JOURNAL

OF MATHEMATICAL PHYSICS

VOLUME

4,

NUMBER 6

JUNE

1963

Fermi Normal Coordinates and Some Basic Concepts in Differential Geometry*

F. K. MANASSEt AND C. W. MISNERt
Palmer Physical Laboratory, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey
(Received 31 May 1962)
Fermi coordinates, where the metric is rectangular and has vanishing first derivatives at each
point of a curve, are constructed in a particular way about a geodesic. This determines an expansion of
the metric in powers of proper distance normal to the geodesic, of which the second-order terms are
explicitly computed here in terms of the curvature tensor at the corresponding point on the base
geodesic. These terms determine the lowest-order effects of a gravitational field which can be measured
locally by a freely falling observer. An example is provided in the Schwarz schild metric. This discussion of Fermi Normal Coordinate provides numerous examples of the use of the modern, coordinate-free concept of a vector and of computations which are simplified by introducing a vector
instead of its components. The ideas of contravariant vector and Lie Bracket, as well as the equation
of geodesic deviation, are reviewed before being applied.

I. INTRODUCTION

N 1922 Fermi showed! that, given any curve in

a Riemannian manifold, it is possible to introduce
coordinates near this curve in such a way that the
Christoffel symbols vanish along the curve, leaving
the metric there rectangular. Several developments
of this idea followed. One was a generalization2 of
the theorem to a manifold with a symmetric affine
connection r,,/, but without necessarily assuming
any metric structure. A second development was
an inquiry which showed that in general no coordinates exist for which r ,,: = 0 on surfaces of
dimension greater than one, and which developed
criteria for the special situations where this was
possible. 3 A third variation of Fermi's idea is the
set of coordinates based on an arbitrary curve
which Synge4 calls Fermi coordinates. Here one
allows a few nonzero Christoffel symbols, although
retaining a rectangular metric, for the advantage
of making the curve become an axis of the coordinate
system. These coordinates, as Synge shows, form a
nonrotating system in a natural physical sense for a
(not necessarily freely falling) observer in a gravitational field.
* Based in part on a Ph.D. Thesis by F. K. Manasse,
Princeton University, 1961.
t Communications Development Training Program Fellow
from Bell Telephone Laboratories.
t Alfred P. Sloan Research Fellow.
! E. Fermi, Atti Acad. N az. Lincei Rend. C1. Sci. Fiz.
Mat. Nat. 31, 21, 51 (1922).
2 L. P. Eisenhart, Non-Riemannian Geometry, (American
Mathematical Society Colloquium Publications, New York,
New York, 1927), Sec. 25. The Fermi normal coordinates
developed in the present paper are also defined in (symmetric)
affine spaces, and all our results which can be stated in affine
spaces are valid there. The proofs are obtained by replacing
every set of orthonormal vectors by a set of linearly independent vectors.
3 L. O'Raifeartaigh, Proc. Roy. Irish Acad. A59, 2 (1958).
J. L. Synge, Relativity, The General Theory (NorthHolland Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 1960).

In this paper we consider not a modification or

generalization of Fermi's idea, but a specialization
and particularization of it. We specialize to the case
where the curve in question is a geodesic, and we
choose a particular set out of the many coordinate
systems which satisfy his r ",' = 0 condition along
this geodesic. The resulting coordinates we call
Fermi normal coordinates because of an analogy to
that particular choice of the many coordinates
satisfying r ",' = 0 at a single point, called Riemann
normal coordinates,6 which in addition gives the
series expansion 6
2

ds = {1)",

!R",,~,xax~

O[(X)3]} dx" dx.

(1)

The primary mathematical contribution of this

paper is to compute the quadratic terms of a corresponding expansion in Fermi normal coordinates
[see Eqs. (66)]. In this case the expansion parameter
is the geodesic distance normal to the given geodesic;
the expansion is valid for a limited region of space,
and for all time. Thus, Fermi normal coordinates
provide a standardized way in which a freely falling
observer can report observations and local experiments. In 'particular, the quadratic terms of the
metric, which we compute in terms of the curvature,
6 See, for example, L. P. Eisenhart, Riemannian Geometry,
(Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, 1926).
Here 'YI". = diag (-1, 1, 1, 1) is the Lorentz metric.
We shall use Greek indices for space-time (IL, v, etc. = 0, 1,
2, 3), while Latin indices give components along spatial axes
(i, j, etc. = 1, 2, 3). Our sign conventions for the curvature
tensor are

and

R,,'a{J

= aar,,'~

a~r,,'a

R".

R,,"a,'

(r,,"ar.'~

- r,,"pr.'a),

The Riemann tensor convention corresponds to Cartan's

definition (reference 13) of the curvature forms 0,,' =
!R,,' ap dx a dxfJ in terms of the connection forms
WJ.I.'1 = rJ.l.'a d,xa, OJ.l."P = dw,/ cxp.tI W(T'
which definition is also valid in orthogonal (or other nonholonomic) frames.

735

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736

F. K.

MANASSE AND

determine the effects of gravitational field gradients

upon experiments done in a freely falling elevator.
The procedure for constructing Fermi normal
coordinates, which is given in Sec. II, is a variation
of the standard procedure for constructing Riemann
normal coordinates. It is also a special case of the
procedures used by Levi-Civita 7 or Synge4 to
construct (inequivalent versions of) Fermi coordinates about an arbitrary, nongeodesic, curve. The
present paper is very closely related to LeviCivita's, since it discusses some of the same topics,
but in inverse order. Levi-Civita, in the paper in
question, developed for the first time the equation of
geodesic deviation and used Fermi coordinates as a
technique for simplifying this equation to display its
properties more clearly. In contrast, our primary
interest is here in the Fermi coordinates, but we
shall use the equation of geodesic deviation as a
device for studying the properties of Fermi coordinates and for computing the metric tensor in
these coordinates.
The major part of the present paper is devoted
to studying properties of the Fermi normal coordinates constructed in Sec. II. In Sec. IV we show
that this construction leads to a nonsingular
coordinate system in a neighborhood of the given
geodesic, and in Sec. V we show that these coordinates satisfy the Fermi conditions
g~.lo

'YJ~"

(2)

rp''./o = 0,

(3)

along the given geodesic G. In these discussions,

as well as in later examples, it is useful to have
unambiguous ways of indicating a vector without
specifying a coordinate system, and of displaying its
components in different coordinate systems without
confusion. These notations, based on the idea of a
tangent vector as a differentiation, are reviewed in
Sec. III. This idea of a vector is also used in Sec. VI
where we review the equation of geodesic deviation
in order to see precisely what vector satisfies it.
Then, in Sec. VII, we note that certain vectors
occurring in the construction of Fermi normal
coordinates must satisfy the equation of geodesic
deviation; using this fact we evaluate the quadratic
(curvature) terms in the expansion of the metric
analogous to Eq. (1). Finally, Sec. VIII is an
example, where, starting from the Schwarzschild
metric in standard Schwarzschild coordinates, we
evaluate the metric in Fermi normal coordinates
surrounding a radial timelike geodesic. This represents this metric in a rest frame of a particle
7

T. Levi-Civita, Math. Ann. 97, 291 (1926).

C. W.

MISNER

of negligible mass freely falling toward a large

central mass. In the following paper,8 this serves as
a starting point from which to compute the metric
surrounding a finite but small mass falling radially
toward a large central mass, a particular case of
the two-body problem in general relativity.
The paragraphs of mathematical "review" (Secs.
III and VI), although they contain nothing new or
original, are not considered by the authors as the
least important part of this paper. Most physicists,
even those very familiar with general relativity,
continue to use the same definition of a vector as
did Einstein, in spite of the considerable progress
by mathematicians in the intervening half century.
A particularly careful statement of this definition
by Synge and Schild 9 gives a precise meaning to
the sentence "The quantities vP are components
of a contravariant vector" without finding it worth
the trouble to write a sentence of the form "a
contravariant vector is a ... " The end of this
sentence is, in fact, either rather unhelpful 10 or
rather long l l when it merely elucidates the transformation law definition. The transformation law
outlook on geometry was an attempt to broaden 12
the Erlanger Programm viewpoint: (a geometry is
characterized by invariance under a group of
transformations) without repudiating it completely.
The more geometrical approach to geometry, based
on an intuition rooted in the classical studies of
curves and surfaces in Euclidean three space, was
hampered for a time because its most powerful
computational techniques l3 employed elements
which were defined only by their intuitive significance. As a consequence, many demonstrations
were clear only to mathematicians with sufficient
intuition. 13 This difficulty was eliminated by
Chevalley l4 who gave new definitions of tangent
vectors and differentials, providing them with a
8 F. K. Manasse, J. Math. Phys. 4, 746 (1963) (following
paper).
9 J. L. Synge and A. Schild, Tensor Calculus (University
of Toronto Press, Toronto, 1952), Sec. 1.3.
10 T. Y. Thomas, The Differential Invariants of Generalized
Spaces (Cambridge University Press, New York, 1934,) p. 30.
11 N. Steenrod, The Topology of Fibre Bundles (Princeton
University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, 1951), Sec. 6.4.
12 O. Veblen and J. H. C. Whitehead, The Foundations
of Differential Geometry, (Cambridge University Press
New York, 1932, reprinted 1953), Sec. 16.
'
13 E. Cartan, Leqons sur la g~om{;trie des espaces de Riemann
(Gauthier-Villars, Paris, 1951).
14 C. Chevalley, Theory of Lie Groups. (Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, 1916), p. 77. A definition
suitable for differentiable, rather than analytic, manifolds
can be found in reference 15 or in H. Flanders, Trans. Am.
Math. Soc. 75, 311 (1953). A definition of differentiable
manifold which parallels Chevalley's for the analytic case is
given by de Rham, Varietes Differentiables (Hermann et Cie.,
Paris, 1955).

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FERMI NORMAL COORDINATES

clear formal structure compatible with their intuitive

significance. These definitions are now also available
in introductory texts. 15
In Sec. III and subsequently we use this definition
of a contravariant vector as a tangent to a curve.
Since a curve is easily thought of in a coordinateindependent way as a moving point pet) in the
manifold, this approach can avoid all mention of
coordinates in defining a vector. A theoretical
physicist should not be surprised that the tangent
to a curve pet) is conceived of as the generator
of infinitesimal translations along the curve and,
hence, denoted by a/at.
II. CONSTRUCTION OF FERMI NORMAL
COORDINATES

Conditions (2) and (3), which Fermi coordinates

satisfy, state that to the maximum extent possible
one desires space in the neighborhood of some
given geodesic G to look like flat space in rectangular
coordinates. As motivation for the construction
which will be given in this section, we suggest that
a plausible way to try to achieve this is to use as
many "straight" lines (geodesics) as possible in
laying out the coordinates. What follows now is
merely a recipe which purports to construct a
coordinate system; the proof that it does so (i.e.,
that the coordinates constructed by this recipe are
non-singular) is deferred to Sec. IV. That Eqs. (2)
and (3) are satisfied is not shown until Sec. V.
In order to uniquely specify a set of Fermi normal
coordinates it is necessary to choose arbitrarily a
point Po to be the origin, and an orthonormal set
of vectors eo, e l , e 2 , and e 3 at Po to fix the coordinate
axes there. The first step in the construction is then
to solve the geodesic equation and obtain that
unique geodesic G which starts at Po with tangent
eo there. We will describe the geodesic G by the
equation
(4)
P = h(T).
The condition that G "starts at Po" is just
Po = h(O) ,

(5)

and does not imply that we refuse to consider

negative values of T.
Because G is a geodesic, its tangent at any two
points on G is related by parallel displacement along
G. At Po, the tangent was eo, which we now call
eo(O), while eo(r) will mean the tangent to G at
P = her). Similarly, we can define ei(r) for i = 1,2,3
as vectors at h(r) obtained by parallel displacement
15 T. J. Willmore, An Introduction to Differential Geometry
(Clarendon Press, Oxford, England, 1959), Chap. 6, Sec. 2.

737

FIG. 1. Fermi normal coordinates are determined by a

reference point Po and an orthonormal reference frame
e~ there. The time axis G of the coordinates is the geodesic
h(T) tangent to eo at Po. The point P(X"), with given Fermi
normal ~oordinates X", is found by first following G for a
proper time T = x o, and then following a certain orthogonal
geo.desic at a proper distance s = [(Xl)' + (x')' + (x 3 )']!.
ThIS second spacelike geodesic h(xO, xis-I, A), is chosen
by requiring that for A = 0, where it crosses G, its tangent
has direction cosines X is-1 relative to the base vectors e,
carried by parallel transport along G from Po.

along G of the vectors e i = ei(O) given at Po = h(O).

The prescription for locating the point P whose
Fermi normal coordinates are x" can now be given.
We assume for simplicity that eo is a time like
vector and ei are spacelike. Then given x", we
XO]
construct at the point h(xO) [i.e., along G at r
the unit vector
v = aie,(xO) ,
(6)
whose (spatial) direction cosines a i are
a' = xi/s,

with
S2 = (X i )2

==

(X I)2

+ (X 2)2 + (X 3)2.

(7)
(8)

There is then a unique geodesic

P

= h(xO; a i ; A),

(9)

with path parameter A which starts at h(xO) and

is tangent to v there. The point P(x") with Fermi
normal coordinates x" is found by proceeding along
this geodesic a proper distance s, i.e.,
P(x")

= h(xO; a i ; s).

(10)

This prescription is summarized in Fig. (1). When

points P are represented by their coordinate values
y"' (P) in some coordinate system l6 in which the
16 Since we think of the metric or any other tensor as an
object which is independent of our choice of coordinate
system, we prefer that the indication of the particular coordinate system to which a set of tensor components g~,
refers be placed on the component (mdex) part of the symbol
rather than on the tensor part. Thus g", and g~,., are compone~ts of the same met~c teJ?-sor in two coordinate systems,
whIle, should the occasIOn anse, g~, and g'", might represent
two different metrics in a single coordinate system. See also
the transformation laws of Eqs. (40) and (76).

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F. K. MANASSE AND C. W. MISNER

738

metric components g",., (ya) are known, the con- pet) is the operation on scalar functions f(P) defined by
structions which we have prescribed lead to the
(14)
af(p)/at == dt(P(t/dt,
relationship (10) with the point P(x") given in
terms of its coordinates y" as y" (x"). These func- i.e., by inserting the equation of the curve and
tions y" (x") specify the coordinate transformation taking an ordinary derivative. Since the operator
between the arbitrary coordinates y., and the Fermi a/at is applicable to all scalar functions, it can be
normal coordinates x". We have not needed to applied in particular to those four scalar functions
mention these arbitrary initial coordinates y"' while y"(P) we may be using as coordinates:
prescribing the construction of the Fermi normal
(15)
coordinates x", and have avoided doing so to
emphasize the fact that the point P(x") correspond- In this way one can recover the compfments t" from
ing to given values of x" is independent of the the vector a/at. Conversely, writing Eq. (12) in
coordinate system y"' in which the computations the form
may have been performed.
(16)
t == a/at = r a/ay",
III. TANGENT VECTORS AND LIE BRACKETS

In the preceding construction of Fermi normal

coordinates, the vectors which appeared were all
used as tangents to curves. We want to recall here
that all contravariant vectors can be thought of as
tangents to curves and identified with the derivative
with respect to the corresponding curve parameter.
Given a curve y"(t) in some coordinate system y",
the tangent vector

t" = dy" /dt

(11)

is clearly a contravariant vector, and can be used

to compute derivatives a/at along the curve y"(t)
by the rule

af = df(y"(t = dy" j1. == t"f .

at dt
dt ay"
."

(12)

we construct the contravariant vector a/at from a

knowledge of its component t". Equation (16) shows
a/at as a linear combination, with coefficients t",
of four contravariant base vectors a/ay". These base
vectors are tangents to the coordinate lines, e.g.,
a/ayo is the tangent a/at to the curve yO = const,
yO = t. We have frequent use for Eqs. (15) and (16)
in what follows. In particular, Eq. (16) provides a
method of displaying the components of a vector
which simultaneously reminds us what coordinate
system is being used and is, in this respect, superior
to a statement of the form t = (to, t\ t2 , t3 ). We
also find it convenient to be able to designate the
components of a vector in several different ways,
and thus write

(a/at)" = (t)" = t" = ay"/at.

(17)

17

. t vect or field
Conversely, given a contravanan
t"(ya), we can solve the ordinary differential equations

dy" / dt = t"(ya(t

(11)

to obtain curves y"(t) with tangents t".

The advantage of thinking of contravariant
vectors t" as tangents to curves is that this helps
us find a concrete mathematical object we can
identify with the abstract vector t whose components
t" appear in our computations. This object is the
operation of differentiation along the curve whose
tangent is t. That is, we write
t

== a/at.

(13)

The right-hand side of this identification is an

operation which can be described in a coordinateindependent way. The tangent, t or a/at, to a curve
17 A vector t" given only at a point, or along a curve, etc.,
can always and in many ways be considered part of a vector
field by arbitrarily defining t"(ya) at other pomts.

Although we represent contravariant vectors t by

the partial derivative symbol a/at, it is not always
possible to think of several vectors simultaneously
as having the properties of standard partial derivatives. 18 In particular, consider the commutator of
two tangent vector fields u == a/au and v == a/ av:

(at)

a (at)
a au .
[u, v]f == au
av - av

(18)

Since v is a field, at/ av is a function and can be

subsequently differentiated along a curve tangent
to u. Thus the right-hand side of Eq. (18) is well
defined, and evidently does not depend on the
coordinates used to evaluate it. If we do pick a
coordinate system, e.g., at/av = v" at/ay", Eq. (18)
18 A single vector a/at differs from a partial derivative
by the possibility of vanishing; e.g., the tangent to a constant
curve pet) = Po is the zero vector (a/at) = 0, since af/at =
df(Po)/dt = for all functions f. However, in regions where
a/at ~ 0, coordinates can be introduced so that a/at = a/aye
is a conventional partial derivative.

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FERMI NORMAL COORDINATES

739

consider all values of the a i We first prove that

reads

[u, v]f

(u -av" - v -au") -af

ay'
ay' ay"'

,Ii'

ay

"

As a linear combination of the base vectors

h(T; a'; sA)

(24)

holds for all s (by rescaling the path parameter X)

so that Eq. (10) defining Fermi normal coordinates
may be replaced by

or
[u v] = (v" u' - u~ v') ~.

h(T; sa'; X)

(19)

(20)

ajayp,

the object [u, v] evidently is itself a contravariant

vector, called the Lie Bracket of u and v. Its components are displayed in Eq. (20). In case (as in this
paper) a covariant derivative is defined, Eq. (20)
can be rewritten as
(21)

since the symmetry of the r:. = r;" lets them

cancel here in any case.
We most often wish to use Eq. (21) in the case
where we know [u, vJ = O. This is true whenever u
and v can be thought of as tangents to coordinate
lines in a surface. That is, let P(u, v) be the equation
of a "surface" parameterized by u, v, and let u =
a/au be the tangent to lines of constant v in this
surface, and similarly v = aj av is tangent to lines
of constant u. Then [u, v] can be evaluated from
Eq. (18) by setting f = f(P(u, v on the righthand side. The derivatives are then standard partial
derivatives which commute, so [u, v] = 0. 19 [This
derivation requires only that P(u, v) be a differentiable point-valued function; it actually represents
a two-dimensional surface only if u and v are linearly
independent vectors.]

P(x")

h(x

x'; 1).

(25)

This form allows us to verify more easily the differentiability of the inverse relationship, x"(P), i.e.,
of the coordinate functions.
We regard hH and h(T; a'; X) as the point-valued
function of one and five real variables, respectively,
computed without regard to any interpretation
placed on their real-number arguments. (In contrast,
common usage for real-valued functions dictates that
a
f(x ) and f(ya') mean different functions of their
four real arguments so as to represent the same
function of points f(P) in two different coordinate
systems.) Then, to prove Eq. (24) we rewrite Eq.
(22) in some arbitrary regular coordinate system
y"' (P) as
y.'

h'(T; a i j X),

(26)

The functions hI" are simply the unique solutions

of the differential equations
d~h'

dA2

+ [r",

.'

dh'" dh~'

W].'-h'dA dA = 0,

(27)

which satisfy the initial conditions

(28)

and

IV. REGULARITY OF FERMI NORMAL COORDINATES

According to the construction of Sec. II, Fermi

normal coordinates are specified in terms of the
solution
P = h(T; a i ; A)

(22)

(29)

where y.' = h"' (T) is the central geodesic G. After

remarking that the differential equation (27) is
unchanged upon replaeing X by SA, we prove Eq. (24)
by verifying that, as function of X hI" (T' sa" A)
and hI' (T; a'; sX) not only satisfy the same differential equation (27), but also the same initial
condition. For, each reduces to h' (T) for A = 0
and has a first derivative 8a'(ei(T'" at X = O.
Thus, by the Uniqueness Theorem 2o for solutions
of differential equations we have
I

of the geodesic equation describing a geodesic which

begins (X = 0) at the point
(23a)

on the central geodesic G, and whose tangent there is

(23b)

As used in Sec. II, the parameters a satisfied

(a')2 = 1, but we ignore this condition now and
19 To see that the Lie Bracket does not always vanish
an example suffices. For the unit vectors eg = 0/00 and
e., = (sin 0)-1 a/a", on the unit sphere, compute from Eq. (20)

[eg,

e"l =- -cot Oe"

o.

h"'(T;8a';X)

'

h"'(Tja';sX),

(24a)

20 See, for example, F. J. Murray and K. S. Miller, Existence

Theorems, (New York University Press New York 1954)
Chap. 2, Theor~ms ~, 3; Chap. 3, Theorem 2; Chap.
Th~orem 6. A dISCUSSiOn of the properties of geodesics from
whlCh we have borrowed much is found in H. Seifert and
W .. T~relfall, Variationsrechnu,ng im Gro88en (B. G. Teubner,
LeIpZIg, 1938), footnote 20, p. 97.

5;

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F. K. MANA SSE AND C. W. MISNER

740

which represents Eq. (24) 111 the yP' coordinate

system.
The definition of Fermi normal coordinates 111
Eq. (25) gives now the transformation law

(30)
By a standard theorem,20 the solutions of ordinary
differential equations are differentiable functions of
the initial conditions, so we have established the
differentiability of yP' (x"). To show the existence
of a differentiable inverse relation xP(y"), representing the coordinate functions xP(P), we must show
20
that the Jacobian layp'/ax"l does not vanish.
The condition of a nonvanishing Jacobian is
precisely the condition that the coordinate axes do
p
not collapse, i.e., that the vectors a/ax be linearly
independent. For, when we form the components of,
say, a/axo in the yP' frame, they areayP'/axo, so that
the determinant formed from the components of the
four vectors a/ax" is

(31)
and J ~ 0 is equivalent to the linear independence
of these vectors. We prove J ~ 0 by showing that,
along the central geodesic G,
(32)
Then, since ep(r) are orthonormal vectors, they are
linearly independent and J ~ 0 on G. By continuity,
then, we have J ~ 0 in some neighborhood of G.
The basic fact we need in order to prove the
equation (a/ax")a = e"(r) in the preceding argument is the description in Fermi normal coordinates
of the geodesics entering their construction. This is
also the basis from which we will compute all other
properties of Fermi normal coordinates. Consider
then the curve P(A) defined in Fermi normal coordinates by
XO

= const,
a

(33)

(a/ax')xj~O = ei(xO) ,

P(A) = her; ail..; 1) = her; a'; A),

(36)

is given by
per)

= her; 0; 1) = her; 0; 0) = her),

(36b)

and is the central geodesic G whose tangent a/ ar

is eo(r). But the components of the tangent (a/ar)
are easily computed from Eq. (36) and give
(a/aXO)xi~O

= eo(xO).

(~32b)

To recapitulate, the question of the Jacobian or

p
of the linear independence of the a/ax , reduces
by Eq. (32) to the linear independence of the ep(r).
But ep(r) are orthonormal, since they are defined
by parallel displacement of the orthonormal vectors
e"(O), and parallel displacement preserves inner
products,
(37)

v.

THE FERMI CONDITIONS

We have actually already proven that in Fermi

normal coordinates the metric is rectangular on G.
For by definition, the metric components are the
matrix of inner products of the base vectors, i.e.,
g",(x")

(a/ax P). (a/ax') ,

(38)

so Eqs. (32) and (37) give

(39)

It may, nevertheless, be instructive to see this

equation arise by applying the tensor transformation
law to the metric components g"'fI'(Yu') of some
original coordinate system yU' :
(40)

(34)

and is, therefore, that geodesic whose tangent a/ aA

is given by Eq. (23b) at the point x' = 0, XO = r
corresponding to A = O. But the components of
ajaA can be computed from Eqs. (33), and are
(a/aA)O = 0 and (a/aA)' = a" so

= a' a/ax'.

(32a)

since the a' are arbitrary. Similarly, from Eqs. (25),

(24), and (23a) we see that the curve PH defined by

= const.

According to Eqs. (25) and (24), this curve is given

by

a/aA

Comparing this with Eq. (23b) gives

(35)

In the central equality here we recalled that

(ay"'/ax")a are the components of (a/ax")a = ep(xO)
in the y", frame.
In order to show that r P " , Ia = 0 holds in Fermi
normal coordinates, we begin by considering the
consequences of the fact that the curve XO = r,
x' = a'A, satisfies the geodesic equation
2

d x"
dA2

P dx" dx fl

+ r" d5: dA
fI

= O.

(41)

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FERMI NORMAL COORDINATES

Substitution gives
(42a)

which holds in particular for A = 0:

(42b)

only two points lying on it. These restrictions on

n are expressed by the equation of geodesic deviation
which is a differential equation satisfied by n along
each geodesic, i.e., as a function of s.
To derive the equation of geodesic deviation, we
begin with the geodesic equation in the form 9

But now the r i / are independent of (Xi and symmetric in i and j, while the (Xi are arbitrary, so
(43)

To show that the other Christoffel symbols vanish,

we recall that each of the vectors e,.(r) satisfies
the equation of parallel displacement along the
central geodesic XO = r, Xi = 0. In general, to
parallel displace a vector u along a curve pet),
one solves the differential equation (linear)

u""r = du"/dt

+ Uara"fltfl.

r/olo =

0.

(45)

Combining Eqs. (43) and (45) gives the second of

the Fermi conditions,

r a"fllG =

O.

os/os

(46)

Since this implies (agafl/aX")O = 0, we have evaluated the first two terms in a Taylor expansion of the
Fermi normal metric. The quadratic terms, which
2
i
require us to evaluate (a ga{Jjax ax i )o, is computed
in Sec. VII, after a diversion to review the computational technique we will use.
VI. EQUATION OF GEODESIC DEVIATIONC721)

The construction of Fermi normal coordinates

involves families of geodesics. Let us consider only
a one-parameter family of geodesics for the present,
say Pen, s), where for each fixed value at n = no,
P(no, s) satisfies the geodesic differential equation
with s as path parameter. The tangent vector
s = ajas can then be thought of as the generator
of infinitesimal translations along geodesic n, while
n = a/an is the generator of infinitesimal translations along a curve pen, so) connecting corresponding
points (same value of s) on adjacent geodesics.
Along a fixed geodesic, n cannot vary arbitrarily,
since the adjacent geodesic can be determined by
21 For physical applications see F. A. E. Pirani,
Acta
Phys. Polon. 15, 389 (1956); Phys. Rev. 105, 1089 (1957);
and J. Weber, General Relativity and Gravitational Waves
(Interscience Publishers, Inc., New York, 1961), Chap. 8.

0,

(47)

where 0/ os is the covariant derivative along s.

This is, of course, just an abbreviation for

s""s'

== ds"/ds

+ S"Ta"fll

0,

(48)

but the more compact notation lets us outline the

derivation without computations. Since Eq. (47)
holds for all values of n, we may differentiate it
to obtain

o~ (~~)

(44)

We may take u to be any of the vectors e.(r) =

(a / ax') a whose components in Fermi normal coordinates are therefore (e.)" = 0/, and t becomes
alar = eo = o/(a/ax~)G. Thus, from Eq. (44) we
obtain

741

(49)

= 0.

As the difference of two geodesic equations, this

should be an equation for the difference vector n,
that is, n should appear differentiated, rather than
as a derivative. The relationship which achieves
this is Eq. (21) which can be written

o=

[n, s] == os/ on -

on/os.

(50)

[The Lie bracket [n, s] vanishes since nand s

parameterize the surface Pen, s).] Before this relation
can be employed in Eq. (49), however, the covariant
derivatives must be written in the opposite order,

-_~on (os)os -_~os (os)

+ {~~
_~
~}s
on
on os
os on '

(51)

or

02n/os2 + [0/ on, %s]s = 0.

(52)

\Vhen the commutator22 of covariant derivatives

here is expressed in terms of the curvature tensor,
this Eq. (52) is the equation of geodesic deviation.
The computation is

{[ 0/ on, 0/ os]s I" = (s", as a) 'flnfl

(s" 'flnfl) , asa

(53)
22 The entire derivation may be regarded as a process
of evaluating the commutators whieh relate Eq. (49) in the
curious form

ono aso(a)_o
as to an equation whose leading term is
o2n asoo(a)
os'
as an .
=

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F. K. MANASSE AND C. W. MISNER

742

where we again use [n, s] = 0. Thus, we find for

the equation of geodesic deviation

f/n P/ ol

+ (saRaP ,pl)n' =

0.

(54)

Let us briefly outline the principal properties of

this equation. It is a second-order, linear, ordinary
differential equation for n as a function of s. In addition to the trivial solution n = 0, it also obviously
has the solution n = s. A perhaps not so obvious
solution which can, however, be easily verified is
n = ss. The solution n = (A's + B')s (where the
adjacent geodesics coincide with the original one
but are parameterized differently) clearly satisfies
ns = As

+ B,

(55)

(58a)
Also using r" a. !a = 0, we note that on G the
definition of the Riemann tensor6 reduces to two
terms, and, in particular, from Eq. (58 a) we find
(58b)
The remaining derivatives of the affine connection
are

r/i.k!a = -iCR/ik

+ R/,k)!a,

(58c)

as we now show by use of the equation of geodesic

deviation. Note that this last equation implies a
symmetry

r/i.k!a + r/k,,!a + r/i.i!G

0,

(58d)

where A and B are constants [A

A'(ss) while
ss = const according to the geodesic equations].
We can further show that every solution n satisfies
Eq. (55) by using the product rule of covariant
differentiation and the geodesic equation

peculiar to these coordinates which follows from the

corresponding "triple symmetry" of the Riemann
tensor.
The family of geodesics peA) = h(T; a'; A) used
in constructing Fermi normal coordinates provides us
with four vectors, a/aT and a/aa/, which (since they
osj os =
to compute
2
2
generate
displacements between adjacent geodesics)
P
a
P
0
0 (on )
oJnP
must each satisfy the equation of geodesic deviation
al (spn) = oi (spnP) = os Sp Ts = s" oi
as functions of A for fixed T, a' [In contrast, peT) =
(56) h(T; a'; A) is not a geodesic unless Aa' = 0, so we
The constant A in Eq. (55) is related to the normal- have no family of geodesics with tangents a/aT
ization of the geodesic parameter, for by using the and neither a/aa' nor a/aA satisfies the equatio~
of .geodesic deviation as a function of T, even for
Lie bracket relation [n, s] = 0, we find
Aa' = 0.] Although there are moderate amounts of
o
on" = s -os" = -1 - a (s s")
computation involved in what follows now, the basic
A = - (8 nP) = s (57)
osP
"os
"on
2an"'
idea is quite simple. In the geodesic deviation equaUnless s s = 0, we can always modify any solution tion (" 02n + Rn = 0") we insert known solutions
(i.e., on
n of the geodesic deviation equation, adding terms n = a/aT or a/aa'. At the point A =
where
r
/,
=
0),
the
second
covariant
derivative
of the form (As + B)s, to obtain a solution satisfying
ns = 0. This modification corresponds to a linear term will reduce to the derivative of a Christoffel
change in the parameterization of the adjacent symbol evaluated on G, and the only other term in
will be the curvature term so we will
geodesic, which is of course consistent with the the equation
. a formula "a r = R", i.e., Eqs. (58).
'
obtam
geodesic equation. According to Eq. (57) the condiThe family of geodesics P = h(T; a'; A) is described
tion n s = is consistent with the standard normalin
Fermi normal coordinates by the equations
ization s s = 1 for geodesic parameters.

VII. QUADRATIC TERMS IN THE FERMI METRIC

A power-series expansion of the metric in Fermi

normal coordinates is determined by the derivatives
(lP";;"'" !a. The linear terms (I", . !a x' were shown
to vanish in Sec. V, where we found that on the
central geodesic G all the Christoffel symbols vanish.
In this section we will compute the quadratic terms,
!(lp . ,i !a x'x', by first computing r/ .. p !a.
Since the equation r" a. = 0 holds for all X O at
x = 0, it may be differentiated with respect to X O
to give

x =

(59)

T,

The components of the deviation vectors n computed using Eq. (17), are then
'

a/aT = a/axo == 00" a/ax",

a/aa' =

A a/ax'

==

AO/

a/ax".

(60)
(61)

Similarly, the vector s tangent to the geodesic is

(62)

We use the components displayed here in the

geodesic deviation equation (54) which in detail

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FERMI NORMAL COORDINATES

becomes

can write the Taylor series

goo = -1
go; = 0
(63)
The case n = alar merely leads to some of Eqs.
(58b) again, so we treat only the cases n = a/ao/.
Then dnu/ds becomes d(t..a/)/dt.. = a/, and
d2n P/dt.. 2 = O.
(63a)
But, since n P = 'AO/ vanishes for t.. = 0, Eq. (63)
is trivial on G unless we divide through by t.. before
setting t.. = O. In order to accomplish this, the
second term in Eq. (63) can be expanded in powers
of t..;

2a/r/;o/ = 2r/;IG (X;

2t..(:t.. r/;(X;)/G
(64a)

Then, at t.. = 0 where

Eq. (63)

= 0, we obtain from

a.

gij =

aj;

iRil;mlG x'x

(66b)

(66c)

VIII. AN EXAMPLE

We compute the Schwarzschild metric to quadratic

order, as in Eq. (66), in Fermi normal coordinates
surrounding a radial geodesic. In Schwarzschild
coordinates, which we will call yP' or T, R, e, q"
the metric components gp", are displayed in the form
ds 2 = gp,., dyl" dy"

= -X dT 2 + X-I dR 2

+ R2 de 2
+ R2 sin e dq,2,

+ r/

k i )

IG = -i(R/' h

+ R/.i)/G

(64 c)

+ r/ . k)IG

-i(R/;.

+ R/ik)/G,

(68)

+ r/; .)IG

To find the equations of a radial geodesic, T(t),

e and q, constant, one may replace the
geodesic equations by two first integrals; one is
the normalization of proper time

R(t), with

(64d)

and subtracting another,

(69)

and the other is a dimensionless energy parameter

-iCR'\i

+ R/.k)/G'

which yields RCt) by quadratures, and expresses k

of the metric. (The primes here indicate derivatives
with respect to proper time t along this geodesic.)
Eliminating T' gives

we find by differentiation that

(64g)

Thus, Eqs. (58) imply that

+ Rimil)IG'

(65b)
(65c)

To summarize all the information we have obtained

about the metric in Fermi normal coordinates, we

+ R,2

R = tRo(l

and that, for gPP.';/G, we have

gOk.ii/O = f(R oik + ROik;)/G,

= X

1 - 2M/Ro,

(71)

which yields R(t) by quadratures, and expresses k

in terms of the maximum radius R o along the path,
where R' = O. The integration gives a cycloid

(64h)

(65a)

(70)

k = XT',

(64 e)

The result, after using the symmetry of the connection r / = r. a p, is just Eq. (58c).
From the definition of Christoffel symbols,

gl ... ii/O = iCRilim

(67)

where

X = 1 - 2M/R.

This equation can be solved for r/ i . k / G by adding

to it one cyclic permutation,

(r/".i

(66a)

Here the dependence of the metric on the spatial

coordinates Xi is shown explicitly, while its dependence on X O is contained entirely in the curvature
components which are evaluated at Xi = 0 for
each xo.

or

(r;\ .

+ ROlom/G xlxm +
+ fRolimlG xlxm +

(64b)

(r/;.k

743

+ cosw),

tRo(Ro/2M)!(w

+ sin w).

(72)

Either R or the cycloid parameter w can be used

in place of proper time t to identify points on this
geodesic, and thus serve as a time coordinate in
the comoving frame. Thus,
dt

2
=

dR
Ro R2
2M/R _ 2M/Ro = 2M

..1 .. 2

uw

(73)

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F. K. MANASSE AND C. W. MISNER

744

After choosing a geodesic, the next step in constructing Fermi normal coordinates is to choose
an orthonormal frame along the geodesic. The
time like base vector must be the tangent a/at,
and the symmetry of the present example determines
the others. Thus,

+ R' alaR,
a/aT + XT' alaR,

eo = a/atla = T' a/aT

e l = a/axla = X-1R'

(74)

e z = a/ayla = l/R alae,

e a = a/azla

l/R sin e a/aif>,

where x~ or xyzt are to be Fermi normal coordinates.

It is also easily verified from the components (eaY'
displayed here that these vectors satisfy the necessary parallel transport condition

We must now compute the curvatures in the

Fermi frame by the tensor transformation law
Ra~~. = R#"'U'T,(e a)"' (e~r' (eX' (e.),',

(76)

which states that a tensor component is the contraction of the tensor with the base vectors indicated
by the indices. The Fermi base vectors e a we
have in Eq. (74), while the curvature components
R#"'U'T' with respect to the Schwarz schild frame
are well known as

3
Rl '0'1 '0' = 2JJ1/R ,
R3'0'3'0' = -(MX/R) sin e,
2

R l '2'1'2' = M/RX,

(77)

R2'o'2'0'

-MX/R,

R 2 '3'2'3'

-2MR sin2 e,

R l '3'1'3'

(M/RX) sin2

RZ020

= R 3030

[1 + %(y2 + l

2M

+ :ry dx dy

- 3R3 [xz dx dz

[1 + ~3

- 2X2) ] dt 2

(y2

+ l)

Jdx

- 2yz dy dz]

M 3 (x 2 + [ 1 + ;m

2z2)J dy 2

M ( 2
+ [ 1 + 3R

2y 2)J dz 2.

(79)

The entire dependence of this metric on t is through

the geodesic equation (72) which gives R(t).
A more compact form for the Fermi metric (79)
is obtained by introducing spherical coordinates
r, 8, cp related to x, y, z by the standard formulas.
Taking the x direction as the polar axis we get a
diagonal metric,

ds 2 = - (1 - qJ.L) dt 2 + dr 2

+ (1 + iJ.L)(r d8)2

- iJ.L)(r sin 8 dcp?,

(SO)

where

e.

J.L = Mr z/R 3 ,

(7S)

Some of the simplicity of Eq. (7S) as compared to

Eq. (77) was, of course, to be expected, for the Fermi
frame is orthonormal so that all components must
at least have the same dimensions, and the equivalence of the e and if> directions must become
evident. However, a very surprising feature is that

(Sla)

and

= - M / R\

di = -

+ (1 + iqJ.L

(Here and below, only the independent nonvanishing

components are listed.) The computation then yields
R 1010 = 2"A1/R

the gravitational field gradients in Eq. (7S) depend

on the observer's position R, but not upon his
velocity R' (or energy k) with respect to the mass
M. Thus the preferred rest frame indicated locally
by the Killing vector field a/aT cannot be recognized
by an observer who measures all the gravitational
field gradients (7S) at one point. He can only
discover the direction of the vector a/a T by finding
a velocity (i.e. direction in the R - T plane) which
makes the field gradients constant in time, i.e.,
by measuring R~,uT;a.
The Fermi normal metric from Eq. (66) is

3 cos 2 8 -

1.

(SIb)

Again, R must be considered the function of t given

in Eqs (72), or equivalently one may take R as the
time coordinate and use Eq. (73) to eliminate dt 2
in favor of dR 2 in Eq. (SO).
In the following papers this metric provides
boundary conditions for a computation of tidal
deformations of a freely falling Schwarzschild
singularity (wormhole mouth). It is also evidently
well suited to a calculation of tides in an elastic
test body whose center of mass would define the
geodesic Xi = O. We content ourselves here with

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FERMI NORMAL COORDINATES

a mathematical example and investigate the shape

of a sphere. Define a sphere ~ as the surface formed
by all points a fixed proper distance r measured out
orthogonally from some point on the central geodesic.
For the coordinates of Eq. (80) this is the surface
t = const, r = const, whose metric is, therefore,
(M) ~ = (1

+ tll)(r dO)2
+

(1

tqll - tll)(r sin 0 dtp)2.

(82a)

From this metric we find that the area of the sphere

~ is just 411"r", independent of the small quantity
Il = M r2 / R3 in first order, but a change in intrinsic
shape can be readily computed. The length of a
great circle tp = const over the poles of this sphere is
L po1e , = r

f~

(1

+ tll)t dO ~ 27rT(1 + ill).

Similarly, the circumference of the equator,

1

(82b)

e=

211", IS

But if we assume that the quadratic terms in (84)

are an adequate approximation to the metric, then
the cubic terms must be negligible in comparison
to the quadratic ones,
r aK
K a;: 1.

1)

L po1e ,
Lpoles

Lequsto,

~ !!:. =

Lequato,

Mr;.

(83)

(84)

where r is proper distance normal to the geodesic,

t is proper time along the geodesic, and K represents
a typical component of the curvature tensor. For
this metric, the ratio of time to space derivatives
(computed from the r2 term only) is

ag/at
r aK
ag/ar = K a;:'

(87)

for in the contrary case, a disturbance would appear

spontaneously at some point (aK/at large) without
having arrived there as a wave propagating with
velocity less than c = 1. Thus the quadratic Fermi
approximation (86) together with causality in the
sense of Eq. (87) imply in Eq. (85) the adiabatic
condition

ag/at

ag/ar.

(88)

These results can be specialized to the Schwarzschild case and give some surprises. For this metric
we have from Eq. (78)
(89)

Using Eqs. (74) for a/at and a/ax we can test the
causality conditions (87) and find that it reads

x~, = [(2: - ~)/(1 - ~~)J ~ 1,

In this section we point out that in most situations

where the Fermi metric expanded through quadratic
terms is a useful description, the time dependence
of the metric can be considered adiabatic, that is,
time derivatives of the metric will be negligible in
comparison to space derivatives. Order of magnitudewise, the Fermi metric can be written

~ 1 + r2K(t) + r3 ~~I + 0(r4),

aK/ar,

K = J1!j /R 3

IX. RANGE OF VALIDITY OF THE

FERMI EXPANSION

:s

aK/at

4R

Thus, a sphere r = const is a surface shaped like

a football pointing toward the center of gravitation.

(86)

This small quantity is almost the one appearing in

Eq. (85), except a space and time derivative are
interchanged. But as a sort of causality condition,
one expects that

(82 c)
As a measure of the distortion of the shape of this
sphere, then, we may take

745

(85)

(90)

which is always violated for R < 2M. [Other situations which violate the causality condition of Eq.
(87) are the expanding-universe cosmological models
where one assumes aK/ar = O.J A condition which
will ensure the validity of the Fermi expansion is
Kr2 = Mr2/R3

1,

(91)

and this can be satisfied by taking (r / R) small

enough even if (M/R) is large. Thus the Fermi
expansion is useful even inside the Schwarzschild
"singularity." The adiabatic condition computed
from Eqs. (85) and (74) reads

ag/at
ag/ar

FiR

(Mr2) ,
R3

1,

(92)

and is satisfied as a consequence of Eq. (91) which

is a stronger convergence requirement than Eq. (86).

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