Principles of School Management

1. The policies of the school have been developed according to educational principles, government
policies and the goals of elementary school education.
2. Reinforce administrative organization, maintain job responsibilities and boost work efficiency.
3. Follow a democratic approach, make personnel, funds, opinions, rewards and punishment public
in an attempt to lead the school toward united and harmonious direction.
4. Strengthen personnel management, increase employees motivation. Look, listen and understand
more. Promote a focus on mobile management.
5. Emphasize delicate campus planning, improve working environment, and inspire employees
professional spirit.
6. Encourage in-service teacher education to improve teaching methods and counseling skills in
order to more effectively implement educational functions.
7. To respect and serve rather than manage
8. Focus on teachers sense of honor and responsibility
9. Focus on research, experimentation, innovation and the teaching profession. Invigorate teachers
spirit and stimulate educational renovation.
10. Enhance teaching equipment and make good use of social resources in order to create modern
well-developed citizens.
11. Incorporate the five main themes of education, and teach students in accordance with their
aptitudes to maximize their talents.
12. Focus on the planning and delivery of special education services.
13. Strengthen life education, moral education, and traffic safety education in order to develop a
harmonious atmosphere.
14. Develop good relationships with communities, make use of social resources, and continue school
development in order to make the school a center of community development.

Principles of Management
What is principle? It is a generation that is widely accepted as true system. Principles always are
to be considered helpful for several reasons.
First: They help to make more accurate decision, applying in any situation and eliminating
guesswork.
Second: it saves time. Principles provide guidelines for actions.
Third: principles enable the people to pass information from one generation to another.
There are few Principles which are to be adapted in management.

1. Planning Principles
a) Principle of the Primary Objectives
b) Principle of adequate alternative
c) Principle of contingencies
2. Organizing Principles
a) Unity of Command principle
b) Adequacy of authority principle
c) Scalar (chain-of-command) principle
3. Staffing Principles
a) Principle of developing a successor
b) Principle of manager evaluation
c) Principle of management development
4. Directing Principles
a) Principle of harmony of objective
b) Principle of managers example
c) Principle of motivation
5. Controlling Principles
a) Principle of standards
b) Principle of measurement of performance against standards
c) Principle of corrective action

Types of Co-Curricular Activities

TYPES OF CCAS
There are generally two types of CCAs.
1.

Core CCA (also known as Main CCA) and;

2.

Merit CCA (also known as Secondary CCA or Optional CCA).

1. Core CCAs
(e.g. Band, Rugby, Boys' Brigade, Track and Field, Singapore Youth Flying Club)

These activities normally take up more time and resources.

They have more emphasis placed on them by the school.

Core CCA is compulsory for secondary school students in Singapore and it is considered an
integral part of the education system.
2. Merit CCAs
(e.g. Chess Club, Gardening, Philatelic Club, and Library Club)

These are less time-consuming.

They are an optional addition for students with an interest in the Merit CCAs subject.

Types of Co-curricular Activities

Co-curricular activities are categorized under seven headings;

I. Literary Activities
2. Physical Development Activities
3. Aesthetic and Cultural Development Activities
4. Civic Development Activities
5. Social Welfare Activities
6. Leisure Time Activities CO-curricular activities
7. Excursion Activities

Types of Co-Curricular activities

Morning assembly programmes.

Inter-House competitions.

House meetings.

English recitation.

Hindi calligraphy.

English calligraphy.

On the spot drawing & painting competition.

Group singing.

Hindi elocution (pronunciation).

English elocution.

Solo singing / rhymes.

Quiz competitions.

Moot (debatable) courts.

Rangoli competitions.

Individual talent show.

Guest talk / slide show.

Fancy dress.

Various activity clubs.

NCC - National Cadet Corps.

School band.

Scout association.

Girl guides.

Performing arts.

School choirs (singing groups).

Foot drills.

Annual functions.

National sporting competitions.

Youth festivals.

Psychological Factors of Classification

1.

Basis of Classification

2.

Chronological Age

3.

Retarded Children

4.

General Intelligence

5.

Attainment in School Subjects

6.

Multiple and Composite Basis

1. Basis of Classification

The simplest and the crudest basis of classification is the age of the children
Education based on age where elementary education is compulsory and the
children join the schools at a certain prescribed age.

Generally children are to be chosen of same age

Age is generally considered an index of a pupils educational standing (rank)

2. Chronological Age

Age is to be considered unreliable basis of classification

Difference of age may have difference in abilities

Age factor was the simple criterion for classification in views of the teachers and
administrators

Lock step was introduced for bringing equality

Mental ability was according to the chronological age

Distribution by age is different in different countries like in USA, chronological age

varies from 9 years to 17 years and average being 11-12 years.
Attention is focused upon the retardation in schools
3. Retarded Children

Retarded factor is very large in educational progress

Spending much time in the class for its completion show their retardation specially
in rural areas

Stagnation occurs to much larger extent in rural areas than in urban

Due to inferiority, retarded pupils usually lose self respect and self confidence

Often neglected by the teachers in the class

They can not express their feelings by the way of compensation

Poor parents can not afford the expenses of their children at schools even if
education is free

Older students may be sent to their age level students or promoted to the higher
classes

Retardation is also due to the adjustment of the pupils with their environment

4. General Intelligence

Priority is now on mental age in many countries for classification

In America, generally group tests are to be used which are considered easy to
administer and to score

Division of the classes into section usually based on the tests

Transfer of the pupil is also considered on the base of these tests

These tests for classification help in the progress of the students

Intelligence tests are mostly considered useful for primary schools

Individual tests are better than group tests for the children under ten or eleven
years of age
Tests are to be conducted by the trained personnel in the field of psychology
Moral qualities, such as application, consciousness, and regularity are necessary
for the proper use of intelligence
5. Attainment in School Subjects

Weakness in any one of the subject is the psychological factor

Future achievements based on the past results of the different subjects

Headmaster should take different tests regarding reading, writing and the simplest
process of arithmetic

Tests realize the pupils to develop their special abilities, together with general
abilities and up to the required standards
6. Multiple and Composite Basis

Social maturity of the children

Physiological growth, their moral and emotional qualities to industry, perseverance,

ambition and interest

Multiple basis usually be checked against each other but final decision is based on
teacher

Composite method employs a number of criteria such as psychological

development, general intelligence, achievement in the school subjects, social
maturity, industry, application, chronological age, etc.

Tests are applied in respect of all these traits and raw scores reduce to a composite
score

Criteria for Student Classification

a. History (Some plans for Students)
b. General Criteria for Student Classification
c. Common Pattern
(a). History (Some Plans for Student Classification)
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.

Background
Winnetka Plan
Unit Plan
Techniques of Instruction
Summer School
Grouping
Non-Grading Elementary School
(i). Backgrounds

Purpose of the school is to serve the needs of the pupils

Administrator is to organize the school and classify the pupils to facilitate the achievement of
this purpose
Division of the grades helped to solve the problems related to the textbook, facilities, materials
and methods
New problem Lock Step system created
Lock Step means Grade Standard which created difficulties to meet the needs of the
individual pupils
Administrator use different methods to adjust the students through different teachers, grades, or
subjects etc
Administration needs to classify the pupil by keeping the view of individual differences
Many innovations in curriculum, teaching method & organization have been tried.
(ii). Winnetka Plan

Plan of individual instruction for elementary school children within the grade was inaugurated at
Winnetka, Illinois.
Curriculum divided into two parts;

1. Common essentials
2. Group activities
1. Common Essentials
Knowledge 7 Skills are considered necessary elements for pupils( Division was into units or
Goals)
Assignment sheets, work sheets, diagnostic practice test, and test for each unit were considered
Emphasis on each pupil to get mastery in each unit
Promotion to the next unit were provided until the mastery of the previous one
2. Group Activities
Designed on part of the pupil
Activities like art & crafts, music, physical education for standard goals to be met
Activities provide socialism & creative experience
(iii). Unit Plan

It is a teaching procedure & requires no changes in school organization

Different methods are to be used like project, activity & problem assignment
All methods are of the distinct departures from the traditional subject matter recitation type of
teaching
It has great influence in elementary schools by focusing upon the attention upon organization of
the subject matter for the purpose of meeting the needs of the individual pupils
It has influence upon the curriculum being offered in many schools
(iv). Techniques of Instruction

1.
2.
3.
4.

Needs can be met through the changed curriculum but it also requires techniques of instruction
Few suggestions are related to the instruction to meet the individual needs are;
Develop units on life problems rather than on abstract subject matter problems
Teach to focus on the satisfaction of needs recognized by the learners
Provide adequate counseling and guidance services
Utilize more fully teaching resources such as films, radio, television, teaching machines and the
local community environment
5. Use wide variety of printed material
(v). Summer School

Many school districts operated for adjusting the pupils

Operated primarily for those students who have failed or for those who wish to make additional
credits in order to complete high schools in three years
Treated the failure students of regular terms in the school
Used to get measurable grade standard or subject if they are achieving before

Mostly emphasized on the subjects like music, arts, sports and games, but recently few more
added like math, science and foreign languages
(vi). Grouping

Emphasis was given for chronological age grouping

Homogeneous grouping usually be done according to the mental abilities, or achievement in the
subject matter
Mental abilities tested through different tests or teachers judgment
Great emphasis as given on the achievement of the subject matter
More preference was on the homogeneous grouping because instruction can be done effectively
Few arguments were for making homogeneous grouping;

Usually be taught by the same method

Saves the teachers time and energy
Subject may be covered in same period of time
Poor students are not discouraged
Specially trained teachers can be used for proper pupils
Homogeneous group can be taught as an individually
Brighter students are encouraged
Loafing on the part of superior pupil is reduced or eliminated
Some suggestions were against of the homogeneous grouping;

No basis for grouping has been developed which is sufficiently objective

Unwholesome competition may be engendered
People are not strictly grouped in their life occupations according to ability
Status distinctions, characteristics of the class society, may be fostered
Group can not be formed which are homogeneous in each curriculum area because abilities of
the single student vary from subject to subject
No practical way has been found to group on the basis of special ability
Grouping according to the ability often cases jealousy and resentment (anger) on the part of the
pupils and parents
(vii). Non-Graded Elementary School

It was the movement which was slowly gaining supporters

Classifying the students was attributed to the results of the child study movement which reveals
that students differ in different way
It classified the students according to the levels rather than to the grade numbers
Levels usually based on reading abilities and consists of 10-12 levels in the first three grades
Pupils progress through the levels at their own rate without usual stigma (disagree)
Pupils may complete their work of three years in two or may take 4 years
Plans used extensively at primary grades

 Provide three major organizational advantages in classifying students;

1. A unit plan of ears that is adaptable to the lags and sports normally accompanying the
development of child
2. Progress levels that permit a child to pick up after an absence from school at the point where he
previously left off
3. A time range that permit children of approximately the same chronological age to remain
together while progressing at different academic rates suited to individual capacities
(b). General Criteria for Student Classification

In the past teacher dealt all students of different ages and subject equally, but with the increase
of population more teacher hired for then and children were divided into groups
Age was common selection factor
Age 1-12 handed over to one teacher and age 12- above handed over to the next teacher
As population grew then more classification be done
Major purpose for grouping is individualization
Classification was due to the individual differences, academic and social characteristics
Age was used originally for the selection of the candidates because it is correlated with social
characteristics
When age selection factor came into use then student were being differentiated on the basis of
their academic achievements which was named as homogeneous grouping, which based on the
performance, reading readiness tests etc
Students were divided in two classrooms, one for those who achieved above the standard
readiness score and those who were below of that
(c). Common Patterns

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Ungraded Grouping
Inter- Classroom Subject Grouping
Inter- Classroom Ability Grouping
Split-half Grouping
Intra-Classroom Ability Grouping
Special Ability Grouping
Inter-Classroom Individualized Grouping
1. Ungraded Grouping

Grade levels were abandoned (neglected)

There was no classification of the students in one classroom
Usually ungraded grouping were distinguished between lower elementary and upper elementary,
upgraded primary & Upgraded intermediate
First three year schooling were assigned to ungraded primary then promotion was on the basis
of age, social maturity, academic ability or some combination of factors
School might have three or more ungraded primary classrooms and teacher might stay with the
same students for three years for knowing them

2. Inter-Classroom Subject Grouping

Grouping based on subject matter

Most common pattern in grouping junior and senior high schools
Used in elementary schools when teacher train them for different subjects
During the 2hr period teacher A has reading with class A for the first hour and reading with the
class B for second hour and teacher B follows the opposite schedule for mathematics
3. Inter- Classroom Ability Grouping

Classification based on their performance in intelligence and achievement tests

Those scoring from grade level or higher are assigned to one classroom while all those scoring
from grade level or below are assigned to another
A higher school might use placement tests for assigning English or Mathematics courses or even
totally different tracks
Assignment may be for one day or for the subjects, or to pull the disabled readers from their
classes for instruction
4. Split- Half Grouping

Students were divided into split half day schedule for reducing the class size for critical subjects
Commonly used in the primary grades means when half of the class receives instruction for few
hours and then 2nd class will receive instruction after that time
5. Intra-Classroom Ability Grouping

Students are to be classified on the basis of their abilities

Pattern is mostly common in reading when they are given reading achievement tests and then do
grouping as per their level as high group, middle group and low group.
This ability had been used at all grads from kindergarten through high schools
6. Special Ability Grouping

Students are assigned for short period

Promotion is to be done on their ability
Teacher uses remedial instruction for half an hour below a certain reading level and an
enrichment teacher might work with students above a certain level
7. Intra- Classroom Individualized Grouping

One time instruction for one pupil

Reading programmes called Individualized Reading follow this pattern
This pattern has become popular for the last 10 years because of the availability of published,
sub-instructional material
The best use of the continuous progress selecting students into individual group varies widely
and sometimes name is used , student just work alone

Need for Classification

More than a million species of living organisms have been discovered and described so far and a
large number of them are yet to be discovered. Scientists involved in this task,
called taxonomists, estimate that there may be around 30 million species of living organisms of
which the known number of species forms a very small percentage.
Any systematic study on a given plant or animal can be made easier only when the organism is
identified as one belonging to a particular group that has some specific characters. The vast
number of plant and animal species that have been identified and described, exhibit a great deal
of variation in their form, structure, mode of life and various other aspects. Unless the plants and
animals are divided into discrete groups based on the differences and similarities between them,
it becomes practically impossible to study them.
The scientific practice of identifying, naming and grouping of living organisms is
called classification. The branches of biology that deal with classification are
called taxonomy and systematic. Taxonomy, as the name indicates, deals with describing and
naming organisms while systematic deals with grouping and arranging the described taxa into a
hierarchical classification.

Advantages of Biological Classification

The scientific grouping of organisms has some specific advantages.

It makes the study of living organisms convenient.

It helps in the specific identification of any given organism.

The study of a few representatives from each distinct group helps us to integrate the idea
of life as a whole.
It reveals the relationships among various groups of organisms.

It provides information about plants and animals, which occur in specific geographical
regions.

It indicates the evolutionary relationship by establishing the gradually increasing

complexity of form and structure in different groups of organisms.

What School Characteristics Are Associated with Discipline Problems?

When Johns Hopkins University researchers Gary D. Gottfredson and Denise C.
Gottfredson analyzed data from over 600 of the nation's secondary schools, they found
that the following school characteristics were associated with discipline problems: Rules
were unclear or perceived as unfairly or inconsistently enforced; students did not believe
in the rules; teachers and administrators did not know what the rules were or disagreed
on the proper responses to student misconduct; teacher-administration cooperation was
poor or the administration inactive; teachers tended to have punitive attitudes;
misconduct was ignored; and schools were large or lacked adequate resources for
teaching (cited in Gottfredson 1989).

After reviewing dozens of studies on student behavior, Duke agreed with many of the
Gottfredsons' conclusions. Orderly schools, he noted, usually balance clearly
established and communicated rules with a climate of concern for students as
individuals, and small alternative schools often maintain order successfully with fewer
formal rules and a more flexible approach to infractions than large schools typically
have.
How Can Schools Decrease Disruptive Behavior?
Working to change the above-mentioned characteristics may decrease disruptive
behavior. First, rules and the consequences of breaking them should be clearly specified
and communicated to staff, students, and parents by such means as newsletters,
student assemblies, and handbooks. Meyers and Pawlas (1989) recommend periodically
restating the rules, especially after students return from summer or winter vacation.
Once rules have been communicated, fair and consistent enforcement helps maintain
students' respect for the school's discipline system. Consistency will be greater when
fewer individuals are responsible for enforcement. Providing a hearing process for
students to present their side of the story and establishing an appeal process will also
increase students' and parents' perceptions of fairness.
The Gottfredsons suggest creating smaller schools or dividing large schools into several
schools-within-schools (cited in Duke). This has been done in several Portland, Oregon,
middle schools that have large numbers of at-risk students. For example, as Director of
Instruction Leigh Wilcox explained, Lane Middle School has been divided into three
minischools, each with a complete age range of students taught by a team of teachers
(telephone interview, July 10, 1992).
Discipline policies should distinguish between categories of offenses. Minor infractions
may be treated flexibly, depending on the circumstances, while nonnegotiable
consequences are set for serious offenses. Actual criminal offenses may be reported to
the police as part of a cooperative anticrime effort (Gaustad 1991).
Lack of Leadership in Teacher
1. Teachers have no respect as they had in the past.
2. Students do not show respect the teachers
3. Teachers get involved in the cesspool of politics and self-interest
4. Teachers loose their ideals and do not pay their intentions for the development of
the students
5. Teachers usually excite the students and use them as tools of private tuitions.
6. Miserable economic condition is also one of the main reason for lack of leadership
7. They are incapable of giving the guidance to the students
The Current Education System
1. Current education system is always being criticized
2. Students came to know that education given to them is not good
3. Students have no regard for education
4. Students just consider the education for the sake of their earning
5. In present, primary aim of educational system is to get good position in the annual
examination
6. Students use their unfair means for achieving their objectives
Lack of Sustaining Ideal in the Students
1. Society has pitiable condition now a days
2. Social changes are going to be changed
3. Moral values have shaken our society

4. Individual have no security of his life

5. Lack of healthy ideals among the students
Economic Difficulties
1. Our economic condition has its deplorable degree
2. Increased population created many national problems
3. Less resources
Lack of Communication
1. Between staff
2. Between students
3. Between parents
Disruptive behavior of the teacher
1. No interest toward the students
2. No new methodologies
3. No interest in the curriculum
4. No interest in the development of the students personalities

A modern example of school discipline in North America and Western Europe relies upon
the idea of an assertive teacher who is prepared to impose their will upon a class. Positive
reinforcement is balanced with immediate and fair punishment for misbehavior and firm,
clear boundaries define what is appropriate and inappropriate behavior. Teachers are
expected to respect their students, and sarcasm and attempts to humiliate pupils are seen
as falling outside of what constitutes reasonable discipline.

Whilst this is the consensus viewpoint amongst the majority of academics, some teachers
and parents advocate a more assertive and confrontational style of discipline. Such
individuals claim that many problems with modern schooling stem from the weakness in
school discipline and if teachers exercised firm control over the classroom they would be
able to teach more efficiently. This viewpoint is supported by the educational attainment
of countries -- in East Asia for instance -- that combine strict discipline with high
standards of education.

It's not clear, however that this stereotypical view reflects the reality of East Asian
classrooms or that the educational goals in these countries are commensurable with those
in Western countries. In Japan, for example, although average attainment on standardized
tests may exceed those in Western countries, classroom discipline and behavior is highly
problematic. Although, officially, schools have extremely rigid codes of behavior, in
practice many teachers find the students unmanageable and do not enforce discipline at
all, while others impose brutal standards of discipline, backed up with beatings and
whippings.

Remembering that typical class sizes are 40 to 50 students, maintaining classroom order
under these conditions can take so much effort that there is simply no time for learning,
so it is common for teachers to simply ignore disruptive students and concentrate their
attention on motivated students. The result of this is that motivated students, who must
pass extremely difficult university entrance exams, receive disproportionate resources,
while the rest of the students are allowed, perhaps expected to, fail. Given that
perceptions of school quality are heavily weighted towards the proportion of students
passing university entrance exams, this approach diverts resources to where they are most
efficient from the perspective of administrators.

The problem, however, is that many students graduate high-school with very unrealistic
expectations and little in the way of useful skills, leaving it up to employers or vocational
colleges to teach the basic social expectations needed for employment or higher
education. Frequent complaints of teachers at the university and college level are that
students lack the concept of punctuality, consider that attendance to class is sufficient for
a passing grade so use class time to catch up on sleep or email, and lack the selfdiscipline and motivation needed for effective study. Students frequently refuse to
complete homework or class work, or even bring books and paper to class, on the
assumption that high-school standards of behavior will be accepted and that an automatic
pass grade will be awarded provided they do not actively disrupt classes. University
administrators frequently pressure teachers to issue passing grades despite poor
achievement due to constraints imposed by the Ministry of Education in relation to
funding.

Scope and Importance of School Organization

A. Relationship between Organization, Administration and Management
1. Organization
It refers to the form of the enterprise or institution and the arrangement of the
human and material resources functioning in a manner to achieve the objectives of
the enterprise. It represents two or more than two people respectively specializing
in functions of each perform, working together towards a common goal as governed
by formal rules of behavior.

2. Administration
It is concerned with the determination of corporate policy and the overall
coordination of production, distribution and finance.
3. Management
It refers to the execution of policy within the limits which are established by
administration and the employment of the organization as required.
Relationship
Sheldon states, Organization is the formation of an effective machine;
management, of an effective executive; administration, of an effective direction.
Administration defines the goal; management strives towards it. Organization is the
machine of management in its achievement of the ends determined by
Administration.
B. Scope and Importance of School Organization
The scope of school organization is very vast. It includes; efficiency of the
institution, securing benefits of the school through practical measures, clarification
of the functions of the school, coordination of the educational programmes, sound
educational planning, good direction, efficient and systematic execution. It provides
close collaboration and sense of sharing responsibilities, organized purpose and
dynamic approach.
Any organization plays a vital role in the life of human being. It plays different
functions like; brings efficiency, guide pupil to receive right direction from the right
teachers, enables the pupil to get profit from their learning, bring coordination of
the student-teacher-parents-society. It provides well defined policies and
programmes, favorable teaching learning situation, growth and development of
human beings, make use of appropriate materials, effective development of human
qualities, execution of the programmes, arrangement of the activities, efforts for
attainment of the objectives etc.
In school organization, there is a great role of economy, men, and material to
achieve the desired objectives. Following there is a great role of different subject
which is called the scope in the school organization.

1. Role of School Plant

It is a comprehensive term which means, building, playground, furniture,
equipment, library, laboratory etc. all those physical facilities which are required for
achieving various objectives of the school organization constitutes the school plant.

Optimum utilization of school plant helps in achieving fruitful results and desired
objectives.
2. Role of Curricular and Co-Curricular Activities
Kerr defined curriculum as, all the learning which is planned and guided by the
school whether it is carried on in a group or individually, inside the school or outside
it. He further states that it can be divided into four inter-related components
i.e., curriculum
objectives, knowledge, learning
experiences and curriculum
evaluation. Curricular activities involves games, sports, scouting, hiking, debates,
essay writing, workshops, symposiums, naat competitions, role playing, discussion,
seminars which play their important role for comprehensive development of the
personality of the child.
3. Role of Human Resources
Human resources of the school are students, teaching staff and non-teaching staff.
There is no betterment without teacher in the school. Proper planning and
organization of teaching learning activities can only be achieved through
Cooperation, willingness, involvement, fellow feelings and devotion of teachers,
students, librarians, assistants, peons, etc.
4. Role of Financial Resources
Utilization and development of financial resources have its great importance in
school organization. School organization requires proper budgeting, accounting and
audit system because these are beneficial for making transparent policies, plans,
rules and regulation.

Meanings of Management
The term management encompasses an array of different functions undertaken to accomplish a
task successfully. In the simplest of terms, management is all about getting things done.
However, it is the way and the process of how one achieves ones target or goals and it is in this
respect that management is considered an art and a science as well.
The term management may be recently defined, but it existed at a time when men started
learning the art of organizing, strategizing (during wars) and/or simply planning. At the core of
it, management was quintessentially considered as an art of managing men and hence the term
manage-men-T.
Management in all business and organizational activities are the acts of getting people together
to accomplish desired goals and objectives efficiently and effectively. Management
comprises planning, organizing, staffing, leading or directing, and controlling an organization (a
group of one or more people or entities) or effort for the purpose of accomplishing a
goal. Resourcing encompasses
the
deployment
and
manipulation
of human
resources, financial resources, technological resources, and natural resources.

Rousseau (1972) pointed out A real knowledge of things may be a good thing in itself, but the
knowledge of men and their opinions is better, for in human society.

Peter Drucker (1993) defined management as Supplying knowledge to find out how existing
knowledge can best be applied to produce results is, in effect, what we mean by management.
But knowledge is now also being applied systematically and purposefully to determine what new
knowledge is needed, whether it is feasible, and what has to be done to make knowledge
effective. It is being applied, in other words, to systematic innovation.
Management today combines creative, business, organizational, analytical and other skills to
produce effective goal-oriented results! Some of the key functions in management includes
learning to delegate, planning and organizing, communicating clearly, controlling situations,
motivating employees, adapting to change, constantly innovating and thinking of new ideas,
building a good team and delivering results which are not just figure -bound but results that also
focus on overall growth and development.
Management focuses on the entire organization from both a short and a long-term perspective.
Management is the managerial process of forming a strategic vision, setting objectives, crafting a
strategy and then implementing and executing the strategy.

Approaches
In general terms, there are two approaches to management:
-The Industrial Organization Approach: This approach is based on economic theory which deals
with issues like competitive rivalry, resource allocation, economies of scale. This approach to
management assumes rationality, self interested behavior, profit maximization.
- The Sociological Approach: This approach deals primarily with human interactions. It assumes
rationality, satisfying behavior, profit sub-optimality.
Management theories can also be divided into two sets. One is the set that concentrates mainly
on efficiency and another is the set that concentrates mainly on effectiveness. Efficiency is about
doing things the right way. It involves eliminating waste and optimizing processes. Effectiveness
is about doing the right things.

Basic functions
Management operates through various functions, often classified as planning, organizing,
staffing, leading/directing, and controlling/ monitoring, Motivation .i.e

Planning: Deciding what needs to happen in the future (today, next week, next month,
next year, over the next 5 years, etc.) and generating plans for action.

Organizing: (Implementation) making optimum use of the resources required to enable

the successful carrying out of plans.

Staffing: Job analyzing, recruitment, and hiring individuals for appropriate jobs.
Leading/Directing: Determining what needs to be done in a situation and getting people
to do it.

Controlling/Monitoring: Checking progress against plans.

Motivation: Motivation is also a kind of basic function of management, because without

motivation, employees cannot work effectively. If motivation doesn't take place in an
organization, then employees may not contribute to the other functions (which are usually set by
top level management).

Hierarchy of Management
The management of a large organization may have about five levels:

1.

Senior management (or "top management" or "upper management")

2.

Middle management

3.

Low-level management, such as supervisors or team-leaders

4.

Foreman

5.

Rank and File

Top-level management
Require an extensive knowledge of management roles and skills.

They have to be very aware of external factors such as markets.

Their decisions are generally of a long-term nature

Their decisions are made

behavioral/participative processes

using

analytic,

directive,

conceptual

They are responsible for strategic decisions.

They have to chalk out the plan and see that plan may be effective in the future.

They are executive in nature.

Middle management
Mid-level managers have a specialized understanding of certain managerial tasks.

They are responsible for carrying out the decisions made by top-level management.

finance, marketing etc comes under middle level management

and/or

Lower management
This level of management ensures that the decisions and plans taken by the other two are
carried out.
Lower-level managers' decisions are generally short-term ones.
Foreman / lead hand

They are people who have direct supervision over the working force in office factory,
sales field or other workgroup or areas of activity.
Rank and File
The responsibilities of the persons belonging to this group are even more restricted and
more specific than those of the foreman