BUILDING STONES

1.1 CHARACTERISTIC OF GOOD BUILDING STONES

A good building stone should have the following qualities:

Appearance: For face work it should have fine, compact texture; light-colored stone is preferred as
dark colors are likely to faced out in due course of time
Structure: A broken stone should not be dull in appearance and should have uniform texture free
from cavities, cracks, and patches of loose or soft material. Stratifications should not be visible to
naked eye.
Strength: A stone should be strong and durable to withstand the disintegrating action of weather.
Compressive strength of building stones in practice range between 60 to 200 N/mm2
Weight: It is an indication of the porosity and density. For stability of structures such as dams.
Retaining walls, e.t.c. heavier stones are required, whereas for arches, vaults, domes, e.t.c. light
stones may be the choice.
Hardness: This property is important for floors, pavement, aprons of bridges, e.t.c. the hardness is
determined by the Mohs scale.
Toughness: The measure of impact that a stone can withstand is defined as toughness. The stone
used should be tough when vibratory or moving loads are anticipated
Porosity and absorption: Porosity depends on the mineral constituents, cooling time and structural
formation. A porous stone disintegrates as the absorbed rain water freezes, expands and cause
cracking. Permissible water absorption for some of the stones is give in the table below.

Seasoning: The stone should be well seasoned.

Weathering: The resistance of stone against the wear and tear due to natural agencies should be
high.
Workability: Stone should be workable so that cutting, dressing and bringing it out in the required
shape and size may not economical.
Fire resistance: stones should be free from calcium carbonate, oxides of iron, and minerals having
different coefficient of thermal expansion.
Specific gravity: The specific gravity of most of the stones lies between 2.3 to 2.5.
Thermal movement: Thermal movements alone are usually not trouble-some. However, joints in
coping and parapets open-out in letting the rain water causing trouble.
1.2 TESTING OF STONES

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Durability test
Some of the tests done to check the durability of stone are as follows. Of these tests, the crystallization test,
the durability (soundness) test is performed to find out the capacity of stone to resist disintegration and
decomposition

Smith test: break off the freshly quarried stone chippings to about the size of a rupee coin and put
them in a glass of clean water, one-third full. If the water becomes slightly cloudy, the stone is good
and durable. If water becomes dirty, it indicates that the stone contains too much of earthy and
mineral matter.
Brards test: for frost resistance- we small pieces of freshly quarried stone are immersed in boiling
solution of sulphate of soda and weighed. These are then removed and kept suspended for few days
and weighed again. The loss in weight indicates the probable effect of frost.
Acid test:to check weather resistance-confirms the power of stones to withstand the atmospheric
conditions. 100g of stone chips are kept in a 5 % solution of H2SO4 or HCL for 3 days. Then the
chips are taken out and dried. The sharp and firm corners and edges are indication of sound stone.
This test is used to test the cementing material of sand stone.
Crystallization test; three test pieces of 50 mm diameter and 5mm height are dried for 24 hours and
are weighed. The specimen is suspended in 14% sodium sulphate solution for 16 to 18 hours at
room temperature. The specimens are then taken out of the solution and kept in air for 4 hours.
They are then oven dried at a temperature of 105 oC for 24 hours and then cooled at room
temperature. This process is repeated for 30 cycles. The specimens are weighed and the difference
in weight is found. The change in weight indicates the degree of decay of stone. Durability should
be expressed in percentage as change in the weight. The average of three test results should be
report as durability value.

Where W1 is the original weight of the specimen and W2 is the weight of the specimen after 30
cycles of the test

Crushing test

Compressive strength test: samples of stone weighing at least 25 kg each of the un-weathered
specimen should be obtained from quarry. To test stone for compressive strength, specimen pieces
in the form of cubes or cylinders are made from samples of rock. The lateral dimension or diameter
of test piece should not be less than 50 mm and the ration of height to diameter or lateral dimension
should be 1:1. A minimum of three specimen pieces are test in each saturated and dry conditions.
The compressive strength of the specimen piece is the maximum load in Newtons supported by it
before failure occurs divided by the area of the bearing face of the specimen in mm2. The average
of three of results in each condition separately should be taken for the purpose of reporting the
compressive strength of the sample.
Transverse strength test: the test stone for transverse strength, specimen pieces are made in the
form of blocks 200x50x50 mm. these are tested in saturated and dry conditions similar to as
explained in the compressive strength test. The specimen is supported on both sides using bearings
and loading in the middle between the supports. The transverse strength of the specimen is given
by:

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 Tensile strength test
Three cylindrical test piece of diameter not less than 50 mm and the ration of diameter to high 1:2
are used to determine the tensile strength of the stone in each saturated and dry conditions. Each
test piece is to be tested is sandwiched in between to steel plates of with 25 mm, thickness 10mm
and length equal to the length of test piece. The load is applied at uniform rate until the specimen
splits and no longer load is sustained. The maximum load is applied to the specimen is recorded.

Shear strength test

Three test pieces are used for conduction the test in each of the saturated and dry condition. The
test can be carried out in Jhonson shear too or Dutton punching shear device.
Test piece for use in Jhonson shear tool should be bars of 50x50 mm in section and not less than
100 mm in length and that for use with the Dutton punching shear device should be s;abs 30 mm
in the thickness, 100 mm in with and not less than 100 mm in length.
Using Jhonson shear tool
Test piece is carefully centre in the shear tool and the bolts are drawn up tightly. The tool is then
centered in the testing machine with the center of the spherical block in contact with the centre of
the top portion of the plunger of the shear tool. The shear strength of the test piece is calculated by

Using Dutton Punching Shear Device

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 Centre lines are laid over on the surface of the slab. Thickness of the slab is measure at three points
approximately equidistant around the circumference of a 50 mm circle centered on the intersection
of the two center lines. The test piece is centered in the punching device keeping it under the
plunger. The punching device is then centered in the testing machine with the center of the
spherical bearing block in contact with the center of the top portion of the plunger of the shear
device. The shear strength of the test piece is calculated by

Absorption test
The selected test pieces of stone are crushed or broken and the material passing 20 mm sieve and retained
on 10 mm sieve is used for the test. The test piece weighing about 1kg is washed to remove particles of
dust and immersed in distilled water in a glass vessel at room temperature for 24 hrs. then the piece is dried
by leaving exposed to the atmosphere but away from sunlight or any other source of heat for not less than
10 minutes until it appears to be completely surface dry. The sample is then weighed(B).
The sample is then carefully introduced in a 1000 ml capacity measuring cylinder and distilled water is
poured by means of 100 ml capacity measuring cylinder while taking care to remove entrapped air, until
the level of water in the larger cylinder reached 1000 ml mark. The quantity of water thus added is recorded
in ml or expressed in gram weight (C)
The water in the larger cylinder is drained and the sample is carefully taken out and dried in an oven at 100
to 110 oC for not less than 24 hours. It is then cooled in a desiccator to room temperature and weighed (A).
The room temperature during the test is recorded.

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Hardness: this test is performed by scratching a stone with knife on Mohs scale.
Toughness: This test is performed by breaking the stone with a hammer. Toughness is indicated by
resistance to hammering.
1.3 DETERIORATION OF STONES
The various natural agents such as rain, heat, e.t.c. and chemicals deteriorate the stones with time.
Rain
Rain water acts both physically and chemically on stones. The physical action is due to the erosive and
transportation powers and the latter due to the decomposition, oxidation and hydration of the minerals
present in the stones.

Physical action: Alternate wetting by rain and drying by sun causes internal stresses in the stones
and consequent disintegration.
Chemical action: In industrial areas the acidic rain water reacts with the constituents of stones
leading to its deterioration.
Decomposition: The disintegration of alkaline silicate of alumina in stones is mainly because of
the action of chemically active water. The hydrated silicate and the carbonate forms for the alkaline
materials are very soluble in water and are removed in the solution leaving behind a hydrated
silicate alumina (Kaolinite). The decomposition of feldspar is represented as

Oxidation and hydration: Rock containing iron compounds in the forms of peroxide, sulphide
and carbonate are oxidized and hydrated when acted upon by acidulated rain water. As an example
the peroxide-FeO is converted into ferric oxide-Fe2O3 which combines with water to forma FeO.
nH2O. this chemical change is accompanied by increase in volume and results in a physical change
manifested by the liberation of the neighboring minerals composing the rocks.
Frost
In cold place frost pierces the pores of the ton when it freezes, expands and creates cracks.

Wind
Since wind carries dust particles, the abrasion caused by these deteriorates the stone.
Temperature changes
Expansion and contraction due to frequent temperature changes cause stone to deteriorate especially if a
rock is composed of several minerals with different coefficients of linear expansion.

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Vegetable Growth
Roots of trees and weeds that grow in the masonry joints keep the stones damp and also secrete organic and
acidic matters which cause the stones to deteriorate. Dust particles of organic or nonorganic origin may also
settle on the surface and penetrate in to the pores of stones. When these come in contact with moisture or
rain water, bacteriological process starts and the resultant micro-organism producing acid attack stones
which cause decay.
Mutual Decay
When different types of stones are used together mutual decay takes place. For example, when sandstone
is used under limestone, the chemicals brought down from limestone by rain water to the sandstone will
deteriorate it.
Chemical agents
Smokes, fumes, acids and acid fumes present in the atmosphere deteriorate the stones. Stones containing
CaCO3, MgCO3 are affected badly.
Lichens
These destroy limestone but act as protective coats for other stones. Molluses gradually weaken and
ultimately destroy the stone by making a series of parallel vertical holes in limestone and sandstones.

1.4 ARTIFICIAL STONE

Where durable natural stone is not available at reasonable cost, artificial stone, also known as cast stone
becomes the choice. Artificial stone is made with cement and natural aggregate of the crushed stone and
sand with desired surface finish. Cement and aggregates are mixed in proportion of 1:3.
Artificial stone can be moulded into the most intricate forms, cast into any size, reinforced to have higher
strength, are most suitable for face work, since grooves, rebates, e.t.c., can be cast easily and are economical.
Some of the artificial stones available are as follows:
1. Concrete block are cast at site in the construction of piers or cast in moulds for steps, window sills,
e.t.c
2. Ransom stone are prepared by mixing soda silicate with cement to provide decorative flooring.
These are also known as chemical stones.
3. Victoria stone are granite pieces with the surfaces hardened by keeping immersed in soda silicate
for about two months
4. Bituminous stone: granite and diorite are impregnated with prepared or refined tar to form
bituminous stone. These are used for providing noise, wear and dust resistance stone surfaces.
5. Imperial stone; finely crushed granite is washed carefully and mixed with Portland cement. The
mix is moulded in desired shape and then steam cured for 24 hours. The cured blocks are immersed
in silicate tanks for three days.
6. Artificial marble can be either precast or cast-in-situ. These are made from Portland gypsum cement
and sand.
7. Garlic stone is produced by moulding a mixture of iron slag and Portland cement. These are used
as flag stone, surface drains, e.t.c
1.5 APPLICATION OF STONES

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1. Natural stones materials, possessing high resistance to atmospheric agents, high mechanical
strength and pleasant colors are widely used in construction as slabs for walls and foundation of
buildings and installations, as facing slabs and stones for exterior and interior walls of buildings
and installations, for roads, sidewalks, piers, unloading walls and other structures, where
mechanical strength, durability and decorative requirements are of concern.
2. Foundations and walls of underground parts of buildings are mad from quarry, split and sawn stones
from igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. Prefabricated items and materials, intended for
foundations and underground walls, should be manufactured from homogenous stone with no traces
of weathering, streaks of clay, stratification, or cracks. Pieces stones, sawn and split from
limestones, dolomite, sandstones and volcanic tuffs are used for above ground walls (piers of
bridges, embankment and side slope reinforcements, retaining walls) and for working to crushed
stone.
3. Slabs for floors and facing of walls are rectangular, their dimension depending on the kind of rock
and the face finish.
4. Facing slabs and stones, parts of stairs and landings, parapets and guard rails are mad of slabs sawn
or split form natural stone and worked by mechanicals means.
5. Pedestal slabs and stones for framing doorways, belts for cornices, corner and window-sill slabs
fall into the category of profile wall facing elements.
6. The materials and items form natural stones used in road construction are curbstones, paving
blocks, bewn tone or cobblestone, crushed stone, sand and mineral powder. Curbstones- are
intended to separate roadways from sidewalks in the streets, on bridges and in tunnels of mixed
traffic. Stone paving blocks- are cut or hewn slabs, close in shape to parallel piped, with rectangular
face surfaces. Cut cobblestone- is used reinforce slopes of earthworks and banks of water basins,
for road surfaces and bed courses.
7. Underground structures and bridges are built of slabs and stones from igneous and sedimentary
rocks, tunnels and above-water parts of bridges are built of granite, diorite, gabbro, diabase and
basalt with compressive strength.
8. Hydraulics structure are generally built with natural stones or regular or irregular shape from
igneous, metamorphic or sedimentary rocks. The stones should not be weathered or have an y
interlayers of soft rocks or porous shell and visible stratifications and cracks.
9. Crushed stone and sand is used for preparing mortars and concretes, for making road-beds and
drainage constructions.