Chapter 1

Integrated Pest Management

IntegratedPestManagement(IPM)hasbeendevelopedasawayto
controlpestswithoutrelyingsolelyonpesticides.IPMisasystematicplan
whichbringstogetherdifferentpestcontroltacticsintooneprogram.This
ChapterdefinesIPM,thevariouspestcontrolmethodsusedinIPM,and
howtosetupanIPMprogram,andprovidesinformationtohelppesticide
applicatorsmanageinsects,plantdiseases,weeds,andvertebratepests.

IntegratedPestManagement
providesfarmerswith
choicesabouthowtomanage
pestssafelyandeffectively.
Photo:NRCS

Chapter 1. Integrated Pest Management

1
 Notes Page

PRIVATE PESTICIDE APPLICATOR TRAINING 19th

MANUAL Edition
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Section 1: What Is Integrated
Pest Management?
WithIPM,afarmerusespesticidesasonetoolinanoverallpestcontrol
program.LetslookatwhateachofthewordsinthetermIntegrated
PestManagementmeans:
w Integrated: a focus on interactions of pests, crops, the
environment, and various control methods. This approach
considersallavailabletacticsandhowthesetacticsfitwith
otheragriculturalpracticesused.
Integrated Pest
w Pest:anorganismthatconflictswithourprofit,health,orcon Management,
venience.Ifaspeciesdoesnotexistinnumbersthatseriously or IPM, is
managing crops
affectthesefactors,itisnotconsideredapest. using many
w Management:awaytokeeppestsbelowthelevelswheretheycan tactics to keep
pest levels
causeeconomicdamage.Managementdoesnotmeaneradicating below an
pests.Itmeansfindingtacticsthatareeffectiveandeconomical, economic
threshold.
andthatkeepenvironmentaldamagetoaminimum.
ThisSectiondescribesthedevelopmentofIPMandthecultural,biological,
mechanical,physical,chemical,andlegalcontrolmethodsusedinIPM.

Learning Objectives:
1. DescribethedifferenceamongtheEconomicDamage,Economic
InjuryLevel,andEconomicThreshold.
2. IdentifythethreeelementsofasuccessfulIPMprogram.
3. Providetworeasonswhypestmanagementhasshiftedfrom
routinepesticideapplicationtoIPM.

Terms to Know:
w Economicdamage(ED)
w Economicinjurylevel(EIL)
w Economicthreshold(ET)
w Host
w Integratedpestmanagement(IPM)
w Pest
w Pestsigns
w Pestsymptoms

Chapter 1. Integrated Pest Management

3
Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
AlmostallfarmersdoatleastsomeIPMthroughnormalcropproduction
practices.Integratedpestmanagementisabalanced,tacticalapproach
topestcontrol.Itinvolvestakingactiontoanticipatepestoutbreaksand
topreventpotentialdamage.IPMutilizesawiderangeofpestcontrol
strategiesortactics.Thegoalofthisstrategyistopreventpestsfrom
reachingeconomicallyoraestheticallydamaginglevelswiththeleast
risktotheenvironment.

IPMprogramsareverysitespecific.IPMisbasedontheidentification
ofpests,accuratemeasurementofpestpopulations,assessmentof
damagelevels,andknowledgeofavailablepestmanagementstrategies
ortacticsthatenablethespecialisttomakeintelligentdecisionsabout
control.IPMoffersthepossibilityofimprovingtheeffectivenessofpest
controlprogramswhilereducingsomeofthenegativeeffects.Many
successfulIPMprogramshavereducedpesticideuseandincreased
protectionoftheenvironment.
Pesticideuseisandwillcontinuetobesignificantinfoodandfiber
production,forestry,turfandlandscapemaintenance,andpublichealth.
Pestmanagementhasshiftedfromrelyingheavilyonpesticidestousing
anintegratedapproachbasedonpestassessment,decisionmaking,and
evaluation.

Why Practice IPM?

WhyhavepestmanagersshiftedtoIPMwhenchemicalpesticidesso
oftensucceedatcontrollingpests?Therearemanyreasonstobroaden
pestmanagementbeyondtheuseofchemicals.
w IPMhelpstokeepabalancedecosystem.Everyecosystem,made
upoflivingthingsandtheirnonlivingenvironment,hasabalance;
theactionsofonekindoforganismintheecosystemusually
affectotherspecies.Introducingchemicalsintotheecosystem
canchangethisbalance,destroyingcertainspeciesandallowing
otherspecies(sometimespeststhemselves)todominate.
Pesticidescankillbeneficialinsectsthatconsumepests,leaving
fewnaturalmechanismsofpestcontrol.
w Pesticidescanbeineffective.Chemicalpesticidesarenotalways
effective.Pestscanbecomeresistanttopesticides.Infact,some600
casesofpestsdevelopingpesticideresistancehavebeendocumented
todate,includingmanycommonweeds,insects,anddiseasecausing
fungi.Furthermore,pestsmaysurviveinsituationswherethe
chemicaldoesnotreachpests,iswashedoff,isappliedatan
improperrate,orisappliedatanimproperlifestageofthepest.
 PRIVATE PESTICIDE APPLICATOR TRAINING 19th
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 w IPMcansavemoney.IPMcanavoidcroplosscausedbypests
andpreventunnecessarypesticideexpense.Applicatorscansave
onpesticidecostsbecausetheneedforcontrol,ratherthan
routineapplicationtriggeredbythecalendar,isthebasisfor
applyingpesticides.
w IPMpromotesahealthyenvironment.Wehavemuchtolearn
aboutthepersistenceofchemicalsintheenvironmentandtheir
effectonlivingcreatures.Casesofcontaminatedgroundwater
appeareachyear,anddisposalofcontainersandunusedpesticides
stillposechallengesforapplicators.Makesurethatenvironmental
impactsareconsideredinanypestmanagementdecisions.Using
IPMstrategieshelpskeepadverseeffectstoaminimum.
w IPMmaintainsagoodpublicimage.IPMisnowdemandedby
manysectorsofoursociety.IPMhasbeenimplementedtogrow
ourfood,tomanageturfandornamentals,toprotecthomeand
businessstructures,tomanageschoolgrounds,andtoprotect
humans,pets,andlivestockhealth.

Scouting is
Components of an Integrated Pest the Key
Management Program Feature of
PlanningisattheheartofanIPMprogram.Everycrophaspeststhat IPM

needtobeconsidered.Ifyouwaituntilproblemsariseduringagrowing
season,youllenduprelyingonpesticidesmoreandmore. Pestmonitoringbyusinga
sweepnet.
AgoodIntegratedPestManagementprogramhasthreecomponents: Photo:NationalPesticide
ApplicatorCertification
1) identifyingandmonitoringpestproblems; CoreManual,NASDARF

2) selectingthebestpestmanagementtactics;
3) recordkeepingandevaluatingtheprogram.

Byconsideringeachofthesecomponents,applicatorscan
setupanIPMprogramforinsects,plantdiseases,weeds,
andvertebratepests.

Identify and Monitor Pests

Youhavetoknowwhatshappeninginyourfieldsbefore
youcanmakegoodmanagementdecisions.Neverclassify
anorganismasapestortreatitasapestuntilitisclearly
determinedtobeone.Youshouldscoutyourcropsoften
andonaregularbasistoidentifyandmonitorpest
populationsand/ortheresultingdamageorlosses,track
cropgrowthandfieldconditions,andfindotherproblems.
Scoutingis,infact,thekeyfeatureofanyIPMprogram.
Chapter 1. Integrated Pest Management
5
Byscouting,youwillbeabletodetectpotentialproblemsearly.The
earlieryoudiscoveraproblem,thebetteryourchancesareofavoiding
economiclosses.Theproceduresformonitoringvarywiththepestand
thesituation.Weatherandtemperaturedataareparticularlyhelpfulin
followingapestslifecycleorinpredictinghowlongittakesacertain
pesttodevelop.Modelshavebeendevelopedforanumberofinsectsand
plantdiseasestopredicttheneedforandtimingofpesticideapplications.

The Four Main

Groups of Pests
Weeds undesirable
plants.
Invertebrates insects,
mites,ticks, spiders, snails, and
slugs.
Disease agents or
pathogens bacteria, viruses,
fungi, nematodes mycoplasmas,
and other microorganisms.
Vertebrates birds,
reptiles,amphibians, fish, and
rodents and other mammals.

Photo:NationalPesticideApplicatorCertificationCore
Manual,NASDARF

Toscouteffectively,youhaveto:
w Know thecropsgrowthcharacteristicstorecognizeabnormal
 ordamagedplants.
w Identifythecauseoftheproblemtoknowwhatkindofpestyou
are dealing with. If you encounter something you cannot
identify,contactyourcountyExtensioneducator.
w Determinethestageofgrowthofthepestandthecrop.This
isessentialforpropertimingofcontrolmethods.
w Decidewhethertheinfestationisincreasingordecreasing.
w Assesstheconditionofthecrop.
w Map problem areas. It may be possible tolimit the area that
needstreatment.
w Usetherightscoutingmethodforthespecificpest.

Identificationisimportant
whetheryouare
dealingwithaninsect,
weed,plantdisease,or
vertebrate.Becertain
anyinjuryorobserved
damageisactuallydueto
theidentifiedpestand
notsomeothercause.
Misidentificationand
lackofinformation
aboutapestcouldcause
youtochoosethewrong
controlmethodorapply
thecontrolatthewrong
timethesearethemost
frequentcausesofpest
controlfailure.Keepin
mindthatplantsmaybe
damagedbynonliving
agents,suchasweather
extremes,airpollutants,
roadsalt,andinadequate
orexcessivefertilization.
Sometimesthisdamage
ismistakenforthat
causedbylivingpests.

PRIVATE PESTICIDE APPLICATOR TRAINING 19th

MANUAL Edition
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Onceyouhaveidentifiedthepestandconfirmedthatitiscausing onpestsand
damage,becomefamiliarwithitslifecycle,growth,andreproductive pest
habits.BecauseIPMfocusesnotjustonthepest,butalsoonunderlying identification.
causesthatincreasepestnumbers,lookatsuchfactorstemperature, Anotheroption
culturalpractices,andsoilmoisturethatmayaffectapestslifecycle,
istohavepests
behavior,orabilitytoreproduce.Themoreyouknowaboutapest,the
easierandmoresuccessfulpest examinedand
managementbecomes. identifiedby
pest
management
consultantsor
specialists.
Whenhaving
pestsidentified,
alwayscollect
several
specimens.Have
plasticbags,
vials,orother
The cabbage looper looks much different suitable
here,initsmaturelarvalstage,thaninits
containers
immatureorpupalstages.
Photo:IowaStateExtension availablewhen
collecting
samplesinthe
Pestsmayleavesignsoftheir
field.Besureto
presenceorsymptomsof
includethe
characteristicdamageonhostsand
locationanddate
canhelpyouinpestidentification.
ofthecollection.
Pestsymptomsincludesuch
Oftenthepests
thingsasinsectfeedingindicators,
host(theanimal
discolorationfromdiseases,
orplantonwhich
orreducedplantgrowthdueto
anorganism
competitionwithweedsfor
lives)and
nutrients. Pest signs are parts of
locationare
thepestitselforotherevidenceof importantto
theirpresence. makinga
positive
Rodentsandsomeothermammals identification.
digdistinctiveburrowsinthe Informationon
groundandoftenleaveidentifying
gnawmarksontreetrunksorother the
objects.Insectandrodentdroppingsalsoaredistinctiveandimportant environmental
identificationaids.Fruitingbodiesofsomefungiareeasilyseen.
conditionsat
Weedsmayhaveuniqueflowers,seeds,fruits,orgrowthhabits.Fungi
andotherpathogensoftencausespecifictypesofdamage,deformation, thecollection
orcolorchangesinhosttissues. siteandthe
Identificationbooks,Extensionbulletins,fieldguides,andreference seasonof
materialsareavailablethatcontainpicturesandbiologicalinformation
collection
providesadditionalcluestothepestsidentity.
Killinsectsfirstandsendthemtothespecialistinamannerthatwillnot
damagebodypartsthataidinidentification.Thesmallsizeofcertain
insectsandmostmites,nematodes,andplantpathogensposesadifficulty
inidentifyingtheminthefield.Accurateidentificationoftenrequiresuse
ofahandlensormicroscope,specialtests,orcarefulanalysisofdamage.
Chapter 1. Integrated Pest Management

Note:
For plant
diseases, submit
undamaged
specimens,
such as healthy
foliage, along
with the
damaged
foliage. For
more
information
about
submitting plant
disease
samples,
contact the
University of
Minnesota Plant
Disease Clinic:
http://pdc.umn.
edu/
7
Pestspeciesmayhavedifferentphysicalformsdependingontheirlife
cyclesorthetimeofyear.Weedseedlings,forexample,oftendonot
resemblethematureplant.Manyinsectspeciesundergochangesin
appearanceastheydevelopfromeggsthroughimmaturestages
(nymph,larva,andpupa)totheadultform.

Select the Best Management Tactics

Yourgoalinselectingpestmanagementtacticsistousemethodsthat
are effective, practical, economical, and environmentally sound. To
selectthebestcontroltactics,youhaveto:
w Understandthelifecycleandhabitsofthepest.Somecontrol
methodswillworkonlyiftheyareusedattherighttime.
w Decide whethertheinfestationisseriousinterms
ofeconomicloss.
w Comparethecostsandbenefitsofvariouscontrolmethods.
w Makeplansforthefuture.NoteverypartofanIPMprogramcan
beputintoeffectimmediately.Sometactics,suchasplanting
resistantvarietiesorrotatingcrops,requirelongrangeplanning.
Thepresenceofapestdoesnotalwayscausealossinqualityorquantity
ofanagriculturalproduct.Tojustifythecostofcontrol,pestpopulations
mustbelargeenoughtocausesignificantdamage.UsingIPMcanhelp
agriculturalproducerstodetermineifthebenefitsofpesticidesandother
pestmanagementtacticsexceedthecostsofcontrol.Ifbenefitsdont
exceedcosts,timeandmoneyarewasted.Anumberofeconomicconcepts
arehelpfulindeterminingthepointatwhichitpaystousepesticidesor
othertreatment:
w Economicdamage(ED)occurswhenthecostofpreventablecrop
damageexceedsthecostofcontrol.Forexample,ifcornisworth
$2.00abushelandaninsecticidecosts$14.00anacre,then
economicdamageoccurswheninsectdamagecausesayieldloss
ofsevenormorebushelsanacre(ED=costoftreatment/crop
value=$14/A/$2/bushel=7bushel).
w Economicinjurylevel(EIL)isthelowestpestpopulationthat
willcauseeconomicdamage.Formanypestsitisimportantto
usecontrolmeasuresbeforethislevelisreached.
w Economicthreshold(ET)isthepestpopulationlevelatwhicha
controltacticshouldbestartedtokeepthepestpopulationfrom
reachingtheEIL.(TheETisalsocalledtheactionthreshold.)
Economicthresholdshavebeenestablishedforanumberofcrop/
pestsystems,inparticularthoseinvolvinginsects.Thisinformation
isavailablefromtheUniversityofMinnesotaExtension.Researchis
beingdonetodevelopETsforweedsanddiseases.
 PRIVATE PESTICIDE APPLICATOR TRAINING 19th
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Economicthresholdsareavailable
formanypestsandcrops.Several
factorscaninfluenceaneconomic
threshold.Thesefactorsincludethe
currentvalueoftheagriculturalor
ornamentalproduct,itsstage
ofdevelopment,thedegreeof
damagecausedundervarious
environmentalconditions,the
costandeffectivenessofcontrol
measures,andtheanticipated
yield.Forexample,evenslight
damagemayreducethevalueof
certainfruitsandvegetables,so
Tomakeacontrolpracticeprofitable,oratleastbreakeven,itisnec
theeconomicthresholdmustbe
essarytosettheeconomicthreshold(ET)belowtheeconomicinjurylevel
setlow. (EIL).Graphic:NationalPesticideApplicatorCertificationCore
Manual,NASDARF

Record and Evaluate Results

Itisveryimportanttorecordandevaluatetheresultsofyourcontrol
efforts.Keepingcropandpestrecordsiseasierthaneverwiththemany
factsheets,booklets,andsoftwareprogramsnowavailable.Somecontrol
methods,especiallynonchemicalprocedures,areslowtoyield
measurableresults.Othermethodsmaybeineffectiveorevendamaging
tothetargetcrop,animal,treatedsurface,ornaturalpredatorsand
parasites.ConsiderhowwellyourIPMstrategiesworkandtheirimpact
ontheenvironmentbeforeimplementingthemagain.
Evaluationmeansdecidinghoweffectiveaprogramisandwhether
anychangesareneeded.ToevaluateanIPMprogram,youshould:
w Monitor yourfieldsandkeeprecords.Eachtimeyouvisit
yourfields,makeanoteofcropand
pestconditionsrecordcrop
yieldsandquality,andrecord
anycountsonpestpopulations.
w Recordcontrolmeasures.
Recordsshouldincludedates,
weatherconditions,pestlevels, Attheendofeachgrowing
applicationratesandtiming,and season,evaluatehowwell
costs.Goodrecordsareaguideif yourIPMprogramworked.
thesameproblemoccurs.They Photo:NRCS
arealsoagoodlegalsafeguard.
w Compareeffectiveness.Whatevercontroltacticsarechosen,
useadifferentmethodonsomestrips.Thatwayyoucan
comparemethods:whichworkedbetter,takingintoaccount
costsandenvironmentalimpacts?

Chapter 1. Integrated Pest Management 9

Section 2: Pest Management
Methods
ThegoalofmostIPMprogramsistomaintainpestdamageat
economicallyacceptablelevelswhileprotectingtheenvironmentand
humanhealth.Preventionandsuppressiontechniquesareoftencombined
inaneffectiveIPMprogram.Inrareinstances,pesteradicationmaybe
needed.ThestrategyforasoundIPMprogramistocoordinatetheuseof
multipletacticsintoasingleintegratedsystem.Pesticidesarejust
onemethodforcontrollingpests,andthisSectiondescribesthevarious
options.Nonchemicalmethodsmayprovidelongerandmore
permanentcontrolofapestandshouldalwaysbeconsideredwhen
developingapestmanagementstrategy.Evaluatethecosts,benefits,
andliabilitiesofeachcontroltactic.

Learning Objectives:
1. Describethedifferencesbetweennaturalandappliedcontrols.
2. Giveanexampleofeachmethodofpestcontrol:biological,
mechanical,cultural,genetic,chemical,andregulatory.
3. Explainhowgovernmentmaystopthespreadofpests.
4. Identifythestageinthelifecycleofanannual,biennial,and
perennialplantwhenitismostsusceptibletopesticideuse.

Terms to Know:
w Contactpesticide w Residualpesticide
w Modeofaction w Selectivepesticide
w Pesticide w Systemicpesticide
w Pesticideresistance

Pest Control Goals

Therearemanytacticsthatareeffectiveincontrollingpests,andeachone
(orcombinations)willgivepesticideapplicatorsthebeststrategyfora
specificgoal.

Prevention
Prevention,suppression,anderadicationarethreeapproachestomaintain
pestdamagebeloweconomiclevels.Preventionincludessuchthingsas
plantingweedanddiseasefreeseedandgrowingvarietiesofplants
resistanttodiseasesorinsects,sanitation,usingculturalcontrolsto
preventweedyplantsfromseeding,andchoosingplantingorharvesting
timesthatminimizepestproblems.Pesticidesaresometimesusedforpest
preventionaswell.
10 PRIVATE PESTICIDE APPLICATOR TRAINING MANUAL 19th
Edition
Suppression
Suppressivepestcontrolmethodsareusedtoreducepestpopulation
levels.Themethodschosenusuallydonoteliminateallpests,butreduce
theirpopulationstoatolerablelevelortoapointbelowaneconomic
injurylevel;additionalsuppressivemeasuresmayberequiredifthefirst
attemptdoesnotachievethemanagementgoal.

Eradication
Eradicationisthetotaleliminationofapestfromadesignatedarea.Over
largerareaseradicationmaybeveryexpensiveandoftenhaslimited
success.Largeeradicationprogramsareusuallydirectedatexoticor
introducedpestsposinganimmediateareawidepublichealthor
economicthreat.

Pest Management Methods

Thepestcontrolstrategyortacticsyouchoosedependsonthenatureofthe
pest,theenvironmentofthepest,andeconomicortoleranceconsiderations.
Thecombinationofpreventionandsuppressiontechniquesusually
enhancesapestmanagementprogram.WhenimplementingtheIPM
program,trytoselectthemethodsthatarethemosteffectiveandtheleast
harmfultopeopleandtheenvironment.Useseveralmethodswhenever
possible,andbesuretousethemcorrectly.Itisalsoimportanttoobserve
allstateandfederalregulationsregardingthemethodschosenor
combinedinanIPMprogram.
Naturalcontrolsarethemeasuresthatcheckordestroypestswithout
dependingonhumansfortheircontinuanceorsuccess.Naturalcontrols
includeclimaticfactorssuchaswind,temperature,sunshine,andrain.
Topographicfeaturessuchasrivers,lakes,andmountainscaninfluence
pestmovement.Naturallyoccurringpredators,parasites,andpathogens
canregulatepestpopulations.
Whennaturalcontrolshavenotheldpestsincheck,humansmustintervene
andapplypestmanagementcontrols.Maintainingpopulationsofnatural
enemiesbyavoidingdamagingculturalpracticesortheindiscriminate
useofpesticidescanbeoneofthemosteconomicalmeansofcontrol.If
pesticidesarepartofyourcontrolprogram,selecttypesthatareknown
tobelesstoxictonaturalenemiesor,ifrecommended,applypesticides
atlowerthanlabelratestoavoidharmingnaturalenemies.Sometimesit
ispossibletomodifycertainpartsoftheenvironment,suchasby
plantingcropsorgroundcovers,tomaintainorenhancenaturalenemies.

Biological Control
Mostpestshavenaturalenemiesthatcontrolorsuppressthemeffectively
insomesituations.Naturalenemies,includingpathogensandinsects,are
beingusedsuccessfullyasbiologicalcontrolagentstomanagecertain
Chapter 1. Integrated Pest Management 11
insect,mite,fungus,animal,andweedpests.Biologicalcontrolisoften
directedagainstpeststhatarenotnativetoageographicalarea.Introduced
pestsoftencauseproblemsintheirnewlocationsbecausetheylacknatural
enemiestohelpcontrolthem.Lawshavebeenenactedthatstrictlycontrol
theimportationofallorganisms,includingbiologicalcontrolagents,intothe
UnitedStates,topreventtheseorganismsfromalsobecomingpests.

Birdnettingisusedtoprotectfruitsandothercropsfrom
birddamage.Photo:U.S.FishandWildlifeService

Biologicalcontrolalsoinvolvesthemassreleaseoflargenumbersofnatural
enemiesintofields,orchards,greenhouses,orotherlocationstocontrol
specificpests.Thismethodusuallydoesnothavelongtermresults,sothese
naturalenemiesmustbereleasedperiodically.Severalnaturalenemiesare
rearedorculturedcommercially.Predatorymitesareusedtocontrolplant
feedingspidermites.Parasiticwaspsandlacewingsareusedtocontrol
variousinsectpests.Nematodesandfungiarebeingstudied
 asbiologicalcontrolagentsforcertainweedsandsomeinsects.General
predators,suchasprayingmantidsandladybeetles,aresoldwithclaims
madeforbiologicalcontrol.Inmanycases,however,theireffectiveness
hasnotbeenestablished.

Mechanical Control
Mechanicalcontrolinvolvestheuseofdevices,machines,andother
physicalmethodstocontrolpestsoraltertheirenvironment.Traps,
screens,barriers,fences,andnetsareexamplesofdevicesusedtoprevent
pestactivityorremovepestsfromanarea.
Cultivation
Cultivationisoneofthemostimportantmethodsofcontrollingweeds.It
isalsousedforsomeinsectsandothersoilinhabitingpests.Devicessuch
asplows,disks,mowers,cultivators,andbedconditionersphysically
destroyweedsorcontroltheirgrowthanddisruptsoilconditionssuitable
forthesurvivalofsomemicroorganismsandinsects.

Exclusion
Exclusionisamechanical
controltechniquethat
consistsofusingbarriersto
preventpestsfromgetting
intoanarea.Window
screens,forexample,
excludeflies,mosquitoes,
andotherflyinginsects.
Patchingorsealingcracks,
crevices,andothersmall
openingsinbuildingscan
excludeinsects,rodents,bats,birds,orotherpests.Fencesandditches
makeeffectivebarriersagainstmanyvertebratepests.Wireorclothmesh
excludesbirdsfromfruittrees.Stickymaterialpaintedontotreetrunks,
posts,wires,andotherobjectspreventscrawlinginsectsfromcrossing.

12 PRIVATE PESTICIDE APPLICATOR TRAINING MANUAL 19th

Edition
Trapping
Trapsphysicallycatchpestswithinanareaorbuilding.Severaltypesof
trapsarecommonlyused.Somekillanimalsthatcomeincontactwiththe
trap;otherssnareanimalssotheycanthenberelocatedordestroyed.
Trapsareeithermechanicaldevicesorstickysurfaces.

Cultural Control
Thegoalofculturalcontrolistoaltertheenvironment,theconditionof
thehost,orthebehaviorofthepesttopreventorsuppressaninfestation.
Itdisruptsthenormalrelationshipbetweenthepestandthehostand
makesthepestlesslikelytosurvive,grow,orreproduce.Cultural
practicesandsanitationaretwoexamplesofculturalcontrol.
Cultural Practices
Manyculturalpracticesinfluencethesurvivalofpests.Inagricultural
crops,selectionofcropplantvarieties,timingofplantingand
harvesting,irrigationmanagement,croprotation,anduseoftrapcrops
helpreducepopulationsofweeds,microorganisms,insects,mites,and
otherpests.Weedsalsocanbemanagedbymulching(withplastic,
straw,shreddedbark,orwoodchips)andbyusingcovercrops.
Sanitation
Sanitation,orsourcereduction,involveseliminatingfood,water,
shelter,orothernecessitiesimportanttothepestssurvival.Incrop
production,sanitationincludessuchpracticesasremovingweedsthat
harborpestinsectsorrodents,eliminatingweedplantsbeforetheyproduce
seed,destroyingdiseasedplantmaterialorcropresidues,andkeepingfield
bordersorsurroundingareasfreeofpestsandpestbreedingsites.Animal
manuremanagementisaneffectivesanitationpracticeusedforpreventingor
reducingflyproblemsinpoultryandlivestockoperations.

Host Resistance or Genetic Control

Sometimesplantsandanimalscanbebredorselectedtoresistspecificpest
problems.Forexample,particularlivestockbreedsareselectedforphysical
characteristicsthatpreventattackbysomepestsorprovidephysiological
resistancetodiseaseorparasiticorganisms.Resistancealsoisenhancedby
maintainingthehostshealthandprovidingforitsnutritionalneeds.Certain
plantvarietiesarenaturallyresistanttoinsects,pathogens,ornematodes.
Manyplantsactuallyrepelvarioustypesofpests,andsomecontaintoxic
substances.Plantresistancetoinsectpestscansometimesbeachievedby
transferringgeneticmaterialfromcertaininsectdestroying
microorganismstohybridseed.Geneticcontrolhasbeenwidelyusedin
thepastandoffersgreatpromiseforthefuture,especiallywhencombined
withnewgenemanipulationtechniques.

Chemical Controls
Chemicalcontrolsarepesticidesthatareeithernaturallyderivedor
synthesized.Pesticidesoftenplayakeyroleinpestmanagementprograms
Chapter 1. Integrated Pest Management 13
andfrequentlymaybetheonlycontrolmethodavailable.Majorbenefits
associatedwiththeuseofpesticidesaretheireffectiveness,thespeedand
easeofcontrollingpests,and,inmanyinstances,theirreasonablecost
comparedwithothercontroloptions.Usuallypestdamagestopsorpests
aredestroyedwithinafewhours(forinsects)toafewdays(forweeds)
afterapplicationofapesticide.Usingafungicidemayprovideimmediate,
shorttermprotectionagainstmicroorganisms.
Apesticideisdefinedasanymaterialthatisappliedtoplants,thesoil,
water,harvestedcrops,structures,clothingandfurnishings,oranimalsto
kill,attract,repel,regulateorinterruptthegrowthandmatingofpests,or
toregulateplantgrowth.Pesticidesincludeawideassortmentof
chemicalswithspecializednamesandfunctions.Theyarecommonly
groupedaccordingtothetypeofpesttheycontrol.
w Avicidescontrolpestbirds.
w Bactericidescontrolbacteria.
w Disinfectants(antimicrobials)controlmicroorganisms.
w Fungicidescontrolfungi.
w Herbicidescontrolweedsandotherundesirableplants.
w Insecticidescontrolinsectsandrelatedarthropods.
w Miticides(acaricides)controlmites.
w Molluscicidescontrolsnailsandslugs.
w Nematicidescontrolnematodes(roundworms).
w Predacidescontrolpredatoryvertebrates.
w Piscicidescontrolpestfish.
w Repellentsrepelinsects,relatedinvertebrates,birds,andmammals.
w Rodenticidescontrolrodents.
w Defoliantscauseleavesorfoliagetodropfromplants.
w Desiccantspromotedryingorlossofmoisturefromplanttissues.
w Growth regulators are substances (other than fertilizers or
food)thatalterthegrowthordevelopmentofaplantoranimal.
Eachgroupofpesticideincludesseveralclassesorfamilies.For
example,theclassesofinsecticidesinclude,amongothers,the
organophosphates,organochlorines,carbamates,pyrethroids,botanicals,
insecticidalsoaps,andmicrobials.Thepesticideswithinaparticular
classhavesimilarchemicalstructuresorpropertiesorshareacommon
modeofaction.Themodeofactionofapesticideishowthepesticide
works.Inotherwords,itiswhatspecificsystem(s)inthepestare
affectedbythepesticide.Thevariousclassesofchemicalsworkin
differentwaysandpresentdifferentrisksandproblems.
Pesticidesalsovaryintheirselectivity.Fumigants,forexample,arenon
selective,controllingawidevarietyofpestsfungi,insects,weeds,
nematodes,etc.Somenonselectiveherbicidescontrolanyplantgivena
sufficientdose.Incontrast,selectivepesticidescontrolonlycertainspecies
ofpestsoraffectonlyacertainstageofpestdevelopment.Forexample,
certainherbicidescontrolbroadleafweedswhilenotharminggrasses,and
 ovicideskillonlytheeggsofcertaininsects,mites,andrelatedpests.

14 PRIVATE PESTICIDE APPLICATOR TRAINING MANUAL 19th

Edition
Pesticidesmaymoveinvariouswaysaftertheycomeincontactwitha
host.Systemicpesticidesareabsorbedthroughleavesorrootsandthen
transportedwithinthetreatedplant.Similarly,systemicinsecticidescan
beeatenbyorinjectedintolivestocktocontrolcertainpests.By
contrast,contactpesticidesarenotabsorbedbytreatedplantsor
animals.Thesepesticidesmustdirectlytouchthepestorasitethepest
frequentstobeeffective.
Pesticidesalsovaryin
theirpersistence,orhow
longtheyremainactive
tocontrolpests.Some
residualpesticides
controlpestsforweeks,
months,orevenyears.
Othersprovideonlyshort
termcontrol,sometimes
lastingonlyafewhours.
Theproduction,sale,use,
storage,anddisposalofall
pesticidesareregulatedat
boththefederalandstate
levels.Thefederallaws
andregulationsgoverning
Systemicandcontactpesticidesontreatedplants. allaspectsofpesticideuse
AdaptedfromPenn.StatePesticideEducationManual.
andhandlingarecovered
inChapter2.

Regulatory Pest Control

Somepestproblemscannotbecontrolledsuccessfullyatalocallevel.These
problemsinvolvepeststhatseriouslyendangerpublichealthorarelikelyto
causewidespreaddamagetoagriculturalcrops,animals,forests,or
ornamentalplants.Governmentagenciesareauthorizedtodestroyweedsand
plantsthatcausefirehazards,harborharmfulpathogensoranimals,orare
noxioustopeopleorlivestockinandaroundagriculturalareas.Similar
authorityappliestodiseasedorinfectedlivestockorpoultryandtoweedsand
nuisanceplantsinresidential,commercial,andindustrialareas.
Mosquitoabatementisanimportantpestcontrolfunctionundertakento
protectpublichealth.Undertheauthorityofmosquitoabatementlaws,
stateagenciesdrainortreatstandingwaterthatprovidesbreedingsites
formosquitoes.
Quarantineoreradicationprogramsdirectedbygovernmentalagencies
accordingtofederalandstatelawsareusedtopreventtheintroduction
andspreadofsuchpests.
Chapter 1. Integrated Pest Management 15
Quarantine
Quarantineisapestcontrolprocessdesignedtoprevententryofpests
intopestfreeareas.Somestatesmaintaininspectionstationsatallmajor
entrypointstointerceptpestsormaterialsthatmightharborpests.
Regulatoryagenciesmonitorairportsandoceanports.Quarantinealso
preventsmovementofdesignatedpestswithinastate.Produceandother
identifieditemsbeingshippedfromaquarantineareamustbefumigated
todestroypestsbeforeshipment.Nurserystock,plantcuttings,and
buddingandgraftingmaterialarealsoregulatedtopreventthespreadof
peststononinfestedareas.
Eradication
Eradicationisthetotaleliminationofapestfromadesignatedarea;often,
thesepestsareunderquarantinerestrictions.Wheneradicationisrequired,
thegeographicalextentofpestinfestationisdeterminedandcontrol
measuresaretakentoeliminatethispestfromthedefinedarea.Procedures
mayincludeanareawidesprayprogram,releasingsterileinsects,using
mechanicalandculturalpractices,andintensivemonitoringforpests
withinandaroundthebordersoftheinfestedarea.

Effective Pest Management Programs

Sometimesapesticideapplicationfailstocontrolapestbecausethepestwas
notidentifiedcorrectlyandthewrongpesticidewaschosen.Other
applicationsfailbecausethepesticidewasnotappliedatthecorrecttime
thepestmaynothavebeenintheareaduringtheapplication,oritmayhave
beeninalifecyclestageorlocationwhereitwasnotsusceptibletothe
pesticide.Also,rememberthatthepeststhatarepresentmaybepartofanew
infestationthatdevelopedlongafterthechemicalwasapplied.
Evennonchemicalpestmanagementtacticsbecomeineffectiveifthepest
andthesusceptiblestage(s)ofitslifecyclearenotidentifiedcorrectly.
Successfulpestmanagement programs donothappen byaccident
theydependoncarefulobservation,athoroughknowledgeofthepest
andthedamageitcauses,anunderstandingofallavailablepestcontrol
options,andacaring,professionalattitude.

Pesticide Resistance
Pesticideresistance canbedefinedastheabilityofaninsect,fungus,
weed,rodent,orotherpesttotolerateapesticidethatoncecontrolledit.
Resistancedevelopsbecauseintensivepesticideusekillsthesusceptible
individualsinapopulation,leavingonlytheresistantonestoreproduce.
Initially,higherlabeledratesandmorefrequentapplicationsareneeded
tocontrolresistantpests.Eventually,however,thepesticidewillhave
littleornoeffectonthepestpopulation.
16 PRIVATE PESTICIDE APPLICATOR TRAINING MANUAL 19th
Edition
 If pesticides are applied frequently,
the pest population will soon consist
mostly of resistant individuals.

susceptible individual

Pesticideresistancedevelopsovertimeasresistantindividualssurvivetoreproduce.
AdaptedfromtheUniversityofCalifornia,TheSafeandEffectiveUseofPesticides

Resistancemaydeveloptoonlyasingleinsecticide,fungicide,herbicide,
orrodenticide.Moreoften,however,pestpopulationsbecomeresistantto
allchemicallyrelatedpesticidesinaclassofcompounds.Itisalso
possibleforapesttodevelopresistancetopesticidesintwoormore
classesofcompoundswithunlikemodesofaction.
Continualuseofpesticidesfromthesamechemicalclass,suchasall
organophosphateorallpyrethroidinsecticides,increasesthelikelihood
thatresistancewilldevelopinpestpopulations.Frequentapplications
andpersistenceofthechemicalfurtherincreasethechancesofresistance
occurring.Finally,thespreadofresistancethroughapestpopulationcan
occurmuchmorerapidlyinpeststhathavemanygenerationsperyear
andmanyoffspringpergeneration,suchasinsects,fungi,androdents.
Severalpestmanagementtacticshelppreventordelaytheoccurrenceof
pesticideresistance.Oneapproachinvolvestheuseofnewor
reformulatedpesticides.Usingnewcompoundswithdifferentmodesof
actionwilllessenthelikelihoodofresistancedevelopinginapopulation.
Unfortunately,newreplacementproductsareoftenquitecomplex,
difficulttosynthesize,andverycostlytodevelop.Theyhaveveryspecific
modesofaction,whichcanrapidlyleadtothedevelopmentofresistant
pestpopulationsevenafterverylimiteduseinthefield.
Changingpesticideusepatternsisanimportantstepinpreventing
resistance.Whendosagesarereduced,fewerpestsarekilled,sothe
pressuretodevelopresistantpestpopulationsisdecreased.Applying
pesticidesoverlimitedareasreducestheproportionofthetotalpest
populationexposedtothechemical,therebymaintainingalargepoolof
individualsstillsusceptibletothepesticide.Thistactichasatendencyto
delaythedevelopmentofaresistantpopulationbecausepesticide
susceptibleindividualsinthepopulationcontinuetointerbreedwith

Chapter 1. Integrated Pest Management

17
resistant ones, thus diluting the resistance in the population. Also,
treatingalternategenerationsofpestswithpesticidesthathavedifferent
modesofactiondecreasestheselectionpressureforresistance.

PrivatePesticideApplicatorGuide,Iowa
StateUniversity,UniversityExtension

Managingpesticideresistanceisaveryimportantaspectofintegratedpest
management.Pesticideresistantweedsandinsectsisagrowingconcern.
 Monitorpestpopulationscarefullyandtreatonlywhennecessary,rather
thantreatingonacalendarbasis.Goodpesticideapplicationrecordsarean
importantcomponentofresistancemanagement.Pesticidesaremore
effectivelymanagedwhentreatmenthistoryisknown.Resistancemust
bedetectedwhenitisataverylowlevelandthencontrolledbyusing
allavailablepestmanagementtechniquestoextendtheusefullifeof
ourcurrentpesticides.

Managing Insects
Therearemoreinsectsintheworldthananyotherlivingcreature.
Morethanonemillionspecieshavebeenidentified.Ofthese,fewer
than1percentofinsectspeciescanbeconsideredpests,andveryfew
ofthemareseriousagriculturalpests.Manyinsectsareimportantas
scavengers,predators,parasites,andplantpollinators.

How Insects Grow and Reproduce

Beforetryingtocontrolinsectpests,understandhowtheygrowand
reproduce.Knowingpestlifecyclesanddevelopmentallowsyouto
planwhentoscoutfieldsandwhentoapplycontrolmeasures.
Insectsgrowthroughaprocessofchangecalledmetamorphosis.Insects
haveanexternalskeleton(exoskeleton)andcanonlygrowinstepsby
sheddingtheoldexoskeletonandforminganew,largerone.This
processiscalledmolting.Stagesbetweenmoltsarecalledinstars.

Someinsects,likegrasshoppersand
leafhoppers,changegradually.Their
eggshatchintonymphs,whichlook
liketheadultsexceptthattheyare
sexuallyimmatureandlackwings.
Otherinsects,likebeetles,moths,and
butterflies,undergoadrasticchangein
bodyformfromeggstolarvaetothe
adultform.Indifferentstages,the
insectshabitatandfoodsourcesmay
changecompletely.Forexample,corn
rootwormlarvaefeedoncornrootsin
thesoil,buttheadultsfeedoncorn
silksandthepollenofmanyplants.

18 PRIVATE PESTICIDE APPLICATOR TRAINING MANUAL 19th

Edition
Temperaturehasadirecteffectonthegrowthanddevelopmentof
insects.Eachspecieshasatemperaturerangeinwhichitdevelops.
Withinthisrange,thehigherthetemperature,thefastertheinsect
developsandgrows.Butatveryloworveryhightemperatures,insect
developmentstops.Theinsectmaydie,ormayresumedevelopment
whenthetemperaturereturnstoitsnormalrange.Knowingthe
temperaturerangesofaninsectcanhelpyoupredictpestdevelopment,so
youwillknowthebesttimetoscoutandtousecontrolmeasures.
SomeinsectsoverwinterinMinnesotabysuspendingdevelopmentand
enteringarestingstatecalleddiapause.Insectscandiapauseinany
stage,butitismostcommonineggandlarvalstages.Someinsects
cannotoverwinterinMinnesota.Theymigratetothesouthandreturn
toMinnesotaeachspringandsummer.
Intheadultstage,insectshavethreemainfunctions:toreproduce,
tospreadtonewareas,andtosearchouthomesfortheiroffspring.
w Reproduction.Tofindamate,someinsectsusechemicalcues
releasedfromaprospectivemateorfromahostplantoranimal.A
chemicalreleasedtoattractamateiscalledapheromone.Insectshave
amazingreproductivecapacities.Onefemalemaylayanywherefrom
afewtoseveralthousandeggsinherlifetime.Forexample,the
westerncornrootwormlaysfrom500to1,500eggs.Inaddition,some
speciesproducetwoormoregenerationsinoneseason.
w Spreadingtonewareas.Wingsenableadultinsectstomovetonew
habitats,animportantingredientinthesurvivalofthespecies.The
distanceeachspeciescantravelrangesfromafewfeettothousands
ofmiles.Forexample,afemalegypsymothcannotflyatall,
Europeancornborerandcornrootwormbeetlescanflyseveralmiles,
andmonarchbutterfliesmigratefromMinnesotatoMexico.
w Selectingasiteforlayingeggsisperhapsthemostimportant
thingafemaleinsectdoes.Youngnymphsorlarvaecannotmovevery
far,sowherethefemalechoosestolayeggsdetermineswhetherthe
offspringwillsurvive.Femaleinsectsusealltheirsensessight,
smell,taste,andtouchtopicktherightspot.
w Limitsonreproduction.Despitetheiramazingcapacityto
reproduce,insectpopulationsareusuallykeptincheckbysuch
limitingfactorsasweather,naturalenemies,andrelativelackoffood.
Majorpestoutbreaksoccurwhenthebalancebetweenthelimiting
factorsandtheinsectsreproductivecapacityshiftsinfavorofthe
insect.Oneofthewaysthisimbalanceoccursiswhenhumanscreate
specializedenvironments,suchasfarmsandlawns.Whenweconfine
livestockorplantlargeacreagesofsinglecrops,wecreatesettings
favorabletosomeinsectsand,atthesametime,reduceoreliminate
thoseinsectsnaturalenemies.
Chapter 1. Integrated Pest Management 19
When Is an Insect a Pest?
Insectsareconsideredpestswhentheycauseeconomicoraesthetic
lossesorwhentheycreateinconvenience,annoyance,orhealth
problems.Beforeusingcontrolmeasures,youneedtoknowwhetherthe
insectreallyisapestandwhetherthedamageitcausesisseriousenough
tojustifycontroltactics.
Unfortunately,peopleoftentrytocontrolinsectsbecausethedamageis
easytosee,notbecauseoftheeconomicimpact.Forexample,insects
thatfeedonleaves,liketheColoradopotatobeetle,sunflowerbeetle,and
greencloverworm,areoftenunnecessarilytreatedwithinsecticide
becausethedamageissovisible.
Insectscancauseinjurytoplants,animals,andhumansinseveralways.
Insectsinjureplantsbyreducingtheyieldorqualityofcrops,spread
plantdiseasesorharmthebeautyandeconomicvalueofhorticultural
crops.Commonsymptomsofinsectsonplantsinclude:
w Chewingonleaves,fruits,seed,androots.
w Tunnelinginstems,leaves,orroots.
w Suckingplantjuicesfromleaves,stems,roots,fruits,andflowers.
w Initiatinggallsorotherplantmalformations.

Evenafterplantsareharvested,insectscancausefurtherlossesby:
w Feedingonstoredproducts.
w Contaminatingraworprocessedagriculturalcommodities.

Importantinjurytolivestockandpetsoccurswheninsects:
w Chewskin,fur,orfeathers.
w Suckblood.
w Invadebodytissues.
w Annoyorirritate.
w Transmitdiseases.

Finally,insectscauseinjurytohumansbytransmittingdiseases,suchas
WesternequineencephalitisandWestNiledisease(frommosquitos)and
Lymedisease(fromdeerticks).

Identifying Insect Pests

AneffectiveIPMprogrambeginswithidentifyingtheproblem.This
meansknowingyourcroporlivestockpestsandscoutingfields.
w Knowkeypests.Theresnosubstituteforknowingtheenemiesthat
cropsandlivestockface.Certaininsectproblemsarepredictablefor
eachcropandlivestockspeciesinyourarea.Theseinsectsarecalled
keypests.Learningabouttheirlifecycles,identifying
characteristics,injurysymptoms,andmanagementisthefoundation
ofyourIPMprogram.Thisknowledgewillalsoallowyouto
recognizeunusualsituationsthatrequirefurtherattention.
20 PRIVATE PESTICIDE APPLICATOR TRAINING MANUAL 19th
Edition
 w Scoutfields.Becauseinsectscanreproducesorapidly,itis
essentialtodetectinsectinfestationspromptly.Knowwhichinsect
problemyourefacingandhowsevereitisormaybecome.You
canonlydothisbyscoutingyourfieldsonaregularbasis.Some
insectscanbemonitoredbyusingpheromonesintraps,for
example,blackcutworms.

Management of Insect Pests

Mostofthetacticsformanaginginsectsrequireplanning.Thegoalisto
avoidorminimizeinsectoutbreaks.Unfortunately,evenwithplanning,
someinsectoutbreaksmayrequireshorttermrescuetactics,suchas
earlyharvestorinsecticides.Buttheseshorttermtacticsalsorequire
planningbecause,withinsects,timingissoimportant.

Cultural Control Methods

w Sanitationremovesexistinginfestationsortheresourcesneeded
forapestbuildup.(Examples:cleaninggrainbinsandthe
surroundingareaofinfestedgrainandgraindebris;removing
manurebreedingsitesforfilthflies;controllingweedstominimize
seedproductionanddispersal).
w Tillagedirectlyaffectssurvivalofinsectsthatliveinsoilorcrop
debris.Indirectlyitinfluenceshowattractiveandsuitablethe
environmentistoinsects.(Example:reducedtillagesystems
suffermorefrequentandseveredamagefromblackcutworms).
w Resistantvarietiesarealowcost,highlyeffectivecontrolthathas
minimalimpactontheenvironment.Somevarietiesmaypreventa
pestfrombecomingestablishedormaykillit(Example:youngcorn
containsachemicalthatprohibitstheEuropeancornborerfrom
feeding).Somevarietiesmaybelessattractivethanothersto
insects(Example:slowergrowingvarietiessufferlessdamagefrom
firstgenerationEuropeancornborersiftheyarenearfastergrowing
varieties).Somevarietiesmaytolerateinjuryandstillyieldwell
(Example:differencesamongvarietiesinstrengthofcornstalks
or ear shanks can affect losses from second and third
generationEuropeancornborers).
w Croprotationmakesitharderforapesttoknowwhenorwhere
acropwillappear.Thisstrategyisveryeffectiveagainstpests
thatoverwinteraseggsorlarvaeandagainstpeststhathave
limitedabilitytodisperse(Example:croprotationisextremely
effectiveagainstcornrootwormsthatoverwinteraseggs).Crop
rotationisuselessagainstinsectsthatdispersereadilyduringthe
growingseason,suchaspotatoleafhoppers,armyworms,or
Europeancornborers.
Chapter 1. Integrated Pest Management 21
Biological Control Methods
w Protectnaturalenemiesofinsectpestsbyavoidingunnecessary
insecticideuse,targetinginsecticides,andusingselective
insecticides.Example:thiodicarb(Larvin)iseffectiveagainst
variousdefoliatingcaterpillarsofsoybeanbutdoesnotaffect
manyofthecaterpillarsnaturalenemies.
w Usenaturalenemiesortheirproductsthesamewayyou
woulduseaninsecticide.Example:thebacteriaBacillus
thuringiensisproducesatoxinwhichinonestrainiseffective
onlyagainstcaterpillars,whileanotherstrainiseffectiveonly
againstmosquitoesandblackflies.
w Releasenaturalenemiesfromotherareas.Thisisatacticthatis
usedbyentomologists(scientistswhostudyinsects).Mostofthe
insectpestsinthiscountrywereintroducedfromotherareas,butnot
alwayswiththeirnaturalenemies.Entomologistssearchtheareasof
originfornaturalenemiesthatcanbereleasedsuccessfullyinthe
U.S.andthatcanbecontrolledhere.Example:natural
enemies have been introduced into Minnesota to help control
alfalfaweevilandEuropeancornborer.

Mechanical and Physical Control Methods

Thesemethods,whichincludecoldorheattokillinsectsorslowdown
activity,screenstokeepinsectsout,andbugzappersthatattractand
killinsects,arenoteffectiveforcroppests;howevertheyarewidely
usedagainstinsectpestsoflivestockandstoredgrainandfornuisance
pestsaroundthehome.

Chemical Control Methods

Insecticidesarethemaintypeofchemicalusedininsectcontrol.Other
chemicalcontrolmeasuresincludeuseofpheromones,insectgrowth
regulators,andsterilants.Thesearesometimesthoughtofasbiological
controls,becausetheyarerelatedtothenaturalbiologyoftheinsect.
Theadvantagesanddisadvantagesofinsecticideswerediscussedinthe
firstpartofthissectiononIntegratedPestManagement.Despitetheir
drawbacks,insecticidesareoftentheonlyoptionavailablewheninsect
outbreaksthreateneconomiclosses.Remember,though,thatscouting
andusingeconomicthresholdswillhelpavoidunnecessaryyieldloss
andunnecessaryinsecticideuse.

Managing Plant Diseases

Aplantdiseaseisanabnormalconditionthataffectsthestructureor
functionofaplant.Adiseasedplantmaybeshorterorhavefewer
leavesthannormal;itmaynotproduceflowersorfruit;itmaywiltand
dieprematurely.Unlikeaninjury,whichoccursinstantly,adiseaseis
progressesovertime.Itiscausedbyadiseaseproducingagentandis
22 PRIVATE PESTICIDE APPLICATOR TRAINING MANUAL 19th
Edition
harmfulinsomeway,eventhoughtheharmmaynotalwaysbe
detectedimmediately.
Thethreestepsinmanagingplantdiseasesare:1)detecting
symptomsofthedisease,2)identifyingthecauseofthedisease,and
3)usingappropriatecontrolmeasures.

Symptoms of Plant Diseases

Thefirststepincontrollingplantdiseaseistoexamineyourcropsfor
symptomsofdisease.Therearefivetypesofplantdiseasesymptoms:
w Necrosisisthedeathofcellsorentireportionsoftheplant.
Necrotictissueisusuallydiscolored,oftenappearingbrownor
black.Theremaybeextensivedecay(Examples:dryrots,soft
rots,brownrots,andwhiterots)oronlysmallareasmaybe
affected(Examples:leafspots,fruitspots,blotches,scabs,stripes,
andstreaks).
w Overdevelopedtissueincludesgalls,clubroot,leafcurls,andwarts.
w Underdeveloped tissue includes stunting, dwarfing, and
somemalformations.
w Discolorationoftissueisusuallyduetoalackofchlorophyll,
unlessitisthediscoloringthatresultsfromnecrosis.Theusual
symptomisyellowing(chlorosis)ofnormallygreentissue,but
sometimestheremaybeareddiscoloration.Chlorosisisan
earlysymptomofmanydiseases.
w Wiltisthelossofrigidityanddroopingofplantparts.Wiltmay
be duetolowsoilmoisture,necrosisoftherootsorstems,ora
diseaseagentpluggingtheplantswatertransporttissue.
Plantdiseasesareoftenclassifiedaccordingtothesymptomsthey
produce,forexample:blights,mildews,rots,ormosaics.

Identifying Plant Diseases

Thesymptomsdescribedabovecanbecausedbyseveraldifferent
diseases.Thenextstepistoidentifythecauseofthesymptoms.Thereare
twopartstothisprocess:1)determiningifthediseaseisparasiticornon
parasitic,and2)identifyingthespecificcause.

Parasitic and Abiotic Diseases

Generallytherearetwotypesofdisease:parasiticdiseasescausedby
pathogens(diseasecausingagents),suchasviruses,andnonparasitic
orabioticdiseasescausedbysomethingintheenvironment,suchas
lackofwater.Askthefollowingquestionstohelpdecidewhetheryour
cropsdiseaseisparasiticornonparasitic:
w Howisthediseasedistributedinyourfields?Isthereapattern?
Arealloftheplantsinthefieldaffected?Aretheaffectedplants
distributedinspotsorinaparticularroworrows?Definite
Chapter 1. Integrated Pest Management 23
 patterns,suchasalongtheedgesofafield,roadway,fence,orin
lowspots,suggestthatclimate,soilfactors,ortoxicchemicalsare
thecause,butpathogens(diseasecausingorganisms)shouldnot
beruledout.Ifmostoftheplantsinafieldareaffected,consideran
environmentalproblem(forexample,anexcessorlackof
soil nutrients, adverse weather, toxic chemicals, or poor
culturalpractices).Ifaffectedplantsarelimitedtoaparticular
row, this might indicate errors in cultivating, fertilizing, or
applicationofpesticides.
w Howdidthediseasedevelop?Parasiticdiseasesusuallyspread
slowly,ratherthanappearallatonce.Ifaconditionstartsatone
pointandthenspreadsslowly,itisprobablyduetoapathogen.If
adiseaseappearsovernight,itisprobablyduetoan
environmentalfactor,forexample,hailorlightning.
w Isthereacommondiseaseproblemforthecroporarea?
Its easier toidentify adiseaseif youarefamiliar withthe
kindsofproblemsthatarelikelytoaffectyourcrops.
w Haveyouthoroughlyexaminedallsymptoms? Ifyoudiagnosea
diseaseearly,youwillgetthemostbenefitfromacontroltreatment.
Besuretheplantisreallydiseased.Alwayscompareaplantyouthink
isdiseasedwithanormalone.Sometimesnormalstructuresand
characteristicsaremistakenfordiseasesymptoms.Thesymptoms
shouldbewelldefineddontrelyonlyonsymptomsthatappear
duringtheearlystageofadisease.Ontheotherhand,dontrelyona
plantthathasdeterioratedsobadlythatcharacteristicsymptoms
cannotbeidentified.Alwaysexaminetheentireplant.
Someabovegroundsymptoms,especiallychlorosisandwilting,are
oftenduetorootdamage.Alwaysexaminetherootsofadiseased
plantifyouareatallunsureofthecause.Itcanalsobehelpful
tocutintoorthroughportionsofdiseasedplants.Forexample,
vascularwiltsmaycauseabrowninginsidethestem;youcan
oftenseethisdiscolorationifyoucutthroughportionsofthestem.
Asmallhandlens,apocketknife,andashovelareimportanttools
forplantdiseasediagnosis.
w Aretheresignsthatindicatethecause?Suchsignsinclude:
fungusspores,nematodesoreggs,andbacterialooze.Signsare
hardertoseethansymptoms.Youmayneedamicroscopeor
magnifyingglasstoseethem.Moretrainingisneededtofind
andidentifysignsthantoobservesymptoms.

The Life Cycle of Parasites

Environmentalconditions,especiallytemperatureandmoisture,greatly
influencethelifecycleofparasites.Theseconditionsalsoaffectthe
plantsabilitytofightoffadisease.
Thefirststepinaparasiticdiseasecycleoccurswhenafungusspore,
nematodeegg,bacterialcell,orvirusparticle(aninoculum)arrivesatapart
oftheplantwhereinfectioncanoccur.Thisstepiscalledinoculation.
24 PRIVATE PESTICIDE APPLICATOR TRAINING MANUAL 19th
Edition
Ifenvironmentalconditionsarefavorable,theparasitewillbeginto
develop.Thisstepiscalledincubation,andatthisstagecontrolismost
effective.Thenextstageoccurswhentheparasitegetsintotheplant;
thisstepiscalledinfection.Whentheplantrespondstotheinvasionof
thepathogeninsomeway,itisconsidereddiseased.

Control Measures for Plant Diseases

Themaingoalistopreventplantdiseasesfromoccurring.Onceaplantis
infected,itisusuallytoolatetopreventitsdeathortopreventserious
reductionsincropyields.Whenonlypartofacropisdiseased,eradication
maypreventfurtherspread.Eradicationcanbedonewithculturalaswell
aschemicalmethods.Alwaysweighthecostcarefullybeforemaking
treatmentdecisions.Chemicaltreatment,suchaswithfungicides,should
beregardedasalastresort.

Cultural Control Methods

w Chooseplantingsitesanddatesofplanting.
w Useresistantvarieties.
w Use sanitation, crop rotation, and primordium tipculture
techniquesfallowingfields.
w Use proper soil, water, pH, and fertilizer applications to
ensuremaximumplantvigor.
w Removeinfectedplantsorplantparts.

Biological Control Methods

w Useorganismsthatareantagonistictothedisease,
suchashyperparasitesormicroorganisms.
w Usecrossprotectiontechniquesforviruses.

Mechanical and Physical Control Methods

w Treatsoilorplantpartswithheat.
w Useproper storage or curing methods forplants
andplantproducts.

Legal Control Methods

w Usecertifieddiseasefreeseedandnurserystock.
w Obeyquarantineregulationswithinspectionstoprevent
pathogensfrombeingintroducedviaplantsorequipmentinto
areaswheretheydonotalreadyexist.

Chemical Control Methods

w Usechemicalstoprotectthehostplantbeforeitisinfected.
w Usethecorrectchemicalforthepest:fungicidesforfungi;
antibioticsforbacteria;viricidesforviruses;nematicides
fornematodes.
Chapter 1. Integrated Pest Management 25
 - Yellow nutsedge
- Sowthistle

Summer
Annuals:
- Crabgrass
- Foxtails
- Cocklebur
- Pig weed
- Lambsquarter
- Kochia
- Black
nightshade
- Velvet leaf
- Common
ragweed
- Wild oat
Winter
Annuals:
- Field
pennycress
- Shepherds
purse
- Annual
bluegrass
- Peppergrass
Biennials:
- Burdock
- Musk thistle
- Bull thistle
Perennials:
- Quackgrass
- Canada
thistle
- Field
bindweed
Theuse plants,andoutdoorrecreationareas.
ofa Certainplantshavelegallybeendeclarednoxiousweeds.InMinnesota,
pesticid stateregulationslistmarijuana,poisonivy,bullthistle,perennialsow
thistle,muskthistle,plumelessthistle,Canadathistle,fieldbindweed,
eto
leafyspurge,andpurpleloosestrifeasnoxiousweeds.Noxiousweeds
eradicat mustbecutorcontrolledsothattheydonotproduceseeds.Somelocal
ethe governmentsrequirecontrolofadditionalweeds.

pathoge Theweedsthatarethemostseriousproblemsarethosethatresemble
thecropinphysicalcharacteristics,growthhabits,andrequirements
nafter
forsoil,water,nutrients,andlight.Broadleafweedsareoftenmost
ithas difficulttocontrolinbroadleafcrops,andgrassweedsingrasscrops.
infecte Anotherproblemwithcontrollingweedsisthatsomeproduction
methods,especiallycultivation,favorsomeweeds.
dthe
Mostweedshavecommonnameslikecockleburorcrabgrass.Thetrouble
host
withcommonnamesisthatpeopleindifferentplacesmayusedifferent
plantis namesforthesameplant.Herbicidelabelsandpublicationsthatgive
not weedcontrolinformationgenerallyusestandardizedcommonnames.
Youneedtoknowthestandardizedcommonnameofaweedsoyoucan
commo
choosethepropercontrolmethod.
n.
How Weeds Grow and Reproduce
Managin Tocontrolweeds,youneedtoknowsomethingabouthowtheygrow
g Weeds andreproduce.
Weeds are
plants that Life Cycles
Weedscanbeclassifiedasannuals,biennials,andperennials.Annualsare
reduce crop
plantswithaoneyearlifecycle.Theygrowfromseed,mature,and
yields and
produceseedforthenextgenerationinoneyearorless.Summerannuals
quality, result
areplantsthatresultfromseedsthatgerminateinthespring,produceseed,
in less anddiebeforewintereachyear.Winterannualsareplantsthatgrow
efficient land fromseedsthatgerminateinthefall,overwinter,produceseedsinthe
use, and springanddiebeforesummereachyear.
diminish Biennials require twoyears tocomplete theirlife cycles.Theygrow
enjoyment of fromseedthatgerminatesinthespring.Theydevelopheavyrootsand
turf, compactrosettesorclustersofleavesthefirstsummer.Biennialsremain
ornamental dormantthroughthewinter;inthesecondsummertheymature,produce
seed,anddiebeforewinter.

26 PRIVATE PESTICIDE APPLICATOR TRAINING MANUAL 19th

Edition
Perennialsareplantsthatlivemorethantwoyearssometimes
indefinitely.Theymaygrowfromseed,butmanyproducetubers,bulbs,
rhizomes(belowgroundstems),andstolons(abovegroundstems).The
abovegroundpartsoftheseplantsmaydiebackeachwinter,butthe
plantsdevelopnewabovegroundpartseachspring.Simpleperennials
produceseedseachyearastheirnormalmeansofreproduction;insome
instances,followingmechanicalinjuryduringcultivation,rootpieces
mayproducenewplants(Examples:dandelionsandplantain).Creeping
perennialsproduceseeds,butalsoproducerhizomesandstolons.

Seeds
Onekeytoweedcontrolispreventingtheproductionofweedseeds.This
istruewhetheryouaretryingtocontrolannuals,biennials,orperennials.
Weedseedshavecertaincharacteristicswhichmakethemverydifficult
tocontrol:
w Largenumbers.Weedspeciesoftenproduceenormousnumbers
ofseeds.Forexample,asinglepigweedplantmayproduce
100,000seeds.
w Tolerant of extreme conditions. Weed seeds are notably
tolerantofextremesintemperature,precipitation,andvariations
inoxygensupply.
w Longlived.Weedseedsmayremainaliveinthesoilforagreat
manyyears.Onlyasmallpercentagegerminateinanysingleyear;
theremainingseedsstaydormantandgerminateinfutureyears,
whentemperatureandoxygenconditionsaremorefavorable.
w Easily spread. Weed seeds are effectively spread by wind,
water, animals(includinghumans),ormachinery,andincrop
seed,feedgrain,hay,straw,andmanure.

Control Methods for Weeds

Themosteffectivewaystocontrolweedsarethroughculturalandchemical
means.Biologicalcontrolmethods,usingnaturalenemiesofweedssuchas
insectsordiseases,havenotbeenhighlysuccessfulthusfarinMinnesota.
Butthismethodofferssomepotentialforthefuture.Researchers
continuetosearchfornaturalenemiesandattempttointroducethem
intoareaswhereaparticularweedisprevalent.
Aweedcontrolprogramshouldbeplannedwellinadvanceofthegrow
ingseason.Yourplanshouldbebasedonathoroughknowledgeofweed
problems,soil,soilcharacteristics,futurecroppingplans,andall
availablemethodsofcontrol.Ascropproductionpracticeschangefor
example,tillagesodoweedproblems;agoodweedcontrolprogram
mustbeflexible.Controlofaparticularweedshouldbejustonepartofa
totalweedcontrolprogram.
Annualsandbiennialsdependexclusivelyonseedforreproductionand
survival.Therefore,aneffectivewaytocontrolthemisbydestroying
Chapter 1. Integrated Pest Management 27
thetopoftheplantbymowing,tillage,orherbicides.Itisimportantto
destroythegrowingpointtopreventseedproduction.Perennialsaremore
difficulttocontrolbysimplydestroyingthetopgrowth.Itismore
effectivetodestroytheundergroundpartsoftheplant,eitherthrough
tillageorwithherbicides.Perennialshavespecializedundergroundparts
thathelptheplanttosurviveandreproduce.Evensimpleperennials,such
asdandelions(whichreproduceonlybyseeding),storeenergyforre
growthintheroots.Destroyingthetopgrowthcanonlybeeffectiveifit
isdonerepeatedlyorinconjunctionwithothercontrolmethods.

Cultural Control Methods

Culturalcontrolofweedshandweeding,plowing,harrowing,etc.
hasbeenpracticedforcenturies.Manyofthemethodsofweedcontrol
usedtodayhavechangedverylittleovertheyears.Theyinclude:
w Cleanseed. Itisofteneasiertopreventweedsfrombeingintro
ducedthanitistocontrolthem.Useonlytestedandtaggedseed;
certifiedseedensureshighqualityseedfreeofnoxiousweeds.
w Cleanfeed.Weedseedsinfeedgrainsandforagessurviveand
germinateafterpassingthroughfarmanimals;manurespread
onfieldsmaybespreadingweedseeds.Screeningscontaining
weedseedsaresometimesusedinmixedfeeds;theymustbe
finelygroundorheatedorelsetheseedswillremainalive.
w Tillage.Burialofweedscanbeeffectiveforsmallannualsand
biennials,butwillnotcontrolmostperennialsifitisdonebeyond
theseedlingstage,unlessitisdonerepeatedly.Forperennials,it
ismoreeffectivetodestroyundergroundparts,usingsweeps,
knives,harrows,rotaryhoes,andothershallowcultivation
equipment.Thistypeofcontrolismosteffectiveindrysoils
whererootshavelittlechanceofbecomingestablished.
Oneproblemwithtillageisthatitbringsweedseedsupnearthe
soilsurface,resultingingerminationofanewpopulationof
weeds.Thesecanbecontrolled,especiallyiftheyareannuals,by
cultivatingasecondtime.Plantthecropimmediatelyafterthe
last cultivation to allow sufficient growth before weeds again
becomeaproblem.
w Mowingiseffectiveonlyfortallgrowingweeds.Certaintall
perennialscanbemowedtothepointwhereregrowthisno
longerpossible,butthisrequiresrepeatedandfrequentmowing.
w Cropcompetitionmeansgrowingyourcropssowellthatthey
crowdouttheweeds.Tomakesureyourcropscompete
effectivelywithweeds,alwaysselectthebestvarietyandusethe
bestcropproductionmethods.
w Rotatingcropswithdifferentlifehistoriesorgrowthhabitscan
controlweedsassociatedwithaparticularcrop.Forexample,many
28 PRIVATE PESTICIDE APPLICATOR TRAINING MANUAL 19th
Edition
 summerannualweedsassociatedwithcornwillnotdowell
undertheculturalpracticesoffallplantedsmallgrains.
w Fallowing fields, or allowing intervals for chemical treatment,
maypartiallysolvesomespecialweedproblems.
w Companioncrops,usuallyannualsthatgerminatequicklyand
growrapidly,canbeplantedwithaperennialcroptocompete
withweedsandallowthemajorcroptobecomeestablished.
Thecompanion(ornurse)cropisthenremovedtoallowthe
perennialcroptotakeover.Example:oatsareusedasa
companioncropinMinnesotatoaidinestablishingalfalfa.

Chemical Control
Chemical control through the use of herbicides is the most common
methodofweedcontrolinagriculture.Herbicidesworkindifferentways.
Herearethemostcommontypesofherbicides:
w Selectiveherbicidesareherbicidesthataremoretoxictosome
kindsofplantsthantoothers.Selectivitydependsonsuchthings
asplantage,rateofgrowth,andplantform.
w Nonselectiveherbicidesaretoxictoallplants.Somenonselective
herbicidescanbemadeselectivetocertainplantsbyvaryingthe
dosage,directingthespraytoaspecificsite,orchoosingspray
additivessuchaswettingagents.Selectiveherbicidescanbemade
nonselectivebymanipulatingthesamefactors(forexample,by
increasingthedosagetokillmoretypesofplants).
w Translocatedherbicidescanbeabsorbedbyleaves,stems,or
rootsandmovedthroughouttheplant.Rootabsorptionand
translocationtakeplaceinwaterconductingtissues;leaforstem
absorptionandtranslocationtakeplacemainlyinfood
conductingtissues.
w Contactherbicides aretoxictolivingcellsuponcontact.They
donottranslocateinaplant.Contactherbicidesdestroyonly
the aboveground parts of plants and are only effective
againstannualweeds.
w Soilsterilantherbicidesarenonselectiveherbicidesthatkill
allplantsandpreventweedsfrombecomingreestablishedfor
arelativelylongtime.
Herbicidescanalsobeclassifiedaccordingtowhentheyareapplied:
beforeplanting(preplant),beforeseedlingsappear(preemergence),and
afterseedlingsappear(postemergence).
Factorsaffectingherbicidesinclude:
Soiltype
w Organicmatterinsoilslimitsherbicideactivity.Soilswithhigh
organicmattercontentrequirehigherratesofherbicides.Most
Chapter 1. Integrated Pest Management 29
 herbicidelabelshavechartsshowingtheratestobeusedon
soilswithvaryinglevelsoforganicmatter.
w Soiltexturemayalsoaffectherbicideactivity.Finesoils
(siltsandclays)havemoresurfaceareathancoarsesoilsand
thusneedhigherherbiciderates.
w Soilaciditycaninfluencesomeherbicides.Chemicalssuchas
atrazineandmetribuzin(SencororLexone)aremoreactivein
soilsthathaveahigherpH.
Environmentalconditions
w Soilmoistureallowsherbicidestoworkmosteffectively.Ifthe
soilistoodry,theherbicidemayevaporate.Ifitistoowet,the
herbicidemaynotmakecontactwithsoilparticles.Warm,moist
soilmayincreasemicrobialandchemicalactivity,causing
herbicidestobreakdownmorerapidly.Butdrysoilsmayprevent
chemicalandmicrobialactivity,reducingdegradationandcausing
theherbicidetoremaininthesoilthefollowingyear.
w Rainfall,irrigationandfloodingmaycausesolubleherbicidesto
leachdownwardthroughthesoil.Thismaybedesirablewith
relativelyinsolubleherbicides,butwithmoresolubleherbicides,
leachingmaycausecropinjury.Heavyrainfallmayresultinpoor
weedcontrolorpossiblecropinjury,dependingonthesolubilityof
theherbicide.Withpreemergenceherbicides,waterisneededto
carrythechemicalintothesoilwheretheweedseedsare
germinating.Rainandirrigationalsoprovidesmoisturetohelpthe
weedseedsgerminatesothattheycanabsorblethalamountsof
herbicide.Withpostemergenceapplications,rainfallmaywash
herbicidesfromleafsurfaces,resultinginpoorweedcontrol.
w Humidityaffectspostemergenceherbicidepenetrationand
absorption.Highrelativehumidityindicatesfavorablesoil
moistureconditionsforrapidplantgrowth,atimewhenplantsare
verysusceptibletoherbicides.
w Dewontheweedsorcropwhenpostemergenceherbicidesare
appliedmayincreaseordecreasetheactivityofsomeherbicides,
dependingonhowquicklythechemicalisabsorbedbyplantsand
howthechemicalkillsplants.Thepresenceofdewcanalso
increasecropinjurywithsomepostemergenceherbicides.
w Temperature affects the rate of plant growth and plant
susceptibility to herbicides. Some herbicides evaporate
quicklyathightemperatures.
w Sunlight maydestroysomeherbicidesiftheyareleftonthe
soilsurfaceforlongperiods.
Differencesamongweeds
w Perennials arecontrolledmore effectivelywithtranslocated
herbicides,becausethesechemicalsmoveintoallpartsofthe
plants;contactherbicideskillonlytheabovegroundparts.
30 PRIVATE PESTICIDE APPLICATOR TRAINING MANUAL 19th
Edition
 w Typeofweed.Someherbicidesarestrictlyforuse
withbroadleaf(dicotyledon)weeds.Somearestrictlyfor
grass(monocotyledon).Afewherbicidescanbeusedwith
bothbroadleavesandgrasses.
w Plantspeciesmayrespondtosomeherbicidesdifferently.
Moreover,withinasinglespeciestheremayberacesofthe
weedthatresponddifferently.
w Growthrates. Theageoftheplantandtherateofgrowth
alsoaffecthowweedsrespondtoherbicides.
w Plantandleafstructure waxyandhairysurfaces
areproblematic.
Preventingherbicidecarryover
Someherbicidesremaininthesoilalongtime,causinginjuryinthe
followingyearscrop.Herbicidecarryoverismorelikelytooccurwith
unusuallylowrainfall,becausedrysoilslimitthechemicalandmicrobial
activityneededtodegradeherbicides.Tokeepherbicidecarryoverinsoil
toaminimum,followtheseguidelines:
w Applythelowestratepractical.
w Applyuniformly.
w Avoiddoublecoverage:shutofftheapplicatorwhenturning.
w Selectcropsequencesthataretoleranttotheherbicideusedon
thepreviouscrop.
w Rotateherbicides,whetherthesamecropisgrowncontinuously
ordifferentcropsaregrowninrotation.
w Spottreatwhenusinghighratesofherbicide.

Moredetailsonherbicidesandotherweedcontrolmethodscanbefound
intheUniversityofMinnesotaExtensionServiceBulletinAGBU3157
CulturalandChemicalWeedControlinFieldCrops.Thisbulletin
canhelpyouplananeffectiveandeconomicalweedcontrolprogram.

Managing Vertebrate Pests

Allvertebrateanimalshaveajointedspinalcolumn(vertebrae).These
higheranimalsincludefish,amphibians,reptiles,birds,andmammals.

Whatmaybeapestundersomecircumstancesmaybehighlydesirable
underothers.Yourfirstjobincontrollingvertebratepestsistodetermine
iftheyareactuallycausingdamage.
w Fishofcertainspeciesmaybeconsideredpestsbysomebecause
theyarenotusefulforsportorforfoodorbecausetheyareharmful
tomoredesirablespecies.Somefishmaybeahumanhealthhazard
becausetheyserveasintermediatehostsforparasitesofhumans.
Chapter 1. Integrated Pest Management 31
 w Reptilesandamphibiansincludesnakes,lizards,turtles,frogs,
toads,andsalamanders.Theseanimalscausemoreofapsycho
logicalproblemthananeconomicone.Butsnakesandturtlesin
fishhatcheriesorwaterfowlproductionareascancausesome
economicproblems.Poisonoussnakesmaybeaproblem,too,
but there are only two poisonous species in Minnesota, both
restrictedtothesoutheastcornerofthestate.
w Birds cancausevariouskindsofdamage:structuraldamageby
woodpeckers;killingoffish,livestock,poultry,orgamespecies;
anddestructionoffruit,nut,grain,timber,andvegetablecrops.
Birds can also be a health hazard to animals and humans
becausetheymaybehostsfordiseaseorganisms.
w Mammals,suchaspocketgophers,moles,andrats,canalsocause
avarietyofdamage.Livestockmaybekilledbymammals.
Mammalsalsodosignificantdamagetofruit,vegetable,nut,grain,
range,andtreecrops.Theymayinterferewithwaterretaining
structures,causingflooding.Theydamagesuchthingsaslawns,
Pigeon,USFW.
Photo:NationalPesticide clothing,furniture,andbuildingsbygnawingandburrowing.They
ApplicatorCertification transmitmanydiseasestolivestockandhumans,includingrabies,
CoreManual,NASDARF
plague,typhus,foodpoisoning,leptospirosis,andtularemia.
AswithotherIPMprograms,thefirststepincontrolistodetect
andidentifytheproblem.
Recognizedamagepatternsandthespeciesofanimal
responsible.Lookforthefollowingevidence:
w Birds: peck marks, tracks, feathers, droppings, location of
damage,evidencethatitemshavebeencarriedaway.
w Mammals: tracks, droppings, tooth marks, diggings, burrows,
hair,scent,typeofdamage.
Knowthephysicalcharacteristicsandlifehabitsofmostanimal
speciesthatmaybepresentinagivensituation.
Choosecontrolmeasuresthatareeffective,selective,humane,and
causetheleastpossibleenvironmentaldamage,suchastraps,sound,
orbarriers.

Knowthelocal,state,andfederalregulationsthatapply.Itisespecially
importanttoknowwhichanimalsareprotectedbythefederaland
stategovernment.SeeChapter5:ProtectingtheEnvironmentfor
moreinformationonregulationsprotectingwildlife.
32 PRIVATE PESTICIDE APPLICATOR TRAINING MANUAL 19th
Edition
Summar
y
IntegratedPestManagement(IPM)isasystematicplanwhichbrings
togetherdifferentpestcontroltacticsintooneprogram.Itreducesthe
emphasisonpesticidesbyincludingcultural,biological,genetic,
physical,regulatory,andmechanicalcontrols.TocarryoutanIPM
program,youneedtoscoutandmonitoryourfields,recognizeabnormal
conditionsandidentifytheircauses,understandthedifferentcontrol
methodsavailable,anddeterminetheeconomiccostsandbenefits.A
goodIPMprogramrequiresplanning,monitoringandevaluation.

Managing Pocket
Gophers Pocketgophernumbersmaybe
reducedbymechanicalcontrols,
suchastraps,andnaturalcontrols,
includingnaturalenemies,
starvation,anddisease.In
Minnesota,gophersarealso
controledbytheuseofstrychnine
baits.Strychnineistoxictoall
animalsandmustbehandledand
appliedaccordingtolabel
instructions.Allapplications
Photo:U.S.FishandWildlifeService mustbebelowground.Cleanup
allspilledbait.

Exceptduringbreedingseason,gopherslivealoneinasystemof
burrows.Oneadultmaybuildasmanyas100moundsayear,movingas
muchas21/4tonsofsoiltothesurface.Feedingburrowsmaybeonlysix
inchesbelowthesurface,whilefoodstorageandlivingchambersmaybe
fivetosixfeetdeep.
Onsmallacreage(10acresorless),handapplicationofpoisonbait
duringthefallisusuallyeffective.Foraddedcontrol,combineitwitha
falltrappingprogram.Trappinginthespringfollowingafallbaiting
programcanalsobeeffective.Specialpocketgophertrapsareavailable
atmostnurseries,farmsupplyoutlets,andlargehardwarestores.
Onareaslargerthan20acres,themostpracticalmeansofcontrolis
machinebaitingwithaburrowbuilder.Fallandspringapplicationsgive
thegreatestcontrol.Thesoilmustbemoistenoughtoletthetorpedotube
passthrougheasilyandtoholdaneatburrowshapewhencompressed.A
depthofabout10inchesisdesirable,buttheburrowdepthislessimportant
thanforminganeattunnel.Completelyenclosethefieldtobeprotectedby
parallelrowsofartificialburrowsspaced25to40feetapartwider
spacinginthespring,narrowerinthefall.Ifbaitisappliedproperly,you
shouldattain85to90percentcontrolwithinthreeweeks.Reapplication
maybeneededintwotofouryears.Somecountiesownburrowbuilding
machineswhichareavailabletopesticideapplicators.Checkwithyour
countyextensioneducator,SoilConservationService,orSoilandWater
ConservationDistrict.

Chapter 1. Integrated Pest

Management
Pocket gophers can
move as much as
2 tons of soil to
the surface in a
year.

33
 PRIVATE PESTICIDE APPLICATOR TRAINING 19th
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34