Equivalent Circuits and Parameters of Power System Plant

5
Equivalent Circuits and Parameters

of Power System Plant
Introduction
5.1
Synchronous machines
5.2
Armature reaction
5.3
Steady state theory
5.4
Salient pole rotor
5.5
Transient analysis
5.6
Asymmetry
5.7
Machine reactances
5.8
Negative sequence reactance
5.9
Zero sequence reactance 5.10

Direct and quadrature axis values
5.11
Effect of saturation on machine reactances 5.12

Transformers 5.13
Transformer positive sequence equivalent circuits 5.14
Transformer zero sequence equivalent circuits 5.15
Auto-transformers 5.16
Transformer impedances 5.17
Overhead lines and cables 5.18
Calculation of series impedance 5.19
Calculation of shunt impedance 5.20
Overhead line circuits with or without earth wires 5.21
OHL equivalent circuits 5.22
Cable circuits 5.23
Overhead line and cable data 5.24
References 5.25
5 Equivalent Circuits and Parameters

of Power System Plant
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Knowledge of the behaviour of the principal electrical
system plant items under normal and fault conditions is
a prerequisite for the proper application of protection.
This chapter summarises basic synchronous machine,
transformer and transmission line theory and gives
equivalent circuits and parameters so that a fault study
can be successfully completed before the selection and
application of the protection systems described in later
chapters. Only what might be referred to as 'traditional'
synchronous machine theory is covered, as that is all that
calculations for fault level studies generally require.
Readers interested in more advanced models of
synchronous machines are referred to the numerous
papers on the subject, of which reference [5.1] is a good
starting point.
Power system plant may be divided into two broad
groups - static and rotating.
The modelling of static plant for fault level calculations
provides few difficulties, as plant parameters generally
do not change during the period of interest following
fault inception. The problem in modelling rotating plant
is that the parameters change depending on the
response to a change in power system conditions.
5.2 SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

There are two main types of synchronous machine:
cylindrical rotor and salient pole. In general, the former
is confined to 2 and 4 pole turbine generators, while
salient pole types are built with 4 poles upwards and
include most classes of duty. Both classes of machine
are similar in so far that each has a stator carrying a
three-phase winding distributed over its inner periphery.
Within the stator bore is carried the rotor which is
magnetised by a winding carrying d.c. current.
The essential difference between the two classes of
machine lies in the rotor construction. The cylindrical
rotor type has a uniformly cylindrical rotor that carries
its excitation winding distributed over a number of slots
Network Protection & Automation Guide
47
around its periphery. This construction is unsuited to

multi-polar machines but it is very sound mechanically.
Hence it is particularly well adapted for the highest
speed electrical machines and is universally employed for
2 pole units, plus some 4 pole units.
most common. Two-stroke diesel engines are often

derivatives of marine designs with relatively large outputs
(circa 30MW is possible) and may have running speeds of
the order of 125rpm. This requires a generator with a
large number of poles (48 for a 125rpm, 50Hz generator)
and consequently is of large diameter and short axial
length. This is a contrast to turbine-driven machines that
are of small diameter and long axial length.
Equivalent Circuits and Parameters of Power System Plant
The salient pole type has poles that are physically

separate, each carrying a concentrated excitation
winding. This type of construction is in many ways
complementary to that of the cylindrical rotor and is
employed in machines having 4 poles or more. Except in
special cases its use is exclusive in machines having more
than 6 poles. Figure 5.1 illustrates a typical large
cylindrical rotor generator installed in a power plant.
Two and four pole generators are most often used in

applications where steam or gas turbines are used as the
driver. This is because the steam turbine tends to be
suited to high rotational speeds. Four pole steam turbine
generators are most often found in nuclear power
stations as the relative wetness of the steam makes the
high rotational speed of a two-pole design unsuitable.
Most generators with gas turbine drivers are four pole
machines to obtain enhanced mechanical strength in the
rotor- since a gearbox is often used to couple the power
turbine to the generator, the choice of synchronous
speed of the generator is not subject to the same
constraints as with steam turbines.
Weak
Generators with diesel engine drivers are invariably of

four or more pole design, to match the running speed of
the driver without using a gearbox. Four-stroke diesel
engines usually have a higher running speed than twostroke engines, so generators having four or six poles are
Strong
Weak
Strong
S
Direction of rotation
(a)
(b)
Figure 5.2: Distortion of flux

due to armature reaction
Figure 5.1: Large synchronous generator
48
Armature reaction has the greatest effect on the

operation of a synchronous machine with respect both to
the load angle at which it operates and to the amount of
excitation that it needs. The phenomenon is most easily
explained by considering a simplified ideal generator
with full pitch winding operating at unity p.f., zero lag
p.f. and zero lead p.f. When operating at unity p.f., the
voltage and current in the stator are in phase, the stator
current producing a cross magnetising magneto-motive
force (m.m.f.) which interacts with that of the rotor,
resulting in a distortion of flux across the pole face. As
can be seen from Figure 5.2(a) the tendency is to weaken
the flux at the leading edge or effectively to distort the
field in a manner equivalent to a shift against the
direction of rotation.
'armature reaction reactance' and is denoted by Xad.

Similarly, the remaining side of the triangle becomes
ATf /ATe , which is the per unit voltage produced on
open circuit by ampere-turns ATf . It can be considered
as the internal generated voltage of the machine and is
designated Eo .
Et(=V)
I
ATe
ATar
ATf
(a)
ATar
ATe
ATf
ATe
If the power factor were reduced to zero lagging, the

current in the stator would reach its maximum 90 after
the voltage and the rotor would therefore be in the
position shown in Figure 5.2(b). The stator m.m.f. is now
acting in direct opposition to the field.
Et=1=V
I
ATe
ATar
ATf
(b)
Eo
Similarly, for operation at zero leading power factor, the

stator m.m.f. would directly assist the rotor m.m.f. This
m.m.f. arising from current flowing in the stator is known
as 'armature reaction'.
IXad IX
d
EL
IXL
V
I
(c)
5 . 4 . S T E A DY S TAT E T H E O R Y
The vector diagram of a single cylindrical rotor
synchronous machine is shown in Figure 5.3, assuming
that the magnetic circuit is unsaturated, the air-gap is
uniform and all variable quantities are sinusoidal.
Further, since the reactance of machines is normally very
much larger than the resistance, the latter has been
neglected.
The excitation ampere-turns, ATe, produces a flux
across the air-gap thereby inducing a voltage, Et, in the
stator. This voltage drives a current I at a power factor
cos-1 and gives rise to an armature reaction m.m.f. ATar
in phase with it. The m.m.f. ATf resulting from the
combination of these two m.m.f. vectors (see Figure
5.3(a)) is the excitation which must be provided on the
rotor to maintain flux across the air-gap. Rotating the
rotor m.m.f. diagram, Figure 5.3(a), clockwise until
coincides with Et and changing the scale of the diagram
so that ATe becomes the basic unit, where ATe = Et =1,
results in Figure 5.3(b). The m.m.f. vectors have thus
become, in effect, voltage vectors. For example
ATar /ATe is a unit of voltage that is directly proportional
to the stator load current. This vector can be fully
represented by a reactance and in practice this is called
Figure 5.3: Vector diagram

of synchronous machine
The true leakage reactance of the stator winding which

gives rise to a voltage drop or regulation has been
neglected. This reactance is designated XL (or Xa in
some texts) and the voltage drop occurring in it, IXL, is
the difference between the terminal voltage V and the
voltage behind the stator leakage reactance, EL.
5 . 3 A R M AT U R E R E A C T I O N
IZL is exactly in phase with the voltage drop due to Xad,

as shown on the vector diagram Figure 5.3(c). It should
be noted that Xad and XL can be combined to give a
simple equivalent reactance; this is known as the
'synchronous reactance', denoted by Xd.
The power generated by the machine is given by the
equation:
P = VI cos =
VE
sin
Xd
Equation 5.1
where is the angle between the internal voltage and

the terminal voltage and is known as the load angle of
the machine.
49
It follows from the above analysis that, for steady state

performance, the machine may be represented by the
equivalent circuit shown in Figure 5.4, where XL is a true
reactance associated with flux leakage around the stator
winding and Xad is a fictitious reactance, being the ratio
of armature reaction and open-circuit excitation
magneto-motive forces.
Xad
The vector diagram for the salient pole machine is similar

to that for the cylindrical rotor except that the reactance
and currents associated with them are split into two
components. The synchronous reactance for the direct
axis is Xd = Xad + XL, while that in the quadrature axis
is Xq = Xaq + XL. The vector diagram is constructed as
before but the appropriate quantities in this case are
resolved along two axes. The resultant internal voltage
is Eo, as shown in Figure 5.6.
Figure 5.4: Equivalent circuit

of elementary machine
In passing it should be noted that E 0 is the internal

voltage which would be given, in cylindrical rotor theory,
by vectorially adding the simple vectors IXd and V. There
is very little difference in magnitude between E0 and E0
but a substantial difference in internal angle; the simple
theory is perfectly adequate for calculation of excitation
currents but not for stability considerations where load
angle is significant.
In practice, due to necessary constructional features of a

cylindrical rotor to accommodate the windings, the
reactance Xa is not constant irrespective of rotor
position, and modelling proceeds as for a generator with
a salient pole rotor. However, the numerical difference
between the values of Xad and Xaq is small, much less
than for the salient pole machine.
5 . 5 S A L I E N T P O L E R OTO R
IqXq
IdXd
The preceding theory is limited to the cylindrical rotor

generator. The basic assumption that the air-gap is
uniform is very obviously not valid when a salient pole
rotor is being considered. The effect of this is that the flux
produced by armature reaction m.m.f. depends on the
position of the rotor at any instant, as shown in Figure 5.5.
EO
IXd
E'O
Flux
Lead
Armature
reaction M.M.F.
Flux
Qu rature axis
Quadr
Lag
Dire
rect axis poole
XL
Et
Eo
When a pole is aligned with the assumed sine wave

m.m.f. set up by the stator, a corresponding sine wave
flux will be set up, but when an inter-polar gap is aligned
very severe distortion is caused. The difference is treated
by considering these two axes, that is those
corresponding to the pole and the inter-polar gap,
separately. They are designated the 'direct' and
'quadrature' axes respectively, and the general theory is
known as the 'two axis' theory.
Iq
Id
Pole axis
Figure 5.5: Variation of armature reaction m.m.f.

with pole position
Figure 5.6: Vector diagram

for salient pole machine
50
5 . 6 T R A N S I E N T A N A LY S I S
XL
For normal changes in load conditions, steady state

theory is perfectly adequate. However, there are
occasions when almost instantaneous changes are
involved, such as faults or switching operations. When
this happens new factors are introduced within the
machine and to represent these adequately a
corresponding new set of machine characteristics is
required.
Xad
(a) Synchronous reactance

XL
Xf
Xad
This voltage will be generated by a flux crossing the airgap. It is not possible to confine the flux to one path
exclusively in any machine, and as a result there will be
a leakage flux L that will leak from pole to pole and
across the inter-polar gaps without crossing the main
air-gap as shown in Figure 5.7. The flux in the pole will
be + L.
The generally accepted and most simple way to

appreciate the meaning and derivation of these
characteristics is to consider a sudden three-phase short
circuit applied to a machine initially running on open
circuit and excited to normal voltage E0.
(b) Transient reactance

XL
Xad
Xf
Xkd
(c) Subtransient reactance

Figure 5.8: Synchronous machine reactances
It might be expected that the fault current would be

given by E0 /(XL+Xad) equal to E0/Xd , but this is very
much reduced, and the machine is operating with no
saturation. For this reason, the value of voltage used is
the value read from the air-gap line corresponding to
normal excitation and is rather higher than the normal
voltage. The steady state current is given by:
Id =
Figure 5.7: Flux paths of salient pole machine
If the stator winding is then short-circuited, the power

factor in it will be zero. A heavy current will tend to
flow, as the resulting armature reaction m.m.f. is
demagnetising. This will reduce the flux and conditions
will settle until the armature reaction nearly balances
the excitation m.m.f., the remainder maintaining a very
much reduced flux across the air-gap which is just
sufficient to generate the voltage necessary to overcome
the stator leakage reactance (resistance neglected). This
is the simple steady state case of a machine operating on
short circuit and is fully represented by the equivalent of
Figure 5.8(a); see also Figure 5.4.
Eg
Xd
Equation 5.2
where Eg = voltage on air gap line

An important point to note now is that between the
initial and final conditions there has been a severe
reduction of flux. The rotor carries a highly inductive
winding which links the flux so that the rotor flux
linkages before the short circuit are produced by
( + L). In practice the leakage flux is distributed over
the whole pole and all of it does not link all the winding.
L is an equivalent concentrated flux imagined to link all
the winding and of such a magnitude that the total
linkages are equal to those actually occurring. It is a
fundamental principle that any attempt to change the
flux linked with such a circuit will cause current to flow
in a direction that will oppose the change. In the present
case the flux is being reduced and so the induced
currents will tend to sustain it.
51
The damper winding(s) is subjected to the full effect of

flux transfer to leakage paths and will carry an induced
current tending to oppose it. As long as this current can
flow, the air-gap flux will be held at a value slightly
higher than would be the case if only the excitation
winding were present, but still less than the original
open circuit flux .
As before, it is convenient to use rated voltage and to
create another fictitious reactance that is considered to
be effective over this period. This is known as the 'subtransient reactance' X d and is defined by the equation:
Sub-transient current I d = Eo
X ''d
It is more convenient for machine analysis to use the

rated voltage E0 and to invent a fictitious reactance that
will give rise to the same current. This reactance is
called the 'transient reactance' Xd and is defined by the
equation:
Transient current I 'd =
Eo
X 'd
where X ''d = X L +
X ad X f X kd
X ad X f + X kd X f + X ad X kd
Xd = XL + Xkd
or
and Xkd = leakage reactance of damper winding(s)
Equation 5.3
Xkd = effective leakage reactance of damper winding(s)
It is greater than XL, and the equivalent circuit is

represented by Figure 5.8(b) where:
X 'd =
Equation 5.4
It is greater than XL but less than Xd and the

corresponding equivalent circuit is shown in Figure
5.8(c).
X ad X f
+XL
X ad + X f
Again, the duration of this phase depends upon the time

constant of the damper winding. In practice this is
approximately 0.05 seconds - very much less than the
transient - hence the term 'sub-transient'.
and X f is the leakage reactance of the field winding

The above equation may also be written as:
Xd = XL + Xf
Figure 5.9 shows the envelope of the symmetrical

component of an armature short circuit current
indicating the values described in the preceding analysis.
The analysis of the stator current waveform resulting
from a sudden short circuit test is traditionally the
where Xf = effective leakage reactance of field winding

The flux will only be sustained at its relatively high value
while the induced current flows in the field winding. As
this current decays, so conditions will approach the
steady state. Consequently, the duration of this phase
will be determined by the time constant of the excitation
winding. This is usually of the order of a second or less
- hence the term 'transient' applied to characteristics
associated with it.
Current
For the position immediately following the application of

the short circuit, it is valid to assume that the flux linked
with the rotor remains constant, this being brought
about by an induced current in the rotor which balances
the heavy demagnetising effect set up by the shortcircuited armature. So ( + L) remains constant, but
owing to the increased m.m.f. involved, the flux leakage
will increase considerably. With a constant total rotor
flux, this can only increase at the expense of that flux
crossing the air-gap. Consequently, this generates a
reduced voltage, which, acting on the leakage reactance,
gives the short circuit current.
A further point now arises. All synchronous machines

have what is usually called a damper winding or
windings. In some cases, this may be a physical winding
(like a field winding, but of fewer turns and located
separately), or an effective one (for instance, the solid
iron rotor of a cylindrical rotor machine). Sometimes,
both physical and effective damper windings may exist
(as in some designs of cylindrical rotor generators,
having both a solid iron rotor and a physical damper
winding located in slots in the pole faces).
I''d =
Eo
X''d
I'd =
Eo
X'd
Id =
Eair gap
Xd
Under short circuit conditions, there is a transfer of flux

from the main air-gap to leakage paths. This diversion is,
to a small extent, opposed by the excitation winding and
the main transfer will be experienced towards the pole tips.
Time
Figure 5.9: Transient decay envelope

of short-circuit current
52
method by which these reactances are measured.

However, the major limitation is that only direct axis
parameters are measured. Detailed test methods for
synchronous machines are given in references [5.2] and
[5.3], and include other tests that are capable of
providing more detailed parameter information.
in opposite directions at supply frequency relative to the

rotor. So, as viewed from the stator, one is stationary
and the other rotating at twice supply frequency. The
latter sets up second harmonic currents in the stator.
Further development along these lines is possible but the
resulting harmonics are usually negligible and normally
neglected.
5.7 ASYMMETRY
Table 5.1 gives values of machine reactances for salient
pole and cylindrical rotor machines typical of latest
design practice. Also included are parameters for
synchronous compensators such machines are now
rarely built, but significant numbers can still be found in
operation.
5.8.1 Synchronous Reactance Xd = XL + Xad
The order of magnitude of XL is normally 0.1-0.25p.u.,
while that of Xad is 1.0-2.5p.u. The leakage reactance XL
can be reduced by increasing the machine size (derating),
or increased by artificially increasing the slot leakage,
but it will be noted that XL is only about 10% of the
total value of Xd and cannot exercise much influence.
The armature reaction reactance can be reduced by
decreasing the armature reaction of the machine, which
in design terms means reducing the ampere conductor or
electrical (as distinct from magnetic) loading - this will
often mean a physically larger machine. Alternatively
the excitation needed to generate open-circuit voltage
may be increased; this is simply achieved by increasing
the machine air-gap, but is only possible if the excitation
system is modified to meet the increased requirements.
This asymmetry can be considered to be due to a d.c.

component of current which dies away because
resistance is present.
The d.c. component of stator current sets up a d.c. field
in the stator which causes a supply frequency ripple on
the field current, and this alternating rotor flux has a
further effect on the stator. This is best shown by
considering the supply frequency flux as being
represented by two half magnitude waves each rotating
In general, control of Xd is obtained almost entirely by

varying Xad, and in most cases a reduction in Xd will
mean a larger and more costly machine. It is also worth
Cylindrical rotor turbine generators
Type of machine
Short circuit ratio
Direct axis synchronous reactance Xd (p.u.)
Quadrature axis synchronous reactance Xq (p.u.)
Direct axis transient reactance Xd (p.u.)
Direct axis sub-transient reactance Xd (p.u.)
Quadrature axis sub-transient reactance Xq (p.u.)
Negative sequence reactance X2 (p.u.)
Zero sequence reactance X0 (p.u.)
Direct axis short circuit transient time constant Td (s)
Direct axis open circuit transient time constant Tdo (s)
Direct axis short circuit sub-transient- time constant Td (s)
4 Pole I
Multi-Pole
Salient pole generators
Air Cooled
Hydrogen
Cooled
Hydrogen/
Water Cooled
4 Pole
Multi-pole
0.5-0.7
1.6-2.0
1.0-1.23
0.3-0.5
0.2-0.4
0.25-0.6
0.25-0.5
0.12-0.16
1.5-2.5
5-10
1.0-1.2
0.8-1.0
0.5-0.65
0.2-0.35
0.12-0.25
0.15-0.25
0.14-0.35
0.06-0.10
1.0-2.0
3-7
0.4-0.6
2.0-2.8
1.8-2.7
0.2-0.3
0.15-0.23
0.16-0.25
0.16-0.23
0.06-0.1
0.6-1.3
6-12
0.4-0.6
2.1-2.4
1.9-2.4
0.27-0.33
0.19-0.23
0.19-0.23
0.19-0.24
0.1-0.15
0.7-1.0
6-10
0.4-0.6
2.1-2.6
2.0-2.5
0.3-0.36
0.21-0.27
0.21-0.28
0.21-0.27
0.1-0.15
0.75-1.0
6-9.5
0.4-0.6
1.75-3.0
0.9-1.5
0.26-0.35
0.19-0.25
0.19-0.35
0.16-0.27
0.01-0.1
0.4-1.1
3.0-9.0
0.6-0.8
1.4-1.9
0.8-1.0
0.24-0.4
0.16-0.25
0.18-0.24
0.16-0.23
0.045-0.23
0.25-1
1.7-4.0
Direct axis open circuit sub-transient time constant Tdo(s)

Quadrature axis short circuit sub-transient time constant Tq (s)
0.04-0.9
0.07-0.11
0.04-0.6
0.05-0.10
0.08-0.25
0.05-0.6
0.013-0.022
0.018-0.03
0.013-0.022
0.017-0.025
0.023-0.032
0.018-0.027
0.022-0.03
0.025-0.035
0.02-0.03
0.02-0.04
0.035-0.06
0.025-0.04
0.02-0.06
0.03-0.1
0.025-0.08
Quadrature axis open circuit sub-transient time constant Tqo (s)
0.1-0.2
0.2-0.9
0.026-0.045
0.03-0.05
0.04-0.065
0.13-0.2
0.1-0.35
NB all reactance values are unsaturated.
Table 5.1: Typical synchronous generator parameters
53
5 . 8 M A C H I N E R E A C TA N C E S
The exact instant at which the short circuit is applied to

the stator winding is of significance. If resistance is
negligible compared with reactance, the current in a coil
will lag the voltage by 90, that is, at the instant when
the voltage wave attains a maximum, any current
flowing through would be passing through zero. If a
short circuit were applied at this instant, the resulting
current would rise smoothly and would be a simple a.c.
component. However, at the moment when the induced
voltage is zero, any current flowing must pass through a
maximum (owing to the 90 lag). If a fault occurs at this
moment, the resulting current will assume the
corresponding relationship; it will be at its peak and in
the ensuing 180 will go through zero to maximum in
the reverse direction and so on. In fact the current must
actually start from zero and so will follow a sine wave
that is completely asymmetrical. Intermediate positions
will give varying degrees of asymmetry.
rise to parasitic currents and heating; most machines are

quite limited in the amount of such current which they
are able to carry, both in the steady state and
transiently.
noting that XL normally changes in sympathy with Xad,

but that it is completely overshadowed by it.
The value 1/Xd has a special significance as it
approximates to the short circuit ratio (S.C.R.), the only
difference being that the S.C.R. takes saturation into
account whereas Xd is derived from the air-gap line.
An accurate calculation of the negative sequence current

capability of a generator involves consideration of the
current paths in the rotor body. In a turbine generator
rotor, for instance, they include the solid rotor body, slot
wedges, excitation winding and end-winding retaining
rings. There is a tendency for local over-heating to occur
and, although possible for the stator, continuous local
temperature measurement is not practical in the rotor.
Calculation requires complex mathematical techniques
to be applied, and involves specialist software.
5.8.2 Transient Reactance Xd = XL + Xf
The transient reactance covers the behaviour of a

machine in the period 0.1-3.0 seconds after a
disturbance. This generally corresponds to the speed of
changes in a system and therefore Xd has a major
influence in transient stability studies.
Generally, the leakage reactance XL is equal to the

effective field leakage reactance Xf, about 0.1-0.25p.u.
The principal factor determining the value of Xf is the
field leakage. This is largely beyond the control of the
designer, in that other considerations are at present more
significant than field leakage and hence take precedence
in determining the field design.
In practice an empirical method is used, based on the

fact that a given type of machine is capable of carrying,
for short periods, an amount of heat determined by its
thermal capacity, and for a long period, a rate of heat
input which it can dissipate continuously. Synchronous
machines are designed to be capable of operating
continuously on an unbalanced system such that, with
none of the phase currents exceeding the rated current,
the ratio of the negative sequence current I2 to the rated
current IN does not exceed the values given in Table 5.2.
Under fault conditions, the machine shall also be capable
2
of operation with the product of I 2 and time in
IN
seconds (t) not exceeding the values given.
XL can be varied as already outlined, and, in practice,

control of transient reactance is usually achieved by
varying XL
5.8.3 Sub-transient Reactance Xd = XL + Xkd
The sub-transient reactance determines the initial
current peaks following a disturbance and in the case of
a sudden fault is of importance for selecting the breaking
capacity of associated circuit breakers. The mechanical
stresses on the machine reach maximum values that
depend on this constant. The effective damper winding
leakage reactance Xkd is largely determined by the
leakage of the damper windings and control of this is
only possible to a limited extent. Xkd normally has a
value between 0.05 and 0.15 p.u. The major factor is XL
which, as indicated previously, is of the order of 0.1-0.25
p.u., and control of the sub-transient reactance is
normally achieved by varying XL.
Rotor
construction
Salient
It should be noted that good transient stability is

obtained by keeping the value of Xd low, which
therefore also implies a low value of Xd. The fault rating
of switchgear, etc. will therefore be relatively high. It is
not normally possible to improve transient stability
performance in a generator without adverse effects on
fault levels, and vice versa.
Cylindrical
Rotor Cooling
motors
generators
indirect
synchronous
condensers
motors
generators
direct
synchronous
condensers
indirectly cooled (air)
all
indirectly cooled (hydrogen)
all
<=350
351-900
directly cooled
901-1250
1251-1600
5 . 9 N E G AT I V E S E Q U E N C E R E A C TA N C E
Negative sequence currents can arise whenever there is
any unbalance present in the system. Their effect is to
set up a field rotating in the opposite direction to the
main field generated by the rotor winding, so subjecting
the rotor to double frequency flux pulsations. This gives
Machine
Type (SN)
/Rating
(MVA)
Note 1: Calculate as
I2
S -350
= 0.08- N
IN
3 x 104
Note 2: Calculate as
()
Maximum
Maximum
(I2/IN)2t for
I2/IN for
continuous operation during
faults
operation
0.1
0.08
20
20
0.1
20
0.08
0.05
15
15
0.08
15
0.1
0.1
0.08
Note 1
Note 1
0.05
15
10
8
Note 2
5
5
I2 2
t = 8-0.00545(SN-350)
IN
Table 5.2: Unbalanced operating conditions for synchronous machines

(from IEC 60034-1)
54
If a machine is operating with an earthed neutral, a

system earth fault will give rise to zero sequence
currents in the machine. This reactance represents the
machine's contribution to the total impedance offered to
these currents. In practice it is generally low and often
outweighed by other impedances present in the circuit.
5.11 DIRECT AND QUADRATURE AXIS VALUES
The transient reactance is associated with the field
winding and since on salient pole machines this is
concentrated on the direct axis, there is no
corresponding quadrature axis value. The value of
reactance applicable in the quadrature axis is the
synchronous reactance, that is, Xq = Xq.
The damper winding (or its equivalent) is more widely
spread and hence the sub-transient reactance associated
with this has a definite quadrature axis value Xq, which
differs significantly in many generators from Xd.
5.12 EFFECT OF SATURATION
ON MACHINE REACTANCES
In general, any electrical machine is designed to avoid
severe saturation of its magnetic circuit. However, it is
not economically possible to operate at such low flux
densities as to reduce saturation to negligible
proportions, and in practice a moderate degree of
saturation is accepted.
Since the armature reaction reactance Xad is a ratio
ATar /ATe it is evident that ATe will not vary in a linear
manner for different voltages, while ATar will remain
unchanged. The value of Xad will vary with the degree of
saturation present in the machine, and for extreme
accuracy should be determined for the particular
conditions involved in any calculation.
It is necessary to distinguish which value of reactance is

being measured when on test. The normal instantaneous
short circuit test carried out from rated open circuit
voltage gives a current that is usually several times full
load value, so that saturation is present and the
reactance measured will be the saturated value. This
value is also known as the 'rated voltage' value since it is
measured by a short circuit applied with the machine
excited to rated voltage.
In some cases, if it is wished to avoid the severe
mechanical strain to which a machine is subjected by
such a direct short circuit, the test may be made from a
suitably reduced voltage so that the initial current is
approximately full load value. Saturation is very much
reduced and the reactance values measured are virtually
unsaturated values. They are also known as 'rated
current' values, for obvious reasons.
5.13 TRANSFORMERS
A transformer may be replaced in a power system by an
equivalent circuit representing the self-impedance of,
and the mutual coupling between, the windings. A twowinding transformer can be simply represented as a 'T'
network in which the cross member is the short-circuit
impedance, and the column the excitation impedance. It
is rarely necessary in fault studies to consider excitation
impedance as this is usually many times the magnitude
of the short-circuit impedance. With these simplifying
assumptions a three-winding transformer becomes a star
of three impedances and a four-winding transformer a
mesh of six impedances.
All the other reactances, namely XL , Xd and Xd are

true reactances and actually arise from flux leakage.
Much of this leakage occurs in the iron parts of the
machines and hence must be affected by saturation. For
a given set of conditions, the leakage flux exists as a
result of the net m.m.f. which causes it. If the iron
circuit is unsaturated its reactance is low and leakage
flux is easily established. If the circuits are highly
saturated the reverse is true and the leakage flux is
relatively lower, so the reactance under saturated
conditions is lower than when unsaturated.
The impedances of a transformer, in common with other

plant, can be given in ohms and qualified by a base
voltage, or in per unit or percentage terms and qualified
by a base MVA. Care should be taken with multiwinding transformers to refer all impedances to a
common base MVA or to state the base on which each is
given. The impedances of static apparatus are
independent of the phase sequence of the applied
voltage; in consequence, transformer negative sequence
and positive sequence impedances are identical. In
determining the impedance to zero phase sequence
currents, account must be taken of the winding
connections, earthing, and, in some cases, the
construction type. The existence of a path for zero
sequence currents implies a fault to earth and a flow of
balancing currents in the windings of the transformer.
Most calculation methods assume infinite iron

permeability and for this reason lead to somewhat
idealised unsaturated reactance values. The recognition
of a finite and varying permeability makes a solution
extremely laborious and in practice a simple factor of
approximately 0.9 is taken as representing the reduction
in reactance arising from saturation.
Practical three-phase transformers may have a phase

shift between primary and secondary windings
depending on the connections of the windings delta or
star. The phase shift that occurs is generally of no
significance in fault level calculations as all phases are
shifted equally. It is therefore ignored. It is normal to
find delta-star transformers at the transmitting end of a
55
5 . 10 Z E R O S E Q U E N C E R E A C TA N C E
transformer may be represented by Figure 5.10(b). The

circuit in Figure 5.10(b) is similar to that shown in Figure
3.14(a), and can therefore be replaced by an equivalent
'T ' as shown in Figure 5.10(c) where:
transmission system and in distribution systems for the

following reasons:
a. at the transmitting end, a higher step-up voltage
ratio is possible than with other winding
arrangements, while the insulation to ground of the
star secondary winding does not increase by the
same ratio
Z1 = Z11 Z12
Z2 = Z22 Z12
Z3 = Z12
b. in distribution systems, the star winding allows a

neutral connection to be made, which may be
important in considering system earthing
arrangements
Z1 is described as the leakage impedance of winding AA'

and Z2 the leakage impedance of winding BB'.
Impedance Z3 is the mutual impedance between the
windings, usually represented by XM, the magnetizing
reactance paralleled with the hysteresis and eddy current
loops as shown in Figure 5.10(d).
c. the delta winding allows circulation of zero

sequence currents within the delta, thus
preventing transmission of these from the
secondary (star) winding into the primary circuit.
This simplifies protection considerations
If the secondary of the transformers is short-circuited,

and Z3 is assumed to be large with respect to Z1 and Z2,
then the short-circuit impedance viewed from the
terminals AA is ZT = Z1 + Z2 and the transformer can
be replaced by a two-terminal equivalent circuit as
shown in Figure 5.10(e).
5.14 TRANSFORMER POSITIVE SEQUENCE

EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS
The transformer is a relatively simple device. However,
the equivalent circuits for fault calculations need not
necessarily be quite so simple, especially where earth
faults are concerned. The following two sections discuss
the equivalent circuits of various types of transformers.
The relative magnitudes of ZT and XM are of the order of

10% and 2000% respectively. ZT and XM rarely have to
be considered together, so that the transformer may be
represented either as a series impedance or as an
excitation impedance, according to the problem being
studied.
5.14.1 Two-winding Transformers
A typical power transformer is illustrated in Figure 5.11.
The two-winding transformer has four terminals, but in

most system problems, two-terminal or three-terminal
equivalent circuits as shown in Figure 5.10 can represent
it. In Figure 5.10(a), terminals A' and B' are assumed to
be at the same potential. Hence if the per unit selfimpedances of the windings are Z11 and Z22 respectively
and the mutual impedance between them Z12, the
B C
~
A'
B' C '
(a) Model of transformer

Z1 =Z11-Z12 Z2=Z22-Z12
A
B
Z11
B'
Z22
Z12
B'
Zero bus
(b) Equivalent circuit of model
r2+jx2
r1+jx1
A
B
R
Zero bus
(c) 'T' equivalent circuit
If excitation impedance is neglected the equivalent

circuit of a three-winding transformer may be
represented by a star of impedances, as shown in Figure
5.12, where P, T and S are the primary, tertiary and
secondary windings respectively. The impedance of any
of these branches can be determined by considering the
short-circuit impedance between pairs of windings with
the third open.
A'
Z3=Z12
A'
5.14.2 Three-winding Transformers
Load
Equation 5.5
A'
Zs
Secondary
jXM
Zero bus
(d) '' equivalent circuit
ZT =Z1+Z2
Zp
Primary
B'
Tertiary
Zt
B
T
B'
Zero bus
(e) Equivalent circuit: secondary winding s/c
A'
Zero bus
Figure 5.10: Equivalent circuits

for a two-winding transformer

for a three-winding transformer
56
5.15 TRANSFORMER ZERO SEQUENCE

EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS
The flow of zero sequence currents in a transformer is
only possible when the transformer forms part of a
closed loop for uni-directional currents and ampere-turn
balance is maintained between windings.
The positive sequence equivalent circuit is still
maintained to represent the transformer, but now there
are certain conditions attached to its connection into the
external circuit. The order of excitation impedance is
very much lower than for the positive sequence circuit;
it will be roughly between 1 and 4 per unit, but still high
enough to be neglected in most fault studies.
The mode of connection of a transformer to the external
circuit is determined by taking account of each winding
arrangement and its connection or otherwise to ground.
If zero sequence currents can flow into and out of a
winding, the winding terminal is connected to the
external circuit (that is, link a is closed in Figure 5.13). If
zero sequence currents can circulate in the winding
without flowing in the external circuit, the winding
terminal is connected directly to the zero bus (that is,
link b is closed in Figure 5.13). Table 5.3 gives the zero
sequence connections of some common two- and threewinding transformer arrangements applying the above rules.
The exceptions to the general rule of neglecting

magnetising impedance occur when the transformer is
star/star and either or both neutrals are earthed. In
these circumstances the transformer is connected to the
zero bus through the magnetising impedance. Where a
three-phase transformer bank is arranged without
interlinking magnetic flux (that is a three-phase shell
type, or three single-phase units) and provided there is a
path for zero sequence currents, the zero sequence
impedance is equal to the positive sequence impedance.
In the case of three-phase core type units, the zero
sequence fluxes produced by zero sequence currents can
find a high reluctance path, the effect being to reduce
the zero sequence impedance to about 90% of the
positive sequence impedance.
However, in hand calculations, it is usual to ignore this
variation and consider the positive and zero sequence
impedances to be equal. It is common when using
software to perform fault calculations to enter a value of
zero-sequence impedance in accordance with the above
guidelines, if the manufacturer is unable to provide a
value.
57
Figure 5.11: Large transformer
Zero phase sequence network
Connections and zero phase sequence currents

a
ZT
b
b
Zero bus
ZT
b
b
Zero bus
ZT
b
Zero bus
ZT
b
b
Zero bus
ZT
b
b
Zero bus
ZT
b
b
Zero bus
ZT
Zero bus
Zs
a
Zp
Zt
a
b
Zero bus
Zs
Zp
Zt
a
b
Zero bus
Zs
a
Zp
Zt
a
b
Zero bus
Zs
a
Zp
Zt
a
b
Zero bus
Zs
a
Zp
Zt
a
b
Zero bus
Table 5.3: Zero sequence equivalent circuit connections
58
5 . 1 6 A U TO - T R A N S F O R M E R S
The auto-transformer is characterised by a single
continuous winding, part of which is shared by both the
high and low voltage circuits, as shown in Figure 5.14(a).
The 'common' winding is the winding between the low
voltage terminals whereas the remainder of the winding,
belonging exclusively to the high voltage circuit, is
designated the 'series' winding, and, combined with the
'common' winding, forms the 'series-common' winding
between the high voltage terminals. The advantage of
using an auto-transformer as opposed to a two-winding
transformer is that the auto-transformer is smaller and
lighter for a given rating. The disadvantage is that
galvanic isolation between the two windings does not
exist, giving rise to the possibility of large overvoltages
on the lower voltage system in the event of major
insulation breakdown.
ZT
2
ZT
2
Ze
Zero potential bus

(a) Two windings
Zs
Zp
Three-phase auto-transformer banks generally have star

connected main windings, the neutral of which is
normally connected solidly to earth. In addition, it is
common practice to include a third winding connected in
delta called the tertiary winding, as shown in Figure
5.14(b).
Zt
Ze
5.16.1 Positive Sequence Equivalent Circuit
Zero potential bus
The positive sequence equivalent circuit of a three-phase

auto-transformer bank is the same as that of a two- or
three-winding transformer. The star equivalent for a
three-winding transformer, for example, is obtained in
the same manner, with the difference that the
impedances between windings are designated as follows:
(b) Three windings
Figure 5.13: Zero sequence equivalent circuits
IH
1
(Z scc + Zct Z sct )
2
1
Z H = (Z scc + Z sct Zct )
2
1
ZT = (Z sct + Zct Z scc )
2
IH
ZL =
L
IL
IL
IT
IL-IH
N
VH
IL-IH VL
IN
where:
Zsc-t = impedance between 'series common' and tertiary
windings
ZH
L
ZN
IH N IL
(a) Circuit diagram
Equation 5.8
(b) Circuit diagram with tertiary winding
ZL
ZX
L
IL1
IH1
IL0
T
(c) Positive sequence impedance
When no load is connected to the delta tertiary, the point

T will be open-circuited and the short-circuit impedance
of the transformer becomes ZL + ZH = Zsc-c , that is,
similar to the equivalent circuit of a two-winding
transformer, with magnetising impedance neglected; see
Figure 5.14(c).
H
IH0
T
IT0
IT1
Zsc-t = impedance between 'common' and tertiary

windings
ZY
ZZ
ZT
Zsc-c = impedance between 'series common' and

'common' windings
Zero potential bus

(d) Zero sequence equivalent circuit
ZLH
IL0
IH0
ZHT
ZLT
T
IT0
Zero potential bus

(e) Equivalent circuit with isolated neutral

of auto-transformer
59
5.16.2 Zero Sequence Equivalent Circuit
With the equivalent delta replacing the star impedances

in the auto-transformer zero sequence equivalent circuit
the transformer can be combined with the system
impedances in the usual manner to obtain the system
zero sequence diagram.
The zero sequence equivalent circuit is derived in a

similar manner to the positive sequence circuit, except
that, as there is no identity for the neutral point, the
current in the neutral and the neutral voltage cannot be
given directly. Furthermore, in deriving the branch
impedances, account must be taken of an impedance in
the neutral Zn, as shown in the following equations,
where Zx, Zy and Zz are the impedances of the low, high
and tertiary windings respectively and N is the ratio
between the series and common windings.
( N +1)
N
Z y = Z H 3 Zn
( N +1)2
Z z = ZT +3 Zn
( N +1)
5.17 TRANSFORMER IMPEDANCES

In the vast majority of fault calculations, the Protection
Engineer is only concerned with the transformer leakage
impedance; the magnetising impedance is neglected, as
it is very much higher. Impedances for transformers
rated 200MVA or less are given in IEC 60076 and
repeated in Table 5.4, together with an indication of X/R
values (not part of IEC 60076). These impedances are
commonly used for transformers installed in industrial
plants. Some variation is possible to assist in controlling
fault levels or motor starting, and typically up to 10%
variation on the impedance values given in the table is
possible without incurring a significant cost penalty. For
these transformers, the tapping range is small, and the
variation of impedance with tap position is normally
neglected in fault level calculations.
Z x = Z L +3 Zn
Equation 5.9
Figure 5.14(d) shows the equivalent circuit of the

transformer bank. Currents ILO and IHO are those
circulating in the low and high voltage circuits respectively.
The difference between these currents, expressed in
amperes, is the current in the common winding.
For transformers used in electricity distribution

networks, the situation is more complex, due to an
increasing trend to assign importance to the standing (or
no-load) losses represented by the magnetising
impedance. This can be adjusted at the design stage but
there is often an impact on the leakage reactance in
consequence. In addition, it may be more important to
control fault levels on the LV side than to improve motor
starting voltage drops. Therefore, departures from the
IEC 60076 values are commonplace.
The current in the neutral impedance is three times the

current in the common winding.
5.16.3 Special Conditions of Neutral Earthing

With a solidly grounded neutral, Zn = O, the branch
impedances Zx, Zy , Zz, become ZL, ZH, ZT, that is,
identical to the corresponding positive sequence
equivalent circuit, except that the equivalent impedance
ZT of the delta tertiary is connected to the zero potential
bus in the zero sequence network.
IEC 60076 does not make recommendations of nominal

impedance in respect of transformers rated over
200MVA, while generator transformers and a.c. traction
supply transformers have impedances that are usually
specified as a result of Power Systems Studies to ensure
satisfactory performance. Typical values of transformer
impedances covering a variety of transformer designs are
given in Tables 5.5 5.9. Where appropriate, they
include an indication of the impedance variation at the
extremes of the taps given. Transformers designed to
work at 60Hz will have substantially the same
impedance as their 50Hz counterparts.
When the neutral is ungrounded Zn = and the

impedances of the equivalent star also become infinite
because there are apparently no paths for zero sequence
currents between the windings, although a physical
circuit exists and ampere-turn balance can be obtained.
A solution is to use an equivalent delta circuit (see Figure
5.14(e)), and evaluate the elements of the delta directly
from the actual circuit. The method requires three
equations corresponding to three assumed operating
conditions. Solving these equations will relate the delta
impedances to the impedance between the series and
tertiary windings, as follows:
N2
(1 + N )
Z LT = Z st N
N
Z HT = Z st
(1 + N )
MVA
Z% HV/LV
X/R
<0.630
4.00
5.00
6.25
7.15
8.35
10.00
12.50
1.5
3.5
6.0
0.631-1.25
1.251 - 3.15
3.151 - 6.3
Z LH = Z st
6.301-12.5
12.501- 25.0
25.001 - 200
>200
8.5
13.0
20.0
45.0
Tolerance on Z%
10
10
10
10
10
7.5
7.5
by agreement
Table 5.4: Transformer impedances - IEC 60076

Equation 5.10
60
Primary kV
Primary Taps
Secondary kV
Z% HV/LV
X/R ratio
MVA
Primary kV
Primary Taps
Secondary kV
Z% HV/LV
X/R ratio
7.5
7.5
8
11.5
11.5
33
33
33
33
33
+5.72% -17.16%
+5.72% -17.16%
+5.72% -17.16%
+5.72% -17.16%
+5.72% -17.16%
11
11
11
6.6
6.6
7.5
7.5
8
11.5
11.5
15
17
9
24
24
24
30
30
30
30
33
33
132
132
132
10%
10%
+10% -20%
+10% -20%
+10% -20%
6.9
6.9
11
11
11
24
24
21.3
25
23.5
25
25
43
30
46
11.5
11.5
11.5
12
12
12
15
15
16
16
16
19
30
33
33
33
33
33
33
66
66
33
33
33
33
33
+5.72% -17.16%
+5.72% -17.16%
+4.5% -18%
+5% -15%
10%
10%
+9% -15%
+9% -15%
10%
+5.72% -17.16%
+5.72% -17.16%
+5.72% -17.16%
+5.72% -17.16%
11
11
6.6
11.5
11.5
11.5
11.5
11.5
11.5
11
6.6
11
11
11.5
11.5
11.5
12
12
12
15
15
16
16
16
19
30
24
26
24
27
27
25
14
16
16
30
31
37
40
40
45
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
65
90
90
132
132
132
132
132
132
132
132
132
140
132
132
+10% -20%
+10% -20%
+10% -20%
+10% -20%
+10% -20%
+10% -20%
+10% -20%
+9.3% -24%
+9.3% -24%
+7.5% -15%
+10% -20%
+10% -20%
11
33
33
33
33
66
11/11
11/11
11/11
11
33
66
27.9
11.8
16.7
17.7
14.5
11
35.5
36
35.9
12.3
24.4
15.1
37
18
28
26
25
25
52
75
78
28
60
41
Table 5.5: Impedances of two winding distribution transformers

Primary voltage <200kV
MVA
Primary
kV
Primary
Taps
Secondary
kV
Tertiary
kV
Z%
HV/LV
X/R
ratio
20
20
57
74
79.2
120
125
125
180
255
220
230
275
345
220
275
230
230
275
230
+12.5% -7.5%
+12.5% -7.5%
10%
+14.4% -10%
+10% -15%
+10% -15%
16.8%
not known
15%
+10%
6.9
6.9
11.8
96
11.6
34.5
66
150
66
16.5
7.2
12
11
13
-
9.9
10-14
18.2
8.9
18.9
22.5
13.1
10-14
22.2
14.8
18
13
34
25
35
63
52
22
38
43
MVA
MVA
1000
1000
Primary Primary Secondary Secondary Tertiary Z%

kV
Taps
kV
HV/LV
Taps
kV
66
33
10.7
275
132
15%
13
15.5
13
20.2
+15% -5%
132
400
400
132
+15% -5%
13
20.0
400
132
+15% -5%
13
20.0
+15% -5%
13
10-13
132
400
14.3
22
+0% -15%
132
400
400
275
13
12.1
275
13
15.8
400
17.0
33
275
400
333.3
5003
100
180
240
240
240
250
500
750
10%
2303
22
18.2
X/R
ratio
28
55
83
51
61
50
51
Secondary
kV
Z%
HV/LV
X/R
ratio
95
132
10%
11
13.5
46
157.5
400
236
10%
5%
5%
11.5
15
15
12.7
14.7
13.6
41
57
47
167
180
145
289
+7.5% -16.5%
5%
15
16
25.7
13.4
71
34
15
15.5
15
15
15.5
17.5
22
21
13.8
15.2
28.6
15.7
15.3
16.4
16
14.6
40
61
70
43
67
81
87
50
19
21
19
14
16.2
15.7
49
74
61
+6.25% -13.75%
22
+7% -13%
22
+7% -13%
23
(a) Three-phase units
15.2
15.5
15.7
83
73
67
Z%
HV/LV
X/R
ratio
15.8
15.7
16.9
92
79
105
15
15.1
118
112
90
89
91
MVA/
phase
266.7
266.7
277
375
101
375
Table 5.8: Autotransformer data
Primary
Taps
140
141
151
180
247
250
290
307
346
420
437.8
450
600
716
721
736
900
Table 5.6: Impedances of two winding distribution transformers

Primary voltage >200kV
Primary
kV
132
10%
432 +3.75% -16.25%
300
+11.2% -17.6%
420
10%
432 +3.75% -16.25%
435
+5% -15%
432 +5.55% -14.45%
144.1 +10.8% -21.6%
132
420
525
362
245
525
10%
11.25%
10%
Primary
Primary
Secondary
kV
Taps
kV
432/3 +6.67% -13.33%
23.5
23.5
432/3 +6.6% -13.4%
22
515/3
5%
525/3 +6.66% -13.32%
26
26
420/3 +6.66% -13.32%
(b) Single-phase units
Table 5.7: Impedances of generator transformers
61
MVA
5.18 OVERHEAD LINES AND CABLES
between conductors becomes Zm. However, for rigorous

calculations a detailed treatment is necessary, with
account being taken of the spacing of a conductor in
relation to its neighbour and earth.
In this section a description of common overhead lines

and cable systems is given, together with tables of their
important characteristics. The formulae for calculating
the characteristics are developed to give a basic idea of
the factors involved, and to enable calculations to be
made for systems other than those tabulated.
5 . 1 9 C A L C U L AT I O N O F S E R I E S I M P E D A N C E
The self impedance of a conductor with an earth return
and the mutual impedance between two parallel
conductors with a common earth return are given by the
Carson equations:
A transmission circuit may be represented by an

equivalent or T network using lumped constants as
shown in Figure 5.15. Z is the total series impedance
(R + jX)L and Y is the total shunt admittance (G + jB)L,
where L is the circuit length. The terms inside the
brackets in Figure 5.15 are correction factors that allow
for the fact that in the actual circuit the parameters are
distributed over the whole length of the circuit and not
lumped, as in the equivalent circuits.
De
dc
Equation 5.11
De
Zm = 0.000988 f + j0.0029 f log10
D
Z p = R +0.000988 f + j0.0029 f log10
where:
R = conductor a.c. resistance (ohms/km)
dc = geometric mean radius of a single conductor
D = spacing between the parallel conductors
f = system frequency
De = equivalent spacing of the earth return path
With short lines it is usually possible to ignore the shunt

admittance, which greatly simplifies calculations, but on
longer lines it must be included. Another simplification
that can be made is that of assuming the conductor
configuration to be symmetrical. The self-impedance of
each conductor becomes Zp , and the mutual impedance
X
R
G
R
G
= 216p/f where p is earth resistivity (ohms/cm3)
The above formulae give the impedances in ohms/km. It

should be noted that the last terms in Equation 5.11 are
very similar to the classical inductance formulae for long
straight conductors.
Series impedance Z = R + jX per unit length

Shunt admittance Y = G + jB per unit length
(a) Actual transmission circuit
sinh ZY
Z
ZY
Y
2
tanh ZY 2
ZY 2
The geometric means radius (GMR) of a conductor is an

equivalent radius that allows the inductance formula to
be reduced to a single term. It arises because the
inductance of a solid conductor is a function of the
internal flux linkages in addition to those external to it.
If the original conductor can be replaced by an
equivalent that is a hollow cylinder with infinitesimally
thin walls, the current is confined to the surface of the
conductor, and there can be no internal flux. The
geometric mean radius is the radius of the equivalent
conductor. If the original conductor is a solid cylinder
having a radius r its equivalent has a radius of 0.779r.
Y
2
tanh ZY 2
ZY 2
(b) Equivalent
5
Z
2
tanh ZY 2
ZY 2
Z
2
tanh ZY 2
ZY 2
sinh ZY
Y
ZY
It can be shown that the sequence impedances for a

symmetrical three-phase circuit are:
Z1 = Z2 = Z p Zm
Zo = Z p + 2 Zm
(c) T Equivalent
where Zp and Zm are given by Equation 5.11.

Substituting Equation 5.11 in Equation 5.12 gives:
Note: Z and Y in (b) and (c) are the total series

impedance and shunt admittance respectively.
Z=(R+jX)L and Y=(G+jB)L where L is the circuit length.
sinh ZY
=1+
ZY
tanh
ZY
ZY
= 1-
ZY
Z2Y2
120
ZY
Z2Y2
12
120
Z3Y3
Z1 = Z2 = R + j0.0029 f log10
+ ...
5040
+
17Z3Y3
Equation 5.12
D
dc
Zo = R +0.00296 f + j0.00869 f log10
+ ...
20160
De
dcD 2
Equation 5.13
Figure 5.15: Transmission circuit equivalents
62
In the formula for Z0 the expression dcD2 is the

geometric mean radius of the conductor group.
Where the circuit is not symmetrical, the usual case,
symmetry can be maintained by transposing the
conductors so that each conductor is in each phase
position for one third of the circuit length. If A, B and C
are the spacings between conductors bc, ca and ab then
D in the above equations becomes the geometric mean
3
distance between conductors, equal to ABC.
3
D
a
Conductor
Radius r
h
D'
Writing Dc = dcD2, the sequence impedances in

ohms/km at 50Hz become:
3
Earth
ABC
Z1 = Z 2 = R + j0.145 log10
dc
D
Zo = ( R +0.148 ) + j0.434 log10 e
Dc Equation 5.14
5 . 2 0 C A L C U L AT I O N O F S H U N T I M P E D A N C E
It can be shown that the potential of a conductor a
above ground due to its own charge qa and a charge -qa
on its image is:
Va =2 qaloge
2h
r
Figure 5.16 Geometry of two parallel conductors

a and b and the image of a (a')
Equation 5.15
where h is the height above ground of the conductor and

r is the radius of the conductor, as shown in Figure 5.16.
Similarly, it can be shown that the potential of a
conductor a due to a charge qb on a neighbouring
conductor b and the charge -qb on its image is:
Va' =2 qbloge
D'
D
to the conductor spacing, which is the case with overhead

lines, 2h=D. From Equation 5.12, the sequence
impedances of a symmetrical three-phase circuit are:
Zo = j0.396 log10
Since the capacitance C=q/V and the capacitive

reactance Xc =1/C, it follows that the self and mutual
capacitive reactance of the conductor system in Figure
5.16 can be obtained directly from Equations 5.15 and
5.16. Further, as leakage can usually be neglected, the
self and mutual shunt impedances Zp and Zm in
megohm-km at a system frequency of 50Hz are:
D
r
D'
rD 2
Z1 = Z2 = j0.132 log10
Equation 5.16
where D is the spacing between conductors a and b and

D is the spacing between conductor b and the image of
conductor a as shown in Figure 5.14.
2h
r
D'
'
Zm = j0.132 log10
D
a'
It should be noted that the logarithmic terms above are

similar to those in Equation 5.13 except that r is the
actual radius of the conductors and D is the spacing
between the conductors and their images.
Again, where the conductors are not symmetrically
spaced but transposed, Equation 5.18 can be re-written
making use of the geometric mean distance between
3
conductors, ABC, and giving the distance of each
conductor above ground, that is, ha , h2 , hc , as follows:
ABC
8 ha hbhb
Z0 = j0.132 log10
r 3 A 2 B 2 C 2 Equation 5.19
Z1 = Z2 = j0.132 log10
Z'p = j0.132 log10
Equation 5.17
Where the distances above ground are great in relation
Equation 5.18
63
3.80
0.50
6.0
U n (kV)
A=3.5m
a (m)
R2
0.55
3.3
6.6
0.67
11
0.8
22
33
1.25
R1
W
X
Y
Single circuit
Un= 63kV/66kV/90kV
Single circuit
1.75 - K
2.00 - N
6.6
2
2
2.50
a
2.50
3.30
3.30
b
d
4.00
3.50
2.70
Un(kV) a (m)
R1
W
63
1.4
90
1.85
Single circuit
Un= 90kV
63 kV(K) 3.0
3.7
3.0
1.4
90 kV (N) 3.1
3.8
3.8 1.85
3.50
2.8
2.8
3.5
3.5
R1
3.0
3.0
a (m)
63
1.40
66
1.40
90
1.85
Y
Double circuit
Un= 63kV/90kV
Single circuit
Un= 63kV/90kV
Double circuit
Un= 63kV/66kV/90kV
3.4
6.60
U n (kV)
2
2
6.20
a
2.75
4.1
3.9
3.9
5.80
3.7
2.75
3.10
a
4.2
a=3.7m
b=4.6m
R1
8.0
8.0
R1
Single circuit
Un= 110kV
4.2
Double circuit
Un= 138kV
Double circuit
Un= 170kV
Figure 5.17: Typical OHL configurations (not to scale)

64
8.45
12.2
2.5
d
5.0
1.75
5.20
7.5
5.0
a
6.0
b
7.50
6.0
c
n1
a
R1
R2
R1
n2
n
A 3.5 3.8 4.1 2.8

B 4.2 4.5 4.8 2.8
n1
n2
9.5
5.0 4.5
6.3
9.8
5.0 4.8
6.3
C 4.2 4.5 4.8 2.8
Single circuit
Un= 245kV
Double circuit
Un= 245kV
Double circuit
Un= 245kV
9.74
16.4
25.1
8.5
7.0
2.40
9.2
11.3
8.5
7.7
6.7
6.7
7.4
7.4
8.5
32.4
8.5
R1
R1
7.8
Double circuit
Un= 420kV
Double circuit
Un= 420kV
Single circuit
Un= 245kV
7.8
7.5
20.0
0
10.0
12.0
8.0
5.0
9.5
9.5
8.0
12.0
9.5
16.0
37.0
23.0
Single circuit
Un= 550kV
Double circuit
Un= 550kV
Figure 5.17(cont): Typical OHL configurations (not to scale)

65
Single circuit
Un= 800kV
5 . 21 O V E R H E A D L I N E C I R C U I T S
WITH OR WITHOUT EARTH WIRES
In some cases, the phase conductors are not

symmetrically disposed to each other and therefore, as
previously indicated, electrostatic and electromagnetic
unbalance will result, which can be largely eliminated by
transposition. Modern practice is to build overhead lines
without transposition towers to reduce costs; this must
be taken into account in rigorous calculations of the
unbalances. In other cases, lines are formed of bundled
conductors, that is conductors formed of two, three or
four separate conductors. This arrangement minimises
losses when voltages of 220kV and above are involved.
Typical configurations of overhead line circuits are given

in Figure 5.17. Tower heights are not given as they vary
considerably according to the design span and nature of
the ground. As indicated in some of the tower outlines,
some tower designs are designed with a number of base
extensions for this purpose. Figure 5.18 shows a typical
tower.
It should be noted that the line configuration and

conductor spacings are influenced, not only by voltage,
but also by many other factors including type of
insulators, type of support, span length, conductor sag
and the nature of terrain and external climatic loadings.
Therefore, there can be large variations in spacings
between different line designs for the same voltage level,
so those depicted in Figure 5.17 are only typical
examples.
When calculating the phase self and mutual impedances,

Equations 5.11 and 5.17 may be used, but it should be
remembered that in this case Zp is calculated for each
conductor and Zm for each pair of conductors. This
section is not, therefore, intended to give a detailed
analysis, but rather to show the general method of
formulating the equations, taking the calculation of
series impedance as an example and assuming a single
circuit line with a single earth wire.
The phase voltage drops Va,Vb,Vb of a single circuit line
with a single earth wire due to currents Ia, Ib, Ib flowing
in the phases and Ie in the earth wire are:
Va = Zaa I a + Zab I b + Zac I c + Zae I e
Vb = Zba I a + Zbb I b + Zbc I c + Zbe I e
Vc = Zca I a + Zcb I b + Zcc I c + Z ce I e
0 = Zea I a + Zeb I b + Z ec I c + Zee I e
Equation 5.20
where:
Zaa = R +0.000988 f + j0.0029 f log10

Zab = 0.000988 f + j0.0029 f log10
De
dc
De
D
and so on.
The equation required for the calculation of shunt
voltage drops is identical to Equation 5.20 in form,
except that primes must be included, the impedances
being derived from Equation 5.17.
Figure 5.18: Typical overhead line tower
66
Z00 = (Z00)
Z11 = Z22 = (Z11)
(Z00 =Z00)
Z01 = Z20 = (Z01 = Z20)
Z02 = Z10 = (Z02 = Z10)
Z12 = (Z12)
Z21 = (Z21)
(Z11=Z11 = Z22 = Z22)
(Z02 = Z02 = Z10 = Z10)
(Z02 = Z02 = Z10 = Z10
(Z12 = Z12)
(Z21 = Z21)
132kV
Single circuit line
(400 mm2)
1.0782 7354
0.3947 7854
0.0116 -16652
58
0.0255 -409
0.0256 -1391
-
380kV
Single circuit line
(400 mm2)
0.8227 7036
0.3712 7557
0.0094 -3928
0.0153 2853
0.0275 14726
0.0275 2729
-
132kV
Double circuit line
(200 mm2)
1.1838 716
6619
0.6334 712
0.0257 -6325
0.0197 -9458
0.0276 16117
0.0277 3713
0.0114 886
0.0140 -9344
0.0150 -4411
0.0103 14510
0.0106 3056
275kV
Double circuit line
(400 mm2)
0.9520 7646
0.3354 7435
0.5219 7543
0.0241 -7214
0.0217 -10020
0.0281 14946
0.0282 296
0.0129 8844
0.0185 -9116
0.0173 -772
0.0101 14920
0.0102 2731
Table 5.10: Sequence self and mutual impedances

for various lines
From Equation 5.20 it can be seen that:
Ie =
Z
Z
Zea
I a + eb I b + ec I c
Zee
Zee
Zee
Making use of this relation, the self and mutual

impedances of the phase conductors can be modified
using the following formula:
J nm = Znm
Zne Zme
Zee
Equation 5.21
For example:
J aa = Zaa
2
Zae
Zee
J ab = Zab
Zae Zbe
Zee
and so on.
So Equation 5.20 can be simplified while still taking account
of the effect of the earth wire by deleting the fourth row and
fourth column and substituting Jaa for Zaa, Jab for Zab , and
so on, calculated using Equation 5.21. The single circuit line
with a single earth wire can therefore be replaced by an
equivalent single circuit line having phase self and mutual
impedances Jaa , Jab and so on.
It can be shown from the symmetrical component theory
given in Chapter 4 that the sequence voltage drops of a
general three-phase circuit are:
V0 = Z00 I 0 + Z01 I1 + Z02 I 2
V1 = Z10 I 0 + Z11 I1 + Z12 I 2
V2 = Z20 I 0 + Z21 I1 + Z22 I 2
1
1
Z11 = ( J aa + J bb + J cc ) ( J ab + J bc + J ac )
3
3
1
2
2
2
Z12 = ( J aa + a J bb + aJ cc ) + (aJ ab + a J ac + J bc )
3
3
1
2 2
2
Z21 = ( J aa + aJ bb + a J cc ) + (a J ab + aJ ac + J bc )
3
3
1
1
2
2
Z20 = ( J aa + a J bb + aJ cc ) (aJ ab + a J ac + J bc )
3
3
1
1
Z10 = ( J aa + aJ bb + a 2 J cc ) (a 2 J ab + aJ ac + Jbc )
3
3
Z22 = Z11
Z01 = Z20
Z02 = Z10
Equation 5.23
The development of these equations for double circuit

lines with two earth wires is similar except that more
terms are involved.
Z00 =
1
2
J aa + J bb + J cc ) + ( J ab + J bc + J ac )
(
3
3
The sequence mutual impedances are very small and can

usually be neglected; this also applies for double circuit
lines except for the mutual impedance between the zero
sequence circuits, namely (ZOO = ZOO). Table 5.10 gives
typical values of all sequence self and mutual impedances
some single and double circuit lines with earth wires. All
conductors are 400mm2 ACSR, except for the 132kV
double circuit example where they are 200mm2.
Equation 5.22
And, from Equation 5.20 modified as indicated above and

Equation 5.22, the sequence impedances are:
5.22 OHL EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS

Consider an earthed, infinite busbar source behind a
length of transmission line as shown in Figure 5.19(a).
An earth fault involving phase A is assumed to occur at
F. If the driving voltage is E and the fault current is Ia
67
Sequence impedance
distance relay applications because the phase and earth

fault relays are set to measure Z2 and are compensated
for the earth return impedance (Z0-Z1)/3.
F
Line
Source
It is customary to quote the impedances of a

transmission circuit in terms of Z1 and the ratio Z0/Z1 ,
since in this form they are most directly useful. By
definition, the positive sequence impedance Z1 is a
function of the conductor spacing and radius, whereas
the Z0/Z1 ratio is dependent primarily on the level of
earth resistivity . Further details may be found in
Chapter 12.
E
(a) Actual circuit
3E
Ic
Z1
Ib
Z1
Ia
Z1
5.23 CABLE CIRCUITS
The basic formulae for calculating the series and shunt

impedances of a transmission circuit, Equations 5.11 and
5.17 may be applied for evaluating cable parameters;
since the conductor configuration is normally
symmetrical GMD and GMR values can be used without
risk of appreciable errors. However, the formulae must
be modified by the inclusion of empirical factors to take
account of sheath and screen effects. A useful general
reference on cable formulae is given in reference [5.4];
more detailed information on particular types of cables
should be obtained direct from the manufacturers. The
equivalent circuit for determining the positive and
negative sequence series impedances of a cable is shown
in Figure 5.20. From this circuit it can be shown that:
(Z0-Z )/3
E
(b) Equivalent circuit
Figure 5.19: Three-phase equivalent

of a transmission circuit
then the earth

fault impedance is Ze . From symmetrical component
theory (see Chapter 4):
3E
Ia =
Z1 + Z2 + Z0
thus
X2
Z1 = Z2 = Rc + Rs 2 cs 2
Rs + X s
X2
+ j X c X s 2 cs 2
Rs + X s
2 Z +Z
Ze = 1 0
3
Equation 5.24
where Rc, Rs are the core and sheath (screen) resistances

per unit length, Xc and Xs core and sheath (screen)
reactances per unit length and Xcs the mutual reactance
between core and sheath (screen) per unit length. Xcs is
in general equal to Xs.
since, as shown, Z1 = Z2 for a transmission circuit. From

Equations 5.12, Z1=Zp-Zm and ZO=Zp+2Zm. Thus,
substituting these values in the above equation gives
Ze=Zp. This relation is physically valid because Zp is the
self-impedance of a single conductor with an earth return.
Similarly, for a phase fault between phases B and C at F:
The zero sequence series impedances are obtained

directly using Equation 5.11 and account can be taken of
the sheath in the same way as an earth wire in the case
of an overhead line.
3E
Ib = Ic =
2 Z1
_
where 3E is the voltage between phases and 2Z is the
impedance of the fault loop.
The shunt capacitances of a sheathed cable can be

calculated from the simple formula:
Making use of the above relations a transmission circuit

may be represented, without any loss in generality, by
the equivalent of Figure 5.19(b), where Z1 is the phase
impedance to the fault and (Z0-Z1)/3 is the impedance
of the earth path, there being no mutual impedance
between the phases or between phase and earth. The
equivalent is valid for single and double circuit lines
except that for double circuit lines there is zero sequence
mutual impedance, hence Z0=(Z00-Z00).
1
C = 0.0241
log d + 2 T
d
F / km
Equation 5.25
where d is the overall diameter for a round conductor, T

core insulation thickness and permittivity of dielectric.
When the conductors are oval or shaped, an equivalent
The equivalent circuit of Figure 5.19(b) is valuable in

68
diameter d may be used where d=(1/) x periphery of

conductor. No simple formula exists for belted or
unscreened cables, but an empirical formula that gives
reasonable results is:
C=
0.0555
F / km
G
Number of Strands
7
19
37
61
91
127
169
Solid
Equation 5.26
where G is a geometric factor which is a function of core and

belt insulation thickness and overall conductor diameter.
GMR
0.726r
0.758r
0.768r
0.772r
0.774r
0.776r
0.776r
0.779r
Table 5.11: GMR for stranded copper, aluminium and

aluminium alloy conductors (r = conductor radius)
The following tables contain typical data on overhead

lines and cables that can be used in conjunction with the
various equations quoted in this text. It is not intended
that this data should replace that supplied by
manufacturers. Where the results of calculations are
important, reliance should not be placed on the data in
these Tables and data should be sourced directly from a
manufacturer/supplier.
Number of Layers
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
At the conceptual design stage, initial selection of overhead

line conductor size will be determined by four factors:
a. maximum load to be carried in MVA
b. length of line
c. conductor material and hence maximum
temperature
d. cost of losses
Table 5.21 gives indicative details of the capability of
various sizes of overhead lines using the above factors,
for AAAC and ACSR conductor materials. It is based on
commonly used standards for voltage drop and ambient
temperature. Since these factors may not be appropriate
for any particular project, the Table should only be used
as a guide for initial sizing, with appropriately detailed
calculations carried out to arrive at a final proposal.
Sheath circuit (s)
GMR
0.5r*
0.75r*
0.776r
0.803r
0.812r
0.826r
0.833r
0.778r
0.794r
0.799r
0.81r
0.827r
0.789r
0.793r
0.801r
* - Indicative values only, since GMR for single layer conductors is affected by cyclic
magnetic flux, which depends on various factors.
Table 5.12: GMR for aluminium conductor steel

reinforced (ACSR) (r = conductor radius)
Core circuit (c)
Ic
Xcs Per unit length
Is
Rs'Xs Per unit length
V
Rc'Xc Per unit length

V is voltage per unit length
Figure 5.20: Equivalent circuit for determining
positive or negative impedance of cables
Number of Al Strands
6
12
18
24
26
30
32
36
45
48
54
66
72
76
84
5 . 2 4 O V E R H E A D L I N E A N D C A B L E D ATA
69
Stranding
area (mm2)
Wire
10.6
21.2
26.7
33.6
42.4
53.5
67.4
85.0
107.2
126.6
152.0
177.3
202.7
228.0
253.3
278.7
304.3
329.3
354.7
380.0
405.3
456.0
506.7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
19
19
19
19
37
37
37
37
61
61
61
61
61
61
Overall
Diameter
(mm)
RDC
Diameter
(mm)
(20C)
(Ohm/km)
1.38
1.96
2.20
7.00
2.77
3.12
3.50
3.93
4.42
2.91
3.19
3.45
3.69
2.80
2.95
3.10
3.23
2.62
2.72
2.82
2.91
3.09
3.25
4.17
5.89
6.60
7.42
8.33
9.35
10.52
11.79
13.26
14.58
15.98
17.25
18.44
19.61
20.65
21.67
22.63
23.60
24.49
25.35
26.19
27.79
29.26
1.734
0.865
0.686
0.544
0.431
0.342
0.271
0.215
0.171
0.144
0.120
0.103
0.090
0.080
0.072
0.066
0.060
0.056
0.052
0.048
0.045
0.040
0.036
Overall
Diameter
(mm)
RDC
Diameter
(mm)
(20C)
(Ohm/km)
3.73
4.06
4.22
1.63
4.52
4.90
5.46
6.40
2.64
2.95
3.45
9.45
4.22
2.95
4.90
5.46
3.33
(b) BS Standards
3.25
4.06
4.22
4.88
4.52
4.90
5.46
6.40
7.92
8.84
10.36
9.45
12.65
14.73
14.71
16.38
16.64
1.617
1.365
1.269
1.231
1.103
0.938
0.756
0.549
0.466
0.375
0.273
0.252
0.183
0.139
0.135
0.109
0.109
Aluminium
Sparrow
Robin
Raven
Quail
Pigeon
Penguin
Partridge
Ostrich
Merlin
Lark
Hawk
Dove
Teal
Swift
Tern
Canary
Curlew
Finch
Bittern
Falcon
Kiwi
(a) ASTM Standards

Stranding
area (mm2)
Wire
11.0
13.0
14.0
14.5
16.1
18.9
23.4
32.2
38.4
47.7
65.6
70.1
97.7
129.5
132.1
164.0
165.2
1
1
1
7
1
1
1
1
7
7
7
1
7
19
7
7
19
Stranding and wire

diameter (mm)
Designation
6
6
6
6
6
6
26
26
18
30
26
26
30
36
45
54
54
54
45
54
72
2.67
3
3.37
3.78
4.25
4.77
2.57
2.73
3.47
2.92
3.44
3.72
3.61
3.38
3.38
3.28
3.52
3.65
4.27
4.36
4.41
Sectional area
(mm2)
Total Approx.
RDC
area overall at 20 C
2
(mm ) diameter (Ohm/km)
Aluminium Steel
(mm)
Steel
1
1
1
1
1
1
7
7
1
7
7
7
19
1
7
7
7
19
7
19
7
2.67
3
3.37
3.78
4.25
4.77
2
2.21
3.47
2.92
2.67
2.89
2.16
3.38
2.25
3.28
3.52
2.29
2.85
2.62
2.94
33.6
42.4
53.5
67.4
85.0
107.2
135.2
152.0
170.5
201.4
241.7
282.0
306.6
322.3
402.8
456.1
523.7
565.0
644.5
805.7
1100.0
5.6
7.1
8.9
11.2
14.2
17.9
22.0
26.9
9.5
46.9
39.2
45.9
69.6
9.0
27.8
59.1
68.1
78.3
44.7
102.4
47.5
39.2
49.5
62.4
78.6
99.2
125.1
157.2
178.9
179.9
248.3
280.9
327.9
376.2
331.2
430.7
515.2
591.8
643.3
689.2
908.1
1147.5
8.01
9
10.11
11.34
12.75
14.31
16.28
17.28
17.35
20.44
21.79
23.55
25.24
23.62
27.03
29.52
31.68
33.35
34.17
39.26
44.07
0.854
0.677
0.536
0.426
0.337
0.268
0.214
0.191
0.169
0.144
0.120
0.103
0.095
0.089
0.072
0.064
0.055
0.051
0.045
0.036
0.027
(a) to ASTM B232
Stranding and wire

diameter (mm)
Designation
Table 5.13: Overhead line conductor - hard drawn copper
Gopher
Weasel
Ferret
Rabbit
Horse
Dog
Tiger
Wolf
Dingo
Lynx
Caracal
Jaguar
Panther
Aluminium
6 2.36
6 2.59
6
3
6 3.35
12 2.79
6 4.72
30 2.36
30 2.59
18 3.35
30 2.79
18 3.61
18 3.86
30
3
1
1
1
1
7
7
7
7
1
7
1
1
7
Zebra
54
3.18
Sectional area
(mm2)
Total Approx.
RDC
2
Steel
Aluminium Steel
(mm)
2.36
26.2
4.4 30.6
7.08
1.093
2.59
31.6
5.3 36.9
7.77
0.908
3
42.4
7.1 49.5
9
0.676
3.35
52.9
8.8 61.7 10.05
0.542
2.79
73.4
42.8 116.2 13.95
0.393
1.57
105.0
13.6 118.5 14.15
0.273
2.36
131.2
30.6 161.9 16.52
0.220
2.59
158.1
36.9 194.9 18.13
0.182
3.35
158.7
8.8 167.5 16.75
0.181
2.79
183.4
42.8 226.2 19.53
0.157
3.61
184.2
10.2 194.5 18.05
0.156
3.86
210.6
11.7 222.3 19.3
0.137
3
212.1
49.5 261.5
21
0.136
3.18
428.9
55.6
484.5
28.62
0.067
(b) to BS 215.2
Table 5.14: Overhead line conductor data - aluminium
conductors steel reinforced (ACSR).
70
35/6
44/32
50/8
70/12
95/15
95/55
120/70
150/25
170/40
185/30
210/50
265/35
305/40
380/50
550/70
560/50
650/45
1045/45
Aluminium
6 2.7
14
2
6 3.2
26 1.85
26 2.15
12 3.2
12 3.6
26 2.7
30 2.7
26
3
30
3
24 3.74
54 2.68
54
3
54 3.6
48 3.86
1
7
1
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
45
72
7
7
4.3
4.3
Sectional area
(mm2)
Total Approx.
RDC
(mm2) diameter (Ohm/km)
Steel
Aluminium Steel
(mm)
2.7
34.4
5.7 40.1
8.1
0.834
2.4
44.0
31.7 75.6
11.2
0.652
3.2
48.3
8.0 56.3
9.6
0.594
1.44
69.9
11.4 81.3
11.7
0.413
1.67
94.4
15.3 109.7 13.6
0.305
3.2
96.5
56.3 152.8
16
0.299
3.6
122.1
71.3 193.4
18
0.236
2.1
148.9
24.2 173.1 17.1
0.194
2.7
171.8
40.1 211.8 18.9
0.168
2.33
183.8
29.8 213.6
19
0.157
3
212.1
49.5 261.5
21
0.136
2.49
263.7
34.1 297.7 22.4
0.109
2.68
304.6
39.5 344.1 24.1
0.095
3
381.7
49.5 431.2
27
0.076
3.6
549.7
71.3 620.9 32.4
0.052
3
561.7
49.5 611.2 32.2
0.051
2.87
2.87
653.5
1045.6
45.3 698.8
45.3 1090.9
34.4
43
0.044
0.028
(c) to DIN 48204
Designation
CANNA 59.7
CANNA 75.5
CANNA 93.3
CANNA 116.2
CROCUS 116.2
CANNA 147.1
CROCUS 181.6
CROCUS 228
CROCUS 297
CANNA 288
CROCUS 288
CROCUS 412
CROCUS 612
CROCUS 865
Stranding and wire

diameter (mm)
Total Approxi.
RDC
2
Aluminium Steel
Aluminium Steel
(mm)
12 2
7
2
37.7
22.0 59.7
10
0.765
12 2.25 7 2.25 47.7
27.8 75.5 11.25
0.604
12
30
30
30
30
30
36
30
30
32
66
2.5
2
2
2.25
2.5
2.8
2.8
3.15
3.15
3.6
3.13
7
7
7
7
7
7
19
7
7
19
19
66 3.72
19
Sectional area
(mm2)
2.5
2
2
2.25
2.5
2.8
2.25
3.15
3.15
2.4
2.65
58.9
94.2
94.2
119.3
147.3
184.7
221.7
233.8
233.8
325.7
507.8
34.4
22.0
22.0
27.8
34.4
43.1
75.5
54.6
54.6
86.0
104.8
93.3
116.2
116.2
147.1
181.6
227.8
297.2
288.3
288.3
411.7
612.6
12.5
14
14
15.75
17.5
19.6
22.45
22.05
22.05
26.4
32.03
0.489
0.306
0.306
0.243
0.197
0.157
0.131
0.124
0.124
0.089
0.057
3.15
717.3
148.1 865.4
38.01
0.040
RDC
No.
Wire Sectional Overall
of Al diameter area
diameter at 20C
Strands
(mm) (mm2)
(mm) (Ohm/km)
Standard
Designation
ASTM B-397
ASTM B-397
ASTM B-397
ASTM B-397
ASTM B-397
ASTM B-397
ASTM B-397
ASTM B-397
ASTM B-397
ASTM B-397
ASTM B-397
ASTM B-397
ASTM B-397
ASTM B-397
ASTM B-399
ASTM B-399
ASTM B-399
ASTM B-399
ASTM B-399
ASTM B-399
ASTM B-399
ASTM B-399
ASTM B-399
Kench
Kibe
Kayak
Kopeck
Kittle
Radian
Rede
Ragout
Rex
Remex
Ruble
Rune
Spar
Solar
7
7
7
7
7
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
37
37
2.67
3.37
3.78
4.25
4.77
3.66
3.78
3.98
4.14
4.36
4.46
4.7
3.6
4.02
39.2
62.4
78.6
99.3
125.1
199.9
212.6
236.4
255.8
283.7
296.8
330.6
376.6
469.6
8.0
10.1
11.4
12.8
14.3
18.3
18.9
19.9
19.9
21.8
22.4
23.6
25.2
28.2
0.838
0.526
0.418
0.331
0.262
0.164
0.155
0.140
0.129
0.116
0.111
0.100
0.087
0.070
19
19
19
3.686
3.909
4.12
202.7
228.0
253.3
18.4
19.6
20.6
0.165
0.147
0.132
37
37
37
3.096
3.233
3.366
278.5
303.7
329.2
21.7
22.6
23.6
0.120
0.110
0.102
37
37
37
3.493
3.617
3.734
354.6
380.2
405.2
24.5
25.3
26.1
0.094
0.088
0.083
ASTM B-399
ASTM B-399
37
37
3.962
4.176
456.2
506.8
27.7
29.2
0.073
0.066
(a) ASTM
Standard
(d) to NF C34-120
Table 5.14: Overhead line conductor data - aluminium
conductors steel reinforced (ACSR).
Designation
No.
RDC
of Al diameter area
diameter at 20C
Strands
(mm) (mm2)
(mm) (Ohm/km)
BS 3242
Box
1.85
18.8
5.6
1.750
BS 3242
BS 3242
BS 3242
BS 3242
BS 3242
BS 3242
BS 3242
BS 3242
BS 3242
BS 3242
BS 3242
BS 3242
BS 3242
BS 3242
BS 3242
BS 3242
BS 3242
BS 3242
BS 3242
BS 3242
Acacia
Almond
Cedar
Fir
Hazel
7
7
7
7
7
2.08
2.34
2.54
2.95
3.3
23.8
30.1
35.5
47.8
59.9
6.2
7.0
7.6
8.9
9.9
1.384
1.094
0.928
0.688
0.550
Pine
Willow
Oak
Mullberry
Ash
Elm
Poplar
Sycamore
Upas
Yew
Totara
Rubus
Araucaria
7
7
7
7
7
19
19
19
37
37
37
37
37
61
61
3.61
4.04
4.19
4.45
4.65
3.18
3.48
3.76
2.87
3.23
3.53
4.06
4.14
3.5
4.14
71.6
89.7
96.5
108.9
118.9
150.9
180.7
211.0
239.4
303.2
362.1
479.0
498.1
586.9
821.1
10.8
12.1
12.6
13.4
14.0
15.9
17.4
18.8
20.1
22.6
24.7
28.4
29.0
31.5
28.4
0.460
0.367
0.341
0.302
0.277
0.219
0.183
0.157
0.139
0.109
0.092
0.069
0.067
0.057
0.040
(b) BS
Table 5.15: Overhead line conductor data - aluminium alloy.
71
Stranding and wire

diameter (mm)
Designation
No.
RDC
of Al diameter area
diameter at 20C
Strands
(mm) (mm2)
(mm) (Ohm/km)
Standard
Design.
CSA C49.1-M87
CSA C49.1-M87
CSA C49.1-M87
CSA C49.1-M87
CSA C49.1-M87
10
16
25
40
63
7
7
7
7
7
1.45
1.83
2.29
2.89
3.63
11.5
18.4
28.8
46.0
72.5
4.3
5.5
6.9
8.7
10.9
2.863
1.788
1.142
0.716
0.454
CSA C49.1-M87
CSA C49.1-M87
CSA C49.1-M87
CSA C49.1-M87
CSA C49.1-M87
CSA C49.1-M87
CSA C49.1-M87
CSA C49.1-M87
CSA C49.1-M87
CSA C49.1-M87
CSA C49.1-M87
CSA C49.1-M87
CSA C49.1-M87
CSA C49.1-M87
CSA C49.1-M87
CSA C49.1-M87
CSA C49.1-M87
CSA C49.1-M87
CSA C49.1-M87
100
125
160
200
250
315
400
450
500
560
630
710
800
900
1000
1120
1250
1400
1500
19
19
19
19
19
37
37
37
37
37
61
61
61
61
91
91
91
91
91
2.78
3.1
3.51
3.93
4.39
3.53
3.98
4.22
4.45
4.71
3.89
4.13
4.38
4.65
4.01
4.25
4.49
4.75
4.91
115.1
143.9
184.2
230.2
287.7
362.1
460.4
517.9
575.5
644.5
725.0
817.2
920.8
1035.8
1150.9
1289.1
1438.7
1611.3
1726.4
13.9
15.5
17.6
19.6
22.0
24.7
27.9
29.6
31.2
33.0
35.0
37.2
39.5
41.9
44.1
46.7
49.4
52.2
54.1
0.287
0.230
0.180
0.144
0.115
0.092
0.072
0.064
0.058
0.051
0.046
0.041
0.036
0.032
0.029
0.026
0.023
0.021
0.019
Standard
Designation
NF C34-125
NF C34-125
NF C34-125
NF C34-125
NF C34-125
NF C34-125
NF C34-125
NF C34-125
NF C34-125
NF C34-125
NF C34-125
NF C34-125
NF C34-125
NF C34-125
NF C34-125
ASTER 22
ASTER 34-4
ASTER 54-6
ASTER 75-5
ASTER 93,3
ASTER 117
ASTER 148
ASTER 181-6
ASTER 228
ASTER 288
ASTER 366
ASTER 570
ASTER 851
ASTER 1144
ASTER 1600
No. of
RDC
Al
diameter area
diameter at 20C
Strands
(mm) (mm2)
(mm) (Ohm/km)
7
7
7
19
19
19
19
37
37
37
37
61
91
91
127
2
2.5
3.15
2.25
2.5
2.8
3.15
2.5
2.8
3.15
3.55
3.45
3.45
4
4
22.0
34.4
54.6
75.5
93.3
117.0
148.1
181.6
227.8
288.3
366.2
570.2
850.7
1143.5
1595.9
6.0
7.5
9.5
11.3
12.5
14.0
15.8
17.5
19.6
22.1
24.9
31.1
38.0
44.0
52.0
1.497
0.958
0.604
0.438
0.355
0.283
0.223
0.183
0.146
0.115
0.091
0.058
0.039
0.029
0.021
(e) NF
Table 5.15 (cont): Overhead line conductor data - aluminium alloy.
(c) CSA
RDC
No. of
Al
diameter area
diameter at 20C
2
Strands
(mm) (mm )
(mm) (Ohm/km)
Standard
Designation
DIN 48201
DIN 48201
16
25
7
7
1.7
2.1
15.9
24.3
5.1
6.3
2.091
1.370
DIN 48201
DIN 48201
35
50
7
19
2.5
1.8
34.4
48.4
7.5
9.0
0.967
0.690
DIN 48201
DIN 48201
50
70
7
19
3
2.1
49.5
65.8
9.0
10.5
0.672
0.507
DIN 48201
DIN 48201
DIN 48201
DIN 48201
DIN 48201
DIN 48201
DIN 48201
DIN 48201
95
120
150
185
19
19
37
37
2.5
2.8
2.25
2.5
93.3
117.0
147.1
181.6
12.5
14.0
15.7
17.5
0.358
0.285
0.228
0.184
240
300
400
61
61
61
2.25
2.5
2.89
242.5
299.4
400.1
20.2
22.5
26.0
0.138
0.112
0.084
500
61
3.23
499.8
29.1
0.067
(d) DIN
72
Stranding and wire

diameter (mm)
Designation
Alloy
ASTM B711
ASTM B711
ASTM B711
ASTM B711
ASTM B711
ASTM B711
ASTM B711
ASTM B711
ASTM B711
ASTM B711
ASTM B711
ASTM B711
ASTM B711
ASTM B711
ASTM B711
ASTM B711
Sectional area
(mm2)
Steel
26
26
30
26
30
26
26
30
30
30
54
54
54
54
84
84
2.62
2.97
2.76
3.13
3.08
3.5
3.7
3.66
3.88
4.12
3.26
3.63
3.85
4.34
4.12
4.35
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
2.04
2.31
2.76
2.43
3.08
2.72
2.88
2.2
2.33
2.47
1.98
2.18
2.31
2.6
2.47
2.61
Alloy
Steel
140.2
180.1
179.5
200.1
223.5
250.1
279.6
315.6
354.7
399.9
450.7
558.9
628.6
798.8
1119.9
1248.4
22.9
29.3
41.9
32.5
52.2
40.7
45.6
72.2
81.0
91.0
58.5
70.9
79.6
100.9
91.0
101.7
Total
area
(mm2)
Approximate
overall diameter
(mm)
163.1
209.5
221.4
232.5
275.7
290.8
325.2
387.9
435.7
491.0
509.2
629.8
708.3
899.7
1210.9
1350.0
7.08
11.08
12.08
13.08
16.08
17.08
19.08
22.08
24.08
26.08
27.08
29.08
30.08
32.08
35.08
36.08
Total
area
(mm2)
Approximate
overall diameter
(mm)
RDC at 20 C
(ohm/km)
0.240
0.187
0.188
0.168
0.151
0.135
0.120
0.107
0.095
0.084
0.075
0.060
0.054
0.042
0.030
0.027
(a) ASTM
Standard
Stranding and wire

diameter (mm)
Designation
Alloy
Sectional area
(mm2)
Steel
Alloy
Steel
RDC at 20 C
(ohm/km)
DIN 48206
DIN 48206
70/12
95/15
26
26
1.85
2.15
7
7
1.44
1.67
69.9
94.4
11.4
15.3
81.3
109.7
11.7
13.6
0.479
0.355
DIN 48206
DIN 48206
DIN 48206
DIN 48206
125/30
150/25
170/40
185/30
30
26
30
26
2.33
2.7
2.7
3
7
7
7
7
2.33
2.1
2.7
2.33
127.9
148.9
171.8
183.8
29.8
24.2
40.1
29.8
157.8
173.1
211.8
213.6
16.3
17.1
18.9
19
0.262
0.225
0.195
0.182
DIN 48206
DIN 48206
210/50
230/30
30
24
3
3.5
7
7
3
2.33
212.1
230.9
49.5
29.8
261.5
260.8
21
21
0.158
0.145
DIN 48206
DIN 48206
DIN 48206
DIN 48206
DIN 48206
DIN 48206
265/35
305/40
380/50
450/40
560/50
24
54
54
48
48
3.74
2.68
3
3.45
3.86
7
7
7
7
7
2.49
2.68
3
2.68
3
263.7
304.6
381.7
448.7
561.7
34.1
39.5
49.5
39.5
49.5
297.7
344.1
431.2
488.2
611.2
22.4
24.1
27
28.7
32.2
0.127
0.110
0.088
0.075
0.060
680/85
54
19
2.4
678.6
86.0
764.5
36
0.049
Total
area
(mm2)
Approximate
overall diameter
(mm)
Standard
(b) DIN
Standard
Sectional area
(mm2)
Stranding and wire

diameter (mm)
Designation
Alloy
Steel
Alloy
Steel
RDC at 20 C
(ohm/km)
NF C34-125
NF C34-125
PHLOX 116.2
PHLOX 147.1
18
19
56.5
59.7
116.2
14
0.591
18
2.25
19
2.25
71.6
75.5
147.1
15.75
0.467
NF C34-125
NF C34-125
NF C34-125
NF C34-125
NF C34-125
NF C34-125
PASTEL 147.1
PHLOX 181.6
30
18
2.25
2.5
7
19
2.25
2.5
119.3
88.4
27.8
93.3
147.1
181.6
15.75
17.5
0.279
0.378
PASTEL 181.6
PHLOX 228
PASTEL 228
30
18
30
2.5
2.8
2.8
7
19
7
2.5
2.8
2.8
147.3
110.8
184.7
34.4
117.0
43.1
181.6
227.8
227.8
17.5
19.6
19.6
0.226
0.300
0.180
PHLOX 288
18
3.15
19
3.15
140.3
148.1
288.3
22.05
0.238
NF C34-125
NF C34-125
NF C34-125
PASTEL 288
PASTEL 299
PHLOX 376
30
42
24
3.15
2.5
2.8
7
19
37
3.15
2.5
2.8
233.8
206.2
147.8
54.6
93.3
227.8
288.3
299.4
375.6
22.05
22.45
26.4
0.142
0.162
0.226
(c) NF
Table 5.16: Overhead line conductor data aluminium
alloy conductors, steel re-inforced (AACSR)
73
XAC at 50 Hz
XAC at 50 Hz and shunt capacitance
66kV
RDC
(20C)
RAC at
50Hz
@ 20C
3.3kV
6.6kV
11kV
22kV
mm2
/km
/km
/km
/km
/km
/km
X
/km
C
nF/km
X
/km
C
nF/km
X
/km
C
nF/km
X
/km
C
nF/km
X
/km
C
nF/km
X
/km
C
nF/km
X
/km
C
nF/km
13.3
15.3
21.2
23.9
26.2
28.3
33.6
37.7
42.4
44.0
47.7
51.2
58.9
63.1
67.4
73.4
79.2
2.1586
1.8771
1.3557
1.2013
1.0930
1.0246
0.8535
0.7647
0.6768
0.6516
0.6042
0.5634
0.4894
0.4545
0.4255
0.3930
0.3622
2.159
1.877
1.356
1.201
1.093
1.025
0.854
0.765
0.677
0.652
0.604
0.564
0.490
0.455
0.426
0.393
0.362
0.395
0.391
0.381
0.376
0.374
0.352
0.366
0.327
0.359
0.320
0.319
0.317
0.313
0.346
0.344
0.306
0.339
0.409
0.405
0.395
0.390
0.388
0.366
0.380
0.341
0.373
0.334
0.333
0.331
0.327
0.360
0.358
0.320
0.353
0.420
0.415
0.405
0.401
0.398
0.377
0.390
0.351
0.383
0.344
0.344
0.341
0.337
0.371
0.369
0.330
0.363
0.434
0.429
0.419
0.415
0.412
0.391
0.404
0.365
0.397
0.358
0.358
0.355
0.351
0.385
0.383
0.344
0.377
0.445
0.441
0.430
0.426
0.424
0.402
0.416
0.376
0.409
0.369
0.369
0.367
0.362
0.396
0.394
0.356
0.389
8.7
8.8
9.0
9.1
9.2
9.4
9.4
9.7
9.6
9.9
9.9
10.0
10.1
9.9
10.0
10.3
10.1
0.503
0.499
0.488
0.484
0.482
0.460
0.474
0.435
0.467
0.427
0.427
0.425
0.421
0.454
0.452
0.414
0.447
7.6
7.7
7.8
7.9
8.0
8.2
8.1
8.4
8.3
8.5
8.5
8.6
8.7
8.5
8.5
8.8
8.7
0.513
0.508
0.498
0.494
0.491
0.470
0.484
0.444
0.476
0.437
0.437
0.434
0.430
0.464
0.462
0.423
0.457
7.4
7.5
7.7
7.8
7.8
8.0
7.9
8.2
8.1
8.3
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.3
8.3
8.6
8.4
0.520
0.515
0.505
0.501
0.498
0.477
0.491
0.451
0.483
0.444
0.444
0.441
0.437
0.471
0.469
0.430
0.464
7.3
7.4
7.6
7.6
7.7
7.8
7.8
8.1
7.9
8.2
8.2
8.2
8.3
8.2
8.2
8.5
8.3
0.541
0.537
0.527
0.522
0.520
0.498
0.512
0.473
0.505
0.465
0.465
0.463
0.459
0.492
0.490
0.452
0.485
7.0
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.3
7.5
7.5
7.7
7.6
7.8
7.8
7.9
7.9
7.8
7.8
8.1
7.9
0.528
0.523
0.513
0.509
0.506
0.485
0.499
0.459
0.491
0.452
0.452
0.449
0.445
0.479
0.477
0.438
0.472
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.5
7.7
7.7
7.9
7.8
8.0
8.1
8.1
8.2
8.0
8.1
8.3
8.2
0.556
0.552
0.542
0.537
0.535
0.513
0.527
0.488
0.520
0.481
0.480
0.478
0.474
0.507
0.505
0.467
0.500
6.8
6.9
7.0
7.1
7.1
7.3
7.2
7.4
7.3
7.5
7.6
7.6
7.7
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.6
85.0
94.4
105.0
121.6
127.9
131.2
135.2
0.3374
0.3054
0.2733
0.2371
0.2254
0.2197
0.2133
0.338
0.306
0.274
0.237
0.226
0.220
0.214
0.337
0.302
0.330
0.294
0.290
0.289
0.297
0.351
0.316
0.344
0.308
0.304
0.303
0.311
0.361
0.327
0.355
0.318
0.314
0.313
0.322
0.375
0.341
0.369
0.332
0.328
0.327
0.336
0.387
0.352
0.380
0.344
0.340
0.339
0.347
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.6
10.7
10.7
10.5
0.445
0.410
0.438
0.402
0.398
0.397
0.405
8.7
8.8
8.8
9.0
9.0
9.1
9.0
0.454
0.420
0.448
0.412
0.407
0.407
0.415
8.5
8.6
8.6
8.8
8.8
8.8
8.8
0.461
0.427
0.455
0.419
0.414
0.414
0.422
8.4
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
8.7
8.6
0.483
0.448
0.476
0.440
0.436
0.435
0.443
7.9
8.0
8.1
8.2
8.2
8.3
8.2
0.469
0.435
0.463
0.427
0.422
0.421
0.430
8.2
8.3
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.5
8.4
0.498
0.463
0.491
0.455
0.451
0.450
0.458
7.7
7.8
7.8
7.9
8.0
8.0
7.9
148.9 0.1937
158.7 0.1814
0.194
0.182
0.288
0.292
0.302
0.306
0.312
0.316
0.326
0.330
0.338
0.342
10.8
10.7
0.396
0.400
9.1
9.1
0.406
0.410
8.9
8.9
0.413
0.417
8.7
8.7
0.434
0.438
8.3
8.3
0.420
0.425
8.6
8.5
0.449
0.453
8.0
8.0
170.5 0.1691
184.2 0.1565
0.170
0.157
0.290
0.287
0.304
0.302
0.314
0.312
0.328
0.326
0.340
0.337
10.8
10.9
0.398
0.395
9.1
9.2
0.407
0.405
8.9
9.0
0.414
0.412
8.8
8.8
0.436
0.433
8.3
8.4
0.422
0.420
8.6
8.6
0.451
0.449
8.0
8.1
201.4 0.1438
210.6 0.1366
0.144
0.137
0.280
0.283
0.294
0.297
0.304
0.308
0.318
0.322
0.330
0.333
11.0
11.0
0.388
0.391
9.3
9.3
0.398
0.401
9.1
9.1
0.405
0.408
8.9
8.9
0.426
0.429
8.5
8.4
0.412
0.416
8.8
8.7
0.441
0.444
8.2
8.1
221.7
230.9
241.7
263.7
282.0
306.6
322.3
339.3
362.6
386.0
402.8
428.9
448.7
456.1
483.4
494.4
510.5
523.7
0.131
0.126
0.120
0.110
0.103
0.095
0.090
0.086
0.081
0.076
0.073
0.068
0.066
0.065
0.061
0.060
0.058
0.057
0.274
0.276
0.279
0.272
0.274
0.267
0.270
0.265
0.262
0.261
0.261
0.267
0.257
0.257
0.255
0.254
0.252
0.252
0.288
0.290
0.293
0.286
0.288
0.281
0.284
0.279
0.276
0.275
0.275
0.281
0.271
0.271
0.269
0.268
0.266
0.266
0.298
0.300
0.303
0.296
0.298
0.291
0.294
0.289
0.286
0.285
0.285
0.291
0.281
0.281
0.279
0.279
0.277
0.277
0.312
0.314
0.317
0.310
0.312
0.305
0.308
0.303
0.300
0.299
0.299
0.305
0.295
0.295
0.293
0.293
0.291
0.291
0.323
0.326
0.329
0.321
0.324
0.317
0.320
0.315
0.311
0.311
0.310
0.316
0.306
0.307
0.305
0.304
0.302
0.302
11.3
11.2
11.2
11.3
11.3
11.5
11.5
11.6
11.7
11.8
11.8
11.5
11.9
12.0
12.0
12.1
12.1
12.1
0.381
0.384
0.387
0.380
0.382
0.375
0.378
0.373
0.369
0.369
0.368
0.374
0.364
0.365
0.363
0.362
0.360
0.360
9.5
9.4
9.4
9.5
9.5
9.7
9.6
9.7
9.8
9.8
9.9
9.7
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.1
10.1
0.391
0.393
0.396
0.389
0.392
0.384
0.387
0.383
0.379
0.379
0.378
0.384
0.374
0.374
0.372
0.372
0.370
0.370
9.3
9.2
9.2
9.3
9.3
9.4
9.4
9.5
9.6
9.6
9.6
9.4
9.7
9.7
9.8
9.8
9.8
9.8
0.398
0.400
0.403
0.396
0.399
0.391
0.394
0.390
0.386
0.386
0.385
0.391
0.381
0.381
0.379
0.379
0.377
0.377
9.1
9.0
9.0
9.1
9.1
9.2
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.4
9.4
9.2
9.5
9.5
9.6
9.6
9.6
9.6
0.419
0.422
0.425
0.418
0.420
0.413
0.416
0.411
0.408
0.407
0.407
0.413
0.402
0.403
0.401
0.400
0.398
0.398
8.6
8.6
8.5
8.6
8.6
8.7
8.7
8.8
8.9
8.9
8.9
8.7
9.0
9.0
9.0
9.0
9.1
9.1
0.406
0.408
0.411
0.404
0.406
0.399
0.402
0.398
0.394
0.393
0.393
0.399
0.389
0.389
0.387
0.387
0.385
0.385
8.9
8.9
8.8
8.9
8.9
9.1
9.0
9.1
9.2
9.2
9.2
9.0
9.3
9.3
9.4
9.4
9.4
9.4
0.435
0.437
0.440
0.433
0.435
0.428
0.431
0.426
0.423
0.422
0.422
0.428
0.418
0.418
0.416
0.415
0.413
0.413
8.3
8.3
8.2
8.3
8.3
8.4
8.4
8.5
8.5
8.6
8.6
8.4
8.7
8.7
8.7
8.7
8.7
8.7
0.1307
0.1249
0.1193
0.1093
0.1022
0.0945
0.0895
0.085
0.0799
0.0747
0.0719
0.0671
0.0642
0.0635
0.0599
0.0583
0.0565
0.0553
33kV
Flat
circuit
Double
vertical
Triangle
132kV
Double
triangle
Sectional
area of
aluminium
Double
vertical
Flat
circuit
Table 5.17: Feeder circuits data - overhead lines
74
XAC at 60 Hz and shunt capacitance

66kV
Sectional RDC
RAC at
area of (20C) 60Hz
aluminium
@ 20C
3.3kV
6.6kV
11kV
22kV
33kV
Flat
circuit
Double
vertical
mm2
/km
/km
/km
/km
/km
/km
X
/km
C
nF/km
13.3
15.3
21.2
23.9
26.2
28.3
33.6
37.7
42.4
44.0
47.7
51.2
58.9
63.1
67.4
73.4
79.2
85.0
94.4
105.0
121.6
127.9
131.2
135.2
2.1586
1.8771
1.3557
1.2013
1.0930
1.0246
0.8535
0.7647
0.6768
0.6516
0.6042
0.5634
0.4894
0.4545
0.4255
0.3930
0.3622
0.3374
0.3054
0.2733
0.2371
0.2254
0.2197
0.2133
2.159
1.877
1.356
1.201
1.093
1.025
0.854
0.765
0.677
0.652
0.604
0.564
0.490
0.455
0.426
0.393
0.362
0.338
0.306
0.274
0.238
0.226
0.220
0.214
0.474
0.469
0.457
0.452
0.449
0.423
0.439
0.392
0.431
0.384
0.383
0.380
0.375
0.416
0.413
0.367
0.407
0.404
0.363
0.396
0.353
0.348
0.347
0.357
0.491
0.486
0.474
0.469
0.466
0.440
0.456
0.409
0.447
0.400
0.400
0.397
0.392
0.432
0.430
0.384
0.424
0.421
0.380
0.413
0.370
0.365
0.364
0.374
0.503
0.498
0.486
0.481
0.478
0.452
0.468
0.421
0.460
0.413
0.412
0.409
0.404
0.445
0.442
0.396
0.436
0.433
0.392
0.426
0.382
0.377
0.376
0.386
0.520
0.515
0.503
0.498
0.495
0.469
0.485
0.438
0.477
0.429
0.429
0.426
0.421
0.462
0.459
0.413
0.453
0.450
0.409
0.442
0.399
0.394
0.393
0.403
0.534
0.529
0.516
0.511
0.508
0.483
0.499
0.452
0.490
0.443
0.443
0.440
0.435
0.475
0.473
0.427
0.467
0.464
0.423
0.456
0.413
0.408
0.407
0.416
8.7
8.8
9.0
9.1
9.2
9.4
9.4
9.7
9.6
9.9
9.9
10.0
10.1
9.9
10.0
10.3
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.6
10.7
10.7
10.5
0.604
0.598
0.586
0.581
0.578
0.552
0.569
0.521
0.560
0.513
0.513
0.510
0.505
0.545
0.543
0.496
0.536
0.534
0.492
0.526
0.482
0.477
0.476
0.486
7.6
7.7
7.8
7.9
8.0
8.2
8.1
8.4
8.3
8.5
8.5
8.6
8.7
8.5
8.5
8.8
8.7
8.7
8.8
8.8
9.0
9.0
9.1
9.0
0.615
0.610
0.598
0.593
0.590
0.564
0.580
0.533
0.572
0.525
0.524
0.521
0.516
0.557
0.554
0.508
0.548
0.545
0.504
0.537
0.494
0.489
0.488
0.498
7.4
7.5
7.7
7.8
7.8
8.0
7.9
8.2
8.1
8.3
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.3
8.3
8.6
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.6
8.8
8.8
8.8
8.8
0.624
0.619
0.606
0.601
0.598
0.572
0.589
0.541
0.580
0.533
0.533
0.530
0.525
0.565
0.563
0.516
0.556
0.554
0.512
0.546
0.502
0.497
0.496
0.506
148.9 0.1937
158.7 0.1814
0.194
0.182
0.346
0.351
0.362
0.367
0.375
0.380
0.392
0.397
0.405
0.410
10.8
10.7
0.475
0.480
9.1
9.1
0.487
0.492
8.9
8.9
170.5 0.1691
184.2 0.1565
0.170
0.157
0.348
0.345
0.365
0.362
0.377
0.374
0.394
0.391
0.408
0.405
10.8
10.9
0.477
0.474
9.1
9.2
0.489
0.486
201.4 0.1438
210.6 0.1366
0.145
0.137
0.336
0.340
0.353
0.357
0.365
0.369
0.382
0.386
0.396
0.400
11.0
11.0
0.466
0.469
9.3
9.3
221.7
230.9
241.7
263.7
282.0
306.6
322.3
339.3
362.6
386.0
402.8
428.9
448.7
456.1
483.4
494.4
510.5
523.7
0.132
0.126
0.120
0.110
0.103
0.096
0.091
0.086
0.081
0.076
0.074
0.069
0.066
0.065
0.062
0.060
0.059
0.057
0.328
0.331
0.335
0.326
0.329
0.320
0.324
0.318
0.314
0.313
0.313
0.320
0.308
0.305
0.306
0.305
0.303
0.303
0.345
0.348
0.351
0.343
0.346
0.337
0.341
0.335
0.331
0.330
0.330
0.337
0.325
0.322
0.323
0.322
0.320
0.320
0.357
0.360
0.364
0.355
0.358
0.349
0.353
0.347
0.343
0.342
0.342
0.349
0.337
0.334
0.335
0.334
0.332
0.332
0.374
0.377
0.381
0.372
0.375
0.366
0.370
0.364
0.360
0.359
0.359
0.366
0.354
0.351
0.352
0.351
0.349
0.349
0.388
0.391
0.394
0.386
0.389
0.380
0.384
0.378
0.374
0.373
0.372
0.380
0.367
0.364
0.366
0.365
0.362
0.363
11.3
11.2
11.2
11.3
11.3
11.5
11.5
11.6
11.7
11.8
11.8
11.5
11.9
12.0
12.0
12.1
12.1
12.1
0.458
0.460
0.464
0.455
0.458
0.450
0.453
0.448
0.443
0.443
0.442
0.449
0.437
0.434
0.435
0.435
0.432
0.432
9.5
9.4
9.4
9.5
9.5
9.7
9.6
9.7
9.8
9.8
9.9
9.7
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.1
10.1
0.1307
0.1249
0.1193
0.1093
0.1022
0.0945
0.0895
0.0850
0.0799
0.0747
0.0719
0.0671
0.0642
0.0635
0.0599
0.0583
0.0565
0.0553
X
C
X
/km nF/km /km
Triangle
Table 5.17 (cont): Feeder circuits data - overhead lines
75
C
X
nF/km /km
Double
vertical
C
nF/km
132kV
Double
triangle
Flat
circuit
X
C
/km nF/km
X
C
X
C
/km nF/km /km nF/km
7.3
7.4
7.6
7.6
7.7
7.8
7.8
8.1
7.9
8.2
8.2
8.2
8.3
8.2
8.2
8.5
8.3
8.4
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
8.7
8.6
0.649
0.644
0.632
0.627
0.624
0.598
0.614
0.567
0.606
0.559
0.558
0.555
0.550
0.591
0.588
0.542
0.582
0.579
0.538
0.572
0.528
0.523
0.522
0.532
7.0
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.3
7.5
7.5
7.7
7.6
7.8
7.8
7.9
7.9
7.8
7.8
8.1
7.9
7.9
8.0
8.1
8.2
8.2
8.3
8.2
0.633
0.628
0.616
0.611
0.608
0.582
0.598
0.551
0.589
0.542
0.542
0.539
0.534
0.574
0.572
0.526
0.566
0.563
0.522
0.555
0.512
0.507
0.506
0.516
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.5
7.7
7.7
7.9
7.8
8.0
8.1
8.1
8.2
8.0
8.1
8.3
8.2
8.2
8.3
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.5
8.4
0.668
0.662
0.650
0.645
0.642
0.616
0.633
0.585
0.624
0.577
0.576
0.573
0.568
0.609
0.606
0.560
0.600
0.598
0.556
0.590
0.546
0.541
0.540
0.550
0.495
0.500
8.7
8.7
0.521
0.526
8.3
8.3
0.504
0.509
8.6
8.5
0.539 8.0
0.544 8.0
8.9
9.0
0.497
0.494
8.8
8.8
0.523
0.520
8.3
8.4
0.507
0.504
8.6
8.6
0.541 8.0
0.538 8.1
0.477
0.481
9.1
9.1
0.486
0.489
8.9
8.9
0.511
0.515
8.5
8.4
0.495
0.499
8.8
8.7
0.529 8.2
0.533 8.1
0.469
0.472
0.476
0.467
0.470
0.461
0.465
0.459
0.455
0.454
0.454
0.461
0.449
0.446
0.447
0.446
0.444
0.444
9.3
9.2
9.2
9.3
9.3
9.4
9.4
9.5
9.6
9.6
9.6
9.4
9.7
9.7
9.8
9.8
9.8
9.8
0.478
0.480
0.484
0.476
0.478
0.470
0.473
0.468
0.463
0.463
0.462
0.469
0.457
0.454
0.455
0.455
0.452
0.452
9.1
9.0
9.0
9.1
9.1
9.2
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.4
9.4
9.2
9.5
9.6
9.6
9.6
9.6
9.6
0.503
0.506
0.510
0.501
0.504
0.495
0.499
0.493
0.489
0.488
0.488
0.495
0.483
0.480
0.481
0.480
0.478
0.478
8.6
8.6
8.5
8.6
8.6
8.7
8.7
8.8
8.9
8.9
8.9
8.7
9.0
9.0
9.0
9.0
9.1
9.1
0.487
0.490
0.493
0.485
0.488
0.479
0.483
0.477
0.473
0.472
0.472
0.479
0.467
0.463
0.465
0.464
0.462
0.462
8.9
8.9
8.8
8.9
8.9
9.1
9.0
9.1
9.2
9.2
9.2
9.0
9.3
9.4
9.4
9.4
9.4
9.4
0.522
0.524
0.528
0.519
0.522
0.514
0.517
0.511
0.507
0.506
0.506
0.513
0.501
0.498
0.499
0.498
0.496
0.496
6.8
6.9
7.0
7.1
7.1
7.3
7.2
7.4
7.3
7.5
7.6
7.6
7.7
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.6
7.7
7.8
7.8
7.9
8.0
8.0
7.9
8.3
8.3
8.2
8.3
8.3
8.4
8.4
8.5
8.5
8.6
8.6
8.4
8.7
8.7
8.7
8.7
8.7
8.7
XAC at 60 Hz
Conductor size mm2

Series Resistance
Series Reactance
Susceptance
Series Resistance
Series Reactance
Susceptance
Series Resistance
Series Reactance
Susceptance
Series Resistance
Series Reactance
Susceptance
Series Resistance
Series Reactance
Susceptance
R (/km)
X (/km)
C (mS/km)
R (/km)
X (/km)
C (mS/km)
R (/km)
X (/km)
C (mS/km)
R (/km)
X (/km)
C (mS/km)
R (/km)
X (/km)
C (mS/km)
Series Resistance
Series Reactance
Susceptance
Series Resistance
Series Reactance
Susceptance
Series Resistance
R (/km)
X (/km)
C (mS/km)
R (/km)
X (/km)
C (mS/km)
R (/km)
Series Reactance
Susceptance
Series Resistance
420kV* Series Reactance
Susceptance
X (/km)
C (mS/km)
R (/km)
X (/km)
C (mS/km)
3.3kV
6.6kV
11kV
22kV
33kV
66kV*
145kV*
245kV*
25
0.927
0.097
0.059
0.927
0.121
0.085
0.927
0.128
0.068
-
35
0.669
0.092
0.067
0.669
0.113
0.095
0.669
0.119
0.074
0.669
0.136
0.053
0.669
0.15
0.042
50
0.494
0.089
0.079
0.494
0.108
0.104
0.494
0.114
0.082
0.494
0.129
0.057
0.494
0.143
0.045
70
0.342
0.083
0.09
0.342
0.102
0.12
0.342
0.107
0.094
0.348
0.121
0.065
0.348
0.134
0.05
95
0.247
0.08
0.104
0.247
0.096
0.136
0.247
0.101
0.105
0.247
0.114
0.072
0.247
0.127
0.055
120
0.196
0.078
0.111
0.196
0.093
0.149
0.196
0.098
0.115
0.196
0.11
0.078
0.196
0.122
0.059
150
0.158
0.076
0.122
0.158
0.091
0.16
0.158
0.095
0.123
0.158
0.107
0.084
0.158
0.118
0.063
185
0.127
0.075
0.133
0.127
0.088
0.177
0.127
0.092
0.135
0.127
0.103
0.091
0.127
0.114
0.068
240
0.098
0.073
0.146
0.098
0.086
0.189
0.098
0.089
0.15
0.098
0.1
0.1
0.098
0.109
0.075
300
0.08
0.072
0.16
0.08
0.085
0.195
0.08
0.087
0.165
0.08
0.094
0.109
0.08
0.105
0.081
400
0.064
0.071
0.179
0.064
0.083
0.204
0.064
0.084
0.182
0.064
0.091
0.12
0.064
0.102
0.089
*500
0.051
0.088
0.19
0.057
0.088
0.205
0.051
0.089
0.194
0.051
0.096
0.128
0.051
0.103
0.094
*630
0.042
0.086
0.202
0.042
0.086
0.228
0.042
0.086
0.216
0.042
0.093
0.141
0.042
0.1
0.103
*800
0.0387
0.117
0.079
0.0387
0.13
0.053
0.031
0.113
0.082
0.031
0.125
0.06
0.0254
0.109
0.088
0.0254
0.12
0.063
0.0215
0.102
0.11
0.0215
0.115
0.072
0.0487 0.0387 0.0310 0.0254

0.145 0.137 0.134 0.128
0.044 0.047 0.05 0.057
0.0310 0.0254
0.172 0.162
0.04 0.047
0.0215
0.123
0.057
0.0215
0.156
0.05
*1000 *1200 *1600
0.0161
0.119
0.063
0.0161
0.151
0.057
0.0126
0.113
0.072
0.0126
0.144
0.063
For aluminium conductors of the same cross-section, the resistance increases by 60-65 percent, the series reactance and shunt capacitance is virtually unaltered.* - single core cables in trefoil.
Different values apply if laid in spaced flat formation.
Series Resistance - a.c. resistance @ 90C. Series reactance - equivalent star reactance.
Data for 245kV and 420kV cables may vary significantly from that given, dependent on manufacturer and construction.
Table 5.18: Characteristics of polyethylene
insulated cables (XLPE)
Conductor Size (mm2)

Series Resistance
3.3kV Series Reactance
Susceptance
Series Resistance
6.6kV Series Reactance
Susceptance
Series Resistance
11kV Series Reactance
Susceptance
Series Resistance
Susceptance
Series Resistance
Susceptance
R (/km)
X (/km)
C (mS/km)
R (/km)
X (/km)
C (mS/km)
R (/km)
X (/km)
C (mS/km)
R (/km)
X (/km)
C (mS/km)
R (/km)
X (/km)
C (mS/km)
10
16
25
35
50
70
95
120 150 185 240
2063 1289 825.5 595 439.9 304.9 220.4 174.5 142.3 113.9 87.6
87.7 83.6 76.7 74.8 72.5 70.2 67.5 66.6 65.7 64.7 63.8
300
70.8
62.9
400
56.7
62.4
*500
45.5
73.5
*630
37.1
72.1
*800 *1000
31.2 27.2
71.2 69.8
514.2 326
26.2 24.3
17.6
16.9
14.1
16.5
11.3
18.8
9.3
18.4
7.8
18
111
9.26
206.4 148.8 110

22 21.2 20.4
76.2
19.6
55.1
18.7
43.6
18.3
35.6
17.9
28.5
17.6
21.9
17.1
6.7
17.8
0.87 0.63 0.46 0.32 0.23 0.184 0.15 0.12 0.092 0.074 0.059 0.048 0.039 0.033 0.028
0.107 0.1 0.096 0.091 0.087 0.085 0.083 0.081 0.079 0.077 0.076 0.085 0.083 0.081 0.08
17.69 12.75 9.42
2.89 2.71 2.6
-
4.19
1.16
6.53
2.46
4.71
2.36
3.74
2.25
3.04
2.19
2.44
2.11
1.87
2.04
1.51
1.97
1.21
1.92
0.96
1.9
0.79
1.84
0.66
1.8
0.57
1.76
2.9
1.09
2.09
1.03
0.181 0.147 0.118 0.09 0.073 0.058 0.046 0.038 0.031 0.027
0.107 0.103 0.101 0.097 0.094 0.09 0.098 0.097 0.092 0.089
0.104 0.116 0.124 0.194 0.151 0.281 0.179 0.198 0.22 0.245
Cables are of the solid type, 3 core except for those marked *. Impedances at 50Hz frequency
Table 5.19: Characteristics of paper insulated cables
76
Voltage Level
Um kV
11
12
24
30
33
36
66
72.5
132
145
220
380
245
420
R /km
X /km
1.380
0.870
0.627
0.463
0.321
0.232
0.184
0.150
0.121
0.093
0.075
0.060
0.049
0.041
0.035
0.030
0.106
0.100
0.094
0.091
0.086
0.084
0.081
0.079
0.077
0.076
0.075
0.075
0.089
0.086
0.086
0.084
5.1 Physical significance of sub-subtransient

quantities in dynamic behaviour of synchronous
machines. I.M. Canay. Proc. IEE, Vol. 135, Pt. B,
November 1988.
Methods for determining
5.2 IEC 60034-4.
synchronous machine quantities from tests.
5.3 IEEE Standards 115/115A. IEEE Test Procedures
for Synchronous Machines.
5.4 Power System Analysis. J.R.Mortlock and
M.W.Humphrey Davies (Chapman & Hall,
London).
Cross Sectional
Area mm2
Conductors
per phase
Surge Impedance
Loading
MVA
30
0.3
11
2.9
151
50
90
120
150
1
50
90
120
150
50
1
1
1
1
1.2
1
1
1
1
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.5
44
1.2
1.2
1.4
1.5
17
23
27
30
5.8
66
92
106
119
3.9
5.1
6.2
7.3
151
7.8
10.2
12.5
14.6
204
268
328
383
204
268
328
383
2.7
149
11.7
204
90
120
150
90
1
1
1
1
2.7
3.1
207
239
15.3
18.7
268
328
3.5
11
150
250
250
150
250
250
400
400
1
1
2
1
11
267
827
1068
21.9
41
59
383
268
383
11
15
44
1240
1790
4070
77
153
85
502
1004
370
1
2
1
2
44
58
56
4960
7160
6274
115
230
160
502
1004
698
73
9057
320
1395
400
400
1
2
130
184
15600
22062
247
494
648
1296
400
400
4
2
400
550
4
2
260
410
582
31200
58100
82200
988
850
1700
2592
1296
2590
482
68200
1085
1650
550
540
81200
1630
2475
Table 5.21: OHL capabilities
77
Voltage Drop
Loading
MWkm
Indicative Thermal
Loading
MVA
A
16
25
35
50
70
95
120
150
185
240
300
400
*500
*630
*800
*1000
3 core Copper conductors, 50Hz values.
* - single core cables in trefoil
Table 5.20: 3.3 kV PVC insulated cables
Un kV
5.25 REFERENCES
3.3kV
Conductor size (mm2)

Equivalent Circuits and Parameters of Power System Plant

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What are the main types of synchronous machines discussed?

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5