; this is both to exclude
noise and to contain the closed ventilation system. It also assists purging before starting if
gas has been present. The rotating parts are coloured yellow and the stator blue.
The armature (normally the stator) windings carry the load current, which varies with the
loading. These windings have resistance and generate heat at a rate proportional to the
square of the current (W = I R). The fields exciting winding (normally on the rotor) also
carries current. It too has resistance and generates I R heat.

Figure 42: Cutaway of a typical A.C. generator prime mover (turbine, motor) not
represented
These two sources of heat, together with iron loss heating, combine to raise the
temperature of the machine.
All the heat must be taken away by the cooling system if the temperature rise is to be held
below the designed limit. The generator is cooled by a shaft-driven fan which circulates air
in a closed air circuit through all the windings. The air, in circulating, passes through an
air/water heat exchanger.
The stator (armature) carries a 3-phase winding consisting of insulated conductors in slots
round the inside face.
These conductors must be insulated up to the full working voltage of the system.
Serious or sustained excess temperature of the winding will cause this insulation to
deteriorate or even to break down completely, resulting in an internal flashover.
The rotor windings, which provide the field, operate at a much lower voltage of the order of
70 or 120 V D.C. (as a basic general range), so insulation is less of a problem.
Note: there is a main exciter and a pilot exciter. To be seen in next chapter excitation
and voltage control.

4.3.4. Rotor construction
A.C. generators with rotating fields have rotors which fall into two-types: salient and
cylindrical Poles. They are both shown in the figure under
Figure 43: A.C. Generator rotor types
The salient-pole type is by far the most common with offshore generators and also with
the smaller sizes onshore. The salient-pole rotor is commonly used with 4-pole generators.
Where there are six or more poles, this is the only type which is practical.
The cylindrical rotor (sometimes also called turbo type) is, as the name implies,
completely cylindrical and has no projections.
The field windings are embedded and wedged into slots in the rotor surface in a similar
way to the stator slots. The rotor slots cover only part of the surface and are disposed
either side of the poles, the whole field winding forming a spiral around each pole centre.
Cylindrical rotors are very sound mechanically and are favoured for large, high speed
generators (3 000 or 3 600 rev/min), where centrifugal forces on a salient-pole rotor would
present severe problems. Consequently cylindrical rotors are common with 2-pole
generators and are sometimes used with 4-pole types. They are never used with six poles
or more, where the rotor construction would become far too difficult.
Question:
For the rotor picture above, how many pair of poles for the salient type?
How many pair of poles for the cylindrical type?
4.3.5. Insulation
Generator windings are insulated against the highest voltages to which they may be
subjected, and the insulation must withstand a certain specified maximum temperature
without deteriorating.
There are many insulating materials: The classification is as follows (as example of
standard BS2757)
Ultimate
Class Typical Insulating Material
Temperature
Y Cotton, silk, paper, etc. ,unimpregnated 90 C
A Impregnated cotton, silk, etc., paper, enamel 105 C
E Paper laminates, epoxies 120 C
B Glass fibre, asbestos (unimpregnated), mica 130 C
F Glass fibre, asbestos, epoxy impregnated 155 C
H Glass fibre, asbestos, silicone impregnated 180 C
C Mica, ceramics, glass, with inorganic bonding > 180 C
Table 2: Insulation materials
It should be noted that the classification letters do not follow an alphabetical sequence.
This is because there were originally only three classes - A , B and C .
Most platform and shore-installed generators are Class B or F. It does not depend on
temperature rise alone; if, for instance, the ambient temperature is 40C, a Class B
material may be used if the designed temperature rise will not exceed 90C, so making the
ultimate maximum temperature 130C.

4.3.6. Cooling
Generators used on platforms and in shore installations are either air-cooled. (However,
you will find many water-cooled equipments)
The air is circulated past the stator and rotor windings by a fan on the generator shaft.
The warmed air itself may be discharged to atmosphere and not used again (Circulating
Air or CA); or it may be water cooled in a separate cooler with a forced water circulation
( Circulating Air, Forced Water or CAFW ); or in a radiator-type cooler ( Circulating Air,
Natural Water or CANW).
A new international coding system for cooling methods has been introduced for all rotating
machines (BS 4999, Part 21).
First Digit Second Digit
0 Free circulation 0 Free convection
1 Inlet duct ventilated 1 Self-circulation
2 Integral component mounted on separate

2 Outlet duct ventilated
shaft
3 Dependent component mounted on the

3 Inlet and outlet duct ventilated
machine
4 Frame surface cooled
5 Integral heat exchanger (using

5 Integral independent component
surrounding mediums)
6 Machine-mounted heat exchanger 6 Independent component mounted on the

(using surrounding medium ) machine
7 Integral heat exchanger (not using 7 Independent and separate device or

surrounding medium) coolant system pressure
8 Machine-mounted heat exchanger

8 Relative displacement
(not using surrounding medium )
9 Separately mounted heat exchanger
Table 3: Coding system for cooling methods

Where it is desired to specify the nature of a coolant, the following letter code is used in
conjunction with the cooling code:
Gases: Air A
H Hydrogen
N Nitrogen
C Carbon dioxide
L Helium
Liquids: Water W
U Oil
4.3.7. Neutral Earthing Resistor
The star-points of all high-voltage generators on platforms are earthed through a current
limiting neutral earthing resistor (NER). Its purpose is to limit the fault current flowing
through the generator if an earth fault develops anywhere on the system.
Neutral earthing resistors are therefore given a maximum current rating for a maximum
time - for example, '200A for 30 s. (in High Voltage)
The NER unit sometimes contains also a current transformer to measure the presence of
any earth-fault current in order to initiate the protection.
See course Ground and neutral systems SE070 for neutral system management.
4.3.8. Insulated Bearings
Bearings of a large machine are often insulated to prevent stray currents (Eddy currents)
from circulating through them. Such currents can arise from emf's being generated in the
rotor shaft due to stray magnetic fields. Under fault conditions these stray fields can be
very large.
The figure shows how such currents may flow through the bearings.
These currents, if allowed to flow, would arc across the bearing surface and cause small
craters, acting like corrosion, destroying quickly the same bearing. (Corrosion is caused by
natural electric current between 2 metallic parts being in contacts through an electrolyte
same as a battery).

Figure 44: Insulation of bearings
For reasons of safety the shaft must be at earth potential.
The insulation of the pedestal is carried out by a shim of insulating material between the
base of the pedestal and its stool.

4.4. GENERATOR EXCITATION
Or the different ways to supply the Direct Current inducing magnetic field in the rotor.
4.4.1. Conventional excitation
Figure 45: Conventional excitation
Typical schematic of a conventional method where a driven D.C. exciter (in this case belt-
driven) feeds its D.C. output through slip-rings to the main generator field.
The Field current for the exciter itself (the D.C. generator) is supplied by a rectifier bridge
itself piloted by the voltage regulator (AVR) of the main generator.
Note: at start of this unit, there is no voltage, no power from the main 3 phases
distribution in which the AVR is taking its energy. The D.C. exciter needs current in its
(stator) field winding to provide in turn the current in the main generator (rotor) field
winding to build power output
The exciter is using at start the remanent magnetic field of its own iron frame (it is like a
small permanent magnet) which can provide at least a small current in its output, enough
to have voltage output of the main generator, and the AVR can start to have current to
help the remanent field. And the loop is going on, increasing up to the regulation values.
4.4.2. Static excitation
The rotating D.C. exciter is replaced by a static electronic exciter.
Note: at start, same as for the conventional excitation there is no power output of the
generator, no D.C. current to give to the rotor windings.
Two solutions: for small generators, this system is also using the remanent field
magnetism of the rotor, building gradually the voltage up at generator output.

In practice, (second solution), the rectifier bridge is supplied by a common 3 phases

source and not directly from the concerned generator itself. This applies in important
distribution where several generators are in parallel.
Figure 46: Static excitation
4.4.3. Brushless excitation (general case)
Figure 47: Brushless excitation general case
A further significant development is shown in above schematic. Here the shaft-driven

rotating exciter has been restored, but it now takes the form of an A.C. generator of the
fixed-field type mounted on the main shaft itself. Its A.C. output is taken through
connections inside the shaft, through a diode bridge which rotates with the shaft, to the
main rotating field of the generator. The field is thus excited by D.C. without the need for
brushes and slip-rings. It will be seen that this exciter cannot be belt-driven; it must be
integral part of the main shaft.
The principal advantage of brushless excitation over the other two first types is that
the absence of brush-gear and slip-rings greatly eases the maintenance problem.

Under short-circuit conditions or sudden big load request (on main 3 phases distribution)
the generators output voltage will drop heavily it might even vanish.
To overcome this, a method, improvement of the present one here, is employed which
makes use of the short-circuit currents themselves to provide the missing excitation, this is
the next paragraph
4.4.4. Brushless excitation (without pilot exciter)
Three heavy duty current transformers are arranged in the generator output lines as
shown in Figure under
Under short-circuit conditions when the generator output voltage is very low, the short-
circuit CT's pick up the heavy short-circuit conditions - a necessary requirement in network
operation so that protection may operate reliably.
Figure 48: Brushless excitation without pilot exciter
4.4.5. Brushless excitation (with pilot exciter)
With large brushless generators this different method is used. Instead of drawing excitation
power from the generator output, the AVR has only a voltage-sensing connection.
As in the conventional case, the excitation of the generator is now independent of the
generators output voltage and so is maintained even under short-circuit conditions and
without the use of short-circuit CT's. This is the arrangement on almost all platforms main
generators.

Figure 49: Brushless excitation with pilot exciter
4.4.6. Diode bridge
On the Figure, the diodes are shown for clarity as inside the shaft between the exciter and
the main generator. The exciter output is 3-phase, and the diodes are in fact a 3-phase
full-wave bridge, requiring six diode elements.
Clearly they cannot be buried in the middle of the shaft, and in practice they are mounted
on a rotating plate on the extreme end of the shaft at the exciter end, (as shown in Figure,
in green).
This makes them easily accessible for inspection, testing or replacement.
A point on the use of diodes should be noted: If one of the six should fail, either by open or
short-circuiting, harmonic currents flow in the main field circuit. These harmonics are
reflected into the field circuit of the main exciter and are detected by a diode failure relay
tuned to respond to the principal harmonic frequency; the alarm (or trip) signal from this
relay is time-delayed by 10 or 15 seconds to prevent false operation.
Caution: (for maintenance operation)
When megger testing a generator field system (exciter + main field winding) all
diodes must be first disconnected or short-circuited to prevent the megger voltage
(500V) being applied across them and breaking them down.

Figure 50: Diode Bridge of an A.C. generator

4.4.7. Alternator parts
Figure 51: Brushless generator - exercise
Exercise:
Name the different part of this machine, even those not requested and even those not yet
seen
And then only you can go to next page

Power output
connection terminals
Stator armature +
windings 3 phase
Shaft mounted
fan for air cooling
Exciter ( small
A.C. generator)
Diode Bridge
Rotor and 4
poles windings
Figure 52: Brushless generator exercise solution
Simple recommendation:
Suppose that you have the responsibility to assemble such a generator (French,
Leroy-Somer, 50 Hz 1500 rpm) with a diesel engine (American, Caterpillar set for 60
Hz at 1800 pm).
When you make running test, specially over speed test (set at 2100 rpm on engine
for 60 Hz), do not be surprised to have the generator rotor loosing its winding
parts.. (Over speed of generator for 50 Hz - being 1750 rpm).
And if it happens, bad luck that day, the over speed of engine was set even higher
than 2100 rpm and the generator had already run hours (at 1800 rpm) for load test,
please do not blame the generator manufacturer.

5. ALTERNATOR CONNECTIONS AND PROTECTIONS
5.1. GENERATOR CONNECTIONS
AC generators are usually constructed so that they have two types of output connections,
wye (star) or delta. (Y or )
The output wires are called leads. There may be 6 leads or 12 (and even more).
They are connected to the three-phase winding in the armature and then brought out to be
connected externally to switchgear.
It is the way that they are connected externally that determines whether a system is delta
or wye.
Each coil group in an armature is wound with a designed number of wires in each coil of
the group. Each coil has a start wire and a finish wire, and to make a coil group, the coils
are simply connected together with a start end and a finish end.
One coil group is installed in the stator to form one phase.
5.1.1. The Delta system
For the delta system the phases are arranged in a triangle shape. The important thing to
remember is that to connect a winding for a delta output, you must connect the start of one
coil group to the finish of another, and this is done for all starts and finishes, T1 to T6, T2
to T4, T3 to T5
T1
T5
T6 T1
2 1 T6
3 3
3 1
T3
1
3 1 2
T3 2 2 T4
T4
T5 T2 T2
Figure 53: Delta system
In a delta system, line voltage is equal to phase voltage....

E line = E phase
...while line current is equal to phase current times the square root of 3.
I line = I phase x 3
I (amp) line
I (amp) phase
Balanced
Load
E phase E line
Figure 54: Current and voltage in a Delta system
This relationship is an important factor in making the delta system a desirable one to use.
If you are asked why a delta system should be used, you can explain that delta phase
current is less than line current. So for 17 amps line for example, the generator phase has
only 10 amps in it. This allows cooler generator operation under load conditions.
5.1.2. Delta connected generator
The next illustration is an example of a delta system. It is a three-wire delta connected

generator. Note the wires leaving the generator from T1, T2, and T3. Metering of these
wires is taken through potential and current transformers.
For delta connection, the start and finish wires are connected to form the triangle. T1 to
T6, T2 to T4, and T3 to T5. T1, T2, and T3 go to the system as line leads, as seen in the
previous paragraph

Figure 55: Typical delta connections, 3 wire generator

5.1.3. The wye (star) system
Wye connected systems can be either three-wire or four-wire depending on the needs of
the plant. In a wye-connected generator, the coil groups are connected in a way that forms
the letter Y.
To connect wye, all three finish wires are connected to external load circuitry, while all start
wires are connected in a common junction
T1, T2, and T3 are line leads going to the distribution system, while T4, T5, and T6 are
junctioned together for a common or neutral connection.
The neutral may or may not be grounded and the system may be operated as either a
three-wire or four-wire system.
T1
T1
T5
1
1 2 1 T6
T4 2 2
3 3
T6 T3
T5 T2
1 2
3
3
T3 T4
T2
Figure 56: Connection diagram and windings arrangement for a wye connection
In the wye (or "star") system, the relationship of line current to phase current is that they
are equal...
I line = I phase
... and line voltage is equal to phase voltage times the square root of 3.
E line = E phase x 3
Lets look at an example to illustrate the advantage of this system. If the voltage line to line
were 400 volts, then the phase voltage would be 400 volts divided by the square root of 3.
E line
E phase =
3

Since the square root of 3 is 1,732 then in our example we have 440 / 1.732 = 230 volts
Many power distribution systems use 220/230 volts for lighting and portable power.
Some typical lines to line voltages produced at 50 cycles per second are:
380 - 415 - 3000 - 3300 - 5500 - 6000 - 6300 - 6700 - 11000
Phase voltage for any of the above cases would be that voltage divided by 3
NOTE:
Since some generators produce high voltages (wye or delta connected), any
energised readings must be taken with the proper equipment and all high voltage
safety rules must be observed.
A precautionary procedure is to take voltage readings at the secondary of step down

transformers, rather than at the primary voltage terminals in the generator connection box
located on top of the generator or elsewhere. The nameplate of any generator will show
the number of phases, usually three-phase, and line to line voltages as well as other
pertinent data.
5.1.4. Wye (star) connected generator
This illustration shows a generator in an installation, which is connected as a typical Wye

four-wire system.
On the wye drawing the wires leaving the generators are N, T1, T2, and T3.
These also go through potential and current transformers for the purposes of metering. For
the wye system the connections should be T1, T2, and T3 to load, and T4, T5, and T6
together as a common or neutral. So as you can see below all the start wires are
connected together and all the finish wires are connected to the load.
Figure 57: wye (star) connection

Figure 58: Typical wye connected, 4 wire, generator
5.2. GENERATOR PROTECTIONS
The protection system of a generator aims to protect the machine against the internal
defects and protect the network against dysfunction, which can disturb it
The principal defects, which can affect a generator, are:
The overload
The external short-circuits between phases (on the network)

The short-circuit interns between phases
The intern defect between phase of the stator and mass
The defect between the rotor and the mass
The cut of a phase or the inversion of two phases
The loss of excitation
Generator running as a motor
A frequency too weak or too high
A voltage too weak or too high
5.2.1. ANSI codes for Protections
The required protections are using specific ANSI coded relays
Relay function Code ANSI

Differential protection 87 G
Stator ground-fault protection 51 NG
Under impedance protection 21 G
Over-voltage protection 59-1 and 59-2
Rotor ground-fault protection 64 F
Field failure protection 40
Under-voltage protection 27
Reverse power protection 32-1
Current unbalance protection 45 P and 46 G
Overfluxing (frequency) protection 59 / 81 G
Overload protection 51-1 G
Overload protection 49 G
Table 4: ANSI codes for protections

5.2.2. Typical one line diagram generator protection
Figure 59: Typical one-line diagram generator protection

500 KV Generator Protection

A
2000/1
2000/1
500/1
87 T Transf. Diff.
500/1
400 MVA 87 T Transf. Diff.
500/16 KV mcb 51 G E/F back up
3 VT
59 Over voltage
mcb
59 N Earth fault
Power supply
V / HZ Over excitation
51 Time log O/C
15000/5 AVR
87 G Gen. Diff.
32 Rev. Power
SCR
400 MVA
16 KV G 40 Loss of field
60 HZ
64 F Field E/F
21 Imp. Prot.
15000/5
46 Negative sequence
15 27 N3
KV 100 % E/F
3 59 N1
10 A
Figure 60: Example for generator synchronised on network

5.2.3. Details for generator protections
5.2.3.1. Protection functions connected to generator neutral current

transformers
32P: reverse active power
32Q: reverse reactive power serving as loss of field (for generators above 1 MVA)
46: negative sequence (for generators above 1 MVA)
49: thermal image
51: overcurrent
51G: earth fault
51V: voltage restrained overcurrent
87G: generator differential protection (for generators above 2 MVA)
(Note: 46, 49, 32P and 32Q can also be connected to the line-side current transformers)
5.2.3.2. Protection functions connected to voltage transformers
25: synchronism-check (for parallel operation only)
27: undervoltage
59: overvoltage
81: overfrequency and underfrequency
5.2.3.3. Protection functions connected to line-side current transformers (for

parallel operation only)
67: directional overcurrent (not required if 87G is used)
67N: directional earth fault (on core balance CT for better sensitivity)

5.2.3.4. Generator mechanical protection functions connected to sensors
49T: stator temperature (recommended for generators above 2 MVA)
49T: bearing temperature (recommended for generators above 8 MVA)
64F: rotor earth fault protection
5.2.4. Practical checks by operators and maintenance technicians
All the numbers, type of electrical protections enumerated here above are (usually) not
within the burdens of a production operator or a maintenance technician. The main
purpose of listing them is for you, when wandering inside the electrical switchgear room to
be able to understand a minimum about these equipments. However, the maintenance
technician will need, in due time to know how to check the calibration
Nevertheless, the normal and/or universal operator is supposed to check the

parameters of his power plant, principally here the power indication active reactive
powers and the power factor (cos ) as well as the running parameters of equipments (oil
pressure, oil level, temperature of windings, bearings, etc). And you, maintenance
(electrical) technician, ensure yourself that the operator is not cheating you by leaving to
you the entire responsibility of his power plant., forgetting even the simple survey during
his shift period.
5.2.4.1. Review
In electricity and in measures courses, you can see details about active, reactive power
and cos . Lets see here the principle of having a reverse power
Neutral
rotation point
P: active power (+) G

V

Q: reactive power (+)
3 Ph
S: apparent power
Synchronized
I amp Ph
I on a network
Figure 61: Principle of reverse power

An alternator synchronised on a network must provide active power (P) and reactive power
(Q), with a power factor (cos ) in the range 0.85 to 0.93 (as per the load)
5.2.4.2. Active reverse power protection
(Code ANSI 32 P)(P for active)
This protection is used to detect an inversion of the sign of the active power in the absence
of electric fault.
This protection is used in particular to:
protect a motor against an operation in generator when there is a supply

shutdown and is continued to run by its load;
protect a generator against an operation in motor which can deteriorate the driving
engine.
Neutral
point
rotation
P: active power (-) G

V
Q: reactive

power (+) 3 Ph
I Synchronized
S: apparent power (-)
I amp Ph on a network
Figure 62: Active reverse power protection
A generator set connected to a power network continues to turn synchronously even if the
prime mover (diesel or turbine) is no longer
energy supplied, the main breaker being kept
closed.
The alternator then functions as a

synchronous motor.
Operating in such a way may be detrimental to

the prime mover.
Figure 63: Active power protection relay

schematic representation

5.2.4.3. Reactive reverse power protection (Loss of excitation)
(Code ANSI 32 Q)(Q for reactive)
This protection is used to detect the field loss of the synchronous drives
Neutral
rotation point
I
S: apparent power (-)
-
Q: reactive power (-) G
V
P: active power (+)
3 Ph
Synchronized
I amp Ph on a network
Figure 64: Reactive reverse power protection
The break or the short-circuiting of the excitation coil of an alternator is a serious fault. It
either causes the alternator to function as an asynchronous generator, or it stops the
conversion of energy and causes an increase in speed.
The consequences are an overheating of the stator because the reactive current can be
raised and an overheating of the rotor because it is not dimensioned for the induced
currents.
An important induced current circulates in the rotor and causes an overheating.
D.C. current crossing the rotor (called inductor) carries out the energisation of the
synchronous drives
The field loss can be due to a fault in the DC feeder or to a fault of the rotor (breakdown,
short-circuit, etc).
When a field loss appears, the drive compensates

the drop of the magnetising power of the rotor by
absorbing reactive power on the network.
The reactive power of the machine is then negative.
Figure 65: Protection against excitation losses by a

reactive reverse power relay.

In practice the relay can be set to check the cos permanently, threshold being between
0.91 and 0.93.
It means that the relay sees the reactive power going dangerously towards 0 with the
possibility of becoming negative;
On your power plant, please check value of cos . A power factor of 0.93 is very good,
power consumption speaking but it is going to a limit for the safety of the generator.

6. ALTERNATOR OPERATION AND CONTROL
6.1. LOAD ADJUSTMENT OF A GENERATOR (OR ALTERNATOR)
Function of an alternator is to deliver active power. The fact that there is also reactive
power is not the responsibility of the generator; it is the consequence of the load
characteristics.
Reactive power management is done on power distribution side (with a synchronous

machine running as synchronous motor, or with capacitances, for example.)
The load control is therefore done on active power.
For example on an EDG (Emergency Diesel Generator) working in manual control there
are only 2 potentiometers, one for motor speed, the second for voltage adjustment.
Speed adjustment is seen in turbine and/or engine courses, from the generator it is simply
a digital or analogical instrument request: please, increase or decrease
WHAT ARE THE CONSEQUENCES OF AN INCREASE OF THE

ACTIVE POWER DELIVERED BY A GENERATOR
ON THE FREQUENCY? ON THE VOLTAGE?
The frequency decreases The voltage decreases

When the load of an Three causes are at the
alternator increases, its origin of this reduction
speed decreases
The speed
The voltage drop by load
increase
If speed decreases, the The armature reaction

frequency decreases in which decreases the
the same proportions inductive flux
HOW TO MAINTAIN CONSTANT THE VOLTAGE AND THE

FREQUENCY ?
Figure 66: Active power management

A motor (hydraulic or A generator with D.C. current,

thermoelectric turbine) exciter (or other system) is
provides the mechanical installed at the shaft end to provide
energy to the alternator the D.C. current necessary to the
Speed adjustment inductor of the generator.
Field excitation current adjustment
To maintain the frequency and the voltage constant these two simultaneous
operations are necessary:
Increase speed by action on the turbine (or engine) regulation

Increase the excitation current by action on the shunt field rheostat of the
exciter (as per the drawing above) or through any static of rotating adjustment
device
Practically these 2 operations can be carried out by a speed regulator and a

voltage regulator
Figure 67: Example of Load Management on Emergency Diesel Generator
To maintain the frequency and the voltage constant, these two simultaneous operations
are necessary:
Control speed by action on the turbine (or engine) regulation
Control the excitation current by action on the shunt field rheostat of the exciter
(see drawing above) or through any static of rotating adjusting device
Practically, these two operations can be carried out by a speed regulator and a voltage
regulator

6.2. AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE REGULATORS (AVR)
The name AVR for Automatic Voltage Regulation could be interpreted an other way.
As in fact, it is he load (the power) which is regulated, an increase in current decrease the
voltage and inversely, it could be said Ampere Volt Regulator. (It is a personal
interpretation which is not an official one)
The AVR are nowadays entirely electronic; they take their operating power from either the
main output or the shaft-driven high-frequency sub-exciter (typically at 400Hz) or from the
network or UPSs.
6.2.1. AVR set-point
Like any closed-loop servo, an automatic voltage regulating system holds the voltage
constant within stated errors at whatever level it has been set. This level is referred as
being the set-point.
6.2.2. AC Generator voltage regulation
When a load is applied to the terminals of a generator previously running at no load and
without AVR control, the terminal voltage will drop by an amount which depends on the
nature of the load.
3 Ph
Generator
Receiving current breaker
Field winding for 1, 2 or 3 phases
Power supply
AVR
Receiving voltage values
Voltage adjustment
Modulating field current
Figure 68: Voltage regulation AC generator

This drop of voltage is called the regulation of the generator at that load. It is usually
quoted at full rated load, that is, at the full-load rated current and rated power factor and is
expressed as a percentage of the no-load or system voltage.
Thus, if V0 is the no-load voltage and V the generator terminal voltage at full rated load and
power factor and with the excitation unaltered, then:
V0 V
100% is the percentage full-load regulation.
V0
The AVR is a box receiving the image essentially of voltage, either between 2 or 3
phases and sending in output the required current in field winding to compensate the
voltage variation. The AVR is like an ETC as per the instrumentation standard of
Voltage Transmitter Controller Many AVRs includes the image of line current which
acts as a derivative action anticipating the load demand. The AVR then becomes like a
JTC for Power Transmitter Controller

7. GENERATORS PARALLELING AND SYNCHRONISING
7.1. CONDITIONS FOR PARALLELING
At some time in the life of an industrial plant, the existing load carrying capabilities may
need to be increased.
It may be necessary to accommodate a peak load during a portion of a day, or a

permanent expansion of the load may be planned in the installation.
One solution would be to replace the existing generator set with a larger unit. A more cost
effective and efficient solution would be to place another generator set into the system to
assist in carrying the load, that is, parallel the first unit with the second.
On line Generators Stand-by Generators
G 3Ph G 3Ph G 3Ph G 3Ph G 3Ph
? When to close?
Bus bars
Load distribution
Figure 69: Distribution with several generators in parallel
When two sources of power are placed in parallel, the system voltage will be that of the
individual sources, but the amperage capacity of the system will be the sum of the
amperages of the units in parallel.
This means that by operating two or more units in parallel, system voltage can be
maintained at the desired value, and the load carrying ability of the system is increased.
Units of different kW ratings can be paralleled as long as individual voltages are the same.
Several units can be paralleled as long as they can divide the load proportional to their
individual ratings.
Successful paralleling depends on similar response of engines and sensitivity of the speed
control governors, similar response of voltage regulators and presence or absence of
cross current compensation devices.
There are four conditions that must be met by the on-coming generator and the bus
(network) before paralleling can take place.

They must have the same phase rotation.
They must operate at the same frequency.
They must operate at the same voltage.
They must be synchronised, or in-phase.
And then, only when those 4 conditions are simultaneously present, the stand-by
generator is running at synchronous speed, the voltage is adjusted, in phase, it means that
it is synchronised, closing of the main loading breaker can be done
G 3Ph G 3Ph G 3Ph G 3Ph G 3Ph
Order to
Ready? Go ! close
Bus bars
Load distribution
Figure 70: Generator synchronising
Closing of the main breaker is the finalisation of the synchronising phases. Lets see the 4
pre conditions in detail.
7.1.1. Condition 1: same phase operation
Phase rotation is determined by the connections to the bus.
That is, Phase A of one source must be met by Phase A of the second source.
Phase B of one meets Phase B of the other, and C phase meets C phase

Figure 71: Same phase operation: wrong conditions
It means not only rotating the same direction, but each pair of phases matching
Figure 72: Phases are matching OK!
Figure 73: Phase rotation OK, corresponding phase to be connected together

This requirement is critical, and if not met, the powerful magnetic forces in the stators
would cause the rotors to turn in reverse direction.
The angle position of the phases are not important, B C A to A B C or C A B to A B C are

equally correct.
A phase rotation meter can be used to check phase sequence of the bus and of the
oncoming generator.
If potential or instrumentation transformers are used to step down the generator and bus
(network) voltages for the phase rotation meter of synchronising lamps, extreme care must
be taken to insure that proper primary to secondary polarities are maintained, so as to give
the correct signal to the phase rotation meter. (Leave it to the commissioning electrician!)
Swapping or interchanging any two of the generator lines can change the phase
sequence.
We could also change the phase sequence by changing the direction of generator rotation.
7.1.2. Condition 2: same frequency
The second condition for paralleling is that both

sets operate at the same frequency. In the figure
you can see that turbine generator set 1 and
turbine generator set 2 have different frequencies.
TG2 is running faster than TG1,
Figure 74: Frequency differential 1
The difference in speed is called "slip frequency". To match the oncoming generator
frequency to bus frequency adjust the speed control switch/potentiometer on the
generator panel until both frequency meters indicate the desired frequency.
The "slip rate" is the time rate of change or the speed with which the generator frequency
is approaching the bus frequency. Figure under shows both generators running at the
same frequency.

TG 1
1 Hertz
TG 2
Figure 75: Frequency differential 2
TG 1
TG 2
1 Hertz
1 Hertz
Figure 76: Both generators running at same frequency 1
Both curves can be superposed

TG 1
TG 2
Figure 77: Both generators running at same frequency 2

7.1.3. Condition 3: same voltage
A third condition, voltage matching is accomplished by providing a raise (or lower) voltage
adjusting signal to the voltage regulator via the voltage adjust rheostat located on the
control panel. Check the voltmeters on each generator panel.
Figure under shows a difference in voltage amplitude and not in frequency.
V1
TG 1
1 Hertz
V2
TG 2
Figure 78: Voltage differential (frequency OK)
7.1.4. Condition 4: Synchronising or phasing
Generators that are synchronised will have their rotors north poles facing in the same
position (Figure under). We consider the North pole giving the maximum induction (so
maximum voltage) to one phase coil at an instant timet. At the same instant South pole is
giving half the induction (sin 30) to the2 other phases (in reverse voltage).
The north poles can be at any simultaneous clock position, not just the condition shown in
figures. (A two-pole rotor has been used for simplicity.)
The act of paralleling in the example shown would entail closing the output circuit breaker
of the oncoming generator (assuming one unit is connected to the bus/network).

Figure 79: Two rotors with two north pole / phase facing the same direction at t
CAUTION
The circuit breaker is never to be CLOSED when the rotors of two generators are not in
the same position, because the powerful magnetic forces generated in the rotors will
cause the rotors to spin rapidly in an attempt to achieve identical positions. The rule of
"likes repel, unlike attracts" is true, and when violated, as in figures under, the rotors will
stop instantly and reverse direction or spin rapidly in the same direction in an attempt to
achieve the same directional positions.

When this occurs, damage to the turbine generating system will occur. Damage may
consist of broken shear couplings, shafts, gearboxes, line voltage/current surges, and loss
of power.
TG 1 TG 2 TG 1 TG 2
Figure 80: Phases A in opposition at 0 & 180 and in the same opposition at 90 & 270
It is possible to have voltages and frequencies matched, and still be "out of phase". Figure
under shows bus voltage (TG-1) and oncoming generator voltage (TG-2) to have the same
voltage amplitude.
Speed is also equal because the two rotors have completed one revolution in the same
amount of time.
Ph A
30 out
TG 1 of phase
TG 2
Ph C Ph B
Generator to
Generator on line or network synchronise
Figure 81: Generators to synchronise 30 out of phase
The phase angles, however, are not the same. Phase angle is the relative electrical
degrees between the oncoming unit voltage wave and the bus voltage wave.
Detection of the relative phase angle and closure of the circuit breaker at or as nearly
possible to zero phase angle is the most important and critical factor in paralleling.
The figures under illustrates voltage phase angles in electrical degrees.

TG 1 Ph A Ph A
TG 2 TG 1 TG 2
Ph C Ph B Ph C Ph B
Generator on line Generator to

or on network synchronise
Figure 82: In phase 0 phase angle between the two generators
TG 1 TG 2
Ph C
Ph A
TG 1
TG 2
Ph A
Ph C Ph B
Ph B
or network synchronise
Figure 83: 90 out of phase or 90 phases angle

TG 1 TG 2
Ph A Ph C
TG 1 TG 2
Ph C Ph B Ph B Ph A

or on network synchronise

TG 1 TG 2 Generator to
Ph A
synchronise
TG 1 Ph B
Ph C
Ph C Ph B
TG 2
Generator on line Ph A
or on network
Achieving zero phase angle will be described under the heading "methods of paralleling".

7.2. SYNCHRONISATION / PARALLELING
7.2.1. Ready for coupling
The conditions in the previous paragraph have (almost) been satisfied.
The phases are correctly positioned, "commissioning" have done their job or
these machines have already been paralleled.
The unit (turbine + generator) has been rotating for a (short) while at synchronism
speed (approximately) i.e. 3000 or 1500 rpm.
Voltage has been adjusted.
You simply need to bring the 2 "rotating fields" in phase and press on the close
button of the coupling circuit breaker by turning or modifying the turbine or engine
speed (4th condition).
The synchronism system is clearly manual, hassle-free under automatic version, it runs by
itself.
7.2.2. Coupling operations of a one phase alternator with lamps
I.e. a GT2 alternator (one phase)

which we suggest couple in parallel
with several others connected to the
PN bars, or coupling bars. The
network (or GT1) has an emf E1.
If we organize the unit as shown in

the schematic in which L1 and L2
refer to the lamps connected across
each pole of the coupling switch
terminals
Figure 86: One phase alternator, lamp

coupling
a) Alternator GT2 rotates at a speed near to the synchronism speed, N = 60 f / p (f =

frequency of the voltage. E1 between the bars).
b) GT2 has been excited in order to have E2 (between its output terminals) at the same
value as E1, the indications being on 2 different voltmeters connected to points E1 and E2.

The first condition for coupling has been satisfied. We then observe that lamps L1 and L2
show beats. The closed circuit (P GT2 N) is subject to an emf equal to e1 + e2 in
instantaneous value (algebraic sum) and to:
Voltage at
E1 lamp terminal
E = E1 + E2 E
E2
Figure 87: Algebraic value of E (vector quantity)
However, as the frequency of E2 is not equal to that of E1 (the speed needs to be gently
adjusted), vector E2, as compared with vector E1 which is considered as fixed, rotates with
an angular speed equal to the slip between the pulses for the two emf.
Therefore E varies between 0 and (E1 + E2) limits.
E = E1 + E2 = 2E1 = 2 E2
E = 0
With E1 supposedly equal to E2
Figure 88: Variations of E
In the first case, lamps L1 and L2 are extinguished. in the second case, lamps L1 and L2
are lit at maximum. Caution: the lamps must be able to accept twice the voltage of E1
or E2 as the 2 voltages act cumulatively (in instantaneous values).
c) Let us act on the speed of alternator GT2, in order to slow the beats of the lamps. The
coupling switch can be closed when lamps stay extinguished for approximately
three seconds.
Vector E is zero at extinction of a lamp, i.e. emf E1 and E2 are in phase in the shared
circuit (P GT2 N) to the outside network.

7.2.3. Coupling operations with a three-phase alternator lamp
Exactly the same process is used, the phase order having been defined earlier.
Figure 89: Coupling with a three-phase alternator lamp
The first three conditions are satisfied; therefore the three lamps come on and go out
simultaneously at a speed which is inversely proportional to the slip in speed between the
two sources E1 and E2.
The speed of GT2 must be adjusted (carefully) until the lamp beating speed is low (lit for at
least 5 seconds) and when the lamps are out, close the coupling switch.
Should the 3 lamps start operating randomly, this means that the first condition of the
"phase order" is not satisfied. Configuration could be similar to the following figure.
Figure 90: Example with "unsatisfied phase order"

With this situation, do not attempt to couple.. start again from the beginning
Tip: with three-phase circuits, in commissioning (and initial testing), at least 2 lamps
must be connected to the terminals of 2 phases of the coupling circuit
breaker/switch, even if all "other devices" demonstrate that the circuit is working
fine. An error is always possible. With at least 2 lamps, you are 100% certain to
couple the right phases
7.2.4. Coupling operations with a synchronoscope
Coupling may be manual or automatic, lamps are replaced with a "rotating field slip
indicator", i.e. the synchronoscope, included in the coupling unit.
Figure 91: Example with the ABB system, complete and compact SYNCHROTACT CSS,
ready for assembly

U1 : Network voltage
U2 : Alternator voltage
DP : Main breaker
G : Alternator
AVR : Voltage regulator
TR : Turbine regulateur
ORDRE : Closing sequence
U+, U- : Voltage adjustment
F+, f- : Frequency adjustment
Figure 92: Diagram of the device operating principle
In MAN mode, the functions are manually adjusted using push buttons from the front
section. Measurement values will be indicated on the instruments. The shut down order
will be released in the conditions corresponding exactly to the phases if the release and
close push buttons are pressed simultaneously.
In AUTO mode, the voltage and frequency of the alternator will be automatically adjusted
to the tolerance value. The shut down order for the circuit breaker considers its closing
time with the exact corresponding phases conditions (at that time of closing).
7.2.5. Tolerances for coupling / synchronising
The permissible limits or differences for Voltages, frequencies, and synchronising are
generally : :
Voltages : + or - 5%
Frequencies: 0,1 to 0,5 Hz Network Frequency is then monitored by a specific

relay .
Synchronising or phasing : 5 max

7.3. PARALLEL CONTROL OPERATION
7.3.1. Taking the load
Considering one generator on line on a network, in parallel with others generators,

coupling (synchronising) has been successful, we want it to take some load.
Only 2 controls are available on the couple turbine/generator or engine/generator, the

Voltage adjustment of the generator (AVR) and the speed control of the prime mover.
To take load for the new arrived generator, the speed control will increase/decrease the
active power (real power on the shaft). When the voltage increases, the active power
increases. In fact, the voltage on the network does not move. Instead the current output
increases and the (reactive) power taken by the generator increases.
In manual control, the operator increase up to the desired value.
In automatic control, the share of the power will go (gradually) up to the pre-set value
which can be in equal percentage for all generators or depending a ratio function of power
capacity of the concerned generator.
7.3.2. Load sharing
Or the balancing of power between generators and this depending the configuration of the
power plant
Identical generators
G 3Ph G 3Ph G 3Ph G 3Ph G 3Ph G 3Ph
3 MW 3 MW 3 MW 3 MW 3 MW 3 MW
Bus bars
Load distribution
Figure 93: Identical generators load distribution
In this power plant, all generators identical, generally, power is shared in equal percentage

Unbalanced power capacities
10 MW 10 MW 3 MW 3 MW 1 MW 0.6 MW
Bus bars
Load distribution
Figure 94: Non-identical generators
It is impossible to ask the last generator (0.6KW) to share same power with the 10MW
ones. There will be a load sharing system which can be:
By ratio of individual power capacity, or by permanent manual adjustment
By centralised power sharing system, given independent orders to each generator

control system, it is the Load sharing in which an additional control box is added
to each unit in complement of its AVR and speed control
And if you are familiar with site electrical installation, Woodward control material is
installed on numerous plants, here after some pictures of Load control, Load & speed
control devices.
The 2301A Load Sharing and Speed Control is

available in forward- or reverse-acting systems and in
several speed ranges for applications requiring either
droop or isochronous speed control. Models are
available with either accelerating or decelerating ramps.
Figure 95: Load sharing and speed control
The Automatic Generator Loading Control (AGLC)

can be used with any Woodward load sharing and
speed control system with either built-in or external
load sensors. It is designed to provide soft loading or
unloading of a generator set to an isochronous load
sharing system or to base load setting at controlled
rates. The electronic ramps are easily adjusted from
five seconds to five minutes for 100% load change.
The load and unload ramp rates adjust separately
Figure 96: Automatic Generator Loading Control

And so on, we cannot edit here the complete Woodward operating and instruction manuals
and anyway the load sharing + control of alternators is a complete course by itself.
Hereafter a schematic configuration with load sharing example. We shall see nevertheless
in next paragraph the meanings of isochronous and droop.
Prime movers Gas Turbines
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6
SC1 SC2 SC3 SC4 SC5 SC6
G1 G2 G3 G4 G5 G6
AVR1 AVR2 AVR3 AVR4 AVR5 AVR6
LS1 LS2 LS3 LS4 LS5 LS6
Communication bus or wires between LSs

LS0
Load distribution bus-bars

Total load and V volt
inputs for LS0
Figure 97: Load sharing principle example schematic
SCx is for Speed Controller receiving the rpm indication and sending back signal to prime
mover governor
AVRx is the Automatic Voltage Regulator receiving voltage and current of its generator
and sending back field current
LSx is the Load Sharing box dialoguing with each generator / prime mover SC & AVR
and interconnected with the master LS0 which checks the total load
7.3.3. Droop and Isochronous mode of control
Isochronous operation provides constant turbine speed for single unit operation and for
parallel units provides proportional division of load between units while maintaining fixed
frequency on an isolated bus.
Speed control, in isochronous mode, for each prime mover is (nearly) independent, the
turbine (or engine) governor acts as a single regulator, watching and adjusting its speed
to the fixed synchronism value.

52 Hz
51Hz
Time
50 Hz
49 Hz
Isochronous response
48 Hz to increase in load
47 Hz
Figure 98: Isochronous response form for frequency on a bus bar
In Speed Droop the prime mover governor operates to decrease speed with increasing
load. This is the mode that is commonly used to operate generators in parallel, as it allows
them to share load in proportion to rated load.
52 Hz
51Hz
Time
50 Hz
49 Hz
Droop response to
48 Hz increase in load
47 Hz
Figure 99: Droop response
But, what about the frequency control? I want the network to be at 50 Hz permanently!
Other generators have to be in isochronous on the network to keep the frequency at

desired value. The one in droop, generally a smaller one, running under speed is just
(by this system) maintaining its load at the same value leaving the other generator the task
of taking the increase. The AVR, not concerned by the droop is still controlling at the set
voltage.
Droop mode is pres-set as project/commissioning values; they are in the range of 3% or

5%, for 50%, 100% of load,

52 Hz
5% droop for rated Hz at 100%
51Hz 3% droop for rated Hz at 100%
50 Hz
49 Hz
48 Hz
47 Hz
Load
50% 100%
Figure 100: Example of droop mode settings
Only one setting is applied to one machine, if all generators in parallel have the same
droop curve, the frequency varies accordingly, the user have to accept the change in
frequencies function of the load
Problems begin to occur when machines in parallel have different droop settings. Leave it
to the specialist.
7.3.4. Load Shedding
It is common to see people mixing the terms and functions of Load Shedding and Load
Sharing and not only because they are written nearly identically.
Principle :
Objective of a Load Shedding is to keep a network on line not going to a general

shutdown, when one generator trips revealing suddenly the insufficiency of available
power. The only alternative, at time of the trip, is to cut immediately part of the distributed
power, the one non essential.
This Load Shedding function is dedicated to a specific PLC (Programmable Logic

Computer).
When a generator trips, the PLC, watching permanently the ratio between available and
used power, can decide the opening of a certain number of breakers, this depending the
analysed power to be sacrificed. PLC having acknowledged the trip of a turbine /
generator, analyse at that time, the value of frequency (generally) and if that one goes
under a threshold, shedding is decided. The more frequency drop, the moreshedding)

Circuits to be opened are pre programmed in the PLC, numbers being function of the
power still available. Of course, all this shedding operation should be completed in the
shortest time to avoid the overloading of generators kept on line. A lasting overload would
conduct inevitably towards a general shutdown.
Generator trip detection + Frequency drop detection + Conditions analysis by PLC +

Opening orders towards circuits + Response time of breakers = 40 to 50 milliseconds
maxi.
The figure / diagram is self-explanatory for the understanding of the Load Shedding
principle.
Instant T: 4 generators on line 12 kW available 11 kW used

Generators on line Generators in stand-by
3 MW 3 MW 3 MW 3 MW 3 MW 3 MW
busbars
Load Distribution
Trip of 1 generator
Instant T+t1: 3 generators on line 9 kW available 11 kW used
Generators on line Generators in stand-by
Analyse Trip
P.avail. /
P.used 3 MW 3 MW 3 MW 3 MW 3 MW 3 MW
busbars
Load Distribution
Load Shedding action by PLC
x x x
Instant T+t2: shedding = open non essential circuits to have total used
power by consumers under available power from generators
Figure 101: Load Shedding principle

8. MAINTENANCE OF ALTERNATORS
WARNING: before initiating maintenance procedures, disconnect all power sources to the
machines and accessories; replace all grounding connections prior to operating.
Failure to observe these precautions may result in injury to personnel.
GENERAL: The instructions related to general maintenance, cleanliness, inspection, and

cleaning insulation as covered in the generator Instructions in any manufacturer
maintenance instruction manual apply to al type all alternators (including the brushless
excitation systems).
Cleaning the exciter windings and rectifier assembly at regular intervals is recommended.
CAUTION: if it becomes necessary to take out and dry a rotor (in oven), remove the
rectifier assembly prior to dry the rotor.
8.1. DIODE REPLACEMENT
This work has to be done by a qualified technician, or at least permanently supervised by

one; it is an operation/intervention relatively frequent on an alternator, lets say the first
cause of trouble and if it becomes necessary to replace any of the silicon diodes, the
following Instructions should be observed. The listing of directives given hereafter is for
information taken out from an instruction manual.
Figure 102: Diode bridge assembly on a brushless generator

It is recommended that identical diodes, as originally furnished, be used as

replacements. The replacement diodes should be ordered by the manufacturers
renewal part number.
Always tighten or loosen a diode by turning the nut and holding the hex on the
diode body stationary.
Clean the heat sink thoroughly around the diode-mounting hole. Be sure there are
no raised areas that would prevent the diode from seating tightly against the heat
sink. This mounting surface and the diode-mounting surface must be flat, smooth
and clean to permit maximum heat transfer from the diode to the heat sink.
Diode pigtails should be positioned such that they are not in tension and do not
exert a strain on the diode.
Some diodes may have leads soldered to them. If it becomes necessary to solder
a new lead to the diode, it must be removed from the heat sink, or the lead must
be installed before the diode is mounted. Since diodes can be damaged by
excessive heat during soldering, use a low-melting solder such as 60 percent tin,
40 percent lead, and apply heat just long enough to make the solder connection.
Use only rosin core solder, and clean surfaces before soldering. During the
soldering operation the diode can be held by installing the nut on the diode stud
and lightly clamping the nut in a vice. Care must be exercised in holding the diode
during soldering to avoid providing a good heat sink to the diode which may result
in overheating of the diode and/or a poor solder joint.
Check the threads on the diode stud to see that they are clean and free of burrs.
The nut should turn freely by hand the full length of the thread. It the diode is one
which was removed from a 530 type rectifier assembly, and is to be reinstalled,
remove all trace of glue ( Loctite) from the stud and nut threads prior to
Installation.
Before mounting the diode, apply a coating of Burndy "Penetrox A" or equivalent
to the diode heat sink mounting surface.
When installing a diode, use one of the following procedures appropriate for the
type of rectifier assembly furnished:
TYPE 1. Install the diode in its proper position, Install the locking plate, and
install the diode nut. Torque the nut to its proper value (see Table under),
and bend up the tab on the locking plate to lock the nut in position.
TYPE 2. Install the diode In Its proper position and Install the spring washer
such that the surface at the outside diameter is In contact with the heat
sink. Coat the threads of the diode stud with Loctite "Screwlock", or
equivalent, put the nut on the stud, and torque the nut to its proper value
Immediately (see Table under).

Torque (inch/pounds)
Hex size
Stud size across flats
(inches)
Maximum Minimum
1/1 28 11/16 30 25
3/18 24 1 1/16 100 95
- 16 1 1/4 300 285
Table 5: Semiconductor mounting torque
CAUTION: after the Loctite has been applied to the diode threads and the
nut installed, the nut must be torqued to its proper value as quickly as
possible and before the Loctite begins to set. Failure to do so may result in
false torque readings, improper diode mounting, and diode failure.
When installing diodes, a torque wrench must be used. The nut on the diode
should be torqued to its specified value. For diodes furnished, the torque limits of
the table must be observed.
CAUTION: Both forward and reverse polarity diodes are used in the exciter
an arrow on the diode case indicates rectifier assembly diode polarity. When
replacing diodes be certain that replacement rectifiers on each heat sink are
of the proper polarity.

Figure 103: Typical type 1 rectifier assembly
Figure 104: Typical Type 2 rectifier assembly

8.2. VARISTOR REPLACEMENT
Figure 105: Leroy Somer alternator showing varistor use
A varistor is a device whose resistance decreases as the voltage across it increases. Its
use is to eliminate the voltage spikes and have resistance load.
If it should become necessary to replace one of the varistors, the following instructions
should be observed.
Since the varistors have special characteristics, they should be replaced only with
the same type as originally furnished by the generator manufacturer.
A varistor can easily be replaced by following the procedure outlined for the type
rectifier assembly furnished. When removing a varistor or varistor assembly,
observe how the parts are assembled so that they can be installed In the identical
manner.
Type 1. Remove the stud and insulating bushing on which the varistor is
mounted, and unbolt the varistor leads from the heat sinks
Type 2. Remove the connection jumper between the varistor heat sinks,
and remove the bolt, which secures the varistor assembly to the heat sink.
Prior to mounting a new varistor, check all mounting surfaces, such as heat sinks, shims,
and the varistor faces, to see that they are flat and smooth.
Tighten the nut and bolt which secure the varistor assembly to the heat sink only
sufficiently to make a good electrical connection.
Excessive tightening may crack or damage the varistors.

8.3. DRYING WINDINGS
Generators in service may inadvertently have their windings exposed to splashing or

sprayed water. Units that have been in transit or storage for long periods of time may be
subjected to extreme temperature and moisture changes causing excessive condensation.
Regardless of the source of moisture, wet windings should be thoroughly dried out before
operating the unit. If this precaution is not taken, serious damage to the generator can
result. The following procedures may be utilized in drying the generators windings. The
method selected will be influenced by winding wetness and situation limitations.
8.3.1. Space Heaters
An electric heater may have been supplied with the generator. When energized from a
power source other than the generator, the heater will gradually dry the generator. This
process can be accelerated by enclosing the unit with a covering and inserting additional
heating units.
A hole should be left at the top of the covering to permit the escape of moisture. Care
should be taken not to overheat various accessory equipment mounted with the generator.
When intervention is done on a generator (same for a motor equipped with space
heater) never forget to insulate (switch off and lock off) the space heater supplied
generally in 220 or 380V..
8.3.2. Forced Air
Another method to dry the generator is to run the set with no excitation. The natural flow of
ambient air through the generator will tend to dry the windings. This method can be
accelerated by adding a source of heat at the air intake to the generator. Heat at point of
entry should not exceed 80C.

8.4. OPERATIONAL DIFFICULTIES
Occasional careful inspection of machines during operation is essential to detect any

improper operation, which may, in time, result in a serious failure.
Some operating difficulties of the brushless excitation system, which may occur, and their
causes, are given in Table under and should be corrected as soon as discovered.
8.4.1. Troubleshooting table
Affected
Difficulty What to check
part
Defective diode or varistor

Excessive exciter Shorted field turns in exciter or generator
Exciter
Field current Short in system wiring
Overloads
Reversed field leads

Generator output voltage will Exciter residual lost
not build up Open circuit in excitation system
Defective regulator
Generator
No control of generator output Defective regulator

voltage Open or short circuit in exciter system
Table 6: Generator troubleshooting
8.4.2. Insulation Resistance
If a generator has become damp in shipment or in storage or after inactivity, it is

advisable to measure the Insulation resistance of the stator and rotor winding with a
megger (voltage adapted to the alternator voltage on stator and on rotor)
CAUTION: When using a megger to check insulation resistance of the stator, be certain to
disconnect all control equipment and/or radio-suppression capacitors at the generator and
exciter terminals.

To megger the rotor of a generator furnished with an ac brushless exciter, short across the
heat sinks before applying power.
Failure to observe these precautions may result in damage to the rectifiers or other solid
state devices connected in these circuits
In accordance with established standards, the recommended minimum insulation
resistance for the stator winding is as follows:
Rm = kV + 1 where
Rm = recommended minimum insulation resistance of the entire stator winding In

megohms at 40C (obtained by applying direct potential to the entire winding for one
minute), and
kV = rated machine voltage in kilovolts.
The above formula should also be used to establish the recommended minimum Insulation
resistance of the field winding by using field voltage in kilovolts in the above formula.
INSULATION RESISTANCE VALUES
Extract From Total Spec:
SP-COM-511 PRECOMMISSIONING ACTIVITIES
Values at commissioning time for a GENERATOR
The connections used for the insulation resistance tests shall be similar to the ones
used on the high voltage test. A 5000 V Megger shall be used for testing the 5.5 kV
windings and a 1000 V Megger shall be used on the 440 V windings, and exciter windings.
A 500 V Megger shall be used for the anti-condensation heater and bearing pedestal tests.
The minimum acceptable insulation value shall be:
5.5 kV generator windings - 150 Megohms

400 V generator windings - 100 Megohms
Exciter windings - 100 Megohms
Anti-condensation heaters - 10 Megohms
Bearing Insulation - 1 Megohm
If the insulation resistance of a generator winding is below the minimum acceptable value
the polarization index (see course SE070 Ground and Neutral and course SE050
Measurements in electricity)) should also be measured. A motorized Megger, or similar
equipment, is required for the test.

9. ELECTRICAL GENERATION ON SITE

For this specific part of course SE060, lets do a rsum of what has been seen here and
in other courses in form of Merlin Grin Cahier Technique N 196
9.1. TYPES OF ENGINE GENERATOR SETS
The main types of prime movers used in engine driven generator sets for industrial sites
and commercial buildings are Diesel engines, gas turbines, and steam turbines. Turbines
are used mainly for production sets whereas Diesel engines can be used for both
production and standby sets.
Figure 106: turbo-generators 2 x 10 MW (gas turbine) onsite Peciko
Most of the topics covered in this chapter are not dependant on the type of term generator
set will be used.
The choice of the prime mover is determined by such considerations as the availability and
type of fuel (gas and or diesel for turbine and as well for motors).
Since Diesel engines are very often used some specific information about Diesel generator
sets will be given.
Figure 107: diesel generator set 1 MW for Myanmar site
9.2. RATED POWER FOR GENERATOR SET APPLICATIONS
The power output requirement for the generator set is probably the most important
criterion to be defined. The output of a generator set is typically defined on the
active/reactive power graph as represented in figure.
Figure 108: Active/reactive power graph showing operating limits
The active power output depends on the type of fuel used, and on site conditions including
ambient temperature, cooling medium temperature, altitude, and relative humidity. It also

depends on load characteristics such as possible overloading and load variations over
time.
The ISO 3046-1 standard for Diesel engines defines three different types of power ratings,
and a standard definition of overload capability.
The different power ratings are:
Continuous power rating: The engine can supply 100% rated power for an
unlimited time. This rating is normally used for production sets.
Prime power rating: The engine can supply a base load for an unlimited time, and
100% rated power for a limited time. The base load and acceptable time for 100%
rated power are different for each manufacturer. Typical values are a base load of
70% of the rated power, and 100% rated power during 500 hours per year.
Standby power rating: This is the maximum power that the engine can deliver and
is limited in time, typically less than 500 hours per year. This rating should only be
applied to generator sets which are used exclusively for emergency power. Since
the engine is incapable of supplying more power, a security factor of at least 10%
should be used when defining the standby power rating.
The standard overload capacity is defined as 10% more power during 1 hour for every 12
hours of operation. There is no overload capacity with a standby power rating. Most
manufacturers allow the standard overload capacity with the continuous power rating and
the prime power rating, but since there are exceptions, the overload capacity should
always be specified together with the type of power rating used.
A typical example is a Diesel engine having a continuous power rating of 1550 kW, a
prime power rating of 1760 kW, and a standby power rating of 1880 kW.
When generator sets are used as a prime source of electrical energy the following points
should be considered:
provide for parallel operation with other sets and/or with utility,
allow for long maintenance periods (overhaul),
ensure black-start capabilities,
use low speed equipment for long life (maximum 750 rpm for Diesel engines).
When used as a standby source:
ensure quick and reliable start-up and loading,
implement reliable load shedding to avoid overloading or stalling,

allow for periodic testing under load,
provide for parallel operation with utility if set is used during peak loads,
supply magnetizing current for distribution transformers.
One common application for standby generators is to supply UPS (uninterrupted power
supply) equipment during power outages. Since the generator has a relatively high
impedance as compared to a utility supply, voltage waveform distortion can occur due to
harmonic currents generated by the UPS. Generator manufacturers normally derate their
machines by up to 60% to ensure correct voltage waveforms when loads are UPS
equipment without harmonic current filtering. The engine must also be able to supply the
power absorbed by the UPS which is determined by
For preliminary generator set sizing where detailed UPS information is unavailable, the
battery charger kW can be estimated to be 25% of the UPS output kW, and the UPS
efficiency can be estimated to be 90%.
Final determination of the generator set should be based on specified values of acceptable
voltage distortion, and the actual UPS data such as efficiency, and harmonic currents.
9.3. TYPICAL APPLICATIONS
9.3.1. Stand-by generator sets
The typical supply of essential loads for commercial buildings, small industrial sites or for
emergency power to unit substations in a larger site, is shown in figure.
Under normal operating conditions the essential load is supplied from the utility supply.
Upon loss of this supply the bus-tie circuit-breaker Q3 is tripped, the generator set is
started, and then load is supplied by the standby generator set by closing the generator
circuit- breaker Q2.
Critical loads which cannot accept any power outage are supplied by the UPS. The UPS is
equipped with a static switch which will immediately bypass the rectifier/inverter module in
case of an internal fault and thus ensure a continuous supply of electrical power.
Typical generator set sizes for this scheme are 250 kVA to 800 kVA.

Figure 109: Typical emergency supply for small industrial sites
The advantage of this scheme is its simplicity and clarity. All essential loads are connected
to the same busbar as the generator set and therefore no load shedding is required. UPS
backup time can normally be limited to 10 minutes since the UPS will be supplied by the
emergency supply.
Both the normal and the backup supply to the UPS should be taken from the essential
busbar.

Figure 110: Typical emergency supply for large industrial sites
For large industrial sites a centralized emergency power supply system as shown in figure
is often used.
The main emergency switchboard is normally supplied from the utility, although in some
sites one of the generator sets may be in constant operation. The emergency switchboard
is designed to allow generator sets to operate in parallel and also to be connected to the
utility supply.

The automatic transfer from the utility to the emergency supply is performed in each unit
substation. Since the emergency switchboard is normally energized, fast transfers
(described in paragraph 9.5.1) without loss of plant load can be used.
The use of a centralized emergency supply has the following advantages:
fewer generator sets for the site (normally maximum of 2),
permanently energized emergency supply allowing fast transfer schemes to be

used,
no loss of emergency supply due to maintenance of one generator set.
Generator sets for such systems are normally in the 1-4 MW range.
9.3.2. Production generator sets
For remote sites having no utility supply, several generator sets are used. A typical
distribution system is shown in figure (of this paragraph).
The number of sets N will depend on the power required, but since generator sets
require periodic maintenance, plant power should be able to be supplied by (N 1) sets
without any load shedding.
The generator set size should be such that they are loaded at least 50%. A poor load
factor can be detrimental to the sets. For example Diesel engines loaded at less than 30%
will not achieve a good operating temperature resulting in poor combustion and degrading
of lubrication oil.
Plant operation at (N 2) sets should also be considered, this case occurring when one
set is being maintained and there is a loss of an additional set.
The highest initial load factor F that can be used with N installed generators such that load
N 2
shedding is not required for (N 2) operation can be determined from: F =
N 1
For example the highest load factor for N = 6 will be 80%.

Figure 111: Industrial site without utility supply
Bus-tie circuit-breakers are often used for maintenance purposes. During normal plant
operation all bus-tie circuit-breakers are normally closed. Short-circuit calculations should
always take operation with N generators into account since it is normal to connect standby
sets prior to switching off sets for maintenance.
A power supply using local generation is generally much weaker than a utility supply and
therefore it is probable that load shedding will be required to maintain system stability
during fault conditions.
Determination of how much load must be shed requires dynamic simulation of the network
for different fault conditions such as a loss of a generator or a short-circuit. Prior to the
study it is necessary to determine which operating configurations are to be considered.
Operating conditions with the bus-tie circuit-breaker both in the open and the closed
positions will greatly increase the complexity of the load shedding system since each
busbar can be operated independently and will require specific load shedding criteria. For
most plants it is recommended that only the standard operating configuration be used for
the dynamic simulations and definition of the load shedding strategy.

Figure of this paragraph shows each generator having its own transformer. The use of
generator transformers has several advantages:
provides flexibility in the choice of generator voltage,
reduces peak short-circuit current at main board,
allows use of high impedance generator grounding (reduces possible damage to

generator).
9.4. OPERATION OF GENERATOR SETS
9.4.1. Starting and stopping of generator sets
Since Diesel generator sets are often used for emergency power, it is necessary that steps
be taken to ensure that the set will start correctly and quickly when required.
An example of measures to be taken is lubrication and heating of the cooling water

when the set is not operating. The Diesel generator set manufacturer should list all such
measures and the design should take into account the availability of all auxiliary supplies
necessary during times when set is not operating.
A starting time of 15 seconds from the start order to the closing of the generator circuit-
breaker can be guaranteed by manufacturers. Specifying shorter starting times should be
avoided since the decrease in starting time will be small and could increase the cost of the
set. Critical equipment must be supplied by an UPS in any case.
Two techniques are commonly used for starting.
These are compressed air and battery, compressed air generally being used for larger
sets. The starting equipment should be designed for a minimum of 3 consecutive starts. It
should be carefully monitored in order to enable preventive maintenance to be carried out
prior to a failure during an attempted start. Failure to start is most often due to a problem
with the starting battery. Where reliable starting is essential, consideration should be given
to using compressed air.
When a generator is operating in parallel with another source, it will be synchronized as

described in paragraph 9.5.3 hereafter, and gradually loaded.
When a generator set is operating alone, the load will be applied in one or more steps. The
variation in frequency and voltage will depend upon the size of the step loads. As an
example, step loads of 90% can be applied to a Diesel generator set without the frequency
varying more than 10% and the voltage more than 15%.
Should specific limits on frequency and voltage variations be required, they should be
specified together with the type of load which is to be connected. This information should
include motor starting characteristics such as the starting current, and the type of starting
(direct-on-line, wye-delta). Several steps may be required should the frequency and
voltage tolerance be small.
When stopping a generator set, the power output should be reduced to zero by
transferring the load to other sources, and the circuit-breaker then tripped. The generator
set should be run for several minutes to allow it to cool down prior to shutdown. In some
cases the cooling system should continue to operate after shutdown in order to remove
latent heat from the machine.
Manufacturers recommendations for shutdown should be followed.
Generator set start and stop sequences should be handled by the generator set control
equipment.
Generator sets should be operated periodically. For installations where short power
outages are not critical, opening the normal incoming circuit-breaker will cause the set to
start and automatically pick up the emergency load. After the required minimum operating
time, the generator circuit-breaker can be tripped and the normal source circuit-breaker
closed.
For plants where power outages mean unacceptable production losses, it must be
possible to test generator sets without first switching off the supply. This is normally done
by using a maintenance transfer. The generator set is started, and after it is ready to take
load, it is synchronized to the incoming supply (see paragraph 9.5.3 below).
The generator circuit-breaker (or bus-tie circuit-breaker depending on the scheme) will
then be closed and the generator will thus be paralleled with the incoming supply. The
closing of the circuit-breaker will cause tripping of the incoming supply and the loads will
be supplied by the generator. The transfer to the normal incoming supply is done in the
same manner without power interruption. Since the supplies are paralleled only for a few
hundred milliseconds, it is not necessary to dimension the switchboard for the combined
short-circuit power of both the normal incoming supply and the generator.
Where equipment has been designed to operate in parallel on a permanent basis, it is not
necessary to trip the incoming supply after connection the generator to the load. For this
case, however, the switchboard must be designed for the combined short-circuit power of
the incoming supply and the generator.
9.4.2. Stand alone operation
Generator sets are often designed to operate independently (isochronous mode).
In such cases the system frequency will be controlled by the engine governor. Overloads
exceeding the maximum power output (standby power rating for Diesel engines as
described in paragraph 9.2) of the set will cause the system frequency to decrease and
this can be used for initiating load shedding.
The generator voltage regulator will determine the system voltage.
Generators can normally operate at a power factor of 0.8 and therefore supply most
industrial loads without additional power factor compensation equipment.
9.4.3. Parallel operation with utility supply
In some cases permanent operation of the generator set in parallel with the utility supply is
required. Since the utility supply is much stronger it will determine the system frequency
and the system voltage.
The governor will therefore be used to control the active power output of the engine, and
the voltage regulator will control the reactive power output of the generator.
The generator set must know in which configuration it is operating in order to be able to
switch the governor and voltage regulator operation from frequency and voltage control
(isochronous operation) to active and reactive power control (parallel operation). Auxiliary
contacts from the switchboard are normally used to provide the necessary information to
the generator sets.
9.4.4. Parallel operation with other generator sets
In this case generator sets are operated in parallel with other generator sets of
approximately the same size.
There are three basic schemes used.
a) All generator sets but one have fixed active and reactive power output settings.
One generator set is in the isochronous mode and will provide the active and reactive
power necessary to keep the system frequency and voltage within the allowable limits. Any
synchronizing instructions for frequency or voltage changes will be sent to the generator
set in the isochronous mode. Since all power fluctuations will be absorbed only by this
generator set, this scheme cannot be easily used where there are large variations in load.
b) All generator sets operate in the droop mode.
The active and reactive power is then shared equally among the sets or in proportion to
their rated power if sets with different ratings are used. Variations in load will cause voltage
and speed fluctuations due to the droop characteristic which is normally 4% from zero to
100% load. Since synchronizing of the sets with another source can only be done by
adjusting the droop setting, this scheme is normally not used when parallel operation with
another source is required.

c) All generator sets are interfaced in order to share the active and reactive power.
An example of how this is done is shown In figure. Each engine governor receives the
active power set point from the active load dispatcher which also provides frequency
regulation.
Similarly each excitation regulator receives the reactive power set point from the reactive
power dispatcher which also provides voltage regulation.
This scheme allows for large load variation without changes in frequency or voltage.
Figure 112: Parallel operation using a load dispatcher

9.5. TRANSFER SCHEMES AND SYNCHRONISATION
9.5.1. Automatic transfer on loss of supply
An automatic transfer normally occurs when there is a loss of the normal supply and the
load is to be supplied from the back-up supply with a minimum outage time. The transfer is
blocked should the reason for the loss of supply be a fault on the busbar. Closing the
emergency supply circuit-breaker onto a busbar fault will result in loss of the emergency
supply and could result in damage to the equipment.
Two techniques for transferring are generally used, their choice being based on whether or
not the plant can accept a brief loss of supply.
9.5.1.1. Residual voltage transfer
This is the most commonly used automatic transfer scheme and has the following basic
steps:
trip the incoming breaker to isolate the load from the supply
start the generator set
shed any loads which cannot be supplied from the generator set
close the generator circuit-breaker after the generator set is able to be loaded, and
the residual voltage on the busbar is less than 30%.
9.5.1.2. Fast transfer
A fast transfer scheme is used when the process cannot accept any power outages.
Such a system requires that the backup supply be permanently available and that the load
is transferred to the backup supply before drives have had time to slow down. The time
window for such switching is about 150 ms.
In order to avoid the mechanical stresses and large currents due to out-of-phase
switching, it is necessary to give the closing order to the emergency supply circuit-breaker
such that the voltage generated by the decelerating motors is close to being in phase with
the emergency system voltage when the circuit-breaker closes.
Control gear for such transfer systems take into account the closing time of the circuit-
breaker in order to anticipate the correct switching moment. If switching does not occur

during the 150 ms time gap, the fast transfer is blocked and a residual voltage transfer is
made including any required load shedding.
9.5.2. Maintenance transfer back to normal supply
After the normal supply has returned, the load should be transferred from the emergency
supply back to the normal supply. This is normally initiated manually as described at the
end of paragraph 9.4.1 above.
9.5.3. Synchronization of generator circuit-breaker
Any time parallel operation of a generator set is required, it is necessary to be able to

synchronize it to the system. Synchronization basically consists in adjusting the generator
frequency and voltage to values close to the system values. Since the system frequency
and voltage can vary within a few percent, it is necessary that both the engine speed and
the generator voltage be able to be adjusted for synchronization purposes.
The engine speed and generator voltage are controlled by the governor and voltage
regulator. Adjustments in the frequency and voltage are normally achieved by momentarily
closing contacts connected to the governor and voltage regulator. When the generator
voltage is almost in phase with the system voltage a closing order is given to the generator
circuit-breaker.
Synchronization is normally done automatically by means of relays which measure

generator and line voltages, frequencies, and phase angles. The relay automatically
adjusts the speed and voltage of the generator set and closes the circuit-breaker when the
phase angle between the generator and line voltages is sufficiently small. One set of
automatic synchronization equipment can be used for several generators by selecting the
appropriate voltage transformers and sending the voltage, speed as well as the closing
order to the selected circuit-breaker.
Manual synchronizing should be provided in all cases, either as a back up to the automatic
synchronizing system, or for use in applications where synchronization would only rarely
occur.
For manual synchronization the operator uses push buttons to provide the voltage and
speed adjustment signals.
A synchroscope will let the operator know when the line and generator voltages are
sufficiently in phase to close the circuit-breaker. For manual synchronization use of a
synchronism check protection relay is recommended which will inhibit closing of the circuit-
breaker unless all conditions of frequency, voltage, and phase angle have been satisfied.
Synchronization across the generator circuit-breaker is often included as a standard

feature in generator set control equipment.
9.5.4. Synchronization of bus-tie, bus-coupler, or utility incoming circuit-

breakers
When several generator sets are used, they are often connected to different busbars in
order to facilitate maintenance. It is therefore possible at times to have generator sets
supplying loads on busbars which are not connected together. In order to have all busbars
connected it will be necessary to synchronize groups of generator sets across bus-tie or
bus-coupler circuit-breakers.
Specific synchronization equipment is normally required for such applications since the
generator set normally allows synchronizing across the generator circuit-breaker only.
A similar situation can occur when plant load is being supplied by generator sets and it is
necessary to connect the loads to the utility. Synchronization across the utility circuit-
breaker will be necessary.
Synchronization requires voltage and speed adjustments. As described in paragraph 9.4.4

above, synchronization of a group of generator sets is possible when one set is in the
isochronous mode, or when a load dispatcher is used which will change the power output
(and therefore speed) of all sets.
When a set is in the isochronous mode, the voltage and speed adjustment signals will be
sent to that set and the others will follow according to their droop characteristic. When a
load dispatcher is used, the frequency signal will be sent to the load dispatcher which
then sends appropriate signals to the individual governors.
The voltage regulators used in such cases are sometimes connected to the voltage
transformer of the busbar to which they are to be synchronized and can therefore adjust
their excitation accordingly without receiving a separate voltage signal.
For both schemes, once the required frequency, voltage, and phase angle have been
achieved, the circuit-breaker can be closed.
Some manufacturers of load dispatching systems offer adjustment of the voltage in

addition to adjustment of the speed. Specifications for synchronization equipment should
therefore clearly specify all the functional requirements thereby allowing suppliers to
choose the best solution.

9.6. GENERATOR SET PROTECTION
Already seen above in this document but nevertheless re-included here as with the
original comments.
9.6.1. General protection philosophy
Figure 113: Recommended generator protection

Since generators are a source of electrical power, the overcurrent protection relays should
be connected to current transformers on the neutral side of the stator windings in order to
cover faults occurring in the windings.
Additional protection relays are required at the generator circuit-breaker only for
applications where generator sets will be operating in parallel with other generator sets or
with the utility, and will pick up faults on the line side of the generator.
The current transformers for these protection relays are installed at the generator circuit-
breaker in order to cover the whole connection to the generator.
Reverse active and reverse reactive power relays are normally connected to current
transformers on the neutral side of the generator as shown in the picture of this paragraph.
They can also be connected to the current transformers associated with the circuit-
breaker. The location will depend on the split of works as described in paragraph 9.9.1.
9.6.2. Electrical protection
The recommended protection functions are shown in figure of previous paragraph.
Function reference numbers are the following:
Protection functions connected to generator neutral current transformers:
32P : reverse active power
32Q : reverse reactive power serving as loss of field (for generators above 1 MVA)
46 : negative sequence (for generators above 1 MVA)
49 : thermal image
51 : overcurrent
51G : earth fault
51V : voltage restrained overcurrent
87G : generator differential protection (for generators above 2 MVA)
(Note: 46,49, 32P and 32Q can also be connected to the line-side current transformers)

Protection functions connected to voltage transformers:
25 : synchronism-check (for parallel operation only)
27 : undervoltage
59 : overvoltage
81 : overfrequency and underfrequency
Protection functions connected to line-side current transformers (for parallel

operation only):
67 : directional overcurrent (not required if 87G is used)
67N : directional earth fault (on core balance CT for better sensitivity)
Generator mechanical protection functions connected to sensors
49T : stator temperature (recommended for generators above 2 MVA)
49T : bearing temperature (recommended for generators above 8 MVA)
64F : rotor earth fault protection
The following table gives typical settings for each protection function, and what action
should be taken. This information should be verified with the generator set manufacturer
for each application. A general shutdown means tripping and locking out the generator
circuit-breaker, switching off the excitation, and closing the fuel supply to the engine.
Function Typical setting Action

0.75 Un, T 3 s
27 General shut-down
T > longest time of 51, 51V, 67
32P 1-5 % for turbine, 5-20 % for Diesel, T = 2 s General shut-down
32Q 0.3 Sn, T = 2 s General shut-down
46 0.15 In, inverse time curve General shut-down

80% thermal capacity = alarm
120% thermal capacity = trip Trip breaker only, overload
49
time constant 20 min operating may be temporary
time constant 40 min standstill
51 1.5 In, 2 s General shut-down
51G 10 A, 1 s General shut-down

51V 1.5 In, T= 2.5 s General shut-down
59 1.1 Un, 2 s General shut-down

Overfrequency: 1.05 Fn, 2 s
81 General shut-down
Underfrequency: 0.95 Fn, 2 s
87G 5 % In General shut-down
67 In, 0.5 s General shut-down
67N Is0 10 % of earth-fault current, 0.5 s General shut-down

Frequency < 1 Hz, Voltage < 5 %, Inhibit closing during
25
Phase angle <10 synchronization
Trip breaker only, overload
49T 120 C
may be temporary
64F 10 A, 0.1 s General shut-down
Mechanical protection General shut-down without lockout
Table 7: Recommended relay settings and action
9.6.2.1. Particularities of generator short-circuit currents
As shown in the above table, it is the duty of the generator circuit-breaker to effectively
isolate the generator from the network. Due to the low values of transient and permanent
short-circuit currents, care must be taken in the choice and setting of the protection relays.
In addition, in order to reduce losses in the generator, generator stator resistance is
normally kept low by the manufacturers. This will result in high X/R ratios which cause
generator short-circuit currents to have a d.c. component with a long time constant.
The IEC 60056 defines test conditions for medium-voltage circuit-breakers. The test
conditions are based on short-circuit currents having a d.c. component with a time
constant of 45 ms. Since generator short-circuit currents may have time constants greatly
exceeding this value, the circuit-breaker manufacturer must choose the adequate circuit-
breaker and demonstrate that it is suitable for the application.
9.6.2.2. Possible delaying of circuit-breakers
In addition to the significant d.c. component, the generator short-circuit current can also
have zero-axis crossings which occur only after several periods resulting in unsuccessful
interruption of the short-circuit current as shown in figure.
This is due to the alternating component of the short-circuit current decreasing much more
rapidly than the d.c. component.

Since medium-voltage circuit-breakers require natural zero-axis crossing of the short-

circuit current for successful interruption, it may be necessary to delay operation of the
circuit-breaker until such time as zero-axis crossings do occur.
Such delays must be taken into account in the protection relay coordination study and can
also reduce the system stability.
Figure 114 short-circuit currents of a tri-phase generator
9.6.3. Machine protection
The generator set will have mechanical protection related to the prime mover. This
typically includes oil level, oil temperature, water level, water temperature, and exhaust
temperature. Often the rotor earth fault protection is provided as an integral part of the set
since it requires injection of a d.c. current between the rotor and earth.
A signal should be sent to trip the generator circuit-breaker without lockout should
mechanical protection require a shutdown.

9.7. CONNECTION OF GENERATORS TO ELECTRICAL NETWORK
9.7.1. Connection to generator circuit-breaker
Generators have a limited capacity to withstand voltage impulses. When it is possible to

operate high-voltage generators in parallel with the utility supply it is recommended to
provide surge protection at the generator incoming terminals.
This normally consists in connecting surge capacitors (typical value of 0.3 mF) and
lightning arresters between phase and ground in the generator line-connection box.
Such precautions are not required for low-voltage generators since they are shielded from
impulses by the upstream step-down transformers.
When the generator line-connection box has been designed for surge protection devices, it
is recommended to install the generator voltage transformers in it as well. The voltage
transformer can however be easily integrated into the downstream switchgear should the
generator connection box not be sufficiently large.
Current transformers should be installed in the generator neutral point connection box.
When generator differential protection excludes the generator line-side connection cable
(or busduct), current transformers are installed in the generator line-side connection box.
When generator differential protection includes the line-side connection cable (or busduct),
the current transformers are installed in the downstream switchboard.
9.7.2. Connection of generator neutral point
9.7.2.1. Stand-alone generator set
A generator which does not operate in parallel with any other source should be earthed by
means of a resistor connected between the star point and earth. The generator
manufacturer can provide a damage curve showing the allowable earth fault current as a
function of time.
The earthing resistor and protection relay settings should be determined based on this
curve. In general earth fault current for high voltage generators should be kept less than
30 A in order to prevent any damage to the stator itself.
9.7.2.2. Operation in parallel with utility or other sets
When several sets operate in parallel or together with the utility it is difficult to keep the
earth fault current within acceptable limits.
The maximum earth fault current will be the sum of the earth fault current in all sources
and this can easily exceed the value given on the damage curve mentioned previously.
Reducing this maximum value by limiting the earth fault current to a small value for each
source will result in earth fault current being too small when only one or two sets are in
operation. It is recommended to keep the star points unearthed and to provide earthing
transformers for each busbar as shown in figure of paragraph 9.3.2.
When busbars are operated with the bus-tie circuit-breakers closed, only one earthing
transformer should be connected. When the bus-tie circuit-breakers are open, one
earthing transformer should be connected to each busbar section. This will permit a
constant value of earth fault current independent of the type and numbers of sources used,
and greatly simplify the earth fault protection system.
Should a fault occur in the earthing transformer, it should be tripped but the generator sets
connected to the busbar should be kept in operation. There is no immediate danger to the
sets when operated on a temporarily unearthed system.
The maintenance personnel should determine the subsequent operation of the system.
9.8. LOAD SHEDDING
Load shedding is often required in order to ensure that the essential parts of the process
are supplied with electrical energy during high load conditions, or when system
disturbances occur.
Since the only additional energy available in an electrical distribution system is the
spinning reserve of rotating machinery, sites supplied by generator sets only have very
limited reserves and are very susceptible to instability due to disturbances such as faults in
the electrical distribution system.
Three different scenarios requiring load shedding can be considered:
gradual increase in load
loss of a generator
electrical faults
To ensure a reliable electrical supply to essential process equipment, each of the above
cases must be studied to ensure that correct load shedding is implemented. In general the
load shedding system must continually check the balance between the load and the
available power in order to switch off non-essential loads required to maintain system
stability.
The effects and remedial measures for each scenario are described below.
9.8.1. Gradual increase in load
It is possible during certain periods that the total load exceeds the rated power of the
generator sets. Due to the overload capacity of 10% for one hour normally provided with
production sets, and the gradual increase of load, the load shedding system can perform
all calculations in real time and generate load shedding signals to trip non-essential loads.
The operators can switch the non-essential loads back on after the peak period has
passed.
9.8.2. Loss of a generator
The loss of a generator can suddenly result in the available power being much less than
the load. It is necessary to shed non-essential loads immediately in order to ensure the
stability of the electrical distribution system.
If this is not done, other generators will be tripped due to overload, undervoltage or
underfrequency and the whole electrical supply could be lost.
The load shedding system normally prepares load shedding tables based on the scenario
of loss of a generator so that when such an incident does occur, it can immediately send
the trip signals.
Load shedding can be achieved in less than 200 ms which is normally sufficient to prevent
loss of system stability which could lead to a complete loss of the distribution system.
9.8.3. Electrical faults
When an electrical fault occurs, protection relays will detect the fault and circuit-breakers
will isolate the faulty equipment. During the time required to eliminate the fault, the voltage
at the fault can be very close to zero which can cause all the motors in the plant to
decelerate.
After the fault has been cleared, the motors will draw more current since they must be
brought back up to speed. This can further reduce the voltage in certain portions of the
network causing a snowball effect which can lead to tripping of circuit-breakers supplying
healthy portions of the distribution system.
In order to prevent such a loss of stability, load shedding based on voltage and/or
frequency should be implemented.
In order to determine how much load should be shed, and at what value of voltage or
frequency, a stability study of the electrical distribution system is required. This study will
modelize the dynamic response of the system to disturbances and enable the load
shedding strategy to be prepared.
9.9. INTERFACING GENERATOR WITH ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION

SYSTEM
9.9.1. Typical split of supply between generator set manufacturer and

switchgear manufacturer
It is very common for the generator set to be supplied by a different company than the
company which supplied the switchgear to which it is connected. It is therefore beneficial
for all parties to reduce the interfaces between the equipment to a minimum. A
coordination meeting between the switchgear and generator set suppliers should be held
prior to any detailed engineering. During this meeting the split of works, interfaces,
information to be exchanged, and schedule should be determined. Correct definition
should allow each supplier to do engineering, manufacturing, erection, testing, and
equipment commissioning at site in an independent manner. System commissioning can
then be done by both parties after all interfaces have been made. Keeping interfaces
simple also enables each manufacturers responsibility to be clearly defined.
Each supplier should be responsible for the installation of all equipment in his supply.
Installing components supplied by one manufacturer in equipment supplied by the
other should be avoided. A typical example is the generator excitation module which
should be installed in a panel supplied by the generator manufacturer, and not in the
switchgear.
When generators can operate in parallel it is necessary to install protection gear in the
switchgear for eliminating faults occurring between the generator and the switchgear.
This protection gear should be in the switchgear manufacturers scope. Protection gear for
the generator itself can be supplied either by the generator set manufacturer, or the
switchgear manufacturer. Either solution is acceptable, or both require exchanges of
information since equipment data for setting the relays will come from the generator set
manufacturer, whereas information for the integration into the overall plant protection
scheme will come from the switchgear manufacturer.
When generator differential protection is used, it is quite common for the line-side current
transformer to be installed in the switchgear and the neutral side current transformer to be
installed in the generator neutral connection box.
The supplier of the differential protection relay should define the characteristics of the line
and neutral current transformers and each manufacturer should supply the current
transformer to be installed in his equipment. It is not necessary nor for reasons
mentioned previously, nor desirable, that one manufacturer supplies the current
transformers to be installed in the other manufacturers equipment.
The auxiliary supplies for the generator set should be independent of those of the
switchgear. The generator set should have its own battery backed d.c. supply.

9.9.2. Information to be exchanged
The information to be exchanged between the generator set and the switchgear should be
kept to a minimum. The information should be exchanged by means of potential-free
contacts, and 4-20 mA analogue signals.
The meaning of each signal (eg. close to actuate, closed for circuit-breaker open position)
and the minimum duration of each signal (eg. closing signal duration: 500 ms) should be
clearly stated on the interface documentation.
Fail-safe circuits should be used. Such circuits use contacts which close to actuate, and
normally open contacts which are maintained closed for authorization.
These circuits are called fail-safe since a broken wire will not result in undesired actuation
or authorization.
The voltage to be applied to the potential-free contacts, and the contact loading should
also be stated in order to ensure that the correct devices have been chosen.
This type of interfacing enables each supplier to design, manufacture, and test his
equipment independently. Data exchanged directly via serial links should be avoided since
this is much more difficult to define, commission, and trouble shoot.
The amount of information to be exchanged does not justify this type of interface.
The information typically exchanged is:
Information from the generator set:
ready to start (information)
ready for loading (information)
trip on fault (order)
general alarm (information)
generator voltage (from voltage transformer, for synchronizing)
Information to generator set:
start (order)
circuit-breaker on/off status (information)
busbar voltage (from voltage transformer, for synchronizing)

stand-alone operation, or parallel operation (information)
type of fault (information)
9.9.3. Integration of generator set into electrical distribution supervisory

system
In order to prevent loss of supply preventative maintenance is required.
Preventative maintenance can be very effective provided that the information needed to
trigger it is available, thus ensuring that the maintenance will be made prior to the fault
occurring.
The required information can be collected and displayed to the operator by a power
management system. Such information can include running hours of generator sets,
temperature measurements of generator windings or bearings, and power consumption of
particular loads. The power management system can also be used to supply the
information required by the load shedding system described in paragraph 9.8 above to
perform the power balance calculations.
The operator can also reconfigure the power distribution system from the power
management system console. This is very convenient should an incident have occurred
and switching be required to reenergize equipment.
9.10. INSTALLATION AND MAINTENANCE OF GENERATORS SETS
The installation of generator sets requires close cooperation among several disciplines
such as electrical, construction, process, and mechanical.
The following information should be considered when designing the installation of the sets.
9.10.1. Location
The location should be chosen close to the load centre to reduce voltage drop and losses
in the connections. Due to the relatively large size of the equipment, adequate space must
be allowed for the transportation to and from the location.
The building housing the equipment must have adequate space to allow maintenance
including overhauling, and be provided with the necessary overhead cranes. The
generator set manufacturer should provide all information concerning space and access
requirements on civil works guide drawings.

In many locations noise emission will be a problem. The solution consists in sound
proofing the generator set, the building, or a combination of both. Sound proofing will have
a significant impact on cost and therefore must be defined prior to placing an order for
equipment.
Care must also be taken to avoid noise transmission via the generator set base.
9.10.2. Air intake and exhaust
In the definition of the rated power of generator sets, the length and configuration of the air
intake ducts and the exhaust piping is important.
In certain cases generator sets will be located in areas where long ducting and piping is
required, and this is to be taken into account in the definition of the rated power of the
engine.
Care must also be taken to ensure that the air intake is remote from the exhaust.
Generator sets used for emergency power must be able to operate in all site conditions. In
desert areas this can include sand storms. Special sand filters are required at the air
intake and can increase the foot print and cost of the generator set.
9.10.3. Compliance with local regulations
In many countries there are local regulations that must be met. In addition to requirements
related to emissions, environmental considerations often dictate the design of the fuel
system. This can include the maximum capacity of day tanks and the type of buried
storage tanks (double walled, etc.).
Local regulations must also be respected for the fire detection and protection equipment.
Fire detection should be installed in all locations where generator sets are located.
Automatic fire protection equipment should also be provided where possible.
Fire protection is normally achieved by flooding the building with inert gas. This type of
system requires automatic shutting of ventilation openings, air intake openings, and doors.
Local regulations cover many aspects such as the number and location of warning signs,
the location of the fire control panel, and the type of inert gas which can be used.
The assistance of a local company familiar with such regulations to get all required
approvals is very useful and often indispensable.

9.10.4. Special tools and spare parts
Generator sets require periodic maintenance and also overhauls after a certain number of
years of operation. Special tools are normally required for periodic maintenance, and
additional special tools are required for overhauls. The definition and supply of tools
should be made with the generator set manufacturer based on the type of maintenance to
be performed. The list of special tools should be checked with the maintenance manuals in
order to ensure that all have been provided. Spare parts for the first overhaul should be
provided in addition to those required for normal operation.
9.11. CONCLUSION
Engine driven alternating current generating sets are often installed in industrial sites and
commercial buildings as main sources of electrical energy or for supplying essential loads
in case of loss of the utility supply.
A good understanding of the electrical and mechanical characteristics of the generator

sets and the standards which define them is important for correct choice of the equipment.
The integration of the generator sets into the electrical distribution system has a large
impact on most of the electrical equipment. The generators will contribute to the maximum
available short-circuit current which must be taken into account in dimensioning the
switchgear.
The plant electrical protection system must take into account the particularities of
generators in order to ensure correct protection of persons and equipment but at the same
time avoid nuisance tripping which results in loss of the supply of electrical power.
The control system must enable the electrical distribution system to be operated in
different configurations required for ensuring a reliable supply of power.
The engineer responsible for the correct design of the complete electrical distribution
system is confronted with many different types of problems to solve. Being aware of the
problems and knowing typical solutions to them is the first step in ensuring that the final
electrical distribution system will meet the requirements of the application.

10. GLOSSARY

11. FIGURES
Figure 1: Electricity generation ............................................................................................7
Figure 2: One-line and power diagram representation for the alternator' neutral to ground
.....................................................................................................................................7
Figure 3: One-line and power diagram of alternator neutral to ground with impedance....8
Figure 4: Generator with neutral distributed.........................................................................8
Figure 5: Vector representation of a star shape three-phase distribution system ................8
Figure 6: The Delta shape 3 phase distribution system .......................................................9
Figure 7: Examples of batteries .........................................................................................10
Figure 8: Examples of accumulators..................................................................................10
Figure 9: Examples of UPS................................................................................................11
Figure 10: Photovoltaic cell................................................................................................11
Figure 11: Structure dune cellule photovoltaque..............................................................11
Figure 12: TEG sets installed on a Total platform (Peciko) ..............................................12
Figure 14: TEG principle ....................................................................................................12
Figure 14: Rotating D.C. generator symbols......................................................................13
Figure 15: Magnetic circuit of a two-pole machine.............................................................14
Figure 16: Simple DC generator ........................................................................................15
Figure 17: EMF (e) pulses produced by a DC generator..................................................15
Figure 18: Smoothing effect...............................................................................................15
Figure 19: Six turn assembly .............................................................................................16
Figure 20: The smoothing effect ........................................................................................16
Figure 21: DC machine ......................................................................................................16
Figure 22: Shunt machine..................................................................................................17
Figure 23: Shunt motor ......................................................................................................17
Figure 24: Series machine .................................................................................................18
Figure 25: Series motor .....................................................................................................18
Figure 26: :"Compound" machine ......................................................................................18
Figure 27: Principle of the generation of alternating current ..............................................19
Figure 28: Turn in a magnetic field ....................................................................................19
Figure 29: Production of AC...............................................................................................20
Figure 30: bike dynamo .....................................................................................................21
Figure 31: Voltage induced by a magnet rotating in a coil .................................................21
Figure 32: Alternator with 2 pairs of poles..........................................................................22
Figure 33: One phase rectified voltage/current with smoothed signal (rectifier or dynamo 24
Figure 34: One phase bridge rectifier and three-phase Graetz bridge...............................24
Figure 35: Alternator windings ...........................................................................................25
Figure 36: Stator assembly ................................................................................................27
Figure 37: Rotor assembly.................................................................................................28
Figure 38: Assembly of main parts stator/rotor/exciter.......................................................29
Figure 39: Construction principle of the internal pole of a single phase alternator.............31
Figure 40: Generator with three stator windings: U-X, V-Y and W-Z. ................................32
Figure 41: Electromotive force for each stator winding ......................................................33
Figure 42: Cutaway of a typical A.C. generator prime mover (turbine, motor) not
represented ................................................................................................................34
Figure 43: A.C. Generator rotor types................................................................................35

Figure 44: Insulation of bearings........................................................................................39

Figure 45: Conventional excitation.....................................................................................40
Figure 46: Static excitation.................................................................................................41
Figure 47: Brushless excitation general case .................................................................41
Figure 48: Brushless excitation without pilot exciter ..........................................................42
Figure 49: Brushless excitation with pilot exciter ...............................................................43
Figure 50: Diode Bridge of an A.C. generator....................................................................44
Figure 51: Brushless generator - exercise .........................................................................45
Figure 52: Brushless generator exercise solution ...........................................................46
Figure 53: Delta system .....................................................................................................47
Figure 54: Current and voltage in a Delta system..............................................................48
Figure 54: Typical delta connections, 3 wire generator......................................................49
Figure 56: Connection diagram and windings arrangement for a wye connection.............50
Figure 57: wye (star) connection........................................................................................51
Figure 58: Typical wye connected, 4 wire, generator.........................................................52
Figure 59: Typical one-line diagram generator protection..................................................54
Figure 60: Example for generator synchronised on network..............................................55
Figure 61: Principle of reverse power ................................................................................57
Figure 62: Active reverse power protection........................................................................58
Figure 63: Active power protection relay schematic representation...................................58
Figure 64: Reactive reverse power protection ...................................................................59
Figure 65: Protection against excitation losses by a reactive reverse power relay. ...........59
Figure 66: Active power management ...............................................................................61
Figure 67: Example of Load Management on Emergency Diesel Generator .....................62
Figure 68: Voltage regulation AC generator.......................................................................63
Figure 69: Distribution with several generators in parallel .................................................65
Figure 70: Generator synchronising...................................................................................66
Figure 71: Same phase operation: wrong conditions.........................................................67
Figure 72: Phases are matching OK! ..............................................................................67
Figure 73: Phase rotation OK, corresponding phase to be connected together.................67
Figure 74: Frequency differential 1 ....................................................................................68
Figure 75: Frequency differential 2 ....................................................................................69
Figure 76: Both generators running at same frequency 1 ..................................................69
Figure 77: Both generators running at same frequency 2 ..................................................69
Figure 78: Voltage differential (frequency OK)...................................................................70
Figure 79: Two rotors with two north pole / phase facing the same direction at t .............71
Figure 80: Phases A in opposition at 0 & 180 and in the same opposition at 90 & 270.72
Figure 81: Generators to synchronise 30 out of phase.....................................................72
Figure 82: In phase 0 phase angle between the two generators ......................................73
Figure 83: 90 out of phase or 90 phases angle ..............................................................73
Figure 84: 120 out of phase or 120 phases angle ..........................................................73
Figure 85: 180 out of phase or 180 phases angle ..........................................................73
Figure 86: One phase alternator, lamp coupling ................................................................74
Figure 87: Algebraic value of E (vector quantity)..............................................................75
Figure 88: Variations of E ..................................................................................................75
Figure 89: Coupling with a three-phase alternator lamp ....................................................76
Figure 90: Example with "unsatisfied phase order"............................................................76

Figure 91: Example with the ABB system, complete and compact SYNCHROTACT CSS,
ready for assembly .....................................................................................................77
Figure 92: Diagram of the device operating principle.........................................................78
Figure 93: Identical generators load distribution ................................................................79
Figure 93: Non-identical generators...................................................................................80
Figure 95: Load sharing and speed control........................................................................80
Figure 96: Automatic Generator Loading Control ..............................................................80
Figure 97: Load sharing principle example schematic ......................................................81
Figure 98: Isochronous response form for frequency on a bus bar....................................82
Figure 99: Droop response ................................................................................................82
Figure 100: Example of droop mode settings ....................................................................83
Figure 101: Load Shedding principle .................................................................................84
Figure 102: Diode bridge assembly on a brushless generator...........................................85
Figure 103: Typical type 1 rectifier assembly ...................................................................88
Figure 104: Typical Type 2 rectifier assembly ..................................................................88
Figure 105: Leroy Somer alternator showing varistor use .................................................89
Figure 106: turbo-generators 2 x 10 MW (gas turbine) onsite Peciko................................93
Figure 107: diesel generator set 1 MW for Myanmar site ..................................................94
Figure 108: Active/reactive power graph showing operating limits ....................................94
Figure 109: Typical emergency supply for small industrial sites ........................................97
Figure 110: Typical emergency supply for large industrial sites.........................................98
Figure 111: Industrial site without utility supply................................................................100
Figure 112: Parallel operation using a load dispatcher ....................................................104
Figure 113: Recommended generator protection ............................................................108
Figure 114 short-circuit currents of a tri-phase generator ...............................................112

12. TABLES
Table 1: Relation between frequency and voltage .............................................................26
Table 2: Insulation materials ..............................................................................................36
Table 3: Coding system for cooling methods .....................................................................37
Table 4: ANSI codes for protections ..................................................................................53
Table 5: Semiconductor mounting torque ..........................................................................87
Table 6: Generator troubleshooting ...................................................................................91
Table 7: Recommended relay settings and action ...........................................................111


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ELECTRICAL MAINTENANCE

ELECTRICAL POWER GENERATION

Training manual EXP-MN-SE060-EN

4.3.8. Insulated Bearings...........................................................................................38

Training manual EXP-MN-SE060-EN

7.3.3. Droop and Isochronous mode of control..........................................................81

Training manual EXP-MN-SE060-EN

9.9.3. Integration of generator set into electrical distribution supervisory system....118

Training manual EXP-MN-SE060-EN

Define the generation principle for alternating current

Define the generation principle for direct current

List the different types of generators and/or alternators

Explain the use and operation of alternators

Determine the regulation factors for an alternator

Couple an alternator to a network

Define the principles and use of electric protection for an alternator

Be familiar with the basic maintenance of a power alternator on a site

Differentiate Loading, Load Sharing, Load Shedding,

Training manual EXP-MN-SE060-EN

2. INTRODUCTION - ELECTRICAL GENERATION

Whatever the size of the generator, it is

Figure 1: Electricity generation

2.1. ALTERNATING CURRENT GENERATORS, THE ALTERNATOR

The three-phase generator is the "indispensable" source on site.

The power diagram specifies 3

"Three-pole" protection by circuit

Figure 2: One-line and power

Training manual EXP-MN-SE060-EN

This is the same representation

The voltage between phases is

The protection (and/or the

Figure 3: One-line and power

Here, the generator operates at a

The protection (or the disconnect

In this distribution with 400V

Figure 4: Generator with neutral

Figure 5: Vector representation of a star shape three-phase distribution system

Training manual EXP-MN-SE060-EN

U/2 = V x sine 30 = V x 3 /2 and U = 2 U/2 = 2 V x 3 /2 = V x 3 =U

For U = 380V, V= 220V

Figure 6: The Delta shape 3 phase distribution system

2.2. DIRECT CURRENT GENERATORS, ROTATING MACHINES

See in other paragraph and here in the following chapter(s).

2.3. DIRECT CURRENT GENERATORS, BATTERIES

See the specific "batteries" course.

Training manual EXP-MN-SE060-EN

3. GENERATION OF ELECTRICAL CURRENT

3.1. GENERATION OF DIRECT CURRENT

See the "Batteries" course.

The term "battery" in languages

Figure 7: Examples of batteries

Figure 8: Examples of accumulators

Training manual EXP-MN-SE060-EN

The set of batteries is present in UPS, incorporated in cabinets or in a battery room.

Figure 9: Examples of UPS

3.1.2. Photovoltaic cells

A photovoltaic cell is an electronic component which, when exposed

Figure 10: Photovoltaic cell

Photovoltaic cells consist of semi-conductors with a silicon (Si),