Human Trafficking by The Numbers, 2016

1
Human Trafficking by the Numbers:

The Initial Benchmark of Prevalence and Economic Impact for
Texas
Final Report
December 2016

2016 The University of Texas at Austin, School of Social Work, Institute on Domestic Violence and Sexual Assault

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Human Trafficking by the Numbers:

The Initial Benchmark of Prevalence and Economic Impact for
Texas
Final Report
December 2016
Nol Busch-Armendariz, PhD, LMSW, MPA

Nicole Levy Nale, MSW
Matt Kammer-Kerwick, PhD
Bruce Kellison, PhD
Melissa Irene Maldonado Torres, PhD
Laurie Cook Heffron, PhD
John Nehme, MPEc
Staff & Consultant Contributors:
Melody Huslage
Sandra Molinari
Amber McDonald
McKenna Talley
Alex Wang
Anna Wasim
Leila Wood, PhD

Harriet Tubman did not wait around for a proper measurement
of how many slaves were in the South. Neither should we. The
work needs to be done while we try to measure it.
-- Timothy McCarthy, Harvard Kennedy School
The Freedom Ecosystem, Monitor Deloitte/Deloitte Consulting LLP

This project was funded by the Texas Office of the Governor, Criminal Justice Division (Contract No.
2847101). The opinions, findings, and conclusions expressed in this publication are those of the authors
and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the Texas Office of the Governor.
Permission to reproduce any portion of this report is granted on the condition that the authors are credited.
When using these data use this citation:
Busch-Armendariz, N.B., Nale, N.L., Kammer-Kerwick, M., Kellison, B., Torres, M.I.M., Cook Heffron,
L., Nehme, J. (2016). Human Trafficking by the Numbers: The Initial Benchmark of Prevalence and
Economic Impact for Texas. Austin, TX: Institute on Domestic Violence & Sexual Assault, The
University of Texas at Austin.
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6
Acknowledgements
This project has been made possible through the commitment, vision, and efforts of many in
Texas who are working in the anti-trafficking movement and fighting to end exploitation and
trafficking of some of our most vulnerable populations.
Our sincere thanks goes to the many research participants who worked closely with us over the
last two years, answering survey questions, participating in interviews and focus groups, and
supporting us as we worked towards a greater understanding of the prevalence and economic
impact of human trafficking in Texas. In particular, we are deeply grateful to the social service
providers and advocates, law enforcement officers and victim specialists, prosecutors, legal
service providers, educators, and the many others working to protect adults and children from
exploitation and trafficking.
We would like to acknowledge the following individuals and agencies for their expertise and
specific contributions through this research study.
We extend our sincere gratitude to the leadership at the Texas Office of the Governor, Criminal
Justice Division and, in particular, the newly established Child Sex Trafficking Team. This
teams expertise and commitment to children impacted by trafficking will continue to elevate our
response as a state and continue our reputation of being a nationally recognized leader for
protecting minor and youth victims of sex trafficking. We thank them for their continued vision
to support and fund empirically-grounded research that increases the understanding of the
prevalence and impact of this crime, research that we hope will influence our future response,
legislation priorities, and ability to serve victims and survivors.
We would like to extend our sincere appreciation to our core partner on this research, Allies
Against Slavery. John Nehme and his team contributed vision and field expertise to this research
that deserves special recognition. We look forward to their continued impact in this field, and we
thank them for all they do to promote innovation and elevate our expectations for the antitrafficking field.
A big Texas thank you to the team at Polaris, CEO Bradley Myles and Data Analysis Director
Jennifer Kimball. The innovative work of Polaris and the National Human Trafficking Hotline
continues to illuminate the complexity of human trafficking and support the field through
actionable insights. Their pioneering approach has helped the anti-trafficking movement improve
data collection efforts and has shaped the entire solution ecosystem by grounding promising
practices in evidence.
Numerous IDVSA staff and consultants deserve a special recognition for their contributions to
this research. We are indebted to all of you for your service.
Dr. Leila Wood, IDVSA Director of Research, who provided support and guidance on the
research methodology and social justice perspectives.
Amber McDonald, member of the Colorado Human Trafficking Councils Data and Research
Task Force, for her guidance and expertise as a forensic social worker and consultant of this
research. We are grateful for her commitment to youth affected by trauma and exploitation.
We are especially grateful for the contributions of all our graduate research assistants and
research associates. GRAs McKenna Talley, Melody Huslage, Melissa Forrow, and Research
Fellow Sandra Molinari contributed their thinking, time, and exemplary skills to this project; it is
better for their input. Thanks also to Research Associates Alex Wang and Anna Wasim for their
commitment to this issue and contribution to the development of this report.
A very special thanks to the many individuals and agencies that we met with as part of this
research; we simply cannot name them all. We do want to acknowledge the work of agencies
who have been committed to the research and the anti-trafficking field for many years: the
Human Trafficking & Transnational Organized Crime Section of the Attorney General of Texas,
U.S. Attorneys Office, Human Smuggling and Trafficking Center, Federal Bureau of
Investigations and the Innocence Lost National Initiative, Homeland Security Investigations,
Department of Public Safety, Department of Family and Protective Services, and the Texas
Association Against Sexual Assault. Their contributions continue to advance and elevate Texass
human trafficking prevention, protection, and prosecution efforts.



Table of Contents
Executive Summary ............................................................................................................................................ 13
Prevalence Highlights ............................................................................................................................................................ 13
Cost Highlights .......................................................................................................................................................................... 13
Background ................................................................................................................................................................................ 13
Methods ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 13
Overall Findings ........................................................................................................................................................................ 14
Prevalence of minor and youth sex trafficking in Texas. ............................................................................ 14
Prevalence of labor trafficking in Texas. ............................................................................................................ 15
Economic impact of human trafficking in Texas. ............................................................................................ 16
Introduction .......................................................................................................................................................... 18
Research Methodology .................................................................................................................................... 20
Background and Theory ................................................................................................................................. 21
U.S. Federal Human Trafficking Policy ........................................................................................................................... 21
U.S. Federal and Texas State Labor Policy .................................................................................................................... 22
Building on Lessons About Vulnerabilities Seen in DMST ...................................................................................... 22
Victim Typologies ..................................................................................................................................................................... 26
Estimation of risk ..................................................................................................................................................................... 27
Research Activities ........................................................................................................................................... 28
Secondary research ................................................................................................................................................................. 29
Human Trafficking Reporting System (HTRS). .................................................................................................. 29
National Human Trafficking Hotline Data (Hotline). ..................................................................................... 30
Primary research ..................................................................................................................................................................... 37
Agency Survey. ................................................................................................................................................................ 37
Victimization Rates. ...................................................................................................................................................... 39
Agency Survey: Collaboration with New Orleans Trafficking Task Force. .............................................. 41
Follow-up in-depth interviews. ................................................................................................................................. 42
Focus groups, including worksheets filled out prior to the group. ............................................................. 42
DMST working group. .................................................................................................................................................. 45
Pilot study on labor trafficking: Houston. ............................................................................................................ 47
Prevalence of Human Trafficking in Texas ................................................................................................... 51
Minor and youth sex trafficking. ....................................................................................................................................... 52
How large are these community segments? ........................................................................................................ 53
How many are at risk? ................................................................................................................................................. 53
Labor trafficking. ..................................................................................................................................................................... 54
How large are these labor segments? .................................................................................................................... 55
How many workers are at risk? ............................................................................................................................... 56
Economic Impact of Human Trafficking in Texas ...................................................................................... 57
Sex trafficking ............................................................................................................................................................................ 57
Labor trafficking. ..................................................................................................................................................................... 59
Our Understanding of Human Trafficking in Texas .................................................................................. 60
Law enforcement response .................................................................................................................................................. 61
Prosecution response ............................................................................................................................................................. 61
Under investigation: Labor trafficking .......................................................................................................................... 62
Discussion .............................................................................................................................................................. 63
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Conclusions ................................................................................................................................................................................. 64
Recommendations ................................................................................................................................................................... 66
Next Steps: Phase 2 ................................................................................................................................................................. 66
References ........................................................................................................................................................... 67
Appendix A: Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ) ....................................................................................... 77
Appendix B: Resources ...................................................................................................................................... 80
Appendix C: Definitions detailed in Trafficking Victims Protection Act of 2000 ................................ 82
Appendix D: DPS Offense Codes Related to Human Trafficking ............................................................ 84
Appendix E: Secondary Sources in Support of Victimization Rate ........................................................ 87
Appendix F: Gaps Analysis ............................................................................................................................... 89
Appendix G: Research on Minor and Youth Sex Trafficking .................................................................. 97
Appendix H: Research on Labor Trafficking ............................................................................................. 103
Appendix I: Hierarchy of Information Needs: Victims ............................................................................ 105
Appendix J: IDVSA History ........................................................................................................................... 107
Appendix K: Human Trafficking and Transnational Organized Crime Section ............................... 110
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Figures and Tables
Figure 1: Trafficking and exploitation summary .......................................................................... 50

Table 1: Statewide Prevalence of Human Trafficking in Texas ................................................... 14
Table 2: Economic Impact of Human Trafficking in Texas ......................................................... 14
Table 3: Minor and Youth Sex Trafficking in Texas .................................................................... 15
Table 4: Labor Trafficking in Texas ............................................................................................. 15
Table 5: Lifetime Costs of Care for Victims of Minor and Youth Sex Trafficking ..................... 16
Table 6: Annual Value of Labor Exploited from Trafficking Victims ......................................... 17
Table 7: BJA Anti-Trafficking Task Force Funding for Texas, since 2005 ................................. 30
Table 8: The National Human Trafficking Hotline Cases Texas Data ...................................... 31
Table 9: The National Human Trafficking Hotline Segments Texas Data ................................ 32
Table 10: The National Human Trafficking Hotline by Region Texas Data ............................. 32
Table 11: Agency Survey Summary ............................................................................................. 38
Table 12: Agency Survey Services Provided............................................................................. 39
Table 13: Research to Support Sex Trafficking Victimization Rate ............................................ 40
Table 14: Participants in Follow-Up Depth Interviews ................................................................ 42
Table 15: Clients Served by Type of Stakeholder Focus Groups .............................................. 43
Table 16: Common Gaps and Barriers Identified by Stakeholders Focus Groups .................... 44
Table 17: Labor Exploitation and Trafficking Criteria ................................................................. 48
Table 18: Trafficking Typology with Data Sources ..................................................................... 52
Table 19: Examples of Community Segment Sizes in Texas (Annually) at High Risk for Minor
and Youth Sex Trafficking .......................................................................................... 53
Table 20: Minor and Youth Sex Trafficking in Texas .................................................................. 54
Table 21: Example of Individual Segment Sizes in Texas at High Risk for Labor Trafficking .. 56
Table 22: Labor Trafficking in Texas ........................................................................................... 56
Table 23: Unit Costs ..................................................................................................................... 58
Table 24: Lifetime Cost of Care for Victims of Minor and Youth Sex Trafficking ..................... 59
Table 25: Annual Value of Labor Exploited from Trafficking Victims ....................................... 60

HUMAN TRAFFICKING IMPACT IN TEXAS

APPROXIMATELY
MINORS AND YOUTH
ARE VICTIMS OF
SEX TRAFFICKING
IN TEXAS
APPROXIMATELY
WORKERS ARE
LABOR TRAFFICKING
THERE ARE CURRENTLY AN ESTIMATED
TRAFFICKERS
EXPLOIT
APPROXIMATELY
VICTIMS OF
HUMAN TRAFFICKING
IN TEXAS
$600 MILLION
FROM VICTIMS OF LABOR TRAFFICKING
IN TEXAS
MINOR AND YOUTH

SEX TRAFFICKING COSTS
THE STATE OF
TEXAS
APPROXIMATELY
$6.6
BILLION
When using this data please use the following citation: Busch-Armendariz, N.B., Nale, N.L., Kammer-Kerwick, M., Kellison,B., Torres,
M.I.M., Cook-Heffron, L., Nehme, J. (2016). Human Trafficking by the Numbers: Initial Benchmarks of Prevalence & Economic Impact
in Texas. Austin, TX: Institute on Domestic Violence & Sexual Assault, The University of Texas at Austin.
13
Executive Summary
Prevalence Highlights

Currently, there are approximately 79,000 minor and youth victims of sex trafficking in Texas.

Currently, there are approximately 234,000 workers who are victims of labor trafficking in
Texas.

Currently, there are an estimated 313,000 victims of human trafficking in Texas.

Cost Highlights

Minor and youth sex trafficking costs the state of Texas approximately $6.6 billion.
Traffickers exploit approximately $600 million from victims of labor trafficking in Texas.

Background

Though human trafficking is widespread in geographically large states with large urban centers
like Texas, the true scope of this hidden crime is largely unconfirmed as data on human
trafficking are difficult to ascertain. Existing data gathered in anti-trafficking efforts focus almost
exclusively on identified victims, shedding light on only a fraction of the problem. The first
phase of the Statewide Human Trafficking Mapping Project of Texas focused on providing
empirically grounded data as a benchmark about the extent of human trafficking across the state.
The following three primary research questions guided our data collection efforts, which
included queries of existing databases, interviews, focus groups, and web-based surveys.

1. What is the prevalence of human trafficking in Texas?
2. What is the economic impact of human trafficking in Texas?
3. What is our understanding of human trafficking in Texas?

Methods

The findings in this report were derived using a multi-methods approach to quantify the
prevalence and economic impact of human trafficking in Texas. Higher-than-average risk
industry and community segments were chosen for sex and labor markets. We defined
community segments as groups of people considered to be at higher-than-average risk of
trafficking because of risk indicators found in trafficking cases (e.g. homelessness). More
specifically, rather than attempting to establish prevalence of trafficking among the 27.4 million
people living in Texas, for the purposes of demonstrating our methodology, establishing some
benchmarks on human trafficking prevalence and economic impact estimates, and providing a
concrete example of our planned activities moving forward, victimization rates were applied to a
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select few community segments that are at higher-than-average risk of trafficking. The
methodology has addressed the critical industry and community segments to accurately estimate
prevalence while reducing overlap between the chosen segments.

Overall Findings

Table 1
Statewide Prevalence of Human Trafficking in Texas
Types of Human Trafficking
Minor and youth sex trafficking
Labor trafficking
Total
Estimated Number of Victims

78,996
234,457
313,453
Table 2
Economic Impact of Human Trafficking in Texas
Types of Economic Impact of Human Trafficking
Net present value (NPV) of estimated lifetime cost of
minor and youth sex trafficking victims
Estimated annual value of lost wages for labor trafficking
victims
Estimated Economic Impact ($)

$6,566,529,071
$598,127,942
Prevalence of minor and youth sex trafficking in Texas.

For minor and youth sex trafficking, we selected groups that are believed to be at higher-thanaverage risk of sex trafficking, including children in the foster care system, those who have
experienced abuse, and the homeless. Furthermore, for at-risk youth being served by the
Department of Family and Protective Services, we focused on the population currently receiving
services due to being identified as at-risk select sub-segments of minors and youth who are at
highest risk of exploitation.

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Table 3
Minor and Youth Sex Trafficking in Texas
High-Risk Sex Trafficking
Community
Victimization
Estimated
Community Segments*
Size Segment
Rate
Victims
Child abuse/maltreatment
290,471
25%
72,618
At-risk youth being served by DFPS
24,097
25%
6,024
Homeless
1,416
25%
354
* The research team acknowledges the limitations of this narrow definition of human trafficking.
Phase 2 benchmarks will incorporate additional segments such as adult sex trafficking, other
economic sectors, etc.

Prevalence of labor trafficking in Texas.

For labor trafficking, we conservatively estimate the number of workers at higher-than-average
risk of trafficking victimization within select industries: agriculture, domestic services,
construction, restaurant and food service industries, and landscaping/grounds keeping.
Furthermore, for greater clarity, within these industries we focus on select sub-segments of
workers who are at the highest risk of exploitation.

Table 4
Labor Trafficking in Texas
High-Risk Labor Trafficking
Community
Victimization
Estimated
Segments*
Size Segment
Rate
Victims
Migrant farmworkers
132,034
28%
36,970
Cleaning services
233,610
36%
84,100
Construction
101,250
35%
35,438
Kitchen workers in restaurants
190,390
32%
60,925
Landscaping and grounds keeping
workers
63,050
27%
17,024

As this research continues, we will expand this list to include other industries and labor segments
at high risk of labor trafficking victimization that emerge from our primary data collection efforts
in Houston and elsewhere.

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Economic impact of human trafficking in Texas.

For the purposes of this benchmark research, we have focused on two main aspects of human
traffickings economic impact: 1) Measuring the value of the economic output, including the
value of the labor produced by human trafficking activity; and 2) Quantifying the costs to
provide care to victims and survivors of human trafficking, including costs related to law
enforcement, prosecution, and social services.

For victims of sex trafficking, we estimate lifetime social service costs that both society and
trafficking victims can expect to incur, such as mental and physical health costs, strains to the
public health system, and law enforcement expenses.

Table 5
Lifetime Cost of Care for Victims of Minor and Youth Sex Trafficking
NPV of Cost of
Care Required
as Consequence
of HT
(Lifetime)
$83,125
$83,125
$83,125

Estimated
Estimated
Community Segments*
Victims
Lifetime Cost
72,618
$6,036,358,905
6,024
$500,743,976
Homeless
354
$29,426,190
Total
$6,566,529,071

We offer the following estimates for the annual value of labor expended by trafficking victims in
the five vulnerable industries presented previously.

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Table 6
Annual Value of Labor Exploited from Trafficking Victims
Estimated Annual
High-Risk Labor Trafficking Segments*
Estimated Victims
Value Wages Lost
Migrant farmworkers
36,970
$94,314,906
Cleaning services
84,100
$214,549,192
Construction
35,438
$90,406,591
60,925
$155,426,986
Landscaping and grounds keeping workers
17,024
$43,430,267
Total
$598,127,942

This report presents what we learned during the first phase of this research, some preliminary
findings from our research activities, and a description of future research activities, which will
focus on the accrual of additional primary and secondary data to expand our understanding of the
prevalence and economic impact of trafficking in Texas. We will also continue to build upon
past research about the needs of victims and survivors and our understanding of traffickers. With
this continued research, in the future we expect these emerging data to be more exhaustive,
especially since this research is running parallel to a time when both governmental and nongovernmental agencies are improving data collection efforts, increasing and improving screening
of potential victims, and working to share that information in the name of more effective,
comprehensive solutions.

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Introduction
The United States Department of State considers human trafficking a form of modern-day
slavery and broadly defines it as when a person is deceived or coerced in situations of
prostitution, forced labor, or domestic servitude. An accurate scope of human trafficking is
unknown, although it has been hypothesized that states larger in geography and populous are
higher in prevalence and rates. The study of human trafficking is challenging for a variety of
reasons that are well documented (Small, Adams, Owens, & Roland, 2008; Barrick, Lattimore,
Pitts, & Zhang, 2014; Clawson, 2006; Dank, 2014; Farrell, 2009; Busch-Armendariz, Nsonwu,
and Cook Heffron, et al., 2009; Muslim, Labriola, & Rempel, 2008; Owens et al., 2014; Smith,
2010; S. X. Zhang, Spiller, Finch, & Qin, 2014; S. X. Zhang, 2012; Newton, Mulcahy, and
Martin, 2008, just to list a few). Fundamental to this challenge is the hidden nature of the crime
and the need for a deeper understanding of it beyond what is visible. Data on human trafficking
is difficult to ascertain and the widely held belief among stakeholders involved in anti-trafficking
efforts is that existing information focuses almost exclusively on identified victims, shedding
light on only a fraction of the problem.
The purpose of this study is to provide empirically grounded data about the extent of human
trafficking across the state. The studys impetus is grounded in the scarcity of empirical studies
of trafficking, compounded by a hidden population that is historically difficult to reach.
The general approach has been to:
Assess and use available data (the tip of the iceberg);

Network and collaborate with and collect data from the people doing this work;
Develop a methodology for converting data into insights and wisdom; and
Engage with and collect data from high-risk segments and locations across the state.
Funded by a $500,000 grant from the Texas Office of the Governor Criminal Justice Division,
this two-year initiative is a collaborative effort by:
Institute on Domestic Violence and Sexual Assault (IDVSA) at The University of Texas
at Austin School of Social Work
Bureau of Business Research at The University of Texas at Austin
Allies Against Slavery
This report is organized in a way that explains our learning to date about the prevalence of
human trafficking, its financial impact on the economy, and how we understand trafficking in
Texas. An explanation of our research activities will illuminate how we arrived at our
preliminary findings. We then offer some insight about where we think we are headedmost
specifically the way forward during phase 2and what we need to be able to offer as better
solutions to a complex crime.
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In its 2014 report to the Texas legislature, the Texas Human Trafficking Prevention Task Force
cited the limitations of human trafficking statistics and the need for improving data collection
efforts. It stated:
Collecting accurate data on human trafficking is difficult, yet becoming increasingly
more important. This challenge makes the scope of trafficking across the state
difficult to fully understand, which also affects the provision of resources.
This study looks broadly at human trafficking to include adults and children, labor and sex
trafficking, and domestic and international victims. It expands our perspective from criminal
cases and community outreach to a risk assessment of industry and community segments in
Texas. The approach taken starts with and goes beyond what we can easily see when looking at
reports of criminal cases and national hotline calls. However, phase 1 of this study has struggled
under the limitations of both extant data and research. Those resources have allowed us to
produce initial benchmarks for both sex and labor trafficking, while providing a much deeper set
of insights for sex trafficking.
Summarized below is case data as well as hotline calls recorded for the State of Texas. As will
be discussed later, most of these pertain to sex trafficking.
Criminal Cases
The following is 2014 data from the Texas Human Trafficking Prevention Task Force Report,
human trafficking reporting system cases from January 1, 2007, to August 31, 2014:
737 human trafficking-related incidents

628 reported victims
320 reported child victims
210 suspects arrested
85 suspects convicted
Hotline Calls
The following is 2015 data from the National Human Trafficking Hotline for Texas.
1,876 calls in 2015 from Texas alone

452 human trafficking cases
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The following is data for victims and survivors identified from the same dataset.
393 (with high indications of victimization)

448 (moderate)
246 calls from victims themselves
The risk assessment approach taken in this study expands our perspective beyond cases and
community outreach by producing an assessment of expected levels of trafficking. This
expectation is conditioned on the risk of trafficking in an industry or community segment
coupled with an assessment of the risk of victimization for an individual who is a member of that
segment. This expectation approach can then be applied in parallel to various victim typologies,
including victims in both licit labor sectors and illicit sectors like prostitution.
Research Methodology

This research study employs a mixed design that uses both qualitative and quantitative methods.
Primary and secondary data collection efforts, including but not limited to queries of existing
databases, interviews, focus groups, and web-based surveys contribute to the understanding of
our three primary research questions:
1. What is the prevalence of human trafficking in Texas? Primary and secondary data collected
by the research team will contribute to our understanding of the scope of the crime and
increase our understanding of the extent of trafficking across the state.
2. What is the economic impact of human trafficking in Texas? According to the International
Labor Organization, human trafficking is a $150 billion annual criminal industry worldwide.
Texas has a large and diverse economy and the economic impact analysis will benchmark our
understanding of the tangible and human costs of the crime to our economy, its victims, and
the systems that must respond.
3. What is our understanding of human trafficking in Texas? Human trafficking is a complex
crime that involves a broad spectrum of the community, from survivors and advocates to
social service agency professionals. As the experiences of the many stakeholders develop, we
gain perspective on a new and different angle of the crime of human trafficking.
Furthermore, elements of the crime are fluid and dynamic, resulting in continuous
reconfiguration of the issue and its factors. This research attempts to gain better images of
what human trafficking looks like and how it functions, while considering the varying
experiences and perspectives of its many stakeholders.

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Background and Theory
U.S. Federal Human Trafficking Policy

Human Trafficking is a broad umbrella term that encompasses trafficking of persons of any age,
nationally or internationally, for sex or labor purposes. Empirical research on the issue dates
back to 1928; however, human trafficking did not become salient in US politics until the late
1990s (Atkins, Moran, & Hanser, 2013). Attention toward human trafficking came as a response
to criticism from Janie Chuang, Harvard Law School graduate and United Nations advisor, on
the 1949 United Nations Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Persons and of the
Exploitation of the Prostitution of Others (1998). Chuang (1998) highlighted the importance of
international trafficking law, but emphasized that without social and political support at the
domestic level, international law would be meaningless. Also in 1998, Congresswomen Linda
Smith established a faith-based, international organization in Vancouver, Washington committed
to combatting child sex trafficking abroad (Shared Hope International, 2016). In 1999, the
Trafficking Victims Protection Act (TVPA, 2000) was proposed by Republican Representative
Christopher Smith, and it was adopted as federal law in 2000.
The enactment of the TVPA paralleled the United Nations adoption of the Protocol to Prevent,
Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, which served as
an international agreement made between 80 countries to address human trafficking. Similarly,
the TVPAs initial efforts were geared towards international persons, and both policies became
the driving force behind international efforts to combat human trafficking (Atkins, Moran, &
Hanser, 2013). Specifically, the TVPA was enacted to address issues of human trafficking
among immigrant women and children abroad. Subsequent revisions and reauthorizations of the
TVPA continued to focus on international persons as President George W. Bush successfully
framed human trafficking as a terrorist threat after the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks in the
United States (Weitzer, 2011).
In the case of minors involved in commercial sex, the TVPA removed the words force, fraud, or
coercion from the statutory definition of human trafficking. As previously mentioned, the initial
intent of the removal of the language was not geared towards domestic persons, but was broad
enough to be applied to youth in the US. Additionally, the TVPA established a three-pronged
approach to trafficking: prevention, protection, and prosecution, with prosecution being the
predominant focus of implementation efforts (Shamir, 2012).
The TVPA has been revised and renewed five times (2003, 2005, 2008, 2013, and 2015) since its
enactment, and in 2008, minor victim service provisions were added for US citizens and
permanent residents. In 2015, the first provisions, which specifically address services for
domestic youth programming related to commercial sex, were added to the TVPA. Definitions
detailed in the federal statute can be found in Appendix C.
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U.S. Federal and Texas State Labor Policy

For labor trafficking, one of the biggest vulnerabilities faced by immigrant labor is being
undocumented without legal permission to work. Because this permission is lacking, immigrant
laborers are at risk of exploitation by those who believe that lacking legal immigration status
means that the immigrant laborer is a criminal unable to report any abuse or exploitation at the
risk of deportation. Many immigrant laborers themselves are unaware of the law or their rights,
and believe that they should stay silent and hidden rather than risk any consequences. However,
being an undocumented presence in the US is not a criminal offense, and all workers (with minor
exceptions), are covered by the same basic labor rights in the US regardless of immigration
status. Under federal law, the Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA) and the National Labor Relations
Act (NLRA) apply to any employee and do not distinguish between U.S. citizens and
undocumented laborers. Therefore, any worker laboring in the US has the right to 1) minimum
wage, 2) maximum 40 hours a week and overtime, 3) the ability to organize and negotiate with
employers, and 4) freedom from unfair labor practices (including discrimination or retaliation for
an employee filing charges against them).
Furthermore, if an undocumented worker files charges or sues their employer for unfair labor
practices and the employer tries to use the workers undocumented status to nullify the
contention, undocumented workers may not have immigration proceedings brought against them.
The Department of Labor and the Immigration and Customs Enforcement will not interfere with
one another when an undocumented laborer is involved in a labor dispute. The federal policy on
human trafficking, the Trafficking Victims Protection Act, also includes undocumented laborers
in protecting and offering legal recourse for exploitation and labor trafficking. In addition,
several state laws in Texas include undocumented laborers in their labor rights policies. Under
the Texas Payday Law, private employers must follow Texas Labor Code standards in paying
their employees, including undocumented workers.
Building on Lessons About Vulnerabilities Seen in DMST
Existing research on domestic minor sex trafficking (DMST) provides a valuable frame of
reference for our efforts in characterizing a more comprehensive view of trafficking
victimization. While further research is also needed for DMST and should occur as part of a
broader typology of victims, the next paragraphs review DMST as a portion of that broader
typology. The following section then expands that discussion toward the goal of developing a
more complete typology that encompasses the vulnerabilities and risks faced by different types
of trafficking victims.
DMST is a narrow subset of human trafficking, and involves individuals under the age of 18
years who are citizens or lawful residents of the US and are involved in commercial sex (Gibbs,
23
Hardison Walters, Lutnick, Miller & Kluckman, 2015). Under the TVPA, individuals under the
age of 18 years involved in commercial sex of any kind or for any reason are identified and
labeled as victims of a crime (P.L. 106-386). In addition, under the TVPA any adult who aids or
benefits from a relationship with an underage person involved in commercial sex is labeled as a
human trafficker (Marcus, Horning, Curtis, Sanson, & Thompson, 2014).
DMST is a relatively new term and recognized phenomenon within the US. The term has
received criticism because of its application of overarching labels that ignore the many structural
factors and inequalities that precede youths involvement in the sex industry (Lutnick, 2016).
Empirical attempts to quantify the number of young people involved in DMST has been
generally unsuccessful and has been criticized as being inflammatory (Gibbs et al., 2015),
specifically for not using rigorous statistical methods to identify the numbers given (Stranskey &
Finkelhor, 2008). Overall, prevalence is difficult to extrapolate due to the varying reasons youth
become involved in commercial sex (e.g. survival sex, romantic relationships, etc.), (Anderson,
Coyle, Johnson, & Denner, 2014; Cecchet & Thornburn, 2014; Kennedy, Klein, Bristowe,
Cooper, & Yuille, 2007; Marcus, Horning, Curtis, Sanson, & Thompson, 2014; Mones, 2011;
Reid, 2012), and the clandestine nature of the behavior.
Even more scarce is the empirical literature available related to causes and consequences of child
victims of sex trafficking. The literature available is predominantly descriptive in nature and the
information reported is largely influenced by the sample recruitment methods (recruitment to the
study from treatment programs after an arrest/social service intervention). Scholars have started
to explore the phenomenon of individuals involvement in commercial sex through the use of
qualitative methods; however, participants in these studies are adults who engaged in
commercial sex as children/youth, thus placing a large emphasis on retrospective memories of
participants. Notably, there are a few quantitative studies that highlight the use of commercial
sex among homeless/street youth (under TVPA definition is considered DMST) as survival
mechanisms. However, the central focus of these empirical studies is on homeless/street youth in
general, and not their involvement in commercial sex in particular. Therefore, these quantitative
studies do not provide any additional information pertaining to DMST behavior except that it
exists (Green, Ennett, & Ringwalt, 1999; Ferguson, et al., 2011; Halcon & Lifson, 2004).
The following is a comprehensive review of the literature regarding DMST available to-date.
Each section concludes with a brief critique of the literature and areas for future research.
Risk factors.
There is no argument that there are clear health risks associated with involvement in commercial
sex at any age (e.g., sexual transmitted infection). However, those who are deceived into
commercial sex or who enter prior to maturity exhibit poorer health outcomes than those who
24
enter at an older age (Muftic & Finn, 2013). Adult survivors of child sex trafficking report that
there is a continuous threat to life while engaged in commercial sex and that severe mental health
problems such as depression, anxiety, flash-backs, avoidance, and the experience of numbness
and detachment from feelings and interactions with others exists (Cecchet & Thorburn, 2014;
Hossain, Zimmerman, Abas, Light, & Watts, 2010). Additionally, 70-90% of those involved in
commercial sex report that they have a childhood sexual abuse history (Bagley & Young, 1987).
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is the most common primary mental health diagnosis of
youth exiting sex trafficking; this is followed by depression (Twill, Green, & Traylor, 2010). On
average, youth receiving treatment after engaging in sex trafficking are managing two primary
mental health diagnoses (Twill, et al., 2010). Adult women actively involved in prostitution
report PTSD as well, but at much lower rates than those who are involved in trafficking or those
who have exited sex work entirely. Similarly, a study that interviewed youth who were actively
engaged in commercial sex found that study participants described their work experience as
positive (Holger-Ambrose, Lengmade, Edinburgh, & Saewyc, 2013).
When we look to validate the general risks associated with commercial sexual involvement of
people, these are compelling findings. This literature also promotes the idea that there is a
possible difference between individuals who are involved in trafficking versus those who are
involved in commercial sex. This is a conundrum to be explored considering all youth who are
involved in commercial sex are deemed trafficking victims. Additionally, methodological
limitations and the lack of theoretical application in commercial sex literature involving youth
prevent this information from providing a comprehensive picture of the risks and experiences of
youth.
Pathways.
The varying ways or reasons youth get involved in commercial sex contributes to the contention
in the literature. There is a large disagreement in the literature about the level of agency of youth
and the appropriate use of terms trafficker/pimp, and victim when referring to youth who are
involved in commercial sex (see Kennedy, et al., 2007 vs. Marcus, et al., 2014). Potential
avenues for entering commercial sex for youth have been described as follows: the youth is
kidnapped or manipulated by an unrelated adult into engaging in exchanging sex for money
(Reid, 2012; Mones, 2011), engaging in survival sex in order to get money for food, drugs,
shelter, or other goods (Kennedy, et al., 2007); youth commit sex acts as an extension of the
sexual abuse and/or general abusive relationships that already exist within their own families
(Anderson et al., 2014; Cecchet & Thornburn, 2014; Marcus et al., 2014; Reid, 2012); youth
participate in commercial sex as validation or an exploration of their sexual identity (Lutnick,
2016); youth believe commercial sex provides easy and quick money (Lutnick, 2016); or youth
simply do not have any other viable job opportunities (Marcus et al., 2014). Regardless of a
25
youths pathway into commercial sex, there is agreement among scholars that some level of
vulnerability (e.g. child abuse/neglect, emotional insecurities, etc.) precedes a youths entry into
commercial sex, and that many youths rarely identify themselves as victims.
Relationship with traffickers.
When youth involved in commercial sex are contacted by law enforcement officials, they are
either arrested or placed in a residential treatment facility (Greve, 2014). Almost immediately
after placement, youth run and return to their trafficker or overtly refuse to participate in the
proposed treatment (Anderson et al., 2014; Cecchet & Thoburn, 2014; Marcus et al., 2014; Reid,
2013; Mones, 2011). This behavior by a youth indicates a relationship with third parties, and is
worth exploring. Mainstream medias narrative is that brutal violence and manipulation between
youth and traffickers is what causes these youths to return. Frequency and duration of the use of
violence by third parties/traffickers is highly contested in the literature; however, most agree that
there is at least some form used. Some research suggests that there is a complex and sometimes
mutually beneficial relationship between the child and those benefitting from their sexual labor;
as a result, when the violence is too excessive youth voluntarily leave (Marcus et al., 2014).
Others have suggested that physical violence is used later in the relationship as a form instilling
fear in the youth to keep them from leaving the business entirely (Kennedy et al., 2007). All
agree that when family members or those acting as legal guardians are in the role of third
party/trafficker violence is most perilous and the hardest to escape (Anderson et al., 2014;
Cecchet & Thornburn, 2014; Marcus et al., 2014; Reid, 2013; Mones, 2011).
The use of manipulation and control by third parties/traffickers is also minutely explored in the
literature. Much of the literature paints a picture of a cis-gender female who is enticed into a
committed and loving relationship with an adult cis-gender male who then convinces the youth
to engage in commercial sex as a way of earning money because they are both in a desperate
situation (Anderson et al., 2014; Reid, 2014). Others have said that these adults then prey on the
vulnerabilities of these youth and their trauma histories (Cecchet & Thornburn, 2014) by using
threats of ending the relationship to keep the females working in the sex trade (Raphael &
Shapiro, 2010).
Conversely, the few studies that have spoken with youth directly found that youth are describing
their experience in commercial sex as positive and without fear (Reid, 2013). Moreover, they are
describing their relationship with the third party/trafficker as someone who cares for them like no
one else ever has before (Marcus et al., 2014), and that only 10% of them were forced by another
to trade sex the first time (Lutnick, 2016).
Conclusively, the state of DMST research is still exploratory in nature. The research available is
starting to uncover the intricacies of youth involvement in commercial sex, but much more needs
26
to be done to understand the complexities of the phenomenon. Once there is a more in-depth and
comprehensive understanding of the varying facets of youth involvement in commercial sex
appropriate intervention and treatment options can be explored and tested.
Victim Typologies
Extant research has clearly shown that human traffickers target individuals who are perceived to
be vulnerable in society, and understanding the conditions contributing to a persons
vulnerability to being trafficked is central to preventing the crime from occurring (Cho, 2015;
UNODC, 2008). We have used that research to begin the development of an empirically
grounded, theoretically sound victim typology. This theory-grounded approach has been used
effectively (Busch-Armendariz, Nsonwu, and Cook Heffron, 2014) to better understand the
benefit to victims and service providers of ecological, strengths-based, and victim-centered
approaches to service delivery. While this effort is ongoing in phase 2, progress on this typology
informed our thinking and allowed us to establish priorities among the community segments
included in our benchmark estimates.
Drawing from the field of criminology, opportunity theory focuses on the conditions
precipitating the targeting of an individual or group for exploitation rather than focusing on the
motivations of the offender (Felson & Clarke, 1998), making it a useful theoretical lens for
examining the typologies of human trafficking victims. Applying this theoretical framework to
conditions of vulnerability (UNODC, 2008) or characteristics and behaviors of populations
that place them at increased risk of trafficking strengthens our methodology as it pertains to
identifying the extent of human trafficking in Texas.
Opportunity theory synthesizes rational choice theory, routine activity theory, and situational
crime theory to assess what factors contribute to a persons risk of victimization (Guerette &
Santana, 2010). Rational choice theory controls for offender motivation, theorizing that offenders
engage in crime as part of a logical decision-making process and participate in crime when the
benefits of the crime outweigh the assessed risk (Clarke & Cornish, 1985). Routine activity
theory posits that crime occurs when an offender has access to a suitable target and there is a lack
of capable guardians to prevent an offense from occurring (Cohen & Felson, 1979). Victims may
enter this scenario as a result of their daily activities, with certain populations at an increased risk
depending on their individual characteristics and lifestyle choices (Meier & Miethe, 1993).
Situational crime theory places these components in an opportunity structure for crime
(Clarke, 1995, p. 103), or a dynamic environment where motivated offenders are continuously
assessing their ability and method for victimization. These dynamic environments allow for the
gradual engagement of victims and the collaboration between co-offenders, elements common to
human trafficking situations. While this theory has been applied to understanding the
27
experiences of sex trafficking victims (Cockbain & Wortley, 2015; Lutya & Lanier, 2012), in
extant research opportunity theory has yet to be extended to labor trafficking victims.
Human trafficking perpetrator typologies were developed in previous work by BuschArmendariz, Nsonwu, and Cook Heffron (2009). These typologies laid the groundwork for
conceptualizing the broad spectrum of human trafficking crimes and how they impact victims.
The authors reviewed 67 prosecuted cases related to human trafficking and conducted six
interviews with federal and state prosecutors and other national experts with experience working
cases involving human trafficking crimes. Based on this analysis, four working perpetrator
typologies were developed: 1) organized labor exploitation for profit, 2) family-based domestic
servitude, 3) sex trafficking of U.S. citizens, and 4) sex trafficking of foreign-born victims. Each
typology was discussed in terms of the demographics of traffickers and victims, the nature of the
victimization, the methods of recruitment, the location, scope, and size of an operation; and
methods of control and coercion. Additionally, across all typologies commonalities of cases were
broadly reviewed based on the scope of operation, age, gender, socio-economic status,
immigration status, and countries of origin.
Using this framework, we have begun to develop victim-oriented typologies to better illustrate
the prevalence of human trafficking. Through conversations with human trafficking experts and
an exhaustive review of the literature (such as Verit, 2015), a concept of a preferred typology
has begun to emerge. Ideally, this typology would be hierarchically differentiated by nonoverlapping segments concerning sex trafficking and labor trafficking, and domestic and foreign
victims. At the top level, this hierarchy would resemble a tree with four branches: domestic sex
trafficking victims, international sex trafficking victims, domestic labor trafficking victims, and
international labor trafficking victims. Subsequent branches may differentiate between nonoverlapping demographic factors such as age (e.g. minor trafficking victims), gender,
race/ethnicity, sexual orientation, and socioeconomic background. Additionally, these branches
may be further differentiated by overlapping segments such as industry, for labor (e.g.
agriculture, Verit, 2005) and sex trafficking (e.g. massage parlors, bars) victims alike.
Although this model is not yet complete, understanding how these typologies are differentiated
within this hierarchy will provide a more complete understanding of the unique vulnerabilities
associated with different types of human trafficking, and will allow us to make a more accurate
estimation of risk for each type of human trafficking.
Estimation of risk
The risk perspective produces an assessment of expected levels of trafficking as conditioned on
risk of trafficking in an industry or community segment, and the risk of victimization given that
an individual is a member of that segment. This expectation approach can then be applied in
28
parallel to various segmentation schemes, including victims in both licit and illicit labor sectors
like prostitution.
To this end, we have identified industry and community segments that are at higher-than-average
risk of human trafficking. We have applied victimization rates to a select few for the purposes of
demonstrating our methodology, establishing some preliminary benchmarks for human
trafficking prevalence estimates, and providing a concrete example of our planned activities
moving forward in phase 2 of this project. Our estimation methodology thus far addresses
industry and community segments that have minimal overlap to avoid double counting. We have
applied this methodology to only a small number of segments as a proof of concept.
As such, the results in this report are preliminary benchmarks that remain a conservative
understatement of the prevalence of human trafficking in Texas.
It is important to recognize that our approach was not to count cases or conduct a census of the
27.7 million people living in Texas to assess trafficking victimization rates. Not only would such
an approach be unlikely to succeed due to the hidden nature of this crime, in our view, cases and
victim counts represent only the observable portion of the population of trafficking victims.
However, phase 2 of this project does include community-focused research activities designed to
improve our ability to estimate victimization rates among at-risk community segments by
incorporating more primary research activities among those segments.
Research Activities

To address our three primary research questions, our activities to date include:
Extensive review of the relevant literature;
Development of an approach tailored for this study that leverages available secondary
sources of data for the state; and
Identification of primary research to fill data gaps. For the purposes of illustrating our
planned process, we also apply this approach to selective commercial activities as a
proof of concept.
These research activities provide initial benchmarks on the prevalence, economic impact, and
description of human trafficking in Texas.
To these ends, this project has included the following secondary research activities.
Human Trafficking Reporting System (HTRS)
National Human Trafficking Hotline (formerly known as National Human Trafficking
Resource Center, Operated by Polaris)
Statewide Governmental Agencies
29
This project has also included the following primary research activities.
Agency survey
Follow-up in depth interviews
Focus groups, including worksheets filled out prior to the group
DMST working group
Pilot study on labor trafficking (Houston)
Telephone interviews (in field)
Combo survey (in field)
Additional focus groups (planned)
Each of these is reviewed in the sections that follow. The summaries provided highlight key
results germane to our research questions.
Secondary research
The research team explored the data contents of numerous databases and data sets at the national
and state levels. Interviews with content experts contributed to our understanding of the variables
available and how these variables might contribute to our understanding of the problem. While
we cannot rely on information in these databases to tell the whole story, they are useful data
points to increase understanding of the information currently collected about the crime.
Human Trafficking Reporting System (HTRS).
The Human Trafficking Reporting System (HTRS) is an online database developed by
researchers at The Institute on Race and Justice at Northeastern University, and is managed by
the Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS). The Bureau of Justice Assistance (BJA) provides federal
funding for Anti-Human Trafficking Task Forces and has provided funding to a total of 48 task
forces since 2004. HTRS is an incident-based system utilized by BJA-funded task forces to
report data on all investigations into suspected or confirmed trafficking (both sex and labor) in
their jurisdictions. Agencies are also expected to update the status of incidents previously
reported. Information collected includes incident status, type of human trafficking, lead
investigating agency, number of known victims, and number of known offenders.
Since 2005, Texas has received close to $6 million in BJA anti-trafficking task force funding
(see Table 7). As of 2015, federal funding for all Texas anti-trafficking task forces has been
retracted, and the limited information being entered into HTRS has become outdated and
obsolete. The Texas Office of the Attorney General encourages local law enforcement to utilize
HTRS; however, since there are no incentives, inadequate information is being entered. We
know that the work of these task forces continues, but without the mandate to submit information
to HTRS, we lose the input of data that would help us understand the extent of this crime.
30
Severely limited access to law enforcement data, either because of lack of authority to access or
the fact that the information is not collected in a way that can be shared, exacerbates this issue.

Table 7 BJA Anti-Trafficking Task Force Funding for Texas, since 2005
Organized by city/county

El Paso
$450,000
Ft. Worth
$669,992
Bexar (San Antonio)
$726,862
Austin
$820,000
Arlington (Ft. Worth / Dallas) $1,450,000
Harris (Houston)
$1,781,708

National Human Trafficking Hotline Data (Hotline).

We collaborated with Polaris Project, through a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU), to
access the data specific to Texas in order to apply their risk ratio stratification more specifically
to a broader range of industries. Polaris operates the National Human Trafficking Hotline to
provide annual statistics on the number of signals (i.e. phone calls, online tip reports, and emails)
about human trafficking in the US. Since December 2007, the Hotline has received over 115,000
signals. The Hotline uses this data to help human trafficking victims and survivors and to provide
information to law enforcement and other professionals in the anti-trafficking field.
In Texas in 2015, 1,731 phone contacts were made to the Hotline and 433 potential human
trafficking cases were reported. One in four calls came from victims and survivors. The vast
majority of the 433 potential cases in Texas last year were sex trafficking (77.8%), although
labor trafficking was not insignificant, making up 14.5% of cases. Seventy percent of phone
contacts were to report a trafficking tip.
Professionals often cite Hotline statistics in the absence of more accurate case data to describe
the scope of the problem in their area. What many do not realize is that signals to the Hotline are
only one data point in the scope of trafficking, and many signals are not connected to actual
cases. The Hotline includes the following disclaimer on all published data: The data are not
intended to represent the full scope of human trafficking, but to help identify trends. Polaris
recently reported that calls to the Hotline are on the rise, but as the Texas Human Trafficking
Prevention Task Force concluded in 2012, increased education and awareness of trafficking is a
more likely explanation for the increase in calls, rather than that Texass trafficking problem is
becoming more severe. Understanding more about these calls is important for the purposes of
this research.
31
Fortunately, the Hotline database has evolved and is now a case-based system, crucial to hotline
operations as situations tend to develop over time and resolution is rarely reached on the first
interaction with an individual (Polaris).
The Hotline currently classifies victimization risk as high, moderate, and none. Cases coded as
high contain a high level of human trafficking indicators. Cases coded as moderate contain
several indicators of human trafficking, or fit a pattern of trafficking, but might lack core details
of force, fraud, or coercion. Furthermore, the Hotline provides data on the numbers of victims for
the high and moderate categories for Texas.
The National Human Trafficking Hotline data from 2013 2015 are shown in Table 8 below.

Table 8
The National Human Trafficking Hotline, Cases, Texas Data

2015

Cases
433
High indicators
427
Moderate indicators
453
Total victims
880

2014
452
393
448
841
2013
431
499
537
1036
32
Taken in aggregate these data provide a strong indication of the community segments facing
trafficking, as well as the strength of the indicators. Table 9 summarizes the segments seen in
Hotline data for the State of Texas from 2013 2015, a total of 1,228 suspected cases.
Table 9
The National Human Trafficking Hotline, Segments, Texas Data
SEGMENT
Agriculture/farms/animal husbandry
Arts and entertainment
Bar/club/cantina
Begging rings
Commercial front brothel
Construction
Domestic work
Escort service/delivery services
Health and beauty services
Hospitality
Hostess/strip club
Hotel/motel-based commercial sex
Other
Unknown
TOTAL
12.7%
9.9%
6.9%
5.5%
4.1%
3.7%
3.5%
3.3%
2.7%
2.4%
2.1%
1.6%
12.9%
28.6%
HIGH
4.3%
14.6%
5.3%
4.6%
4.8%
3.9%
2.7%
4.6%
3.3%
1.5%
2.1%
1.5%
10.8%
35.8%
MODERATE
20.3%
5.7%
8.4%
6.2%
3.4%
3.4%
4.2%
2.2%
2.2%
3.3%
2.2%
1.7%
14.9%
22.0%
Table 10 summarizes the same cases by region, illustrating that, for the most part, Hotline tip
data track the population distribution in the State of Texas.

Table 10
The National Human Trafficking Hotline, Texas Data by Region
Region
Greater Houston
Dallas/Fort Worth Metro Area
Greater Austin
Greater San Antonio
Corpus Christi Metro Area
McAllenEdinburgMission
El Paso Metro Area
Other and redacted*
% of Tips
41.6%
23.6%
7.3%
6.5%
2.6%
1.6%
1.0%
15.6%
33
* The Hotline redacted the location of tips for locations with small numbers of tips for the
protection of victims and witnesses. Other regions included in the data received less than 1% of
tips, but include Killeen, Temple, Beaumont/Port Arthur, and Brownsville/Harlingen.
Collectively, these data from the Hotline allow us to assess the proportion of potential victims at
high risk for trafficking victimization by industry and community segment. These data reveal
patterns and gradients of risk associated with a diverse range of trafficking victimization in the
State of Texas.

Statewide Governmental Agencies.

DPS Arrest and TDCJ Conviction Data
The Texas Department of Public Safety (DPS) and the Texas Department of Criminal Justice
(TDCJ), as part of improvements to the criminal justice system in 1989, created a comprehensive
system called the Criminal Justice Information System (CJIS) that includes relevant data for
criminal justice agencies responsible for the arrest, prosecution, adjudication and correction of
criminal offenders. Similar reforms were made years later to the Juvenile Justice Information
System (JJIS), and both CJIS and JJIS data is maintained in a statewide Computerized Criminal
History (CCH) system regulate by the Crime Records Service of DPS.
To improve understanding of prevalence for all types of trafficking, the research team requested
CCH data dating back to 2011 for a broad set of offenses that might relate to trafficking based on
elements of the case and nature of the crime. The 91 offense codes are documented in D. The
list of requested variables was developed with support of DPS and the list of offense codes was
developed with support from professionals in the field, including law enforcement familiar with
human trafficking and legal professionals involved in prosecuting human trafficking cases. The
variables requested per offender are detailed below:
SID numbers (for purposes of cross-referencing with TDCJ)
Demographics (including age, gender, race, etc.)
Address provided
Dates (both offense and disposition)
Location of offense
Prior offenses & incarcerations
Final pleading
Prosecution action and any notes available
Court decision(s) - included history from court clerk report
Literal field, even if sparse
Probation information
Any details related to costs incurred
34
Agency case # and Cause #

Any other variables applicable and available
The research team constructed a relational database from data files received from DPS. The
database included 23,656 records dating back to 1973. Exploratory work with the DPS data
revealed only 1500 cases since 2012 in the data set. More importantly, only three trafficking
charges were included in the data set one each of "trafficking of person," "smuggling of
persons," and "trafficking child engage conduct/sexual. In the entire dataset, there were only
1772 related offenses.
Conviction data that can be linked to the DPS arrest data are available from Texas Department of
Criminal Justice (TDCJ) and were requested but were not obtained.
DPS and TDCJ data continue to have potential to provide insights about trafficking activity in
phase 2, but the data received to date have contributed little to phase 1 benchmark estimates.
Texas Office of Court Administration (OCA)
The limitations in trafficking data collected by state agencies are well documented. As reported
in previous reports from the Texas Human Trafficking Prevention Task Force:
Even when a victim is discovered and a trafficker is arrested, tried, and convicted,
data collection and dissemination is not necessarily easy or reliable. Due to 2011
legislation, the Texas Office of Court Administration (OCA) is now required to
collect data on court cases. DPS is also required to collect data on human
trafficking arrests. The two agencies collect data on two different aspects of
trafficking, but there is not a statewide system in place to consolidate, evaluate,
and disseminate information on the crime. In addition, the new data collection
requirements have been problematic to implement. Both agencies cited extremely
low numbers which were not necessarily indicative of the actual extent of
trafficking. Furthermore, due to the hidden and convoluted nature of human
trafficking, identifying, and deciphering trafficking cases from other cases is
difficult.
The research team worked with Texas Office of Court Administration (OCA) to assess the
degree to which data collected by the courts might help inform estimates of cases in the State of
Texas. OCA routinely reports on the progression of cases associated with several major crime
categories and has recently begun efforts to similarly track trafficking cases. The research team
intended to cross reference OCA with DPS arrest and TDCJ conviction data, but due to the
nature of the current court activity reporting system highlighted above, the statistics reported by
the courts cannot be compared directly to information reported to the Department of Public
Safety (cited from 2012 testimony to the Joint Interim Committee).
35
OCA found that some counties were reporting criminal case information as required, although
the human trafficking section was blank due to outdated case management software. Counties
across Texas have converted to new case management systems in recent years, but even still,
there are case management systems that are not programmed properly to capture required
information.
In recent years, there has been dramatic improvement in data collection efforts, which can be
credited not only to improved legislation (House Bill 2014, effective September 1, 2011) but also
to the advocacy efforts of those in influential positions within state agencies. OCA has reported
corrections in over-reporting; improvement in completeness of reporting, which OCA credits to
an improvement in identification of human trafficking cases and criminal case activity reports
submitted to OCA in a more timely manner; and a substantial increase in reported cases, due to
improved and continued reporting by specific counties with a large volume of activity (Bexar,
Harris, Dallas, Tarrant, Travis).
House Bill 2014 (HB 2014) requires district courts and county courts at law to report to OCA
each month the number of cases filed for the following offenses:
1. trafficking of persons under Section 20A.02, Penal Code;
2. prostitution under Section 43.02, Penal Code; and
3. compelling prostitution under Section 43.05, Penal Code.
Reporting of data has been incomplete and at times problematic. For example, some counties
were using outdated offense codes even after DPS had implemented new offense codes in
September 2011.
A major consideration is that a case with multiple charges is reported on the monthly report as
one case under the most serious charge. Some case management systems may not be able to
capture and report the required information if one or more of the human trafficking violations is
not the most serious charge. In addition, as noted during 2012 testimony at the Joint Interim
Committee to Study Human Trafficking (Joint Interim Committee) hearing and in the Texas
Human Trafficking Prevention Task Force Report 2011, prosecutors usually charge defendants
with non-human trafficking related violations (sexual assault, kidnapping, etc.) or with more
serious charges (weapons violations, drug violations, etc.).
A 2012 survey request from the Joint Interim Committee to all district and county clerks to better
understand the current state of data collection, to determine which counties are reporting
completely and accurately, which are reporting data but have issues with completeness and
accuracies, and which counties are not reporting for whatever reason. Over 290 district and
county clerks were surveyed only 13 counties responded that they had human trafficking cases
36
to report. An overwhelming majority (120 counties) indicated that they had no human trafficking
cases to report.
Based on our review of the survey results, testimonies, and memos from 2011-2012, OCA has
worked diligently to educate district and county clerks about reporting requirements of HB 2014,
but issues with case management systems, offense codes, and reporting compliance persist and
will likely need to be addressed on a county by county basis, an arduous task. Additional issues
such as prosecutors charging defendants with non-human trafficking related violations (sexual
assault, kidnapping, etc.) or with more serious charges (weapons violations, drug violations, etc.)
contribute to the data issues. From interviews with OCA, it appears there have been
improvements in data reporting accuracy and completeness since 2011, to date there remains an
absence of any substantive data on specific cases, (i.e. no case level information is collected;
aggregate totals are reported by county for each court level. Additional funding was earmarked
for OCA to modify the existing database and possibly pursue case-level information, although
OCA has 5 years to complete this work.
House Bill 2455 (Texas 84th Legislature) established a task force to promote uniformity in the
collection and reporting of information relating to family violence, dating violence, sexual
assault, stalking, and human trafficking. The task force, and various working groups, convened
between October 2015 and September 2016 to develop policy recommendations and best
practice guidelines for the uniform collection and reporting of information (see
Recommendations in references). The task force report was released in September 2016 and can
be accessed online at http://www.txcourts.gov/media/1436043/hb-2455-final-report-september2016.pdf.
DPS Suspicious Activity Reporting
In addition to the data query from the DPS Computerized Criminal History system, the research
team collected information about suspicious activity reporting (SAR). We received data from 34
SAR reports in an excel file. SAR data is based on a level of suspicion based on observations
by the reporter including prostitution, alien smuggling, and human trafficking. A preliminary
review of SAR data, specifically observations flagged as potentially human trafficking in nature,
was exploratory to understand data points available from those reports, for example, indicators of
trafficking, source of the SAR, geographic region, victim demographic, to name a few.
The effort to build a statewide SAR is a new initiative we will learn more about over time is
network. The initiative is terrorism focused, but will provide insights about human trafficking
since the SAR network will have an all-crimes perspective. Data from such reports, consist of
leads for future investigations, and could be very useful in increasing understanding of
prevalence.

37

Primary research

While available secondary sources provided context and additional background on human
trafficking in the State of Texas, they also confirmed the paucity of data available to policy
makers about the extent, impact, and character of this crime. Several primary research activities
were developed and implemented to begin to close the informational gaps. Specifically, due to
the inherent difficulty of studying victims directly, our research focused initially on collecting
data from providers of services to victims. Several phases of mixed methods research provided
significant learning about trafficking in Texas and have allowed us to transition to community
data collection in the latter part of phase 1. Data obtained and analysis performed to date,
allowed us to develop preliminary benchmarks for our three research questions and to develop a
comprehensive plan for phase 2 of this project. The sections that follow summarize our findings
and highlight how these data inform our preliminary benchmarks.
Agency Survey.
The research team designed an in-depth, mixed-methods, web-based survey instrument (Agency
Survey, developed for this study) to administer to a wide range of professionals working in the
fields of human trafficking, violence against women, policy development, law enforcement,
prosecution, survivor services, legal immigration assistance, community advocacy, and related
fields. Phone interviews, consultation with professionals (including during the survey testing
phase), and research on gaps in current knowledge contributed to the survey development phase.
The purpose of the Agency Survey is to create new knowledge, collect new data, and establish
new facts related to human trafficking in Texas.
To date, 230 professionals have participated in the survey from 171 unique Texas zip codes in
108 cities across the state (33 criminal justice, 20 social service, 12 medical or health provider,
113 elementary or secondary education providers, 52 Other). Data from additional
stakeholders is still being collected as part of this primary data collection survey. Below we
provide a quick summary of those results that are germane to our current estimation efforts.
Tables 11 and 12 illustrate who responded to our survey: a cross-section of service providers
who provide a broad range of services to their clients, and thus, we argue, provide a reasonable
perspective on sex trafficking victimization in Texas among the clients they serve.
38
Table 11.

Agency Survey Summary
Mission of Responding Organizations

Victim services
Human trafficking and sexual exploitation
Advocacy
Community-based programming
Family services
Human trafficking
Faith-based
Domestic violence and sexual assault
Legal services
Homelessness
Refugee resettlement
Immigrant advocacy/ethnic group
Other
Who Participated
(n=44)
48%
41%
34%
27%
25%
23%
23%
20%
14%
11%
5%
5%
27%
39

Table 12
Agency Survey - Services Provided (n=31)
Services Provided
Clothing and goods
Case management
Advocacy
Mental health/counseling
Food
Transportation
Housing
Familial support/reunification
Medical care
Education
Legal services
Financial support
Job training
Language services
Percentage of
Respondents
Providing Service
100%
100%
97%
94%
87%
77%
74%
68%
65%
65%
61%
39%
35%
23%
Victimization Rates.

A key preliminary finding from our survey relates to the frequency with which representatives of
social service agencies provide services to potential and confirmed human trafficking victims.
We estimate that in the last 12 months the overall human trafficking victimization rate among
clients is 25.1%. In other words, one in four agency clients are victims of human trafficking. This
estimate has the following assumptions.
Numbers were calculated from total client and human trafficking victim counts.
Nineteen service providers offered client and victim counts in survey responses.
These 19 providers served 7,484 clients and saw 1,877 human trafficking victims among
those clients. (Note: double-counting clients (and victims) is possible in our survey
methodology, but this effect should not impact the estimate of victimization rate seen by
agencies.)
Ninety-seven percent of reported victimization was sex trafficking.
40
Currently, our Agency Survey provides preliminary estimates of the number of known or highly
likely cases seen in the last 12 months relative to the number of clients served. There will be
continued analyses on the data collected to date. Moving forward, we plan to enroll various
service provider partners in the field to track what they actually see among clients served during
the next 612 month period. A visual of the research teams hierarchy of information needs
about victims is included as Appendix I. However, the results of the Agency Survey are
corroborated by several other studies summarized in Table 13. These studies collectively
estimate a range of trafficking victimization between 21% and 37%, with estimates clustering
near 25%. For more detail about these studies, see Appendix E for a brief summary.
Table 13
Research to Support Sex Trafficking Victimization Rate
Research*
Homeless/street youth who acknowledge involvement in
commercial sex
Percentage
28%
Homeless and sexually abused youth
21%
Homeless youth who were propositioned for sexual favors
37%
Children who reported trading sex for money, sex, or gifts
23%
Homeless youth who indicated exchanging sex for food, shelter,

or drugs
36%
Youth who revealed to health care providers they were involved

in prostitution
25%
Overall survival sex among shelter and street youth
28%
*Swaner, R., Labriola, M., Rempel, M., Walker, A., Spadafore, J. (2016); McDonald, A. R., &
Laser Maira, J. A. (2016); Beech, B. M., Myers, L., & Beech, D. J. (2012) ; Greene, J. M.,
Ennett, S. T., & Ringwalt, C. L. (1999) ; Stoltz, J. M., Shannon, K., Kerr, T., Zhang, R.,
Montaner, J. S., & Wood, E. (2007) ; Terrell, N. E. (1997) ; Tyler, K. A. (2009); Yates, G. L.,
Mackenzie, R. G., Pennbridge, J., & Swoffor, A. (1991).
Based on the totality of our secondary sources and the results of our Agency Survey, we adopt a
victimization rate of 25% for sex trafficking among community segments included in our phase 1
results.

41
Agency Survey: Collaboration with New Orleans Trafficking Task Force.

The Greater New Orleans Human Trafficking Task Force (NOLA Task Force) disseminated
our Agency Survey to their membership to increase understanding of human trafficking in
their area. Some highlights of their data collection are included below.

Fifty-eight respondents participated in the survey (17 social service, six medical or
health provider, five criminal justice, five religious non-profits, and nine elementary
or secondary education providers).
Service providers reported serving 245 victims of sex trafficking and 14 victims of
labor trafficking. (Of those reported victims of sex trafficking served, 136 of them
were female adults, 72 were female minors, 20 were male adults, and nine were
male minors.)
Law enforcement reported recovering 16 victims of sex trafficking and arresting
four sex traffickers.
The NOLA Task Force collected data about gaps in services, needs of both victims and
professionals who serve them, and challenges with victim identification and service
provision. Identified gaps included housing, trauma-informed counseling/mental health
services, and legal services for victims. Education and training specific for service providers
on how to interact with and best serve victims of human trafficking was identified as a top
need. Challenges identified by law enforcement and service providers included victims not
self-identifying as victims, and victims not wanting to cooperate with treatment because of
a fear of criminalization and retribution by their traffickers. The task force also identified
areas where further research was needed: labor trafficking, foreign national victims, men
and boys as victims, and the victims of the LGBTQ population.

The NOLA Task Force has planned important next steps to combat human trafficking in
New Orleans based on the findings from the Agency Survey. They concluded that law
enforcement and service providers are only identifying a limited demographic of victims.
They identified these issues prior to the survey, but the results from the survey provided
empirical evidence and a primary source of data to support their theories. According to the
NOLA Task Force Director of Operations, the task forces next action steps are based on
results from the Agency Survey. Data collected provided valuable information needed to
create training plans responding to gaps and to better support efforts of shelter programs
across New Orleans. As a result, service providers will receive more training on serving
victims of human trafficking, law enforcement will participate in training on the
neurobiology of trauma, outside organizations will provide trainings on labor trafficking,
and trainings will focus on LGBTQ populations. The results from the Agency Survey
42
provided a way for the NOLA Task Force to focus their efforts and zoom in on the highest areas
of need among victims of human trafficking in their community.
Follow-up in-depth interviews.
Select participants in the Agency Survey were contacted by phone to obtain additional
information about the percentage of their agency budget that is related to human trafficking, the
percentage of their agency staff who spend a portion of their time dedicated to human trafficking
issues, and the amount of funding made available to agencies dedicated to addressing human
trafficking.
Table 14
Participants in Follow-up Depth Interviews
Stakeholders
Health care providers
Service providers
Criminal justice
Total Number of clients

served
1,000 to 2,200
7 to 8,000
16 to 1,532
Number of CST victims

9 to 35
1 to 546
1 to 130
While these interviews were informative, they mostly confirmed gaps and barriers of which we
were already aware. The following are key take-aways.
Participants did not feel comfortable or equipped with the necessary information to make
estimates about costs to their organizations.
Only service providers made estimates on the human trafficking funding within their
organizations. Estimates ranged from $50,000--$1.6 million of their agency budget.
Many felt that cost-related questions were outside of their scope. For example, one health
care provider described not making human trafficking a priority in tracking costs to
hospitals because they havent seen a need for it.
Law enforcement all said that their organizations were not currently tracking costs of
providing services to victims of human trafficking.
Focus groups, including worksheets filled out prior to the group.
In collaboration with the Child Sex Trafficking Team (CSTT) from the Office of the Governor,
the research team convened focus groups with professionals working in the field of human
trafficking (and related fields) to assess perceived gaps in services currently available to child
victims of human trafficking and exploitation.
In order to stimulate a more detailed, empirically grounded discussion prior to attending the
focus group respondents were sent a set of background questions regarding their professional
43
experience in working with victims. The background questions focused on direct service
provision to clients. Participants were asked to submit their responses before attending focus
groups in part to allow the research team to review the range of responses, but also to allow
participating organizations to gather those data ahead of time. Nearly one-third of the responses
were returned before the focus groups occurred. Participants were asked about specific data
points as well as reflection on services to victims. Participants were informed that, for the
purpose of this discussion, a victim referred to a child who is trafficked and is served by their
agency.
Sample questions were as follows.
1. How many victims does your agency serve, confirm, or interact with somehow per year?
2. What types of victims do you serve (include typology or segmentation scheme used, if
available)?
3. What services do you offer to victims?
4. For budget planning, what is the estimated unit cost per victim per day used?
There were 36 sets of responses to the background questions that were submitted by participants.
Table 15 describes the responses to question 1 from the background questions. The number of
clients served varied between participants so to represent the responses given, we used ranges of
the highest and lowest number of clients and victims served. The table is divided into the total
number of clients served by their agency versus how many of those clients are victims of child
sex trafficking (CST).
Table 15
Clients Served by Type of Stakeholder Focus Groups
Stakeholders
Health care providers
Service providers
Criminal justice
Number of clients served

1,000 to 2,200
7 to 8,000
16 to 1,532
Number of CST victims

9 to 35
1 to 546
1 to 130
Based on the responses from the medical, criminal justice, and social service sectors we
compiled Table 16 with descriptions of their views of the gaps in services, investigation, and
prosecution. While there were varied responses, we decided to present the responses that were
most commonly mentioned among participants. Additional analysis of the responses to
background questions may help clarify the findings covered in this report. For instance, further
analysis of housing and shelter needs are necessary because we have learned that shelter is a
need. But an appropriate shelter for trafficking victims must be more than a safe house in order
to fully offer effective and long-term care for victims. For further detail, please refer to F Gaps
Analysis.

44
Table 16

Common Gaps and Barriers Identified by Stakeholders Focus Groups

Stakeholders
Common gaps in resources
Common gaps in services,
(training, funding, etc.)
investigation, prosecution
Health care
Medical personnel need training
A lack of communication between
providers
in identifying and treating victims. hospitals and law enforcement
More funding is needed.
(LE).
Victims are picked up by LE and
never brought to hospitals or
doctors for care.
A lack of communication between
hospitals and social service
agencies/knowing where to refer.

Criminal justice There is a need for forensic
No universal screening tools exist.
interviewers.
Coordination between LE, child
More needs to be done with
welfare, Juvenile Justice is
community awareness.
unclear.
There need to be lock down
There is no easy way to share
facilities where girls can't leave,
data with other
but that are not punishment
agencies/organizations.
based.
A lack of training for prosecutors
There is a need for more
and law enforcement.
placement funds.
A lack of residential or safe
housing options for victims
waiting for prosecution/not
involved in Juvenile Justice.

Service
A lack of consistent and reliable
A lack of collaboration with LE.
providers
funding sources leads to lack of
A lack of long term housing.
staff.
Penalties for buyers/traffickers
A lack of proper educational
need to increase.
resources (child victims are
A lack of LGBTQ services.
usually missing a lot of school and A lack of prosecutors for human
need proper support to catch up). trafficking cases.
Licensure for housing should be
put in the name of the agency and
not an individual.

45
DMST working group.
The Domestic Minor Sex Trafficking (DMST) Working Group formed one of the primary
research activities of the Texas Slavery Mapping Project during phase 1. Allies Against Slavery
convenes and facilitates the group, which consists of more than 20 regional criminal justice
personnel, service providers, and survivor leaders. The DMST Working Group was initially
formed in early 2015 and meets biweekly to develop comprehensive solutions to domestic minor
sex trafficking in Central Texas and beyond.
The Texas Slavery Mapping Project research team participated throughout the inception and
initial work of the group by:
Contributing to the shared learning of the group by providing insights from the broader
literature on domestic minor sex trafficking;
Sharing expertise about data collection and data management;
Evaluating and co-designing solutions, such as a screening tool to identify possible
victims of domestic minor sex trafficking;
Participating in group discussions and interviews about how group members defined
domestic minor sex trafficking, what they perceived as gaps in services, and other
insights about the field, which helped shape research methodology and supplemented the
agency survey.
While the DMST Working Group focused on a range of issues and solutions over the last 18
months, one activity is of particular relevance to phase 1 and phase 2 of the Texas Slavery
Mapping Project: the development of the Tier 1 Screening Tool.
The Tier 1 Screening Tool was developed in response to an identified gap shared by the majority
of Working Group members: the need to more quickly and effectively identify possible victims
of domestic minor sex trafficking who come in contact with the system or one of the member
agencies. The Texas Human Trafficking Prevention Task Force in its 2014 report to the Texas
Legislature highlighted the complex yet critical task of identifying victims of traffickingthe
private nature or concealment of some victims, the denial of victimization by those who may in
fact encounter help, and others who may be hiding in plain sight.
This challenge of accurate identification was corroborated by the Working Group members, who
agreed that victims often slip through the cracks. In response to this need, the group focused on
creating a brief assessment tool meant to be flexible enough to fit into any intake process and
able to be administered by staff with little-to-no specific training on DMST. The tool was
designed to be used with every youth the agencies encountered to help form a suspicion of
victimization and funnel possible victims toward a deeper screening.
46
The Tier 1 Screening Tool was the resulting instrument. It is comprised of a section of strong
indicators of victimization observable during intake, followed by targeted but conversational
questions that can be utilized or skipped. Intake staff then make a final assessment indicating if
the youth in question is a possible victim of DMST or if there is not enough information to
make a determination. This tool is now being piloted in multiple counties among various types of
service providers and institutions.
For example, the research team worked closely with administrators from Bell County Juvenile
Services Center (Juvenile Services) in Fall 2015 to learn more about current screening and data
collection efforts, specifically how those efforts could be developed to improve identification of
potential victims of trafficking being placed at the juvenile detention center. Juvenile Services
needed a way to screen all incoming youth in its care for child sex trafficking. Through some
training and awareness, senior staff had developed a gut instinct that they were seeing victims
of child sex trafficking, but they had no tool to confirm their suspicions or collect and report data
about victimization. Juvenile Services early efforts to identify victims of sex trafficking mostly
relied on a victim self identifying, which is extremely rare, before funneling that victim to
specialized services.
The research team worked closely with administrators to develop a draft intake flowchart for the
DMST Internal Response Team to follow when screening youth. As part of that process, Allies
Against Slavery worked with administrators to implement the Tier 1 Screening Tool. Allies
helped establish a procedure for using the Tier 1 Screener to evaluate each child during their
standard intake process. Juvenile Services is now able to use the tool as a first touch point to
build rapport with the child and form an initial suspicion that sex trafficking may have occurred.
The research team provided information about existing screening tools that the DMST Internal
Response Team could potentially use as a Tier 2 screening tool to further assess the potential
victim. One of those tools was developed specifically for a juvenile services setting and the
DMST Internal Response Team has been able to gather additional information and build rapport
with the youth.
Now Juvenile Services uses the Tier 1 Screener with every youth who comes through its doors.
Additionally, the Tier 1 Screener has been a standard training tool for senior staff to use with
front-line intake staff where there are high levels of turnover. Each front-line staff member now
receives quarterly training on child sex trafficking and how to identify victims using the Tier 1
Screener. Juvenile Services is now identifying more trafficking victims and diverting them into
services. After using the Tier 1 Screener for 12 months (November 2015 November 2016),
Juvenile Services identified 27 possible victims of child sex trafficking. One hundred and thirtyone female youth were screened and 20% were identified as possible victims of sex trafficking,
further supporting our victimization rate. Juvenile Services reports that the Tier 1 Screener has
equipped it to better advocate for youth in juvenile court. It can also report how many victims its
47
sees and identifies trends in victimization, a vital next step in improving data collection across
the state.
Organizations and professionals who are most likely to encounter and interact with victims need
to be fully invested in this effort. This is a positive next step in our efforts to get below the tip of
the iceberg, increase screening (and ultimately, identification) of victims.
Fundamentally, this activity in phase 1 does not contribute to our preliminary benchmarks, but it
improves our estimation activities in phase 2.
Pilot study on labor trafficking: Houston.
In Spring 2016, the research team began a pilot study focused on labor-related exploitation in
Houston, specifically targeting immigrant day laborers, primarily those that work in construction,
house cleaning, and child or elder care. The purpose of this pilot is to assess, among other things,
levels of victimization risk among these community segments. The research team developed a
brief structured interview tool modified from the interview protocol developed for the San Diego
study (Zhang et al., 2014) with migrant laborers, and informed by the VERA Trafficking Victim
Identification Tool (TVIT) Short Form. One member of the research team had unique access to
migrant workers in Harris County and she conducted interviews. These data will provide Texasspecific primary estimates of victimization in several at-risk industry segments and allow us to
assess the relevance of the estimates from sources like Barrick et al., (2014) and Zhang et al.,
(2014) to Texas. Table 17 summarizes the trafficking and exploitation criteria that we have
adapted from their study.
48
Table 17
Labor Exploitation and Trafficking Criteria
Abusive practice during transportation
- Forbade you from leaving the traveling group, or restricting what you could do.
- Forbade or restrict you from communicating freely with family.
- Forbade or restrict you from communicating freely with other travelers.
- Assaulted/fined you when you failed to obey the rules.
- Required you to pay more smuggling fee than originally agreed or bad things would
happen to you or your family (e.g. be abandoned halfway, be turned over to U.S. border
patrol, family members would be hurt).
Trafficking violation during transportation
- Withheld your identification documents (including passport, visa, and birth certificate).
- Held you hostage at or prevented you from leaving a safe house while demanding
ransom from your family.
Labor exploitation
- Denied you pay for work you performed in Houston or anywhere in the US.
- Received less pay than what you had been promised.
- Received a bad check.
- Employer disappeared before paying you.
- Were told to work in hazardous environments (with unknown chemicals) without
proper protection.
- Any other work experience you consider grossly abusive or exploitative.
Threats to physical safety (Trafficking)
- Physical abuse (including beating, kicking, slapping, etc.).
- Sexual abuse (including repeated unwanted groping, touching, exposing oneself,
deliberate display of pornographic materials, repeated solicitation of sexual favors, etc.).
- Locked up (including physically restrained).
- Threatened with physical abuse (including beating, kicking, slapping, etc.).
- Threatened with sexual abuse.
- Threatened with harm to you in any other form.
- Threatened with harm to your family in any form.
- Threatened to get you deported.
- Threatened to get you arrested.
- Threatened to turn you over to police or immigration officials.
49
Restriction/Deprivation (trafficking)
- Forbade you from leaving the workplace.
- Restricted where you could go during non-work hours.
- Withheld your identification papers (such as passport, visa, birth certification, or other
identification documents).
- Didnt allow you to have adequate food or sleep.
- Prevented or restricted you from communicating freely with family, other workers,
others outside the workplace.
Deception and lies (exploitation)
- Pay was less than you were promised.
- The type of work was different than what you were promised.
- The work environment was different than what you were promised.
- The amount of work was different from what you were promised.
- Told you that you would not be believed if you try to seek help from U.S. authorities.
- Instructed you to lie about your identity.
- Instructed you to lie about the identity of your employer.
To date, 44 interviews have been conducted (22 female) among respondents ranging in age from
20 to 70 (mean 40). These interviews have revealed substantial levels of labor exploitation and
trafficking victimization, with the results shown in Figure 1. Approximately two-thirds of
participants reported experiences that meet the force, fraud, or coercion criteria for labor
trafficking. This effort continues in phase 2.

50
Trafficking and Exploitation Summary

64%
Trafficking Total
86%
Exploitation Trafficking
Exploitation Total
45%
50%
Restriction/deprivation
Threats to physical safety
20%
Trafficking violation during
73%
77%
Deception & lies

Abusive labor practices
30%
Abusive practice during transportation

0%
20%
40%
60%
80% 100%
Figure 1. Trafficking and exploitation summary. This figure illustrates trafficking and
exploitation rates from our Labor Trafficking Pilot.
The rates of trafficking observed in our pilot study are alarming and require additional study and
continued data collection. Two recent larger studies using similar victim identification methods
have provided consistent and lower estimates for labor sectors at high risk for trafficking
victimization (the percent of laborers who have experienced human trafficking are included in
parentheses).
Barrick et al. (2014)
Farm workers in NC (25%)
Zhang et al. (2014)
Spanish-speaking migrant workers in San Diego County (28%)
Construction (35%)
Janitorial and cleaning (36%)
Landscaping (27%)
Agriculture (16%)
Food processing (32%)
Manufacturing (38%)
These studies use a common methodology that establishes robust estimates of prevalence using
respondent-driven sampling (RDS) that can be generalized to the broader population. RDS uses
study participant referrals in a systematic way to increase the randomness and representativeness
51
of the resulting sample. This sampling process is combined with a formal screening process that
uniformly and systematically assesses victimization rates among the population being studied.
We plan to expand our pilot survey in phase 2 to other geographic areas and different economic
sectors in Texas. In addition, the surveys reach and effectiveness could expand through the use
of RDS.
Our preliminary benchmarks for the prevalence of labor trafficking in this phase 1 report adopt
the more conservative rates reported by both Barrick and Zhang, but it is important to keep in
mind that rates in Texas could be higher, even substantially so.
The pilot survey also provides an initial estimate of the degree of victimization laborers have
experienced. The survey asked participants to estimate their typical earned wages and then to
estimate the amount of money that they had not been paid. Data was collected in a variety of
formats (hourly wage, weekly pay, etc.) as appropriate and familiar for the participant. In
aggregate, these data reveal that participants who have experienced labor exploitation or
trafficking perceive that they had not been paid approximately 11% of wages earned. We use this
preliminary estimate of degree of victimization in our calculations of the economic impact of
labor trafficking.
Prevalence of Human Trafficking in Texas
Estimation of the prevalence of human trafficking is challenging for a variety of reasons that are
well documented (Small, Adams, Owens, & Roland, 2008; Barrick, Lattimore, Pitts, & Zhang,
2014; Clawson, 2006; Dank, 2014; Farrell, 2009; Muslim, Labriola, & Rempel, 2008; Owens et
al., 2014; Smith, 2010; Zhang, Spiller, Finch, & Qin, 2014; Zhang, 2012; Newton, Mulcahy, and
Martin, 2008, to list just a few).
Among the most conservative representations of the prevalence of human trafficking are
statistics for reported cases and reported outreach by victims and witnesses. Central to the
estimation challenge is that victims are difficult to count. They may not identify as being victims
if they are concurrently involved in illicit activities or have a legal status that makes them
reluctant to seek or accept help. Human trafficking occurs across broad geographies and
commercial activities, further complicating the estimation task.
Although our victim typology begins to provide a theoretically grounded vision for how our
phase 2 efforts will extend our understanding of the prevalence, economic impact, and character
of trafficking in Texas, current limitations in available data constrain our ability to address these
issues in the phase 1 report. Table 18 summarizes those community and labor segments that have
been analyzed in phase 1, with an indication of which do not have sufficient data to be included
in our preliminary benchmarks.
52
Table 18
Trafficking Typology with Data Sources
Sex
Homeless
Juvenile justice*
Unauthorized population*
Labor
Cleaning services
Construction
Farmworkers
Migrant farmworkers
Nail salon workers*
* Current data sources insufficient to include in preliminary benchmarks, either because population sizes are poorly
understood or because of the potential for overlap with other segments included.
Our phase 1 estimates for sex trafficking focus on children, and our selection of community
segments is informed by recent research identifying risk factors for domestic minors. For
example, Fedina, Williamson, & Perdue (2016) found that childhood experiences, including
emotional and sexual abuse, a history of running away from home, having family members in
sex work, and having friends who purchased sex, were significantly associated with subsequent
sex trafficking victimization. The community segments from Table 18 were selected based on
secondary research regarding different populations at risk for sexual exploitation (CountrymanRoswurm and Bolin, 2014; Knight, S., 2002; Reid, J. A., & Piquero, A. R., 2013; Edberg, M. C.,
Gies, S. V., Cohen, M. I., & May-Slater, S., 2014; Shively et al., 2010; Child Welfare
Information Gateway, 2015; California Child Welfare, 2013; Smith, L. , Vardaman, S. H., Snow,
M.A., 2009; Halcon, L. L., & Lifson, A. R., 2004; Ferguson, K. M., Bender, K., Thompson, S.,
Xie, B., & Pollio, D., 2011; Salisbury, E. J., Dabney, J. D., & Russell, K., 2014; Hammer, H.,
Finkelhor, D., Sedlak, A. J., & Porcellini, L. E., 2002). More support for our minor and youth
sex trafficking typology selections can be found in Appendix G.
Minor and youth sex trafficking.
Fundamentally, our approach to estimating the prevalence of minor and youth sex trafficking
requires three levels of information: identification of community segments that are at higherthan-average risk for human trafficking, the number of individuals in a community segment, and
a quantification of the risk of victimization within that segment. We researched community
segments at higher-than-average risk for this specific type of victimization.
Estimates of the numbers of individuals involved in the commercial sex industry are vague at
best. Our methodology for assessing the prevalence of minor and youth sex trafficking looks at
53
how such victims might be encountered by various professions that provide services to or are
otherwise engaged with community segments whose members are at high risk of sex trafficking
victimization. We use secondary sources to size these community segments and a survey of
experts from agencies that serve these individuals (see Agency Survey on pages 37-42 for more
detail) to estimate the high risk of trafficking victimization. Note that our phase 1 estimates for
sex trafficking focus on minors and youth, whereas minors are under 18 years of age and
youth includes those up to 20 years of age who remain enrolled with Department of Family &
Protective Services.
How large are these community segments?
The research team continues to learn about community segments vulnerable to sex trafficking
through available secondary sources of data, but knowledge of the size of some of these
populations may not yet exist. For this report, we have selected example community segments
that are believed to be at higher-than-average risk of sex trafficking: youth who have experienced
child abuse or maltreatment, at-risk youth being served by the Department of Family and
Protective services (DFPS), and homeless youth.
Table 19
Examples of Community Segment Sizes in Texas (Annually) at High Risk for Minor and Youth
Sex Trafficking
High-Risk Sex Trafficking Community
Segments
Homeless
Size of Community Segment

290,471
24,097
1,416
Sources: U.S. Department of Housing & Urban Development; Texas Department of Family &
Protective Services; Center for Missing and Exploited Children
How many are at risk?
We apply the 25% victimization rate developed from the Agency Survey (and corroborated with
similar studies found in the extant literature) to estimate numbers of victims in the community
segments. We view the use of this calculation as conservative because most service providers
who shared victimization data with us in the Agency Survey indicate that they use a formal
process to screen clients for victimization; in fact, more than half (56%) of those service
providers use an evidence-based or validated tool.
54
Our prevalence calculation then takes the following form.

Vs = Ns x VRs
Vs is the number of expected victims in a community segment.

Ns is the number of individuals in a segment, i.e. the size of the segment.
VRs is the rate of trafficking victimization in that segment.
Results for the example community segments are shown in Table 20.

Table 20
Minor and Youth Sex Trafficking in Texas

Community Segments*
At-risk youth being served by
DFPS
Homeless
Size of
Community
Segment
290,471
Victimization Rate
25%
Estimated
Victims
72,618
24,097
1,416
25%
25%
6,024
354
* The research team acknowledges the limitations of this narrow definition of human trafficking. Phase 2
benchmarks will incorporate additional segments such as adult sex trafficking, other economic sectors, etc.
Since example community segments do not represent the entirety of at-risk communities in
Texas, we have not summed the individuals at high risk of victimization across these community
segments. Just as in labor trafficking, we offer this example list as illustrative only of the
methods we are using to estimate the prevalence of trafficking in Texas.
Labor trafficking.
Labor trafficking is the recruitment, harboring, transportation, provision, or obtaining of a person
for labor or services, through the use of force, fraud, or coercion for the purpose of subjection to
involuntary servitude, peonage, debt bondage, or slavery. According to the ILO, an estimated 21
million people around the globe are forced labor victims in either the private economy or stateimposed forms of forced labor. Sixty-six percent of professional respondents to our web-based
survey (see pages 38-42 for more detail) noted that labor trafficking is a serious or very serious
problem in their area, with 86% believing that it is bigger problem than most people think.
Fundamentally, our approach to estimating the prevalence of labor trafficking requires three
levels of information: 1) identification of commercial activities that are at higher-than-average
risk for human trafficking, 2) the number of workers participating in the at-risk activity, and 3) a
55
quantification of the risk of victimization within that activity. It is also worth noting that there is
an intersection of sex and labor trafficking in some industries (see section Our Understanding of
Human Trafficking in Texas). That intersection is minimized in this report by our choice of labor
sectors.
Verits (2015) methodology assesses risk of labor trafficking by evaluating five factors,
concluding that these industries possess at least four out of five of the following.
1. Hazardous/undesirable work
2. Vulnerable, easily replaced, and/or low-skilled workforce
3. Migrant workforce
4. Presence of labor contractors, recruiters, agents, or other middlemen in labor supply
chain
5. Long, complex, and/or non-transparent supply chains
Polaris provides a largely corroborating view of vulnerable industries in Texas. Data from 2013
through 2015 indicate that the following industries are represented by human trafficking cases
reported to the National Human Trafficking Hotline from Texas.
Agriculture
Begging rings
Construction
Domestic service
Health and beauty services
Landscaping
Restaurant and food services
Traveling sales crews
Although all of these industries have relevancy for Texas, for this report we only consider
agriculture, construction, and restaurant and food services. These are three vulnerable industries
for which we argue that the overlap in the associated workforce is minimal. Furthermore, for
clarity, within these industries we focus on sub-segments of workers who are at the highest risk
of exploitation.
1. Migrant farmworkers
2. Cleaning Services
3. Construction
4. Kitchen Workers in Restaurants
5. Landscaping and Grounds Keeping Workers
How large are these labor segments?
We use secondary sources to establish the size of the selected segments, shown in Table 21.
56
Table 21
Examples of Industry Segment Sizes in Texas at High Risk for Labor Trafficking
High-Risk Labor Trafficking Segments
Size of Community Segment
Migrant farmworkers
132,034
Cleaning services
233,610
Construction
101,250
190,390
63,050
Sources: Texas Department of Housing and Community Affairs; Bureau of Labor Statistics
How many workers are at risk?
We have applied Barrick et al. (2014) and Zhang et al. (2014) victimization rates to our selected
industry segments. We view this approach as conservative because the screening process by
Barrick and Zhang already partitions trafficking victimization as being distinctly different than
exploitation that occurs without the required elements of force, fraud, or coercion. Furthermore,
our own labor trafficking pilot project has provided preliminary data that suggest that labor
trafficking prevalence in Texas may be substantially higher than seen in their studies.
This approach allows us to conservatively estimate the number of workers in the example
industries who have likely experienced some form of trafficking victimization. Table 22 shows
these results for select agriculture, construction, and restaurant and food service industry
segments.
Table 22
Labor Trafficking in Texas
High-Risk Labor Trafficking
Segments*
Migrant farmworkers
Cleaning services
Construction
Landscaping and grounds keeping
workers
Community
Size Segment
132,034
233,610
101,250
190,390
Victimization
Rate
28%
36%
35%
32%
Estimated
Victims
36,970
84,100
35,438
60,925
63,050
27%
17,024
57
Since these are example industry segments, they in no way represent the entirety of the labor
force in Texas. As such, we have not summed the individuals at high risk of trafficking
victimization across these industry segments. We offer this example list as illustrative only of the
methods we are using to estimate the prevalence of trafficking in Texas. We plan on expanding
this list to include industries that emerge from our primary data collection efforts in Houston and
elsewhere.
Economic Impact of Human Trafficking in Texas
There are two main aspects to human traffickings economic impact:
1) Measuring the value of the economic output, including the value of the labor, produced
by human trafficking activity; and
2) Quantifying the costs to provide care to victims and survivors of human trafficking,
including costs related to law enforcement, prosecution, and social services.
Sex trafficking
The Agency Survey was a first step toward quantifying the costs to provide care to victims and
survivors of human trafficking, but initial survey responses related to costs of services were
incomplete. Additional data collection efforts, such as a survey specific to quantifying cost, have
yielded additional yet still preliminary information. These data allow us to multiply the estimated
number of trafficking victims in high-risk industry and community segments with the cost
figures supplied by both secondary and primary sources, to arrive at a cost-per-victim estimate
that could be rolled into a statewide cost figure.
Table 23 presents an estimate of the Net Present Value (NPV) of the estimated lifetime social
service costs that both society and trafficking victims themselves can expect to incur, such as
mental and physical health costs, burdens on the public health system, and law enforcement
expenses. It builds on a cost-benefit analysis approach presented in Martin & Lotspeich (2014).

58
We have adjusted the Martin & Lotspeich (2014) model by inflating the NPV from 2011 to 2016
dollars and have added a component to our assessment of costs to cover the expected
consumption by victims of shelter and associated services. The unit costs from their model (in
2016 dollars) are listed in Table 23.
Table 23
Unit Costs (2016 $)
Unit Cost
Public health expenditures
Injury from assault
Minor (a)
Major
PTSD
STIs
Chlamydia-early treatment
Chlamydia-late treatment
HIV/AIDS
Pregnancy with abortion
Pregnancy with birth (c)
Chemical dependency
Criminal justice expenditures (b)
Homicide investigation
Adolescents: Arrests
Adults
Arrests
Court hearings
Incarcerations
Probation supervision
Child foster care expenditures (child of victim)
Forgone income tax revenue
2016 $$
4,757
68,859
6,609
116
1,431
29,303
681
14,866
39,810
10,730
2,356
2,356
621
97
951
8,551
1
Consumption of shelter and related services were omitted from the Martin & Lotspeich (2014)
study purposefully because they were conducting a benefit cost analysis wherein the lifetime
societally born costs were being compared to an intervention designed to divert victims of child
sex trafficking from those circumstances. That intervention included long-term shelter and
associated therapeutic services. Our inclusion of shelter and associated services covers only
those services that our research indicates many victims periodically receive on a short-term basis.
59
Anecdotally, we have evidence that minor and youth victims fall back into victimization
situations several times before escaping (if they ever do), and that they make five to seven trips
to some sort of facility or service provider before victims have processed enough of their
situation to engage in a meaningful recovery. These trips to shelters vary in length, but
anecdotally it seems that a minimum stay necessary for any sort of meaningful progress could be
around two weeks. Many victims leave much sooner (very likely returning to their victimized
circumstance), and some receive services for as much as a year. It seems that a duration of
around two months is needed to provide truly meaningful and effective services; however, it
seems short-term stays are likely closer to a week.
In summary, we adopt a lifetime NPV of $83,125 for the cost of care born by society for a victim
of minor and youth sex trafficking. This NPV probabilistically incorporates the likelihood of
various costs and covers the likelihood for various durations of time being in circumstance of sex
trafficking.
Table 24
Lifetime Cost of Care for Victims of Minor and Youth Sex Trafficking
High-Risk Sex Trafficking Community

Segments*
Homeless
Total
Estimated
Victims
72,618
6,024
354
NPV of Cost
of Care
Required as
Consequence
of HT
(Lifetime)
$83,125
$83,125
$83,125
Estimated
Lifetime Cost
$6,036,358,905
$500,743,976
$29,426,190
$6,566,529,071
Labor trafficking.
Table 25 presents an estimate of the annual value of labor expended by trafficking victims in the
three vulnerable industries presented earlier: agriculture, construction, and restaurant and food
services.
These economic impacts are presented here with important data limitations. For instance, we can
only estimate how many hours the average victim works under conditions of modern slavery (we
know that most episodes of victimization last only a few days or weeks and not months or years).
We also do not yet fully understand how to make a reasonable estimate of the wages that a
60
trafficking victim is actually paid. Data from our labor pilot study reveal that participants who
have experienced labor exploitation or trafficking perceive that they had not been paid
approximately 11% of wages earned. We use this preliminary estimate of degree of victimization
in our calculations of the economic impact of labor trafficking and applied to a normal 2080hours worked per year. The Department of Labors Adverse Effect Wage Rate of $11.15 per
hour for H-2A workers is used here as a proxy for what we are calling the Fair Market Wage
Rate. The Department of Labor sets that wage rate for migrant farmworkers on H2-A visas so as
not to discriminate against domestic labor and depress wages in the agriculture sector. (Other
wage rates could be used; the prevailing Texas wage for low-skilled workers in the other sectors
may be the federal minimum wage, currently $7.75 per hour).
Table 25
Annual Value of Labor Exploited from Trafficking Victims
High-Risk Labor Trafficking Segments*

Migrant farmworkers
Cleaning services
Construction
Total
Estimated Victims
36,970
84,100
35,438
60,925
17,024
Estimated Annual Value

Wages Lost
$94,314,906
$214,549,192
$90,406,591
$155,426,986
$43,430,267
$598,127,942
These industry and community segments do not represent the entirety of populations at higherthan-average risk for trafficking victimization in Texas and are provided here as a preliminary
benchmark and a demonstration of our methodological approach. We plan to further develop the
list of industry and community segments to be included in the study during phase 2.
Our Understanding of Human Trafficking in Texas
As data related to our understanding of the economic impact and the prevalence of trafficking
increase, so will the dimensions, descriptions, and understanding of the complex crime of human
trafficking as it operates in Texas. To date, we have collected data that help describe some of
these dimensions, and continue to collect and analyze data that will expand our shared
knowledge.
61
Law enforcement response
While law enforcement task forces report important criminal justice insights, standardized
measures that accurately estimate the number of trafficking victims remain relatively elusive.
This is in part due to barriers faced by law enforcement regarding identification, investigation,
and prosecution of these crimes, and an understanding that this crime is not static. Understanding
the factors that promote and hinder law enforcement strategies will effectively guide future
programs, policies, and laws about trafficking. The U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice
Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics tracks human trafficking incidents by federally funded law
enforcement human trafficking task forces. Banks and Kyckelhahn (2011) found that 80% of
trafficking cases were suspected sex trafficking cases, 10% were labor trafficking cases, and
10% were identified as other or unknown forms of trafficking. Of the 2,515 total incidents
investigated, 389 cases were confirmed as human trafficking, with 488 suspects and 527 victims
identified. Of the sex trafficking victims, 83% were U.S. citizens. Of confirmed cases opened for
one year, 30% were later confirmed to be human trafficking, 38% were confirmed not to be
human trafficking, and the remaining were still under investigation. One hundred and forty-four
arrests were made. Of those opened and confirmed, 64% involved allegations of prostitution or
sexual exploitation of a child, and 42% involved allegations of adult prostitution. Most cases that
were not confirmed as human trafficking involved allegations of adult prostitution (Banks &
Kyckelhahn, 2011, p.8).

Law enforcement responses to human trafficking are varied and complex. Many law
enforcement professionals have previously perceived human trafficking as rare or
nonexistent (Farrell et al., 2011). A National Institute of Justice (NIJ)-sponsored study
found that 32% of trafficking cases were discovered as a result of the investigation of other
cases (Clawson et al., 2006), highlighting the need for broadly trained law enforcement.
Agents themselves have called for more training (Clawson et al., 2006), knowing that wellcrafted investigations are central to successful prosecution. Human trafficking
investigations are time- and resource-intensive for law enforcement (David, 2008). Given
this reality, law enforcement agents have cited the need for specific techniques and
resources for investigating human trafficking cases, including dedicated agents and new
technology (Busch-Armendariz, Nsonwu, & Heffron, 2014, 2008; Clawson et al., 2008).

Prosecution response

Responsiveness through prosecution is bleak. Worldwide only 7,000 human trafficking
cases were prosecuted for a crime in which 40,000 victims were identified (in 2012,
according to U.S. Department of State, 2013). We have little empirical data available about
prosecutions of human trafficking in the US at the federal or state levels. According to the
Office of Research and Evaluation, NIJ has funded several studies (for instance, Shively,
Kliorys, Wheeler, & Hunt, 2012)) that inform the prosecutorial processes. What we do
62
know is that the prosecution of human trafficking cases is also fraught with hurdles,
especially for state and local prosecutors, who operate with fewer resources and less
training than federal prosecutors (Clawson et al., 2008).

Sentencing and punishment for human traffickers is another area of concern (Clawson et
al., 2008). Research from Europe, Australia, and North America indicate a clear need to
develop collaborations among law enforcement entities, from the federal to local level
(Reichel, 2008; David, 2008). Law enforcement agents and service providers in the United
States have cited the need for creating and improving mechanisms for such collaborative
efforts (Busch-Armendariz et al., 2007). Federally funded task forces have a positive impact
on the delivery of services to victims (Busch-Armendariz, et al., 2007), and on investigation
and prosecution efforts (Farrell, et al., 2008). Despite recent increases in the identification
and prosecution of traffickers (Busch-Armendariz, et al., 2014), the numbers for each
remain dismally low in relationship to the extent of the crime.

Under investigation: Labor trafficking

Research shows that both men and women are affected by labor trafficking. Although the
TVPA splits sex and labor trafficking by definition, sexual violence can be present in
situations of labor exploitation. In studies from the University of California, Santa Cruz and
Human Rights Watch, most female farmworkers interviewed reported experiencing or
knowing someone who had experienced some form of sexual harassment as part of their
work (Waugh, 2010; Meng & Coursen, 2012).

In our previous work, A Research Study on Human Trafficking Victims: Survivors Speak Out
about Long-Term Needs (Busch-Armendariz, Nsonwu, & Heffron, 2009), IDVSA reported
that sex trafficking often overlaps with labor trafficking. That is, sex trafficking cases often
include elements of labor trafficking (such as being coerced or forced to cook, clean, or
perform other labor). Similarly, labor trafficking cases frequently include sexual violence as a
component of the strategies of control and coercion used by traffickers. Given these overlapping
elements of sex and labor trafficking, it is critical that initiatives to learn more about human
trafficking in Texas incorporate all possible manifestations of the crime.

During phase 1, the research team coordinated numerous efforts to increase our understanding of
the prevalence and impact of labor trafficking in Texas. Interviews with field experts uncovered
a pervasive concern that they are only seeing the tip of the iceberg of a large and complex
problem. In fact, 66% of professional respondents to the Agency Survey noted that labor
trafficking is a serious or very serious problem in their area, with 86% believing that it is a
bigger problem than most people think.
63
This concern is compounded by the fact that organizations whose mission includes service
provision to immigrant and migrant worker populations feel isolated, with little to no sharing of
information or resources with other organizations. Initial research tasks intended to accomplish
two primary goals:
Increase knowledge about labor industries in Texas and the employment visa process
Build a network for data collection.
The research team performed an extensive literature review. We compiled a list of stakeholders
with knowledge of labor exploitation in Texas. We conducted interviews with the Department of
Labor (DOL), officials with the Mexican Consulate, and special agents with Immigration and
Customs Enforcement (ICE) Homeland Security Investigations to learn more about top
industries for exploitation, databases housing related data, and existing labor anti-trafficking
efforts. A review of labor trafficking cases as part of the 2014 study from the Urban Institute
found that most victims worked in the major U.S. industries of agriculture, domestic service,
construction and hospitality (Owens, et al., 2014). Researchers found that victims of labor
trafficking frequently obtained temporary work visas (usually H-2A or H-2B), which is in-line
with information learned from interviews with Texas-based Department of Labor officials and
data analysts at the National Human Trafficking Hotline.
These preliminary efforts led to the first focus group with Central Texas professionals who
primarily work with immigrants to provide social services, legal services, and advocacy. These
connections increased our understanding of service provision, and focus group participants
identified numerous challenges to serving the immigrant and migrant worker populations,
specifically in Central Texas. Misidentification of cases, confusion among professionals about
definitions and blurred lines between extreme labor exploitation and trafficking, lack of
education about rights and labor laws among workers, and the geography challenges of Texas
were some of the most common problems professionals identified.
While governmental organizations such as ICE and DOL want to assist victims in exploitive
work situations, the challenge of identifying cases continues due to a victims fear of the
economic impact on the family and community. Professionals working with both documented
and undocumented workers cannot compel victims to move forward if they cannot guarantee
confidentiality. Furthermore, when ICE does not identify exploited workers as being victims of
trafficking, it may send a strong message to victims to not seek help.
Discussion
This phase 1 report presents our learning to date, preliminary benchmarks, and how the
continuation of these activities will increase our understanding of the crime. We have identified
industry and community segments at higher than average risk of human trafficking. We have
64
applied victimization rates to a select few segments for the purposes of demonstrating our
methodology, establishing some baseline human trafficking prevalence and economic impact
estimates, and providing a concrete example of our planned activities moving forward.
Our preliminary assessments and quantifications need additional refinement, which requires an
expanded level of data collection beyond the timeline of this current research. We will also
continue to build upon past research about the needs of victims and survivors and our
understanding of traffickers. We expect this emerging data to be more complete in the future, if
solely for the fact that organizations are improving data collection efforts, increasing and
improving screening of potential victims, and working to share that information in the name of
more effective, comprehensive solutions.
In addition to the learning presented thus far, we have also detailed some challenges to
researching human trafficking, such as severely limited access to law enforcement data, victims
continuing to slip through the cracks because identification is so difficult, and the inability of
professionals to quantify costs to provide care to victims and survivors of human trafficking.
These challenges, among others, are not unique to Texas and will continue to guide our research
activities. In other words, a key component of this work is to identify gaps and work toward
better understanding how to fill those gaps.
This research is a benchmark of our understanding of human trafficking, especially in prevalence
and economic impact; the states diversity, its cultural context, and regional differences make it
difficult to fully describe the scope of trafficking in Texas. Furthermore, the landscape of and the
response to the crime are constantly evolving. The research team continues to collect and analyze
data as part of this research through the conclusion of the project, and hopefully, beyond.
The preliminary results in this final report are illustrative only and remain a conservative
estimate of the prevalence of human trafficking in Texas.
Conclusions

This study is groundbreaking as the first benchmark of prevalence and economic impact of
human trafficking for the State of Texas. Few states have invested more to understand the extent
of the crime, who is exploited and under what conditions, and the economic impact in order to
develop programs, services and policies to alleviate it. Human trafficking research is a young
field, making data collection and analysis challenging, particularly as definitions continue to
evolve among the disciplines charged with responding to it.
As an example, early on, many limited their understanding of human trafficking to sex
trafficking and conflated it with prostitution. Although practice among many professionals has
65
begun to catch up with the legal definitions, useable data available to determine prevalence may
not be available for several years.
The wide range of definitions for DMST, its conflation with prostitution, and low rates of
identification have significant implications for data collection across the state. DMST regularly
presents as prostitution, and without accurate identification or a consistently applied definition of
what qualifies as trafficking, those cases are often documented as prostitution or a similar
criminal code. In many cases, stakeholders are able to accurately collect information about
children and youth being exploited. Against that backdrop, though, data on domestic minor sex
trafficking is low and overlaps considerably with prostitution data. However, when data on
domestic minor sex trafficking is collected, it is not standardized across multiple organizations,
thus making any aggregated understanding just preliminary.
Our study findings also conclude that labor trafficking is a significant issue for the State of
Texas. In fact, this research leads us to conclude that it is woefully understudied and perhaps
ignored as a policy area. Our initial steps to explore secondary data from local law enforcement
and other governmental agencies on human trafficking crimes generated data that was limited to
sex exploitation only. This reflects a narrow understanding of human trafficking that perhaps
prioritizes sex trafficking cases over labor trafficking, limiting the ability to reach a large number
of vulnerable and victimized Texans.
We know that human trafficking includes the exploitation of different groups of people (adults,
youth, children, foreign-born, Texans and other Americans). We encourage our state to continue
to expand our understanding of this crime; otherwise we may close off our ability to identify all
exploited people in Texas and provide these crime victims with needed services.
66
Recommendations
We make the following recommendations to stakeholders and policymakers using the findings
contained in the report:
I. Increase investigation and prosecution of traffickers. In general, there are several reasons
that the rates of investigation and prosecution of human trafficking cases are low,
including: 1) a lack of precedence and case law, 2) victim reluctance to testify, 3) a lack
of institutional infrastructure, and 4) a lack of training for investigators and prosecutors
on how to investigate and litigate human trafficking cases. The ultimate vision is for law
enforcement to preempt strategies used by traffickers so that incidence rates of human
trafficking decline. The first step toward this goal is to gain a better understanding of how
to increase the success of law enforcement, including its role in the prosecution of
trafficking cases. The research team is conducting a survey among prosecutors and
investigators of human trafficking cases to gain insights that improve outcomes on those
cases. Our initial efforts focus on minor and youth sex trafficking because of the higher
number of available cases.
II. Identify more victims and increase our understanding of how they became victims.
During phase 2, the Working Group and the research team will finalize a Screening
Starter Pack containing a more in-depth, validated screening tool for professionals who
treat victims. Such a screening tool would include a scaled assessment of risk and allow
the development of better estimates of the most vulnerable, at-risk populations.
III. Expand our understanding of traffickers themselves. The methods and strategies used by
traffickers, as well as their attempts to evade law enforcement, are dynamic and everchanging; any attempt to pin down trafficker typologies must be open to continuous
exploration and analysis. In this vein, the research will continue to review and refine the
typologies of traffickers in operation in Texas.
Next Steps: Phase 2
Phase 2 will expand the initial 2016 human trafficking prevalence and economic impact
benchmarks. The current methodology was conservative in its initial assessment of the problem
for Texas. As agreed, the next phase of this research will deepen our understanding of the
problem of domestic minor sex trafficking. Phase 2 research activities will also include providing
the Child Sex Trafficking Team at the Criminal Justice Division with an independent, preassessment of several Texas cities in need of programs or services.
67
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Appendix A: Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)
Are the research findings based on empirical knowledge, and how were prevalence and
economic impact calculated?
The findings were derived using a qualitative and quantitative mixed-methods approach. Primary
and secondary data collection efforts, including but not limited to queries of existing databases,
interviews, focus groups, and web-based surveys, were employed to quantify the prevalence and
economic impact of human trafficking in Texas. Higher-than-average-risk industry and
community segments are groups of people considered to be at elevated risk of trafficking
because of risk indicators found in trafficking cases (e.g. homeless or runaway youth, workers in
sectors that are characterized by hazardous activity or that involve low skill or migrant workers).
Why doesnt the report simply count cases of human trafficking in Texas that are in the
criminal justice system?
Because human trafficking is an under-reported hidden crime whose victims are often hard to
identify and reluctant to come forward, the risk-assessment approach expands our perspective
beyond cases already in the law enforcement system by producing an estimate of expected levels
of trafficking. The iceberg metaphor is used to convey the idea that reported cases of sex and
labor trafficking are only a small fraction of the crime that is actually occurring. This expectation
is based on empirically derived evidence that the risk of trafficking in an industry or community
segment can be coupled with an assessment of the risk of victimization for an individual member
of that segment.
Could there really be 313,000 victims of trafficking in Texas?
This initial conservative benchmark provides an opportunity for educating stakeholders and
community members about the true nature of human trafficking in Texas. The perceived
"invisibility" of human trafficking has led to many myths and misconceptions about the issue,
including that it does not occur with high frequency or is not "our problem." From interviews
with victims, we know that in most instances, trafficking victims experience episodes of
victimization and are not trapped in a trafficking situation for months or years at a time. The
empirical grounding behind our estimation of 313,000 victims helps dispel those misconceptions
and highlights how human trafficking intersects directly with other more visible forms of sexual
violence, exploitation, and commerce in Texas.
Are there other community segments that could be included in the estimation of prevalence?
Yes. For the initial benchmarks, however, we identified only segments that are easily quantified
and mutually exclusive. For instance, the number of adult sex trafficking victims is currently
unknown because of a lack of data about the size of relevant at-risk population segments. In
addition, we selected the highest risk segments we could find to be able to perform estimates in
the most conservative way possible. Other labor-sector examples of hard-to-estimate populations
would include domestic work, begging rings, and massage parlors.
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What went into calculation of expected economic impacts incurred by both society and
trafficking victims?
For sex trafficking victims, we used an estimate of lifetime impacts such as mental and physical
health costs incurred by victims, burdens on the public health system, law enforcement expenses,
consumption of shelter and associated services, and lost tax revenue. For labor trafficking
victims, we used an annual estimate of lost wages.
Why should the prevalence numbers and economic impacts contained in the report be
considered benchmarks?
Data and statistics on trafficking are limited and difficult to collect. Data presented here should
be considered preliminary and will allow policymakers and community leaders to measure
progress in their fight against trafficking in Texas, even if the scope of the crime expands in the
future to include additional vulnerable population segments and economic sectors. Human
trafficking is a complex crime that impacts a wide variety of survivors, traffickers, professionals,
and communities. As each piece of the puzzle moves, we gain perspective on a new and different
angle of the crime of human trafficking. Furthermore, elements of the crime are fluid and
dynamic, resulting in continuous reconfiguration of the puzzle. This research attempts to gain
better images of what the puzzle looks like when it is turned and when those pieces shift. As data
related to our understanding of the economic impact and the scope of trafficking increase, so will
the dimensions, descriptions, and understanding of the 3-D puzzle of trafficking as it operates in
Texas.
What are some of the biggest challenges to collecting more information about the prevalence
of human trafficking in Texas?
In addition to the learning presented thus far, we have also detailed some challenges to
researching human trafficking, such as severely limited access to law enforcement data, victims
continuing to slip through the cracks because identification is such a difficult issue to tackle, and
the inability of professionals to quantify costs to provide care to victims and survivors of human
trafficking. These challenges, among others, are not unique to Texas and will continue to guide
our research activities. In other words, a key component of this work is to identify gaps and work
toward better understanding how to fill those gaps with knowledge and understanding.
In light of these findings, what recommendations does the study contain on how to prevent
human trafficking in Texas?
IV. Increase investigation and prosecution of traffickers. In general, there are several reasons
that the rates of investigation and prosecution of human trafficking cases are low,
including: 1) a lack of precedence and case law, 2) victim reluctance to testify, 3) a lack
of institutional infrastructure, and 4) a lack of training for investigators and prosecutors
on how to investigate and litigate human trafficking cases. The ultimate vision is for law
enforcement to preempt strategies used by traffickers so that incidence rates of human
trafficking decline. The first step toward this goal is to gain a better understanding of how
to increase the success of law enforcement, including its role in the prosecution of
trafficking cases. The research team is conducting a survey among prosecutors and
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investigators of human trafficking cases to gain insights that improve outcomes on those
cases. Our initial efforts focus on minor and youth sex trafficking because of the higher
number of available cases.
V. Identify more victims and increase our understanding of how they became victims.
During phase 2, the Working Group and the research team will finalize a Screening
Starter Pack containing a more in-depth, validated screening tool for professionals who
treat victims. Such a screening tool would include a scaled assessment of risk and allow
the development of better estimates of the most vulnerable, at-risk populations.
VI. Expand our understanding of traffickers themselves. The methods and strategies used by
traffickers, as well as their attempts to evade law enforcement, are dynamic and everchanging; any attempt to pin down trafficker typologies must be open to continuous
exploration and analysis. In this vein, the research will continue to review and refine the
typologies of traffickers in operation in Texas.
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Appendix B: Resources
Below are some useful resources for accessing policy, funding, training, and other human
trafficking initiatives. This list is in no way exhaustive and inclusion on this list is not an
endorsement of a specific organization or viewpoint. This list does not include social service
providers in Texas and is not intended to be a directory of service providers. The intention of this
list is strictly to provide additional resources for further learning.
The Abolition Seminar: www.abolitionseminar.org
Allies Against Slavery: www.alliesagainstslavery.org
The Attorney General of Texas: www.texasattorneygeneral.gov/cj/human-trafficking
Coalition of Immokalee Workers: www.ciw-online.org
Child Welfare Information Gateway through Health and Human Services Childrens Bureau:
https://capacity.childwelfare.gov/states/focus-areas/preventing-sex-trafficking/
Fair Food Program: www.fairfoodprogram.org
Fair Trade USA: www.fairtradeusa.org
Free the Slaves: www.freetheslaves.net
GEMS Girls Education and Mentoring Services: www.gems-girls.org
Human Trafficking Data through Texas Christian University: www.humantraffickingdata.org
Human Trafficking Index through the Human Trafficking Center at the University of Denver:
http://humantraffickingcenter.org/research/human-trafficking-index/
Human Trafficking Knowledge Portal through United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime
[UNODC]: www.unodc.org/cld
The Human Trafficking Pro Bono Legal Center: www.htprobono.org
Historians Against Slavery: www.historiansagainstslavery.org
International Organization for Migration: Counter-Trafficking: www.iom.int
International Labour Organization: www.ilo.org
Made in a Free World: www.madeinafreeworld.com
National Center for Missing and Exploited Children [NCMEC]: www.missingkids.org
National Guestworker Alliance: www.guestworkeralliance.org
National Human Trafficking Hotline operated by Polaris: www.humantraffickinghotline.org
Polaris: www.polarisproject.org
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Porn Harms Research through The National Center on Sexual Exploitation [NCOSE]:
www.pornharmsresearch.com
Responsible Sourcing Tool: www.responsiblesourcingtool.org
Sex + Money: A National Search for Human Worth: Documentary
Shared Hope International: www.sharedhope.org
Slavery Footprint: www.slaveryfootprint.org
Slavery Out of the Shadows: Spotlight on Human Trafficking: Documentary
Southern Poverty Law Center: www.splcenter.org
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration [SAMHSA]: www.samhsa.gov
(concept of Trauma and Guidance for a Trauma-Informed Approach)
The Texas Association for the Protection of Children [TexProtects]: www.texprotects.org
Texas Association Against Sexual Assault [TAASA]: http://taasa.org/
Trafficking Victim Identification Tool [TVIT] through VERA Institute of Justice: Currently an
archived report; you can locate through any search engine.
Trafficking Victims Protection Reauthorization Act of 2013: Title XII of the Violence Against
Women Reauthorization Act of 2013
United Nations. (1948). Universal Declaration of Human Rights:
http:/www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/
UNHCR (2008). Refugee Protection and Human Trafficking: www.unhcr.org/trafficking
UNICEF: www.unicef.org
University of North Carolina Human Trafficking Database:
http://humantrafficking.unc.edu/resources/
United Nations Global Initiative to Fight Human Trafficking: www.ungift.org
Urban Institute Human Trafficking Research Portfolio: www.urban.org/policy-centers/justicepolicy-center/projects/human-trafficking-research-portfolio
U.S. Department of Labor, List of Goods Produced by Child Labor or Forced Labor:
www.dol.gov/ilab/reports/child-labor/list-of-goods
U.S. Department of State, Trafficking in Persons [TIP] Report:
www.state.gov/g/tip/rls/tiprpt/2015
Walk Free: www.walkfree.org
82
Appendix C: Definitions detailed in Trafficking Victims Protection Act of 2000
Federal Anti-Trafficking Laws: Summary from National Human Trafficking Hotline

The Trafficking Victims Protection Act (TVPA) of 2000 is the first comprehensive federal law to
address trafficking in persons. The law provides a three-pronged approach that includes
prevention, protection, and prosecution. The TVPA was reauthorized through the Trafficking
Victims Protection Reauthorization Act (TVPRA) of 2003, 2005, 2008, and 2013.
Under U.S. federal law, severe forms of trafficking in persons includes both sex trafficking
and labor trafficking:
Sex trafficking is the recruitment, harboring, transportation, provision, obtaining, patronizing, or
soliciting of a person for the purposes of a commercial sex act, in which the commercial sex act
is induced by force, fraud, or coercion, or in which the person induced to perform such an act has
not attained 18 years of age (22 USC 7102).
Labor trafficking is the recruitment, harboring, transportation, provision, or obtaining of a
person for labor or services, through the use of force, fraud, or coercion for the purposes of
subjection to involuntary servitude, peonage, debt bondage, or slavery, (22 USC 7102).
Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act of 2000

SEC. 103. DEFINITIONS.
In this division:
(2) COERCION.The term coercion means
(A) threats of serious harm to or physical restraint against any person;
(B) any scheme, plan, or pattern intended to cause a person to believe that failure to
perform an act would result in serious harm to or physical restraint against any person; or
(C) the abuse or threatened abuse of the legal process.
(3) COMMERCIAL SEX ACT.The term commercial sex act means any sex act on account
of which anything of value is given to or received by any person.
(4) DEBT BONDAGE.The term debt bondage means the status or condition of a debtor
arising from a pledge by the debtor of his or her personal services or of those of a person under
his or her control as a security for debt, if the value of those services as reasonably assessed is
not applied toward the liquidation of the debt or the length and nature of those services are not
respectively limited and defined.
83
(5) INVOLUNTARY SERVITUDE.The term involuntary servitude includes a condition of

servitude induced by means of
(A) any scheme, plan, or pattern intended to cause a person to believe that, if the person
did not enter into or continue in such condition, that person or another person would suffer
serious harm or physical restraint; or
(B) the abuse or threatened abuse of the legal process.
(8) SEVERE FORMS OF TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS.The term severe forms of
trafficking in persons means
(A) sex trafficking in which a commercial sex act is induced by force, fraud, or coercion,
or in which the person induced to perform such act has not attained 18 years of age; or
(B) the recruitment, harboring, transportation, provision, or obtaining of a person for
labor or services, through the use of force, fraud, or coercion for the purpose of
subjection to involuntary servitude, peonage, debt bondage, or slavery.
(9) SEX TRAFFICKING.The term sex trafficking means the recruitment, harboring,
transportation, provision, or obtaining of a person for the purpose of a commercial sex act.
(13) VICTIM OF A SEVERE FORM OF TRAFFICKING.The term victim of a severe form
of trafficking means a person subject to an act or practice described in paragraph (8).
(14) VICTIM OF TRAFFICKING.The term victim of trafficking means a person subjected
to an act or practice described in paragraph (8) or (9).
84
Appendix D: DPS Offense Codes Related to Human Trafficking
KIDNAPPING (1099)
10990001 KIDNAPPING
10990002 AGREEMENT TO ABDUCT FROM CUSTODY
10990003 AGG KIDNAPPING RELEASE VICTIM SAFEPLACE
10990004 AGG KIDNAPPING
10990007 AGG KIDNAPPING FOR RANSOM/REWARD
10990008 AGG KIDNAPPING FOR RANSOM/REWARD SAFE RELEASE
10990009 AGG KIDNAPPING USE AS SHIELD/HOSTAGE
10990010 AGG KIDNAPPING USE AS SHIELD/HOSTAGE SAFE RELEASE
10990011 AGG KIDNAPPING FACILITATE
10990012 AGG KIDNAPPING FACILITATE SAFE RELEASE
10990013 AGG KIDNAPPING BI/SEXUAL ABUSE
10990014 AGG KIDNAPPING BI/SEXUAL ABUSE SAFE RELEASE
10990015 AGG KIDNAPPING TERRORIZE
10990016 AGG KIDNAPPING TERRORIZE SAFE RELEASE
10990017 AGG KIDNAPPING INTERFERE PERFORMANCE
10990018 AGG KIDNAPPING INTERFERE PERFORMANCE SAFE RELEASE
SEXUAL ASSAULT (1199)
11990001 SEXUAL ASSAULT
11990002 SEXUAL ASSAULT CHILD
11990003 AGG SEXUAL ASSAULT
11990004 AGG SEXUAL ASSAULT CHILD
11990006 AGG SEXUAL ASSAULT OF ELDERLY/DISABLED PERSON
11990008 IMPROPER RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EDUCATOR/STUDENT
11990009 SEXUAL ASSLT PROH/PURPORT SPOUSE
11990010 SEXUAL ASSLT PROH/PURPORT SPOUSE UNDER 14YOA
11990012 SEX ABUSE OF CHILD CONTINUOUS: VICTIM UNDER 14
11990013 SEXUAL CONT/INTERCOURSE W/PERSON TYC/ST FAC
SEX OFFENSES (36)
36010001 INDECENCY W/CHILD SEXUAL CONTACT
36990002 PROH SEXUAL CONDUCT
36990003 FAIL TO REPORT AGG SEXUAL ASSLT OF CHILD
36990005 SEX OFFENDERS FAILURE TO COMPLY/CIVIL
36990011 PROH OWN/OPERATE/MANAGE BUSINESS BY SEX OFFENDER
36990012 FAILURE TO REPORT FELONY W/SBI OR DEATH RESULTS
36990013 INDECENCY W/A CHILD EXPOSES
36990014 SEXUAL PERFORM CHILD EMPLOY INDUCE/AUTHORIZE
36990015 SEXUAL PERFORM CHILD PRODUCE/DIRECT/PROMOTE
36990020 PROH SEXUAL CONDUCT WITH ANCESTOR/DESCENDANT

36990022
36990023
36990024
36990025
36990026
36990028
36990029
85
ONLINE SOLICIT OF A MINOR
ONLINE SOLICITATION OF A MINOR UNDER 14
ONLINE SOLICIT OF A MINOR SEXUAL CONDUCT
SEXUAL PERF BY CHILD <14YRS EMPLOY/DIR/PROMO
SEXUAL PERF BY CHILD <14 YRS PRODUCE/DIR/PROMO
IMPROPER PHOTOGRAPHY OR VISUAL RECORDING
IMPROPER PHOTO/VIDEO BATH/DRESS RM
OBSCENITY (37)
37040001 POSS OF CHILD PORNOGRAPHY
37040002 POSS W/INT TO PROMOTE CHILD PORNOGRAPHY
37040007 POSS CERTAIN VIS MAT PREV CONV
37040008 POSS CERTAIN VIS MAT 2+ CONV
37050001 PROMOTE CERTAIN VIS MAT: HARASS/PREV CONV
37050002 PROMOTE CERTAIN VIS MAT:1+ HARASS/2+ CONV
37050003 OBSCENE WHOLESALE PROMOTION
37990002 OBSCENE PROMOTE/PRODUCE/DIRECT
37990003 TECHNICIAN INTENTIONALLY FAIL TO REPORT IMAGE
37990004 SALE/DISTR/DISPLAY HARMFUL MATERIAL TO MINOR
37990005 USES MINOR SELL/DISTR/DISPLAY HARMF MATERIAL
COMMERCIAL SEX OFFENSES (40)
40020003 PROMOTE PROSTITUTION
40020004 PROMOTE PROSTITUTION W/PREV CONV
40020005 PROMOTE PROSTITUTION OF < 18 YOA PERSON
40020006 AGG PROMOTION OF PROSTITUTION
40020007 AGG PROMOTION OF PROSTITUTION PERSON/S < 18YOA
40040007 COMPELLING PROSTITUTION UNDER AGE 18
40040008 COMPELLING PROST BY FORCE/THREAT/FRAUD
40040009 PROSTITUTION
40040010 PROSTITUTION WITH ONE/TWO PREV CONVIC
40040011 PROSTITUTION W/3RD OR MORE
40040014 PROSTITUTION SOLICIT PERSON < 18 YOA
40990001 ENFORCE MUNICIPAL AND COUNTY REGULATION
40990002 EMPLOY HARMFUL TO CHILDREN
40990003 EMPLOY HARMFUL TO CHILDREN < 14 YOA

SMUGGLING (58)
58990002 TRAFFICKING OF PERSON
58990004 TRAFFICKING A PERSON CAUSING DEATH
58990005 TRAFFIC OF PERSONS <18 PROST/FORCED LABOR
58990006 SMUGGLING OF PERSONS
58990007 SMUGGLING OF PERSONS: MONETARY GAIN
58990008 SMUGGLING OF PERSONS: SBI OR DEATH
58990009 TRAFFICKING OF PERSONS: CONTINUOUS
58990010 TRAFFICKING PERSON ENGAGE CONDUCT/SEXUAL
58990011 TRAFFICKING PERSON ENGAGE CONDUCT/SEX/BENEFIT
58990012 TRAFFICKING CHILD WITH INTENT FORCED LABOR
58990013 TRAFFICK A CHILD W/INTENT FORCED LABOR BENEFIT
58990014 TRAFFICKING CHILD ENGAGE CONDUCT/SEXUAL
58990015 TRAFFICKING CHILD ENGAGE CONDUCT/SEX/BENEFIT
CRIMES AGAINST PERSON (7099)
70990045 HARBORING RUNAWAY CHILD
70990052 UNLAWFUL RESTRAINT: EXPOSE TO SBI
70990058 UNLAWFUL RESTRAINT
70990059 UNLAWFUL RESTRAINT LESS THAN 17 YRS OF AGE
70990066 USE OF CHILD FOR SALES/SOLICITATION
MORALS DECENCY CRIMES (7299)
72990005 ENTICING A CHILD
72990017 SALE OR PURCHASE OF CHILD
72990018 ADVERTISING PLACEMENT OF CHILD
72990019 ADVERTISING PLACEMENT OF CHILD W/PREV CONVIC
72990024 ENTICING A CHILD W/INT FELONY
72990031 SELL OR PURCHASE CHILD FOR SEXUAL PERFORMANCE
86
87
Appendix E: Secondary Sources in Support of Victimization Rate
Youth Involvement in Sex Trade Swaner, Labriola, Rempel, Walker, Spadafore (2016)
Total sample size n= 949 from national study (six sites)
At some point in their lives: 80% met legal definition of trafficking*
*had a pimp or, in most cases, because they were < 18 yo when they first traded sex
At time of interview: 32% met legal definition of trafficking
Dallas participants, n=78; 88% respondents had been arrested for a crime; 19% had been
arrested for prostitution in the last year; Eligibility of participants, age range 13-24 years
The BELL Measure of Homeless/Street Youth McDonald, A. R., & Laser Maira, J. A.
(2016)
Total sample size n=101 from Colorado study (three suburban shelters across the Colorado
front-range).
Includes youth ages 12-24 years: 28% acknowledged involvement in commercial sex*
*trading/selling sex as primary source of support, exchange of sex for a favor for a partner,
trading/selling sex money, clothes, food, drugs, phones, or electronics
Risk factors for trading sex among homeless young adults - Kimberly A. Tyler (2009)
Total sample size: n=151
Homeless GLB population: 29.2% who traded sex n=24
Homeless male: 11.5% who traded sex n=96
Homeless female: 20% who traded sex n=55
Homeless and have been sexually abused: 21.1% who traded sex n=71
Prevalence and correlates of survival sex among runaway and homeless youth Greene,
Ennett, & Ringwalt (1999)
Prevalence and correlates of survival sex among runaway and homeless youth
Street male: 28.2 %
Shelter male: 11.1 %
Street female: 26.3%

Shelter female: 8.3 %
Overall survival sex among shelter and street youth was 27.5%.
Associations between childhood maltreatment and sex work in a cohort of drug-using
youth - Stoltz, J.-A. M., Shannon, K., Kerr, T., Zhang, R., Montaner, J. S., & Wood, E.
(2007)
"Between September 2005 and June 2006, 361 street-involved youth were recruited into the
ARYS cohort. The mean age of the sample was 22 (Interquartile range 20.3-24.1); 106 (29%)
were female, and 86 (24%) were Aboriginal.
Eighty-four (23%) of the participants reported trading sex for money or gifts at least once in
their lives."
Hepatitis B and C infections among homeless adolescents Beech, Myers, & Beech
(2002)

Thirty-six percent of homeless youth indicated exchanging sex for food, shelter, or drugs.
A risk comparison of homeless youth involved in prostitution and homeless youth not
involved Yates et al. (1991)
Of these youth, 153 (25%) revealed to their health care providers that they were involved in
prostitution at the time of visit.
Aggravated and sexual assaults among homeless and runaway adolescents Terrell
(1997)
Total sample: 240
Thirty-six point six percent (male and female) of homeless youth were propositioned for
sexual favors.
Twenty point seven percent (male and female) of homeless youth were sexually assaulted.
88
89
Appendix F: Gaps Analysis
Summary
During the summer of 2016, the Texas Slavery Mapping Project research team collaborated with
the Child Sex Trafficking Team (CSTT) from the Office of the Governors Criminal Justice
Department to research the support systems available to victims and survivors of child sex
trafficking. Themes arose from discussions that spanned across service systems. The Social
Ecological Model (SEM) provides a framework for understanding the way in which the themes
impact the overall processes of service provision. In particular, three levels of the SEM will be
used to present the information: 1) Macro policy and infrastructure, 2) Mezzo service
providers, organizations, and social institutions, 3) Micro the individual. Themes provide a
more comprehensive explanation of the infrastructure of services available to victims.
As this was a mixed-methods project, with both focus groups and individual surveys, a deeper
analysis is necessary to assess depths and perspectives of all responses provided. This is a brief
analysis of primary findings. Further analyses of all data will continue in order to fully assess
respondents perceptions.
90
Purpose
The focus groups expanded our knowledge about professional stakeholders perceived gaps in
services that are currently available to child victims of human trafficking and exploitation.
Discussion focused on challenges in investigating and prosecuting cases, emergency placement
or housing challenges, geographic hot spots of trafficking (if known), and regional differences in
services and identified challenges in providing services. Professionals working in the field of
human trafficking identified gaps so that the CSTT can establish a request for grant applicants to
fill identified gaps across the state. The Texas Slavery Mapping Project research team analyzed
data collected from the focus groups to assess gaps in services and provide recommendations to
the Office of the Governor around two primary research questions: What are perceived gaps in
services? Where should services be placed across the state?
Participants/Methodology
Dates, locations, and number of participants is as follows.
DATE
June 17
June 27 AM
June 27 PM
June 30
CITY
Austin
Austin
Austin
Austin
LOCATION
Governors Office
Capitol Extension
Capitol Extension
Center for Child Protection
PARTICIPANTS
19
21
41
26
n=
107
Regions represented: San Antonio, Amarillo/Lubbock, Rio Grande Valley, Corpus Christi, El
Paso, Houston, Dallas, Austin, and other.
Service providers present: State/federal association, health/medical provider, law
enforcement/criminal justice, NGO/direct service provider, and other.
Research Questions
In order to stimulate a more detailed, empirically grounded discussion, respondents were sent a
set of background questions regarding their professional experience in working with victims
prior to attending the focus group. The background questions focused on direct service provision
to clients. Participants were asked to submit their responses before attending focus groups in part
to allow the research team to review the range of responses, but also to allow participating
organizations to gather those data ahead of time. Nearly one-third of the responses were returned
before the focus groups occurred. Participants were asked about specific data points, as well as
reflection on services to victims. Participants were informed that, for the purpose of this
discussion, a victim referred to a child who is trafficked who is served by their agency. The
following are sample questions.
91
1. How many child sex trafficking victims does your agency serve, confirm, or interact with
per year?
2. How are victims identified (details about screening and identification tools, if
applicable)?
3. What are your gaps in services, investigations, and prosecutions?
4. What is the estimated unit cost per victim per day used for budget planning?
Focus groups opened with presentations and the purpose of the groups. Facilitators presented
topics to be reviewed, as well as research questions and information regarding the mapping
project in a PowerPoint presentation before group discussion. Groups were guided by a
discussion framework ranging in topics and themes. The following are sample questions and a
discussion guide.
1. Regional differences Talk globally; goal is to understand some geographic priorities
Segmented view of what youre seeing around the state
Differences in what?
o Intensity of the problem victims
o Typologies of victims people tell us where vulnerable populations are;
indications of hotspots of different segments by region. Who is the victim?
o Identification how do you identify victims?
o Resources - move to understanding gaps
2. Gaps in services - walk people through the resources and services delivered by
organization
a. What are you trying to do differently for human trafficking victims? E.g., how
does service delivery to a runaway child who might be at low risk of human
trafficking differ, if at all, to a runaway child?
As people say it depends, for example, a runaway child is at higher
risk of trafficking if s/he was abused at home
b. Cost of services?
Unit cost/day /victim to provide holistic services?
Whats included? Whats not included?
What should the cost be based on what we know is or isnt included?
This could be due to length of time of services or what is offered and
which services are offered
Flipchart an example of unit cost/day/victim
Findings Overview
Overall, groups stated that reliable and confirmable data were the biggest gaps in knowing,
understanding, and responding to human trafficking in Texas. Housing and shelter (addressed in
92
macro) was the most discussed issue, with differing perspectives voiced about the types of
shelter needed, the location of shelters (urban vs. rural), and the services provided.
Misidentification of victims was the most prevalent theme across several issues faced by service
providers. Regarding victim typology, respondents primarily voiced concerns about victims from
foster care systems and familial trafficking, though those types were not said to be the most
commonly seen in cases. Although certain types of victims have more uniform sets of needs,
respondents couldnt say how they customize services for different types of victims.
Themes that arose during the discussion span several levels of system services. In particular,
topics touched on the macro, mezzo, and micro levels of the Social Ecological Model (SEM) and
will be presented as such in this report.
Macro-level findings
Macro-level themes address the needs of systems. These issues are affected by local, state, or
national policies, as well as funding and resources. The themes that most frequently arose were
misidentification of victims, funding and availability of services, and housing and shelter.
Misidentification of victims
Not identifying human trafficking as a form of interpersonal violence was seen as problematic as
it is connected to other forms of violence and may be part of a cycle of violence for both victim
and perpetrator. A feature of the cycle of interpersonal violence is that not only are victims
misidentified, but so are offenders. Respondents anecdotally mentioned a series of domestic
violence offenders who were involved in trafficking cases, but that the criminal justice system
did not have information systems capable of connecting disparate but related pieces of evidence.
The law enforcement response can affect how victims are (mis)identified depending on how
resources and focus are placed. Police and sheriff departments may create a human trafficking
unit, but its focus might not span all kinds of trafficking. Examples given were if pimps who
regularly traffic girls or have a usual set of victims might be investigated, while the larger
massage parlor or store front trafficking may be the focus of an organized crime unit. Similarly,
human trafficking units might only investigate smaller cases due to limited resources.
Criminalization of victims is another issue in the law enforcement response. Given that victims
of sex trafficking are usually exploited in illicit terms or conditions, there is an increased chance
that victims enter legal systems through a criminal act. In first engaging with law enforcement,
victims are suspected of illegal activity.
Funding and availability of services
93
When working with child victims, available service provision is dependent on who is the
trafficker. It is often assumed that Child Protective Services (CPS) will get involved on all cases
of child endangerment, but they only have jurisdiction in cases of familial trafficking, where the
trafficker is a parent or caregiver. CPS does not have jurisdiction over cases where the childs
trafficker is a pimp, stranger, or someone outside of the family. In such cases, the victim is
impacted by which services are available through other organizations or systems.
In instances where services are not available due to location, lack of funding, immigration status,
or non-trafficking specific options, victims are often moved and their long-term care suffers.
Service providers state that even when case management is available, victims may not stay in the
location of identification and rescue. If a victim is moved out-of-county, to a rural area, or even
out of state then the work, effort, rapport, and service initiation is void.
Respondents mentioned a lack of funding but a real need for forensic services including forensic
exams and interviews. It was suggested that a well-trained forensic interviewer record such
interviews in order to train others, such as is done with child sexual assault victims. A lack of
testing, treatment, and care of sexually transmitted infections was also mentioned.
Housing and shelter
Perhaps the more immediate need addressed was housing for victims. Respondents mentioned
little to no availability of short-term safe houses for victims of trafficking overall, and for child
sex trafficking victims in particular. Once identified, victims do not have an initial place to go
where they will be safe and where service providers can follow up with long-term care. For the
few safe houses in existence in Texas, sustainability is an issue; the services are not helpful if the
organizations close down. Respondents stated that this might be due to funding, as they stated
that most availability of federal funding is for adults, not children.
Shelters and services meant for victims of domestic violence and sexual assault are increasingly
seeing emergency placements, but those facilities often have little understanding of the situations
or best practices in working with victims of trafficking, and very little support for servicing child
sex trafficking victims in particular. Similarly, victims of child sex trafficking who are also foster
kids, kids leaving the juvenile criminal justice system, or kids who have been arrested, often face
confounded issues of shelter placement and a lack of funding for proper housing.
Though this need was mentioned often, specifics and priorities for the components of housing
were lacking in discussion from respondents. Services offered at safe houses or shelters were
discussed generally, but suggestions for which services or how they were offered at shelters were
not given. Respondents did not have a general consensus on whether shelters should or should
not be locked down.
94
Mezzo-level findings
Mezzo-level themes address the needs of the respondents, who were legal, medical, and social
service providers. These issues deal with understanding victim needs and the development of
services that impact the service provision processes and organizations. The themes that arose
most often were training and burnout of the workforce.
Training
Several of the aforementioned themes addressed the need for training on how those issues affect
service provision and impact victims. Overall, respondents felt that uniform training was lacking.
Specifics and examples given were the following.
Training for prosecution, especially for juvenile justice cases, is rare. Respondents stated
that kids in the system tend to be stigmatized and may not have a standard face of
victimology saying, Delinquent youth dont have the face of what prosecutors think of
as a good witness. Standard training for prosecution is needed on a statewide level and
should, perhaps, even be mandatory. Judges also need to be included in uniform training
and coordinated efforts in assisting victims.
Healthcare professionals receive a lot of training and may be familiar with sexual assault,
but not other types of violence; they may not understand the subtle indicators of sex
trafficking. Without such training, opportunities for identification and effective care are
slipping by.
On top of uniform training, a centralized referral process is needed. There is a lack of
coordinated efforts and a strong, established system of care and services.
Service providers discussed hearing indicators of labor trafficking among potential sex
trafficking victims. The need for and the importance of understanding broader
exploitation and the intersection of sex and labor trafficking were addressed. Examples
given were travelling sales crews being exploited for both labor and commercial sex.
Burnout and the workforce

A theme arising from metadata was burnout of the workforce, which was, though not explicitly
addressed, discussed in terms of secondary trauma. Members of the research team stated hearing
indicators of secondary trauma, burnout, and the need to retain a competent and experienced
workforce. Respondents indicated being traumatized by the work and, as a result, professionals
leaving the field. In other cases, respondents shared about working in their field, but may not
have realized their own secondary trauma in connection with their cases. In sharing, respondents
indicated having difficulty in screening all types of victims of human trafficking and being able
to define them, while providing competent services and being able to evaluate those services.
Recruiting competent professionals, retaining an experienced workforce, and identification of
95
secondary trauma and burnout are necessary in order to care for service providers, while
providing the best care for victims.
Micro-level findings
Micro-level themes address the needs of victims. These are issues that impact the individual. The
theme which most arose was victim-centered approaches in the service provision processes.
Victim-centered approaches
Discussion of services revealed general agreement that victim assistance and service processes
need to be more trauma-informed and culturally grounded. The victims and their needs, which
are not limited to the trafficking experience, should to be at the center of these processes and
solutions. The following are some examples mentioned of this lack of trauma-informed and
culturally grounded care.
Child sexual abuse separate from the sex trafficking experience is often seen as a causal
relationship. Service providers stated that there is a correlation with their clients, but do
not see it as causation. They stated, however, that there is a causal relationship between
running away and being trafficked, since traffickers seek out vulnerable kids in the
streets.
Gaps exist across the life span and among different communities since developmental
stages, gender, and sexual orientation may relate to resources that are available and
stigmas that may apply. Without considering how these factors intersect and impact the
client during the service processes, providers risk doing more harm.
Translation continues to be an issue in service provision, especially with law
enforcement, since they generally do not have the ability to fund a translation service or
are responding to an emergency/crisis with limited time.
Gaps in service provision collectively contribute to the vulnerability and recidivism of victims
and negatively affect their rescue and recovery processes.
Implications for Research
While the CSTT has identified initial priorities to build capacity, more research and analysis is
necessary to continue to learn about the unmet needs of victims and service providers. There are
36 sets of responses to the background questions that were sent by invited participants. The
human trafficking research team will continue reviewing and coding the data for a more detailed
analysis of emerging themes. Also, the large size of the focus groups complicated a streamlined
discussion and analysis of the results. Additional analysis of the responses to background
questions may help clarify the findings covered in this report. For instance, further analysis of
housing and shelter needs are necessary as we have learned that shelter is a need. But an
96
appropriate shelter for trafficking victims must be more than a safe house in order to fully offer
effective and long-term care for victims. Continuation of the discussion with participants is also
necessary in order to follow-up on the themes discussed here and those that will arise from the
responses to the background questions. Field visits with respondents in different regions of Texas
will be planned for more in-depth and mixed-methods surveys in order to address this need.
97
Appendix G: Research on Minor and Youth Sex Trafficking
Typologies
Child
Abuse/Maltreatm
ent
Child
Abuse/Maltreatm
ent
Child
Abuse/Maltreatm
ent
Title
Populati
on Size
from
Data
Child
Maltreatment
Annual
Report
252,773
290,471
65,334
Child
Abuse/Maltreatm
ent
NCA CAC
National
Statistics
Child
Abuse/Maltreatm
ent
Child
Abuse/Maltreatm
ent
Child
Abuse/Maltreatm
ent
Child
Abuse/Maltreatm
ent
NCA CAC
National
Statistics
NCA CAC
National
Statistics
NCA CAC
National
Statistics
NCA CAC
National
Statistics
Child
Abuse/Maltreatm
ent
Sexual
Violence
Report
CPS: Alleged
and
Confirmed
Victims of
Child
Abuse/Negle
ct
CPS: Alleged
and
Confirmed
Victims of
Child
Abuse/Negle
ct
Confirmed
Allegations
of Child
Abuse/Negle
ct by Type of
Abuse
Child
Abuse/Maltreatm
ent
Child
Abuse/Maltreatm
ent
Child
Abuse/Maltreatm
ent
Research to support connection to human trafficking
Knight, S. (2002). CHILDREN ABUSED THROUGH

PROSTITUTION. Emergency Nurse, 10(4), 27.
165,703
Child Victims
Child Victims
with an alcohol
abuse caregiver
risk factor
Number of
children served at
Children's
Advocacy Centers
January - June
110,454
Children reported
sexual abuse
Countryman-Roswurm and Bolin (2014)

http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10560-014-0336-6
Shively, M., McLaughlin, K., Durchslag, R., McDonough, H., Hunt,
D., Kliorys, D., Nobo, C., Olsho, L., Davis, S., Collins, S., Houlihan,
C., SAGE, Pfeffer, R., Corsi, J., & Mauch, D. (2010). Developing a
National Action Plan for Eliminating Sex Trafficking: Final Report.
Cambridge,
MA: Abt Associates, Inc.
32,511
Children reported
physical abuse
Knight, S. (2002). Children abused through prostitution. Emergency

Nurse,10(4), 27-30. doi:10.7748/en2002.07.10.4.27.c1069
14,367
Children served at
a CAC in Texas
Children with
reported sexual
abuse in Texas
Teens ages 15 to
19 who sought
medical treatment
at a hospital for
sexual assault
Knight, S. (2002). Children abused through prostitution. Emergency

Nurse,10(4), 27-30. doi:10.7748/en2002.07.10.4.27.c1069
66,572
Confirmed victims
206,519
Unconfirmed
victims
5,563
Confirmed
allegations of
sexual abuse
5,591
Child
Abuse/Maltreatm
ent
Population being
Described
Children who
received an
investigation for
maltreatment in
Texas
Children, alleged
victims in CPS
care
15,135
11,317
Countryman-Roswurm and Bolin (2014)

http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10560-014-0336-6
Reid, J. A., & Piquero, A. R. (2013, December 22). Age-graded risks

for commercial sexual exploitation of male and female youth. Journal
of Interpersonal Violence, 29(9), 1747-1777.
doi:10.1177/0886260513511535
98
Child
Abuse/Maltreatm
ent
Confirmed
Allegations
of Child
Abuse/Negle
ct by Type of
Abuse
51,197
Confirmed
allegations of
neglectful
supervision
Foster Youth
CPS:
Children in
Foster Care
During Fiscal
Year
31,176
Children in foster
care
17,357
Children entering
foster care
16,420
Children exiting
foster care
30,358
Children in foster
care in Texas
Foster Youth
Foster Youth
Foster Youth
Foster Youth
Foster Youth
Foster Youth
Child
Maltreatment
Annual
Report
Child
Maltreatment
Annual
Report
Numbers of
Children In
Foster Care
on
September
30th, by
State FY
2005FY
2014
Annual
Reports and
Data Books
Annual
Reports and
Data Books
Annual
Reports and
Data Books
Foster Youth
Annual
Reports and
Data Books
The
Adoption and
Foster Care
Analysis and
Reporting
System
(AFCARS)
The
Adoption and
Foster Care
Analysis and
Reporting
System
(AFCARS)
Foster Youth
The
Adoption and
Foster Youth
Foster Youth
290,471
40,318
16,378
Children, Alleged
Victims
Confirmed risk
assessment finding
of completed child
abuse/neglect
investigations
TOTAL
CHILDREN IN
FOSTER CARE
21,969
Risk Indicated of
Completed Child
Abuse/Neglect
Investigations
415,129
Children in foster
care in 2014
60,898
Number of
children waiting to
be adopted whose
parental rights (for
all living parents)
were terminated
364,746
Number of
children who
Reid, J. A., & Piquero, A. R. (2013, December 22). Age-graded risks

for commercial sexual exploitation of male and female youth. Journal
of Interpersonal Violence, 29(9), 1747-1777.
doi:10.1177/0886260513511535
Edberg, M. C., Gies, S. V., Cohen, M. I., & May-Slater, S. (2014).
TRAJECTORIES OF INVOLVEMENT IN COMMERCIAL SEX
EXPLOITATION AND DOMESTIC TRAFFICKING OF GIRLS
AND YOUNG WOMEN: SELECTED QUALITATIVE RESULTS
FROM AN EVALUATION STUDY. Journal Of Ethnographic &
Qualitative Research, 9(2), 89-110.

Walker, Kate. (2013). California Child Welfare Council. . Ending the

Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children: A Call for Multi-System
Collaboration in California. Available at:
http://www.chhs.ca.gov/Child%20Welfare/Ending%20CSEC%20%20A%20Call%20for%20MultiSystem%20Collaboration%20in%20CA%20%20February%202013.pdf
Child Welfare Information Gateway. (2015). Child welfare

and human trafficking. Washington, DC: U.S. Department
of Health and Human Services, Childrens Bureau.
Foster Youth
Foster Youth
Foster Youth
Foster Youth
Foster Youth
Foster Youth
Foster Youth
Foster Youth
Foster Youth
99
Foster Care
Analysis and
Reporting
System
(AFCARS)
The
Adoption and
Foster Care
Analysis and
Reporting
System
(AFCARS)
Archive of
Regional
Statistical
Information
About
Children in
DFPS Care
Archive of
Regional
Statistical
Information
About
Children in
DFPS Care
Archive of
Regional
Statistical
Information
About
Children in
DFPS Care
Numbers of
Children
Entering
Foster Care
by State
Numbers of
Children
Exiting
Foster Care
by State
Foster Care
FY2003FY2011
Entries,
Exits, and
Numbers of
Children In
Care on the
Last Day of
Each Federal
Fiscal Year
Foster Care
FY2003FY2011
Entries,
Exits, and
Numbers of
children In
Care on the
Last Day of
Each Federal
Fiscal Year
Intercountry
Adoption
Statistics
entered foster care

during 2014
4,544
Children in foster
care whose most
recent placement
setting is
"Runaway"
1,668
Foster children
living in
residential
treatment facilities
in Texas in 2016
765
Foster children
living in an
emergency shelter
in Texas in 2016
28
Foster children
living in
Independent living
status in Texas in
2016
17,357
Numbers of
children entering
Foster Care in
Texas in 2014
16,420
Number of
children exiting
foster care in
Texas in 2014
16,903
Number of
children entering
foster care in
Texas in 2011
15,717
Number of
children exiting
foster care in
Texas in 2011
392
Total adoptions in
Texas in 2015.
Finkelstein, M., Warnsley, M., Curry, D., & Miranda, D. (2004). Youth
who chronically AWOL from foster care: Why they run, where they
go, and what can be done (Rep.). Retrieved
http://archive.vera.org/sites/default/files/resources/downloads/Foster_A
WOLs.pdf
Walker, Kate. (2013). California Child Welfare Council. . Ending the
Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children: A Call for Multi-System
Collaboration in California. Available at:
http://www.chhs.ca.gov/Child%20Welfare/Ending%20CSEC%20%20A%20Call%20for%20MultiSystem%20Collaboration%20in%20CA%20%20February%202013.pdf
Linda a. Smith et al., Shared Hope Intl, The National Report on

Domestic Minor Sex Trafficking: Americas Prostituted Children 4
(2009), available at http://sharedhope.org/wpcontent/uploads/2012/09/SHI_National_Report_on_DMST_2009.pdf
Foster Youth
100
Children in
Foster Care
24,097
Number of
children in foster
care in 2015.
Number of youth
who received
services for at risk
youth
1,416
Homeless
unacompanied
youth under 25 in
Texas
Chester, H., Lummert, N., & Mullooly, A. (2015). Child victims of

human trafficking: Outcomes and service adaptation within the U.S.
unaccompanied refugee minor programs (Rep.).
797
Sheltered
homeless
unaccompanied
youth under 25 in
Texas
Halcon, L. L., & Lifson, A. R. (2004, February). Prevalence and

predictors of sexual risks among homeless youth. Journal of Youth and
Adolescence, 33(1), 71-80.
30,427
Homeless
2015 Annual
Report and
Data Book
The Annual
Homeless
Assessment
Report
(AHAR)
to Congress
The Annual
Homeless
Assessment
Report
(AHAR)
to Congress
The Annual
Homeless
Assessment
Report
(AHAR)
to Congress
Homeless
2015 PointIn-Time
Count
932
Homeless
2015 PointIn-Time
Count
4,197
Homeless
How Many
Homeless
Youth Are In
America?
Homeless
How Many
Homeless
Youth Are In
America?
550,000
Homeless
NISMART
1,682,900
Homeless
285,400
2,483,539
Children homeless
annually in the
U.S.
Ferguson, K. M., Bender, K., Thompson, S., Xie, B., & Pollio, D.
(2011). Correlates of street-survival behaviors in homeless young
adults in four U.S. Cities. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 81(3),
401-409. doi:10.1111/j.1939-0025.2011.01108.x
Homeless
NISMART
Americas
Youngest
Outcasts: A
Report Card
on Child
Homelessnes
s
Americas
Youngest
Outcasts: A
Report Card
on Child
Homelessnes
s
Youth being
homeless for a
week or longer
Runaway or
throwaway
episodes
nationally
children who were
victims of a sexual
assault
Homeless
The State of
Homelessnes
s in America
Homeless children
in Texas 2012-13.
Homeless
unaccompanied
youth and children
in the U.S.
401-409. doi:10.1111/j.1939-0025.2011.01108.x
Foster Youth
Homeless
Homeless
Homeless
619
1.3 - 1.7
million
190,018
36,907
Unsheltered
homeless youth in
Texas
Children
experiencing
homelessness in
Texas
People
experiencing
homelessness in
Texas
Youth experience
one night of
homelessness
Halcon, L. L., & Lifson, A. R. (2004, February). Prevalence and

predictors of sexual risks among homeless youth. Journal of Youth and
Adolescence, 33(1), 71-80.
401-409. doi:10.1111/j.1939-0025.2011.01108.x
Solorio, M. R., Rosenthal, D., Milburn, N. G., Weiss, R. E., Batterham,

P. J., Gandara, M., & Rotheram-Borus, M. (2008, September 23).
Predictors of sexual risk behaviors among newly homeless youth: A
longitudinal study. Journal of Adolescent Health, 42, 401-409.
doi:10.1037/e456032008-004
Solorio, M. R., Rosenthal, D., Milburn, N. G., Weiss, R. E., Batterham,
P. J., Gandara, M., & Rotheram-Borus, M. (2008, September 23).
Predictors of sexual risk behaviors among newly homeless youth: A
longitudinal study. Journal of Adolescent Health, 42, 401-409.
doi:10.1037/e456032008-004
Homeless
101
The State of
Homelessnes
s in America
Runaway
The State of
Homelessnes
s in America
Prevalence
and
Correlates of
Survival Sex
Among
Runaway and
Homeless
Youth
High-risk
behaviors
among male
street youth
in
Hollywood,
California
Community
Juvenile
Justice
Appropriatio
ns, Riders
and Special
Diversion
Programs
Community
Juvenile
Justice
Appropriatio
ns, Riders
and Special
Diversion
Programs
Community
Juvenile
Justice
Appropriatio
ns, Riders
and Special
Diversion
Programs
Surviving the
Streets of
New York:
Experiences
of LGBTQ
Youth,
YMSM, and
YWSW
Engaged in
Survival Sex
Crisis
Hotline and
Online
Service
Statistics
Runaway
Key Facts
Runaway
NCIC
Missing
Person
Homeless
Homeless
Homeless
Juvenile Justice
Juvenile Justice
Juvenile Justice
LGBTQ
1,416
586
Homeless
unaccommpanied
children and youth
in 2015
Homeless
unsheltered
children and youth
in 2015
28% of
Street
youths
and 10%
of shelter
youths
Homeless youth
27.1% of
male
street
youth
Homeless male
youth in California
27,729
Juveniles ended
their probation or
deferred
prosecution
supervision
Salisbury, E. J., Dabney, J. D., & Russell, K. (2014). Diverting Victims

of Commercial Sexual Exploitation From Juvenile Detention:
Development of the InterCSECt Screening Protocol. Journal of
Interpersonal Violence, 30(7), 1247-1276.
doi:10.1177/0886260514539846
30,056
Juveniles began
deferred
prosecution/probat
ion
Hammer, H., Finkelhor, D., Sedlak, A. J., & Porcellini, L. E. (2002,

October). National Incidence Studies of Missing, Abducted, Runaway,
and Thrownaway Children: National Estimates of Missing Children:
Selected Trends, 1988-1999. PsycEXTRA Dataset.
doi:10.1037/e401072005-001
62,535
Formal referrals to
juvenile probation
depts
401-409. doi:10.1111/j.1939-0025.2011.01108.x
Homeless LGBTQ
youth engaged in
commecial sex in
New York City
4,080
11,800
634,908
calls to the
National Runaway
Safeline from
Texas
Endangered
runaways reported
to NCMEC
Records entered of
missing persons

102
doi:10.1037/e401072005-001
Runaway
Runaway
Typologies
Typologies
Typologies
Typologies
Typologies
Typologies
Typologies
Typologies
Unauthorized
Population
Unauthorized
Population
Unauthorized
Population
Unauthorized
Population
NCIC
Missing
Person
Child
Victims of
Stereotypical
Kidnappings
Known to
Law
Enforcement
in 2011
Child
Welfare
Information
Gateway
Youth
Involvement
in the Sex
Trade
Youth
Involvement
in the Sex
Trade
Youth
Involvement
in the Sex
Trade
Youth
Involvement
in the Sex
Trade
Youth
Involvement
in the Sex
Trade
Youth
Involvement
in the Sex
Trade
Youth
Involvement
in the Sex
Trade
Profile of the
Unauthorized
Population:
Texas
Profile of the
Unauthorized
Population:
Texas
Profile of the
Unauthorized
Population:
Texas
Profile of the
Unauthorized
Population:
Texas
300,044
Missing persons
coded as
Runaways

doi:10.1037/e401072005-001
105
children who were

victims of
stereotypical
kidnappings

doi:10.1037/e401072005-001
4342,044
*
Prevalence
estimates for
underage youth in
the sex trade
Texas prevalence
estimates for
underage youth in
the sex trade
13
Average age of
first sexual
experience
15
Average age they

left home
16
Average age first

sold sex
$190
Average amount
charged at last
customer
4,45720,994
834,000
Prostitution arests
in Texas in 2009
U.S. citizen
children with
unauthorized
immigrant parents
in Texas from
2009-2013
81,000
Unauthorized
child population
ages 3 to 12
73,000
Enrolled in school
8,000
Not enrolled in
school
96
103

Appendix H: Research on Labor Trafficking

Category
Title
Population Size from

Data
Population being Described

Number of personal vehicle
passengers crossing the Texas Mexico
borders through Texas ports from
January-July
Farmworkers
Border Crossing/Entry Data: Query

Detailed Statistics
Occupational Employment and Wages,
May 2015: 37-2012 Maids and
Housekeeping Cleaners
May 2015: 37-2011 Janitors and Cleaners,
Except Maids and Housekeeping Cleaners
May 2015: 47-2061 Construction
Laborers
Secondary School Completion and
Dropouts in Texas Public Schools, 201213
May 2015: 45-2092 Farmworkers and
Laborers, Crop, Nursery, and Greenhouse
Migrant Labor Housing Facilities in
Texas: A Report on the Quantity,
Availability, Need, and Quality of
Migrant Labor Housing in the State
Farmworkers
The National Agricultural Workers

Survey
Farmworkers
Summary by Tenure of Principal Operator

and by Operators on Farm
Farmworkers
Summary by Legal Status For Tax

Purposes
Forced Labour
Profits and Poverty: The Economics of

Forced Labour
20.9 million
Forced labourers
Forced Labour

Forced Labour
18.7 million
Individuals exploited in the pricate

economy, by individuals or enterprises
Forced Labour

Forced Labour
4.5 million
Victims of forced sexual exploitation
Forced Labour

Forced Labour
14.2 million
Forced Labour

Forced Labour
2.2 million
Victims of forced labour exploitation

Victims of state-imposed forms of
forced labour (prisons or military
forces)
Forced Labour

Forced Labour
1 million
Number of forced labour exploitation

victims in developed economies & EU
Kitchen Workers in
Restaurants

May 2015: 35-2014 Cooks, Restaurant
Kitchen Workers in
Restaurants
Kitchen Workers in
Restaurants

May 2015: 35-9021 Dishwashers
May 2015: 35-2021 Food Preparation
Border
Cleaning Services
Cleaning Services
Construction
Drop-out
Drop-out
Drop-out
Drop-out
Farmworkers
38,313,972
66,400
Maids and housekeeping cleaners in

Texas
167,210
Janitors and cleaners in Texas
101,250
Construction laborers in Texas
192
1,462
34,696
22,856
5,850
132,034
965
11,736
Immigrant dropouts from Texas

public schools grades 9-12
English language learner dropouts
from Texas public schools grades 9-12
Students who dropped out of school
grades 7-12 in 2012-13
Students who dropped out of school
who were economicaly disadvantages
in 2012-13
Farmworkers and laborers, crop,
nursery, and greenhouse workers in
Texas
Migrant farmworkers in Texas
Number of farms with 5 or more

operators on the farm
farms registered under state law out of
16,660 total farms in Texas
91,470
Cooks in Texas
36,910
Dishwashers in Texas
62,010
Food prep workers in Texas
2016 The University of Texas at Austin, School of Social Work, Institute on Domestic Violence & Sexual Assault
104

Workers
Labor Visas
Landscaping and
Groundskeeping
Workers
Office of Foreign Labor Certification

Annual Report 2014
May 2015: 37-3011 Landscaping and
Groundskeeping Workers
2,511
H2A Visa positions vertified in Texas
362,724
Landscaping and groundskeeping

workers in Texas
Number of migrant and seasonal
farmworkers and their dependents in
Texas
2,310
Manicurists and pedicurists in Texas
10,891,745
Nonimmigrant visas issued in 2015

Ambassador, public minister, career
diplomat, consul, and immediate
family visas issued in 2015
63,050
Nonimmigrant visas
Migrant and Seasonal Farmworker

Demographics
May 2015: 39-5092 Manicurists and
Pedicurists
Immigrant and Nonimmigrant Visas
Issued at Foreign Service Posts: Fiscal
Years 2011-2015
Years 2011-2015
Years 2011-2015
T-Visas and U-Visas
Number of I-918 Petitions for U

Nonimmigrant Status
10,026
T-Visas and U-Visas

Nonimmigrant Status
2,715
T-Visas and U-Visas

Nonimmigrant Status
7,662
T-Visas and U-Visas

Nonimmigrant Status
1,965
T-Visas and U-Visas
Number of I-914 Applications for T

Nonimmigrant Status
Undocumented
Immigrants
Profile of the Unauthorized Population:

Texas
222,000
Unauthorized immigrant families

below 50% of the poverty level
Undocumented
Immigrants
Profile of the Unauthorized Population:

Texas
226,000
Civilian employed construction

workers ages 16 and older
Migrant farmworkers
Nail Salon Workers
Nonimmigrant visas
Nonimmigrant visas
10,909
1,203,876
811
B1/B2/Border Crossing Cards issued

at foreign service posts in 2015
Number of I-918 petitions for U
nonimmigrant status that were
approved victims of criminal activities
nonimmigrant status that were denied
victims of criminal activities
nonimmigrant status that were
approved for family members
nonimmigrant status that were denied
for family members
Number of I-914 applications for T
nonimmigrany status for victims of
trafficking Oct 2014-June 2015
105

Appendix I: Hierarchy of Information Needs: Victims
106

Suspicion of Victimization (Screening)
a.
New cases Brief intake or screening tool that can be utilized before employing a
more in-depth screener.
b.
Historical cases Assessment might be made based on contextual clues included in the
structured fields of case management system or narrative notes.
Identification Confirmation or more detailed characterization of victimization (Screening)

a.
New cases Trafficking screening tool that collects standardized data on victims;
forensic interview by trained professional.
b.
Historical cases Assessment might come from referrals made for services,
involvement of LE, etc.
Demographics
a.
Age, gender identity, sexual orientation
b..
Educational background
c..
Country of origin
d.
e.
Some measure or measures of socioeconomics

Location of family home or home where they last received care
History of Victimization
a.
Events, circumstances, choices, attitudes
b.
Relationship to perpetrator
c.
Length of time
Needs
a.
Interest in and/or desire for services, including short-term aid associated with trauma,
as well as services to aid in escape and recovery.
107

Appendix J: IDVSA History
IDVSA and Human Trafficking
IDVSAs involvement in human trafficking was an organic progression. There is a tendency to
silo violence into separate and distinct categories, but the strategies employed by traffickers are
very similar to those of perpetrators of interpersonal violence (IPV). So it should come as no
surprise that IDVSAs research focus on IPV and work with immigrant populations would
naturally lead the organization to a more active role in the area of human trafficking, both in
terms of community engagement and in formal research.
Community Engagement
Central Texas Coalition Against Human Trafficking and Allies Against Slavery.
The first known case of human trafficking in Austin occurred in 2003 and involved three
immigrant girls from Mexico forced into prostitution. The citys response to that first case
highlighted a lack of community resources available for human trafficking victims, as well as the
need for better collaboration between social service agencies and law enforcement.
In response, community leaders led an effort to bring multi-disciplinary professionals together
around the issue of human trafficking. This group included IDVSA staff members Drs. Nol
Busch-Armendariz and Laurie Cook Heffron, and would eventually become the Central Texas
Coalition Against Human Trafficking (CTCAHT). In 2004, CTCAHT was awarded a grant from
the U.S. Department of Justice, Office for Victims of Crime. Refugee Services of Texas became
the Chair of the Central Texas Coalition Against Human Trafficking and acted as a subcontractor
responsible for providing services to victims of human trafficking. IDVSA staff regularly
attended monthly meetings and were heavily involved in coalition efforts.
For several years after its formation, concerned citizens would contact the coalition inquiring as
to how they could assist in the communitys efforts against human trafficking. Continued interest
and engagement by community organizations, faith groups, and university students lead to a new
grassroots effort in 2010.
Spearheaded by a number of coalition members including Dr. Laurie Cook Heffron, a monthly
community advocacy group on human trafficking was launched, only this time meetings were
open to anyone in the general public. These first unstructured meetings would later evolve into
the non-profit, Allies Against Slavery. Initially envisioned as the fundraising and implementation
arm of the coalition, Allies has become a non-profit 501(c)(3) organization with advocacy,
education and activism programs throughout the community.
108

Expert Witness Training
Multiple IDVSA staff members have experience providing written and oral testimony as expert
witnesses in cases involving interpersonal violence, including human trafficking. Beginning in
2004, IDVSA started providing trainings to the larger community around expert witness
testimony. IDVSA provides education for prosecutors in Texas and across the country on
domestic violence, sexual assault, and stalking, and how to utilize experts on these topics. To
social workers, counselors, or similar professionals IDVSA offers training that includes the role
of an expert witness, qualifying as an expert witness, and tips to improve oral and written
testimony. In 2015, IDVSA added an additional training program for social work professionals
providing testimony in immigration cases.
Academic Efforts Research and Educational Initiatives
At the same time IDVSA was helping shape the communitys response to human trafficking, the
Institute also began to broaden its research efforts to include a more focused look at the subject.
This included a program evaluation of services and CTCAHT coalition operation for Refugee
Services of Texas, as part of a direct grant RST received from the Office of Victims of Crime in
2006. This research effort gathered information from service providers and law enforcement
professionals, as well as victims of human trafficking around barriers, services needed, services
used, and coalition operations. Survivors Speak Out was a phase II effort that took a more indepth look at the services available to victims of human trafficking at RST.
In 2008, IDVSA published Human Trafficking in Texas: A Statewide Evaluation of Existing
Laws and Social Services. The study was funded by the Office of the Attorney General and the
Health and Human Services Commission, and assessed current laws and services and unmet
needs.
IDVSA has also conducted a literature review and analysis of information from prosecuted cases
to explore and better understand typologies of traffickers. In Understanding Human Trafficking:
Development of Typologies of Traffickers, Phase I and Phase II, the Institute developed four
working typologies of traffickers. While these working typologies can be useful to those
involved in prevention or prosecution of these crimes, they stressed the dynamic nature of the
methods employed by traffickers, which calls for continued investigation into this field.
In 2009, IDVSA staff member Karen Kalergis published A Passionate Practice, which was an
in-depth look at three different women involved in service provision to commercially sexually
exploited teenagers. It discusses their personal experiences working in the field of commercial
sexual exploitation of children and compares it to the early days of working in the area of
domestic violence.
109

In addition to these publications, IDVSA has assisted in the creation and teaching of a University
of Texas at Austin signature course on human trafficking for undergraduate students, and has
supported student thesis work that intersects with human trafficking. Dr. Cook Heffrons
dissertation research looked at the larger issue of violence against migrating women, including a
look at human trafficking within this population. IDVSA developed a research fellow program in
2011, offering research fellow positions in human trafficking for undergraduate and graduate
students. Drs. Busch-Armendariz and Cook Heffron are currently working on a multidisciplinary textbook on human trafficking.

110

Appendix K: Human Trafficking and Transnational Organized Crime Section
In January 2016, the Office of the Texas Attorney General established the Human Trafficking
and Transnational Organized Crime Section (HTTOC). The new section is led by Assistant
Attorney General Kirsta Melton, an experienced prosecutor with an extensive background in
combatting human trafficking. The HTTOC section will help investigate and prosecute human
trafficking cases across the state, as well as contribute training resources and help increase
awareness. The section consists of three prosecutors, four investigators, a crime analyst, and a
victim advocate. As released in the December 2016 Texas Human Trafficking Prevention Task
Force Report to the Texas Legislature, the section has been involved in launching initiatives and
providing prosecutorial support for jurisdictions across the state. You can review the full report
at https://texasattorneygeneral.gov/files/agency/20162911_htr_fin.pdf.
Since January 2016, HTTOC prosecutors have conducted over 60 human trafficking
trainings for over 7,000 individuals around the state, including, but not limited to, judges,
law enforcement, education professionals, children aging out of foster care, trucking
industry representatives, the public, attorneys, and medical personnel.
HTTOC is currently assisting multiple other law enforcement agencies and district
attorneys on trafficking cases and pursuing cases independently generated, including a
complex multi-jurisdiction human trafficking and organized crime investigation
In July 2016, HTTOC prosecutors, in partnership with the Nueces County District
Attorneys Office, successfully prosecuted the first human trafficking case in Corpus
Christi at the county level that resulted in a 40-year sentence.
In early October, HTTOC, in partnership with the state of California, participated in the
arrest of the CEO of Backpage.com, one of the largest purveyors of adult sex ads in the
United States. HTTOC also executed a search warrant on Backpage.com and initiated a
criminal investigation into the companys conduct related to money laundering, human
trafficking and organized crime.
At the announcement of the HTTOC, the OAG launched its I Am Not for Sale
campaign, a positive public awareness campaign focused on reminding people about the
inherent worth and humanity of all people. Social media, editorial submissions,
informational brochures, and interviews with print and television media have all served to
advance the OAGs goal of an informed and empowered public within the past year.
The HTTOC section will host the first statewide human trafficking conference for
prosecutors in the fall of 2017.

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1

Human Trafficking by the Numbers:

Human Trafficking by the Numbers:

Nol Busch-Armendariz, PhD, LMSW, MPA

Figure 1: Trafficking and exploitation summary .......................................................................... 50

HUMAN TRAFFICKING IMPACT IN TEXAS

MINORS AND YOUTH

THERE ARE CURRENTLY AN ESTIMATED

FROM VICTIMS OF LABOR TRAFFICKING

MINOR AND YOUTH

Estimated Number of Victims

Estimated Economic Impact ($)

Prevalence of minor and youth sex trafficking in Texas.

High-Risk Sex Trafficking

Assess and use available data (the tip of the iceberg);

737 human trafficking-related incidents

1,876 calls in 2015 from Texas alone

393 (with high indications of victimization)

U.S. Federal and Texas State Labor Policy

Agency case # and Cause #

Mission of Responding Organizations

Homeless and sexually abused youth

Homeless youth who were propositioned for sexual favors

Children who reported trading sex for money, sex, or gifts

Homeless youth who indicated exchanging sex for food, shelter,

Youth who revealed to health care providers they were involved

Overall survival sex among shelter and street youth

Total Number of clients

Number of CST victims

Number of clients served

Number of CST victims

Trafficking and Exploitation Summary

Trafficking violation during

Deception & lies

Abusive practice during transportation

Size of Community Segment

Our prevalence calculation then takes the following form.

Vs is the number of expected victims in a community segment.

High-Risk Sex Trafficking

High-Risk Sex Trafficking Community

High-Risk Labor Trafficking Segments*

Estimated Annual Value

United States. Urban Institute. Retrieved from

Report and Data Book. Retrieved from

Federal Anti-Trafficking Laws: Summary from National Human Trafficking Hotline

Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act of 2000

(5) INVOLUNTARY SERVITUDE.The term involuntary servitude includes a condition of

Shelter male: 11.1 %

Street female: 26.3%

Burnout and the workforce

Appendix G: Research on Minor and Youth Sex Trafficking

Research to support connection to human trafficking

Knight, S. (2002). CHILDREN ABUSED THROUGH

Countryman-Roswurm and Bolin (2014)

Knight, S. (2002). Children abused through prostitution. Emergency

Knight, S. (2002). Children abused through prostitution. Emergency

Countryman-Roswurm and Bolin (2014)

Reid, J. A., & Piquero, A. R. (2013, December 22). Age-graded risks